Class 
 
 M^-^ttl 
 
 CCH»YRIGHT DEPOMT 
 
Ubc Century Education Series 
 
 THE TEACHER'S 
 TECHNIQUE 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES ELMER HOLLEY, Ph.D. 
 
 FORMERLY ASSISTANT DIRECTOR BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 Author of "Mental Tests for School Use," and "The Relationship 
 between Persistence in School and Home Conditions" 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 THE CENTURY CO. 
 
 1922 
 
<^ 
 
 Copyright, 1922, by 
 The Centuky Co. 
 
 g)G!,A674035 
 
 Printed in U. S. A. 
 
 MAV 10 1922 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The Teacher's Technique has been prepared for the 
 .arge group of teachers who are compelled to attack the 
 reaching problems of the grammar grades and high 
 school with very little training to help them. If it 
 proves to be of value to these people it will have ful- 
 filled its mission. Although a good background of edu- 
 cational theory and educational psychology is to be de- 
 sired as a foundation for the technique of teaching, 
 those teachers who master the points of teaching 
 method and classroom procedure presented here will 
 be better qualified to cope with their problems even 
 if they do not have the other training. 
 
 The subject-matter included in this work was col- 
 lected for my classes in teaching methods. Conse- 
 quently most of the ideas have demonstrated their value 
 by actual use. 
 
 The prospective teacher who studies this book will 
 master the points of technique more thoroughly if the 
 exercises at the ends of the chapters are applied in the 
 observation of classroom teaching. Experienced teach- 
 ers will find much material in their own work that will 
 aid them in interpreting the problems; but they, too, 
 may gain by applying their new knowledge in classroom 
 observation. It is quite customary for teachers to visit 
 
vi PREFACE 
 
 the work of others as a means of self-improvement. 
 Such visitation, however, is not very effective unless 
 it is guided intelligently. Casual visitation observes 
 nothing, as a rule, except the showy devices. 
 
 The phrase which Tennyson put in the mouth of 
 Ulysses, *T am a part of all that I have met," aptly 
 describes my situation. Many teachers and many books 
 have contributed to the contents of "The Teacher's 
 Technique." I am indebted to them and to my college 
 students who prepared the lesson plans that are used. I 
 am glad to acknowledge especially the help and inspira- 
 tion that I received from the late Dr. Charles Hughes 
 Johnston. 
 
 Others to whom I am indebted for ideas and inspira- 
 tion are Dr. W. C. Bagley, Dr. L. D. Coffman, Dr. A. R. 
 Mead, Dr. M. V. O'Shea and Dr. G. M. Whipple. To 
 these and to all others who have contributed a part in 
 making this book a possibility I acknowledge my obliga- 
 tions. 
 
 Charles Elmer Holley 
 Urban a, Illinois 
 March, 1922 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAQH 
 
 CHAPTER q 
 
 I. Introduction 
 
 II. The Factors That Condition Teaching . 12 
 
 41 
 
 III. Subject-matter 
 
 IV. Outcomes of Teaching 59 
 
 V. The Formal Class Period 73 
 
 VI. Imparting Knowledge 96 
 
 VII. Imparting Knowledge {Continued) . .115 
 
 VIII. Forming Habits and Rote Associations . 139 
 
 IX. Developing the Emotions .... 160 
 
 X. The Review Exercise 182 
 
 XI. Training in Application 192 
 
 XII. Developing Individuality 209 
 
 XIII. Training Pupils to Study Effectively . 227 
 
 XIV. Measuring the Results op Teaching . . 257 
 XV. Tests and Standards 285 
 
 XVI. General Technique 302 
 
 XVII. Lesson Plans ^25 
 
 Outline ^^^ 
 
 Index. . . a •. a .......•• 369 
 
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 
 
 Although here and there individuals may be found 
 who although skilful teachers have never made sys- 
 tematic study of the technique of teaching, the great 
 majority of teachers without such study are working 
 ineffectively, wasting energy, and can never develop 
 the skill in and love for their work that would have 
 been possible with proper professional training. While 
 the acceptance of the idea of the fundamental neces- 
 sity for professional training of all teachers is not yet 
 as general as it should be, it is inevitable that such gen- 
 eral acceptance must in time be secured. The contrast 
 between the work of the teacher intelligently trained 
 in the technique of his profession and one without such 
 training is so great that even the layman observing the 
 work of the two cannot fail to realize it. 
 
 Technique, however, involves far more than famili- 
 arity with certain devices making for systematic use 
 of time and economic organization. A teacher with 
 good technique must have knowledge in the light of 
 current educational thought of all the factors that con- 
 dition teaching. He must have appreciation of the 
 objectives of the curriculum and of the principles in- 
 volved in the selection of subject matter. He cannot 
 ignore the expected results to the pupil of the work for 
 which the teacher is held responsible. 
 
X EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 
 
 The teacher possessing skilled technique knows the 
 value of proper assignment of work, realizing that 
 teaching is mainly directing intelhgently the learning 
 process. He values the recitation as a means to an end 
 and not as an end in itself. He understands, if he has 
 mastered his technique, the final aims of the school and 
 utilizes intelligently his opportunities for securing the 
 forming of proper habits and the development of 
 proper emotional attitudes. He understands the sig- 
 nificance of educational measurement and the possi- 
 bilities of intelligence tests as supplementing his knowl- 
 edge of the pupils derived in the more traditional ways. 
 
 In short the technique of teaching requires intelli- 
 gent familiarity with much of our more recent educa- 
 tional investigations. Obviously an elementary treatise 
 on the teacher's technique can not hope to cover so 
 complete a program. This volume attempts in a simple 
 fashion to put the student on the right track and to 
 give him some familiarity with many of the funda- 
 mental ideas that underlie intelligent teaching. It 
 should be a valuable book for the untrained teacher to 
 use in his effort to make more systematic his knowl- 
 edge of the teaching problem. It should also meet the 
 needs of normal schools and colleges for an elementary 
 text on the fundamental principles underlying tech- 
 nique and class management. 
 
 Charles E. Chadsey. 
 
THE 
 TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
THE 
 TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 When the Germans invaded Belgium in 1914, they 
 disturbed the world's social and economic equilibrium 
 in many ways. The masses were swept by waves of 
 discontent at their lot and readjustments of all sorts 
 took place. Although the United States did not enter 
 the World War until more than two and a half years 
 after it began, the unusual demands for certain lines 
 of products and commodities early resulted in rising 
 prices. When we declared war the movements that 
 had already started were accentuated, until we reached 
 the forty-five-cent dollar with its accompanying hard- 
 ships. 
 
 There is no class of people who were more affected 
 
 by the depreciation of the dollar than the teaching 
 
 profession. With but few exceptions, teachers are 
 
 employed on yearly contracts. Further, the funds 
 
 from which they are paid are usually raised from taxes 
 
 3 
 
4 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 levied months before the salary contracts with the 
 teachers are made. This situation has resulted in an 
 inertia in teachers' salaries which was not equaled any- 
 where else unless it was in the United States Postal 
 Service and allied branches of the Civil Service. When 
 teachers found that, in spite of years of training, they 
 could not make a living in their chosen work, many of 
 them gave up this work of service and went into in- 
 dustrial employment. There was a general exodus 
 from the teaching profession, which resulted in the loss 
 of many of the best young teachers to the work. In 
 addition to causing many teachers to give up the work, 
 low salaries reduced the addition of new blood to the 
 service to such an extent that there is an unusual 
 shortage of workers at present. This dearth is so great 
 that, although every device has been employed to fill 
 the vacancies in our schools, many schools have been 
 closed because no one could be found to do the work. 
 This is the condition at a time when salaries are nearly 
 on a par with the cost of living. Since the average 
 teacher usually puts in only a few years of service 
 before marrying or taking up some more gainful or 
 congenial occupation, it can be seen that our schools 
 are in a crisis. 
 
 In spite of the obstacles that have been put in the 
 way of progress toward a well trained teaching per- 
 sonnel in this country by the reverses of the past five 
 years, the leaders have not lost faith. The teaching 
 art still is recognized by many people as one that de- 
 
INTRODUCTION 5 
 
 mands training and complete consecration to its ideals. 
 Those who give their lives to it are carrying on a very 
 important and exacting life-work. This point of view 
 has cultivated a sensitiveness to the various details of 
 the art that will result in a much higher quality of 
 work as a complete conception of its requirements 
 becomes recognized by the rank and file. At present, 
 however, the rank and file of the teaching profession 
 is far behind its leaders. Of course, this condition is 
 always true of any evolutionary movement. 
 
 The last decade has been one of unusual progress 
 along scientific lines. A vast number of new concepts 
 has been evolved and justified in the educational 
 world. Time is required for the assimilation of these 
 new ideas by the masses of the people, although the 
 teaching class, because of its superior training and 
 general ability, can probably acquire them very rap- 
 idly. Consequently every effort must be made to 
 stimulate the dissemination of the new ideas that are 
 continually evolving from our efforts. 
 
 The evolutionary conception of the teaching art 
 may be made clear by a few general illustrations from 
 educational history. Until about one hundred years 
 ago all teaching consisted of the guidance of individual 
 memorizing. The master set each pupil a lesson and 
 then left him to get it as best he could. When the 
 pupil had committed the lesson to memory, he went 
 to the teacher to recite. To recite consisted of nothing 
 more than to repeat the lesson word for word — rote 
 
6 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 memory. No questions or explanations were asked or 
 given. One after another, the pupils went through 
 this procedure, and the teacher had no other duties 
 than to set tasks and listen to the pupils repeat them 
 from memory, unless one might consider the applica- 
 tion of the birch a duty. This switch came into use 
 whenever a boy failed to appear at the expected time 
 or appeared with his lesson incompletely memorized. 
 It supplied about the only motive for study that was 
 found in the schools of those days. 
 
 In arithmetic the work was extremely formal. 
 Ciphering books were used, and an individualistic 
 treatment was the rule. When a boy was old enough to 
 learn ciphering, his parents provided him with a blank- 
 book, made by sewing together a bundle of blank 
 papers. Carrying this book, the boy went to the 
 teacher and made known his desire to learn the mys- 
 teries of arithmetic. The teacher then hunted up his 
 own book, one he had made years earlier as a pupil 
 when he had learned to cipher, and set the boy a sum, 
 telling him the rule by which to work it. Plunged 
 thus into the midst of the difficulties of addition, the 
 pupil worked out his own salvation. If, after working 
 industriously for a time, the pupil succeeded in se- 
 curing what seemed to himself to be the desired result, 
 he went to the master with the work that he had 
 performed on a bit of scrap paper or a slate. The 
 master approved or disapproved the work on the basis 
 of its agreement or disagreement with the work in his 
 
INTRODUCTION 7 
 
 own ciphering book. If the pupil's work was identical 
 with the master's, it was given the stamp of approval 
 and was ordered copied into the ciphering book along 
 with the rule by which it had been worked. If there 
 proved to be the slightest difference between the pupil's 
 and the master's work, the pupil was told to do it all 
 over again, even though the essential parts were 
 correct. 
 
 It is thought that this method of teaching arith- 
 metic originated when there were no text-books. It 
 continued long after there were text-books in other 
 subjects, however. When text-books finally were in- 
 troduced in arithmetic, the method of teaching con- 
 tinued to be much the same. This is shown by the 
 universal practice of providing keys for the teacher's 
 use. Further, many of our parents and most of our 
 grandparents, especially those who were educated in 
 the country schools, can testify to instruction of a 
 similar nature. 
 
 Another illustration of the mingling of conservatism 
 with progress is shown in the evolution of class- 
 teaching. Up to the time of the monitorial movement, 
 teaching was an individualistic procedure. Pupils were 
 not graded or classified, but each was in a class by him- 
 self and each progressed as rapidly as his capacity and 
 industry permitted. The introduction of the moni- 
 torial system revolutionized all this. Pupils were clas- 
 sified and moved as groups. When first introduced, 
 however, the monitorial system did not plan to use 
 
8 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 any radically new teaching methods. A few devices 
 were introduced, especially blackboards, maps, and 
 charts; but, in the main, it was intended that the 
 monitors should teach the pupils individually, just as 
 they had been taught by the master. When new 
 methods, designed for group teaching, were introduced, 
 monitors had to give way to trained teachers. 
 
 Many of the individualistic and monitorial methods 
 persisted long after the group method of teaching had 
 come into vogue. It has been only in recent years that 
 some of the practices, such as calling on pupils in a 
 fixed order, demanding an exact reproduction of words 
 where a memory of ideas would be more serviceable, 
 and the like, have given way to others better suited. 
 
 It has been said that one may find teachers conduct- 
 ing class-work now in some of our schools in the same 
 way in which it was conducted generally seventy-five 
 years ago; in other words, some people are still fol- 
 lowing the general practices of three or four genera- 
 tions ago in their teaching. How can this be? The 
 answer is simple. Many of our teachers are untrained 
 in the best methods. All that they know about teach- 
 ing has been copied from the ways in which they were 
 taught, or has been picked up from fellow teachers and 
 from relatives who taught school once upon a time. 
 Under such conditions it is no wonder that progress in 
 the evolution of teaching methods is slow and halting. 
 The only solution for this problem is a universal 
 requirement that people secure a minimum of real 
 
INTRODUCTION 9 
 
 training before they are permitted to take up teaching. 
 
 The introduction of group-teaching, which came 
 with the monitorial system, brought many changes in 
 teaching methods. To be sure, the many new subjects 
 and new materials of instruction that have been given 
 a place in the curriculum must receive credit for nu- 
 merous innovations. But the greatest factor in the 
 situation has been the possibilities offered by group- 
 teaching. Group-teaching emphasized the careful 
 grading of pupils. The grading of pupils and the 
 grading of subject-matter tended to go hand in hand. 
 Then a new theory and mode of discipline was evolved, 
 and a new purpose in questioning and in the conduct 
 of the recitation was recognized. All of these things 
 finally resulted in directing attention to the teaching 
 process itself, and differentiation resulted here. It was 
 found that different methods were to be desired in drill 
 exercises, where things were memorized and habits 
 were formed, from those used in imparting knowledge 
 and in developing the emotional sides of the pupils' 
 lives. More recently it has been recognized that mere 
 class uniformity is not to be desired, but that under- 
 neath the uniformity the individuality of each member 
 must be developed. It is not sufficient to impart 
 knowledge and to train . emotions. Things must be 
 connected with life. Training for an active partici- 
 pation in the life of an organized society is the real 
 mission of the public school. 
 
 Recently this new conception of the mission of the 
 
10 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 public school has led to recognition of the fact that 
 there is a social aspect of the teaching process. Teach- 
 ers have found that ideas seemingly are living things,- 
 which behave in ways of their own. Ideas that the 
 teacher imparts to a pupil or a class become the prop- 
 erty of the school or community, impregnating the 
 entire social fabric. Likewise community biases come 
 into the school, although the teachers do their utmost 
 to keep them out. Ideas, sentiments, and prejudices 
 that may have been dropped casually in moments of 
 inspiration in the class-room act like a bit of yeast 
 which leavens the whole mass. These phenomena have 
 led progressive teachers to reflect and to wonder if such 
 results were not the outcome of the operation of defi- 
 nite social forces, which might be controlled if under- 
 stood. 
 
 The sociologists have made much of this phase of 
 social life. Perhaps, with their aid, it may be possible 
 to work out a satisfactory analysis of the social aspects 
 of the teaching process. A recognition of the social 
 aspects of discipline has been presented to the educa- 
 tional world already. The importance of the social ele- 
 ments in moral education is also recognized. But 
 many important phases of the teaching process in- 
 volved in class-room exercises have been considered 
 but little in their social aspects. This will be one of 
 the fruitful fields of analysis in the future. 
 
 The following chapters will consider the technique 
 of teaching in its evolutionary aspects. The various 
 
INTRODUCTION 11 
 
 factors that condition the teaching process will be pre- 
 sented, and much that has proved itself of value 
 through actual trial in the class-room will be given. 
 There remain many unsolved problems, however; for 
 the end of the evolutionary movement has not been 
 reached. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 THE FACTORS THAT CONDITION TEACHING 
 
 THE FACTORS 
 
 The results of a teacher's efforts in the class-room 
 depend upon the operation of many factors. If a 
 person knows these factors, he can, when trained, pre- 
 dict in general the kind of work that a teacher will do. 
 These factors fall roughly into two main classes : first, 
 those that are constant from day to day and are estab- 
 lished once and for all in the first few days of the 
 school year or the first few days of a period of read- 
 justment; and second, those that are continually vary- 
 ing with the spirit of the moment. The first group 
 may well be called objective conditions, and the second 
 group subjective conditions. It must be remembered, 
 however, that such a classification is not hard and fast, 
 and that many things will be met that do not seem to 
 fall in either group, but that partake of some of the 
 characteristics of each. 
 
 Some of these factors are outside the control of the 
 individual teacher. Where a teacher is a member of a 
 school system or of the teaching corps of a graded 
 building, some things are not in her dominion. She 
 
 12 
 
 \ 
 
THE FACTORS THAT CONDITION TEACHING 13 
 
 can not prescribe the system of grading and promotion 
 used. She has nothing to say about the architecture 
 of her class-room, which probably was built years ear- 
 lier. When it comes to remodeling the heating system, 
 she is seldom consulted. But there are many spheres 
 outside her immediate province, such as pupil move- 
 ments in large buildings or playground routine, where 
 tactful suggestions are received gladly by superin- 
 tendents and principals. 
 
 OBJECTIVE CONDITIONS 
 
 As has been stated in the preceding section, objective 
 conditions are those factors conditioning the teaching 
 process which are relatively constant from day to day. 
 They are adjusted at the beginning of a term, and few 
 changes are made until the term has been completed 
 or an emergency appears. The more typical ones are 
 so constant that they should be met by habitual re- 
 actions on the part of the children. Doing them day 
 after day ought to result in the formation of habits. 
 They are very important, for, if they are not properly 
 met, much time is wasted. In these days of efficiency 
 and economy every teacher must be somewhat of an 
 efiiciency expert if her work is to be done satisfactorily, 
 and these conditions must be given thought and atten- 
 tion. Many precious moments are wasted by teachers 
 who have not learned to arrange the objective condi- 
 tions in a manner that will be most helpful. 
 
14 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 I. Physical Conditions. 
 
 The physical side of the class-room presents a defi- 
 nite group of objective conditions of teaching, though 
 they require a more variable treatment than some of 
 the other groups. 
 
 A. Heating. 
 
 Teachers seldom have very much control over the 
 heating system of anything except the one-room rural 
 school. There are some things that the teacher may 
 do to economize time, however, even in the large 
 building. She should familiarize herself with the prac- 
 tical workings of the dampers, so that when cold 
 weather arrives no time will be lost in learning how to 
 manipulate them. Where automatic regulators are not 
 provided, an understanding of the heating system will 
 help in preventing the waste of fuel that is so notorious 
 in our public schools. When cold weather arrives and 
 it becomes necessary to look after the heating of the 
 room systematically, pupil-monitors may be taught to 
 do the work as effectively as the teacher herself, and 
 this assistance will save her much trouble. 
 
 The humidity of many school-rooms is lower than 
 that of the Sahara Desert. Unless there is an adequate 
 provision for adding moisture to the air when it is 
 heated, little can be done to remedy this condition, 
 however. 
 
THE FACTORS THAT CONDITION TEACHING 15 
 
 B. Ventilation. 
 
 The ventilation of the room is as important as the 
 heating, for foul air is just as detrimental to effective 
 work as are cold hands and feet. Where an automatic 
 ventilating system that works is in operation, there is 
 little for the teacher to do but to leave it alone. In 
 many schools the ventilation is inadequate and the 
 windows must be used to supplement it. Some of the 
 patented systems are supposed not to work effectively 
 when windows are open. In case the provisions for 
 providing fresh air are of this type, they must be given 
 a fair trial before they are condemned. If they prove 
 unsatisfactory when tried out, then it is best to supple- 
 ment with window ventilation. Fresh air is badly 
 needed when a room presents a marked odor to one 
 coming in from out of doors or when those within 
 notice the stufl&ness. People in the room are not so 
 liable to notice the need as new-comers, because their 
 senses have become dulled. The teacher should learn 
 to detect the need for a change of air, which is shown by 
 dull, drowsy, and restless pupils. To provide window 
 ventilation, it is better to have the fresh air enter at 
 the top than at the bottom of the windows. If it 
 enters at the top, it will become warmed before reach- 
 ing the level of the pupils. If it comes in at the bot- 
 tom, it will reach the floor so cold as to chill the feet 
 without disturbing the hot, stifling air at the level of 
 
16 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 the pupils' heads. When the pupils leave the room at 
 intermissions, it is well to open the windows wide to 
 allow a few minutes of thorough ventilation. 
 
 C. Lighting. 
 
 The illumination of the class-room should be suffi- 
 cient to prevent eye-strain in the most poorly lighted 
 parts. The teacher may test the illumination of these 
 by noticing if she experiences any discomfort while 
 reading the ordinary text-books in them. If there are 
 parts of the room insufficiently lighted, they should not 
 be used until the fault is remedied. The best illumi- 
 nation is secured from skylights, and it is unfortunate 
 that so few schools make use of this form of lighting. 
 The next best is a series of windows on one side of the 
 room, but this form sometimes leaves the farther por- 
 tions of the room with too little light when the curtains 
 are partly drawn. Windows on two sides of the room 
 are bad for ordinary study and reading work, because 
 of the cross shadows that appear on the pages of the 
 pupils' books. Shadows on the page that a pupil is 
 reading make his eyes do several times as much work 
 as they should, wasting his nervous energy and laying 
 the foundation for eye trouble. The pupil should be 
 seated so that he can have the light from the rear left 
 for his work. Further, he should never be called upon 
 to read work on a blackboard that reflects a glare or 
 that is between two windows admitting light. This 
 last point makes it necessary that the teacher select 
 
THE FACTORS THAT CONDITION TEACHING 17 
 
 blackboards that are correctly placed. A proper ma- 
 nipulation of the window-shades will aid in securing 
 the best conditions possible under the circumstances. 
 The teacher who never adjusts them is neglecting some 
 of the first principles of school hygiene. 
 
 II. Class-Room Management. 
 A. Routine Factors. 
 
 Some of the most important objective conditions fall 
 in this class. Routine factors are nearly all within the 
 control of the class-room teacher, and are very impor- 
 tant. Teaching success or failure is determined often 
 by the way these are handled. 
 
 I. Seating of pupils. — Pupils should have definitely 
 assigned seats. This is a fundamental principle of 
 class-room economy. Assigned seats enable the teacher 
 to become acquainted with the pupils in a very short 
 time. They also make it possible to check the attend- 
 ance quickly. Pupils know where they sit and there is 
 no confusion when they enter because of the uncer- 
 tainty of their places — no scrambling for the choice 
 seats. In assigning seats a mere chance allotment 
 often breaks up cliques and helps to solve problems of 
 discipline. Pupils never should get the idea that they 
 have a vested right to cherished seats. The seating 
 arrangement at any time is only a temporary expe- 
 dient, which may be rearranged whenever it seems 
 desirable. This is the teacher's privilege. As an aid 
 to discipline, it is well to put bright, active pupils in 
 
18 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 the front of the room where there is less temptation to 
 mischief. Assigned seats are an aid in returning class 
 papers, note-books, and other property that the teacher 
 has collected for inspection. 
 
 2. Pupil movements. — Pupil movements should be 
 so organized that there is no confusion or loss of time. 
 Unorganized pupil movements lead to congestion and 
 encourage loitering and disorder. Most schools have 
 planned a good system of pupil movements for dis- 
 missal and fire drills, while they have neglected class 
 movements where changes are made from room to room 
 between class periods. These cnanges often are made 
 with a maximum of confusion and disorder. A less 
 important waste due to lack of system is to be found in 
 unorganized passing to the blackboard or to the dif- 
 ferent seats in the laboratory. Where pupil movements 
 are controlled by a system of bells, if there is no master 
 clock to ring them on time, a pupil-monitor may be 
 intrusted with the operation of the push-buttons, thus 
 relieving the teacher or principal of a troublesome 
 duty. 
 
 3. Handling materials. — Teachers, as a whole, waste 
 more time in using inefiicient methods of handling 
 materials than in any other single activity. In the 
 grades a system of monitors often solves the problem ; 
 but in the high school monitors are used Idut seldom. 
 Pupils bring class themes or note-books to the teacher's 
 desk one by one. Teachers pass out papers one at a 
 time, using several minutes to distribute a set of 
 
THE FACTORS THAT CONDITION TEACHING 19 
 
 papers that could be placed in the hands of the pupils 
 in a few seconds. A good way to solve this problem, 
 where monitors are not used, is to adopt a system that 
 will put the papers in a specified order and then use 
 that plan each time. If the papers or note-books are 
 kept in the same order by the teacher, they may be 
 returned as quickly as they are collected. An illustra- 
 tion of the way some teachers provide for this is shown 
 by the following instructions, which can be given to a 
 class of pupils arranged in rows from the front to the 
 back of the room. "Please pass the papers to the front. 
 Each pupil will put his paper on top of the bundle. 
 Those in the front seats pass the bundles to the left, 
 putting each new bundle on top." 
 
 Teachers often solve the problem of collecting and 
 distributing regular papers and note-books, while they 
 neglect to routinize the distribution of new materials. 
 New materials should be distributed on the pupils' 
 seats before class is called. This distribution may be 
 performed by some of the pupils, who often enjoy doing 
 it. When materials or apparatus are needed for general 
 demonstrations, such as in science classes, they should 
 be on hand before class, and should have been tested 
 out so as to make certain that they will work when 
 needed. Bungling experiments and nervous actions in 
 demonstrations are usually the result of lack of prepa- 
 ration with materials and apparatus. Some teachers 
 manage materials and apparatus satisfactorily while 
 handling and using them, but have no system in their 
 
20 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 closets and store-rooms. Their desks present a con- 
 stant display of confusion. Each piece of apparatus, 
 package of supplies, or book should have its definitely 
 assigned place, and pupils and teacher should co- 
 operate in keeping it there. 
 
 Another source of waste is in the making of special 
 assignments to individual pupils. It is often economy 
 to write these out on slips of paper, in order that they 
 may be handed to the pupils without loss of time. This 
 plan insures accuracy by eliminating the errors of copy- 
 ing that pupils sometimes make. A similar waste 
 occurs when pupils copy a mass of reading material, 
 outlines, notes, or directions from the blackboard, or 
 write them from dictation. These materials should be 
 mimeographed, if possible, and copies given to the 
 pupils. 
 
 III. Discipline. 
 
 A. Good Discipline a Necessity. 
 
 In order that pupils and teacher may cooperate in 
 the best way in the educative process, it is necessary 
 that first things be put first. This means that the 
 educative business of the school must be in the fore- 
 ground ; that every one be busy about his work without 
 interfering with the work of others. When all co- 
 operate to prevent interference with the rights of others 
 and all keep busy, good discipline may be said to be 
 present. Good teaching is made possible by good dis- 
 cipline, and, in turn, makes for good discipline. It has 
 
THE FACTORS THAT CONDITION TEACHING 21 
 
 been said that discipline is best when it is least in evi- 
 dence. Ability to secure good discipline has been 
 shown to be one of the factors most important in the 
 qualities making up a good teacher. Further, its lack 
 has been found to be one of the most important reasons 
 for teaching failures. A teacher must have conditions 
 of order for her work. If these conditions can not be 
 secured through ingenuity and insight, they must be 
 secured through fear and force, however much the lat- 
 ter method may be condemned. 
 
 B. Changing Character of Discipline. 
 
 The introduction of the doctrine of interest has 
 brought marked changes in the measures for securing 
 discipline. Before the era of motivation and interest 
 teachers controlled the school mainly by means of fear. 
 The attitude of the teacher in those days was one of 
 domination. Under present conditions a teacher tries 
 to lead the school in paths of industry. Occasionally it 
 may be necessary to resort to stern measures, but if 
 such are needed continually it is an indication that 
 something is seriously wrong. At the beginning of the 
 school year, when a teacher takes charge of a new 
 group of pupils, discipline is secured mainly by the 
 awe and respect inherent in the teacher's position. As 
 the year progresses, however, order should result from 
 a bond of sympathy and cooperation that has been 
 cultivated by the teacher. Pupils should cooperate in 
 maintaining order because it is only right that every 
 
22 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 one have a chance to learn as much as possible and to 
 carry on his work without interference from others. 
 
 C. Social Aspects. 
 
 Good discipline is a result of the right group attitude 
 on the part of the pupils toward school life. It is a 
 reflection of school and community ideas and ideals. 
 Communities that are law-abiding and show an interest 
 in cooperating with teachers furnish schools with the 
 minimum of disciplinary problems, while the opposite 
 also is true. Homes that criticize the teachers un- 
 reasoningly are homes that send to school children 
 who are trouble-makers. A good school organization 
 may do much to build up the right group attitude 
 toward order. Even in the same type of communi- 
 ties, schools vary much in the results secured in 
 discipline. These differences are mainly measures of 
 the strength of the social pressure in the direction of 
 right conduct that has been developed among the 
 pupils by the teaching corps. Model pupils have been 
 transferred from schools where the right attitude pre- 
 vailed to those where it was missing, and promptly 
 degenerated into trouble-makers. On the other hand, 
 trouble-makers have come from the latter type of 
 school and gone to the former, with the opposite result. 
 When they found that mischief was not approved by 
 their new companions, they tried other methods for 
 gaining group approval. Group approval and dis- 
 approval are powerful factors in maintaining law and 
 
THE FACTORS THAT CONDITION TEACHING 23 
 
 order, and teachers should make use of them. When 
 pupils have become accustomed to good order, they 
 prefer it to the other kind. 
 
 It might not be amiss to mention the fact that the 
 cultivation of the social spirit of law and order among 
 the pupils of a school is an important step in the 
 direction of moral development. Much of the dis- 
 order and disregard for law among adults is due to the 
 fact that often they have never been taught the value 
 and importance of law-abiding conduct. Many of 
 them left school before they were old enough to com- 
 prehend social attitudes. (Children must, as a rule, be 
 twelve years of age or older to be able to respond 
 readily to the approval and disapproval of their fel- 
 lows.) Others went to schools that cultivated the idea 
 that law and order were something for the benefit of 
 the other fellow, and that it was to one's credit if he 
 evaded rules and regulations. 
 
 D. Measures for Securing Good Discipline. 
 
 i» Proper routine. — If a teacher provides the proper 
 routine, many disciplinary problems will be avoided. 
 Where the proper mode of procedure has been outlined, 
 there is little temptation to indulge in anything out of 
 the way. But where each pupil may exercise his own 
 initiative there is always a temptation for the bright, 
 mischievous one to indulge in something out of the 
 ordinary, knowing as he does that the situation pro- 
 vides a ready excuse. In securing the proper routine 
 
24 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 it is well not to overdo the matter, however. Routine 
 is frequently expressed in the form of rules. Rules 
 should be as few as possible, and all should be based on 
 the fundamental one that only such things should be 
 done as promote the welfare of the school and the class 
 as wholes. 
 
 2. Correct attitude on the part of the teacher. — To 
 be successful in discipline a teacher must take the 
 correct attitude toward the school situation. The fun- 
 damental thing is that the teacher must always look 
 at problems from the objective point of view. This 
 means that an offense must never be taken as a per- 
 sonal insult. Every time a breach of good behavior is 
 committed, even if performed with the expressed pur- 
 pose of insulting the teacher, it is much more effective 
 if the penalty is administered from the point of view 
 that the misconduct has interfered with the rights of 
 the group as a school. It is hard to adopt such an 
 attitude, but it pays. A teacher should never punish 
 in the spirit of revenge, because it violates this funda- 
 mental principle. 
 
 Those virtues that make up the ideal character in 
 life are very valuable to the teacher. Among the more 
 important are justice, consistency, sympathy, patience, 
 persistence, and tact. Pupils expect fair, impartial 
 treatment. Teachers can give it only if they live these 
 virtues. In addition, a teacher must have the ability 
 to make decisions at the moment when the need arises. 
 
 3. Constructive measures. — In addition to providing 
 
THE FACTORS THAT CONDITION TEACHING 25 
 
 the proper routine and adopting the correct attitudes, 
 the teacher must apply constructive measures to secure 
 good discipline. 
 
 a. Make work the master: One of the most impor- 
 tant constructive measures that a teacher can use is to 
 arrange the work in such a way that the pupils have no 
 excuse for not being busy. One of the easiest plans 
 for doing this is to provide so much work, and to 
 require its completion, that the pupils can not waste 
 time if they get it done. Another way, which is a 
 little more difficult to manage but which is more edu- 
 cative, is to raise the qualitative standard of the work. 
 Not more work, but better work, is the aim. Some- 
 times both can be used to advantage. It has been 
 recognized by teachers for many years that if pupils 
 are kept busy with interesting, educative tasks, there 
 will be few disciplinary problems. 
 
 b. Individual assignments : Many of the problems 
 of discipline arise from the misconduct of bright pupils 
 who have completed the regular work. Not having 
 anything to do, they find something. A teacher may 
 use individual assignments to provide these pupils with 
 work, to prevent the waste arising from misdirected 
 energy. Where the teacher can not emphasize these 
 individual assignments because of lack of time or 
 equipment, these pupils may be provided for by 
 placing a shelf of suitable books at their disposal. 
 When they have completed their allotted tasks, they 
 can go to these books for something to do. Teachers 
 
26 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 sometimes are afraid to offer pupils these reading 
 privileges, for fear they will neglect the regular assign- 
 ments. This problem can be solved by a little patient 
 supervision, emphasizing the fact that lessons come 
 first. It is a marked gain for the average pupil to learn 
 to decide when he really has his lesson. The schools of 
 the past never really taught pupils to check up on 
 themselves and stop studying a lesson when they had 
 it mastered. Even if such pupils do neglect the regu- 
 lar lessons at times, they are usually bright enough to 
 make up the deficiency at some later period when they 
 discover it. 
 
 c. Stimulation of group responsibility: In the dis- 
 cussion of the social aspects of discipline, the point 
 was made that right conduct, with the older pupils, 
 should be a result of group attitudes of approval and 
 disapproval instead of being a primitive fear reaction. 
 How may this social sanction of right conduct be 
 developed? The solution is primarily through the 
 stimulation of group responsibility. This may be done 
 by directing the attention of the group to the necessity 
 for cooperation among all if each one is to get the best. 
 The teacher is there to help them, and they must co- 
 operate if they are to receive the teaching that is their 
 due. Direct, tactful talks about some of the school- 
 room problems will evoke sympathetic responses. 
 When group offenses are committed, they may give 
 excellent opportunities for the consideration of the 
 
THE FACTORS THAT CONDITION TEACHING 27 
 
 problems of school-room ethics. These talks and de- 
 liberations are real character-builders. 
 
 Another plan that is helpful is what is known as 
 pupil cooperative government. The undue stimulation 
 of group responsibility that comes from what has 
 usually been known as pupil self-government may lead 
 pupils to think they "run the school." Such an atti- 
 tude is undesirable. In pupil cooperative government 
 pupils and teachers cooperate in securing right conduct. 
 It is recognized at the start that some things are han- 
 dled more easily by pupils than by the teachers, and 
 vice versa. There is no suggestion that the pupils are 
 independent, and no implication that the teacher is 
 intruding when she interests herself in student activi- 
 ties. As far as the pupils can handle the situation 
 more easily than the teachers, they are permitted to 
 do it. Whenever the pupil machinery proves inade- 
 quate, the teachers fill the breach. 
 
 d. Treatment of individual offenses : There is one 
 principle that may be laid down, which is fundamental 
 to the punishment of individual offenses. It is that a 
 teacher should never punish the group for offenses 
 committed by one or two members of it. There are so 
 few situations where this does not hold that it is well 
 for a teacher to apply this principle rigidly. The ap- 
 parent exception, where an individual commits an 
 offense in which he is backed up by the group, is in 
 reality a group offense, the offense being the sanction- 
 
28 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 ing of wrong conduct — when, of course, the group may 
 be punished. 
 
 Breaches of conduct have been classified into three 
 groups: (1) those arising from ignorance; (2) those 
 arising from thoughtlessness or carelessness; and (3) 
 those in which the action is contrary to knowledge, the 
 doer not foreseeing, or not caring for, the consequences. 
 This classification is helpful in prescribing the treat- 
 ment needed by offenders. The first group frequently 
 needs nothing more than information to prevent the 
 repetition of the misdeeds. The second class also is to 
 be handled largely by a thorough discussion among 
 those involved of the rights violated; only here it is 
 necessary to emphasize the necessity of right conduct, 
 sometimes to the extent of administering light penal- 
 ties. The third group presents the real problem. All 
 serious offenses come under this class. Pupils commit- 
 ting such misdemeanors are biased morally and need 
 special treatment. 
 
 A plan that has been used in large schools where all 
 serious cases of discipline were sent to the principal is 
 as follows: When an offender arrived, he was given a 
 sheet of paper and asked to write his version of the 
 misdeed. This was examined by teacher, principal, 
 and pupil together, and discrepancies were corrected. 
 Usually no severe penalty was inflicted the first time. 
 When a pupil came for later offenses, he went through 
 much the same procedure; only, real penalties were 
 added. Each written account was filed in the office, 
 
THE FACTORS THAT CONDITION TEACHING 29 
 
 and if a pupil was a persistent offender, when he had 
 committed several offenses he was asked to copy his 
 previous narratives. It is said that this plan has been 
 very effective in reducing persistent petty offenses. 
 
 In practice it has been found undesirable to punish 
 pupils on the spur of the moment. A good plan is the 
 following: When an offense is recognized by the 
 teacher, she can immediately inform the pupil that she 
 wishes him to stop a moment to talk the matter over 
 after the others are dismissed. This gives the pupil a 
 chance to think over the situation during the remainder 
 of the session, and this meditation often leads to good 
 resolutions. After the others have gone, there is an 
 opportunity for a discussion of the situation by the 
 teacher and pupil. Passions probably have subsided, 
 and any punishment that may be necessary may be 
 administered when the teacher is not angry. 
 
 IV. Individual Differences. 
 
 A. Recently Recognized Problem. 
 
 Another important group of objective conditions, 
 which is very influential in determining the results 
 secured by a teacher, is that which arises from indi- 
 vidual differences. Although teachers recognized for a 
 long time that Johnny and Willie were very different, 
 they thought little about it. They could always count 
 on Johnny for a good lesson, even if he played a greater 
 part of the time ; but it was quite different with Willie. 
 He worked all of the time but seemed to make little 
 
30 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 progress. It seemed almost as if he forget one thing as 
 soon as he learned the next. Recently, however, edu- 
 cators have been paying more attention to this prob- 
 lem, and it has become one of the most significant for 
 the teacher. 
 
 B. Importance and Character. 
 
 It has been found that, if one hundred pupils are 
 chosen by chance from one of our schools, they will 
 vary markedly in abilities. A few will be very bright 
 and a few will be very stupid. The great bulk will be 
 average, while a number will be better than the average 
 but poorer than the bright, and a similar number will 
 be poorer than the average but better than the stupid. 
 If similar lots of one hundred are chosen from other 
 public schools, it will be found that there is about the 
 same proportion of bright, average, and stupid in each 
 hundred. Slight variations may be found in the pro- 
 portions, but a careful checking up usually will show a 
 marked uniformity. Thus, if one hundred pupils were 
 to be ranked according to general intellectual ability, 
 a rough classification probably would place them as 
 follows: 
 
 Talented 5 per cent. 
 
 Bright 20 per cent. 
 
 Average 50 per cent. 
 
 Slow 20 per cent. 
 
 Stupid 5 per cent. 
 
 In the average class of twenty pupils it is estimated 
 that the best is from four to six times as capable as the 
 
THE FACTORS THAT CONDITION TEACHING 31 
 
 poorest. If the extremes are present the difference 
 will be much greater. The stupid pupils, however, 
 seldom advance beyond the intermediate grades ; hence 
 the grammar or high-school teacher is, as a rule, not 
 called upon to deal with them. 
 
 In addition to these differences in general ability, the 
 problem is complicated further by the fact that abilities 
 are specialized in some cases. Mary does well in her 
 history and English work, and is a failure in arith- 
 metic, algebra, and geometry. Frank enjoys mathe- 
 matics and history, but he hates themes. George does 
 excellent work in everything except Latin, and barely 
 completes the work in that as a result of much special 
 attention and a little charity. If a careful survey be 
 made of any particular ability, marked differences will 
 show up even where pupils are about alike in general 
 ability. 
 
 As if this were not enough, the factor of interest 
 adds its weight. It seems at times as if the specializa- 
 tion of interest, and consequent motivation of effort, is 
 more important than differences in native capacity. 
 Frances is going to be a school-teacher, Edward plans 
 to be a farmer, and Edgar will go to college. All of 
 these life plans contribute to varying interests and 
 different responses. When these are added to the 
 differences in native capacity, of general and special 
 sorts, the problem becomes extremely complex indeed. 
 Some are born long and some are born short, and it is 
 the teacher's task to provide for each as seems best. 
 
32 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 C. Provisions for. 
 
 It is a comparatively simple matter to provide for 
 individual differences in large schools where there are 
 many facilities. In small schools, however, the prob- 
 lem is just as important, but teachers have more diffi- 
 culty in providing for it. A few of the more important 
 measures for meeting the situation will be given. 
 
 I. Diversified curriculum. — The first plan generally 
 adopted to provide for individual differences in our 
 American schools was diversified curriculums, offered 
 to meet different vocational interests. In the later 
 years of the high school new series of courses were in- 
 troduced, which aimed to prepare for business, farm- 
 ing, or home-making. Pupils chose curriculums when 
 they reached a certain stage in their educational 
 careers, and the way was marked out for them. One 
 set of courses led to college, another to business, and 
 others to different goals. This plan, however, has 
 proved of little service in any but the later years of the 
 high school. It has been adapted to the junior high 
 school in some communities, but it seems somewhat 
 unwise to differentiate pupils so early in their careers. 
 American children and parents like to have the entire 
 field of employment open to them, and a too rigid 
 curriculum plan might not be satisfactory. It might 
 lead to social stratification. Curriculum differentiation 
 is mainly an attempt to provide for acquired differences 
 
THE FACTORS THAT CONDITION TEACHING 33 
 
 of interest, and does not provide for fundamental dif- 
 ferences in native ability. 
 
 2. Free election of courses. — Another plan used is 
 what is known as the free election of courses. Pupils 
 are given opportunities to select the courses that they 
 wish. Restrictions of various sorts are placed around 
 the selections, but the purpose of the plan is to provide 
 for different interests. There is nothing in it to pro- 
 vide for differences in native ability, except as these 
 may be revealed by interest. Differences in interest 
 tend to disappear after a subject has been taught long 
 enough to pupils to develop a background of meaning. 
 Therefore, the interests that are provided for usually 
 by the free election of courses in high schools, except- 
 ing as they may be results of special aptitudes, are 
 merely transient whims. Special aptitudes ought to be 
 detected and provided for, but mere whims ought to be 
 recognized for what they are. 
 
 3. Grading pupils according to ability. — A plan that 
 aims to provide for differences in native ability, used 
 in some schools, is based on the principle of grading 
 pupils according to ability. It is applicable only in 
 schools of some size, however. In the school where 
 there are several sections of the same class, the sec- 
 tions may be formed on the basis of ability as shown 
 by previous class work supplemented by group intelli- 
 gence tests. If there are one hundred pupils in the 
 class, they may be ranked from the best to the poorest 
 
34 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 on the basis of the records. Then the upper twenty- 
 five will form one section; the next twenty-five the 
 second; and so on to make four sections. The work 
 then can be adjusted to the capacity of each section. 
 In a junior high school where this plan was adopted it 
 was found that the best section of a class of five sec- 
 tions was able to do one and one half year's work in the 
 three subjects history, geography, and algebra, while 
 the poorest section completed about three fourths of 
 the year's work. The best section did not seem to work 
 so hard as the other, although it covered twice as much 
 ground. 
 
 Another plan for providing a selection of pupils 
 according to ability chooses the best ten per cent, and 
 the poorest ten per cent, from the classes. The best 
 ten per cent, form an honor section and cover more 
 and different work. The poorest section is put in a 
 special coach class in which it is given the minimum 
 needed in the subject. 
 
 Grading pupils into sections according to native 
 capacity introduces a number of problems that are 
 mainly administrative. The same curriculum is not 
 well adapted to different mental abilities. Then, there 
 is the readjustment necessary when classes finish 
 courses at different times during the year. The great 
 question arises, too, as to whether it is as good a plan 
 to hurry pupils over the required work and allow them 
 to graduate earlier as it is to give them a richer, broader 
 curriculum. There seems to be a tendency at present 
 
THE FACTORS THAT CONDITION TEACHING 35 
 
 to favor a middle ground, enriching some things and 
 shortening the time for others. This is probably the 
 best solution. 
 
 4. Study coaches for slow pupils. — A fourth plan 
 for meeting the problem of dififerences in capacity is 
 one that provides study coaches for the slow pupils. 
 In some cases a regular teacher gives a part of her time 
 to systematic coaching of those who need such help. 
 In others a teacher has nothing but coaching duties. 
 Often a little individual assistance will do much to 
 help a pupil over a difficulty and bring about renewed 
 progress. 
 
 5. Supplementary work for bright pupils. — This 
 plan is suitable for nearly every kind of school and 
 class. It is usually more of a makeshift than some of 
 the other plans, but it need not be if teachers give it 
 thought. It lends itself to emergencies and enables 
 teachers to provide work to keep bright pupils out of 
 mischief, and thus prevents disorder while it educates. 
 There are a number of ways in which teachers may use 
 this plan. They may place on convenient shelves a 
 number of supplementary text-books giving references 
 to topics related to the day's work, which may be con- 
 sulted by the bright pupils in leisure moments. In 
 some cases it may be worth while to excuse bright 
 pupils from regular recitations in order that they may 
 undertake special tasks for school or teacher. Any 
 device that will provide extra work for the bright pupil 
 will fulfil the requirement. 
 
36 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 6. Combination of plans. — It is probably true that 
 no one plan can be used successfully by all teachers. 
 But in a combination of several of these plans may be 
 found the solution for many of the problems arising 
 from differences in capacity. In meeting this problem 
 teachers should take care, however, that bright, nervous 
 pupils are not overworked, on the one hand, nor slow 
 pupils discouraged by being made the objects of ridi- 
 cule, on the other. Bright pupils sometimes seem to 
 purchase their mental brilliance at the expense of 
 endurance. Slow pupils may be extremely sensitive as 
 well as slow. 
 
 SUBJECTIVE CONDITIONS 
 
 The second large class of factors that determines the 
 results of teaching is what may be called subjective 
 conditions. The greater number of the things that are 
 responsible for good or bad teaching come in this class. 
 Subjective conditions are constantly changing, and 
 must always be provided for by the exercise of thought 
 on the part of the teacher. The arrangement and 
 selection of subject-matter and its presentation in the 
 class-room exercises furnish probably the largest group 
 of these factors. They include also the sudden emer- 
 gencies that arise in dealing with pupils, parents, and 
 patrons. 
 
 The group is so large and so important that the 
 various problems arising from it will furnish a basis for 
 the following chapters. Many things are as yet in a 
 
THE FACTORS THAT CONDITION TEACHING 37 
 
 sort of trial and error stage. Where this is true, what 
 seems to be the most promising solution will be given. 
 Where nothing seems at all decided, the problem will 
 not be considered. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 A teacher's efforts are conditioned by many factors, 
 objective and subjective. Some of these are outside 
 the control of the individual teacher, but many are 
 under her jurisdiction. Objective factors are relatively 
 constant from day to day, and should be adjusted per- 
 manently at the beginning of the teacher's work. These 
 include the physical conditions of temperature, humid- 
 ity, ventilation, and lighting; the factors of class-room 
 management; discipline; and individual differences. 
 Class-room management concerns itself with the rou- 
 tine factors of seating, pupil movements, and handling 
 of materials. 
 
 Discipline is so important that it must be considered 
 at length. Discipline changes in character as pupils 
 become older, and takes on many social aspects in the 
 high school. The measures for securing it are: (1) a 
 proper routine; (2) the correct attitudes on the part of 
 the teacher; (3) the establishment of a regimen of 
 work; (4) systematic use of individual assignments; 
 (5) the stimulation of group responsibility; and (6) 
 the wise treatment of individual offenders. 
 
 The problem created by individual differences is 
 newly recognized, and very important. It may be met 
 
38 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 by the use of (1) diversified curriculums, (2) free elec- 
 tion of courses, (3) the grading of pupils according to 
 ability, (4) the use of study coaches for the slow 
 pupils and supplementary work for the bright ones, 
 and (5) by various combined plans. 
 
 The subjective conditions are so various and detailed 
 that many chapters must be devoted to them. They 
 are those factors that demand an intelligent solution 
 every time they appear and they can not, therefore, be 
 reduced to rules. 
 
 Suggested Readings 
 
 Bagley, W. C. Educative Process. Chapter XXIII. 
 The Hygiene of the Educative Process. This chap- 
 ter presents some valuable details and suggestions. 
 
 Bagley, W. C. School Discipline. A thorough treat- 
 ment of the subject with emphasis on the social 
 aspects. 
 
 Burnett, T. J. The Essentials of Teaching. Chapter 
 IX. This valuable chapter intersperses suggestions 
 for class-room management and discipline among 
 excellent teaching suggestions. 
 
 Harvey, Nathan A. Principles of Teaching. Chap- 
 ters XXI and XXII. Two excellent chapters on 
 defects of hearing and vision, written so as to be of 
 practical value to teachers. Chapter XVI presents 
 some excellent ideas on school discipline. 
 
 Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. 
 Chapter III presents suggestions on the economy of 
 
THE FACTORS THAT CONDITION TEACHING 39 
 
 time in class-room management. Chapter XV gives 
 some convincing data on the reality of individual 
 differences. Extensive lists of related readings may 
 be found at the end of each of these chapters. 
 Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process. Chapter II. 
 A discussion of the factors conditioning the teaching 
 process, written from the point of view of the psycho- 
 logical factors. 
 
 Exercises 
 
 1. Visit school-rooms and note the following points: 
 
 a. Is the room comfortable? 
 
 h. Can you notice a decided odor when you 
 enter the room after the school has been 
 in session thirty minutes or an hour? 
 
 c. In cold weather, if the windows are used for 
 
 ventilation, note whether they are opened 
 properly. Do they ventilate the room or 
 merely chill the floor? 
 
 d. How is the room lighted? 
 
 e. What improvements can you suggest in the 
 
 use of the window-shades? 
 /. Are any of the blackboards in bad positions? 
 
 How can the teacher remedy the defects? 
 g. What seating arrangements are in use? 
 h. What changes can you suggest to improve 
 
 the pupil movements? 
 i. How does the teacher gather and distribute 
 
 note-books and papers? What sugges- 
 
40 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 tions can you make that will save time in 
 
 this work? 
 ;. What are the good and bad points of the 
 
 school discipline? 
 k. Is the form of discipline employed adapted 
 
 to the age of the pupils? 
 , I. What things make you think that work is, 
 
 or is not, the determining element of the 
 
 situation? 
 m. What use is made of individual assign- 
 ments? 
 n. How many bright children are there in the 
 
 room? How many stupid ones? 
 0. What provisions does the teacher make for 
 
 individual differences? 
 
 2. Why should a teacher not punish on the spur of 
 
 the moment? What exceptions can you give? 
 
 3. What arguments for and against corporal punish- 
 
 ment can you present? 
 
 4. At what age may the pupil be punished by depriv- 
 
 ing him of the privileges of his fellow class- 
 mates? 
 
CHAPTER III 
 SUBJECT-MATTER 
 
 NATURE OF 
 
 Teachers often fail to recognize that each bit of 
 real subject-matter is only a phase of human experi- 
 ence. It is merely the way men think, feel, and act. 
 For convenience in school-work, in most cases, people 
 have written accounts of parts of life's experience and 
 have printed these in books. But this fact should not 
 cause us to forget that the book is not subject-matter 
 itself. It is merely a means for recording and dissemi- 
 nating the essence of subject-matter. 
 
 ORIGIN OF 
 When schools were organized, those parts of man's 
 experience that seemed important enough for trans- 
 mission to succeeding generations were collected and 
 studied. Man's need for methods of reckoning and 
 computation gave rise to what became known as arith- 
 metic. His need for communication with his fellows 
 furnished language and written forms of thought trans- 
 mission. As society became more complex, subject- 
 matter changed accordingly. At times ingenious 
 groups of teachers and scholars organized groups of 
 
 41 
 
42 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 subject-matter far beyond the needs of their time. In- 
 terested in the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, 
 they formulated rules, laws, and principles that they 
 thought were true. The subject-matter then was or- 
 ganized around these, and when the task was finished, 
 the average man hardly recognized the results as re- 
 lated to his needs. Some types of minds enjoyed such 
 thinking, and it sometimes happened that subjects 
 thus organized were preserved and handed down in the 
 schools for generations. They were changed but little 
 after centuries had elapsed, except that possibly a 
 better organization was devised. Although they 
 started as a phase of man's social needs, they became 
 so modified later that they were of little value in pro- 
 viding for these needs. The classic example of this is 
 to be found in the persistence and character of present- 
 day Latin and Greek. Examples are to be found also 
 in most of the older subjects. 
 
 As man's needs increased and changed, new groups 
 of subject-matter were introduced into the schools. 
 At present we are experiencing a wave of enthusiasm 
 for the introduction of Spanish. This is the expression 
 of a feeling that we ought to be able to communicate a 
 little more readily with our American neighbors. 
 Home economics has come into our schools in response 
 to another group of social needs. The same thing is 
 true of the vocational studies, agriculture, phases of 
 manual training, and business courses. 
 
SUBJECT-MATTER 43 
 
 FUNCTIONS OF SUBJECT MATTER 
 
 The functions or values of subject-matter may be 
 classified in various ways. The most profitable classi- 
 fication, probably, is on the basis of the different kinds 
 of values that pupils may derive from its study. 
 
 I. Intrinsic Function. 
 
 The first important function of subject-matter is its 
 practical value for life. A boy learns to read so that 
 he may ascertain what people have recorded for others. 
 He learns to write so that he may communicate his 
 thoughts to distant friends. He learns to spell so that 
 what he writes may be intelligible to those who receive 
 his messages. Counting becomes of value in playing 
 marbles and other games. When a girl writes an arti- 
 cle for the school paper, she finds that the rhetoric she 
 has studied helps her to criticize effectively what she 
 has written. These are illustrations of the intrinsic 
 function of subject-matter. They might be multiplied 
 manifold, but these few will help to make clear what is 
 meant by this value. 
 
 II. Preparatory Function. 
 
 Another important value that subject-matter has is 
 the value it has for the future. Many things are 
 taught that will not be of immediate service, but that, 
 it is hoped, will be of use later. Children learn many 
 
44 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 facts of history, geography, physiology, and science 
 because there is a chance that they may need them 
 sometime. They may serve only in the study of other 
 things, but such values are important. This function 
 is so vital that a major part of the work of the high 
 school is looked upon mainly as college preparatory 
 material. For the pupil who goes to college it serves 
 this purpose, but for the one who makes the high 
 school the finishing school the same subject-matter 
 may satisfy some other function. The use that is made 
 of the subject-matter determines its function. 
 
 III. Decorative Function. 
 
 Many things that are taught and studied in school 
 have no intrinsic or preparatory function, but are there 
 because they are what educated people have studied. 
 This value is appropriately named the decorative func- 
 tion. Oftentimes, in discussions of the reasons for 
 studying facts of history and selections of literature 
 that are taught in our schools, teachers try to conjure 
 up practical values, when it would be better to say that 
 these are studied because they are marks of culture. 
 They are the things that educated people know. 
 Closely related to these things are those that are of 
 value mainly because they furnish a profitable employ- 
 ment for leisure time. Pupils study music, drawing, 
 literature, and many other things because they are 
 interesting and because they may help to pass the 
 unoccupied moments of life. 
 
SUBJECT-MATTER 45 
 
 IV. Disciplinary Function. 
 
 The disciplinary function of subject-matter is one 
 that is not emphasized so much now as it was in the 
 past. There was a time when, if you asked any leading 
 educator why Latin or mathematics was studied, he 
 would reply that it trained the mind. Latin was sup- 
 posed to be excellent for strengthening the memory, 
 mathematics the reason, etc. Careful investigations of 
 the results secured from studying such things have 
 failed, in the main, to show any basis for such assump- 
 tions. The disciplinary function of subject-matter, as 
 it was conceived in the past, is a myth. It does not 
 exist. As a result, no progressive teacher now gives to 
 pupils subject-matter that has the disciplinary func- 
 tion as its sole justification. Of course, the doctrine of 
 formal discipline, as this function is called, is still very 
 generally held by conservative teachers. In another 
 generation, however, it will be one of the educational 
 ideas held only by the backward minority. 
 
 SELECTION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 
 
 One of the big problems that confront the teacher 
 with respect to subject-matter is its selection. If the 
 teacher has the slightest initiative in the use of text- 
 book or syllabus, she should choose the best from the 
 many possible things she may introduce. How can she 
 decide what is the best? There are a number of cri- 
 teria that may aid in the selection of subject-matter. 
 
46 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 I. Basis of Minimal Essentials. 
 
 Minimal essentials are those things that are funda- 
 mental to the purpose for which the subject is taught. 
 As the term is used commonly, viewed from the basis 
 of general social needs, minimal essentials are the 
 things that every boy and girl should know in a sub- 
 ject. The term is used also in a somewhat restricted 
 sense where it implies the things that are fundamental 
 to the social needs of a particular group of pupils. 
 Even if used with both meanings, the term is helpful. 
 It gives a real basis upon which to select the things 
 that should be taught first in a particular situation. 
 After the minimal essentials have been given, a teacher 
 should present the things that enrich a subject; but 
 not until then. 
 
 It is difficult for the individual teacher to determine 
 exhaustively the minimal essentials of a subject. She 
 needs the aid of experts in this work. Prominent edu- 
 cators have been hard at work on this problem, and 
 have presented a few tentative conclusions. Teachers 
 may make use of these results, and in this way lighten 
 the work of such a selection. As time passes, more 
 and more of the public-school curriculum will be sur- 
 veyed and fundamentals will be determined. Teachers 
 may select the more important things on the basis of 
 their own experience and thus make a start in the 
 right direction, but at the earliest opportunity they 
 
SUBJECT-MATTER 47 
 
 should make use of the careful expert studies that have 
 been made. 
 
 A few of the things that have been worked out by 
 experts at present are as follows: In handwriting, 
 studies have determined the amount of time that can 
 be spent profitably in teaching writing, the speed per 
 minute that pupils can attain readily, and the quality 
 of work that can be expected. In language and gTam- 
 mar, experts have shown the kinds of errors people 
 make, and the things they need to know to help them 
 to correct these errors. In spelling, lists of words have 
 been compiled containing all of the words commonly 
 used in ordinary life. These are some of the things 
 that have been partially decided at present. The 
 future will settle many other questions. 
 
 II. Basis of Social Needs. 
 
 In reality, the preceding criterion of minimal essen- 
 tials is only a phase of the selection of subject-matter 
 on the basis of social needs. Social needs as a whole, 
 however, are much more varied and comprehensive. 
 When a teacher selects subject-matter on the basis of 
 minimal essentials, general needs alone are considered 
 — thejieeds-oi-all the pupils. When a teacher selects 
 on the basis of social needs, she must be on the watch 
 for variations instead of for signs of uniformity. The 
 school must meet life's needs, and it can do this only 
 by making itself as varied as life. 
 
48 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 Social needs change with time. A few years ago a 
 boy was expected to know about horses, electric bells, 
 trolley cars, and telephones. At present it is automo- 
 bile engines, wireless telegraphy, aeronautics, and mili- 
 tary training that are in the forefront of the world's 
 activities. In a few years countless unthought-of in- 
 ventions will be monopolizing the interest of boys and 
 girls. These are illustrations from recent years. There 
 is no need to multiply them by delving into earlier 
 history. The important thing is that social needs are 
 changing, and the implication is that subject-matter 
 should change with them. Under present conditions 
 the fact that a thing was studied by our fathers is not 
 an all-sufficient reason why we or our children should 
 study it. The social need that brought it into the 
 school may have disappeared long ago. 
 
 Social needs vary between different communities. 
 School A may be in an aristocratic American com- 
 munity that has almost perfect command of the form 
 and pronunciation of the English language. School B, 
 on the other hand, may draw its pupils from a foreign 
 settlement that is deficient in both. It would be foolish 
 to place the same emphasis on the different points in 
 the language work for both schools. Each community 
 has its special social needs. In the rural community 
 of Jones Center the boys and girls all expect to spend 
 their lives in tilling the soil and ministering to simple 
 wants. But in La Grande, a suburban section of the 
 city of C, boys and girls nearly all enter business or 
 
SUBJECT-MATTER 49 
 
 professional life. It is the height of absurdity to give 
 the same college preparatory group of studies to both 
 sets of young people. Social needs demand a differen- 
 tiation. 
 
 A still further complication of the problem created 
 by varying social needs is found in the individual 
 variations between different members of the same 
 community. Mary will teach school, if she realizes her 
 present ambitions; John plans to be a banker; Harry 
 wants to be a sanitary engineer; Lawrence must leave 
 school at the age of sixteen to help out at home with 
 his meager earnings; and Florence will keep house for 
 her father when she graduates from high school. 
 These are but a few of the many differences to be found 
 in any community. Should they be met by giving all 
 the same mental pabulum? No — not if the school is 
 to perform its mission. 
 
 III. Basis of Relative Values. 
 
 After the social needs of a particular school com- 
 munity have been determined, the next task that con- 
 fronts the teacher is the selection of the different items 
 of subject-matter that will best meet them. This 
 selection must be on the basis of relative values. 
 Teachers sometimes make the mistake of selecting 
 absolute values instead. Relative values are the values 
 of the facts or items for this particular purpose, while 
 absolute values consider the facts or items in all their 
 possible aspects. Thus, the latter is in reality the sum 
 
50 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 total of all the relative values. To illustrate, a certain 
 set of peculiar marks may be very valuable to the 
 printer and proof-reader; another set may be equally 
 important for the rhetoric teacher who must mark 
 English themes; but neither has the absolute value of 
 ordinary punctuation-marks, which are used generally. 
 Each has a high relative and a low absolute value. 
 When the printer says that every pupil ought to learn 
 the marks he uses, because they are very valuable to 
 him, he confuses relative with absolute values. 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF SUBJECT-MATTER FOR 
 TEACHING 
 
 The arrangement of subject-matter for teaching is 
 one of the tasks that a teacher must attack if original 
 work is attempted. It is not enough to select the 
 materials. They must be arranged in some desirable 
 order. The main defect of Experience as a teacher is 
 that she does not arrange her subject-matter. 
 
 I. Relative Importance. 
 
 The first criterion for the arrangement of subject- 
 matter is relative importance. Those things that are 
 most important must be chosen first. After these are 
 determined, it is next in order to support 'them with 
 such details as are essential. When this has been 
 done, items of less importance may be considered until 
 the time for the subject is exhausted. 
 
SUBJECT-MATTER 51 
 
 II. Pedagogical Instead of Logical Arrangement. 
 
 One of the greatest faults of beginning teachers is 
 that they often present subject-matter in the same 
 order in which it was presented to them in college or 
 normal school. What was very clear, when presented 
 in detail to mature students who had a background of 
 experience upon which to interpret it, often proves to 
 be most uninteresting when presented to pupils in the 
 public school for their first taste of this particular 
 field of knowledge. These teachers take the logical 
 arrangement of the college class, which, perhaps, was 
 pedagogical for them in their maturity, and give it to 
 their high-school pupils without alteration. The re- 
 sult is easily foreseen. What should be provided is a 
 pedagogical arrangement. This may be secured only 
 by building on the knowledge possessed by the pupils. 
 The only safe procedure is jrom the known to the 
 unknown. Where the pupils know absolutely nothing 
 about a subject, the only pedagogical way to begin is 
 by presenting some phase that will appeal to the eye, 
 ear, or other sense-organ. The traditional plan, which 
 began with rules, definitions, and general principles, is 
 farthest removed from this. 
 
 A real pedagogical arrangement frequently is used in 
 the first teaching of geography. The children are 
 introduced to the subject in the form of home geog- 
 raphy. They are shown the things they have seen 
 
52 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 many times, and are taught to see them from new 
 aspects. Then they branch out to more remote regions, 
 and finally come to the place where they can make 
 their own definitions and other generalizations. In a 
 similar way, some teachers start the science work of 
 the high school by building upon what the children 
 know. This is the general science movement. In a 
 less pretentious manner, many teachers are doing the 
 same thing in other subjects. Things are being con- 
 nected with life continually, and every subject is full 
 of meaning and significance. 
 
 III. Around Pivotal Points. 
 
 From the preceding sections it must not be inferred 
 that logical order has no place in the arrangement of 
 subject-matter for teaching. Although it is necessary 
 to build upon what pupils know, it is best that the 
 material have a logical arrangement with that as a 
 basis. This result may be secured by the use of pivotal 
 points. By this is meant the selection of topics, which 
 are simple enough for the purpose, around which the 
 facts may be grouped. Most of the better text-books 
 attempt to satisfy this requirement, and teachers will 
 do well to rely on them until they are certain they can 
 do better in some other way. 
 
 PREPARATION OF SUBJECT-MATTER FOR 
 TEACHING 
 
 I. A thorough knowledge of the subject-matter, as 
 such is usually understood in scholastic circles, is not 
 
SUBJECT-MATTER 63 
 
 sufficient to enable a person to teach satisfactorily. 
 The main reason for this is that this kind of mental 
 grasp of the subject is mainly a mastery of the large 
 fundamental principles. The details that made these 
 principles meaningful when they were first mastered 
 have been forgotten, for the most part. The same 
 details, or similar ones, will be needed to make the 
 principles meaningful to other individuals. When it 
 is remembered that the pupils who are to be taught 
 usually are much less mature than the teachers were 
 when they studied the advanced work that gave them 
 a thorough mastery of the field, another reason for 
 further preparation becomes apparent. Teachers must 
 do more than master the content of a subject to teach 
 it effectively. A thorough scholastic preparation from 
 the point of view of higher education is not enough, 
 but this must be suplemented with a knowledge of 
 many details that have been forgotten, 
 
 II. There is an important difference between the 
 kind of preparation needed by the teacher and that 
 needed by the pupil. The pupil is prepared for the 
 day's work if he knows a limited section of the topic 
 under consideration. But the teacher, on the contrary, 
 can not be satisfied with a preparation of this sort. 
 Not only must she be familiar with the details of a 
 limited section, but she must see their connection with 
 what has gone before and what is coming later. It is 
 also helpful if the various relations with other subjects 
 are gathered together for use as needed. Thus, a 
 
54 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 teacher's preparation must be broader and longer, fig- 
 uratively speaking, than the pupil's. 
 
 III. As may be inferred readily from the two pre- 
 ceding sections, a teacher needs to make constant 
 preparation for her work. This preparation is of two 
 kinds. At the beginning of the year it is necessary for 
 the teacher to make a careful outline of the main points 
 to be covered in the work, to make a far-ahead prepa- 
 ration. This should result in a sort of skeleton of the 
 course. Sometimes it will be but little more than a 
 survey of the text-book and a calculation of the rate of 
 progress and the topics to be considered. It is a good 
 plan to prepare a calendar of the work for the year. 
 On such a calendar the larger things can be included 
 and omissions , made for holidays and other interrup- 
 tions. With a calendar to guide the work, the teacher 
 will seldom complain, "There is so much to be done 
 yet, and the year is almost gone!" Time and work 
 tend more often to exhaust themselves together. 
 
 The other type of preparation is the intensive work 
 necessary to get ready for each day's lessons. It is 
 usually called the daily preparation. It need not be 
 done every day without exception, however, because 
 it is possible for the teacher to get ahead at times, and 
 have an evening or two when other things may monop- 
 olize attention ; but such times are few and far between 
 in the life of the busy, conscientious teacher. Each 
 lesson demands a careful survey of its materials and 
 an organization for the particular class to which it is 
 
SUBJECT-MATTER 55 
 
 to be presented. It may be that this preparation will 
 occupy only a few minutes each day, but it must be 
 made if the work is to be done properly. When a 
 teacher undertakes to teach a new text-book, one of the 
 fundamentals of the preparation is a careful reading of 
 the book; yet it often happens that teachers go to 
 class for weeks, teaching a new book without knowing 
 its exact contents. In such cases the work of the class- 
 room is certain to suffer. There was a time when 
 teachers did not make daily preparation, when it was 
 thought that a teacher who studied each daily lesson 
 did not know enough to teach. Happily, a time has 
 been reached when it is only the untrained and ineflBi- 
 cient teachers who do not make a daily preparation. 
 It is true that this preparation may require only a 
 short time each day for some of the experienced teach- 
 ers, but it must be made systematically. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 Subject-matter is human experience. It originated 
 in man's needs, but was modified in the schools at 
 times for convenience or for pleasure. In some cases 
 the modifications have produced artificial results. 
 Subject-matter has four functions: the intrinsic, the 
 preparatory, the decorative, and the disciplinary. The 
 selection and arrangement of subject-matter should be 
 mainly on the basis of minimal essentials, varying 
 social needs, and relative values. The arrangement for 
 teaching should be pedagogical instead of logical, and 
 
56 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 things should be grouped around pivotal points as far 
 as possible, 
 
 A scholar's knowledge of a subject is not a sufficient 
 preparation for the teacher's work. The teacher needs 
 a more extensive and broader point of view in the 
 subject than the pupil, so as to be able to put things 
 into their proper perspectives. The teacher must make 
 a thorough preparation both for the term and for the 
 day. 
 
 Suggested Readings 
 
 Bolton, F. E. Principles of Education. Chapter 
 XXVIII. A very clear discussion of the problem of 
 formal discipline, which should be read by those who 
 want to learn the present status of the question. 
 
 Burnett, T. J. The Essentials of Teaching. Pp. 175- 
 186. An excellent discussion of the teacher's prepa- 
 ration, filled with pertinent suggestions and illus- 
 trations. 
 
 Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching. Chapters 
 II- VIII. A somewhat theoretical but very complete 
 discussion of subject-matter in its various aspects. 
 
 Earhart, Lida B. Types of Teaching. Chapter I. 
 A good discussion of the origin, nature, and functions 
 of subject-matter. 
 
 National Society for the Study of Education. 
 Fourteenth Yearbook, Part I, and Sixteenth Year- 
 book, Part 11. A complete summary of the impor- 
 tant minimal essentials that have been determined. 
 
SUBJECT-MATTER 67 
 
 Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. 
 Chapter IV. Devoted to the selection of subject- 
 matter on the basis of social needs and to its arrange- 
 ment for presentation in the class-room. 
 
 Exercises 
 
 1. Give examples of subject-matter, taught in the 
 
 schools, no longer of value in meeting present 
 social needs. 
 
 2. What new social needs have arisen that are not 
 
 provided for by the present curriculum? 
 
 3. Give examples of subject-matter that is of value 
 
 mainly because of its intrinsic worth. 
 
 4. Give examples of subject-matter of which the chief 
 
 value is its preparatory function. 
 
 5. What are illustrations of subject-matter that is 
 
 decorative? 
 
 6. Give examples of subject-matter that has been 
 
 offered a place in the curriculum chiefly because 
 of its supposedly disciplinary value. 
 
 7. Analyze the social needs of two different school 
 
 communities by examining the occupational 
 census as presented in the last United States 
 reports. 
 
 8. For what social needs does the high school in your 
 
 community provide? Are there any others? 
 
 9. What are the things that must be considered in 
 
 arranging subject-matter pedagogically? 
 
58 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 10. Why are not great scholars and authorities in a 
 
 subject always good teachers? 
 
 11. Why is it that teachers frequently say that they 
 
 learned more about a subject when they taught 
 it than when they studied it as pupils? 
 
 12. When will a teacher no longer need to make daily 
 
 preparation for the teaching work? 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 OUTCOMES OF TEACHING 
 
 When a person sets out on a journey and knows 
 exactly where he is going, he can provide himself with 
 the necessary equipment. If the destination is not 
 foreseen the provisions for the journey may be in- 
 adequate. This analogy applies to the teacher. When 
 a teacher begins the intellectual journey necessary to 
 instruct a group of pupils, it is a great saving of energy 
 if the changes that are to be made in their minds are 
 foreseen. Knowing just where she is bound intellec- 
 tually, the teacher can make adequate provisions for 
 proper teaching equipment. The analogy holds still 
 further. Some people travel with wardrobe-trunks, 
 some with hand-bags, and some carry their belongings 
 in a shawl-strap. All arrive at their destinations, 
 though in various stages of enthusiasm and fatigue. 
 In like manner, some teachers use the best methods, 
 while others use those less well adapted; but all pro- 
 duce changes in the minds of their pupils, though with 
 more or less mental friction. All travelers who can 
 ride in parlor cars with adequate baggage facilities, and 
 teachers who are able use those teaching methods that 
 are best suited to the results desired. That a teacher 
 
 59 
 
60 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 may know what method to use, it is necessary for her 
 to know whither she is bound. This necessitates a 
 consideration of the outcomes, or results, of teaching. 
 
 TYPES OF OUTCOMES 
 
 The outcomes of teaching may be classified best by 
 using a rough psychological grouping. It is always 
 difficult to classify natural phenomena, because such 
 do not lend themselves readily to hard-and--fast lines 
 of demarcation. Consequently, the classification that 
 is given may seem arbitrary and inadequate. Its use, 
 however, will aid in determining the teaching methods 
 best suited to secure the best teaching results. 
 
 I. Knowledge Outcomes. 
 
 A. Facts. 
 
 One of the most frequently secured outcomes of 
 teaching is what usually are called facts. These are 
 items or bits of knowledge, such as, ''Birds are ani- 
 mals," "George Washington was our first President," 
 and similar simple ideas. Often they are isolated and 
 unorganized. When they are arranged in a logical 
 order, they tend to merge into the following types of 
 outcomes: 
 
 B. Concepts. 
 
 The concept is nothing more than the mental result 
 of a consideration of many related facts. Thus, the 
 concept that is expressed in the definition of the idea, 
 
OUTCOMES OF TEACHING 61 
 
 verb, is formed by bringing together the common char- 
 acteristics of words like run, throw, fall, build, and 
 shout. Every noun, when it has a real meaning, is a 
 concept; likewise, every adjective or modifying word 
 may be so classified. Concepts are a very frequent 
 result of the teacher's work, but although these con- 
 crete outcomes are most familiar they seldom are recog- 
 nized as implied by the term concept. This term, as 
 ordinarily used, sounds forbidding to the average per- 
 son, because he is looking for something abstract. 
 Concepts are as concrete as general meanings. They 
 are formed from details, but when they have been 
 acquired the details may be forgotten. Every time the 
 teacher makes anything meaningful she is forming a 
 concept. 
 
 C. Generalizations. 
 
 When the concept is of a more or less abstract nature, 
 it is designated usually by the more familiar terms 
 generalization, rule, or law. Teachers have recognized 
 these outcomes in the past as one of the important 
 objectives of their teaching endeavors. At times, even, 
 it seemed as if this were the main task of the teacher. 
 At present, however, it is recognized that a rule or 
 principle is not sufficient in itself, but that it must be 
 backed up with rich meanings. Thus, it is not enough 
 to give the rule, "Invert the divisor and multiply," in 
 teaching fractions; but the rule must be illustrated by 
 a number of concrete examples. In another field, that 
 
62 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 of rhetoric, the teacher can not stop with a mere formal 
 statement of the principles governing "unity" or 
 "style," but must give numerous illustrations to make 
 the points clear. 
 
 D. Mental Attitudes and Methods of Thought. 
 
 The^most comprehensive knowledge outcomes that 
 result from teaching are what may be called mental 
 attitudes and methods of thought. People who are 
 uneducated are inclined to accept things at their ap- 
 parent face values. They form hasty conclusions and 
 are misled by all sorts of shams. The attitude of mind 
 that induces a person to weigh the evidence and search 
 for possible inconsistencies before forming conclusions 
 is acquired only through much practice along this line. 
 Other attitudes, such as following things through to 
 their logical results and always verifying before taking 
 the next step, come through training. These outcomes 
 are the consequence of a thorough organization of 
 many facts, concepts, and principles. They are serv- 
 iceable in the light of much such training, but it can 
 not be assumed that the mere possession of informa- 
 tion will guarantee the right mental attitude. Often 
 the mental attitudes must be cultivated also. There- 
 fore, teachers must seek these outcomes consciously. 
 
 The need for outcomes of this general nature has 
 impressed itself so strongly upon some of our educators 
 that a most unusual departure from the traditional 
 content of instruction has been attempted in the Army 
 
OUTCOMES OF TEACHING 63 
 
 Schools of the Education and Recreation Branch. The 
 men who have joined the army to learn a trade are, 
 as a rule, in need of general education as well as of 
 vocational training. The time for instruction is very- 
 limited. As a result, their instructions in general edu- 
 cation is restricted to one hour devoted to the basic 
 course in citizenship and another hour in English 
 instruction. The problems of citizenship have been 
 analyzed in a manner that has produced remarkable 
 results along social and economic lines. The inculca- 
 tion of sane attitudes has been the key-note of the 
 entire course in citizenship, and the traditional ma- 
 terials of the school curriculum have been gone over 
 for materials that bear upon these problems. The 
 amount of material taught in our common schools that 
 has been discarded under this plan is almost incon- 
 ceivable. 
 
 II. Drill Outcomes. 
 
 A. Habits. 
 
 The first type of the drill outcomes that will be 
 considered is habit. Habits are actions that have been 
 learned, but that go on automatically, once they have 
 been learned, whenever the proper stimuli are pre- 
 sented. When things are done from habit, no thought 
 is necessary, and the individual is free to give his 
 thought to other things. Many habits are formed in 
 the school-room, such as holding the pencil in a certain 
 way, raising the hand to attract the teacher's attention, 
 
64 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 sitting in a particular posture, and forming the letter a 
 with a definite movement. Habits are so numerous 
 that it has been said that children are bundles of them. 
 Each is formed by repeating an action a number of 
 times in precisely the same way each time. 
 
 B. Rote Associations. 
 
 The second type of drill outcomes is rote associations 
 or rote memory. Rote associations are like habits in 
 that they are formed in the same way — by repetition. 
 They further resemble habits in that when they have 
 been formed they no longer demand thinking. Rote 
 memory is used in everything that demands an exact 
 reproduction, as the number facts of the multiplication 
 table, a memorized poem, and the learning of defini- 
 tions and rules. In some cases a thorough under- 
 standing of the thing may be an important aid in 
 learning it by rote. This class of outcomes should 
 always be sought when anything will be needed so 
 often that time will be saved by memorizing it. It 
 takes much more energy to think than to give things 
 from memory. 
 
 III. Emotional Outcomes. 
 
 Teaching in the past has been mainly a coldly intel- 
 lectual process in so far as any definite teaching pro- 
 gram was concerned. Teachers imparted knowledge 
 and drilled, but never planned to influence the emo- 
 tional side of the lives of their pupils. To be sure, it 
 
OUTCOMES OF TEACHING 65 
 
 was hard for teachers to live and not influence the 
 emotions of their pupils, but the emotional changes 
 that resulted were purely accidental. It is not neces- 
 sary to leave the training of the emotions so completely 
 to chance. The emotions may be trained as surely as 
 habits may be formed. The first step in the process of 
 securing emotional outcomes is to recognize the various 
 kinds that may be secured. 
 
 A. Ideals, Sentiments, and Prejudices. 
 
 One of the important tasks in the field of the emo- 
 tional that confronts the teacher is the development 
 of ideals. Such ideals as honesty, industry, thorough- 
 ness, neatness, charity, and altruism must be incul- 
 cated by the school, because our homes are too busy 
 and too varied in character to do the task themselves. 
 In some cases, even, the homes are entirely unfitted for 
 this responsibility, because improper ideals are present. 
 Similarly, the school must do its part by teaching the 
 best sentiments and prejudices. The right sort of 
 patriotic attitude may be an ideal, but it is more often 
 a sentiment. Prejudices are usually thought of as 
 undesirable; yet they may be strong factors toward 
 bringing about right conduct. We think of prejudices 
 only when the other fellow has a point of view, to 
 which he adheres strongly, which is contrary to ours. 
 Yet we are prejudiced as much as he. Information 
 about a line of action, backed up by a strong emotional 
 coloring, constitutes a prejudice. Thus, one person 
 
66 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 may believe that the Sabbath should be observed on 
 the first day of the week, while another may worship 
 on the seventh. Both have prejudices in this respect. 
 Again, a person may think that a man ought always 
 to give up his seat if a woman is standing. This is 
 another prejudice, even though a valuable one under 
 American standards. It is so customary to think of 
 the prejudices of the other fellow that it is not recog- 
 nized that there are both good and bad prejudices. 
 The school should cultivate the good ones. Ideals, 
 sentiments, and prejudices must be led into the right 
 channels if we are to have the best social organiza- 
 tion. 
 
 B. Appreciation and Enjoyment. 
 
 Another task from the emotional field for the teacher 
 is the guidance of appreciation and the development of 
 right standards of enjoyment. Children must be 
 taught to appreciate literature, pictures, and artistic 
 work; in fact, beauty wherever it is to be found. It 
 is not enough merely to present objects for appreciation 
 and enjoyment and expect the desired results to follow. 
 The teacher must work to secure these emotional out- 
 comes. Careful, systematic teaching does wonders in 
 raising the standards of appreciation and enjoyment of 
 a group of pupils. In the endeavors of the school to 
 provide for the leisure side of our American life, appre- 
 ciation and enjoyment must occupy a more important 
 place in the future. 
 
OUTCOMES OF TEACHING 67 
 
 IV. Practical Abilities. 
 
 The teacher often is criticized because her work is 
 apparently impracticable. Her teaching is devoted 
 almost entirely to the theory of the thing, and people 
 do not see how some of the theory is to be of use. 
 Present-day teachers are placing more and more em- 
 phasis on ability to use what is learned than was the 
 case in the past. Some important outcomes of this 
 kind may be recognized. 
 
 A. Expression. 
 
 Children are taught to express themselves in many 
 ways in the class-room. Probably the most important 
 of these is secured in connection with the language 
 work. The pupils are taught to put their ideas in the 
 conventional garb of good usage, and are exercised 
 constantly on this. This outcome of teaching has 
 been recognized by most teachers in the past, and the 
 chief problem that remains here is the one arising from 
 method. How can pupils be taught most efficiently 
 to express themselves in good English? 
 
 Other phases of the teaching of expression arise in 
 connection with painting, drawing, music, manual 
 training, home economics, and dramatization work. 
 Each of these presents its own problems and difficulties. 
 One of the aims of the teaching of each, however, is 
 to get the pupils to express themselves a little better 
 than they could without training. 
 
68 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 B. Ability to Study. 
 
 Out of the increased emphasis that has been given 
 to efficiency in teaching has come a recognition of the 
 fact that pupils often do not know how to study even 
 by the time they have almost finished the high school. 
 The result is that teachers are emphasizing a new out- 
 come of their work — ability to study. There are many 
 devices and hints to aid in studying, and pupils must 
 be taught these if they are to be efficient. It is a great 
 gain for a person's life, after school-days are over, to 
 be able to get the exact meaning from what some one 
 else has written. This is the essential element of 
 ability to study. Consequently, this is an important 
 practical outcome of teaching. 
 
 C. Development of Individuality. 
 
 The school in the past often has seemed to try to 
 repress the individuality that a pupil might have, and 
 thus make him like the rest. Of course, this is a 
 function of the school when individuality tends to 
 express itself in undesirable forms. But there are 
 phases of individuality that can and ought to be 
 developed, such as originality, resourcefulness, and the 
 other characteristics of a useful personality. These 
 phases of a pupil's life need cultivation as well as the 
 purely intellectual sides. Therefore, they should be 
 among the outcomes of teaching sought. 
 
OUTCOMES OF TEACHING 69 
 
 D. Moral Development. 
 
 The fourth major phase of the practical-ability out- 
 comes of teaching is moral development. Our schools, 
 in the past, have done much to bring about a good 
 moral growth along some of the lines of personal 
 morality, such as industry, persistence, promptness, 
 and thoroughness. Some of the moral virtues, espe- 
 cially filial piety and chastity, have not been empha- 
 sized much, however, and a broader work is needed. 
 In the field of social morality the work of our schools 
 has been even more deficient. This is one of the 
 important outcomes that will be emphasized more in 
 the next few years if present indications are a criterion. 
 
 NERVE MODIFICATIONS AS THE BASIS OF 
 OUTCOMES 
 
 The modifiability of the nervous system furnishes 
 the psychophysical basis of teaching outcomes. Drill 
 outcomes are possible because nerve-cells, which are 
 made to act together a number of times in exactly the 
 same way each time, tend to act together with but little 
 effort later. Knowledge outcomes have their basis in 
 the fact that human experience tends to become uni- 
 fied in the nervous system, those elements that are 
 related in meaning becoming fused. Emotional out- 
 comes also have a nervous basis, but it is not so well 
 understood. It probably is founded on the well known 
 
70 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 fact that nearly all experience is retained, which 
 retention makes possible its later revival. Many- 
 experiences have emotional colorings, which are stored 
 in the nervous system along with the experiences them- 
 selves and reappear when they are reinstated. All of 
 the possibilities of the nervous system seem more or 
 less involved in securing practical ability outcomes. 
 They can not be restricted to one phase of nerve action, 
 even to the limited extent that is possible with the 
 other outcomes. 
 
 RELATION OF OUTCOMES TO TEACHING METHOD 
 
 There would be no advantage in making a detailed 
 analysis of the outcomes of teaching if these were not 
 related to the teaching process. But, since each out- 
 come may be secured best by a particular teaching 
 method, a consideration of outcomes merely gives a 
 basis for the study of the details of method. Thus, the 
 drill outcomes are secured most easily through drill 
 exercises; the knowledge outcomes through induction, 
 deduction, and similar teaching; and the emotional 
 outcomes through the appreciation lesson. In the 
 differentiation of these teaching methods the teaching 
 process has made much progress on the art side. Some 
 of these methods are subtle, however, and it takes much 
 time and patience to master them to the point where 
 they can be used effectively. It is possible, too, that 
 some of them may be so exacting in their intellectual 
 requirements that many teachers can never surmount 
 
OUTCOMES OF TEACHING 71 
 
 the inherent difficulties. Such limitations of the 
 methods as seem to exist will be considered as each 
 is presented. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 Teachers need to be able to classify the outcomes of 
 teaching in order that they may realize the goals for 
 which they strive. These outcomes may be classified 
 into four groups: (1) knowledge outcomes; (2) drill 
 outcomes; (3) emotional outcomes; and (4) practical 
 ability outcomes. The knowledge outcomes may be 
 subdivided into (o) facts, (6) concepts, (c) generaliza- 
 tions, and (d) mental attitudes and methods of 
 thought. There are two main kinds of drill outcomes, 
 habits and rote associations. The emotional results 
 may be divided into (a) ideals, sentiments, and preju- 
 dices, and (b) appreciation and enjoyment. The 
 practical-ability outcomes include (a) expression, (6) 
 ability to study, (c) development of individuality, and 
 (d) moral development. The possibility of securing 
 these outcomes is dependent upon the modifiability of 
 the nervous system. Each type of outcome may be 
 secured best by the method designed for that teaching 
 result. 
 
 Suggested Readings 
 
 Earhart, Lida B. Types of Teaching. Chapters II 
 and III. The outcomes of teaching and their rela- 
 tions to the types of class procedure that are best to 
 secure them. 
 
^y: 
 
 72 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. 
 Chapter V. A brief classification of the types of 
 learning involved in high-school subjects. 
 
 Exercises 
 
 1. Give concrete illustrations of each of the types of 
 outcomes presented in this chapter. 
 
 2. Visit class-rooms, and note the kinds of outcomes 
 secured by the teacher. 
 
 3. Which outcomes are secured most frequently by 
 the algebra teacher, by the geometry teacher, 
 by the physics .teacher, by the history teacher, 
 
 Nj ' by the Latin teacher, by the English literature 
 
 ^^^ teacher, by the rhetoric teacher, by the physi- 
 
 ology teacher, by the geography teacher? 
 
 4. What outcomes should a teacher strive for in teach- 
 
 ing the early colonial settlements in United 
 States history, in teaching "The Star-Spangled 
 Banner," in teaching the conjugation of amo, in 
 teaching the binominal theorem? 
 
 5. What is the main defect in the work of the teacher 
 
 who always has the same teaching procedure for 
 every day in the school year? 
 
 6. Why is it desirable to be able to analyze the out- 
 
 comes of teaching? 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 THE FORMAL CLASS PERIOD 
 
 Before the special teaching methods are examined, 
 it will be well to consider the formal class period and 
 the activities to which it is devoted generally. Under 
 most conditions the work of the school-room is much 
 the same from day to day. Teachers adopt a few 
 devices that make the work go in a fair way, and rest 
 content with the results. Often they are too busy with 
 the routine things to find time for anything new. In 
 some cases, it is thought, they are too indolent to make 
 the attempt to learn new methods. Whatever the 
 reason, the fact remains that most formal class periods 
 are concerned with little beyond the acquisition of the 
 contents of the text-book or syllabus. This may be 
 done in a way that is very profitable. Therefore, those 
 activities that are common to most class periods will be 
 given the first consideration. 
 
 I. Assignment. 
 
 Under conditions generally prevalent in American 
 
 schools text-books are the chief media of instruction. 
 
 Their use involves the assignment and study of lessons. 
 
 73 
 
74 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 The first point for consideration among the activities 
 of the formal class period, then, will be the assignment. 
 
 A. Functions. 
 
 1. The assignment must point out clearly to the 
 pupils just what is to be done. Where it does not do 
 this, pupils often waste time on things that are not 
 necessary for the day's work. Sometimes a hazy 
 assignment will result in pupils trying to do work 
 beyond their capabilities. On the other hand, hazy 
 assignments often give the class a chance to come to 
 the recitation but partly prepared. They "couldn't 
 find this or that reference"; "You never told us to do 
 that" ; such are the responses a teacher often receives 
 who has not been clear in her assignments. Sometimes 
 classes deliberately loaf. When this is the case, the 
 teacher often can throw the responsibility back upon 
 the guilty ones, if a few members of the class have done 
 the work. The fact that some of them did the work 
 is prima facie evidence that the assignment was made. 
 Those who missed it have no one but themselves to 
 blame for their carelessness, and ought to suffer the 
 consequences. 
 
 2. The assignment may be clear and yet fail because 
 it does not tell how the work is to be done. There 
 often are obstacles to the preparation of the lesson, 
 which might be removed by a little assistance. This 
 assistance should constitute a part of the assignment. 
 
 3. The third function of the assignment is to give 
 
THE FORMAL CLASS PERIOD 75 
 
 the pupils reasons why they should do the work. This 
 is what is usually known as motivation. A simple form 
 of motivation occurs when the teacher shows that there 
 is a need for the particular information contained in 
 the day's lesson. Sometimes it will be sufficient for 
 the teacher to remark, "You will need to know this 
 when you do so and so." At other times a sufficient 
 motive will be given by the raising of the problematic 
 situation. "To solve the problem, it will be necessary 
 to master this particular piece of work." .With most 
 pupils, even those of the senior high school, motives 
 are much more effective if not too remote — not too far 
 in the future. 
 
 B. Time to Make the Assignment. 
 
 The only hard-and-fast rule that can be given about 
 the time to make the assignment is one that is negative. 
 It should never be made so late in the class period that 
 it can not be completed properly before the class is 
 dismissed. Nothing is more conducive to poor assign- 
 ments than the practice of some teachers who wait until 
 the bell rings for dismissal and then make hurried 
 assignments. To prevent this from happening, some 
 teachers always make the assignment at the beginning 
 of the hour. A uniform procedure of this kind is not 
 best, because unexpected events may arise in the class 
 period that make it expedient to modify the work for 
 the next period. In general, however, if a uniform time 
 is adopted, it probably is best if set at the beginning 
 
76 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 of the period. Motivation often makes it desirable to 
 wait until the recitation has made some progress. The 
 teacher who has mastered the art of assigning lessons 
 makes the assignment near the beginning of the hour, 
 as a rule, but is always ready to meet the emergency 
 by a temporary readjustment. 
 
 C. Length. 
 
 The amount of time that should be taken in assign- 
 ing a lesson depends upon the situation involved. The 
 assignment in which the pupils are told to study "From 
 page 97 to page 104" is the most difficult for the pupils 
 that a teacher can make. Of course, the lesson may 
 be one of a series of similar tasks, and in such a case 
 the pupils may need no further directions than the 
 pages covered. The page assignment is the ideal one 
 toward which a teacher should strive, but it can not 
 be used every day throughout the school year, if the 
 pupils are to be assisted as unusual lessons often de- 
 mand. It has the advantage of definiteness, but lacks 
 motivation and does not tell how the new work can be 
 done best. Whenever a new topic or a new phase of 
 the work is encountered, there is need for a complete 
 assignment that will remove obstacles and give the 
 right kind of motive. In some cases, where it is neces- 
 sary for the teacher to develop a term or concept, the 
 entire period may be given over to the assignment of 
 the lesson; or, in rare cases, more than a period may 
 be required. A teacher's most effective work is often 
 
THE FORMAL CLASS PERIOD 77 
 
 done in making the assignment, and she who never 
 makes a detailed, motivated one is neglecting a chance 
 to do the best kind of work. 
 
 D. Method. 
 
 There is no one method that can be used always. 
 The method must be suited to the lesson's subject- 
 matter. When the different teaching methods are con- 
 sidered in detail in the following chapters, the forms 
 of assignment that are the natural sequence of the 
 different steps will be given. As long as page assign- 
 ments are used, but little method is involved; but 
 when a teacher attempts to prepare the pupils for their 
 study, and tries to motivate the work, method becomes 
 very important. 
 
 II. Recitation. 
 
 The second main activity into which the formal class 
 period divides is the recitation. Under most condi- 
 tions, the time that is not used in making the assign- 
 ment is given over to the class recitation. This exer- 
 cise is very important in most schools, because this is 
 the time when the real teaching is done. Some edu- 
 cators have proposed to eliminate the recitation as 
 something not needed. To do away with the recitation 
 will be to lose many of the advantages of group think- 
 ing. The introduction of group thinking into the work 
 of our schools is too great an advance to be sacrificed 
 unnecessarily. The recitation can be modified to meet 
 
78 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 the criticisms without losing its advantages. The 
 various points will be clearer after the topic has been 
 considered in its different aspects. 
 
 A. Functions. 
 
 I. A check on the assignment. — The recitation is 
 intended primarily to serve as a means of ascertaining 
 whether the pupils have performed the tasks set for 
 them in the assignment. Pupils seldom do serious, 
 careful work in the study period unless there is a faith- 
 ful checking up at frequent intervals to see what has 
 been done. In addition to finding out whether the 
 allotted tasks have been completed, the recitation gives 
 an opportunity to learn whether the assignment was 
 adequate. If pupils reveal a misunderstanding of 
 what they were told to do, it is a reflection on the 
 assignment. If they come to the recitation in a half- 
 prepared state, they were asked to do too much, were 
 not told definitely what to do, or were not prepared 
 to do it by the preceding work. There may be excep- 
 tions to this classification, but a situation of this sort 
 indicates something in need of readjustment. In these 
 various ways this part of the formal class period acts 
 as a check on the assignment. 
 
 Some teachers seem to think that the function of the 
 recitation that has just been discussed is the only one. 
 Day after day the entire period is spent in checking 
 up to see that the pupils have their lessons. Some- 
 times, to be sure, the teacher is hard pressed to fill in 
 
THE FORMAL CLASS PERIOD 79 
 
 the time in this way, but it is done in some manner. 
 Teachers in all subjects are offenders along this line. 
 The mathematics teacher asks the pupils to recite on 
 the problems they have studied at home; the Latin 
 teacher does nothing but send the class over the twenty 
 lines of Caesar that constituted the study lesson, secur- 
 ing details of translation; the geography teacher asks 
 questions that require no other answer than the words 
 found in the text. Furthermore, many of our present- 
 day text-books in the public schools are so rich in 
 content that the teacher has a hard time to teach them 
 without going into detail in this way. Such work, how- 
 ever, neglects one of the most important purposes of 
 the recitation — that of organizing the lesson content. 
 
 2. A time to organize the lesson content. — The 
 recitation offers the best time for this. Nothing seems 
 to surpass group gatherings for sane thinking, where 
 mind responds to mind and opinions are exchanged 
 freely. When led by a skilful teacher, the class-room 
 
 is an admirable place for the organization of the lesson \\ 
 content in this way. Problems are raised, and each | 
 pupil offers his bit to the final solution. In this think- 
 ing, however, it is possible for the teacher to do too 
 much of the work. The pupils must have a chance 
 to share in it, and the thought movement must be slow 
 enough to adapt itself to their immaturity. Further, 
 the lesson must be logically organized and connected 
 with other material if it is to be remembered well. 
 
 3. Introduction of new materials. — In addition to 
 
80 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 the two preceding uses, the recitation offers an oppor- 
 tunity for the introduction of new materials. Ideas 
 contributed by the teacher or pupils always have an 
 added interest in the personality of the one who offers 
 them. Many times the text-book is not designed per- 
 fectly for the needs of the particular school in which 
 it is used. In such cases supplementary materials are 
 very helpful. When pupils are the contributors, the 
 pleasure they get out of the situation often is more 
 valuable than what is offered. Materials offered by 
 the pupils may need amplification or correction, and 
 the recitation offers a chance to do this. 
 
 B. Forms of the Recitation. 
 
 I. Mere reproduction. — When the first function of 
 the recitation is much emphasized, the form that 
 results is usually nothing but the reproduction of 
 the text-book. Sometimes this is a verbatim, word- 
 for-word reproduction. At other times it is an un- 
 organized account of the lesson. It hardly seems 
 conceivable that, under present teaching conditions, 
 children would be asked to memorize the exact words 
 of the geography, history, or physiology text; yet the 
 writer has known of teachers who, in recent years, have 
 taught in this way in rural schools. It was the pre- 
 vailing method of one hundred years ago, but is so 
 wasteful that it ought to have been abandoned long 
 ago. The unorganized reproduction in the pupils' own 
 
THE FORMAL CLASS PERIOD 81 
 
 words is quite an advance over the verbatim form, but 
 it is rather inadequate. 
 
 2. Topical. — The topical recitation is a marked im- 
 provement over the preceding form. It gives the 
 opportunity for a logical organization of the lesson 
 materials, which is wanting in a purely reproductive 
 recitation. This is true especially when the outline 
 followed is the product of the effort of the teacher and 
 pupils. When the recitation does nothing but repro- 
 duce the list of topics given in, the text, it is of less 
 merit. In any of its degrees of perfection, however, 
 this recitation form always emphasizes organization, 
 and that is a point of much merit. 
 
 In the topical recitation an outline must be prepared 
 beforehand. The recitation then may be conducted 
 by referring to the outline for topics. When a group 
 of pupils is assigned the task of preparing the outline 
 for the next day's recitation in their study period, it 
 has been found to provide them with valuable training. 
 The plan is sometimes used as follows: When a satis- 
 factory outline has been formed by the pupils and 
 approved by the teacher, it is copied on the blackboard 
 in the recitation-room where it may be used. By 
 apportioning the task of making the outlines among 
 different groups, the spirit of rivalry and competition 
 tends to enliven the work. Further, the pupils learn 
 the value of cooperating with one another. As has 
 been suggested, these outlines are the basis of the reci- 
 
82 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 tations. When the class is called for the regular work, 
 the teacher requests a pupil to take the first topic. 
 If this pupil completes it satisfactorily, another takes 
 up the next. If the work is not what was expected, 
 teacher and class supplement it before proceeding to 
 the next topic. After a few weeks of this work pupils 
 learn the value and the method of organizing lesson 
 facts. 
 
 3. Question and answer. — When the recitation is 
 conducted by question-and-answer methods, its possi- 
 bilities are limited only by the lesson material and the 
 ingenuity of the teacher. In quality this form of reci- 
 tation varies from the very best to the most mediocre. 
 Its degree of excellence depends almost entirely upon 
 the phrasing and distribution of the questions. To 
 handle this work satisfactorily a teacher must think 
 rapidly and clearly. These qualities are inborn to a 
 large extent. Hence it will be true always that ideal 
 questioning will be found rarely in the complicated 
 situations of the class-room, with its many rapid 
 thought changes. A number of the features of 
 questioning frequently become habits with teachers. 
 Therefore it will be profitable to dwell at some length 
 upon the various phases of questioning in order that 
 the right habits may be initiated by those teachers who 
 read this chapter and who wish to form them. 
 
 a. Purpose of questions: In the ordinary activities 
 of life, people usually ask questions to secure informa- 
 tion. In most cases this requires only the simplest 
 
THE FORMAL CLASS PERIOD 83 
 
 interrogative sentences. How far is it to B? Which 
 road leads to the bridge? How much is this calico a 
 yard? Do you think it will rain? Where is my rain- 
 coat? These are typical of the questions of every-day 
 life. In the school-room, however, in addition to such 
 simple questions as seek information, teachers use 
 thought-provoking types. In fact, the main purpose 
 of the question in the recitation should be to provoke 
 thought or to raise a problem. The trouble with the 
 mere information-getting form is that no one is really 
 interested in the answer containetl in the text-book, 
 for nearly every one knows it. One of the main aims 
 of the question-and-answer recitation is to stimulate 
 interest and bring about a new organizatio.n of the 
 lesson facts. 
 
 b. Social nature of the recitation: In contrast to 
 the questions of private life, which are addressed 
 usually to one person, the questions of the class-room 
 are addressed to a group. The good question provokes 
 thought effort on the part of every member of the class. 
 In other words, in the school-room questions are social, 
 while in private life they are individualistic. Outside 
 of the class-room, when one person has not been talking 
 to another and desires his attention, he always prefixes 
 his name to the question. In the school-room, the 
 social nature of the process requires that the name 
 come last. If the questioning of the school-room is 
 to realize this social ideal, it can never be conducted 
 in a routine order, where the pupils know before the 
 
84 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 question is asked who is to give the answer. Asking 
 questions in a fixed order often results in lifeless recit- 
 ing, with the pupils preparing lessons only when they 
 think they are scheduled to recite. 
 
 c. Form of questions: The older books on question- 
 ing sometimes said, "Never use questions that can be 
 answered by 'yes' or 'no' " ; but such a rule is arbitrary. 
 Sometimes a question that demands a definite affirma- 
 tive or negative answer may be used very effectively. 
 It commits the pupils to a point of view, which they 
 may be called upon to defend later. The indiscrim- 
 inate use of leading and "yes" and "no" questions that 
 are not followed up with analyzing questions leads to 
 guessing. This is to be condemned as a general 
 practice. 
 
 The question must have a form that will bring about 
 the thought development at which the teacher aims. 
 It must be framed to meet the particular class situation 
 in which it is used. This is true especially of the 
 simple questions that round out the thought of the 
 pupils' responses when they are deficient. Pupils 
 often can answer the questions more easily if a few 
 introductory remarks are made by the teacher as a 
 setting for the question. In doing this, however, the 
 teacher should avoid the form in which the question 
 is appended at the end of a lengthy declarative state- 
 ment; as, "Having examined the dandelion floret under 
 the microscope, what did you find?" Teachers who 
 
THE FORMAL CLASS PERIOD 85 
 
 have difl&culty in asking questions will find it helpful 
 to write out a few main questions when they prepare 
 the day's work. An outline of the lesson is another 
 aid to effective questioning. 
 
 d. Number of questions: Some teachers ask too 
 many detailed questions. They deal with petty facts 
 all of the time, and never touch the important things. 
 Where a lesson is on material arranged in topical form 
 in the text-book, there need be but one real question for 
 each topic. The number of questions that should be 
 used depends upon the kind of lesson being taught, and 
 no arbitrary regulation can be laid down for all situa- 
 tions. The tendency of most untrained teachers is to 
 use too many questions. It is difficult to get the pupils 
 to recite at length at first, but they soon learn to do it. 
 Pupils usually try to give the teacher what she wants, 
 unless what is desired is entirely beyond their abilities, 
 and if a teacher persists in requesting topical recita- 
 tions she will get them in time. 
 
 e. Characteristics of good questions : A well known 
 writer on the technique of teaching gives the following 
 as some of the characteristics of good questions: 
 "1. Questions should call up associated facts. 2. They 
 should not be ends in themselves, but should carry the 
 thought forward. 3. They should not be so indefinite 
 as to permit of guesswork. 4. They should be inter- 
 rogative in form, not declarative in all but the final 
 word. 5. They should bring out the subject-matter in 
 
86 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 the order of dependence, or logical relationship, if such 
 exists." ^ These points sum up most of the charac- 
 teristics of good questions, especially when considered 
 in the light of the preceding discussion. 
 
 /. Distribution of questions: The questions should 
 be distributed among all the pupils of the class. It is 
 seldom a good plan to call upon one part of the class 
 so frequently as to neglect the rest. The pupils at 
 the edge of the class are liable to be neglected by some 
 teachers. Others have a tendency to overlook those 
 in the back or the front of the room. Whenever a 
 teacher discovers a tendency of this nature and realizes 
 that some of the pupils are being neglected, it is well 
 for her to adopt some device that will remedy the evil. 
 
 Although the questions should be distributed 
 throughout the class, this distribution should not be 
 indiscriminate. Attention must be given to indi- 
 vidual differences, and questions should be within the 
 capabilities of the pupils called upon to answer them. 
 Further, memory questions may be answered quickly, 
 but thought questions demand much time. Sometimes 
 recitations are conducted so rapidly that only about 
 one fifth of the pupils really have time to think out 
 the answers. Teachers must allow time enough for 
 adequate answers, but must not delay the whole class 
 unreasonably while the slow pupil takes time to think 
 out his reply. There is a happy medium. 
 
 g. Pupil answers : Teachers must require the pupils 
 
 *Lida B. Earhart, Types oj Teaching, p. 100. 
 
THE FORMAL CLASS PERIOD 87 
 
 to attempt to answer the questions that they ask. 
 Pupils enjoy getting the teacher off the lesson topic, 
 when permitted to do so. Teachers who have this 
 failing are sometimes led astray systematically by their 
 classes. This situation is entirely under the teacher's 
 control, and is checked readily by demanding answers 
 that stick to the topics under discussion. Pupils who 
 systematically "bluff" do so because the teacher is 
 deceived thereby, or appears to be. 
 
 Teachers must not get into the habit of undue com- 
 mendation of pupil answers. A simple "Yes" or 
 "Good" is all that the average reply should evoke. 
 Even the most meritorious answer need not be com- 
 mended especially, because the knowledge that they 
 have answered difficult questions correctly is reward 
 enough for most pupils. The silent admiration of 
 classmates is often more effective as commendation 
 than anything the teacher may say. In like manner, 
 reproof should be used but sparingly. It is so easy 
 to overdo this that it is safe to say that nine tenths 
 of the pupils should never have any serious reproof. 
 The fact that their answers are incorrect is enough. 
 If praise is overdone, it does not seem to do much 
 harm to the pupils, though it tends to lessen the 
 influence of the teacher; but too much censuring is 
 disastrous, because it arouses enmity and develops 
 antagonism. 
 
 The teacher should never form the habit of repeating 
 pupil answers. There are times when it may be neces- 
 
88 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 sary to repeat the answers for emphasis, or to make 
 those in a distant part of the room hear; but each 
 repetition should be a conscious act of the teacher, and 
 not the result of habit. Neither is it a good plan to 
 make a practice of repeating questions for pupils who 
 fail to catch them. 
 
 4. Pupil reports. — The fourth form of the recitation 
 that will be considered is that in which the time is 
 occupied with pupil reports. In history, geography, 
 literature, and some of the other subjects, occasions 
 frequently arise when supplementary information is 
 desired. When suitable sources are available, the 
 pupils may bring this material to class in individual 
 reports. There are a number of advantages and dis- 
 advantages in such recitations. 
 
 Pupil reports are always motivated. The fact that 
 a pupil brings to class information that no one else 
 knows gives him a real incentive for good work. When 
 every one knows what is recited, there is little interest 
 in what is said; but when the facts are entirely new, 
 attention is spontaneous. Pupil reports enrich the 
 lesson without much extra work on the part of the 
 teacher. It is much less fatiguing for the teacher to 
 supervise pupil reports than it is for her to gather the 
 material and present it herself. The teacher must not 
 allow the reports to be unsupervised, however, for they 
 need careful attention. As far as possible, the teacher 
 should be able to supplement the recitations at every 
 stage. The best work will be secured when the teacher 
 
THE FORMAL CLASS PERIOD 89 
 
 is SO well prepared that she can give the reports better 
 than the pupils, if necessary. This thorough prepara- 
 tion will command respect, which will be reflected in 
 a high grade of pupil work. 
 
 Pupil reports tend to review things that have been 
 presented earlier. The partly familiar facts are pre- 
 sented in a new light. Pupil reports are of value, also, 
 in furnishing another point of view from which to 
 determine the capabilities of the class members. Wlien 
 pupils stand before their fellows, they go through a 
 different test from that of the ordinary recitation. 
 Individual differences become more noticeable. Some- 
 times such work reveals pupils who are unusually 
 capable but who do not measure up to their possi- 
 bilities in the ordinary work. In other cases, the work 
 before the class may explain why poor work is done 
 every day, why the pupil never does well in examina- 
 tions or in anything else. 
 
 The chief drawback to pupil reports is that they 
 often lack the proper organization to make them very 
 effective. The materials are presented in a way that 
 leaves nothing clear. The reports should be carefully 
 organized beforehand. Often it is time well spent for 
 the teacher to consult the pupils before class and go 
 over the outlines and the recitations with them. When 
 the reports are given, the remainder of the class should 
 have a copy of the outline for reference and should take 
 notes upon what is given. At its close they should 
 be encouraged to ask questions until all difficulties have 
 
90 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 disappeared. Pupils give close attention to reports if 
 they are called upon to give a summary of them. 
 
 Closely related to pupil reports is the practice of 
 encouraging pupils to bring in lists of unanswered 
 questions on the lesson. These furnish the materials 
 for valuable discussions. Pupils develop skill rapidly 
 after a little practice in this work. 
 
 C. Characteristics of the Good Recitation. 
 
 The chief characteristic of good recitations is the 
 presence of thought-organizing activities. Whenever 
 a real thought development is present the pupils will 
 be interested. To secure this condition of affairs it 
 is necessary to use supplementary materials when they 
 are pertinent to the lesson. A ready use of good 
 supplmentary facts, in content subjects especially, 
 always adds zest to the recitation and is very helpful. 
 
 The good recitation, moreover, is not a pure form 
 as has been analyzed in the preceding pages. The 
 materials that are covered in the class period often do 
 not lend themselves to one form. The skilful teacher 
 will use a mixture of the forms as they fit the subject- 
 matter. This is true especially when the various spe- 
 cial lesson forms, which are discussed in later chapters, 
 are taken into account. The fact that a teacher has 
 used nothing but the topical form or the question-and- 
 answer form of recitation in a period is no reason for 
 saying that she has done the highest grade of work. 
 It might have been better to combine the two. In any 
 
THE FORMAL CLASS PERIOD 91 
 
 case, it is well for the teacher to know which form is 
 being used. 
 
 Another important characteristic of the good recita- 
 tion is that it checks up all points assigned to the 
 pupils for which they ought to be held definitely- 
 responsible. This phase is essential to the recitation. 
 
 III. Special Teaching Forms. 
 
 The uses of the formal class period that have been 
 described thus far are about all that are found in the 
 work done by many teachers. The artists of the pro- 
 fession, however, use special teaching forms, which are 
 more certain to secure the various outcomes of teaching 
 that have been analyzed in the preceding chapter. In 
 using these forms the teacher breaks away from the 
 text-book or syllabus, and reorganizes the materials so 
 that they may be presented more effectively. Some of 
 these teaching forms might easily be regarded as varia- 
 tions of some of the recitation forms, but it is better 
 to consider them from the point of view of the out- 
 comes that they secure. They all take the time ot the 
 formal class period, sometimes monopolizing both reci- 
 tation and assignment. They have been enumerated 
 briefly at the close of the preceding chapter, and will 
 be presented in detail on the following pages. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 The formal class period usually is divided into the 
 lesson assignment and the recitation. The lesson as- 
 
92 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 signment should tell the pupils just what they are to 
 do, how they should do it, and why it is necessary. 
 The assignment may be made at any time in the class 
 period, but should not be made so late that it is hurried. 
 Enough time should be given to it to do it properly. 
 The method depends upon the lesson subject-matter. 
 
 The recitation should check up on the assignment at 
 all necessary points, should help to organize the lesson 
 content, and should introduce and evaluate new ma- 
 terial. The merely reproductive form of the recitation 
 has the least value. The topical form is good for 
 certain kinds of subject-matter. The question-and- 
 answer recitation is the best, when properly conducted. 
 
 Questions are intended to provoke thought in the 
 class-room. They are addressed to a group, and must 
 be formed and distributed with this in mind. The 
 form of the question must be determined by the setting 
 in the class, though a few forms should be avoided 
 as far as possible. The number of questions to be used 
 is determined also by the class setting. Questions 
 should be so distributed that they will reach all the 
 class. The answers of the pupils should be pertinent 
 to the questions, and should not be repeated habitually 
 by the teacher. 
 
 When the recitation takes the form of pupil reports, 
 it makes use of the motivation that is present when 
 a pupil has something new to give to his fellows. 
 Pupil reports often are unorganized and fail to be 
 effective. 
 
THE FORMAL CLASS PERIOD 93 
 
 The good recitation is characterized by the presence 
 of thought-organizing activities. It often is not a 
 pure form, but combines several forms. 
 
 Suggested Readings 
 
 . Bagley, W. C. The Educative Process. Chapter 
 XXI. A clear presentation of the assignment and 
 the recitation in their various aspects. 
 
 Burnett, T. J. The Essentials of Teaching. Pp. 
 107-117. A good exposition on the use of the ques- 
 tion as a teachmg aid. 
 
 Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching. Chapter 
 XVIII. A good chapter on the use of questions. 
 ^' Earhart, Lida B. Types of Teaching. Chapter IX. 
 A complete presentation of the recitation and its 
 various forms. 
 
 Harvey, N. A. Principles of Teaching. Chapters 
 XIV and XV. A readable discussion of the various 
 phases of the recitation. 
 y Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process. Chapters X 
 and XI. Some good suggestions are given, 
 which should be of help in questioning and in con- 
 ducting recitations. 
 
 Exercises 
 
 1. Prepare assignments for lessons in different school 
 subjects, and include the three essentials of a 
 good assignment: what, how, and why. 
 
94 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 2. In what lessons or school subjects have you had, 
 
 or do you think you would have, difl&culty in 
 providing good motivation? 
 
 3. When might it be necessary to make the assign- 
 
 ment at the close of the class period? 
 
 4. When may the assignment be very brief? 
 
 ^ 5. When could a teacher expect the class to reproduce 
 the exact words of the book? 
 
 6. How can you tell whether a pupil understands 
 
 what he recites, when he gives the words of the 
 book? 
 
 7. What is the behavior of a class when the teacher 
 
 is conducting the recitation in a way that 
 organizes the thought of the lesson? What 
 activities are present and what absent? 
 
 8. Visit class-rooms and note the forms of the reci- 
 
 tation that predominate under different con- 
 ditions. 
 
 9. Write out a list of ten questions that could be used 
 
 as thought-organizing questions in teaching a 
 lesson. 
 
 10. Visit class-rooms, and record as many questions 
 
 that the teachers use as you can. Notice any 
 bad habits that the teacher may have. Classify 
 the questions after your visit is completed. 
 
 11. How can the pupils be induced to recite to the 
 
 other members of the class instead of to the 
 teacher? 
 
THE FORMAL CLASS PERIOD 95 
 
 12. What reasons can you suggest for dull and un- 
 
 interesting recitations? 
 
 13. When is it necessary for a teacher to ask questions 
 
 that deal with the minute details? 
 
 14. When is it most valuable to use topical questions? 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE 
 
 The most important task that confronts the teacher 
 in the junior and senior high schools is the problem 
 of presenting knowledge in such a way that the pupils 
 actually acquire it. There are fundamental habits to 
 be established, and feelings and emotions to be im- 
 parted; but the pupils spend more time in learning 
 facts and other forms of knowledge than in all other 
 activities put together. This is a reason why the 
 knowledge phase of teaching is considered so essential. 
 It is the reason, too, why in the past teaching has 
 been primarily a purely intellectual process. Knowl- 
 edge is imparted to most pupils if it is merely kept 
 before them systematically. This explains why pupils 
 have been so successful in acquiring information in the 
 past. Although most teachers knew little or nothing 
 about the fine points of the educative process a few 
 years ago, this deficiency did not prevent their efforts 
 from being fairly successful. By keeping the informa- 
 tion before their pupils they secured very gratifying 
 results. 
 
 In contrast to this empirical method, it has been 
 
 96 
 
IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE 97 
 
 shown many times that an organization of knowledge 
 which is based on the laws of the mental development 
 of the child — an application of the fine points of 
 teaching — is more effective. Of course, it takes a cer- 
 tain mental alertness to be able to present information 
 in these artistic ways. Because of this, some people 
 are limited in their teaching efforts mainly to keeping 
 the information before their pupils. This does not 
 mean that the teachers who are more capable should 
 not become skilled in the finer points of the technique 
 of teaching. Some educators have been confused on 
 this point, and have failed to see the value of these 
 special teaching methods because they, or some of their 
 students, never learned to use them. These artistic 
 methods are of value, and some of them are not very 
 difficult. The simplest method for imparting knowl- 
 edge — type studies — will be considered first. 
 
 I. Type Studies. 
 
 A. Nature of. 
 
 When a teacher makes use of the type-study method 
 of imparting knowledge, a typical case of the thing to 
 be studied is taken for a detailed examination. Con- 
 tent studies, such as history, geography, physiology, 
 and the sciences, lend themselves best to this method. 
 A geographical illustration will be most serviceable in 
 showing its application. If the class were studying the 
 transportation systems of the United States, one of 
 the main trunk-lines of the country might be selected 
 
98 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 as typical of great railroads. The class would study 
 the rolling stock — the engines, and the freight-, pas- 
 senger-, sleeping-, and dining-cars; the road-bed, with 
 its tracks, ties, and rock ballast; the safety provisions 
 of signals and watchmen; the army of men that is 
 needed in the movement of trains and the upkeep of 
 the various parts of the system ; going into detail until 
 the term railroad system was most meaningful. When 
 possible, visits would be made to the railroad tracks, 
 yards, shops, and offices. Pictures would be shown to 
 make remote things clear, and maps and drawings 
 might be used also. Every device would be employed 
 to make one big idea clear. Then, in later study, 
 reference could be made, as occasion arose, to this type, 
 thus making it possible to explain how other railroads 
 differ. 
 
 B. Outcomes. 
 
 As can be seen readily, the outcomes of this lesson 
 will be very rich concepts. The term railroad system 
 will be most meaningful. Around this central idea will 
 be many facts of less importance in various stages of 
 organization and clearness. 
 
 C. Strength of the Type-Study Method. 
 
 The strongest point of the type-study method is its 
 simplicity. Nearly every person who enters the 
 school-room to direct the work is keen enough to select 
 a type and present the materials related to it. Those 
 
IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE 99 
 
 who are not probably ought not to teach. The ten- 
 dency to emphasize details, characteristic of this 
 method of teaching, always makes the work concrete, 
 and interest is usually very good. Studying one thing 
 in detail is the way most of us learn in ordinary life, 
 and from that point of view the method is psycho- 
 logical. For that matter, educators often have advo- 
 cated that we return to such intensive study in our 
 schools. Under the present conditions of many items 
 superficially treated, it might prove of much value to 
 do so. 
 
 This method depends for its success, in the main, 
 upon the organization of subject-matter. This fact 
 has been used in the past as a basis for the construction 
 of text-books. Histories, geographies, zoologies, and 
 botanies have been prepared from this point of view, 
 and have done much to enrich the school-room curric- 
 ulum. The intensive treatment of type topics that 
 is needed tends to make such books too detailed, how- 
 ever, and in the hands of untrained teachers they are 
 not very successful. The fact that different teachers 
 will choose different types for study makes it necessary 
 for the text-book-makers to include several types of 
 many things. Unless many details are included, these 
 books need much supplementing. If enough are pre- 
 sented, the books are somewhat unwieldy. In subjects 
 where definite types have been adopted widely, the 
 type-study arrangement is a very helpful point of 
 view from which to organize books. 
 
100 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 D; Weaknesses. 
 
 The type-study method is sometimes attacked from 
 the logical point of view by saying that in this plan 
 of teaching children form generalizations from one 
 example, and thus tend to form hasty conclusions. 
 These critics insist that this method is intended pri- 
 marily for the enrichment of ideas, not for the develop- 
 ment of generalizations. However, if the work is 
 guided by a skilful teacher, there is little more danger 
 of flighty conclusions from this teaching form than 
 from others. Although only one example is in the 
 foreground of the class's attention, many others are 
 in past experience, and influence thought. Whenever 
 pupils have no related past experience, there is little 
 organizing or classifying done in their minds, under any 
 teaching method. 
 
 A real difficulty in using this method in many schools 
 is the lack of suitable supplementary material. To be 
 most serviceable, an extensive library, accessible both 
 to teachers and pupils, is needed. Much help may be 
 obtained from the National Geographic Magazine, 
 The Mentor, and similar periodicals; but these are not 
 always at hand. 
 
 This method is limited for its success by the types 
 chosen for study. Sometimes the teachers choose poor 
 types, and the conclusions consequently are not of 
 much value. Familiarity with this form of teaching 
 will enable those using it to select types suited to the 
 
IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE 101 
 
 method. Another limitation that should be noted is 
 that type-study methods are of no value in those sub- 
 jects and phases of subjects where a rich content is 
 lacking. Such topics do not give knowledge outcomes, 
 and other teaching methods should be used. 
 
 II. Exposition. 
 
 The second method of imparting knowledge that will 
 be considered is exposition, or telling. This form of 
 teaching is the dominant form in the lower grades and 
 in the college. In the last six grades of the public 
 school this method is somewhat in ill repute, because 
 those who have applied it have tried to use a college 
 style. In the primary room the teacher tells the chil- 
 dren many things that they remember. She selects 
 things fitted to the immaturity of the children — stories, 
 bits of information, and the like. That is the reason 
 for her success. In college the teacher is interested in 
 a logical organization of his materials and is a master 
 of the details. His students are mature enough to 
 grasp the logical arrangement, and there are so many 
 details that they are interested easily. When the high- 
 school teacher tries to boil down the logical organiza- 
 tion of the subject, and omits most of the details, it is 
 no wonder that the pupils are bored and fail to respond. 
 Fundamentally, however, there is no reason why the 
 expository method can not be adapted to teaching in 
 the high school. All that is needed to make this form 
 useful is a selection of materials suited to the pupils 
 
102 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 and the observance of a few of the principles of 
 expository presentation. 
 
 A. When to Use Exposition. 
 
 There are many occasions in the average class period 
 when a bit of pertinent information is needed to round 
 out the point before the class. This is the time for 
 the teacher to use this form of teaching. Some 
 teachers get so thoroughly in the habit of eliciting 
 everything from the class by questioning that they 
 never think of the possibility of anything else. Some- 
 times much time can be saved in teaching by a little 
 telling on the part of the teacher. In the schools of 
 France and Germany this form of instruction is relied 
 upon mainly. If it can be the main method of the 
 foreign teacher, it must have some merit — enough, at 
 least, for an occasional use in the more advanced 
 grades of the American public school. It seems pos- 
 sible to use this form freely, when the pupils do not 
 have the information and it is not worth while for 
 them to hunt for it in a study lesson. If the teacher 
 knows the facts, the best thing to be done is for her 
 to tell them in a way that the pupils can comprehend. 
 To do this is to impart knowledge effectively. 
 
 B. Technique of Expository Teaching. 
 
 Assuming that the teacher wishes to do a somewhat 
 extended bit of expository teaching covering five min- 
 utes or more, the work may be divided into several 
 
IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE 103 
 
 steps. The principles that make this work effective 
 will be serviceable in less extended applications of this 
 method of teaching. These steps may be condensed 
 or omitted at times, but the thought movement must 
 be complete. 
 
 I. Approach. — Before an attempt is made to pre- 
 sent the new material, it is necessary that the minds 
 of the pupils be prepared for it. The usual method 
 of doing this is to recall the related experiences of the 
 pupils in such a manner as to put them in the proper 
 frame of mind. The approach should aim to give the 
 teacher and pupils a common mental background. 
 Ambiguity results where this is not done. Thus, if 
 the teacher wished to tell the pupils about the Grand 
 Banks of Newfoundland, and the term banks had the 
 common meaning of a place where money is kept, the 
 lesson would not make much progress until this diflfi- 
 culty was removed. Other illustrations are furnished 
 by the school-room jokes so often found in newspapers 
 and magazines. This lack of a common mental back- 
 ground is the reason for many failures when teachers 
 attempt to make interesting additions to the lesson. 
 
 The approach should end by placing the point to be 
 explained clearly before the pupils. This clarity must 
 be such that there is a real desire to know more. In 
 other words, there must be a lesson aim. The fact that 
 an aim is present, however, need not lead to a formal 
 statement of it, such as has characterized teaching 
 occasionally in the past. This lesson aim should be 
 
104 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 felt as a need by the pupils, and no amount of formal 
 phrasing alone will bring this result. When teachers 
 first were trained to make statements of their lesson 
 aims, they sometimes went to extremes to secure them. 
 Thus, it is said that in these schools it was a common 
 practice for the student-teacher, for the want of any- 
 thing better when this stage was reached, to say, "Now, 
 children, our lesson aim is to see what comes next." 
 
 A good plan for securing the proper pupil attitude 
 toward the new knowledge that is to be presented has 
 been called, figuratively, creating a_vacuum. By this 
 is meant cultivating mental attitudes that are so ready 
 for the assimilation of new knowledge that no special 
 effort is required to impart it. The way this can be 
 done may be illustrated by the manner in which a 
 group of pupils was stimulated to want to learn short 
 division. This phase of arithmetic had been neglected 
 somewhat in the fifth grade that furnished the illus- 
 tration, and the supervisor thought she would help 
 matters along by creating a desire to know how to 
 do it. 
 
 The plan used was this : Lists containing short prob- 
 lems in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and short 
 division were prepared, which were presented to the 
 pupils on successive days in ten-minute periods just 
 before recess. The pupils knew how to do the first 
 three fundamental operations, but had never learned 
 short division. The papers were marked and returned 
 to the pupils each day before the day's session closed. 
 
IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE 105 
 
 On the first day only one or two pupils showed much 
 interest in short division. On the second day these 
 had learned how to do the work and solved their 
 problems correctly. Others then began to want to 
 know how to do these problems. On the third day 
 the supervisor and the teacher in charge were almost 
 overwhelmed in their leisure periods with requests 
 from the pupils who wanted to be shown the secret of 
 "carrying," so as to get the correct answer. 
 
 This is an example of the development of definite 
 aims. The principle employed is to allow the pupils 
 to attempt to do something they think they can do, 
 but for which, in reality, they are unprepared. The 
 pupils may think they can spell correctly, write gram- 
 matically, or do some other task as it should be done, 
 but an actual trial will convince them of the contrary. 
 In class situations of another sort the vacuum may 
 be created by proposing solutions for problems, or try- 
 ing solutions proposed, which will not prove satis- 
 factory when tried. 
 
 In preparing for new information, the teaching 
 should be positive, not negative. This means that 
 nothing should be taught that must be unlearned later. 
 The device, in reality, is incompleteness. A part of 
 the complete result should be given, so that the whole 
 may be sought later. Thus, the way for a technical 
 term may be prepared by using a long, cumbersome 
 phrase that is full of meaning. 
 
 2. Presentation. — a. Presentation proper: When 
 
106 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 the teacher has a class before her that wants to know 
 about the topic of the period, she is ready for the real 
 expository teaching, or the presentation proper. There 
 are several principles that aid the teacher in the pre- 
 sentation. 
 
 The first is that everything must be connected with 
 what the pupils know ; all new things must be related 
 to previous experience. 
 
 The second is that the point under consideration 
 must be seen by pupils and teacher from the same men- 
 tal point of view. It does little good for a teacher 
 to present minute details to a class that is not familiar 
 already with the object as a whole. What seems per- 
 fectly clear to the teacher may be quite unintelligible 
 to the pupils. Only when the teacher can summarize 
 a number of points that are already a part of the men- 
 tal equipment of the pupils, and bring in the new item 
 after a "therefore," is it certain that the teacher and 
 pupils are thinking together. 
 
 The third principle is that expounding means inter- 
 preting and explaining. It is not merely the presenta- 
 tion of facts, but their connections, that should be 
 emphasized. The facts themselves are often of im- 
 portance only as they give meaning to the principles 
 they support. 
 
 The fourth principle is that there should be an 
 arrangement of materials that will present small units, 
 first. These then are combined into larger ones. This 
 plan of logical arrangement permits pauses or breath- 
 
IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE 107' 
 
 ing spaces at the end of the larger units. Time must 
 be given for the ideas presented to set or be fixed in 
 memory, for it is one of the fundamental laws of 
 psychology that the brain cells need time to assimilate 
 experience if they are to retain it. If things are 
 ^presented too rapidly, each new experience seems to 
 obliterate the preceding, and nothing is remembered 
 clearly. This implies, then, that the teacher must not 
 go too rapidly in the presentation, but must give time 
 for the minds of the pupils to work properly. 
 
 Expository teaching is much more effective if some 
 of the conventional aids to exposition are used. The 
 most common ones are analogies, stories, and illus- 
 trations. Each has its merits and shortcomings. The 
 skilled teacher avails herself of those that meet her 
 needs, and thus makes her teaching more realistic. 
 
 Analogies are very useful at times when the other 
 aids are not available. They are of especial service in 
 making more concrete the abstract facts of experience. 
 Often the easiest way to make actions or qualities clear 
 is to point out their resemblance to those that are 
 known. Analogies, however, are not always depend- 
 able. They may imply more than is intended, and 
 again they may fall short of the predetermined goal. 
 Teachers should never use analogies so frequently that 
 they can not find good ones. False analogies are worse 
 than none, for they mislead. 
 
 The story also is valuable in the hands of the skilled 
 teacher. It may be used to communicate facts that 
 
108 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 could not be imparted readily alone. There is a 
 thread of interest in the good story, where the right 
 sort of characters are portrayed, which makes it almost 
 as good as actual blood-and-bone individuals. Further, 
 the story permits the desired facts to be manipulated 
 in a manner that will make them stand out more 
 prominently than they do in real life. 
 
 In addition to imparting knowledge, the story may 
 be used to incite to action or to suggest general prin- 
 ciples that may control action. This is one of the 
 places where expository teaching connects up with 
 moral education. Unless the story is well selected, it 
 may fail to attain the desired goal because the inci- 
 dental things obscure the facts or principles that are 
 intended to be taught. In using stories the teacher 
 must allow them to do the teaching. It never pays 
 to moralize or to put a moral at the end. Children 
 of the present react to these just as we did when we 
 were children. When we came to the moral at the 
 end, we skipped to the next story. 
 
 Illustrations are of no value except as they impart 
 information. This information must be intrinsic in 
 them. This point is obvious and need not be elab- 
 orated. 
 
 Illustrations are of many sorts. These vary from 
 the actual objects under discussion to the merest skele- 
 ton suggestion of them. When the real object can be 
 brought into the school-room, and is of such a size 
 as to be visible to all in the class, it is best to use it. 
 
IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE 109 
 
 When objects are very large, very small, or very com- 
 plicated, it is sometimes better to use models. Thus, 
 a model of an Atlantic passenger liner or of the eye 
 of a fly will be more serviceable than the real thing. 
 The various parts are made more intelligible by the 
 decrease or increase in size. 
 
 Teachers often do not have access to models. Under 
 these circumstances they may use pictures or some of 
 the related forms of illustration. Pictures, especially 
 when reproduced on a large scale by the stereopticon 
 or reflectoscope, are very serviceable. Children are so 
 used to looking at them that they find little difficulty 
 in interpreting them because of their artificial nature. 
 Pictorial illustrations range in kind from actual photo- 
 graphic reproductions to the simplest diagrams. Some- 
 times a conventionalized form is bqtter than the actual 
 photograph, because it reveals the significant features 
 better. The same is true of the diagram. 
 
 Diagrams are very useful because they often are 
 constructed easily. At times the teacher may sketch 
 diagrams on the blackboard while talking. To do this 
 it is not necessary for her to be an artist. The simplest 
 lines and crudest diagrams are often very effective in 
 the class-room. Teachers should use the blackboard 
 freely in exposition. It is very effective as a means 
 for holding the wavering attention of the pupils. 
 
 Closely related to diagrams are outlines and sum- 
 maries. These tend to put related things together 
 before the pupils, so as to make them more objective. 
 
110 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 b. Summary : After the teacher has given all of the 
 new material that comes in the presentation, and has 
 used every device to make it clear, one thing more must 
 be done before asking the pupils to take the last step 
 in the lesson. The facts have been presented in much 
 detail and sometimes with apparent digressions. Before 
 leaving the point under discussion, it is well to go back 
 to the aim set up in the approach and summarize the 
 facts presented. This summary will set facts in their 
 proper relations and will help much in making the 
 presentation effective. Its neglect often will cause any 
 extended effort at exposition to be lacking in value. 
 
 3. Application. — The final step in the expository- 
 lesson is the application. One of the most effective 
 tests of the success of a teacher's effort is the results 
 secured when the pupils are asked to use what they 
 have been taught. This problem is too complex for a 
 brief discussion ; hence a detailed consideration will be 
 found in a later chapter. If nothing better is desired, 
 the teacher may use some form of test or examination 
 as the step application. 
 
 C. Value of Expository Teaching. 
 
 The chief value of the expository method of teaching 
 lies in its time-saving nature. It is much easier for 
 the teacher to tell the pupils than for them to find it 
 themselves, when they might have to hunt a long time 
 for the information if they secured it first hand. Some 
 pupils learn things very readily in this way. It is eco- 
 
IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE 111 
 
 nomical to tell them, because they remember in detail. 
 They seem to be ear-minded, as it were, and learn 
 more quickly when things are told to them than in any 
 other way. Because of these pupils, exposition is a 
 method that most teachers can use successfully at 
 times. 
 
 D. Defects of Expository Teaching. 
 
 As might be inferred from the preceding paragraph, 
 there are pupils for whom the method is little suited. 
 The thought movement is so rapid that they have 
 great diflSculty in following it. The result is that they 
 soon lose the thread of things and, although they seem 
 to comprehend what is said, they remember little of it. 
 All has been lost in the multiplicity of details. There 
 is not enough repetition to insure the permanence of 
 the facts in their minds. 
 
 Further, exposition is suited only for some kinds of 
 subject-matter. Where the facts and details are rich 
 and new, it is very serviceable; but where the pupils 
 possess most of the materials, or can secure them read- 
 ily, other methods are better adapted to bringing out 
 relationships. In reality, the field in which the ex- 
 pository lesson can be used in all its elaborate details 
 is very limited. It can be used frequently, however, 
 interspersed with some of the other teaching methods, 
 especially the question-and-answer recitation. Exposi- 
 tion is by nature restricted to the informational phases 
 of subject-matter. 
 
112 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 The task of imparting information is the most im- 
 portant one that confronts the teacher. It may be 
 provided for by merely keeping the information before 
 the pupils in book or other form. Better results are 
 secured, however, by the use of one of the psychologi- 
 cal methods. 
 
 The tj^e-study method is the simplest. Its out- 
 comes are rich and varied concepts. It is a method 
 that can be utilized by most teachers, and it lends 
 itself to the presentation of subjects containing a rich 
 content. Its success depends upon the selection of 
 good types and the use of abundant supplementary 
 materials. 
 
 The expository form of teaching is a more complex 
 method of imparting information, which can be used 
 at times in public-school work. The lesson should plan 
 for a good approach, one that really prepares the pupils 
 for what is to be presented. The presentation should 
 connect up the new materials with what the pupils 
 already know. , It should use ideas that are intelligible 
 to both pupils and teacher, and should emphasize both 
 interpretation and explanation. Analogies, stories, and 
 illustrations should be used freely to clarify the teach- 
 er's words. The presentation proper should end in a 
 summary. The expository lesson is not complete until 
 the pupils have applied the information given. This 
 
IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE 113 
 
 teaching process is very economical when the informa- 
 tion can be presented easily by the teacher but can be 
 obtained by the pupils only after much work. 
 
 Suggested Readings 
 
 Adams, John. Exposition and Illustration in Teach- 
 ing. Chapters I-IX inclusive. An interesting and 
 complete presentation of the expository method of 
 teaching. 
 
 Burnett, T. J. The Essentials of Teaching. Pp. 100- 
 106. Advantages and weaknesses of the expository 
 method of teaching. 
 
 Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching. Pp. 266- 
 268. Short but favorable comments on the telling 
 method of teaching. 
 
 Earhart, Lida B. Types of Teachings Pp. 29-30. 
 A few pertinent suggestions on the place of telling as 
 a teaching method. 
 
 McMuRRY, F. M. and C. A. The Method of the Reci- 
 tation* Chapter X. A thorough presentation of the 
 method and value of type studies^- 
 
 Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. 
 Pp. 214-217. A few remarks on the type-study 
 method. 
 
 Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process. Pp. 66-68. 
 Brief but critical comments on the type-study 
 method of teaching. 
 
114 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 Exercises 
 
 1. Select five topics from history that are suitable for 
 
 type-study lessons. 
 
 2. What are the subjects that are best suited to the 
 
 teaching of type studies? 
 
 3. Prepare a type-study lesson just as you would pre- 
 
 sent it in class, imagining the main questions 
 and answers that would be used. 
 
 4. Prepare a list of ten topics that you think it would 
 
 be expedient to teach by the expository method. 
 
 5. What subjects seem best suited to the use of expo- 
 
 sition in teaching? 
 
 6. Prepare five diagrams that are suitable for use in 
 
 the class-room in expository work. 
 
 7. Visit class-rooms, and note the extent to which 
 
 teachers in general use the expository method. 
 Note the good uses of analogies, stories, or illus- 
 trations that are to be found. 
 
 8. How can type-study or expository methods be used 
 
 to supplement the ordinary text-book lesson? 
 
 9. Prepare an expository lesson on a suitable topic, 
 
 using as many of the suggestions given in the 
 chapter as are available. 
 10. How can the teacher ascertain whether or not her 
 efforts along the line of expository teaching are 
 a success without waiting until an examination 
 is given on the topic? 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE (Continued) 
 
 III. Induction. 
 
 The third method of imparting knowledge is what 
 is known as induction, or the development lesson. 
 This form of teaching was the first form to be studied 
 carefully. It was the outgrowth of the early attempts 
 to apply psychology to the teaching process, which 
 Herbart and his followers sponsored. Because of this 
 origin, it is often known as the Herbartian develop- 
 ment lesson. It may properly be called a lesson, for it 
 is one of the most extensive and complete systems of 
 teaching technique that is employed by experts. 
 
 A. When to Use the Inductive Lesson. 
 
 The inductive method of teaching is in order in those 
 lessons where simple and important generalizations 
 are to be imparted. It has been found that such are 
 remembered best if developed. In this connection it 
 might be said that other kinds of generalizations, when 
 important enough to be taught at all, should be pre- 
 sented by exposition. The inductive lesson presup- 
 poses a fund of facts at the command of the pupils, 
 
 either in their memory storehouses or where they can 
 
 116 
 
116 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 find them easily during the study lesson. The outcome 
 of this teaching exercise is a generalization. This 
 generalization may be in the form of a concept, a law, 
 a principle, or a rule. Whenever a teacher wishes to 
 be sure that she has taught one of these effectively, 
 the best method is the inductive lesson. This lesson 
 is an extremely logical one, and its complete success 
 requires the clearest organization possible. 
 
 B. Technique of the Inductive Lesson. 
 
 The technique of this lesson has been worked out 
 very carefully by the Herbartians. Although there are 
 several versions of the lesson to be found in current 
 works on teaching technique, in the main the lesson 
 may be considered to have five steps. These steps may 
 be covered in one class period, though the lesson lends 
 itself very well to the arrangement wherein one or more 
 study periods come between some of the steps. Conse- 
 quently, the real inductive lesson need not be limited 
 by the temporal restrictions of the class period. 
 
 I. Preparation. — The first step in the inductive 
 lesson is the preparation. This serves much the same 
 purpose as the approach of the expository lesson, and 
 the suggestions presented in that discussion apply here. 
 In this step the teacher endeavors to recall to the pupils 
 such information on the subject as they may have. 
 This information is handled in such a manner as to 
 lead up to the statement of the aim. This is nothing 
 but the question raised by the preparation. It can be 
 
IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE 117 
 
 answered best by the generalization that is developed 
 by the lesson. In this phase of the lesson no attempt 
 is made to introduce new material. 
 
 2. Presentation. — This step is the one in which the 
 pupils collect the raw material that is to furnish the 
 facts for the lesson. With the aim set in the prepara- 
 tion as a stimulus, the pupils sometimes may be set to 
 work gathering the materials in the study lesson. In 
 such a case this step begins with an assignment. At 
 other times the materials may be contributed by dif- 
 ferent class members during the recitation. Where the 
 generalization is to be formed from facts already a part 
 of the mental equipment of the class, the complete 
 set of facts need not be possessed by any one member 
 of the class, but different ones may each make his own 
 contribution. In this case the time will be spent in 
 bringing out the different related items of information 
 that the various pupils possess. This step is complete 
 when all the facts are before the class. 
 
 The most important caution that the teacher must 
 observe, in the presentation, is to make sure that 
 ^enough facts or cases have been observed to make the 
 lesson clear. When the materials are new but very 
 simple, a few cases will suffice. On the other hand, 
 when the things observed are complicated and diverse, 
 many more instances will be needed. There must be 
 enough examples of the phenomenon in aU of its 
 aspects to make the later generalization sound. In 
 some cases the essential common characteristics are 
 
118 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 obscured by irrelevant details. When this is true, it is 
 necessary for the teacher to select carefully in order to 
 secure the best and clearest examples possible. Much 
 inductive teaching fails in the presentation because 
 teachers select things for consideration that confuse 
 instead of instruct. 
 
 3. Comparison and abstraction. — Inductive think- 
 ing usually is defined as reasoning from the particular 
 to the general. Related items a, b, c, and d are exam- 
 ined, and the common quality x is found to be present 
 in all of them. The third step in the inductive lesson 
 is devoted to this comparison. The various items have 
 been presented to the class, and now they must be 
 scrutinized carefully to see whether they have any 
 common qualities. Under the guidance of the teacher, 
 the class thought is molded until all of the pupils have 
 the fundamental abstractions. This phase is a very 
 difficult one for the teacher to direct, because it de- 
 mands the guidance of clear thinking under the stren- 
 uous conditions of the class-room. Unless they are 
 drawn in a perfectly logical manner, the comparisons 
 tend to confuse the pupils instead of helping them. 
 This is true, especially, if the teacher does too much of 
 the thinking herself and forces the abstraction. The 
 pupils must be allowed to do most of the work. 
 
 4. Generalization. — When the pupils have made 
 the comparisons and abstractions, they are ready to put 
 flie results of their thinking into a finished form. All 
 that remains to be done is to put the generalization 
 
IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE 119 
 
 into words. Teachers often are in too much of a hurry- 
 when they come to this step. The pupils should be 
 allowed and encouraged to give their own wordings. 
 At times a very satisfactory plan is to allow several 
 pupils to suggest phrasings for the generalization. 
 They may be asked to defend the words they use, 
 when there is a disagreement, and out of the resulting 
 discussion a final wording may be selected. Only when 
 the class has exhausted its interest in the situation, has 
 the meaning, and is not making progress, should the 
 teacher ofifer a finished phrasing for the generalization. 
 This may be compared then with the wording as found 
 in text-books or other authoritative sources. 
 
 5. Application. — Logically, the inductive lesson has 
 not been completed until the generalization has been 
 applied by the pupils. Where the generalization is a 
 rule, such as some of the rules of arithmetic and of the 
 other mathematical studies, the application is carried 
 out in general on a set of problems. This step, how- 
 ever, is deductive reasoning, and the details of the 
 application can be given better under the topic de- 
 duction. 
 
 C. Strength of Inductive Teaching, 
 
 The inductive lesson is psychologically correct. The 
 different steps have taken their form as the result of a 
 careful analysis of the way in which people learn gen- 
 eral ideas. This fact makes it certain that, if a teacher 
 uses the steps as they should be used, and secures 
 
120 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 careful, connected thinking, there will be no doubt 
 about the result. It is a sure method of teaching. Its 
 certainty" is due to the fact that it stresses every phase 
 of the material and brings out the fundamental rela- 
 tions. There is so much repetition with variation that 
 interest is maintained easily in most cases. 
 
 D. Defects and Shortcomings of Inductive Teaching. 
 
 Inductive teaching demands such clear thinking that 
 many teachers are unable to master its technique. 
 Logic teachers always find a certain percentage of their 
 classes that does not use words and ideas clearly enough 
 to think well. It is no disgrace for them, any more 
 than it is a disgrace to have difi&culty with trigonom- 
 etry or Greek. Teachers who do not think clearly, 
 however, seldom succeed with the inductive lesson. In 
 addition to requiring clear thinking, the inductive les- 
 son is so lengthy that it tires the undisciplined. Teach- 
 ers can not be trained in its use as readily as in some 
 of the other teaching forms, but most teachers can 
 master the technique if they are given enough practice 
 in it under supervision. 
 
 Inductive teaching is very valuable when a simple 
 but important generalization must be taught. There 
 are many school-room lessons that are not important 
 enough, or that are too difficult, for development les- 
 sons. It has been the common practice of ardent Her- 
 bartians to try to teach everything by this one teaching 
 method, and to draw conclusions from every unit of 
 
IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE 121 
 
 subject-matter. Such enthusiasm is hardly warranted 
 by the results secured. 
 
 IV. Deduction, 
 
 Deduction is usually considered to be the opposite 
 of induction. It is reasoning from general principles to 
 particulars. A large amount of our teaching attempts 
 to get pupils to see the implication of the laws, princi- 
 ples, and rules that they may have learned. As con- 
 trasted with induction, deduction is a much simpler 
 and shorter process. It is an unusual situation when 
 a bit of deductive teaching lasts longer than a few 
 minutes. From the point of view of length, the de- 
 ductive teaching exercise can hardly be considered a 
 real lesson. It is too brief. 
 
 A. Types of Deductive Teaching. 
 
 There may be said to be two types of deductive 
 teaching — the anticipatory and the explanatory. The 
 first is used to forecast the details that will be found in 
 a particular situation. It can be illustrated by the 
 way astronomers discovered the planet Neptune. They 
 had discovered Uranus, and were studying its path 
 according to the principles of planetary movement. 
 At one place Uranus did not do exactly what they 
 expected it to do. After a time two celebrated astron- 
 omers set to work and performed some unusual experi- 
 mental calculations. The result was, they decided that 
 "if a heavenly body of a certain size was in a certain 
 
122 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 position in the sky, it would exert enough attraction 
 on Uranus to draw it out of its course in just the man- 
 ner that was puzzling them." When they had finished 
 their calculations, they requested another astronomer, 
 who had a powerful telescope, to point his instrument 
 at a particular spot in the sky on a certain autumn 
 night. He did so, and when he looked he saw Neptune. 
 Its discovery had been anticipated by deductive reason- 
 ing. This method, when applied to teaching, gives the 
 anticipatory type of deductive teaching. 
 
 The explanatory type is very similar to the pre- 
 ceding. The main difference is in the point of view. 
 As a rule, this second type is said to be present when 
 the facts at hand are connected up with the principles 
 that interpret them. This is the form that is used so 
 often in the class-room when the pupils are asked for 
 "the principle that explains" this or that phenomenon. 
 
 B. Technique of Deductive Teaching. 
 
 1. Data. — Usually there are said to be four steps in 
 deductive teaching. The first step consists in present- 
 ing or recalling the facts that are to be considered. 
 Thus, if the lesson is to be on a group of miscellaneous 
 problems in factoring in algebra, this step is completed 
 when the problem has been examined carefully and its 
 exact character recognized. When the pupils know 
 exactly what the problem is that is to be solved, they 
 are ready for the next step. 
 
 2. Principles. — The second step consists in the selec- 
 
IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE 123 
 
 tion of the principles that apply to the particular data 
 in hand. If, in the illustration just given, the data 
 consisted of 36a'* — 36a-c + 9c", the pupils might be 
 expected in this step to decide what principle applied. 
 After they had examined the quantity carefully, it 
 would be in order to say that it was the square of the 
 difference of two quantities. In much deductive 
 teaching the task is not so simple. Pupils propose 
 principles that will not apply and that are only partly 
 related to the data in question. The principles offered 
 must be suggested by the data in the case, within a 
 reasonable limit of error. 
 
 3. Inference. — When the data and principles are at 
 hand, the next step is the inference. The pupils are 
 led to say what is implied by the facts. Thus, to con- 
 tinue our illustration, they would be expected to say 
 that the two factors were (6a- — 3c) (6a- — 3c). The 
 inference is really a guess; but, as long as it is con- 
 trolled by the data and principles, it is all right. It is 
 only when guessing is wild, not related to the facts in 
 the case and not verified, that it is to be condemned. 
 When pupils make inferences that are not related to 
 the problem under consideration, they should be led 
 to justify their suggestions. This is much better than 
 the practice of those teachers who never give the pupils 
 an opportunity to test their suggestions. 
 
 4. Verification. — The final step of the deductive 
 lesson is the verification. Some means must be em- 
 ployed to find out whether the inference is valid. 
 
124 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 There is no value in making continual inferences if it 
 is not known that they rest on the proper assumptions. 
 Deductive thinking assumes that certain principles 
 apply in particular instances. In reality this may not 
 be true. It may be a false assumption. In that case 
 the inference that was made is not valid. Pupils con- 
 tinually are making many assumptions that are not 
 true, and they need to have a means for checking up. 
 The keen thinker is discriminating when it comes to 
 selecting classes and making inferences and can foresee 
 results. This ability is found in its best form where 
 real native capacity has received the proper training. 
 Since training is so important, it is well to recognize 
 that it is helped materially by adequate means for 
 verification. Inference may be verified by going to 
 some authentic source — the teacher, a book, or Nature 
 herself. 
 
 C. Advantages of Deductive Teaching. 
 
 This teaching method is one of the most valuable 
 that a teacher can use. It is a much simpler piece of 
 work than the inductive method, and frequently is 
 required by the ordinary subject-matter. This teach- 
 ing method is important because it results in very 
 desirable outcomes. It introduces the factor of organi- 
 zation and makes meaningful principles that have been 
 mastered already. In the case of the anticipatory 
 form, a very good motive is furnished for seeking for 
 evidence that will support the inferences made. In 
 
IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE 125 
 
 this way the puzzle instinct is aroused, which of course 
 is a very valuable aid. Whenever education can use 
 this instinct, very effective work is secured. When a 
 problem has been attacked deductively, the organiza- 
 tion and thought given to it open the way for further 
 study on the same basis. The deductive lesson is the 
 final step in the complete inductive lesson. It is not 
 necessary, however, that every principle or rule be 
 developed or taught through the inductive lesson be- 
 fore it is used deductively. Often the pupils can secure 
 their principles from books or from expository teach- 
 ing. These generalizations can be used just as well as 
 those that have been imparted through the inductive 
 method. 
 
 D. Limitations of Deductive Teaching. 
 
 This teaching method is not so limited in its field of 
 application as the inductive. It, however, is restricted 
 to informational topics, and is of no value in securing 
 emotional or drill outcomes. Further, there are some 
 pupils who are poorly qualified by nature to profit from 
 deductive teaching. The deductive method of teach- 
 ing is criticized often because it encourages guessing. 
 As has been stated already, guessing is to be con- 
 demned only when it neglects important limiting fac- 
 tors. One of the most important tasks confronting the 
 teacher is the encouragement of controlled inferences 
 or guesses. This can be done only by giving the pupils 
 practice in this kind of work. 
 
126 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 V. Reflective Thinking. 
 
 The ordinary text-book recitation does not lend itself 
 to any of the formal methods of teaching in pure form. 
 Many of the points of the different methods can be 
 used as they fit into the varying situations. The re- 
 sourceful teacher makes use of combinations of various 
 teaching methods, and thus secures the best results. 
 In many recitations a little exposition combined with 
 a little deduction and, perhaps, an occasional piece of 
 inductive teaching bring about a rapid assimilation of 
 knowledge by the class. Such a recitation can well be 
 called reflective thinking. It should not entirely sup- 
 plant the pure methods, however. 
 
 A. Opportunities for Wsing Reflective Thinking. 
 
 The ordinary class-work presents many opportuni- 
 ties for reflective thinking on the part of the pupils. 
 Those who are able may do independent thinking 
 frequently. Others may follow the reasoning of the 
 teacher, of other pupils, or of the book. It often is 
 thought that this second-hand thinking is of little 
 value; but pupils who are not original enough to think 
 out things for themselves can usually see the logic of 
 things that have been explained. Children who are 
 very capable often do not possess all of the informa- 
 tion needed for independent work. Such pupils can 
 comprehend complicated things when they are pre- 
 
IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE 127 
 
 sented clearly by others, and thus acquire information 
 at the same time that they receive explanations. 
 
 The organization of lesson facts is another of the 
 fields for reflective thinking. Facts are presented fre- 
 quently in a more or less obscure manner by the text- 
 book or original sources. Pupils who put these in well 
 ordered systems of thought are doing good work of this 
 nature. Excellent training along this line is given if 
 the pupils make outlines of the materials of text-books 
 or of other sources of knowledge. The topical recita- 
 tion also gives an opportunity for a kind of reflective 
 thinking and organization. 
 
 A still further opportunity for reflective thinking is 
 furnished by •problem-solving. Problems abound in 
 every subject that has a knowledge content. Teachers 
 are in the habit of thinking about arithmetic, algebra, 
 or physics examples whenever problems are mentioned, 
 and often do not recognize that there are problems in 
 history and geography. Whenever the teacher can ask 
 "Why?" or "How?" she can present a problem. "Why 
 should patriotic citizens pay taxes cheerfully?" "Why 
 does the water from this well make people sick?" 
 "How can a person invest his money best?" These 
 are problems that stimulate reflective thinking. 
 
 B. ^tejps in Reflective Thinking. 
 
 I. Defining the task or problem. — The first step 
 in teaching any kind of reflective thinking consists in 
 
128 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 deciding what the obstacle is. The teacher can not 
 expect pupils to start in with the same ability along 
 this line that they will manifest later, after training. 
 Practice is very helpful. Then, too, there are marked 
 individual differences between pupils in the ability to 
 define the problem. There are some who never see the 
 problem in the situation. These are never disturbed by 
 most of the vicissitudes of life, and are the ones who go 
 on in uneventful lives in the midst of turmoil. The 
 teacher can never hope to do anything with them, and 
 they never accomplish anything that is original in 
 reflective thinking. If they must take algebra or 
 geometry, they copy type problems and memorize ex- 
 planations. In some cases this inability to see the 
 problem is restricted to one kind of subject-matter: 
 geometry, physics, or history. 
 
 A second class of pupils recognizes that a problem 
 exists in the situation, but is not able to discern it 
 clearly. These are the 'iscatter-brains" who are just as 
 likely to carry the feather-bed downstairs and to throw 
 the looking-glass out of the window as not. They 
 never see the problem in all its aspects, and are nearly 
 certain to ovei^look limiting factors. The third class is 
 composed of those who see the various phases of the 
 problem in all of their implications. They always 
 know what to do, within reasonable limits, and enjoy 
 this work of reflective thinking very much. The 
 teacher can do much with the last two classes. Class 
 two never can be expected to do much original work, 
 
IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE 129 
 
 but will secure very good imitative results. Pupils of 
 this type profit much from the explanations of others, 
 and often make a very good display of reasoning ability 
 that seems, but is not, original. The three classes 
 shade into one another, and many graduations may be 
 found, so that a teacher should not expect to be able 
 to classify her pupils exactly into these three groups. 
 
 2. Methods of attack or solution. — After the pupils 
 have decided what the obstacle is, the next step, in well 
 directed reflective thinking, is to find the solution of the 
 diflBculty. Every solution demands information, but 
 teachers sometimes make the mistake of expecting 
 children to be proficient before they have the necessary 
 information. On the other hand, the use of informa- 
 tion in reflective thinking is one of the best ways to 
 secure its thorough mastery. For this reason, it often 
 proves of value to introduce reflective thinking as soon 
 as the minimum information has been acquired. It is 
 not necessary that all the related facts be provided in 
 definite form by the minds of the children. It may be 
 much more effective, from the point of view of the 
 teaching process, if the facts are entirely new. All that 
 is needed is a good knowledge of the sources where the 
 information may be secured. Thus, one may be forced 
 to do very good reflective thinking if he stains his coat 
 and hunts through books on the subject until he learns 
 how to renovate his garment. 
 
 When pupils have the information or know where to 
 get it, they must be taught the subtleties of reflective 
 
130 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 thinking. The first thing they must learn to do well is 
 to analyze conditions. The situation must be picked 
 to pieces carefully, so that every factor involved is 
 recognized. For example, if pupils are working origi- 
 nals in geometry, they must learn to fulfil all the condi- 
 tions of the exercise before trying for a solution. After 
 they know just what is wanted, the next step is the 
 making of suggestions or hypotheses. Here the teacher 
 may be of much service. The pupils may be stimu- 
 lated to make suggestions and evaluate them. Merely 
 suggesting solutions is not enough. They must be 
 taught to foresee the consequences of their hypotheses, 
 so as to learn to reject the useless ones. When well 
 trained, bright pupils become so expert that they fre- 
 quently will reject wrong hypotheses before they have 
 them half formulated; they will subconsciously evalu- 
 ate them, as it were. The only suggestions that are 
 really formulated are those that have a bearing on the 
 problem. 
 
 Pupils should be taught to be systematic in their 
 search for definite hypotheses. One of the greatest 
 aids along this line is a record of the various alterna- 
 tives as they are raised and rejected. Above every- 
 thing, pupils should learn to maintain the attitude of 
 suspended judgment. They should not assume that 
 they have a correct solution until they have good rea- 
 sons for thinking so. 
 
 3. Verification. — The final step in reflective thinking 
 is verification. The solutions may be checked by gath- 
 
IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE 131 
 
 ering further evidence, by testing out further infer- 
 ences, by going to authorities, and in other ways. As 
 far as possible, the pupils should learn to use the 
 various checks. Mathematics usually lends itself to 
 checks, and hence is much more definite than some of 
 the other studies. Answers are provided in most math- 
 ematics text-books, and the pupils find them a ready 
 means for verifying their work. Sometimes teachers 
 find that some of the pupils seem to have no other 
 objective than to secure the answers. They would 
 remedy this situation by doing away with all answer- 
 books, thus depriving students of the benefit of a 
 ready means for the verification of their work. In most 
 cases where this is done, the pupils secure answer-books 
 secretly, and the teacher works on, thinking that the 
 class is studying without answers. It would be better 
 not to encourage such duplicity by forbidding the 
 answer edition of the text. The situation could be 
 handled better by the occasional introduction of prob- 
 lems from outside sources, the answers to which could 
 not be secured readily without solving the problems. 
 This would emphasize the role of the answer as a check 
 and not as an end. 
 
 The need of a means for verifying the work to keep 
 up pupil interest is shown by the translation work of 
 foreign-language courses. One reason why translating 
 from the mother tongue to the foreign is so much 
 harder than translating from the foreign to the mother 
 tongue is that the latter offers a ready check in com- 
 
132 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 mon usage, while only an educated native of the foreign 
 land can really check the former. Few language 
 teachers are qualified to do it well. 
 
 There is little value for pupils in doing reflective 
 thinking unless they verify their work constantly. The 
 skilled teacher trains pupils to use all possible methods 
 of doing this. An important part of the training in 
 reflective thinking consists in learning how to tell 
 whether one's work is correct. 
 
 C. Value of Reflective Thinking. 
 
 Reflective thinking is what a person must do when- 
 ever he solves the problems of life. This makes it 
 important that pupils be trained in this activity. The 
 average uneducated individual is very inefficient in 
 dealing with many of life's problems, and finds it hard 
 to concentrate on activities that demand continuous 
 attention. Although a course of training is not an 
 absolute guaranty that a person will be able to do 
 good thinking, there seems little doubt that it is help- 
 ful along that line. 
 
 From the point of view of the class-work, the ques- 
 tion of time is important whenever the value of re- 
 flective thinking is under consideration. It takes much 
 time to do effective work. This fact must be kept in 
 mind when pupils are asked to do it. They must not 
 be hurried, or the results will be superficial. It is a 
 well known psychological fact that people must have 
 time to think. When they are hurried, the nervous 
 
 I 
 
IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE 133 
 
 system sometimes refuses to work and the mind be- 
 comes a blank. Further, hurry tends to make many 
 people forget quickly. From the point of view of 
 reflective thinking, the values obtained by it may not 
 be worth the time it takes to think out a particular 
 problem. The results might be secured more efiiciently 
 in some other way. 
 
 For example, pupils are sometimes asked to do tasks 
 that are long drawn out and yield nothing new, such 
 as a physics problem the writer once was asked to solve 
 in the laboratory. On this occasion each member of 
 the class was given an aluminum cylinder to find the 
 specific gravity. Crude instruments prevented accu- 
 rate work and the entire process was too lengthy for 
 much interest. Even though the class members worked 
 as carefully as possible, it was difficult to secure values 
 accurate enough to satisfy the teacher. All of the time 
 every one knew that the book said the specific gravity 
 of aluminum was 2.6. It would be much better if such 
 pedantic exercises were eliminated. Every task in 
 reflective thinking ought to be viewed in the light of 
 the question, "Is this the most economical way to se- 
 cure these results?" 
 
 Another factor that determines how much value is to 
 be obtained from exercises in reflective thinking is 
 individual differences. The bright pupils usually take 
 the lead in group thinking. The result is that the slow 
 ones often gain but little from the work that is done. 
 They get lost in the intricacies of mental activity. The 
 
134 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 same is true when the teacher does most of the think- 
 ing. This need not be the case if the classes are graded 
 into sections according to abihty. 
 
 METHOD AND MENTAL ACTIVITY 
 
 The teaching method that is used, not the subject- 
 matter, determines the mental activity of the pupils. 
 This is interesting and significant, for it makes the 
 teaching art possible and very important. Upon the 
 mental activity in which the pupils take part depends 
 the sort of outcomes secured. The simple informa- 
 tional outcomes, such as facts, concepts, and some 
 generalizations, may be imparted by type studies and 
 exposition. The most important of the generalizations, 
 when not too difficult, should be taught by induction. 
 The other informational outcomes, such as modes of 
 thought and mental attitudes, are the result of more 
 extended periods of teaching, and the teacher may 
 expect the varied tasks of reflective thinking to be 
 most helpful. It takes time and much experimentation 
 for a teacher to learn which of the methods is best 
 suited to her individual peculiarities. This implies 
 that a teacher ought not to use any method blindly, 
 but ought to select the method in the light of past 
 experience and of the outcomes desired. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 The third method of imparting knowledge is the 
 complex Herbartian inductive development lesson. 
 
IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE 135 
 
 This should be used when the teacher wishes to impart 
 simple but important generalizations. It usually is 
 considered to have the five steps, (1) preparation, 
 (2) presentation, (3) comparison and abstraction, (4) 
 generalization, and (5) application. The inductive 
 lesson is a very good procedure for imparting certain 
 kinds of knowledge, but it is such an exacting piece of 
 work mentally that many teachers do not learn to use 
 it well. 
 
 The fourth method of imparting knowledge is de- 
 duction. There are two types, the anticipatory and 
 the explanatory. The lesson has the four steps, (1) 
 data, (2) principles, (3) inference, and (4) verification. 
 Deductive teaching has many advantages, the most 
 important of which is the organization and interpreta- 
 tion of knowledge. 
 
 The fifth method of imparting knowledge is the 
 informal work known as reflective thinking. The ordi- 
 nary school subject-matter offers many opportunities 
 for this work. The steps in reflective thinking may be 
 considered to be three: (1) defining the task or prob- 
 lem; (2) methods of attack or solution; and (3) verifi- 
 cation. Reflective thinking is very valuable, but it 
 must be directed properly to realize its greatest possi- 
 bilities. 
 
 The methods of instruction, and not the subject- 
 matter alone, determine the mental activity that will 
 take place in the class-room. 
 
136 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 Suggested Readings 
 
 Bagley, W. C. Educative Process. Chapters XIX 
 and XX. A complete presentation of induction and 
 deduction, with especial emphasis on the psycho- 
 logical aspects. 
 
 Burnett, T. J. The Essentials of Teaching. Pp. 84- 
 91 and 123-147. A critical evaluation of induction 
 and deduction and a clear discussion of the place of 
 the five formal steps in teaching. 
 
 Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching. Chapters 
 XIX and XX. An excellent treatment of the use of 
 induction and deduction in teaching. 
 
 Earhart, Lida B. Types of Teaching. Chapters V 
 and VI. Another excellent treatment of the use of 
 inductive and deductive teaching types. 
 
 McMurry, F. M. and C. A. Method of the Recita- 
 tion. Chapter VIII. An excellent discussion of the 
 inductive lesson by two of its earlier champions. 
 
 Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. 
 Chapter IX. A clear treatment of the role of re- 
 flective thinking in imparting knowledge. 
 
 Strayer^ G. D. The Teaching Process. Chapters V 
 and VI. A very good treatment of the use of induc- 
 tion and deduction in teaching, filled with excellent 
 suggestions. 
 
 Exercises 
 1. Choose ten topics that could be taught best by the 
 inductive lesson. 
 
IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE 137 
 
 2. What informational materials can you suggest that 
 
 are not suitable for inductive or expository 
 teaching methods? 
 
 3. Prepare an inductive lesson on the topic, the bi- 
 
 nomial theorem. 
 
 4. Select a topic to your liking, and prepare an in- 
 
 ductive lesson on it. 
 
 5. When would it be possible to omit the formal treat- 
 
 ment of the step, preparation? 
 
 6. How may the laboratory be used to furnish mate- 
 
 rial for inductive lessons? What topics would it 
 be best to teach in this way? Which ones would 
 it be better to teach by laboratory demonstra- 
 tion? Expository methods? 
 
 7. What is the relation of the definition to the induc- 
 
 tive lesson? What purpose does it serve in the 
 deductive lesson? 
 
 8. What should the teacher do when children make 
 
 ridiculous mistakes in reasoning? 
 
 9. Why is working for the answer in mathematics a 
 
 bad practice? 
 
 10. What is wrong in a situation where the mathe- 
 
 matics book gives a series of miscellaneous ex- 
 ercises that the class is unable to work intelli- 
 gently? How can the situation be remedied? 
 
 11. Which is better: to take the principles for use in 
 
 the deductive lesson from the text-book or from 
 a preceding inductive lesson? Why? 
 
 12. Which is the better practice: to give exercises re- 
 
138 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 quiring the application of the generalizations of 
 the inductive lessons immediately after com- 
 pleting them, or to wait until a number of gen- 
 eralizations have been formulated and then pro- 
 vide an abundance of exercises on them all? 
 
 13. Prepare a detailed deductive lesson for presenta- 
 
 tion to a class. 
 
 14. Why is it necessary that the first step in deduction 
 
 be devoted to a careful examination of the data? 
 
 15. Why is it necessary to verify inferences? 
 
 16. When would it be best to use a combination of 
 
 induction and reflective thinking, as it is called? 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 FORMING HABITS AND ROTE ASSOCIATIONS 
 
 I. Drill Work. 
 
 A. Two Kinds oj Drill Outcomes. 
 
 In addition to the work required to secure the 
 knowledge outcomes, discussed in the two preceding 
 chapters, the teacher's efforts must result in a number 
 of drill outcomes. Children are not educated when 
 their mental efforts result in comprehension in terms 
 of their own language alone. They must learn some of 
 the choice bits of the past in the conventional language 
 of society, and they must do some things just as they 
 should be done. These drill outcomes may be divided 
 into two classes — habits and rote associations. Habits 
 are more sought after by the teacher in the lower 
 
 grades than by the teacher in the high school; yet 
 
 there are many habits that must be formed even among 
 the older pupils. 
 
 The teacher of a foreign language must connect the 
 various printed symbols with the proper habitual, 
 vocal responses, if anything is done orally. The ath- 
 letic coach has a major portion of his work in the field 
 of habit formation. "Good form" usually means little 
 except the functioning of right habits. The baseball- 
 player must learn to catch in the right way, to bat so 
 
 139 
 
140 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 as to meet the ball where it can be sent shooting out 
 across the diamond, and to throw accurately. The 
 sprinter must hold his arms in definite positions and 
 breathe so that his lungs will be of most service. Each 
 basketball-, football-, and tennis-player must learn 
 many things that are primarily habits. The teacher 
 of stenography and typewriting spends much time in 
 similar work, as does the drawing teacher, the music 
 teacher, and the manual training teacher. 
 
 The other class of drill outcomes also is demanded 
 frequently. Pupils are asked to barn the States of the 
 United States and their capitals, the names and dates 
 of the Presidents of our country, the words of songs 
 and poetry gems. Each of these tasks requires them 
 to remember words or ideas in a definite, fixed order. 
 These are often called rote associations. Between this 
 class and the habits already discussed are other things 
 partaking of some of the characteristics of both, such 
 as the use of punctuation-marks and correct spelling. 
 
 The important thing, however, is not whether the 
 outcome is a habit or a rote association. It makes 
 little difference which it is, from the point of view of 
 the teaching process. The important thing to be rec- 
 ognized is that these outcomes are to be secured only 
 by repetition. The nervous system must be made to 
 respond in the desired way so frequently that it re- 
 sponds of its own accord upon the presentation of the 
 proper stimulus. In other words, the thing must be 
 made automatic before it can be used effectively. 
 
FORMING HABITS AND ROTE ASSOCIATIONS 141 
 
 Much time is wasted in the school-room because 
 things that ought to be done without much thought 
 demand all of the pupils' attention. We recognize how 
 foolish it would be for the baseball pitcher to have to 
 decide just what the exact arm, wrist, and finger move- 
 ments are that will result in a curve across the outside 
 corner of the plate six inches above the batter's knees ; 
 but it is not always recognized that it would save time 
 to learn the rules of punctuation, the meanings of im- 
 portant words, or the verb forms of a conjugation. 
 Whenever anything that has an exact form is needed 
 frequently, it is better to store it away in the nervous 
 system of the pupils than to allow them to look it up 
 each time it is required. Both habits and memories 
 are retained by the nervous system, so it is proper to 
 speak of all drill outcomes in this way. 
 
 B. Two Phases of the Problem. 
 
 The problem of securing drill outcomes presents 
 itself from two points of view — that of the group or 
 class, and that of the individual pupil. Many of the 
 drill outcomes can be secured by exercises in the class 
 period. This is the kind of work most teachers do. At 
 times, however, the pupils must be asked to drill by 
 themselves, individually. They do this in their study 
 periods. This phase of the problem is, in reality, a 
 part of the larger problem of teaching pupils how to 
 study. Many of the suggestions relative to habit for- 
 mation and memorizing are relevant to both class and 
 
142 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 individual work. Therefore, the teacher's task will be 
 considered from the two points of view. 
 
 C. The First Question. 
 
 The first question a teacher must answer before 
 beginning a class drill exercise is, "Is this drill mate- 
 rial?" Is the point under consideration of so much 
 importance that it will be economical of time and 
 energy to work for a drill outcome? This is a very- 
 important question, as many who went to school in the 
 past can testify. Even where the teacher used good 
 methods, pupils were sometimes called upon to mem- 
 orize many things of little value, as the counties and 
 county-seats of their home States, the names of the 
 townships in their county, numerous selections from 
 prose and poetry, history dates, and articles from the 
 Constitution of the United States. On the other hand, 
 many habits were neglected entirely, as enunciation, 
 writing forms, and physical postures and carriage. It 
 was easy to set memory tasks to keep the pupils busy, 
 but exacting to train in the other things; so teachers 
 emphasized the one and neglected the other. To do 
 good teaching there must be discrimination on the part 
 of the teacher. 
 
 D. Technique of the Drill Lesson. 
 
 I. Motivation. — The first step in a drill lesson, or 
 exercise, is the motivation. This consists in getting 
 the class to see that it is necessary to form the habit or 
 
 I 
 
FORMING HABITS AND ROTE ASSOCIATIONS 143 
 
 to memorize the facts under consideration. Usually it 
 is sufficient if the pupils see that they need the lesson's 
 objective and are shown that they do not have it. 
 Pupils, as a rule, are very keen to recognize whether or 
 not they know a thing or can do it. Therefore, moti- 
 vation can consist mainly in pointing out the need for 
 the point in question. A very good way to do this is to 
 provide situations in the class-work that require the 
 use of the particular habit or rote association. A few 
 of the class may have it, and the others will see how 
 they can save time by mastering it too. Even if none 
 of the class have it, the procedure is about the same. 
 Thus, if a teacher of French wishes to motivate the 
 memorizing of the verb forms, the pupils might be led 
 to use them by looking them up each time at first. 
 Then, when the class had discovered the need for a 
 frequent use of these, the teacher could point out that 
 it would save time to memorize the lists. 
 
 For the teacher to fail to motivate is for the pupils 
 to go at the drill work half-heartedly and without 
 interest. The teacher must bring attention and in- 
 terest on the part of the pupils to the task. Drill work 
 without these is futile. Teachers themselves have 
 been known to repeat a series of facts often enough for 
 a number of pupils to memorize them, only to find that 
 they themselves could not reproduce them from mem- 
 ory. The pupils repeated in attention and with in- 
 terest, while the teachers gave little attention or 
 interest to the work. This step in the drill lesson is 
 
144 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 very brief in most cases, frequently occupying but a 
 few minutes. 
 
 2. Focalization. — The next step in the drill exercise 
 is called focalization. Odd as it may seem, teachers 
 sometimes tell pupils to drill when they have never 
 told them upon what to drill. They must be told what 
 to learn. The point of the exercise must stand out so 
 that no one can miss it. When this is not the case, a 
 part of the class will do nothing, and their excuse will 
 be that they did not know what to do. This focaliza- 
 tion should be positive, not negative. This implies 
 that the form shown for focalization should be the 
 correct one. Teachers sometimes try to remedy bad 
 habits by calling attention to them. It is better to 
 substitute the right ones. At times a teacher may do 
 much damage by presenting the wrong form or by call- 
 ing attention to the wrong habit. Pupils who are 
 neutral, so to speak, become confused and learn the 
 wrong form instead of the right one. Teachers of 
 foreign languages, dramatics, and public speaking, as 
 well as of other subjects, sometimes tell a pupil, "That 
 is not correct; try it again," and do not show him the 
 correct form. Instead, teachers should allow the pupils 
 to imitate them after they have shown what should be 
 done. Imitation is an important aid in securing a 
 correct start in drill work, and should not be neglected. 
 
 3. Repetition. — The third step is the memorizing or 
 habit-forming process itself, repetition. This step may 
 be made most effective by the observance of several 
 
FORMING HABITS AND ROTE ASSOCIATIONS 145 
 
 rules. First, there should be a correct start. The first 
 form to affect the nervous system should be the one 
 that is to be retained. Thus, if a person is learning 
 French pronunciation, he should start with the correct 
 sounds ; or, if he is memorizing a poem, he should get 
 the exact wording from the first. Further, the point to 
 be drilled upon should be presented as vividly as pos- 
 sible. This does not mean, however, that the final 
 attainment in speed and accuracy should be sought 
 immediately. Accuracy should come first and speed 
 later. Another rule is that there must be no exceptions 
 until the habit or memory is perfectly automatized. 
 Even then, exceptions tend to undo what has been 
 accomplished. 
 
 To get the best results, the pupil must put as much 
 energy and attention into the repetitions as possible. 
 Anything done in a languid, listless manner makes only 
 a slight impression on the nervous system and results 
 in almost nothing. A person can not learn things 
 readily when attention is divided. After the correct 
 habit or rote association has been established firmly 
 comes the time to speed up the process. Teachers of 
 typewriting use this last principle by insisting that 
 their students sacrifice speed for accuracy. They say 
 that if a person is accurate speed will take care of 
 itself, that a person unconsciously speeds up when he 
 has formed the correct habits, and that he can not go 
 rapidly until he has done so. 
 
146 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 E. Devices that Aid. 
 
 There are many devices that are of service in se- 
 curing the best results from drill work. They are of 
 value because they help through motivation and in- 
 creased attention and interest. As a rule, they lead to 
 a quickening of the repetitions until the most favor- 
 able conditions are realized. It has been found that 
 the repetitions should be so fast that there is no chance 
 for attention to wander, but not so rapid as to confuse. 
 There is a tendency on the part of most teachers to 
 overwork a device as soon as they find out that it is of 
 value. This should be avoided if possible. 
 
 1. Emulation. — Emulation has been used very much 
 in the past to speed up drill work. In fact, it has been 
 greatly over-emphasized. Emulation is striving to 
 attain the same standard that some one else has at- 
 tained previously. Pupils were taught to strive for 
 marks and positions of distinction. The spelling class 
 had its system of head-marks, the drawing class its 
 exhibition of good work, and so on throughout the 
 curriculum. Emulation, however, often is overdone, 
 and tends to become the end and not the means to the 
 end. 
 
 2. Competition. — Resembling the device of emula- 
 tion in some of its aspects is competition. Pupils are 
 spurred on to excel one another in different tasks. This 
 results in a very intense rivalry, with much interest 
 and attention. Thus, a class may be asked to see who 
 
 J 
 
FORMING HABITS AND ROTE ASSOCIATIONS 147 
 
 can learn a poem or form a habit first. The greatest 
 drawback to the use of competition is individual dif- 
 ferences. As soon as the class members have com- 
 peted with one another a few times, some will discover 
 that they are always at the head of the list, and others 
 will find themselves usually at the bottom. It makes 
 little difference how hard some strive : they can never 
 reach the head position. They lose interest. 
 
 This loss of interest may be prevented somewhat by 
 recording the rank order of each member of the class 
 every time. This procedure results in putting each 
 into competition with those of nearly the same ability. 
 A still better method is to put each in competition with 
 his own record. A system of recording should be used 
 that will permit each to keep his own score from day to 
 day. Every normal pupil will try to improve, because 
 the results of 'his efforts are shown objectively. Any 
 method that records results objectively is valuable. 
 
 3. Time limit. — A time limit may be used very 
 effectively. The class may be asked to see how much 
 they can do in three minutes, where the work is com- 
 posed of small units. Where the units are large enough 
 to require a third of a minute or more each, and are all 
 of about the same difficulty, the pupils can strive to 
 see how quickly they can master each unit. If there is 
 a large clock with a second-hand in the room, the 
 pupils can record their own time. Where a clock is not 
 available, a stop-watch or ordinary watch, held by the 
 teacher, can be used. Another plan is that wherein the 
 
148 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 teacher indicates the time on the blackboard, thus 
 enabling the pupils to time themselves. 
 
 4. Rhythm. — Modem teachers do not make use of 
 rhythm in drilling as much as teachers did years ago. 
 It is very effective. Where the materials can be put 
 into rime of some sort, pupils memorize easily. 
 Nearly every one is familiar with the jingle about the 
 days of the months, "Thirty days hath September," 
 etc., and knows of its efficacy. In the past pupils sang 
 history dates, geography facts, and other prosaic things, 
 and learned them readily. The device is just as useful 
 now. In the field of habit formation rhythm and 
 music are very helpful. The graphophone has been 
 used to teach writing, a stirring march selection in- 
 ducing rhythmic movements that resulted in rapid 
 progress. 
 
 5. Variation. — Variation itself may be called a de- 
 vice. It is much better to use several forms of activity 
 for three minutes each than to use one form for ten or 
 fifteen minutes. Thus, it would be better to spend 
 three minutes in oral drill, three minutes in written, 
 and three minutes at the blackboard, than to drill nine 
 minutes on any single form. Through variety, interest 
 and attention may be maintained. 
 
 6. Concert work. — This device is not so valuable, 
 because the pupils soon lose interest in it. When used 
 but a few minutes at a time, and only occasionally, it 
 may be effective. In foreign-language study concert 
 
FORMING HABITS AND ROTE ASSOCIATIONS ■ 149 
 
 oral work may help train the ear for correct sounds. 
 When used frequently, without other devices to check 
 the results, however, pupils may learn things incor- 
 rectly through carelessness and inaccuracy. 
 
 7. Problems. — Another device which is employed 
 frequently to emphasize principles and facts in what 
 are sometimes called drill exercises, is the use of prob- 
 lems. These employ the puzzle instinct. They empha- 
 size discrimination more than repetition, however, so it 
 easily might be questioned whether they are really 
 drill exercises. Much drill results from the incidental 
 repetition that they demand, and this justifies their 
 consideration as a drill service. 
 
 8. Approval. — The approval of parents, teachers, 
 and fellow pupils may act as an incentive to induce 
 some pupils to apply themselves to drill exercises. 
 This is where the granting of marks to the children, 
 which they may carry home with them, proves of 
 value. Marks may be over-emphasized, however, and 
 their bestowal often leads to a false idea of their im- 
 portance and significance. 
 
 9. Stern necessity. — In spite of all that a teacher 
 may do to inspire and lead pupils to apply themselves, 
 there are boys and girls who sometimes do not respond. 
 For these there seems to be no other device remaining 
 but stern necessity. They must be made to repeat the 
 movements or thoughts so that they learn the essen- 
 tials. Oftentimes such pupils are slow mentally, and a 
 
150 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 little personal work may be more effective than arbi- 
 trary pressure. The brilliant but lazy boy or girl must 
 be put under the pressure of stern necessity, however. 
 
 F. Psychology of Drill Work. 
 
 1. Length of drill exercises. — Psychologists have 
 shown that the best results are secured from brief drill 
 exercises. Where the teacher has worked out a good 
 plan for securing speedy repetitions, the drills should 
 never last longer than five minutes at one time. If a 
 longer time is used, a new device should be resorted to 
 at the end of a few minutes. Where the drill is listless, 
 a longer time is needed to secure results; but a listless 
 drill is always a time-waster. Short drill exercises, car- 
 ried out systematically day after day, are what produce 
 results. In some subjects, e.g., music, typewriting, or 
 stenography, very long periods of several hours are the 
 common practice; but comparatively little progress is 
 made in these when the pupil has become tired. These 
 long periods, however, must be used to accustom the 
 workers to business conditions. An individual learns 
 most rapidly when he is rested, because practice, when 
 he is tired, does not make much impression on the 
 nerve-cells. 
 
 2. Pleasure aids habit formation and memorizing. 
 — Another thing the psychologists have taught us 
 about learning is that pleasure is an aid to drill work. 
 If the pupils are kept in a happy, enthusiastic frame 
 of mind, they can do much more work with a given 
 
FORMING HABITS AND ROTE ASSOCIATIONS 151 
 
 expenditure of energy than if they dislike the drill 
 exercises. This is one of the reasons for the popular 
 demand that the teacher interest her pupils. This 
 interest should not be the end of the teacher's efforts, 
 but merely the means to make the work pleasant. 
 
 3. Zeal and concentration necessary. — Drill work 
 is most effective if attacked zealously and with every 
 ounce of energy concentrated upon the task. This is a 
 point that is of great value in individual work. Those 
 who have studied the formation of complicated habits, 
 e.g., learning to typewrite or to speak a foreign lan- 
 guage, usually say that it is only successful repetitions 
 that count. These are the ones that are carried out 
 under the conditions of the greatest zeal and concen- 
 tration of attention. When the repetitions have been 
 carried to the point of fatigue, enthusiasm is lacking 
 and little progress is made. 
 
 4. Forms of the drill exercise. — The form of the 
 material in the drill exercise should be, as nearly as 
 possible, the same as the form in which it is to be used 
 later. It has been found that it is most economical to 
 practise the activity itself rather than formal exercises. 
 Pupils learn to spell best by writing their spelling 
 lessons when they study them. Music teachers put 
 their pupils at work on simple songs and pieces con- 
 taining melodies rather than upon formal exercises. 
 Teachers of typewriting give connected discourse for 
 practice as soon as possible. ABl this implies that 
 separate training in the elements of a habit seems to 
 
152 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 be of little value in general. This is because many 
 nerve connections are formed, in the repetitions of 
 formal exercises, that must be broken later when the 
 real work is undertaken. It is harder, often, to undo 
 the results of drill than it was to secure them in the 
 first place. 
 
 5. Trial and error indispensable. — Another point 
 that has come from the scientific study of habit forma- 
 tion is that trial and error are indispensable. It seems 
 to be impossible to foresee all of the minute details, 
 and many of them have to be hit upon by accident. 
 Just because everything is not known about the way 
 a particular habit is formed is no insurmountable ob- 
 stacle to its formation. Repetitions sometimes get a 
 wrong direction, but they finally result in the desired 
 goal being attained if persisted in intelligently. 
 
 6. Verbal directions a help. — Although trial and 
 error are necessary, carefully worked out verbal direc- 
 tions are of much value. This is where the teacher 
 may be of service. A teacher should be able to tell 
 pupils how the important things should be done. 
 Where she can not tell, she should at least be able to 
 show the way to do the things needed. This require- 
 ment places a burden upon the shoulders of the teacher 
 under the present condition of imperfect knowledge of 
 the psychology of school subjects, but it also opens up 
 a large field for useful service. In time there probably 
 will be accurately worked out studies of the various 
 drill tasks. Until then a teacher must do her best 
 
FORMING HABITS AND ROTE ASSOCIATIONS 153 
 
 under the circumstances and use what knowledge she 
 possesses. 
 
 7. Understanding an aid to memorizing. — ^When a 
 pupil understands a thing, he has taken a big step 
 toward memorizing it. The simplest way to remember 
 things is to understand them. This fact has been 
 emphasized much by some educators, even to the 
 extent of overlooking the necessity of anything other 
 than understanding as the basis of learning by heart. 
 As far as possible, things should be remembered by 
 understanding them; but, as soon as comprehension 
 fails, it becomes necessary to resort to repetition. 
 There are some people who seem to be aided but little 
 by the analysis of poems, and they must rely upon 
 frequent repetitions to become able to reproduce them 
 exactly. 
 
 8. Memorizing by wholes. — It has been shown by 
 careful studies that it requires fewer repetitions to 
 memorize anything as a whole than to memorize it 
 piecemeal. When pupils memorize things undirected, 
 they usually repeat a part until they know it, and then 
 take the next part. Thus, in learning a poem of two 
 stanzas of eight lines each, they would learn the first 
 two or three lines of the first stanza ; then they would 
 take a few more lines, and then a few more, learning 
 the first stanza in several parts. It would save time if 
 they could be induced to go through both stanzas from 
 beginning to end at each repetition. Memorizing by 
 wholes is economical, but it is discouraging to young 
 
154 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 pupils. They do not see any results after several repe- 
 titions, and this disheartens them. The results become 
 apparent all at once. With older pupils it is of more 
 value. Whenever the material to be memorized con- 
 tains parts of unusual difficulty, the whole method 
 should be supplemented by a few extra repetitions of 
 these difficult parts. 
 
 Pupils should be encouraged to try the whole method 
 of memorizing, and then should be allowed to use the 
 part method if the other is too discouraging. In mem- 
 orizing, they should be taught to try to recall what 
 they have repeated after each repetition. If they can 
 not recall a part, they should look at the original for a 
 little prompting and then try to remember the rest 
 without any help. Every time they have to stop, they 
 should go to the original for assistance. The selection 
 to be memorized should be gone over completely each 
 time. Teaching pupils to memorize is mainly an 
 individual teaching problem. Little can be done 
 through group work. 
 
 9. The learning curve. — The learning curve of com- 
 plicated things, such as telegraphy, typewriting, and 
 foreign-language facility, has been studied with much 
 care. If the progress of an individual is recorded from 
 day to day and this progress is shown graphically, it 
 has been found that it is much the same for different 
 learning activities. This graphic representation is 
 called the learning curve. It shows striking similari- 
 ties for different things. In general, a student makes 
 
FORMING HABITS AND ROTE ASSOCIATIONS 155 
 
 rapid progress when he starts the learning. Soon he 
 slows up and seems to make no progress for a time. If 
 he persists in his practice in spite of this discouraging 
 experience, he will be rewarded by progress a little 
 later. It may be that he will meet two or more of 
 these periods of little progress. These have been called 
 plateaus. 
 
 Plateaus have been studied carefully, and their 
 nature and causes are significant for teachers of drill 
 work. They are times of discouragement and loss of 
 interest. Before an individual will make any improve- 
 ment, he must be lifted out of the slough of despon- 
 dency into which he has sunk. He must attack the 
 thing with renewed interest. Further, it has been 
 found that in learning some things plateaus are inevi- 
 table. They seem to be times when the learning has 
 become more complex, and the simple things have been 
 nearly all learned independently but not in combina- 
 tions. Further progress is dependent upon the forma- 
 tion of the combinations. 
 
 Thus, in learning telegraphy, a person learns the 
 alphabet first. Then he learns to catch the series of 
 sounds that form words. Before much progress can be 
 made in receiving connected discourse. over the wire, 
 however, a person must learn many things that do not 
 show objectively, as distinguishing the interval be- 
 tween words and series of familiar words. This ac- 
 counts for some of the lack of progress. Thus it seems 
 as if the formation of complex habits were dependent 
 
156 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 upon the previous formation of many simple habits. 
 One unfamiliar word in a sentence often prevents the 
 student operator from catching any of the sentence or 
 phrase. 
 
 Because plateaus seem inevitable, it does not follow 
 that they can not'be shortened. It has been found that 
 the condition of fatigue is responsible for unduly long 
 periods of no progress. This can be remedied by in- 
 ducing the person who is practising to rest when at 
 such a point. A brief vacation often results in renewed 
 enthusiasm and rapid progress. Any device that will 
 result in increased interest and added vim in the prac- 
 tice will help to shorten the plateau. 
 
 Most persons who give up the learning of anything 
 are said to stop when they are in the discouragement 
 of the plateau. To a certain extent, a person's ability 
 to learn is tested by his ability to stick to the practice 
 even when discouraged. The fact that such periods of 
 no apparent progress are the rule should help the 
 teacher to encourage pupils who are in that stage. A 
 very effective way to encourage them is to vary the 
 work until the upward movement starts again, and 
 then they will find the interest incidental to progress 
 of great help. 
 
 10. Age and drill exercises. — Another thing that 
 the psychological laboratory has shown is that the best 
 drill age is just before a person has reached his ma- 
 turity. Those who are in their college courses learn 
 more readily, that is, with fewer repetitions, than those 
 
FORMING HABITS AND ROTE ASSOCIATIONS 157 
 
 of the elementary or high-school age. This is true 
 under the conditions of the laboratory. It is probable, 
 however, that the experience of educators, who have 
 always thought that the years between eight and 
 twelve are the best for drill work, is founded upon a 
 difference between the class-room and the conditions 
 of the psychological laboratory. The laboratory fur- 
 nishes a motive for grown-up subjects that is not so 
 effective with the younger ones. In any case, the 
 intermediate grades will remain probably the time for 
 drill work, because many things are needed later that 
 can and often must be learned at this time. The later 
 years are the time when pupils are able to assimilate 
 information better and they find drill work more 
 tedious. The experience of the laboratory, however, 
 shows that, if drill lessons are needed in later years, 
 there is no reason why the deficiency may not be 
 supplied. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 There are two classes of drill outcomes — ^habits and 
 rote associations. The problem of securing these has 
 two phases, the class and the individual. The first 
 question to be decided concerns the importance of the 
 .task of the lesson. The technique of the drill lesson 
 includes the three steps, (1) motivation, (2) focaliza- 
 tion, and (3) repetition. The work is aided by the 
 employment of a number of devices: e.g., emulation, 
 
158 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 competition, time limit, rhythm, variation, concert 
 work, problems, and approval. The psychological 
 aspects of drill work include the following: the length 
 of drill exercises; the role of pleasure, zeal, and con- 
 centration; the necessity of trial and error; the use of 
 verbal directions; the place of understanding as an aid 
 to memorizing; and the interpretations of the learning 
 curve, with its plateaus. 
 
 A - 
 
 xH^ Suggested Readings 
 
 Bagley, W. C. The Educative Process. Pp. 328-331. 
 
 A brief presentation of the drill lesson. 
 Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching. Pp. 383- 
 
 393. A somewhat extended section on the drill 
 
 lesson. 
 Earhart, Lida B. Types of Teaching. Chapter XII. 
 
 A complete treatment of the teacher's duties in the 
 
 class-room work incidental to habit formation. 
 Harvey, N. A. Principles of Teaching. Pp. 246-247. 
 
 A brief but pertinent section on habit formation. 
 Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. 
 
 Chapters VI, VII, and VIII. A complete account of 
 
 the psychology of habit formation and memorizing, 
 
 especially of the learning curve. 
 Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process. Chapter IV. 
 
 Suggestions about devices for securing motivation 
 
 and for improving drill work. / , 
 
FORMING HABITS AND ROTE ASSOCIATIONS 159 
 Exercises 
 
 1. What subjects abound in materials that are suit- 
 
 able for drill lessons? 
 
 2. Why is it necessary to use different methods for 
 
 class and for individual drill work? 
 
 3. How can a teacher be sure that the topic she has 
 
 chosen is really one that should be made auto- 
 matic? 
 
 4. Prepare a drill lesson on a suitable topic, using 
 
 three devices to speed the repetitions. 
 
 5. Make a list of topics that are suitable for drill 
 
 lessons. 
 
 6. What things do teachers sometimes ask the chil- 
 
 dren to drill upon that are not needed often 
 
 enough to justify such efforts? 
 How would you break a bad habit by substitution? 
 Visit class-rooms, and observe the teaching work 
 
 for drill outcomes. What does the teacher do to 
 
 aid in forming habits or in memorizing? What 
 
 things have not become automatic that ought to 
 
 have been drilled until they were? 
 9. What drill topics are complicated enough to permit 
 
 the keeping of a record of the learning curve? 
 
 How could the record of the curve be of any aid 
 
 in the drill work? 
 10. What plans is it well for the teacher to make in 
 
 preparation for a drill lesson? 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 DEVELOPING THE EMOTIONS 
 
 In the past, teachers have neglected this phase of 
 education. Although the feeling side of life has been 
 recognized by psychologists for a long time, the peda- 
 gogy of the emotions has not received much attention. 
 This is because it is a difiBcult problem, which has been 
 attacked with an imperfect knowledge of the way 
 feelings are imparted. 
 
 There is a great need for the right sort of emotional 
 development. Human beings naturally respond to 
 emotional situations that are largely of the comic- 
 supplement type. It takes teaching to get them to feel 
 the more delicate appeals of good music, painting, 
 sculpture, and other art. The average American is 
 undeveloped along these lines. To many European 
 visitors the nation seems crude. Most of our cities are 
 positively ugly, with no attempts at beauty. Many of 
 our homes are built without any pretense of art, or 
 with such attempts as violate every rule of aesthetics. 
 Houses stand out of bare yards without the simplest 
 attempt at landscape work. On the inside, walls, fur- 
 niture, and decorations betray the same lack of sensi- 
 tiveness to the beautiful. Nowhere is this more in 
 
 160 
 
DEVELOPING THE EMOTIONS 161 
 
 evidence than in wealthy rural districts where auto- 
 mobiles, live stock, and other evidences of wealth are 
 found in abundance. One is not .surprised to 'find 
 poverty-stricken communities deficient in such things, 
 but when people of means present the' same deficiency, 
 it can be explained only by the lack of proper develop- 
 ment. Under present-day conditions of high-speed 
 production and the short working day, men. and women 
 need to be taught how to employ their leisure time. 
 That they do not know how to do so now is shown by 
 the kinds of entertainment they seek — those built 
 mainly upon crude humor and sex suggestion. Really 
 beautiful moving-pictures, drama, music, and litera- 
 ture, beautiful because they arouse the better emo- 
 tional responses, have a hard time, securing only a 
 meager support. That this condition is only the result 
 of lack of training is shown by the fact that some com- 
 munities have developed a keen appreciation of the 
 beautiful. In general, our schools have not accom- 
 plished much because the teachers have not understood 
 the principles of emotional training, and not because 
 such training is impossible. 
 
 PSYCHOLOGY OF EMOTIONAL TEACHING 
 
 The mistake that teachers often make is that they 
 try to communicate emotional attitudes by means of 
 words. Words are the symbols of ideas and not of 
 feelings. The word beautiful is a concept, and can 
 
162 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 help only after much teaching, when it will prepare a 
 person for the arousal of an emotion. It will not of 
 itself arouse the emotion. When a teacher tells a class, 
 "This is a beautiful painting," showing a masterpiece, 
 but little response will result if the teacher does not 
 put any feeling into the words. Moreover, if a paint- 
 ing is .hung on the wall, and the words, "This is a 
 beautiful painting," are placed alongside of it, but 
 little effect will be made on the pupils when they see it 
 for the first time, unless they respond instinctively to 
 the beautiful. However, if the teacher speaks the 
 words 'in a tone that shows the emotion she feels, the 
 pupils will "be more likely to respond. In other words, 
 emotions are radiated. If one person expresses an 
 emotion naturally, others respond, because most people 
 are .bom sensitive to the feelings of others. The panic 
 caused by the cry of "Fire!" in a crowd is caused more 
 by the emotional tone than by the actual word. As the 
 cry is repeated, the emotional tone of fright becomes 
 more and more intense, until the mob is seething with 
 emotion. This condition can be quieted, just as quickly 
 as it arose, by the calm, unemotional bearing of any one 
 who can catch the attention of the mob. When ap- 
 plied to emotional teaching, this means that the 
 teacher must feel the emotion that the words imply, if 
 the teaching is to be successful. The language of the 
 emotions is but partly evolved. Actors study it be- 
 cause it is at the basis of their success. If teachers are 
 
DEVELOPING THE EMOTIONS 163 
 
 to do the highest grade of emotional teaching, they 
 must become actors to a certain extent. 
 
 There are marked differences between individuals in 
 the development of this ability to respond to emotional 
 radiation. Some are unaffected by situations that set 
 others a-quiver with excitement. Others develop this 
 ability to respond much later than their fellows. Fur- 
 ther, there are reasons for believing that this esthetic 
 sense does not manifest itself to any great extent until 
 the age of adolescence. If this be true, little can be 
 done below the junior high school in training the emo- 
 tions, except as such work may give the intellectual 
 basis for later emotional development. The fact that 
 the earlier years are years of imitation, however, makes 
 it desirable to begin this teaching early in the school, 
 lest golden opportunities be overlooked. 
 
 INFORMATION AS THE BASIS OF EMOTIONAL 
 TEACHING 
 
 The preceding section has shown that the real psy- 
 chological basis of emotional teaching is the radiation 
 of feeling attitudes from teacher to pupils. This does 
 not mean that emotions can exist of themselves. On 
 the contrary, every emotion must have an intellectual 
 basis. It must be the feeling aroused by something 
 seen, heard, touched, tasted, smelled, or remembered. 
 Thus, there is a very definite basis of information for 
 the emotion. Before a person can be well trained 
 emotionally he must be educated intellectually. The 
 
164 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 mistake that teachers in the past made was in assum- 
 ing that they had completed their task when they had 
 given the necessary ideas. Ideas must be given, but 
 these must have the proper emotional coloring if they 
 are to function. Many people acquire the right ideas, 
 but these never carry over into conduct, because they 
 have no emotional background. They mean nothing as 
 far as real life is concerned. 
 
 In the school-room it is necessary for the teacher to 
 furnish the facts, but this can be overdone. Where 
 the knowledge side is over-emphasized the emotional is 
 neglected, and the results are fatal to appreciation and 
 emotional enjoyment. This caution is applicable espe- 
 cially to the teaching of literature, for here the teacher 
 is tempted to analyze in detail, thinking that is 'the way 
 to do it. Specialists in most fields are inclined to do 
 this. With pupils who are untrained in a subject, only 
 the most elementary analysis is of value, be it music, 
 painting, or literature. 
 
 SCOPE OF EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 The field for the development of the emotions is as 
 broad as life is many-sided. It includes that which is 
 beautiful or valuable because society has developed the 
 idea that it is, as well as that which stirs up the feel- 
 ings naturally. From one point of view the entire 
 field might be included in the mental reactions denoted 
 by the term appreciation, taking in what appeals to 
 
DEVELOPING THE EMOTIONS 165 
 
 people as pleasure or enjoyment also. The point of 
 view taken here is that emotional development must 
 provide for both phases, appreciation and enjoyment, 
 although no quarrel is sought with the individual who 
 wants to make the term appreciation broad enough 
 to include all of these life phases. 
 
 I. Appreciation. 
 
 A. Esthetic. 
 
 There are two kinds of appreciation — esthetic and 
 social. Esthetic appreciation includes those activities 
 that usually are classified as art. Music, painting, 
 drawing, and the various forms of decoration and 
 adornment will be recognized immediately as being 
 among those implied. In addition, literature on its art 
 side, poetry, and the drama must be included. In fact, 
 anything in which good taste, beauty, lofty conception, 
 and inspiring themes are involved is material for 
 esthetic appreciation. The problem of esthetic appre- 
 ciation is not only active, but is also passive. A person 
 must be trained to produce esthetic things as well as to 
 recognize and prize them. Further, many esthetic 
 forms may be found already provided by nature, and 
 the pupils must learn to value them. 
 
 B. Social. 
 
 The second kind of appreciation has to do more with 
 the values and needs of human beings. Every man 
 must live in the society of his fellows if he is not to be 
 
166 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 a hermit. Before he is ready to live thus, he must 
 learn to govern his conduct by the standards of right 
 that his fellows have adopted. People in different 
 parts of the world have different customs and stand- 
 ards, and these must be viewed with sympathy and 
 understanding when one travels. Men have done, and 
 are doing, many things from lofty motives; hence, a 
 study of history, geography, and world events offers a 
 very good opportunity for social appreciation. Esthetic 
 appreciation is concerned with the finished product. 
 Men must live and work and serve, and the man or 
 woman to whom this means nothing is one-sided. 
 
 II. Enjoyment. 
 
 In addition to the activities of life that pupils should 
 appreciate, there are other phases that merely are to 
 be enjoyed. Participation in them gives pleasure, but 
 it is hardly of a refined enough quality to deserve the 
 term appreciation. Thus, a person enjoys a game of 
 tennis, croquet, or golf, but hardly appreciates them. 
 He enjoys his newspaper, his magazine, his trip to the 
 opera or to the vaudeville. Because of this use of 
 words in the ordinary sense, it seems that teachers need 
 to prepare people to enjoy as well as to appreciate. 
 Appreciation always involves something of an intellec- 
 tual nature, a discrimination of values and the like, 
 while enjoyment is more sensual and personal. It 
 brings pleasure. To be sure, people ought to learn to 
 enjoy that which is also of a quality worthy of appre- 
 
 J 
 
DEVELOPING THE EMOTIONS 167 
 
 ciation. In that case the two terms would be two 
 ways of looking at the same thing. 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF THE LESSON THAT DEVELOPS 
 THE EMOTIONS 
 
 The technique of the lesson in appreciation has been 
 worked out very carefully in the field of literature by 
 an English educator, F. H. Hayward.^ His work has 
 been done so well that it would take a genius to make 
 any real improvement on it. Although he applies it to 
 but one field, the technique can be modified to fit other 
 kinds of material. Its principles of thorough prepara- 
 tion and careful organization can be used in many 
 other teaching situations. The outline of the lesson 
 will be presented as given by Hayward, with but few 
 modifications other than condensation. 
 
 I. Preliminary Stages. 
 
 The lesson is designed primarily for the teaching of 
 a choice bit of poetry or prose, especially poetry. 
 Much stress is laid upon thorough preparation on the 
 part of both class and teacher, and this preparation is 
 a more complete one than teachers usually make. This 
 lesson is called the "red-letter lesson," from the analogy 
 to books that print important facts in red letters. This 
 means that the appreciation lesson should be one that 
 comes on rare occasions and that is looked forward to 
 for a long time. 
 
 * Hayward, F. H., The Lesson in Appreciation. 
 
168 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 A. Negative Preparation. 
 
 1. Anticipatory interest. — In keeping with the idea 
 that this lesson is to be a red-letter lesson, one long to 
 be remembered, the teacher should begin by arousing 
 interest along the expected line many days before the 
 lesson is to be given. This can be done by dropping 
 occasional hints about the "most interesting lesson" 
 that is to come a little later. Whenever related mate- 
 rials are met, the pupils should be told of the fact. If 
 necessary, other lessons should be shifted around and 
 manipulated to prepare for this one. The object of it 
 all is to build up a background of interest that will 
 make the lesson a big event. This anticipatory in- 
 terest is provided best by incidental methods, which 
 are planned deliberately but which seem accidental to 
 the pupils. 
 
 2. Overcoming distractions. — The distractions that 
 may be present are likely to be mainly the result of 
 intellectual difficulties. The teacher should remove as 
 many of these as possible before the day for the lesson 
 arrives. Such distractions may be the result of un- 
 familiar words or ideas used by the author. These 
 should be studied in lessons preceding the big event, 
 and the class thus prepared for them. Distractions 
 are furnished also by any material that contains a 
 technique that is too much for some of the pupils, such 
 as the difficulty of reading the notation in music. In 
 general, distractions should be avoided by omitting the 
 
DEVELOPING THE EMOTIONS 169 
 
 class-work that contains them. Where this is not 
 done, they should be prepared before the lesson. Any 
 drill work that is needed should come in the prelim- 
 inary preparation, because the lesson in appreciation 
 is no time for drill activities. 
 
 B. Positive or Constructive Preparation. 
 
 The second phase of far-ahead preparation consists 
 of the work that gives an apperceptive background for 
 the lesson. Ideas must be grouped together to make 
 esthetic pleasure possible. As has been shown earlier 
 in this chapter, the emotional must have an intellectual 
 basis. The teacher may provide this by giving mean- 
 ings to many things that will contribute actively to 
 the appreciation. Metaphors must be picked to pieces 
 carefully and explained, if there is any chance that they 
 will fail because of unfamiliarity, and any words that 
 have unusual or lost meanings must have the particular 
 meanings of the selection presented. Where it is neces- 
 sary to give a background of meaning to a metaphor, 
 the teacher must use good judgment in selecting the 
 time to do this. In some cases, it may be well to do 
 it on the day preceding the lesson. In others, this 
 would be the worst thing that could be done, for the 
 unfamiliar meanings might make such strong impres- 
 sions on the pupils that the result would be disastrous 
 to the pleasure that should be derived. Throughout 
 the positive preparation it is a good plan to make use 
 of every item of information that the pupils have. 
 
170 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 Further, the element of familiarity should be employed 
 wherever possible. 
 
 II. The Lesson Proper. 
 
 A. Immediate Preparation. 
 
 The negative and positive preparation have been 
 completed, and now the hour of appreciation has been 
 definitely set. Before it comes the teacher must pre- 
 pare herself for the task in hand. Her immediate 
 preparation consists in becoming imbued with the 
 thing to be enjoyed, until nothing else seems quite so 
 important. It means getting in the right mood. A 
 part of the immediate preparation, too, must put the 
 pupils in the right mood. This may be done, just 
 before the thing to be appreciated is presented, by a 
 brief statement in simple words of the lesson aim. 
 The teacher must be careful, however, not to over- 
 stimulate the imagination of the pupils, or the thing 
 presented may prove a disappointment. 
 
 B. The Hour of Appreciation. 
 
 The principle of the first impression is the one that 
 should control this phase of the lesson. The first im- 
 pression is always a privileged one. Therefore, the 
 teacher must make the first impression of the poem, 
 or other selection, one that is the best possible. It 
 must be a total impression. This implies, also, that 
 the pupils should not have studied the selection before 
 the hour of appreciation. Further, the teacher, not 
 
DEVELOPING THE EMOTIONS 171 
 
 the pupil, is the one to do the reading at this time, 
 because she is best qualified. In presenting a poem of 
 rhythmic beauty the rhythm should be preserved. 
 Oftentimes teachers, trained by experts in public speak- 
 ing, are inclined to disregard the metric structure of 
 poetry and to render it after the style of prose. This 
 tendency is bitterly condemned by those who produce 
 poetry. Poets read their own productions with the 
 meter intensified, even to the point of what often is 
 called a singsong style. Teachers should at least pre- 
 serve this pleasurable element, and should not read in 
 a colloquial style that destroys all beauty. The poet 
 has used various devices to secure his ends: sounds, 
 ideas, and combinations of rhythm. The teacher 
 should recognize this, and make as much use of them 
 as possible. 
 
 C. Esthetic DisciLSsion. 
 
 The next step after the presentation has been com- 
 pleted is the esthetic discussion. The teacher should 
 endeavor to get the pupils to express their ideas of 
 what is beautiful in what has just been presented. 
 How and why the selection is beautiful, should be the 
 theme. When the main points of beauty have been 
 noted so clearly that even those who enjoyed the work 
 the least can know why and how to enjoy it, the teacher 
 should present the selection again. This second pre- 
 sentation should be received more favorably than the 
 first, because of the aid given by the esthetic discussion. 
 
172 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 D. Intellectual Discussion. 
 
 The second presentation should be followed by that 
 phase of the lesson which teachers so often put first in 
 teaching poetry — the intellectual discussion. This is 
 the time for a careful analysis of meanings and figures 
 of speech. With the background of appreciation that 
 has been given, this can be done without so much 
 danger of causing the pupils to get a distaste for the 
 work. The teacher must not go too much into detail, 
 however, or the pupils may lose sight of the goal. The 
 object is to provide the means for a keener appreciation 
 of the selection, and not mainly to manipulate ideas 
 in reflective thinking. At the close of the intellectual 
 discussion comes the time for the reading of the poem 
 by the pupils, provided it can be done in such a way 
 that it does not spoil the general impression. All of 
 the class who are capable may be called upon to try 
 to give the selection. 
 
 E. Reproduction. 
 
 The final step in the lesson in appreciation is the 
 reproduction, or the "learning by heart." If the sub- 
 ject of the lesson has been worthy and has been well 
 presented, there will be but little difficulty experienced 
 in raising the enthusiasm of the class to the point 
 where they will want to memorize a part of the poem. 
 It is well to allow the class to have something to say 
 about what they will memorize. Teachers often ask 
 too much from the pupils along this line, requiring 
 
DEVELOPING THE EMOTIONS 173 
 
 them to devote too much of their time to this work. 
 This over-emphasis has a tendency to create a dislike 
 for such work. It is a safe rule to say that only the 
 real gems of the piece should be memorized. If this 
 criterion is set up, few pupils will look upon the work 
 with anything but the greatest of pleasure. Tact in 
 the way in which pupils are asked to commit things 
 to memory is needed very greatly on the part of 
 teachers. 
 
 III. Value of This Lesson. 
 
 The lesson in appreciation, as worked out by Hay- 
 ward, is one of the most effective that educators have 
 devised. The writer has seen teachers follow its pro- 
 cedure and secure excellent results. There is nothing 
 very complicated about it from an intellectual point of 
 view, and any person who can really appreciate beauty 
 can be successful with it. Of course, a teacher in whom 
 things of beauty do not awake responsive chords can 
 not expect to do much in teaching others to respond 
 to the esthetic. Hayward's technique is applicable 
 primarily to the field of literature, though excellent 
 work can be done with pictures, statuary, and other art 
 subjects. A few modifications are needed for subject- 
 matter other than literature, but these are not difficult 
 for the resourceful teacher to make. When it comes 
 to teaching social appreciation, the problem is very 
 different, because it is hard to present such things in 
 any other way than through ideas colored with feeling. 
 
174 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 The most difficult phase of the entire task is to secure 
 responses on the part of the pupils. 
 
 OTHER SUGGESTIONS FOR DEVELOPING THE 
 EMOTIONS 
 
 The lengthy technique of the lesson in appreciation 
 is not applicable to many of the phases of the problem 
 of emotional development. It is too long and too 
 complex for minor emotional outcomes. Many of its 
 principles, which are the principles previously laid 
 down, are of use in other situations, however. Because 
 a chance for emotional development is apparently 
 rather insignificant is no reason for the teacher to 
 neglect it entirely. Teachers should be content to 
 grasp the minor opportunities when the major ones 
 are lacking. If they remember that feeling attitudes 
 are radiated, teachers will always be ready to do what 
 can be done in any situation. Teaching pupils to seek 
 the right kinds of enjoyment must be mainly of this 
 incidental nature. 
 
 The materials that are to be enjoyed or appreciated 
 must be adapted to the pupils for whom they are in- 
 tended. The mistake is often made of giving grown- 
 up literature to children and then expecting them to 
 respond. The same is true of many other things. 
 Pupils must be trained gradually to realize pleasure 
 out of the highest class of materials. Those teachers 
 who now can enjoy the best music, poetry, and drama 
 were once in the primary class themselves. It is im- 
 
DEVELOPING THE EMOTIONS 175 
 
 portant that as many pupils as possible be elevated to 
 the better grades of enjoyment, because otherwise, as 
 grown-ups, they will be inclined to seek unelevating 
 pleasures. Illustrations of this tendency are all too 
 common under present-day conditions of living in most 
 American communities. 
 
 The fact that it is desirable to cultivate high stand- 
 ards of appreciation and enjoyment does not imply 
 that only the most technical is of much value. On 
 the contrary, simple appreciation and enjoyment are 
 quite worth while. The technical pleasure that a 
 highly trained musician gets out of the performance 
 of a virtuoso is more intellectual than emotional. It 
 is really pseudo-esthetic. The highest class of music 
 should have beauty of rhythm and feeling instead of 
 difficulty of performance as its criterion of worth for 
 the average individual. Skilled musicians may set up 
 other standards for themselves, but these are not for 
 the mass of humanity. The same pseudo-esthetic 
 appreciation is evinced in the fabulous prices paid by 
 the wealthy for the best paintings of dead artists. As 
 long as the artist lived and could produce more works 
 of a similar character, his paintings brought but a 
 nominal return, while, after his death, the same pro- 
 ductions sold for fortunes. His death did not add 
 anything to the beauty of the picture, but it gave the 
 owner a monopoly. Its emotional value, as repre- 
 sented by the purchase price, is mainly pseudo-esthetic. 
 
 Teaching in enjoyment and appreciation should in- 
 
176 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 elude many phases of the work. Pupils should be 
 taught to enjoy reading dramatic masterpieces, attend- 
 ing, and taking part in them. In music, the training 
 in listening is as important as the training in pro- 
 ducing. To secure these outcomes, a school needs a 
 room with a stage, where the pupils may attend and 
 produce plays. It also needs one or more kinds 
 of mechanical instruments that will make possible 
 development through hearing good music. A teacher 
 should not show disgust at pupils who enjoy the simple 
 things more than the technical as a rule, but instead 
 should compromise at times, so that the pupils may 
 be led, through her example, to get pleasure out of 
 better things. 
 
 The greatest problem in some phases of enjoyment, 
 such as athletics, recreational reading, and pupil enter- 
 prises, is to secure a participation in them on the part 
 of all of the pupils. In athletics, in many schools, few 
 pupils take any part other than in the passive enjoy- 
 ment of the onlooker. As far as expedient, participa- 
 tion in sports and games should involve every one, 
 both boys and girls. The same is true of student 
 societies, school papers, and similar pupil organizations. 
 The tendency is for a few pupils to do nearly every- 
 thing under the ordinary management of student 
 affairs. This condition is undesirable. It can be 
 remedied by any organization, such as intramural ath- 
 letics, that will secure the active participation of 
 nearly every member. 
 
DEVELOPING THE EMOTIONS 177 
 
 CUMULATIVE EFFECTS OF EMOTIONAL 
 DEVELOPMENT 
 
 As might be inferred from the nature of enjoyment 
 and appreciation, the effects of development along 
 these lines are cumulative. The efforts of the super- 
 visor of music who devotes her time to the pupils of 
 a school system do not seem to amount to much. Yet, 
 if such a community is compared with a similar one 
 in which this teaching is omitted, the difference will 
 be marked. One community in the Central West has 
 had the good fortune for several years to be under the 
 influence of a music supervisor who realized the possi- 
 bilities of the position. The result was the develop- 
 ment of choirs, choruses, and orchestras in the schools. 
 When these pupils finished school, they formed inde- 
 pendent musical organizations, and the work continued. 
 A few years later it was a common occurrence on Sun- 
 day for one of the local celebrities, who had never been 
 outside the town for training, to give a musical recital 
 at one of the city churches. These recitals were of a 
 really high grade. What a contrast this is to many 
 of our communities, where it is diflacult to find any one 
 qualified to play a musical instrument for the singing 
 at public gatherings! What has been done to cultivate 
 enjoyment and appreciation in music can be done in 
 other fields. Persistent effort counts for much in time. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 There is a great need for the better development and 
 guidance of the emotions of people in general. This is 
 
178 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 evidenced by the crude esthetic tastes and unelevating 
 methods of enjoyment of most people. The most im- 
 portant reason for this condition is that teachers have 
 not understood the psychology of the emotional out- 
 comes of teaching. Emotional outcomes can not be 
 imparted, like ideas, but they must be radiated. Indi- 
 vidual differences of people to susceptibility to emo- 
 tional radiation are a complicating factor. Although 
 emotions can not be imparted, they have an intellectual 
 basis in ideas. Too many ideas and not enough feeling 
 are detrimental. Emotional-development outcomes in- 
 clude esthetic and social appreciation and simple 
 enjoyment. 
 
 Hayward has given us the detailed technique of the 
 lesson in appreciation. This lesson emphasizes the 
 principle of the first impression as the fundamental 
 one in this work. The lesson contains seven steps: 
 (1) negative preparation, (2) positive preparation, 
 (3) immediate preparation, (4) presentation, (5) 
 esthetic discussion, (6) intellectual discussion, and (7) 
 reproduction. This lesson is one of the most effective 
 that has been devised. Intellectually it is not ex- 
 tremely difficult, and most teachers can use it success- 
 fully. 
 
 Teachers should seize every opportunity for develop- 
 ing and training the emotions, even though some of 
 them are insignificant. The materials that are used 
 for the work must be graded to suit the capacities of 
 the pupils. In leading pupils to enjoy the best, the 
 
DEVELOPING THE EMOTIONS 179 
 
 teacher should not confuse the intellectual appreciation 
 of unusual technique with real emotional enjoyment 
 and appreciation. The effects of emotional teaching 
 and training are cumulative, and the results of effort 
 devoted to this outcome may not appear at first, but 
 will show later. 
 
 Suggested Readings 
 
 Earhart, Lida B. Types of Teaching. Chapter X. 
 A chapter that is especially strong in its emphasis 
 on the necessity of social appreciation. 
 
 Hayward, F. H. The Lesson in Appreciation. Pp. 
 1-98. This is the masterpiece of present-day treat- 
 ments on the lesson in appreciation. Pertinent 
 illustrations make the pages indicated very helpful. 
 
 Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. 
 Chapter X. Takes the point of view that enjoyment 
 is more inclusive than appreciation. Many helpful 
 hints are given. 
 
 Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process. Chapter VII. 
 A pioneer discussion of the lesson in appreciation, 
 containing pertinent suggestions. 
 
 Exercises 
 
 1. What are the main points for social appreciation 
 
 that are to be found in United States history? 
 
 2. What school subject furnishes the greatest number 
 
180 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 of opportunities for social appreciation? Which 
 one is best for social appreciation? 
 
 3. What emotional outcomes can a teacher secure 
 
 from the course in botany or zoology? 
 
 4. What opportunities for emotional training does 
 
 the course in algebra offer? 
 
 5. Visit class-rooms, and note the emotional out- 
 
 comes for which the teacher has made definite 
 plans. What outcomes are secured apparently 
 by chance? 
 
 6. What aspects of the school-room would you 
 
 modify to make it a place for the more effective 
 training of the emotions? 
 
 7. How are visits to art galleries and art exhibits of 
 
 value in developing the esthetic appreciation 
 of pupils? 
 
 8. Pick out three topics that you think are suitable 
 
 for red-letter lessons. 
 
 9. Prepare a lesson in appreciation upon a suitable 
 
 topic, using the plan proposed by Hayward and 
 including all of the steps. 
 
 10. How can the standards of humor enjoyed by 
 
 pupils be raised? 
 
 11. What are the arguments for and against allowing 
 
 a committee of pupils to select the pictures for 
 the school-room? What modified plan of selec- 
 tion would be better? 
 
 12. After you have taught a poem from the point of 
 
 view of appreciation, ask the pupils to write 
 
DEVELOPING THE EMOTIONS 181 
 
 down the lines, words, and phrases they like 
 best. Classify these, if possible, and note any 
 principles of appreciation that may be dis- 
 covered. 
 
 13. What standards of appreciation and enjoyment 
 
 are low in your community? What can be done 
 to raise them, assuming that the facilities are 
 present? 
 
 14. What evidences have you observed of the cumu- 
 
 lative effects of appreciation? 
 
 15. What emotional outcomes result from the annual 
 
 "clean-up" weeks that many cities and towns 
 observe? 
 
 16. What productive or creative efforts would you 
 
 encourage in the field of appreciation? 
 
 17. What spontaneous expressions of appreciation and 
 
 enjoyment have you noticed among pupils? 
 
CHAPTER X 
 THE REVIEW EXERCISE 
 
 NATURE OF 
 
 The term, review, means in reality a new view. A 
 new view implies that old material must be presented 
 in a new way — in a way that will bring out points of 
 relationship that were not discovered in the ordinary 
 day-by-day study. The review is not a mere repetition 
 of work that has been gone over already. This con- 
 ception of the exercise is a new one to many teachers, 
 but it is the one which will form the basis of the work 
 of this chapter. 
 
 I. Organization of Materials. 
 
 The first function of the review exercise is the or- 
 ganization of the subject-matter that has been taught 
 to the pupils in the preceding lessons. When pre- 
 sented in the regular routine of daily work, facts are 
 new, and the interpretations that the teacher gives 
 often are forgotten. The review gives an opportunity 
 for another effort to interpret and bring out relations. 
 This is a very important service. A famous teacher of 
 the past has been quoted as saying that there were but 
 three laws that should guide the successful teacher: 
 
 182 
 
THE REVIEW EXERCISE 183 
 
 first, review; second, review; and third, review. The 
 review is perhaps not quite so important as that, but 
 it is a very valuable aid to the securing of good teaching 
 results. 
 
 II. Repetition. 
 
 The second function of the review is that it gives 
 additional repetitions to many things that would not 
 be retained otherwise. In the regular lessons facts often 
 are considered but once. This is not enough to make 
 sure that the pupils will remember them. The second 
 presentation of the facts that this exercise gives will 
 be enough many times to fix them. 
 
 III. Recall of Old Knowledge in Preparation 
 
 FOR New. 
 
 The review is used also to recall knowledge that the 
 pupils have, in preparation for the presentation of new 
 material. This use is recognized and applied in the 
 expository and inductive lessons. Where the exercise 
 is used systematically for this purpose, it is less 
 necessary to devote lengthy periods to formal review 
 exercises. 
 
 IV. To Discover Whether a Topic Has Been 
 Completed. 
 
 Another function that the review fulfils is to check 
 up to see whether the topic under consideration has 
 been covered. It is difficult for a teacher to keep from 
 
184 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 overlooking some of the minor points of a topic under 
 ordinary class-room conditions. If a few minutes are 
 devoted to a review at the close of the work, there is 
 little danger that anything important wiU be omitted. 
 This function of the exercise is recognized in planning 
 the presentation of the expository lesson. 
 
 V. To Test. 
 
 The review also is a very good device for testing the 
 results of teaching. The oral review, in which the 
 teacher learns what the pupils remember of the pre- 
 ceding lessons, reveals clearly how well the work has 
 been done. Teachers should not let this function 
 become so important in their eyes, however, that they 
 neglect the teaching objective of the review. The test- 
 ing function should be mainly incidental. The cap- 
 stone of a thorough review is the written examination. 
 More will be said about this in Chapter XIV. 
 
 WHEN TO REVIEW 
 
 A review is in order at the end of each unit of 
 subject-matter. Small units require short exercises, 
 and large units lengthy ones. Each break in the syl- 
 labus should be the occasion for a pause and a resume 
 of the work covered. It is not necessary, however, that 
 every class period have its time for review. To say 
 that the first five minutes of every period should be 
 devoted to this exercise is to formalize the work and 
 make it lacking in variety and flexibility. On the 
 
THE REVIEW EXERCISE 185 
 
 other hand, it is easy for a teacher to get so interested 
 in the rapid progress made from day to day that, as 
 a result, she may dislike to pause for such a seemingly 
 prosaic and time-consuming thing as the review. It 
 is safe to say that few teachers go back over the work 
 covered as much as they really should. Many public- 
 school teachers and most college teachers expect the 
 reviewing that is done to be engineered by the pupils 
 themselves in their study work. This practice neglects 
 one of the greatest opportunities for real teaching that 
 the work offers. More can be done, which is tangible, 
 in a half-hour's exercise of this kind than in two or 
 three times as long a period devoted to the usual class- 
 work. 
 
 HOW TO REVIEW 
 
 The review should be so conducted as to bring 
 together revelant facts of the pupil's experience. 
 Teachers sometimes feel called upon to review because 
 they know that teaching theory advocates it; yet they 
 are unable to recognize relevant facts and fail in con- 
 ducting this exercise. The questions used should be 
 such that they provoke thought. The old facts must 
 be seen in a new light. There is no real place for new 
 facts in the review. A teacher may find it desirable 
 to digress from the regular line of thought and bring 
 in new facts, but she is not reviewing when she does it. 
 The first essential of a good review is careful thinking 
 along lines relevant to the topic of the lesson. 
 
186 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 The teacher may use many devices in the review 
 exercise. Since the review is concerned primarily with 
 the knowledge side of the teaching process, outlines are 
 very serviceable. Topical outlines may be prepared, 
 as noted under the section on the topical recitation, 
 and given to the pupils to guide them in the lesson 
 preparation. When they come to the recitation, they 
 can use the outlines as the core of the work. Ques- 
 tions that demand thought and the organization of 
 lesson facts may be given to the pupils also to help 
 them study. These questions may be very compre- 
 hensive, enough so to justify the teacher at times even 
 in promising that the examination questions will be 
 taken from them. In general, the teacher ought not 
 to limit herself by such a promise, unless experience 
 shows that the questions are comprehensive and that 
 the motivation resulting from them counterbalances 
 the loss of initiative on the teacher's part. Topics may 
 take the place of questions in the pupil assignment. 
 
 A good review recitation can not be secured unless 
 the pupils have spent some time in preparation for it. 
 When they have done everything that they can in the 
 way of organizing and interpreting the materials, the 
 teacher is ready to do the most effective work. This 
 implies that it is best to have a study period precede 
 the review. To ask the pupils to review without giving 
 them questions, outlines, or topics as guides, is to cause 
 them to repeat the work in much the same manner 
 as it was studied at first. Outlines, partly made out, 
 
THE REVIEW EXERCISE 187 
 
 to be completed by the pupils in their study, furnish 
 most interesting material for the class discussion. A 
 second essential, then, is careful pupil preparation. 
 
 Problems are another device for reviewing. All 
 problems are not necessarily of such a nature as to 
 aid in securing a new view of old material, but many 
 may be formed to secure that end. They are valuable 
 in that they always bring the puzzle instinct to the aid 
 of education. Comparison lessons, in which two topics 
 that have been considered separately are compared and 
 contrasted, are also valuable in review work. These 
 comparison lessons are very helpful in the content 
 subjects. 
 
 IMPORTANCE OF THE REVIEW 
 
 The review is a highly important class-room exercise 
 because it frequently adds the finishing touches to a 
 teacher's work. The work from day to day has con- 
 cerned itself necessarily with detailed facts, "bits of 
 information." Things are seen, as it were, with the 
 high powers of the microscope in the daily work, and 
 the pupils do not realize what they are really like. The 
 review puts things in their natural order, looks at them 
 with the naked eye, as it were. This work connects 
 up the items of information that were presented from 
 day to day and makes them meaningful. 
 
 The review also serves as a means for checking up 
 the teacher's work. A teacher labors in order that 
 pupils may be benefited. When they come to a review 
 
188 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 without showing any mental improvement that may 
 be detected, it is time for the teacher to take stock of 
 the methods of teaching she has used. In any case, 
 this exercise shows the weak points, which may be 
 made the objectives of later work. In addition to 
 checking up on a teacher's methods, the review tends 
 to show what the individual pupils have done. It also 
 shows what progress has been made by the class, and 
 thus gives the teacher a basis upon which to build 
 future lessons. Beginning teachers can adopt no rule 
 that will be more productive of results than the rule 
 that the completion of every unit of subject-matter 
 should be followed by a review. 
 
 TIME TO BE GIVEN TO THE REVIEW 
 
 The time to be given to this work depends upon the 
 nature of the teaching to be done. The daily review 
 can be overdone very easily, because the teacher is so 
 fresh from the details of the preceding day's work that 
 they seem very important. One of the things that a 
 teacher must learn is that many details are, and should 
 be, forgotten soon after they are presented. They help 
 to make principles and big ideas meaningful, and com- 
 plete their service with this. The daily review is too 
 close to the details to be of much help. Except the 
 situations where a unit of subject-matter of importance 
 has been completed, the daily review should do little 
 more than recall enough of the preceding day's work 
 to give a basis for the work at hand. 
 
THE REVIEW EXERCISE 189 
 
 On the other hand, the biweekly, monthly, or 
 semester review should be allotted ample time to make 
 the work clear. Entire class periods may be devoted 
 profitably to such work. The work must be well 
 planned by the teacher. Teachers often look upon the 
 review as something like a vacation from lesson prepa- 
 ration. They need to make just as careful preparation 
 for the review as for any other lesson, though their 
 acquaintance with the materials just covered may 
 lighten the reading required and shorten the time 
 needed in preparation for the teaching work. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 The review exercise should bring out points of view 
 that were not noticed in the daily work. The main 
 purpose of the review exercise is the organization of 
 knowledge. It also serves to repeat points in need of 
 additional attention, to recall old knowledge in prepa- 
 ration for the new, to discover whether a topic has been 
 covered adequately, and to test out the work that the 
 pupils have done. A review is in order at the end of 
 every important unit of subject-matter. It should be 
 so conducted that related items of subject-matter are 
 brought together so that the relationships may be 
 revealed. Topical outlines, questions for study that 
 demand thought, and problems may be used to aid in 
 the review. The review is a most important class- 
 room exercise because it frequently adds the finishing 
 
190 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 touches to a teacher's work. It serves to reveal to the 
 teacher how well her work has been done. The nature 
 of the subject-matter should determine the amount of 
 time that should be given to the review. 
 
 Suggested Readings 
 
 Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching. Chapter 
 XXI. A well written chapter on the review exer- 
 cise in its various aspects. 
 
 Earhart, Lida B. Types of Teaching. Chapter 
 XIII. A very good presentation of the review 
 exercise. 
 
 Harvey, N. A. Principles of Teaching. Pp. 243-246. 
 Suggestions that will aid teachers in conducting re- 
 views. 
 
 Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process. Chapter IX. 
 The review considered mainly as a means of exam- 
 ination. 
 
 Exercises 
 
 1. What kinds of questions must be avoided in pre- 
 
 paring a set of review questions, if the review 
 is to bring a new view? 
 
 2. Prepare a set of five or more questions that will 
 
 be suitable as an aid for reviewing a month's 
 work in United States history. 
 
 3. What function of the review predominates in the 
 
 average spelling review? 
 
THE REVIEW EXERCISE 191 
 
 4. What school subjects lend themselves best to the 
 
 organizing function of the review? 
 
 5. Why should not every third Monday of the school 
 
 year be devoted to a review? 
 
 6. Why is it necessary for the teacher to direct the 
 
 pupils in their review work? 
 
 7. Why are reviews needed more in geography and 
 
 history than in algebra? 
 
 8. Will the details be more or less emphasized in the 
 
 review than in the daily work? Why? 
 
 9. What faulty procedure must a teacher avoid in 
 
 preparing for a review exercise? 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 TRAINING IN APPLICATION 
 
 THE PROBLEM 
 
 The entire work of the school must lead to a change 
 in the pupils' reactions toward their environment if 
 this work is to be effective. This result can be assured 
 only by giving them a chance to react in the school- 
 room, where the teacher can check up and discover 
 whether they are responding in the conventional ways. 
 This is the problem of training in application. It is 
 not enough to tell a pupil how to do a thing. He must 
 be given a chance to do it. The reason why Experi- 
 ence always impresses people as being such a good 
 teacher is that she teaches with the minimum of telling 
 and the maximum of doing. If we can imitate her in 
 this respect, without imitating her wasteful over- 
 emphasis along one line and neglect along others, our 
 teaching will be much more effective. 
 
 To do this, the teacher must emphasize the use of 
 what has been taught at every legitimate opportunity, 
 and opportunities must be created as frequently as 
 possible until the results are satisfactory. These situa- 
 tions are most valuable if they are as nearly like real 
 life as possible. The teacher's part in training in 
 
 192 
 
TRAINING IN APPLICATION 193 
 
 application, then, consists mainly in creating demands 
 for the use of what has been learned. It is not enough 
 merely to create these situations, however. The pupils 
 must be stimulated to make use of them. 
 
 FORMS OF APPLICATION 
 
 Before the technique of training in application is 
 considered, it will be well to examine the various forms 
 in which it may be found. These are forms of pupil 
 effort that provide work for the study period. Often 
 the study period is devoted entirely to this work. At 
 times the same task may be brought into the formal 
 class period, and then it becomes a different kind of 
 exercise. The same material may be used as the sub- 
 ject of a bit of deductive teaching in one instance and 
 as the task in application for home-work in another. 
 Application involves individual pupil effort, independ- 
 ently carried on by the class members during the study 
 hour. 
 
 I. Constructive or Creative Effort. 
 
 Pupils sometimes are asked to apply what they have 
 been taught constructively or creatively. Their efforts 
 vary from work that is but slightly different from the 
 model or copy, to that which shows a very high degree 
 of originality. Thus, we may say that a pupil who 
 in an oral theme class told a joke or story that he had 
 read was doing an elementary piece of constructive 
 work if he made the slight modifications necessary to 
 
194 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 adapt it to his hearers. If, on the contrary, he pre- 
 sented an original prize story or oration, his work would 
 be of the highest caliber. In addition to the theme 
 work, oral and written, of the English courses, there 
 are many opportunities for constructive effort in other 
 subjects. The work in music, when it reaches the 
 more advanced stages, contains much of it. The draw- 
 ing and art work, even from the elementary stages, is 
 filled with opportunities for the expression of indi- 
 vidual ideas. The boys in manual training and the 
 girls in home economics also have their demands along 
 the same line. In fact, the ingenious teacher may find 
 situations in nearly every subject that provide for the 
 expression of creative effort. Few subjects, however, 
 are as filled with these possibilities as the English and 
 art work. These offer opportunities of the highest 
 achievements in literature and art. 
 
 The other school subjects offer less promising fields 
 for constructive effort. The teacher of biology and 
 other natural sciences frequently requests the pupils 
 to make drawings of specimens and apparatus. These 
 sketches are not intended to show anything other than 
 the actual essentials of the specimens, but they demand 
 knowledge and discrimination. They give an oppor- 
 tunity for the expression of individual initiative that 
 is appreciated best by those who have taught these sub- 
 jects. In geography and history the map work also 
 provides the pupils with opportunities for constructive 
 
TRAINING IN APPLICATION 195 
 
 work. This applies not only to the drawing and 
 making of maps themselves, but also to the practice 
 of using outline maps, which may be filled out in vari- 
 ous ways. The commercial preparation of outline 
 maps by publishing houses, which has reduced the cost 
 of such helps, has opened a field to the teacher that is 
 very important. In geography, these maps may be 
 used to show industries, products, rainfall, physical 
 features, and many other things. This use leads to an 
 understanding of things that would be but poorly 
 comprehended otherwise. In history, explorations, 
 settlements, changes in territory, and military cam- 
 paigns are made most real by the use of outline maps. 
 In fact, this phase of teaching is often discussed under 
 the problem of securing realness in teaching, because 
 it is so helpful. 
 
 Another method of securing constructive effort in 
 content subjects is by the use of outlines. This has 
 been discussed already. When outlines are given to 
 the pupils to be filled out in the study hour, one of 
 the teaching functions that they fulfil is training in 
 application. 
 
 II. Translation Work. 
 
 The ordinary translation work of the foreign- 
 language class is primarily training in application. 
 The pupils are asked to put words, verb forms, and 
 other ideas together according to rules. This is a com- 
 
196 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 plete test of the mental assimilation of the material. 
 Pupils must keep many things in mind, and this is 
 what makes the work so difficult. 
 
 III. Problems. 
 
 Problems that are assigned for study work demand 
 the application of principles and facts learned in the 
 class period. Many subjects contain problems, as has 
 been noted in an earlier chapter. The old established 
 subjects, e.g., mathematics in its different forms, made 
 much use of the problem method of teaching. As 
 taught by many teachers, the work in algebra and 
 arithmetic is little but training in application. In 
 physics and chemistry the problems furnish a very 
 effective means of application, if properly selected. 
 There is a danger, however, that problems will be 
 pedantic and little related to practical life activities. 
 Problems may be devised in other subjects, but these 
 often do not lend themselves to the use of problem 
 exercises so readily as those already mentioned. 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF TRAINING PUPILS IN 
 APPLICATION 
 
 I. Motivation. 
 
 The first step confronting a teacher who wishes to 
 train pupils in application is motivation. The pupils 
 must be led to desire to do the things that the teacher 
 will ask them to do. In oral themes, a real audience 
 and new information combine to furnish this step. In 
 
TRAINING IN APPLICATION 197 
 
 problem work the puzzle instinct can be aroused, and 
 it may prove sufficient. 
 
 II. Statement of Problem or Task. 
 
 The next essential is the statement of the problem 
 or task. The pupils must know just what the task 
 confronting them is. It often is not sufficient at the 
 start merely to assign a number of problems from a 
 prepared list or to give a list of other topics. Pupils 
 must be helped by an analysis of a few typical cases 
 before they are ready to attack the assignments inde- 
 pendently. As they become more skilled in this work, 
 less help will be needed from the teacher. The sug- 
 gestions given in the discussion of the assignment are 
 applicable here. 
 
 III. Necessity of Information. 
 
 The third step confronting the teacher is that she 
 must ascertain whether the pupils have the information 
 needed. If it is discovered that they do not have it, 
 it becomes necessary for her to provide it: Every bit 
 of information required need not be given at this time, 
 but enough must be furnished to make a start possible. 
 Pupils often acquire many additional facts as they 
 progress in the work. The greatest weakness of most 
 such teaching, however, is that too little information 
 is given by the teacher before the pupils are put to 
 work. Too much is expected of them. Thus, pupils 
 are sent to the laboratory in biology and told to draw 
 
198 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 the grasshopper or crayfish, finding their instructions 
 in the manual. Such a method may be a good one to 
 develop the research ability of the scientist, but it is 
 a poor one by which to train the average pupil. It 
 would be better if the teacher devoted a few minutes 
 beforehand in describing to the pupils what they are 
 to draw and showing where it may be found. Much 
 time that is wasted ordinarily would be saved and a 
 better interest would prevail. The same is true of 
 other studies. The pupils should not be given the 
 mathematics or physics problems without first receiv- 
 ing the proper preparation for the work. 
 
 These steps, motivation, assignment of the work, 
 and the furnishing of the information, need not come 
 in the order given here. They may take a varied order. 
 At times the teacher may give the information first, 
 state the work to be done next, and provide the reason 
 for doing it last. At other times each problem may 
 have its separate and varied treatment. The funda- 
 mental thing to be recognized in all application, how- 
 ever, is that effective work can be secured systema- 
 tically only by careful attention to each of these 
 requirements. When these are attended to, the pupils 
 are ready for the study hour. 
 
 THE APPLICATION RECITATION 
 
 Many teachers have the idea that everything that 
 the pupils study must be recited upon in class. Nothing 
 could be further from the truth in training in appli- 
 
TRAINING IN APPLICATION 199 
 
 cation. The situation can be illustrated best by the 
 work in an algebra class where the pupils have spent 
 the study period upon a list of problems in factoring. 
 The usual procedure in the recitation is for the teacher 
 to assign the problems that have been studied to dif- 
 ferent class members, each of whom puts one on the 
 blackboard. When all have been copied on the board, 
 the teacher begins the recitation by calling upon each 
 pupil to explain his problem. 
 
 This process is usually a time-consuming procedure 
 with few educational benefits. There is no reason why 
 any problem should be placed on the blackboard, if it 
 has been understood and worked successfully by all 
 competent class members. Such emphasis might be 
 given to problems that furnished difiiculty to most of 
 the pupils^ but only to these. The time could be spent 
 more profitably in considering entirely new problems 
 or new facts and principles in preparation for other 
 problems. 
 
 When the class considers problems studied at home 
 and worked successfully, no provision is made for keep- 
 ing the pupils busy, and inattention and disorder are 
 likely to be rampant unless the teacher is a marvel at 
 securing order without keeping the pupils busy. The 
 task of providing for individual differences is a difficult 
 one in this work. It can be done best by giving the 
 pupils a list of problems that are new and allowing 
 them to attempt them at the blackboard or at their 
 seats, each working as fast as his capabilities will per- 
 
200 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 mit. The teacher's task would be to move among the 
 pupils and pass upon the accuracy of the work. 
 
 There is little temptation to go over familiar work 
 in this deadening fashion where outline maps and 
 similar work are concerned. These do not lend them- 
 selves to recitation purposes, and are so new that they 
 have taken the proper subsidiary place in the class- 
 room. Foreign-language work, however, might take a 
 hint from the mathematics class. There is no doubt 
 that the attention and interest would be more intense 
 if new material were used in class in place of that 
 studied in the preceding study lesson when translation 
 work is involved, especially in Latin prose composition. 
 Even where new materials are not studied, it is a 
 marked gain to have the old ones in new forms. This 
 is recognized by one of the series of Latin texts, which 
 has a book without notes or vocabulary for class-work, 
 and another, provided profusely with notes, for the 
 study hour. 
 
 In the English class the recitation hour may be well 
 spent in considering the results that pupils have 
 secured in their individual study periods. The work 
 here is very different from mathematics. The interest 
 is centered chiefly in the entire product and not in an 
 answer. The pupils often need just the situation of 
 the recitation, which furnishes them a real audience, 
 to bring out their best. When themes are prepared for 
 the teacher alone, not half the interest is manifested 
 that is shown when they are prepared for the class. 
 
TRAINING IN APPLICATION 201 
 
 The same thing is true of the work in music and art. 
 It is the finished product in its entirety that is desired. 
 
 CHECKING THE PUPILS' WORK 
 
 It must not be inferred, because some of the work 
 that pupils do need not be considered in the formal 
 work of the recitation, that this work can be neglected. 
 It must be checked, even though it is not a part of 
 the material recited upon in class. There are various 
 ways in which this can be done without burdening the 
 teacher too heavily. This work is usually prepared by 
 the pupils in a form that can be handed to the teacher. 
 When it is prepared on loose sheets, the teacher should 
 collect this work as faithfully as she records the at- 
 tendance. When the work is put in note-books, these 
 need not be collected so regularly. 
 
 It is not necessary for the teacher to mark every set 
 of these papers, however, if her work is heavy. The 
 marking of every third or fourth set will keep her in 
 close touch with the work of each pupil, if the papers 
 sire numerous. Of course, the greatest value will be 
 realized by the pupils if every paper is examined care- 
 fully and returned with a personal consultation with 
 its maker; but few teachers can give the time and 
 energy necessary to do this. Teachers often devise 
 schemes whereby this work is lightened to a certain 
 extent. One plan requires the pupils to keep their 
 work in note-books. These are collected at intervals 
 
202 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 and given a cursory examination. Another plan secures 
 a checking of the results by having the pupils exchange 
 work and correct each other's papers. Neither of these 
 plans is as satisfactory as when the teacher marks the 
 individual sheets herself, but they may be of much 
 help to the busy teacher. 
 
 In the rhetoric class the problem is a little different 
 from that in some of the other subjects. The written 
 themes, especially, require a careful examination if 
 they are to be most helpful. It has been found, how- 
 ever, that too much red ink may be detrimental. All 
 criticisms should be constructive if possible, and purely 
 destructive criticism should be avoided. In this, as in 
 many other matters, the teacher must use good judg- 
 ment if the most successful work is to be realized. It 
 has been found that a combination of the oral and 
 written theme work is much more effective than either 
 oral or written work alone. Oral themes require the 
 minimum of laborious correcting later, so teachers are, 
 as a rule, very glad to give two or three periods a week 
 to oral work. This is more effective, from the point 
 of view of the teaching process, and saves much time 
 that would be consumed in reading papers if the work 
 were all written. 
 
 CAUTIONS 
 
 One of the mistakes frequently made by teachers 
 while training pupils in application is to expect too 
 much from them. The work looks so easy to the 
 
TRAINING IN APPLICATION 203 
 
 teacher that she is inclined to become impatient when 
 nothing but apparent failures are produced by the 
 pupils. The difficulty is that the teacher has set up 
 too high a standard of attainment. Whenever a 
 teacher in an ordinary school complains about having 
 a class of blockheads, that teacher has either not 
 mastered the elements of teaching or is expecting too 
 much from the pupils. If the pupils really are sub- 
 normal, it will be necessary to change the methods 
 used for the average pupils to those suited to defectives. 
 The result of demanding too much frequently is dis- 
 honest work. The teacher who fails to discriminate 
 sufficiently to realize how much pupils can do often is 
 unable to detect the little subterfuges to which pupils 
 resort when work beyond their capabilities is de- 
 manded. A poor piece of work, but the pupil's own, is 
 much better, from the educational point of view, than 
 that which some one else has done for him. The surest 
 way to prevent dishonest work is to ask only what 
 pupils can do well, and to check systematically on the 
 work. The practice of permitting tardy work to be 
 counted often leaves a loophole for pupils to copy the 
 work of others and hand it in as their own. A piece 
 of work should not be accepted after the corrected work 
 has been returned, if there is any doubt as to its 
 genuineness. A good way to control this is to require 
 pupils to secure special permission for the preparation 
 of late work, and to be sparing in granting requests for 
 this privilege. 
 
204 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 AIDS 
 
 There are several aids or devices that a teacher may 
 employ in one or another of the fields of work. The 
 most common of these is the use of models of copies. 
 There seems to be nothing quite so helpful to pupils 
 as to have a sample product to examine from time to 
 time as they proceed with their work. Few are so 
 original as to be able to get along entirely without 
 illustrative models to guide them. This device is one 
 that has been employed for a long time in mathematics 
 work, and is a pedagogical aid of known value. Well 
 prepared text-books, with appropriate illustrative ex- 
 amples, are of great help to the teacher. Teachers of 
 written themes also know the value of models, which 
 may be used, when the assignments are made, to make 
 clear what is wanted. It sometimes seems that pupils 
 are too dependent upon these aids, but it must be 
 remembered that they are in new work. It takes much 
 copying and imitation to make the great artists, and 
 the school is usually trying to impart the merest rudi- 
 ments. The slightest display of originality is a real 
 find when the work is in a new field. 
 
 In oral theme work the brief has been found to be of 
 value. Pupils are required to prepare briefs before 
 they come to class. These may be submitted to the 
 teacher for criticism before the theme is given. The 
 preparation of the brief requires the organization of 
 the materials and helps to secure clear thinking. 
 
TRAINING IN APPLICATION 205 
 
 VALUE OF TRAINING IN APPLICATION 
 
 This phase of teaching is of especial value because 
 the results are objective. It is so easy to see what has 
 been accomplished. Assuming that the reactions of 
 the pupils are a measure of what they have learned, 
 it is a good test of teaching results. Thus, this work 
 becomes a test of the teacher's ability to direct the 
 teaching process. The results secured also are a 
 measure of the real progress attained by the individual 
 pupils. It often happens that pupils can master 
 memory materials readily but can not see opportunities 
 for applying them. Teachers often show similar weak- 
 nesses — knowing the theory of pedagogy from begin- 
 ning to end, but failing as teachers because they can 
 not use what they know. Application thus becomes a 
 test of the ability to use one's knowledge practi- 
 cally. 
 
 Training in application also tends to test out 
 subject-matter. Of course, it is possible for teachers 
 to devise very artificial situations for the application 
 of subject-matter, but most types of application have 
 a bearing on life problems. This bearing should be as 
 direct as possible, and then much useless subject- 
 matter will be detected. 
 
 The step application is the final step in several of 
 the model teaching forms. It is a phase of teaching 
 that should be used wherever and whenever it is of 
 value. 
 
206 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 The teacher must devote a part of her time to 
 teaching pupils to apply the knowledge and other out- 
 comes they have acquired. The opportunities devised 
 for this application should be as nearly like actual life 
 problems as possible. Pupils are asked to apply their 
 knowledge in constructive or creative effort in rhetoric, 
 music, manual training, and other subjects. They 
 apply it also in translation work and in problems. In 
 training pupils in application it is necessary (1) to 
 motivate, (2) to make them realize the problem or task 
 to be surmounted, and (3) to make sure that the neces- 
 sary materials are at hand or can be acquired easily. 
 
 The recitation on application materials should add 
 a new point of view and not be a repetition of what 
 every one has done in his individual application work. 
 It is a common practice for teachers to go over the 
 work in mathematics, and similar subjects, in a deaden- 
 ing fashion, "explaining" the work that has been done 
 by every one. The newer subjects offer less tempta- 
 tion to attempt such routine tasks and are better taught 
 in consequence. 
 
 It is necessary that the teacher check the work of 
 the pupils carefully and systematically. Various de- 
 vices may be used, however, to relieve the teacher of 
 some of this drudgery. Teachers must not expect too 
 much from their pupils. Original work that is of a 
 poor quality is better than high-grade counterfeit work. 
 
TRAINING IN APPLICATION 207 
 
 The use of models or copies that show what should be 
 done is an important aid in teaching pupils how to do 
 new tasks. Briefs are helpful in oral themes. The 
 ability to apply one's knowledge is one of the most 
 valuable results that can be secured by education. 
 This teaching also tends to test out subject-matter; for 
 that which can not be applied probably is of little 
 value, in the public school at least. 
 
 Suggested Readings 
 
 Bagley, W. C. The Educative Process. Pp. 301-304. 
 
 A pertinent discussion of the step of application. 
 Burnett, T. J. The Essentials of Teaching. Pp. 221- 
 
 224. Several important considerations that should 
 
 guide the teacher are given. 
 Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching. Pp. 378- 
 
 385. Some excellent suggestions are given. 
 Harvey, N. A. Principles of Education. Pp. 221-227. 
 
 Points are presented on the training of pupils in 
 
 expression. 
 Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. 
 
 Chapter XI. A thorough treatment of the topic 
 
 expression. 
 
 Exercises 
 
 Give examples of practical exercises that require 
 application by the pupils of things that they 
 have learned. 
 
208 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 2. Which school subjects lend themselves best to 
 
 exercises in application that appeal to pupils 
 as worth while? 
 
 3. Show how information is a necessity for effective 
 
 work in application. 
 
 4. Individual differences are revealed by the way 
 
 pupils respond to application work in different 
 subjects. Illustrate this. How does this fact 
 modify instruction? 
 
 5. What devices can you suggest for the motivation 
 
 of translation work? 
 
 6. What values come from the use of outline maps in 
 
 history work when these maps show territorial 
 changes and historical movements? 
 
 7. What devices can you suggest that will make it 
 
 easier for the teacher to check the work of the 
 pupils? 
 
 8. How can a teacher be sure that the work asked is 
 
 too hard for the pupils in their state of advance- 
 ment in the subject? 
 
 9. What are the usual signs of dishonest work in 
 
 application? 
 
 10. How may models be a hindrance instead of a help 
 
 to pupils in their application work? 
 
 11. Give five examples that show the necessity of 
 
 training in application. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 DEVELOPING INDIVIDUALITY 
 
 I. Neglected Phase of Present-Day Teaching. 
 
 This phase of education has been neglected to a great 
 extent in the past. Few teachers have made any con- 
 scious attempts to develop the individuality of their 
 pupils along definite lines. The fact that this side of 
 their lives has been neglected has not caused it to fail 
 to develop, but, instead, it often has developed along 
 lines that are not the best. The result has been that 
 pupils have grown up as their chance inclinations, 
 home environment, and other sporadic influences have 
 affected them. In most cases, this has resulted in the 
 growth of an individualistic personality that is ill fitted 
 for the complex life of social intercourse, the lot of 
 most people. A certain amount of individuality is 
 bound to be present under every condition because of 
 individual differences; but, in spite of the differences, 
 there should be desirable uniform characteristics. The 
 differences should manifest themselves in different 
 methods of attaining the same ends, not in different 
 
 ends. 
 
 209 
 
210 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 II. Kind of Individuality Needed. 
 
 If one put it tersely, the kind of individuality needed 
 is a social or moral individuality. This implies, first 
 of all, that pupils must be trained to be useful members 
 of society. Beyond this there is a need for the bringing 
 out of the best that is in each one. A moral person- 
 ality might be developed by a repressive training that 
 destroyed initiative and originality, but much good 
 would be sacrificed for this attainment. Instead, it is 
 better to bring out the personality of each in such a 
 manner as to secure the benefits of such possibilities 
 of initiative, originality, and self-reliance as may be 
 present. There was a time when society was static, or 
 nearly so ; but progress is so rapid now that every ten- 
 dency making for a sane social adjustment is needed. 
 The person who is original, yet who knows how to 
 prevent his originality from interfering with the rights 
 of others, is the most desirable member of society. 
 
 Our American society, with its democratic charac- 
 teristics, is built upon the individual as a unit. This 
 demands a thoroughly trained population. Many edu- 
 cators have contrasted American schools unfavorably 
 with those of Germany, showing how the latter ex- 
 celled along scholastic lines. The World War revealed, 
 however, that American education leads the world in 
 the development of individuality, which perhaps is of 
 more real worth than the most thorough mastery of 
 Greek, Latin, and mathematics. 
 
DEVELOPING INDIVIDUALITY 211 
 
 III. Methods That May Be Used. 
 
 Individuality is the result of the influence of many 
 complex factors. The school life, in its extra-curric- 
 ulum phases, is one of the most important within the 
 control of the teacher. Because of the complexity of 
 the situation, the work has suffered more from a lack 
 of discrimination of what the results of methods might 
 be than from a lack of methods. 
 
 A. Class as a Social Group. 
 
 The treatment of the class as a social group is one 
 way in which to develop the social side of the pupils. 
 It has been intimated already that the adoption of 
 group teaching offered many chances for pupil develop- 
 ment that were lacking in the older methods of indi- 
 vidualistic teaching. The form of the question was 
 affected and the entire method of the recitation was 
 changed. The class, as a social group, is a factor that 
 the teacher must consider when group plans are made. 
 It is very unwise for the teacher to plan extraordinary 
 activities that concern the group without consulting 
 the pupils and molding their opinions. Teachers often 
 employ this social force on unusual occasions, such as 
 the observance of special days, school entertainments, 
 and the like, but neglect it in the regular class-work. 
 The most common method of utilizing this force is the 
 socialized recitation. 
 
 I. Socialized recitation. — a. What it is: The social- 
 
212 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 ized recitation is that form in which the class members 
 take turns in presiding and conducting the recitation. 
 A competent pupil is selected by the teacher, or the 
 class, to direct the work. This pupil presides, and calls 
 upon the others to recite upon topics that have been 
 prepared beforehand by the teacher. If the pupil 
 recitations are not complete, the leader asks questions 
 and solicits comments from the class to complete the 
 thought. 
 
 b. When it can be used: This form of exercise can 
 be used only in simple or well organized material. 
 The content must be simple enough to require little 
 manipulation and rearrangement in class. It is of 
 service in reviews and formal drill exercises, the ma- 
 terials of which are familiar to the class. It can be 
 used sometimes in content lessons where the main 
 purpose is to enrich topics already somewhat familiar. 
 
 c. Merits and defects: The chief merit of this form 
 of recitation is that it develops the initiative, self- 
 reliance, and capacity for responsibility of those who 
 take an active part in the work. The pupil who leads 
 the exercise undoubtedly receives much benefit from 
 the work. The others, who are called upon to recite or 
 who do so voluntarily, are stimulated in a different way 
 from that in which the teacher affects them in the regu- 
 lar work. Pupils are more inclined to feel the approval 
 and disapproval of their fellows than under the usual 
 conditions. They develop self-assurance very rapidly 
 under this recitation form. 
 
DEVELOPING INDIVIDUALITY 213 
 
 This form of class-room exercise, however, substi- 
 tutes an inexperienced, untrained leader for the teacher, 
 and is of less value as a teaching exercise than work 
 supervised by the teacher. Unless the thought move- 
 ment is extremely simple, many things will be treated 
 superficially and left incomplete. Whenever the lesson 
 materials are important the socialized recitation should 
 not be used, because its main outcomes are modifica- 
 tions of personality and not items of information. The 
 changes in individuality that result are important 
 enough, nevertheless, to warrant a more extended use 
 of this form than is the rule at present. 
 
 Unless the teacher has the work of the socialized 
 recitation well planned, the activities are liable to 
 become wasteful of time and energy. The pupil leader 
 is at a loss to know what to do, and the pupils find the 
 novelty of the situation its chief attraction. Nothing 
 seems to be more discouraging and aimless than such 
 a class-room exercise under the direction of the wrong 
 leader. The teacher should not attempt this form of 
 teaching with immature pupils. Neither should it be 
 used at the beginning of the school year, before the 
 pupils and teacher have developed a spirit of coopera- 
 tion. To do so is to invite trouble and disorder. At 
 the beginning of the year the teacher must rely upon 
 more routine methods, unless she is acquainted with 
 the class as the result of a previous term's work with 
 it. 
 
214 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 B. Stimulation of Pupil Responsibility. 
 
 Closely related to the activities of the class-room, 
 and lending itself more to the development of the best 
 phases of individuality than the socialized recitation, 
 are the devices that stimulate pupil responsibility. 
 There are phases of school life in which pupils may do 
 much more than teachers to eradicate evils. This 
 is because these evils exist mainly on account of a 
 social attitude of approval, or amused interest, on the 
 part of the pupils toward these questionable practices. 
 Thus it sometimes happens that many pupils almost 
 approve of cheating or "cribbing" in school work. 
 When this is the case the teachers face a very difficult 
 problem. The best solution, and in fact the only effec- 
 tive one because it helps by training for life, is to 
 change the pupil attitude. This can be done best by 
 some form of pupil responsibility in such matters. 
 
 The best form of pupil responsibility is what is 
 known as pupil cooperative government. This has all 
 of the machinery of the other form, pupil self-govern- 
 ment, — president, council, constitution, by-laws, etc., — 
 but expressly implies that it is a device the purpose of 
 which is to secure for the teachers the cooperation of 
 the pupils in those matters that are solved most easily 
 with their aid. Thus it has been found that the ques- 
 tion of honesty is a vital one of this nature. Similarly, 
 school authorities have struggled with the problem of 
 
DEVELOPING INDIVIDUALITY 215 
 
 tardiness with little success until the pupils themselves 
 were enlisted in the struggle, when the problem 
 vanished. Many things too numerous to mention are 
 handled best by this plan. 
 
 In pupil cooperative government the pupils are made 
 responsible for the control of such matters. The 
 teachers are consulted whenever there is any doubt 
 about the line of action to be taken, but at other times 
 the pupils act on their own initiative. Further, the 
 pupils recognize that it is no violation of their rights 
 when the teacher takes charge of a situation that is 
 beyond their control. As a result, the pupils measure 
 up to the demands and direct their simple affairs them- 
 selves and an attitude of justice and respect for the 
 rights of others becomes habitual. This is real train- 
 ing for citizenship and develops the proper kind of 
 individuality. 
 
 Pupil responsibility is developed also by means of 
 such organizations as boys' and girls' clubs, literary 
 societies, and nature-study clubs, which band the 
 pupils together for common ends. Effective organiza- 
 tions of this type are the Boy Scouts and the Camp- 
 Fire Girls. These latter, however, depend so much 
 upon the type of leaders available for their effectiveness 
 that they are limited in their field of service. The 
 organization of their ideals is so complete, however, 
 that conscientiousness and devotion to the group by 
 the leader are the most necessary traits. Because of 
 
216 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 their voluntary nature, they will always be handi- 
 capped by the lack of leaders who will be willing to 
 devote their time and energy to the work. 
 
 IV. Moral Training and Development of Indi- 
 viduality. 
 
 In the most comprehensive use of the terms, these 
 two ideas are almost synonymous. The type of indi- 
 viduality needed is that which will be of the greatest 
 service to society. This is a moral individuality. 
 Therefore those methods that have just been con- 
 sidered as of value in the development of individuality 
 are also of service in the right kind of moral training. 
 As usually thought of, however, moral training is more 
 dependent upon the inculcation of the right ideals and 
 emotional reactions than is the development of indi- 
 viduality in its general aspects. This makes it worth 
 while to consider the scope and methods of moral train- 
 ing briefly, at least. 
 
 V. Scope of Morality. 
 
 Morality concerns itself with all types of conduct 
 that influence human happiness. This implies that 
 the concept has a much broader meaning than is given 
 to it in most discussions. Morality is social as well 
 as personal, and moral training must provide for both 
 phases. It is not enough to develop the virtues of 
 prudence, self-control, industry, punctuality, courage, 
 temperance, honesty, and kindness. These things are 
 
DEVELOPING INDIVIDUALITY 217 
 
 elemental and make no provisions for the new prob- 
 lems of life. In addition, a pupil must have social 
 virtues and right attitudes. He must be patriotic in 
 the larger sense of world fellowship, must demand 
 purity in politics, must insist upon the elimination of 
 such social and industrial wrongs as improper housing 
 conditions, commercialized vice, inadequate wages, and 
 unsanitary conditions of employment. These are some 
 of the newer moral problems that must be faced. 
 Moral training is not broad enough if it makes no 
 provisions for the new problems of social morality that 
 arise frequently in our rapidly evolving social order. 
 
 VI. Present Status of Moral Education. 
 
 In the past the school has done little, consciously, 
 along the line of moral training, except to provide inci- 
 dentally for some phases of personal morality. Pupils 
 were drilled in such virtues as punctuality, industry, 
 and obedience; but chastity, filial duty, and other de- 
 sirable modes of reaction received little attention. Any 
 preparation for social conduct given was presented by 
 chance and without any foresight on the part of teacher 
 or curriculum-maker. Present-day vital social prob- 
 lems, such as war profiteering, gentleman's agreements, 
 strikes and lockouts, and unrestricted submarine war- 
 fare, need to be solved just as much as the older prob- 
 lems of short weights, indolence and tardiness. The 
 fundamental problem of moral training is to get pupils 
 to accept the standard of right as a guide to conduct. 
 
218 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 When they recognize that right action is the best, the 
 only problem remaining is to decide what action is 
 right. This problem is an important one, and must be 
 solved on the basis of information. Adequate infor- 
 mation can not be given without a definite plan. 
 
 VII. Different Outcomes Needed at Different 
 Age Levels. 
 
 The teacher's task with the younger children con- 
 sists mainly in the formation of right habits. Pupils 
 must learn to do the right so often that it becomes a 
 habit. They should form habits of punctuality, in- 
 dustry, truthfulness, cheerfulness — a complete list of 
 virtues would be lengthy — in order that they may have 
 the proper foundation for more advanced moral train- 
 ing. Above everything, they should form the habit of 
 doing right, taking their criterion of what is right from 
 established authority. Along with right habits, pupils 
 must acquire a sensitiveness to the approval of right 
 and disapproval of wrong. This means that the emo- 
 tional sanctions of right conduct must be an important 
 factor in the early school and home training. 
 
 Until the onset of the changes of adolescence, chil- 
 dren accept external authority as the primary criterion 
 of right and wrong. Sublime faith is manifested in 
 the wisdom of parents, teachers, and other adults. 
 After the broader outlook of puberty has appeared, 
 there is a tendency for a shift to internal authority, 
 to the decisions of their own minds, as the guide to 
 
DEVELOPING INDIVIDUALITY 219 
 
 conduct. This means that pupils of the junior and 
 senior high schools require a different treatment from 
 that accorded younger children. Moral training for 
 them must emphasize, more and more, the informa- 
 tional side of right conduct. The problem no longer 
 is to get pupils to accept the standard of right, if earlier 
 training has not been entirely neglected, but rather to 
 ,decide, "What is right?" 
 
 VIII. Methods of Moral Training. 
 
 The methods of moral education are much the same 
 as those of ordinary education. The teacher must 
 drill the pupils to form moral habits just as carefully 
 as in the forming of other habits. Drill lessons of 
 the intensive kind seldom can be given in moral action, 
 but many of the rules of habit formation apply to the 
 repetitions necessary. The principles pertinent to the 
 development of the emotions also aid in imparting 
 right moral attitudes. It is a mistake for teachers to 
 expect purely intellectual teaching to sufi&ce. They 
 must, make sure that the right moral attitudes are 
 imparted ; for, as has been pointed out already, one of 
 the fundamentals of a good moral character is a hearty 
 allegiance to right as a duty. The information neces- 
 sary to a decision of what is right can be imparted as 
 information is imparted generally. 
 
 Most discussions of moral education make so much 
 of direct and indirect methods of instruction that it 
 is worth while to consider them briefly. The direct 
 
220 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 method is that form wherein the teacher tries to im- 
 part moral virtues by discussing moral lessons. Too 
 often this implies an extended exposition by the teacher 
 on the topics of the day. It is a bit of preaching by 
 a layman. Moral implications are drawn that are 
 found only by the use of a vivid imagination. These 
 are not felt by the pupils, and consequently do not 
 influence their conduct in the least. The direct method 
 has the weaknesses of all forms of expository teaching. 
 This concept of direct moral teaching has few ardent 
 advocates. Unfortunately, its deficiencies have blinded 
 many educators to the value of any systematic at- 
 tempts at moral instruction. 
 
 The indirect method has been advocated ardently 
 because it seemed to be the only solution. This plan 
 emphasizes the influence of example and incidental 
 crises, which are treated "when the iron is hot," as 
 methods for moral education. These seem to bring 
 quick results and are prized accordingly. Personal 
 examples are valuable because they apply the principle 
 of the radiation of feeling attitudes. Teachers live, 
 and their unguarded moments, when they express their 
 true feelings, are caught by the pupils for better or for 
 worse. This radiation of emotional attitudes is the 
 key-note of the method needed for imparting moral 
 standards, and it is the main thing lacking in direct 
 moral instruction of the exhortatory type. The reason 
 for this is apparent when it is considered in the light 
 
DEVELOPING INDIVIDUALITY 221 
 
 of the discussion of the development of the emotions 
 presented in Chapter IX. 
 
 What, then, shall be the attitude adopted toward 
 moral education? The fundamental thing is that the 
 teacher must analyze the needs into outcomes and 
 work accordingly. The methods used must be suited 
 to the outcomes desired. The greatest defect in the 
 so-called indirect method of teaching is that it makes 
 no provision for a systematic series of outcomes. If 
 moral education is to have a definite .objective, the 
 materials of instruction must be graded just as care- 
 fully as the materials of arithmetic or history. The 
 organization can not be left to mere chance, which will 
 bring a few situations that are suitable materials for 
 moral education. This is even more true of the adoles- 
 cent period, during which the information must be 
 imparted that will furnish an adequate basis for later 
 moral judgments. 
 
 IX. The Information Needed as a Basis for Moral 
 Judgments. 
 
 The problem of the selection of the materials that 
 will furnish a basis for the moral judgments of life is 
 one that is almost a virgin field as far as the high- 
 school work in general is concerned. In most schools 
 little is taught that has a real bearing upon social 
 morality. To be sure, some teachers of civics have 
 tried to build their courses around the duties of the 
 
222 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 citizen rather than around the articles of the Federal 
 and State constitutions. Such courses should be the 
 rule rather than the exception. History also some- 
 times is used to furnish materials for moral training. 
 The really important subjects, however, aside from 
 civics, generally are neglected. To prepare them for 
 future problems of social morality, all high-school 
 pupils should be taught some of the practical elements 
 of economics and sociology and should consider some 
 of the practical problems of moral conduct. This is a 
 pretentious program; but, when relative values are 
 considered, it is of more worth in life for a pupil to 
 justify taxation by presenting the arguments of eco- 
 nomics than it is to remember how many wives Henry 
 the Eighth had or to translate a page of Caesar. The 
 ability to explain the evils of our present system of 
 penal treatment probably will help more in preparation 
 for a useful life than the ability to recite choice selec- 
 tions from Spenser's Faerie Queen. 
 
 X. Individual Differences and Moral Develop- 
 ment. 
 
 One of the reasons why teachers are so confused by 
 the tasks of moral training is that they have over- 
 looked the influence of individual differences. Pupils 
 are no more alike in the ability to respond to the ap- 
 proval and disapproval of others than they are in the 
 ability to learn the multiplication tables. Likewise, 
 they differ markedly in the power to discriminate right 
 
DEVELOPING INDIVIDUALITY 223 
 
 lines of conduct from those that are undesirable. 
 Teachers have worked in the past without taking these 
 facts into account, and have been disappointed when 
 results apparently were not secured. Although three 
 fourths of the class benefited by the teaching, the 
 fourth that did not made itself so conspicuous by its 
 misconduct that the three fourths were forgotten. 
 Teachers are not alarmed when their efforts fail to 
 teach Henry the binomial theorem, but if Henry is 
 delinquent in truthfulness or honesty after they have 
 talked about these virtues, they assume that moral 
 instruction is of no value. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 Schools in general have neglected to provide a com- 
 prehensive program for the development of pupil indi- 
 viduality, and the result has been the growth of many 
 anti-social individualistic types of personality. In- 
 stead, the schools should aim at the cultivation of social 
 individualities that will be suited to a life of social 
 intercourse. 
 
 The development of individuality in its general 
 aspects may be influenced markedly by the treatment 
 of the class as a social group. The socialized recitation 
 is one of the common methods for securing this end. 
 The stimulation of pupil responsibility through pupil 
 cooperative government is another. 
 
 Moral training and the development of individuality 
 may be considered synonymous, though they usually 
 
224 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 are not so considered. Morality includes the problems 
 of social morality as well as those of personal morality. 
 School efforts have been concerned mainly with the lat- 
 ter and have neglected the former. Moral education 
 must aim at different outcomes at the different age 
 levels of the pupils. With young children habits and 
 routine actions of the right kind must be sought. With 
 adolescent children the informational basis of moral 
 judgments must be given. The methods of moral 
 education must be adapted to the outcomes desired. 
 All methods that have value should be used. The 
 most important thing is the careful selection and grad- 
 ing of the outcomes desired and the provision for the 
 information needed for an adequate solution of the 
 main problems of social morality that demand consid- 
 eration. Individual differences make it impossible to 
 secure perfect moral responses from every one, and the 
 teachers should overlook the exceptions and work for 
 the largest per cent, of correct responses possible. 
 
 Suggested Readings 
 
 Drake, Durant. Problems of Conduct. Parts III 
 and IV. This should be read by those who want to 
 learn what one of the leading authorities in ethics 
 thinks the scope o'f morality includes. 
 
 Griggs, E. H. Moral Education. A very comprehen- 
 sive and modem book on the subject, although it 
 was written nearly two decades ago. 
 
DEVELOPING INDIVIDUALITY 225 
 
 Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process. Chapter XIV. 
 A discussion of moral training as the problem is pre- 
 sented by the pre-adolescent age. 
 
 Exercises 
 
 1. What moral virtues can children below the age of 
 
 eleven or twelve be expected to manifest in their 
 action? 
 
 2. When does the social individuality manifest itself 
 
 in the class-room? Do fourth-grade children 
 show it? 
 
 3. Visit class-rooms, and note the expressions of indi- 
 
 viduality of the pupils. Which ones would you 
 consider undesirable? Which ones are desirable 
 characteristics that have been misdirected? 
 
 4. What is the significance of cUques and gangs as 
 
 expressions of the development of individuality? 
 
 5. Make a list of the more important moral virtues 
 
 that a twelve-year-old boy or girl ought to have 
 as a foundation for right conduct. 
 
 6. Give ten problems of social morality that are not 
 
 provided for by the schools at present. 
 
 7. It is often said that high-school pupils are in the 
 
 idealistic stage. What does this mean? If it is 
 true, what opportunities does it present the 
 teacher for fundamental moral training? 
 
 8. How may it be worth while to lead pupils to make 
 
 high moral resolves, even though there is no 
 
226 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 opportunity for them to put these into practice 
 at the time? 
 9. What school situations offer very good opportu- 
 nities for moral training and the exercise of 
 moral judgment? 
 
 10. What is the place of corporal punishment in moral 
 
 training in a community that believes in its use? 
 
 11. Why can not the personality of the teacher be 
 
 relied upon solely for moral training? 
 
 12. What danger confronts the teacher in the use of 
 
 stories and literary selections as media for moral 
 instruction? 
 
 13. Which is of more worth as a means for moral 
 
 training, the system of examinations in which 
 the teacher does police duty to keep pupils 
 honest, or the honor system in which the teacher 
 is as inconspicuous as possible? Why? 
 
 14. Why is it necessary sometimes for teachers to take 
 
 the initiative in matters of pupil government 
 that have supposedly been delegated to the 
 pupils? 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY EFFECTIVELY 
 
 I. Need for Study Training. 
 
 Another one of the recently recognized tasks of 
 teaching is the problem of training pupils to study. 
 The need has existed for ages, but it is only within the 
 last few years that psychology has made enough prog- 
 ress to enable teachers to attack the task intelligently. 
 Lack of a proper understanding of mental phenomena 
 left the study problem in the same condition that it 
 left many of the other difficulties that confront pupils 
 and teacher. Anything that was done was the outcome 
 of chance success resulting from trial and error, or was 
 the result of imitating others. There was no possi- 
 bility of attacking the obstacles intelligently, because 
 little was known of the psychology of the learning 
 process. At present the situation is better, and teach- 
 ers can make a start with the work, although there is 
 much to be done yet before trial and error will be 
 eliminated entirely. 
 Jf wpils often do not learn how to study effectively 
 '^ey are given definite training along that line. 
 most of them do while studying, when un- 
 trai!T5fr, is to read. If a lesson is assigned for study, 
 
 227 
 
228 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 they read the task through two, three, or more times. 
 The last time they go over it, the procedure is almost 
 the same as the first, only a little more rapid. This is 
 not real study. Study involves discrimination and the 
 selection of related materials, which is much more than 
 reading. The need for real training in study methods 
 is very great, for many boys and girls come to college 
 quite unprepared to do efficient independent work. 
 
 No one is really surprised at this deficiency, because 
 the technique of study has been so poorly understood 
 by teachers themselves. Brilliant individuals find one 
 or two readings of a lesson enough, but the average 
 mortal must do much more to master it. Since most 
 of our teachers are those who were the better scholars 
 in school and college, it is a common practice for 
 teachers to assume that, because reading a lesson was 
 studying for them, it will suffice for others. This has 
 proved to be a false assumption, as has been shown by 
 investigations that have been made of the study abili- 
 ties of public-school pupils. 
 
 II. Nature of Study. 
 
 The term study represents one of those concrete 
 ideas that every one recognizes in the act, but that it is 
 hard to define. Study is what a person does when he 
 assimilates an idea or the experience of another person. 
 It involves activity that is directed independ^gjk by 
 the individual studying. The activity may be^^Hal, 
 or both mental and physical. Its purpose is to in^^v^ 
 
TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY EFFECTIVELY 229 
 
 the individuars situation in life by providing him with 
 knowledge or habits that will be of service. It may- 
 take several forms, such as formuig habits, memorizing, 
 problem-solving, and logical thinking. 
 
 III. Purpose of Training How to Study. 
 
 One of the most valuable ways in which a teacher 
 may serve her pupils is to train them so that they no 
 longer need her services. This means that the best 
 thing that can be done for them is to teach pupils how 
 to study effectively. The ability to reason clearly for 
 himself; to know how to make, break, and control his 
 habits ; and to be able to use all of his energies in such 
 perplexing situations as life may have in store — these 
 are the greatest benefits that a pupil may secure from 
 an education. Such acquirements mean that he has 
 learned how to study effectively. Equipped with these 
 tools, a pupil may continue to educate himself without 
 schools or teachers throughout the balance of his life. 
 This is the goal; but it takes years of teaching effort to 
 attain it. 
 
 IV. Technique of Training How to Study. 
 
 A. First Essential. 
 
 The first essential in training pupils how to study is 
 careful assignments. Each lesson has its peculiar dijfi- 
 culties, and pupils must be prepared for these if they 
 a»ijto 'surmount them while studying. The time to 
 provroe for these is in the assignment. The assign- 
 
230 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 ment should furnish all of the helps that any of the 
 class members may need. It also should take account 
 of individual differences by providing individual tasks 
 for pupils who can be spurred to do their best work in 
 this way. These individual assignments often stimu- 
 late pupils to unusual efforts because they enable them 
 to bring to class facts that are new for the others. 
 
 B. Second Essential} 
 
 Proper study conditions are the next essential in 
 training pupils to study. Human beings readily form 
 habits of doing things at definite times in the day, and 
 this applies to studying as well as to smoking and 
 eating. The teacher should make use of this tendency 
 by helping the pupils to plan out study programs that 
 provide a specified time for each lesson of the day. 
 These study programs do away with many tendencies 
 to waste time, because pupils know just when each 
 task is to be begun. Further, they obviate the danger 
 of allowing one subject to be robbed of its proper allot- 
 ment of time by the others. 
 
 An example of the detrimental effects of this crowd- 
 ing is furnished by the writer's experience in high 
 school. Prior to the year that furnished the illustra- 
 tion, the writer's recitations had always been preceded 
 by a study period. Upon entering this year's work, 
 
 ^ How to Study Effectively, by Guy Montrose Whipple, has been 
 drawn upon for most of the material presented here. 
 
TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY EFFECTIVELY 231 
 
 two study periods were followed by two recitation 
 periods. The first subject was exacting, and often 
 received attention throughout both study periods, 
 while the second was neglected. This led to a slump in 
 scholarship in the second subject which was almost 
 disastrous. If the teacher had recognized the problem 
 and had planned out a study program with adequate 
 time allotments, the trouble would have been antici- 
 pated and avoided. Teachers should foresee such diffi- 
 culties and help their pupils over them. A study pro- 
 gram helps much, because it leads to habit formation, 
 and it is easy to do things that are habitual. 
 
 An environment free from distracting influences is 
 another one of the proper conditions. In the school the 
 study-room should not be used for recitation purposes 
 if this can be avoided. The practice that requires a 
 teacher to keep order in one class that is studying, 
 while directing the recitation of another, is not favor- 
 able to effective study. It is a makeshift that should 
 be tolerated only until other arrangements can be 
 made. It is better if all pupils who are studying are 
 brought together in a room designed only for study 
 use, where they can be supervised by a teacher without 
 other duties. Studying in the laboratory, where inter- 
 esting demonstrations are in progress, is also unde- 
 sirable. Pupils who must study under such distracting 
 conditions find it difficult to do their best work. To 
 be sure, the pupils learn many things incidentally from 
 
232 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 the other recitations, but it is a question whether these 
 compensate for the habits of indolence and divided 
 attention that often are started in this way. 
 
 Home study often is ineffective because of occur- 
 rences that distract the attention of those studying. 
 Younger children play in the same room. Older peo- 
 ple converse, play musical instruments and games, and 
 interrupt the work of those trying to study. These are 
 some of the obstacles to be overcome. One reason why 
 so many children must work under such handicaps in 
 their homes is that the parents and other relatives are 
 thoughtless. When the parents are at all in sympathy 
 with the educational efforts of their children, the situa- 
 tion can be improved if the school authorities take the 
 proper steps. The first step is to bring the attention of 
 those in the home to the fact that the school-work 
 requires som.e of the home time for study. This is 
 often sufficient, because children frequently use their 
 home study time so irregularly and so wastefully that 
 their parents think the children do not need to study at 
 home and make no provision for home-work. 
 After the home recognizes the need for a study time, its 
 cooperation may be sought in setting a definite time for 
 it. Then suggestions may be given as to what consti- 
 tutes the best study conditions and aids. People like 
 to conform in educational matters as well as in other 
 things, and teachers may create an atmosphere that 
 makes it fashionable to provide good study conditions 
 for the children. Public opinion may be brought to the 
 
TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY EFFECTIVELY 233 
 
 aid of study as well as to the aid of morality and 
 righteousness. 
 
 Effective study is often impossible because pupils 
 are not in good physical condition. A person's mental 
 eflSciency depends upon the working condition of his 
 nervous system. The highest eflSciency is secured by 
 an ample supply of nourishing food well digested, 
 plenty of sleep, plenty of fresh air, and adequate exer- 
 cise. Teachers can do little to modify the first when 
 deficient, but the others are affected more or less by 
 suggestions from the teacher. Nervous energy is 
 wasted by defective vision, hearing, or teeth, and by 
 adenoids or obstructed breathing. These physical de- 
 fects often are not noticed by parents and usually are 
 removed when their attention is called to them. In 
 addition to the necessity of a quiet place for studying, 
 the light, temperature, and humidity should be favor- 
 able. The bodily activities should not be restricted by 
 tight clothing, and the study desk and chair should be 
 suited to the work for which they are used. 
 
 Another set of conditions is more personal. This is 
 the group that may be called the motions of study. 
 This means that there are a number of conditions that 
 suggest the idea of studying to the trained pupil. An 
 open book in front of him, a sharpened pencil and a 
 pad of note-paper, the dictionary and other reference 
 books within easy reach, all help to bring about the 
 right attitude. On the other hand, some things tend 
 to distract, as a new magazine that has not been read, 
 
234 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 an interesting puzzle or game, and the graphophone or 
 open piano. Each of these suggests something else 
 than what is wanted. The best way to prevent these 
 things from monopolizing or distracting attention is to 
 put them out of sight. Other distractions that are 
 liable to disturb are the talking of others in the study- 
 room, the home movements, and noises. The pupil 
 must meet these by using effort to maintain the atti- 
 tude of study. In time habits will be formed that will 
 make it easy to disregard these interruptions. 
 
 C. Study Devices and Aids. 
 
 In addition to the essentials for the training of pupils 
 to study already discussed, the best work can be done 
 only if the pupils learn to employ various devices and 
 aids in studying. As was pointed out in discussing 
 the nature of study, the work must be directed inde- 
 pendently by the person doing it. There are many 
 suggestions that will aid pupils in effective study. 
 Teachers must bring these to the attention of the 
 pupils, and at times even insist upon their use. 
 
 I. How to use reference books. — One of the first 
 things that a teacher must do along this line is to teach 
 pupils how to use the tools that are of service in study- 
 ing. Pupils must be taught the use of tables of con- 
 tents and indices. College students sometimes show a 
 lack of training on this point, thumbing the pages 
 when much time would be saved by using the index. 
 Often it is necessary to give extensive practice in the 
 
TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY EFFECTIVELY 235 
 
 use of such alphabetically arranged sources as diction- 
 aries, gloss^ies, and encyclopedias to insure that the 
 pupils will be accurate in their use. The system of 
 classification and arrangement of books and materials 
 should be so familiar to all of the pupils that they not 
 only can find what they want, but can return things 
 to their proper places when they are through with 
 them. In addition to being taught how to use refer- 
 ence materials, the pupils should receive careful direc- 
 tions in the assignment that will indicate where the 
 desired materials may be found. 
 
 2. Attitudes that aid. — The attitude of always mak- 
 ing a prompt beginning, when the time to start study- 
 ing arrives, is a very good one. It tends to become a 
 habit. Its importance is emphasized by a little per- 
 sonal contact with those who are always tardy. Pupils 
 should form the habit of getting to work immediately 
 upon taking the study position. The work is most 
 effective if there is a thorough concentration of atten- 
 tion. Pupils inherit marked differences in ability to 
 concentrate under distractions, but right habits help. 
 All studying should be carried on with the intent to 
 learn. Mere repetition without the intent to remem- 
 ber is a waste of time. The attitude of seeking a motive 
 for the work is helpful, provided it is not carried too 
 far. It is not always within a teacher's power to ex- 
 plain convincingly why a pupil should master a par- 
 ticular lesson. Motivation is of much help, however, 
 and subjects of study that are almost impossible of 
 
236 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 motivation are rather out of place in the curriculum. 
 Above everything else, in effect upon study results, is 
 the attitude of trying to improve one's self. The pupil 
 who strives continually for self-improvement makes 
 better and more lasting progress than the one who 
 works merely to please the teacher. 
 
 3. The personal equation. — In order to do effective 
 studying, a pupil must recognize his own capabilities 
 and limitations — his "personal equation," in other 
 words. No pupil should work himself into a fluster or 
 worry, trying to keep up with more capable members 
 of the class. He should find the pace suited to him- 
 self, and maintain it. Further, the pupil should be 
 taught to discover his best method of studying when 
 several tasks of unequal difficulty comprise the lesson. 
 Some pupils do their best work by beginning with the 
 easy tasks, coming to the more diflacult later. Others 
 take the hard ones first and then do the easy ones. The 
 personal characteristic should be found out by experi- 
 ment. This personal evaluation should be carried to 
 the point where the pupil recognizes his difficulties in 
 each lesson. These then may receive a little extra 
 attention and be removed. 
 
 4. Procedure in studying for knowledge. — Much 
 of the studying that pupils do is for the purpose of 
 acquiring knowledge. There are many tricks of pro- 
 cedure which, when used, render this work more effec- 
 tive. The first bit of technique that pupils should be 
 taught to apply is to always review the preceding 
 
TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY EFFECTIVELY 237 
 
 lesson when beginning to study. This helps to recall 
 the material later, arouses interest in the present day's 
 task, and brings back any hints or suggestions made 
 by the teacher about points related to the new lesson. 
 When beginning the new lesson, the first procedure 
 should be a rapid preliminary survey of the new mate- 
 rial. This will bring out points of familiarity and will 
 help to keep the items unified. Pupils often are not 
 trained to read rapidly, and teachers may devote class 
 periods very profitably to training in rapid silent 
 reading. When the present campaign for the better 
 teaching of silent reading has run its course, it may be 
 no longer necessary for the teachers in the junior and 
 senior high schools to do this; but, until then, it must 
 receive attention from them. Periods of supervised 
 study may be given over entirely to this work. 
 
 Another thing that pupils must be taught to do is to 
 carry the learning of all important things beyond the 
 point necessary for the immediate recitation of the 
 day. This is because memories fade rapidly at first 
 and more and more slowly later. If a fact is over- 
 learned, as it were, the memory of it may fade some- 
 what, and yet it will be vivid enough to be recalled 
 when needed. 
 
 The practice of leaving cues, when interrupted in 
 studying, so as to be able to tell where the work 
 stopped, is very helpful. A few words jotted down, 
 telling what should be done next, aids in returning to 
 the task with the minimum of wasted effort. 
 
238 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 When a pupil has read a paragraph or section care- 
 fully once, on his second reading he should pause and 
 mentally review what he has read. If the material is 
 very diflBcult, it is a good plan for him to write down 
 the condensed thought to make sure that it is clear. 
 When this has been done for the entire lesson, it re- 
 quires but little trouble to prepare a synopsis or outline 
 from these notes. When the thought is more simple, 
 marking the book may take the place of notes. The 
 important ideas may be jotted on the margins of the 
 pages when a different wording from that given by the 
 author is wished. Exercises that require the pupils to 
 do these things must be included in any work that aims 
 to train pupils to study. The device of outlining has 
 proved valuable in college teaching. The writer has 
 known teachers of psychology who required their col- 
 lege classes to outline entire text-books, and to hand in 
 the outlines for correction, as a part of their study 
 work. The results secured were very much worth 
 while. 
 
 Closely related to outlining and underscoring is the 
 ability usually called annotating. These activities are 
 all much the same from the mental point of view, 
 though annotating carries the process to a more perfect 
 conclusion. To annotate, a pupil must not only con- 
 dense the thought of paragraph, section, or article, but 
 must put it together in a form that will be clear and 
 convincing. Pupils should be taught to prepare short, 
 pithy condensations of paragraphs, sections, and top- 
 
TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY EFFECTIVELY 239 
 
 ics. This is another exercise that may be used with 
 success in supervised study work. 
 
 5. Procedure in drill work. — With the older public- 
 school pupils teachers do not assume the responsibility 
 of directing work of memorizing and habit formation, 
 as they do in the earlier years. The burden rests more 
 upon the individual pupils. If these are to work 
 effectively they must use the best procedure. It is well 
 for them to know why they are drilling before they 
 start the work, because motivation is of value. Then 
 they must secure a correct start. This must be fol- 
 lowed by repetitions. It is a good plan for each pupil 
 to adopt some plan or device that will record his 
 progress systematically. In this way he may be led to 
 strive to improve his previous record and thus find the 
 repetitions more interesting. 
 
 The pupil should adopt that form of activity in his 
 studying which is most like the form in which the 
 finished product is to function. This saves relearning, 
 which is a wasteful process, when a partially new form 
 is involved. Thus, for example, a pupil should learn 
 to spell by writing words, and to swim by actually 
 going into the water. Formal drill exercises, such as 
 are given sometimes in school subjects, are of doubtful 
 value if indulged in to any extent. 
 
 Pupils should learn to distribute the time devoted 
 to lengthy drill exercises over several periods. It has 
 been found that this is most economical. Drill exer- 
 cises should seldom last longer than_ fifteen or twenty 
 
240 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 minutes for most individuals. There are differences 
 among pupils in this respect, however, and each should 
 be led to discover his own peculiarity. 
 
 6. Intelligence must be used. — It is not to be sup- 
 posed that devices and aids alone will suffice to insure 
 effective studying. The pupils must be taught to use 
 their intelligence. This is especially true in mastering 
 a group of knowledge materials, for the recognition of 
 values is one of the essentials. Every page of printed 
 matter contains many ideas. These must be weighed 
 and analyzed until those that are relevant to the topic 
 in hand are selected. A recent study of reading has 
 shown that reading is largely reasoning. An individual 
 who can read well, choosing the ideas that were in the 
 mind of the one who wrote the selection, is generally 
 one who can reason clearly. This is one of the im- 
 portant aspects of intelligence. Poor students are 
 generally poor readers, and poor results are shown in 
 their scholarship because they do poor silent reading. 
 This means, then, that teachers must emphasize dis- 
 crimination of ideas in teaching silent reading. Pupils 
 must learn to evaluate the reasoning and thinking of 
 others, as well as to get the meaning that others intend 
 to give. A large part of the study work should consist 
 in making hypotheses, gathering data, and verifying 
 the conclusions. 
 
 When the pupil has determined the relative impor- 
 tance of various ideas, he is in a position to emphasize 
 the important ones, to the neglect of the others, in his 
 
TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY EFFECTIVELY 241 
 
 study. It may be necessary to learn the insignificant 
 for the day's recitation, in order to make the important 
 ideas perfectly clear; but the latter must be mastered 
 for future use. This sensing of relative values is one 
 of those abilities that are found only where there is 
 intelligence. It is a mark of good mental ability. 
 Pupils can be trained to recognize its importance, and 
 thus can be stimulated to develop themselves to the 
 full extent of their capabilities along this line. 
 
 7. Resting. — Many lesson tasks are so lengthy that 
 it is impossible, or undesirable, for pupils to attempt to 
 complete them at one time. Much more work can be 
 accomplished if pauses of the right kind are introduced 
 intelligently into the doing of many of the school tasks 
 than by the usual continuous methods. If the work is 
 easy and filled with variety, changing in character 
 from minute to minute, it may be continued profitably 
 for an hour or two without interruptions. However, if 
 the task requires concentrated attention and is highly 
 productive of fatigue, pauses must come every fifteen 
 or twenty minutes if the best work is to be done. There 
 are, however, great differences between individuals in 
 this matter, and these variations must be considered. 
 Some pupils take longer to get started and can work 
 longer after they get into the task than can others. 
 The pauses should not come so often nor be so long 
 that they interfere with a renewal of the task. It 
 takes a few minutes for every one to get started to 
 work and to attain the greatest efficiency — to get in 
 
242 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 the "swing," so to speak — and this momentum is lost 
 in rest periods. Therefore pauses must not be too long, 
 or it will be like starting the work over again when it 
 IS renewed. They should be just long enough to re- 
 fresh without allowing the momentum to be lost. 
 
 Another point of importance is that the mental 
 activity that a person indulges in at one instant affects 
 the retention of that in which he has been engaged at 
 the next preceding moment. If the two are related, 
 they are remembered better because they were pre- 
 sented to the mind successively. If they are different, 
 each tends to make the other fade and be less well 
 remembered. When this fact is applied to resting, it 
 implies that when a pupil rests from hard work the 
 only real rest is idleness, thinking of nothing purpose- 
 ful. Anything serious that is thought about not only 
 uses nervous energy but tends to blot out what has 
 just been learned. The best rest would be something 
 in the form of light physical exercise. The pause 
 should never be filled with anything very exciting or 
 disturbing, because this will tend to destroy all 
 nervous impressions that have been made recently and 
 will interfere markedly with the making of permanent 
 new ones in succeeding moments. The detrimental 
 effects of holiday vacations upon the teaching of the 
 days just before and after is due primarily to the 
 change in character of the mental activity with which 
 the rest period is filled. 
 
TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY EFFECTIVELY 243 
 
 8. Applying knowledge. — One of the best ways to 
 make sure that things learned will be remembered is 
 to use them. Pupils may be taught to use various 
 devices to compel themselves to think over the lessons 
 they have studied. Some of these, outlining and mark- 
 ing the book especially, have been mentioned. Another 
 device that is of value is the plan wherein each pupil 
 prepares a list of questions on the lesson, and brings 
 his list to class for the purpose of putting the ques- 
 tions to the other class members. The practice of 
 thinking out original, concrete illustrations for all 
 general principles and rules is valuable also. If a 
 pupil seizes every opportunity for such work and 
 creates as many opportunities as possible, many things 
 will be retained that are forgotten ordinarily. 
 
 V. Supervised Study. 
 
 Thus far the discussion has been devoted, in the 
 main, to the methods of study that are most effective. 
 These methods are the first essential a teacher must 
 know when training pupils to study. The results of 
 these methods indicate the list of specific outcomes the 
 selection of which, as has been pointed out earlier, is 
 needed before a teacher can make a wise selection of 
 teaching methods. Training pupils to study is pri- 
 marily a problem of meeting individual peculiarities; 
 hence it does not lend itself to the ordinary form of 
 class-work so well as do some of the other problems. 
 
244 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 In spite of this, much can be done in the regular class- 
 work. The common form that the training of pupils 
 to study is taking is what is known as supervised 
 study. This movement is somewhat new, and is in a 
 state of flux and experimentation. A few things seem 
 to be manifesting themselves clearly from the general 
 uncertainty, however. 
 
 A. Need of. 
 
 The first thing that is at all clear is that there is a 
 great need for an improvement of the study methods 
 of public-school pupils. This is true especially of the 
 poorer students. These do not make good use of their 
 time even when careful assignments are made. Teach- 
 ers may tell such pupils how to study, but they seem 
 unable to connect instructions with practical applica- 
 tion. They need to be taught individually how to 
 make use of the suggestions they receive. This inabil- 
 ity to make use of instructions is noticed especially in 
 the case of home study. Home study is often very 
 inefficient and unsatisfactory. Parents and older 
 brothers and sisters often attempt to aid the one 
 struggling with the work; but their aid seldom takes 
 any other form than doing the work in order that the 
 one studying may copy or imitate it. This is of little 
 value in bringing about that independence in studying 
 which is the chief end sought in this work. The home 
 environment is an obstacle to good study work in other 
 ways; hence it is often necessary that something be 
 
TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY EFFECTIVELY 245 
 
 done to remedy the situation. Supervised study is the 
 outcome of the attempt to remedy matters. 
 
 B. Value of. 
 
 The superiority of supervised study over self- 
 directed study has been shown by so many investiga- 
 tions that it is accepted now as an established educa- 
 tional fact. The lack of a greater difference between 
 supervised study and the other kind than that found in 
 some of the experiments may be due to the fact that 
 so few teachers themselves really know how to study, 
 that it was impossible to get competent people to 
 supervise the study work. It may be explained, also, 
 by the fact that possibly the pupil sections chosen for 
 the experiments were composed of superior students. 
 These are the ones who profit least from supervised 
 study. For the average and slow pupils, supervised 
 study has been found to be of much value. It provides 
 for their individual peculiarities and shortcomings. 
 
 Supervised study is of most value in the junior high 
 school. The work here has reached a grade of com- 
 plexity and difficulty that requires good study methods. 
 In the later years of the senior high school the pupils 
 have discovered many study devices; hence not so 
 much remains to be taught them. 
 
 C. Plans of. 
 
 There are many plans of supervised study, which 
 vary but slightly from one another. Before discussing 
 
246 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 these, however, it will be best to present some of the 
 practical suggestions for the introduction of supervised 
 study that Mr. Hall-Quest ^ has made: 
 
 1. Introduce it gradually, one subject at a time. This 
 enables the principal to observe its benefits and to become 
 familiar with necessary adjustments. 
 
 2. Use the divided period. Any other method is con- 
 fusing at first. It is important that each teacher supervise 
 the studying of her pupils, and this can best be done during 
 the recitation period. 
 
 3. If at all feasible the periods should be lengthened to 
 fifty minutes in each subject (for high school), and a flexible 
 amount of time in each period be spent on supervising the 
 study of the assignment just given. 
 
 4. Teachers should devote as much time to the assign- 
 ment as they do to the recitation proper. Supervised study 
 is really an elaborated assignment, during which the pupils 
 are given opportunity to try out the teacher's explanations 
 in her presence. 
 
 5. Home-work should be reduced, but at first retained. 
 Eventually, for the grades and first two years of high school 
 it should be abandoned entirely. 
 
 6. In addition to the studying done in the divided period, 
 pupils should be required to study during vacant periods. 
 This provides ample time for the preparation of any assign- 
 ments that are at all reasonable. 
 
 7. Time and effort will be saved if the teacher breaks up 
 her classes into three groups, according to ability. Her 
 brightest pupils will need but little attention. Her other 
 two groups — the average and the inferior — will demand 
 most of her time. 
 
 8. Teachers should aim to ascertain from each pupil what 
 difficulties interfere with studying, and then, knowing these, 
 assignments and explanations should take these difficulties 
 into account. 
 
 9. After the work in one subject has become fairly well 
 adjusted the method should extend to all of them. 
 
 * Educational Administration and Supervision, March, 1916, p. 204. 
 
TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY EFFECTIVELY 247 
 
 10. Each subject requires its own type in study super- 
 vision. For this reason, teachers should know what are the 
 almost inevitable difficulties in each subject, where they are 
 usually found, and then the teacher should anticipate them 
 so as to lessen their seriousness. 
 
 I. The divided period. — This is the best plan for 
 supervised study, when considered from several points 
 of view. It is less confusing, because the same routine 
 is used day after day. It affords ample time for both 
 study and recitation when the period is fifty or sixty 
 minutes in length, and a skilful teacher may do very 
 good work with a forty-minute period. This form is 
 often called the study-recitation, because both study 
 and recitation work may be combined to occupy the 
 period. 
 
 The way this is done is illustrated very well by the 
 work observed by the writer in a seventh-year class in 
 history in a junior high school. The work of the 
 period, a forty-minute one, began with a study-dis- 
 cussion of the pages that had been assigned on the 
 preceding school-day for home study. The pupils 
 were asked, with books open before them, to point out 
 the important things in the lesson. As each was con- 
 sidered, the teacher, by questioning, led the class to 
 recall related topics in earlier lessons. Then they were 
 instructed to underscore the important items and to 
 write brief notes in the history note-books. Some- 
 times the important points were pointed out satisfac- 
 torily by the pupils. At other times the teacher made 
 
248 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 such suggestions as caused the facts to stand out more 
 clearly. At the end of twenty minutes the five pages 
 that had been read at home were analyzed and under- 
 lined until the important things could be discovered at 
 a glance. The class then was told to review this for 
 the next day's repetition. Books were closed at this 
 time, and the pupils were asked to recite on the parts 
 analyzed on the preceding day and reviewed in the 
 study period. This work was conducted just as any 
 text-book recitation would be. At the end of twenty 
 minutes more a page assignment of five and one half 
 pages was made, which the pupils were asked to study 
 for the next day, and the period closed. 
 
 This teaching exercise was an example of a good 
 procedure for securing the ability to analyze the text- 
 book and outline the important things. Other forms 
 of study outcomes would require a somewhat different 
 treatment. One thing, however, that may seem to 
 disregard the requirements of good technique is the 
 page assignment at the close of the period. The 
 teacher, in conversation afterward, volunteered the in- 
 formation that she had found this the best plan. When 
 the new materials were outlined in the class before 
 they had been read, the pupils were inclined to skip all 
 but the underlined parts when they studied. By 
 assigning a page assignment for the period preceding 
 the study-recitation, this difficulty was overcome. The 
 pupils studied the new materials just as they always 
 
TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY EFFECTIVELY 249 
 
 had done, and then were well prepared for the study- 
 discussion of the class period. 
 
 Other forms of supervised study than the study- 
 recitation may occupy the time of the divided period. 
 The study time may be devoted to helping individuals 
 over their difficulties, to practise in some of the many 
 forms of work needed in effective study, or to explana- 
 tions by the teacher, amply illustrated, of some of the 
 best ways to study. The greatest advantage of the 
 divided period is that it allots to study the propor- 
 tion of time that is needed to secure desirable 
 results. Other forms often devote so little time to 
 this work that they fail to produce tangible study out- 
 comes. 
 
 2. Once-a-week plan. — Another plan for super- 
 vised study that has been used at times is the provision 
 that allots one period a week to this work. On this day 
 the teacher omits the regular recitation and spends 
 the time helping the pupils to study. The work may 
 take as many forms as there are kinds of study difficul- 
 ties. 
 
 This plan is of more value with the more advanced 
 high-school pupils. It does not provide sufficient time, 
 however, to dwell long enough on some of the points 
 of study technique to make certain that pupils know 
 how to use them. When the supervised study work 
 has been carried on for several years and pupils have 
 mastered most of the hints, one period a week may be 
 
250 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 sufficient to eliminate the few remaining study diffi- 
 culties. 
 
 3. Other forms. — Many successful teachers used 
 supervised study for years before the work had ever 
 been called by that term, or at least before the term 
 was used to any extent. All well directed laboratory 
 work is supervised study. The laboratory teacher 
 spends most of her time passing from one pupil to 
 another, showing them how to find this or how to draw 
 that. If this work is well done, study abilities, abilities 
 to do independent work in the laboratory, are the out- 
 comes. 
 
 When the teacher sends a class to the blackboard to 
 work new problems in algebra or arithmetic, and 
 supervises the work, she is using a very good form of 
 supervised study. This is true especially if the time is 
 spent in providing for individual differences and in 
 helping those who have difficulty with the work. 
 
 D. Suggestions. 
 
 Supervised study should aim to train the pupils in 
 those forms of study procedure that psychology has 
 taught us are the best. These have been presented 
 earlier in this chapter and need not be repeated. The 
 most important thing, perhaps, is to secure an atmos- 
 phere of study. When this exists the pupil can do 
 little but study. The way this affects one is shown by 
 the feeling that one experiences when he enters the 
 reading-room of a public library where many readers 
 
TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY EFFECTIVELY 251 
 
 are busy. The atmosphere is such that it suggests that 
 one do likewise. The same is true of the school-room. 
 The suggestions in Chapter II about the conditions of 
 teaching apply as much to supervised study as to any 
 other phase of the work. This means that all routine 
 phases must be provided for in such a manner that 
 there is no chance for time to be wasted. 
 
 In making suggestions to children about the way to 
 do things, teachers must be practical. Too much as- 
 sistance is not good, because it tends to make the pupils 
 dependent. Further, it is a bad policy for a teacher to 
 make a practice of devoting herself to individuals for 
 any length of time while in charge of a class, because 
 the other pupils will get into mischief. Individual 
 assistance in class-time must be limited to a few words 
 or pertinent suggestions. More extensive aid can be 
 given in private consultation periods. On the other 
 hand, vague, indefinite exhortation is of no value, 
 because it gives nothing definite to the pupils, who 
 need tangible things. Fortunately, a teacher can tell 
 usually whether her suggestions are of value. The 
 results are very objective, and improvement shows 
 readily, as a rule. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 The present psychology of the learning process has 
 
 shown that it is necessary to train pupils to study 
 
 effectively. Further, it has been pointed out what 
 
 must be taught them to attain this result. Study is 
 
252 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 activity directed independently by the person doing it. 
 Pupils should be so trained to study that the teacher 
 will be no longer a necessity, and that, as a result, they 
 can continue their education after formal school-days 
 are over. 
 
 In training pupils for effective study, careful assign- 
 ments are the first requisite. The second is the pres- 
 ence of proper study conditions. Pupils should form 
 the habit of studying at definite times in the day. 
 They should be provided with an environment free 
 from distractions, both in the school and in the home. 
 They should be in the best physical condition for 
 study. They should learn to go through the motions 
 of study promptly. As special aids they must be 
 taught how to use reference materials. They should 
 make use of the right attitudes, and each should learn 
 his personal limitations and peculiarities. In studying 
 for knowledge, the preceding day's lesson should be 
 reviewed as a starting-point, the method of attack most 
 suitable to the individual pupil should be used, all 
 important points should be overlearned, and cues 
 should be left when the work is interrupted, so that 
 little time will be lost when the pupil returns to the 
 task. Pupils should be taught to interline, to under- 
 line, to outline, and to annotate books in ways that 
 are helpful. 
 
 In drill work pupils should use the suggestions that 
 make for successful drill exercises. The form of activ- 
 ity learned should be as much like the final product as 
 
TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY EFFECTIVELY 253 
 
 possible. Drill work should be distributed over several 
 periods if the work is lengthy. 
 
 In all work pupils must use their intelligence. Im- 
 portant things should be emphasized and the unimpor- 
 tant given less attention. Rest pauses should be used 
 in a way that will conserve the pupil's energy without 
 interfering with efficient results. Knowledge should 
 be used as much as possible until fixed in the memory. 
 
 The best plan for teaching pupils how to study is 
 through some form of supervised study. This is neces- 
 sary under present conditions, and has proved to be 
 valuable. The divided period is the best plan under 
 most conditions, though the once-a-week and other 
 plans may be of service. In directing supervised study 
 the teacher should develop a study atmosphere and 
 should be practical in her suggestions. 
 
 Suggested Readings 
 
 Bagley, W. C. The Educative Process. Pp. 316-322. 
 
 A brief discussion of the study lesson. 
 Earhart, Lida B. Types of Teaching. Chapter XIV. 
 
 A chapter on teaching pupils how to study. 
 Hall-Quest, A. L. Supervised Study. The work on 
 
 the subject which should be consulted by those who 
 
 wish a detailed treatment. 
 Harvey, N. A. Principles of Education. Chapter XII 
 
 This chapter presents an analysis of the problem of 
 
 training pupils in good study habits. 
 
254 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. 
 Chapter XVI. This chapter surveys the main early- 
 studies in the field of supervised study and presents 
 a good bibliography of the literature. 
 
 Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process. Chapter VIII. 
 Suggestions are given that are pertinent to the study 
 lesson. 
 
 Whipple, G. M. How to Study Effectively. A sum- 
 mary of the psychology of study, expressed in rules 
 and comments. 
 
 Exercises 
 
 1. Plan out a practical system of supervised study for 
 
 ■tejljof the classes of a school in the community 
 in which you live. 
 
 2. Make a list of the things you would teach pupils to 
 
 apply in their study work, beginning with those 
 that you would teach first and ending with 
 those that would be the last to be taught. 
 
 3. What exercises would you give to train pupils to 
 
 select the important things from what they 
 read? 
 
 4. What is the relation between training pupils tq 
 
 study effectively and training in application? 
 
 5. Will it ever be possible for the conscientious 
 
 teacher to rest in the study period? Why? 
 
 6. What place does expository teaching have in the 
 
 work of training pupils to study effectively? 
 
TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY EFFECTIVELY 255 
 
 7. Prepare a list of suggestions for the improvement 
 
 of home-study conditions that might be sent to 
 parents or be published in the local paper. 
 
 8. Prepare a series of exercises that will demonstrate 
 
 to what extent pupils know how to study. 
 
 9. Prepare two assignments that aim especially at 
 
 training pupils to study. 
 
 10. What suggestions can you make relative to helping 
 
 pupils to form time-and-place study habits? 
 
 11. Name some of the school-room conditions that are 
 
 distracting factors interfering with the study 
 (/^f^\ efforts of pupils. 
 
 12. What are the most important conditions detri- 
 
 mental to home study in your community? 
 
 13. How would you teach pupils to go through the 
 
 motions of study promptly? 
 
 14. What are the main characteristics of an atmos- 
 phere of study? 
 
 15. How do pupils know when they have overlearned 
 anything? 
 
 16. Prepare a series of practical exercises in outlining 
 and annotating. 
 
 17. What evidence have you noticed of the detri- 
 mental effects of fatigue, which could have been 
 eliminated, partly at least, by the wise use of 
 rest pauses? 
 
 18. Outline an experiment that will show the superi- 
 ority of supervised over self-directed study. 
 
 19. What forms of study activities can be taught best 
 
 -M 
 
256 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 by the divided period? By the once-a-week 
 plan? 
 20. What forms of supervised study did you practise 
 before you read an educational discussion on the 
 topic? 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 
 
 The results of teaching are a very intangible prod- 
 uct. It is only through most careful checking that a 
 teacher has any conception of what has been accom- 
 plished. This is because the results of teaching are 
 manifested as mental changes in the minds of the 
 pupils. These changes are shown only by behavior, 
 and human behavior is prompted by many factors. If 
 these factors favor the teacher, results may be shown 
 that are very good, and vice versa. To measure the 
 results of teaching efforts accurately is a very different 
 problem when the teacher is trying to do it for her own 
 satisfaction. When the superintendent or community 
 are trying to do the measuring, the task is even worse. 
 In either case, personal opinions may be so interwoven 
 with the actual results that an adequate estimate of 
 the real situation seldom is secured. 
 
 Teachers should be able to measure the results of 
 their work so that they can modify their methods as 
 the need arises. Every teacher must keep in constant 
 touch with the class-room situation if the best work is 
 to be done. This is necessary because a teacher seldom 
 
 meets exactly the same situation twice. The subject- 
 
 257 
 
258 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 matter changes; the pupils react differently; the light, 
 ventilation, and humidity vary; each of these factors 
 contributes its mite of influence. Then also there are 
 the factors outside of the school, which at times are 
 very potent. Under such conditions the teacher who 
 follows the same procedure day after day, imagining 
 that she is securing the best results but never checking 
 up to learn the real state of affairs, often discovers 
 later that she was very much in error. All of this 
 implies that teaching of a high quality can not be done 
 consistently unless a teacher knows how to measure 
 the results of her work. 
 
 METHODS OF MEASURING TEACHING RESULTS 
 
 I. Daily Recitations. 
 
 The work of the daily recitation is often considered 
 to be the most effective measure of the results of 
 teaching that can be used. Teachers mark pupils on 
 the work that they do day after day, and consider 
 these marks to be measures of the teaching that has 
 been done. In reality, daily marks are, to a large 
 degree, measures of the work that the pupils have done 
 in lesson preparation, its thoroughness, accuracy, and 
 punctuality. The teaching that has been done may be 
 evidenced by these criteria, but often it is not. When 
 the teacher or pupils contribute outside material to 
 the recitation, and when the teacher helps the class to 
 organize facts, or presents a lesson in appreciation, 
 there is little opportunity to determine definitely 
 
MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 259 
 
 whether the pupils have been taught anything. In 
 other words, measuring the results of teaching often 
 conflicts with teaching, and may be confused with the 
 measurement of the results of the pupils' efforts. 
 
 Some teachers devote the greater part of the recita- 
 tion time to measuring results, and do but little teach- 
 ing. In these cases the fault lies in a slavish use of the 
 daily record-book. Teachers used to think that it was 
 necessary to mark pupils every time they recited. This 
 procedure leads to a routine use of the time that is not 
 the best. Unless the work is such that each pupil 
 makes an extended recitation, as in Latin or French 
 translation work, the entire class thought is inten-upted 
 every time the teacher records a mark. Instead of 
 doing this, it is usually better fOr the teacher to spend 
 a few minutes at the close of the class period in esti- 
 mating the work of the different class members. It 
 must be admitted that such estimates are not so reli- 
 able individually as if they were made at the time the 
 pupils recited ; but if they are made day after day they 
 will be very trustworthy in the end. This is true 
 especially if they are made without consulting the pre- 
 vious day's records. 
 
 Some teachers mark daily work only once a week. 
 This may not be often enough to secure reliable esti- 
 mates, but the chances of reliability depend more 
 upon the extent to which the teacher tries to eliminate 
 preconceived notions than upon the frequency with 
 which the marks are recorded. With the exception of 
 
260 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 the review lesson, the marks of the daily work are no 
 measure of the degree to which pupils have mastered 
 the lesson facts for later use. Some pupils learn for 
 the day only and forget in a week. These make the 
 best showing in the daily work and the poorest in the 
 monthly or term tests. 
 
 11. Examinations. 
 
 The usual method of measuring the results of teach- 
 ing is by the use of examinations. Although there 
 was a time in the past when this teaching exercise was 
 in ill repute among educators and was omitted from 
 books on teaching technique, the rank and file of the 
 profession have always found it valuable. In spite of 
 all the criticism it has received, it is still an important 
 device. It will be considered in its various aspects, in 
 order that teachers may know how to use it to best 
 advantage. 
 
 A. Value of Examinations. 
 
 Examinations are of the greatest value because they 
 may be fairly good measures of teaching results. Al- 
 though the situations created by the conditions of the 
 examination are highly artificial, they are no more so 
 than most school-room situations. The pupil may 
 not be called upon to use the things in later life in the 
 way in which he is asked to use them in the examina- 
 tion, but the examination is no more divorced from 
 the practical than is the average daily work. As a 
 
MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 261 
 
 measure of teaching results, the examination very often 
 reveals weaknesses that were not suspected. Fre- 
 quently teachers have asked what they considered sim- 
 ple questions, only to find that the class, which had 
 shown great interest in the discussion, in reality knew 
 very little about the topic. 
 
 In addition to this checking function, the examina- 
 tion is a valuable teaching device. The definiteness of 
 the examination work and its objective nature stimu- 
 late pupils to make strenuous mental efforts before it 
 arrives. This preparation for the final test is effective 
 because things that are studied under such conditions 
 of active attention are remembered best. The result is 
 that the examination leads pupils to organize their 
 knowledge in the most complete fashion. When the 
 written examination follows a thorough oral review, 
 the teaching process, in so far as it is concerned with 
 the imparting of knowledge, is most effective. To omit 
 the oral review and provide no substitutes is to miss 
 much of the value that may be derived. In advanced 
 high-school classes, teachers often find a list of ques- 
 tions that has been given to the pupils to aid the re- 
 view a very good substitute. The highest value would 
 be realized if time were given in class to a discussion of 
 these questions prior to the examination. To realize 
 completely the organizing value of the examination, a 
 part of the time of the period during which the papers 
 are returned should be given over to a discussion of the 
 errors and of the correct answers of the papers. 
 
262 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 B. Frequency. 
 
 Teachers vary greatly in the degree of attention they 
 give to examinations. Some are so painstaking in 
 their teaching work day after day that they never find 
 time for such written work. Others seem to be exam- 
 ining all of the time. The first class of teachers needs 
 to learn to hurry over the details sufficiently so that 
 they can return for a review and can put things into 
 the right perspective. The other class should place a 
 little less emphasis on written tests and devote more 
 of the time to oral discussion. The ideal is to strike 
 the happy medium between over-emphasis and abso- 
 lute neglect. 
 
 As has been pointed out earlier, a part of every reci- 
 tation period that has been preceded by an assignment 
 should be devoted to discovering whether the pupils 
 have done what was requested. This can be done 
 orally in most cases. The larger results that are the 
 outcomes of the work of several days can be tested 
 every week or two. These tests usually should be oral, 
 because if written they overburden the teacher. At 
 longer intervals, however, the examinations should be 
 written, and there is little doubt that written semester 
 examinations, if administered wisely and prepared for 
 by adequate reviews, are decidedly worth while. 
 
 It may be necessary at times for a teacher to make 
 provisions for excusing those for whom the examina- 
 tion might be too great a strain — the immature, the 
 
MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 263 
 
 sickly, and the over-conscientious. With a little tact, 
 this can be done in most cases. Many schools have 
 scholarship provisions that excuse the better pupils. 
 Such provisions are very good, but they may be too 
 sweeping. When pupils are excused from all written 
 examinations on such a basis, the plan has been car- 
 ried too far. A compromise plan would be better — 
 one, for example, that excused pupils from the semester 
 finals on the basis of the work that they did in the 
 monthly tests. When pupils are excused from all 
 written examinations on the basis of the daily recita- 
 tions, it sometimes happens that they are entirely 
 unprepared for such tests if they meet them later. In 
 the light of the experience of such students in college, 
 it seems unwise to permit them to go through the 
 public school without meeting some obstacles of this 
 nature. 
 
 C. Types of Examinations. 
 
 I. Oral or written. — Examinations may be classified 
 into the two groups, oral and written. The oral exam- 
 ination is preferred by some teachers, because it does 
 not involve a number of hours of fatiguing paper- 
 reading to evaluate the pupils' work. Other teachers 
 prefer it because it gives an opportunity for teaching 
 as well as testing. Most pupils prefer written tests 
 V\^hen these cover several weeks or months of work, 
 because they seem more fair. In any oral test it is 
 hard to ask all of the pupils questions of approxi- 
 
264 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 mately the same difficulty. Further, in oral testing 
 pupils may be unable to recall the answers to the 
 questions given to them at the time. If the work is 
 written, time is given to think over the subject and 
 perhaps recall answers that were not remembered at 
 first. 
 
 Written tests are more fair because all of the pupils 
 are examined on the same questions. The written form 
 permits the pupil to try his capabilities to a greater 
 degree by answering several questions, while it is sel- 
 dom possible to give a pupil more than one chance in 
 an oral quiz. Oral tests are suited to small classes, but 
 the written form should be used in large ones. 
 
 2. Announced or unannounced. — Another classifi- 
 cation of examinations may be made on the basis of 
 whether or not the pupils have had a warning that 
 caused them to prepare for the test. Some teachers 
 prefer to use the unannounced test, saying that it keeps 
 the class on edge and constantly prepared. The degree 
 to which it does this will depend upon the frequency of 
 such quizzes. If they are very frequent they may do 
 this; otherwise the pupils may take a chance and not 
 prepare. The unannounced test does not measure 
 much more than the daily work of the scholars, and is 
 little used by teachers who are strong in leading the 
 pupils to organize their knowledge. 
 
 When pupils know that a test is coming, they usually 
 make a real preparation for it. This organization of 
 knowledge is one of the important values of examina- 
 
MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 265 
 
 tions, and to neglect it is to fail to utilize a valuable 
 teaching aid. It is probably better to inform pupils 
 before any important test is to be made. Unimportant 
 minor tests may be announced or unannounced, as the 
 teacher prefers, this phase depending on the purpose 
 for which they are given. 
 
 3. Time limit or work limit. — Written tests may 
 be divided into two classes on another basis. They 
 may be prepared in such a way that no pupil can com- 
 plete all of the questions in the time allotted. The 
 amount accomplished is determined by the ability to 
 work rapidly against time. On the other hand, the 
 questions may be prepared in such a way that every 
 pupil has all of the time needed to do all he can. The 
 difficulty of the questions determines the amount ac- 
 complished. These are the time-limit and the work- 
 limit methods of testing results. In the first form of 
 test the papers written by the different pupils are not 
 commensurable unless all of the questions are of the 
 same difficulty for all pupils. The other form is easier 
 to prepare, but tends to be too easy for the brighter 
 pupils. Examinations that are completed by half of 
 the class but that are too long for the remainder are of 
 doubtful commensurability. 
 
 Under most class-room conditions the work-limit 
 form is to be preferred — though, in the long run, this 
 questioji is of little importance under ordinary school- 
 room conditions. It is of significance, however, where 
 important future events depend upon the outcome, as 
 
266 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 in college entrance and Civil Service examinations. 
 The best form for these is the work limit, where all 
 candidates have as much time as is necessary for them 
 to do the work. 
 
 D. Types of Questions in Examinations. 
 
 The usual practice in examinations of the past has 
 been to make them almost entirely tests of memory. 
 In such studies of examination questions as have been 
 made, nine out every of ten questions could be 
 answered mainly from memory. This condition is 
 inadequate. Some pupils become very skilful in re- 
 membering facts, but are entirely lost when they are 
 asked to use them practically. In the field of knowl- 
 edge the examination questions should not only meas- 
 ure how well the pupils remember facts, but they 
 should also test their understanding and ability to use 
 facts. A test that requires application is in reality a 
 test of both remembering and understanding, because 
 a pupil can not apply knowledge unless he remembers 
 and understands it. There should be a more frequent 
 use of questions requiring the use of knowledge in 
 examinations. 
 
 The other forms of teaching outcomes that have 
 been discussed in the foregoing chapters are found less 
 frequently than the knowledge forms, and are much 
 more difficult to test. The ingenious teacher can 
 work out methods of measuring growth in appreciation 
 
MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 267 
 
 and other things. The field is so varied, however, that 
 it will not be profitable to present a detailed discussion 
 here. 
 
 III. Maeks as Measures of School-Work. 
 A. Reliability of Marks. 
 
 The value of marks as measures of school-work 
 depends upon their reliability. This is a question that 
 has never troubled the rank and file of the teaching 
 profession. They have marked papers and oral work 
 and have handed out the results of their efforts with a 
 confidence that is amazing when the facts are known. 
 If one questions the reliability of the marking of an 
 old-time teacher, he is tempting fate indeed, especially 
 if he be a pupil. As a matter of fact, the marks that 
 teachers ordinarily give on examination papers are 
 very unreliable. By this it is meant that, if a teacher 
 remarks a set of papers that she has evaluated a few 
 days earlier, without referring to the first set of marks, 
 the second evaluation will vary by several points, on 
 the average for the different papers, from the first. 
 Further, if several teachers are asked to mark the same 
 paper independently, their judgment will vary widely. 
 
 In the light of these facts, it may well be asked, 
 "Which value is the right one?" It is usually assumed 
 by statistical experts that the average of all of the 
 marks is the true one. When teachers use the common 
 per centile marking system, it has been found that 
 
268 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 their judgment is reliable only within about five points. 
 This means that when a teacher uses this system and 
 marks different papers 84 per cent., 83 per cent., 85 per 
 cent., or even fractions it out as 82.5 per cent., she is 
 splitting hairs and is deluding herself into believing 
 that she is securing greater accuracy. 
 
 B. Factors that Produce Variability. 
 
 A number of factors have been discovered that are 
 responsible for this variability. The most important 
 is the inability of teachers to distinguish closely allied 
 degrees of merit. Thus if two papers that are of nearly 
 the same excellence are given to several teachers, some 
 will mark paper A as better than paper B, while others 
 will reverse the order. Human beings can not dis- 
 criminate infinitely small differences in merit. 
 
 The second factor that produces variability is the 
 difference in emphasis that different teachers place 
 upon the same thing. Some consider it right to give 
 credit for the correct solution as well as for the correct 
 answer in an algebra problem, while others mark en- 
 tirely upon the answer and give no credit for method. 
 This difference in emphasis is found in all the subjects. 
 
 The third factor that produces variability is the 
 differences between the standards of different teachers. 
 One teacher never finds any 90 per cent, or "excellent" 
 work done by her pupils, while another marks half of 
 hers 90 per cent, or above. Pupils recognize these 
 characteristics, and Miss C is known as a low marker 
 
MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 269 
 
 while Miss H is a high marker. Teachers sometimes 
 think that, unless a pupil does as well as they them- 
 selves can do, the work does not deserve above 90 per 
 cent. Others think it reflects upon them if they do not 
 mark high. At times, too, high marks are given as 
 favors for good behavior, to encourage the pupils, or to 
 please the parents. 
 
 C. The Best Marking System. 
 
 The best marking system is one composed of letters. 
 It avoids the difficulties that have been pointed out by 
 not pretending to make fine discriminations. Then, it 
 may be used in such a way that each letter has a 
 definite meaning. There is little practical value in a 
 minutely divided scale such as the per centile. Teach- 
 ers do not have the time to make a number of inde- 
 pendent judgments and average them, and this is what 
 is necessary if the* per centile marks are accurate. 
 When per centile marks are used, the illusion of accu- 
 racy is present. Pupils are elated if they are one point 
 higher than their competitors, and an over-sensitive- 
 ness to marks sometimes develops. This tends to do 
 an apparent injustice where pieces of work of the same 
 degree of merit are marked differently. Further, 
 teachers are often embarrassed by being asked to ex- 
 plain why they have m^^.rked similar pieces of work 
 differently. Many schools have traditional anecdotes 
 that tell of different pupils handing in the same piece 
 of work to a teacher and receiving different marks on 
 
270 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 it. If a letter scale is used, it is best not to use more 
 than seven letters. Many prefer only five, using an 
 occasional plus and minus to indicate finer qualities of 
 merit. 
 
 D. Distribution of Marks. 
 
 How may letter marks have a meaning if they are 
 not translated into a per centile system? This ques- 
 tion has puzzled many teachers, and the usual practice 
 has been to indicate the meanings of the letters in per 
 cents, and in such terms as excellent, good, etc. Ideally, 
 the letters should have a meaning in terms of rank. 
 At present the patrons of the schools and many teach- 
 ers are not ready for such an interpretation, but it can 
 be introduced by any teacher who has the courage and 
 tact needed by those who introduce innovations. 
 Meaning in terms of rank is dependent upon the dis- 
 tribution of marks that is present. 
 
 The marks given by teachers generally, if plotted on 
 a scale in what is known as a frequency curve, are dis- 
 tributed in a more or less regular form. There are a 
 few very poor marks and a few very good ones. The 
 balance are distributed between these extremes, with 
 the greater number grouped around an average or 
 central value. When shown graphically, the result 
 is a curve somewhat bell-shaped. The curves of the 
 marks given by individual teachers show all kinds of 
 peculiarities. In the case of the high marker the bulk 
 of the marks will be 90 or above on the per centile 
 
MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 271 
 
 scale, with a scattering down toward the passing mark. 
 The marks of the low-marking teacher, on the other 
 hand, would show a scattering of high and average 
 marks and a grouping of low ones. In schools where a 
 mark of 90 exempts from examinations, teachers find 
 many students of that caliber and few of the ability 
 indicated by 87 or 88. In a like manner, the passing 
 mark is often the point where many marks are con- 
 centrated. In other words, marks are often not dis- 
 tributed regularly, but are influenced by extraneous 
 factors. 
 
 In general, however, marks are most regularly dis- 
 tributed by teachers. Experts who have studied the 
 problem say that when teachers mark pupils solely on 
 the showing made in the work, without regard to ex- 
 emptions from examinations, passing marks, etc., the 
 marks group themselves in the normal probability, or 
 bell-shaped, curve. If this be true — and few who have 
 studied the question doubt it — teachers whose marks 
 depart appreciably from this form of distribution are 
 allowing themselves to consider other factors than the 
 ability of the pupils. If they considered the average 
 pupil to be indicated by a C, in a letter system of A, B, 
 C, D, and E, E denoting failure, then there ought to be 
 many Cs, less Bs and Ds, and a few As and Es. The 
 exact proportion of each of these letters has been pro- 
 posed by several writers. These proposals average 
 about as follows in one hundred pupils: 5 per cent. As, 
 25 per cent. Bs, 40 per cent. Cs, 25 per cent. Ds., and 
 
272 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 5 per cent. Es. This does not mean that the marks of 
 every class that a teacher has should be distributed 
 thus, but that, if there is no other factor at work that 
 makes conditions unusual, the average of several 
 classes would approximate this. Small classes, classes 
 composed of selected pupils or of lazy pupils, and other 
 irregular groups may show a different proportion of 
 the different marks. In classes composed of twenty or 
 more pupils selected at random, the distribution should 
 be approximately that given above, unless the school 
 adopts another standard. 
 
 In reality, however, it makes little difference whether 
 the marks given by the teachers of a school are dis- 
 tributed in this proposed way or not. The fundamental 
 thing is that the marks of all teachers in the school 
 should be distributed alike. If one teacher marks high 
 and another low, injustice is likely to result when schol- 
 arship rewards and honors are apportioned. Then 
 there is the dissatisfaction of the pupils that must be 
 considered. The differences in standards found among 
 the teachers of a school system may be remedied by a 
 little consideration of the marking question. A survey 
 of existing conditions is the best way to begin an 
 attack upon such a problem. When the existing situ- 
 ation has been disclosed and discussed, it is a simple 
 matter for teachers to reach some agreement as to 
 what should be the common practice. The determina- 
 tion of the average mark and the proportion of failures 
 and honor marks may help matters much. 
 
MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 273 
 
 Teachers who differ from the others in the marks 
 they give often try to justify their positions in various 
 ways. When a class that is not extremely small makes 
 a very high average on an examination, it implies that 
 the questions were too easy or that the teacher who 
 marked the papers was very lenient. On the other 
 hand, it sometimes happens that an average size class 
 makes a very low average on a test. This probably is 
 an indication that the test was too diflScult or that the 
 teacher who marked the answers set too high a stand- 
 ard of attainment. Either would bring about the 
 same result. Teachers sometimes draw conclusions 
 about their own ability as teachers in comparison with 
 some one else they know who is teaching the same 
 work, rating themselves high because their pupils make 
 higher average marks than the others. This is not 
 justified unless the questions are prepared by the 
 supervisor and the papers marked by a disinterested 
 party. Extreme departures in marking are often the 
 accompaniment of inadequate training and a sign of 
 other deficiencies on the part of the teacher. 
 
 E. Suggestions that May Aid. 
 
 Accurate markings may be secured with any marking 
 scale, the per centile or the letter scheme, if the teacher 
 takes a number of independent marks of a pupil and 
 averages them. The most important requirement is 
 that each mark be determined without reference to 
 what the pupil has done before. This may be done, 
 
274 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 when papers are marked, if the name is not looked at 
 until the quality of the work has been determined. 
 This open-mindedness is hard to maintain when a 
 teacher recognizes the handwriting of the class mem- 
 bers, but the right attitude on her part will help much. 
 
 In marking a set of test papers it is often most con- 
 venient if a point scale is used. It is not necessary, 
 however, that this scale have one hundred points. It 
 may contain any convenient number, and the number 
 of points would be determined by the number of 
 questions and their subdivisions. Further, all ques- 
 tions need not have the same point values if they vary 
 in difficulty. To illustrate, a test may contain four 
 questions with four subdivisions in one of them. To 
 mark this set of papers, a scale of twenty points for 
 each question is most convenient. These point marks 
 should not appear on the papers when they are re- 
 turned, but should be recorded by the teacher for her 
 own future reference. The papers may be marked in 
 letters or per cents., raising or lowering the average 
 until it conforms to that agreed upon by the school 
 faculty. It is comparatively easy to translate the 
 points into letters. All that is necessary is to rank the 
 papers from the best to the poorest. Then the best 
 will be marked A and the poorest E. The others can 
 be distributed among the Bs, Cs, and Ds by counting 
 down the proportionate number for each letter that 
 seems best. 
 
 If a teacher does not desire to do such careful work, 
 
MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 275 
 
 the papers may be marked directly in the system in 
 use by taking the average papers in the test as a 
 standard. The others can be marked by reference to 
 these. The fundamental thing in marking a set of 
 papers is that the standard of the person doing the 
 marking must not shift in the process. When the 
 entire set can not be marked at one sitting, it is best 
 to mark the first question in all the papers before 
 marking the second. This procedure tends to keep the 
 various factors more clearly before the marker. 
 
 It is often best not to put marks on individual ques- 
 tions in the paper. This avoids the continual hair- 
 splitting comparisons and fault-findings in which some 
 pupils are prone to indulge. Otherwise a teacher is 
 requested frequently to mark the papers a second time 
 and to revise the marking. Papers can not be re- 
 marked without doing other pupils an injustice, 
 because the standard of marking will shift. When the 
 papers are marked in letters this difiiculty is avoided, 
 because the paper has but one value mark on it, and 
 pupils can not question the general value that has been 
 given the paper. This does not mean that errors 
 should not be indicated on the papers. The teacher 
 should do this carefully, even if no values are placed 
 on the various questions. When papers are marked 
 in a per centile scale, it is better not to try to dis- 
 criminate smaller intervals than five points. Pupils 
 dislike the letter scale sometimes because they do not 
 realize the element of inaccuracy present. 
 
276 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 Teachers may lighten the work required in reading 
 the papers by what is known as sampling. It some- 
 times happens that pupils prepare papers systemati- 
 cally in a course. This means that if a teacher marks 
 every paper carefully, indicating errors and putting a 
 comparative mark upon it, the work will be burden- 
 some. It may be made lighter by not trying to read 
 all of the papers with the intention of marking them. 
 Four or five papers read carefully and averaged give a 
 better mark for a pupil than fifteen or twenty read 
 hurriedly. A few accurate measures of a quantity are 
 always of more value than many careless ones, because 
 errors disappear in the average if they are due to 
 chance. When this sampling is done by lot, and the 
 pupils do not know beforehand that it* is to be done, 
 the results are very accurate. Of course, where it is 
 necessary to mark the errors carefully for pedagogical 
 reasons, sampling is of little help. 
 
 IV. Standards and Scales. 
 
 Although the task is difficult, a teacher can measure 
 the results of her efforts as revealed by the improve- 
 ment in ability of the different pupils when compared 
 with one another. When her work is compared with 
 that of her colleagues, the -problem is much more com- 
 plex, however. Under present conditions it is ex- 
 tremely difficult to determine the relative efficiency of 
 the different members of the teaching corps of a school 
 system. There is often no standard or goal 'that will 
 
MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 277 
 
 give a definite basis for such a comparison. This 
 obstacle has not prevented superintendents and patrons 
 from rating teaching in rather general terms, terms that 
 frequently have been absurd and are unjust to the 
 conscientious teacher. These have been the a priori or 
 subjective standards. More recently there has grown 
 up a movement that aims to set up definite objective 
 standards that eliminate the personal element and are 
 more adequate. This movement is just reaching the 
 stage where it is following definite lines. Much that 
 has been done is of little service to the average teacher, 
 but a few more years of refinement of the results will 
 produce standards of great value. 
 
 A Priori or Subjective Standards. 
 
 The simplest and most absurd standard of this class 
 is the attitude of the pupils and the community toward 
 the teacher. This attitude does not depend upon the 
 teaching ability of the person under consideration, but 
 rather upon her ability as a good mixer, upon her 
 political, church, and social activities. These may 
 have no relation to good teaching. This does not 
 mean, however, that the cooperation and respect of the 
 community and pupils is not needed to make good 
 teaching possible. These are a part of the conditions 
 needed for good teaching, but may exist when the 
 teaching is poor. 
 
 The .kind of marks a teacher gives and the number 
 of pupils promoted also have been used as a standard. 
 
278 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 Parents think children are well taught if they receive 
 high marks. If the children fail of promotion, parents 
 are just as certain that the teacher is inferior. Simi- 
 larly, principals and superintendents sometimes rate 
 teachers in this way. When viewed in the light of the 
 foregoing discussion of marking, it will be seen that 
 this standard is of little value. 
 
 Supervisors often use the class-room technique ob- 
 served in visits as a basis for judging the work of 
 teachers. This standard depends for its reliability 
 upon the training and supervisory experience of the one 
 using it. Too often supervisors are poorly trained, and 
 technique to them means little more than good ques- 
 tions, use of showy devices, and pleasing class-room 
 appearances. Personalities and hobbies have full 
 sway. There is no guaranty that what superintendent 
 A considers essential to good teaching will be what 
 B or C rate high. It may be that all are extremists 
 of different types and that each emphasizes different 
 factors. 
 
 The reactive attitude of the child is used also as a 
 basis* for judging teaching efficiency. From this point 
 of view the pupils should show (1) a guiding motive, 
 (2) a consideration and weighing of values, (3) atten- 
 tion to organization of subject-matter, and (4) initia- 
 tive in their work. What constitutes each of these 
 points in the concrete is left to the judges to decide. 
 They will agree no better upon these points than judges 
 will agree on the forms of class-room technique neces- 
 
MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 279 
 
 sary to secure these outcomes. This shift in attention 
 from the form of teaching to the outcomes is a good 
 one, but agreement on the details is needed to make 
 comparisons possible. 
 
 The Johnston Ten-Point Scale ^ for estimating the 
 class-room work in high schools tries to unite the two 
 preceding bases. It helps to analyze the class-room 
 work, and is thus an aid to the improvement of teach- 
 ing more than a means for judging its quality. Its 
 main weakness is that it is subjective and depends 
 upon the opinions of judges for its estimates. Judges 
 with hobbies or inadequate training can not estimate 
 the success of teachers any better with this point scale 
 than with any other subjective aid. The ten points 
 are as follows: 
 
 a. Setting of class topics in the course. This is shown 
 by the mutual understanding of teacher and pupils of 
 the relation of the day's topics to preceding topics. It 
 emphasizes the necessity for correlation between lessons and 
 subjects. It implies that more is needed than the mere 
 assimilation of a single text-book's material day after day 
 to secure the best form of a lesson. 
 
 b. Mastery of intellectual content and effective logical 
 organization of material. This point implies that the re- 
 lated facts of a lesson must be put into their proper mental 
 associations. Things must be put in their logical order so 
 that the essentials stand out as essentials. 
 
 c. The mechanics of class-room management. Economy 
 of time and grasp of pedagogical technique. This includes 
 all of those things that have been presented under the objec- 
 tive conditions of teaching and all points that are considered 
 
 ^ Prepared by the late Professor Charles Hughes Johnston of the 
 University of Illinois, but never published in detail. 
 
280 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 as the mechanics of teaching, questioning, and the use of 
 devices. 
 
 d. Effective emphasis upon the mental processes and 
 values peculiar and essential to the subject. This point is 
 hard to make concrete. Teachers talk about values peculiar 
 to a subject, but seldom can detect them in the actual class- 
 room results. Such things as cause and effect in history, 
 inference in science laboratory work, and proof in geometry 
 are of this nature. Those that are found only in a par- 
 ticular subject must be brought out when that subject is 
 taught, if the work is to be rated high on this point. 
 
 e. Independence of teacher and class as a group toward 
 their material. In common phraseology this independence 
 means the excellence of the preparation of teacher and 
 pupils. Every one must be free from text-book or syllabus 
 to such an extent that the real thought of the recitation 
 moves forward without the distraction or interruption that 
 comes when materials are new or unfamiliar. Supple- 
 mentary contributions must be made freely and accepted 
 hospitably by teacher and class. 
 
 /. Suitability to the pupil of the type of recitation 
 employed. This point recognizes the fact that the form of 
 the recitation and its details, must be modified to suit the 
 maturity of the pupils, the nature of the subject, the stage 
 of development reached in a particular course, and other 
 limiting factors. 
 
 g. The '' common-sense" factor. This point directs at- 
 tention to the fact that a teacher must develop a class 
 atmosphere of sane thinking. This will be manifested in 
 sane and clear thinking attitudes in the class-room. Con- 
 clusions will be drawn in recognition of the limiting factors. 
 The practical will be continually emphasized and, above 
 everything else, the teacher's judgment will be accepted by 
 the pupils as the best of somid thinking. These phenomena 
 are secured through the growth incidental to many days of 
 teaching, and are not found during the first few days of a 
 teacher's work. 
 
 h. Evidences of culture versus mere erudition. This is 
 shown in the way the class-work strives to bring out those 
 things that are the marks of culture and refinement. These 
 
MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 281 
 
 will be manifested in good language, good voice, and general 
 "cultural atmosphere." 
 
 i. Class participation and class responsibility. This is 
 measured by the extent to which the class is a real active 
 socialized unit. It will be found in the greatest perfection 
 in those classes where pupil cooperation has been developed 
 most. 
 
 ;'. Class respect for learning. This last point is shown 
 in a seriousness of pupil effort, which gives a tone of 
 scholarship to the class. The pupils will be wholesomely 
 interested, serious, and good-naturedly humorous. This and 
 the two preceding points are school products, products of 
 the combined efforts of all of the teachers, and one teacher 
 can not be held responsible for them. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 The results of teaching are intangible and difficult 
 to measure. Teachers should know how to measure 
 the results of their work in order to adapt their methods 
 to the varying needs of the situation. 
 
 The daily recitation enables the teacher to get a fair 
 idea of results, but it needs supplementing by examina- 
 tions. Examinations are valuable as teaching devices 
 as well as for measuring the results secured, for they 
 help to organize knowledge. They may be oral or 
 written, announced or unannounced, time limit or work 
 limit. The questions employed should test other forms 
 of pupil ability as well as the ability to remember. 
 
 Marks are not highly reliable as measures of school- 
 work as ordinarily computed. The unreliability is due 
 to the inability of teachers to discriminate small de- 
 grees of difference in merit, to the emphasis upon 
 different phases of the work by different teachers, and 
 
282 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 to the different standards of perfection held among 
 teachers. The best marking system, theoretically, is a 
 letter system. These letters should be distributed 
 approximately according to the normal frequency curve 
 in large classes. The fundamental point in marking 
 is that all teachers in a school should mark on the same 
 basis. Variations of the individual teacher from the 
 general tendency of the distribution of marks need 
 explanation, for they may indicate the presence of un- 
 desirable features in the teacher's work. The teacher's 
 marking will be more accurate if the right attitude is 
 maintained, if the average paper in the examination 
 is taken as the standard, and if fine discriminations 
 are avoided. 
 
 Suggested Readings 
 
 Harvey, N. A. Principles of Teaching. Pp. 266-269. 
 A very good brief discussion of examinations. 
 
 National Society for the Study of Education. 
 Fifteenth Yearbook. This presents standards and 
 tests from the supervisor's point of view. 
 
 Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. 
 Chapter XXII. A clear discussion of the problem 
 of measuring the results of teaching. 
 
 Starch, Daniel. Educational Measurements. Chap- 
 ters II and III. A good technical discussion of 
 marks as measures of school-work. The remainder 
 of the book is devoted to objective scales and 
 standards. y 
 
MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 283 
 
 Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process. Chapter IX. 
 An excellent presentation of the organizing function 
 of the examination. 
 
 Exercises 
 
 1. What should be the form of questions asked in the 
 
 daily recitation if they are to measure the results 
 of teaching? 
 
 2. Examine sets of examination questions and clas- 
 
 sify them into three groups : memory questions, 
 thought questions, and questions or tasks of 
 application. Which predominate? Is there 
 any difference between subjects shown in the 
 forms of questions used? 
 
 3. When is a teacher justified in giving an examina- 
 
 tion without telling the pupils that it is to come 
 at that time? 
 
 4. Prepare mimeographed copies of a pupil's exam- 
 
 ination paper and ask a group of teachers to 
 mark the paper independently. Compare the 
 marks they assign with those originally assigned 
 by the person who gave the examination. 
 
 5. Distribute the marks assigned by the different 
 
 teachers of a school and ascertain whether 
 there are any personal equations shown by the 
 teachers. 
 
 6. Mark a set of examination papers for another 
 
 teacher, using the average paper as the standard. 
 
284 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 7. How is "sampling" of any value in determining 
 
 the marks of pupils' note-books and other 
 routine work? 
 
 8. Visit class-rooms and note how many of the points 
 
 of the Johnston Ten-point Scale you can recog- 
 nize. Are there any differences between sub- 
 jects that you have discovered? 
 
 9. What explanation can be offered if half of a class 
 
 fails in an examination set by the teacher? 
 What would you say if the superintendent pre- 
 pared the examination questions? 
 
 10. Should a pupil's chances of promotion depend 
 
 solely on the marks made in the examination? 
 
 11. What are the criticisms that can be made of a 
 
 teaching schedule that requires a written exam- 
 ination every fourth Friday throughout the 
 year? 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 TESTS AND STANDARDS ^ 
 
 The subjective methods of evaluating teaching re- 
 sults discussed in the foregoing chapter may be made 
 very useful if properly handled. The fundamental 
 requirement is that those who apply them be trained 
 in their use. When the various points have been 
 standardized finally by educators, score-cards for 
 evaluating teaching effort may be devised that will be 
 as effective as the score-cards in use in the field of 
 agriculture. Until this has been done, objective tests 
 will receive the bulk of the attention of the educational 
 world when a definite measure of results is desired. 
 
 I. Objective Tests. 
 
 A. Tests as Objective Measuring Instruments. 
 
 It was a great advance in the field of physical 
 measurement when the first standard yardstick was 
 established. Before that time there was no doubt a 
 great amount of disagreement over ordinary measure- 
 
 ' This chapter will not be very intelligible if the person doing 
 the reading is unfamiliar with tests. As an aid to its under- 
 standing it is suggested that a set of sample tests be secured 
 by the reader. A sample package containing the tests to illus- 
 trate the points made in the chapter has been arranged by the 
 writer, and may be obtained from The Century Company postpaid 
 for 60 cents. 
 
 285 
 
286 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 ments of length, height, and area. As a consequence 
 of these disagreements, measurements could be of little 
 value in commerce and industry. The invention of 
 the yardstick revolutionized things. Standards were 
 set up that were accepted without question, thereby 
 making possible the efficient exchange of commodities 
 that were linear in nature. When finely graduated 
 instruments, capable of measuring things accurately to 
 thousandths of an inch, were invented, a much greater 
 advance was made, stimulating industry in countless 
 ways. One does not have to use his imagination very 
 much to see the manifold possibilities that resulted 
 from accurate mensuration of the physical. Though 
 the construction of the first standard yardstick was a 
 great achievement, the devising of the micrometer was 
 also of vital importance. 
 
 In the educational field the construction of objec- 
 tively standardized tests was a similar great advance. 
 It is no longer necessary to express our opinions about 
 the general merits of the work of one school system 
 in comparison with another. Instead, the facts in the 
 case, as revealed by tests in the more formal phases 
 of education, make it possible to prepare statements 
 based on facts. To be sure, we have not yet reached 
 the micrometer stage in educational measurements, but 
 even standardized yardsticks are a great boon. The 
 standardized yardsticks of education have been pre- 
 pared now, and their universal use will prepare the way 
 for finer measuring instruments. 
 
TESTS AND STANDARDS 287 
 
 The importance of tests and standards has become 
 so widely recognized that the measurement of the 
 results of education in various cities has occupied the 
 time of people especially selected for this work. Boards 
 of education have employed directors of tests and 
 measurements, who find the evaluation of the results 
 of a series of tests very helpful in the supervision of 
 the schools. The administration of standard tests is 
 a time-consuming piece of work even when one under- 
 stands his job. When the goal to be attained is not 
 clearly foreseen, it is often a much more difficult task 
 than is realized. However, tests are being simplified, 
 and their administration is becoming so much more 
 thoroughly understood that a larger and larger number 
 of people are using them successfully each year. 
 
 B. What a Test Is. 
 
 A standard test is very similar to an old-fashioned 
 examination in many ways, especially in its purpose. 
 It differs from the examination mainly on the adminis- 
 trative side. A good test is devised in such a manner 
 that the reactions of the pupils are so controlled or 
 restricted that the results may be evaluated quickly. 
 In other words, tests usually are easily ''scored," while 
 examination papers are ''graded" or "marked" only 
 after a laborious reading. The pupil usually answers 
 the questions of a test by making marks or writing 
 figures or words. In the examination, on the other 
 hand, the pupil writes lengthy answers. The test thus 
 
288 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 will cover a large number of points, but of course this 
 fact can not be true of the examination. Oftentimes 
 a test seems to be made up of minor details ; but it has 
 been discovered that these minor points may be so 
 selected that they are as significant as the apparently 
 greater problems of the examination. 
 
 C. How a Test Is Made. 
 
 The usual procedure, when a test is to be devised, is 
 to select a large number of items from the particular 
 field in question that may be used in the test. These 
 items are then arranged in the form in which they are 
 to be used, and a preliminary try-out of the test is 
 made. This preliminary try-out may be made with a 
 few students or with a comparatively large number. 
 Usually a very limited try-out is resorted to before the 
 real preliminary try-out is staged, so that the most 
 glaring deficiencies may be remedied at once. After 
 the preliminary administration of the test has been 
 completed, the scores made on each item are examined 
 carefully, and such crudities as are apparent are 
 eliminated. 
 
 When this stage has been reached, the usual pro- 
 cedure is to arrange the items of the test in the order 
 of their diflEiculty, placing the easy items at the begin- 
 ning. The method that is to be used depends some- 
 what upon whether the test is to be used as a speed 
 test or as a work-limit test. The grading need not be 
 so carefully done if the work-limit form is to be used, 
 
TESTS AND STANDARDS 289 
 
 but it is very essential to have the items scaled if speed 
 is important. 
 
 After the tests have been put in final form it often 
 is important to find out what the test really measures. 
 This point is especially true if the content of the test 
 is not obviously related to some course. If a test 
 composed of supposedly reading items has been de- 
 vised, one may wonder whether the test really measures 
 reading ability. This question can be settled by deter- 
 mining the validity of the test. In other words, its 
 correlation with a real reading criterion must be found. 
 If there are two tests purporting to measure the same 
 thing, that one is the more valid which has the higher 
 correlation with the criterion. 
 
 Before tests can be used by people in general, the 
 scores made by a large number of pupils must be 
 compiled. The average score made by all of the pupils 
 in a grade is found, and the series of averages for the 
 different grades constitutes the standard scores for the 
 test. This procedure is called standardizing a test, and 
 is necessary before a test can be of real service to the 
 rank and file of the educational profession. 
 
 D. When to Use Tests. 
 
 Teachers and supervisors often feel that they ought 
 to use standard tests of some sort in their work, but 
 they are at a loss as to just when and how to do it. 
 When to use a test depends to a great extent upon the 
 purpose for which the test is to be applied. If the 
 
290 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 scores made by the pupils in the test are to be used 
 to reveal progress, the technique will be different from 
 that to be followed if the scores are to be used to show 
 group or individual weaknesses. 
 
 If the purpose in giving the test is to measure 
 progress, it will be necessary to give two tests. One 
 must be taken by the pupils at the beginning of the 
 term of teaching. This information is very essential, 
 because without it a test at the end is a comparatively 
 unknown quantity. One group of pupils may be 
 burdened with a poor earlier preparation, but may 
 progress very well. Another group might come with 
 unusually good preparation, and make almost no 
 progress. The two groups would thus end at about 
 the same place, although the teacher in charge of the 
 first group should be credited with good teaching and 
 the other one with poor work. 
 
 If, on the other hand, the purpose in giving the test 
 is to discover individual or group weaknesses, the test 
 may be given at any time — preferably, of course, early 
 enough in the term of instruction to permit the re- 
 moval of such deficiencies as may be revealed. Many 
 tests are suitable for the detection of group weaknesses, 
 but those that can be used to aid the individual are 
 much fewer in number. This situation is due to the 
 fact that many tests are reliable for groups but are 
 somewhat unreliable for the individual. By this is 
 meant that groups do not make significantly different 
 
TESTS AND STANDARDS 291 
 
 scores on similar tests when given at the same time, 
 while individuals often do. 
 
 E. Selecting the Test. 
 
 The purpose for which the test is to be used should 
 be the final guide in selecting it. The test that is used 
 to show group improvement may be much shorter than 
 the one used for diagnostic purposes, because a much 
 higher individual reliability is needed for diagnostic 
 tests. A test, when prepared for schools in general, 
 may easily contain items that are not universally 
 taught. In that case a pupil might miss some of them, 
 because he had not studied them as thoroughly as 
 pupils in general do. Errors due to carelessness and 
 guesses also are factors that are important in individual 
 scores but that are not significant with groups, because 
 they are constant factors, which neutralize one another 
 when a number of pupils are involved. Other things 
 being equal, however, the test that is the more reliable 
 should always be chosen, because the improvement of 
 the individual should always be the ultimate goal of 
 testing. 
 
 A subsidiary consideration, which must be kept in 
 mind when choosing a test, is its ease of administration. 
 Complicated directions for the examiner are no longer 
 considered necessary for some of the best tests. There 
 was a time when it was thought that only a trained 
 psychologist should be permitted to give tests, but that 
 
292 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 time is past. Tests may be administered by any one 
 who will be impartial and who will follow instructions 
 implicitly. Any test that can not be administered in 
 this manner is not available for general school use. 
 There is no virtue in complicated instructions, and they 
 will soon be a thing of the past. 
 
 As might be inferred from the preceding paragraph, 
 a test must be provided with complete instructions for 
 its administration. Its scoring also is important, and 
 helps for the efficient carrying out of this work also are 
 necessary. Last, but not least, a test must have 
 standards that can be used as the inches on the yard- 
 stick. 
 
 II. Standards. 
 
 The present-day standards for many of our tests are 
 somewhat unreliable because they have been" compiled 
 from data that were limited in scope. The scores used 
 have been obtained frequently from the city schools 
 of a few cities — as a rule. Northern cities. No recog- 
 nition is made of the fact that these areas are centers 
 of selected population. Adequate standards will dif- 
 ferentiate between sections of the country. Our coun- 
 try schools can not maintain the standards that well 
 graded city schools reach with ease; neither can the 
 Southern schools, which are handicapped in many cases 
 by short terms and poorly trained teachers. Centers 
 containing a predominantly foreign population do not 
 do the work that thoroughbred American sections do 
 
 I 
 
TESTS AND STANDARDS 293 
 
 without difficulty. Each of these factors should be 
 recognized and standards for each should be provided. 
 
 The time of the school year that the test is given 
 also should be taken into consideration when the test 
 scores are compared with the standards. Immediately 
 after the summer vacation the pupils will do poorly 
 because they have forgotten much since they last were 
 in school. To compare their scores with those made 
 by pupils who took the tests later in the year is to 
 disregard this very important factor. Some of the 
 standards now published give scores for November and 
 April, the mid-semester points. This plan goes a long 
 way toward supplying the needed aids, but it neglects 
 the September, January, and June points, which it 
 seems might be profitably given. Standards, to be of 
 the greatest service, must provide for all of these minor 
 details. 
 
 The actual improvement that a group of pupils 
 makes is the important thing, rather than the point 
 at which it is found when tested for the first time. 
 Unless the standards are so used that they reveal 
 deficiencies and lead to improvement, they are of little 
 value. Standards may be of much value in the case 
 of children who have reached the level of development 
 corresponding to their general mental maturity. Often- 
 times it is not worth while to strive for additional im- 
 provement above the standards, because it is secured 
 at an enormous expenditure of energy due to the imma- 
 turity of the pupils. When pupils reach the proper 
 
294 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 maturity, subjects frequently are learned easily that 
 are mastered with great difficulty if taught earlier. 
 Standards thus show how much can be expected of 
 the pupils, saving the useless expenditure of effort that 
 would result if higher goals were set. 
 
 III. Causes of Low Scores. 
 
 There are many factors that may be responsible for 
 a poor showing on the part of the pupils. Poor home 
 environments do not give the children a fair chance, 
 for they lose the stimulus that other children receive 
 from this source. Pupils in ill health can not compete 
 with normal children. This point is so obvious, how- 
 ever, that it need not be emphasized. When the pupils 
 are below par mentally, the same results can not be 
 expected that would be the case otherwise. Another 
 cause of low scores may be a poor administration of 
 the tests, when the pupils do not do themselves justice. 
 The time may be shortened accidentally or the proper 
 instructions may not be given, each of which factors 
 will result in low scores. 
 
 Poor teaching also may be a cause of low scores. 
 However, one should be very sure of his ground before 
 the fault is laid to the person in charge of the pupils. 
 A teacher must have pupils up to the average in ability, 
 the usual regularity of attendance, and comparable 
 equipment before she can be blamed for inefficient 
 work on the basis of test scores. Even in cases where 
 a teacher does not secure the expected results, she may 
 
TESTS AND STANDARDS 295 
 
 be the victim of circumstances. Only teachers who 
 are especially qualified temperamentally or intellec- 
 tually should teach the abnormal. One of these 
 teachers may be put in charge of a group of average 
 children and do mediocre work, while if she is put over 
 a group to which she is fitted she may do excellent 
 work. 
 
 IV. Mental Tests as Checks. 
 
 If a supervisor has accurate data concerning the 
 mental caliber of the different pupils of his school 
 system, he can arrange for many adjustments that will 
 make for efficiency. Teachers can be put in charge 
 of groups for which they are fitted, and pupils can be 
 promoted or demoted as best suits them. Mental tests 
 are only checks for this work, and should be considered 
 only as one of the factors in the case. The pupil who 
 is mature mentally and does good school-work can be 
 promoted with safety; but the pupil who is superior 
 in school-work and only average in general ability 
 should be promoted only after the utmost deliberation. 
 The dullard in mind usually turns out to be the dunce 
 in the school also. He should be put with fellows of 
 his ilk, where special instruction suited to the mental 
 immaturity may be given. 
 
 With exact information concerning the mental ma- 
 turity of the pupils being taught, a supervisor will 
 have some idea of the kind of work to be expected from 
 a teacher. Two teachers having rooms of the same 
 
296 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 mental composition should produce approximately the 
 same teaching results. When this is not secured, dif- 
 ferences in the skill of those doing the instructing may 
 be suspected. 
 
 The time has now arrived when there is little neces- 
 sity for mental testing to be restricted to individual 
 work. Individual tests may be used as a last resort, 
 when much may depend upon the decision to be 
 reached; but for ordinary work group tests are avail- 
 able. Two or more group tests, when well admin- 
 istered, give data that are accurate enough for most 
 situations. 
 
 V. Tests as Survey Tools. 
 
 Tests first came into use in a general way as survey 
 tools. Educational experts entered some of our large 
 city school systems and gave tests in many of the 
 fundamentals. The results secured often were very- 
 helpful in suggesting improvements in administration, 
 in teaching emphasis, and in other details. As a whole, 
 the work has been so beneficial that many school sys- 
 tems have acquired the habit, and self-surveys are 
 frequently made. A survey made by those within is 
 carried on sympathetically and usually can be counted 
 on for good results, while a survey made by outsiders 
 sometimes leads to friction and little progress. Simple 
 tests can be used for this work, because the individual 
 reliability need not be so high as for other lines of 
 work. 
 
TESTS AND STANDARDS 297 
 
 VI. Tests as Instructional Aids. 
 
 The most valuable service that tests can perform is 
 to aid instruction. When groups of students are com- 
 pared, the scores made reveal any general deficiencies 
 that may exist. Teaching emphasis varies between 
 one teacher and another and between one school system 
 and the next. When this emphasis has been pro- 
 nounced it often happens that some of the more funda- 
 mental details have been neglected. Group tests may 
 reveal these and thus make it possible to shift the 
 emphasis to the neglected items. 
 
 The teacher herself may use the tests to discover 
 individual weaknesses. Some tests have been designed 
 especially to serve this end. In the field of arithmetic, 
 for example, pupils may be weak in division and up 
 to standard in fractions or more advanced phases. 
 Again, they may be deficient in one of the tables al- 
 though well prepared in the others. When such weak- 
 nesses are revealed by a test, the teacher can take the 
 necessary steps to correct them. 
 
 Tests also can be used to discover pupils who have 
 unusual aptitude. In the past teachers have not given 
 the superior pupils much thought; but the use of tests 
 has directed attention to these individuals so strongly 
 that their problems are being considered. Those who 
 have the best minds are the ones who have the greatest 
 possibilities ahead of them. Effort expended on them 
 pays many times the social dividends that the time 
 
298 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 spent on the dullard produces. We give much time 
 to the subnormal but neglect the superior in most 
 schools — a condition that will be reversed when indi- 
 vidual results are considered in their proper perspective. 
 
 VII. Tests in Educational Guidance. 
 
 Another field in which tests are being put to use is 
 in educational guidance. There was a time when all 
 boys and girls took the same courses when they went 
 to high school. A large number of our youth found 
 the demands of the traditional regimen too exacting 
 and, as a consequence, left high school. The recog- 
 nition of this fact was followed by a broadening of 
 the work of the high school, and science, agriculture, 
 manual arts, and home economics were brought into 
 the school, with the idea that cultivation of these 
 interests would prove to be the solution of the difiiculty. 
 Our boys and girls did not have the foresight to select 
 wisely from these offerings, however, and often chose 
 work for which they were unfitted. This is the point 
 where tests are being of great service. There are many 
 tests that show general aptitude, and the results of 
 these are used in some schools to guide the pupils in 
 the junior and senior high schools in the selection of 
 the courses for which they are best qualified by native 
 capacity, temperament, and training. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 Subjective methods of evaluating teaching results 
 are limited in their scope because teachers are un- 
 
TESTS AND STANDARDS 299 
 
 trained in their use. Objective methods are much 
 more serviceable because little training is needed by 
 those who apply them. Tests and their accompanying 
 standards make it possible to compare schools and 
 cities and methods by the use of facts. 
 
 Tests are carefully prepared examinations that have 
 been compiled from material that has stood the test 
 of the school-room trials. They should be used at the 
 beginning and at the end of the school term, if progress 
 is to be measured. If individual weaknesses are to be 
 revealed, the tests may be given at any time. 
 
 The test should be selected mainly on the basis of 
 the purpose for which it is to be used. Its ease of 
 administration should be a big factor in the deci- 
 sion. 
 
 Present-day standards are somewhat unreliable be- 
 cause they are so general. They should be supple- 
 mented by additional standards for different groups 
 and for various seasons of the school year. Low scores 
 may be due to poor home environments, ill health, 
 irregular school attendance, poor teaching, low men- 
 tality, or a faulty administration of the tests. 
 
 Mental tests may be used to check the results of 
 standard tests. The mental caliber of the students a 
 teacher has is an important factor in determining the 
 work that will be done. Much of the mental testing 
 can be done with group tests. 
 
 Tests may be used as survey tools, as instructional 
 aids, and as a basis for educational guidance. 
 
300 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 Suggested Readings 
 
 HoLLEY, C. E. Mental Tests for School Use. A work 
 
 that gives some practical hints on the use of mental 
 
 tests. 
 Monroe, W. S.; De Voss, J. C; and Kelly, F. J. 
 
 Educational Tests and Measurements. A good book 
 
 on tests and measurements in the common branches. 
 Monroe, W. S. Measuring the Results of Teaching. 
 
 A very helpful book, especially for those who wish 
 
 to measure the fundamental subjects of the common 
 
 school. 
 Terman, L. M. The Intelligence of School Children. 
 
 A good book for those who are interested in the use 
 
 of mental tests in school grading. 
 Terman, L. M. The Measurement of Intelligence. 
 
 The manual for the Stanford Revision of the Binet 
 
 Scale. 
 
 Exercises 
 
 1. Make a list of the subjects for which you find tests 
 
 suitable for survey purposes. 
 
 2. Make a list of the tests that seem to you to be of 
 
 value as diagnostic instruments. 
 
 3. How much time could a teacher devote with profit 
 
 to the use of tests? 
 
 4. To what extent may standard tests be substituted 
 
 for the regular school examinations? 
 
 5. What test would you use to reveal individual weak- 
 
 nesses in arithmetic fundamentals? 
 
TESTS AND STANDARDS 301 
 
 What group of tests would you consider necessary 
 
 as an aid in educational guidance? 
 How much weight would you give to test scores in 
 
 comparison with school marks in educational 
 
 guidance? 
 How may tests be used to place pupils properly 
 
 when they change schools? 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 GENERAL TECHNIQUE 
 
 I. Suggestions for the First Day. 
 
 Inexperienced teachers often are uncertain as to 
 what they should do when they begin their work in 
 the class-room. Many are unfamiliar with the school- 
 room situation, knowing it only from the point of view 
 of the student and pupil. This would not be the case 
 if every beginning teacher had been prepared by a 
 thorough course of training that anticipated the diffi- 
 culties usually encountered ; but, unfortunately, a large 
 per cent, of our teaching personnel is untrained. Some 
 of these difficulties disappear if a correct start is made. 
 Teaching, like most unfamiliar things, presents many 
 foreboding features to the uninitiated. Consequently, 
 a few suggestions for the first day may be of value. 
 
 A. Advanced Preparation. 
 
 It is advisable for new teachers to make some prepa- 
 rations for their work before the first day arrives. 
 They should attend to their physical wants very early 
 after they arrive on the scene. Good boarding- and 
 rooming-places are essential to physical comfort. In 
 seeking for these, teachers must be careful not to 
 
 302 
 
GENERAL TECHNIQUE 303 
 
 offend people by trying to find something for nothing. 
 Good accommodations must be paid for, and com- 
 munities provide them for their teachers at as reason- 
 able rates as are offered any other class of persons. It 
 is a good plan for new teachers to make inquiries from 
 disinterested parties, and thus ascertain the usual rates 
 and desirable places in the community before starting 
 out to engage accommodations. 
 
 In addition to assuring herself physical comfort, a 
 teacher should learn a few things about the school. 
 The recent history and the aims and hopes of those in 
 charge give a perspective that may be used to guide 
 a teacher's work. If there is a wide-awake principal 
 or superintendent in charge, he will call a teacher's 
 meeting at which the general plans of the year will 
 be outlined. It is the teacher's duty to attend this 
 meeting, even if it interferes with some previously 
 planned recreation and is not specified in the teacher's 
 contract. Attendance at this meeting may help the 
 teacher to make a good start, while failure to attend 
 may give the supervisor a bad impression that may be 
 a factor in deciding a future reappointment. Lack of 
 attendance at and of cooperation in teachers' meetings 
 is usually a symptom of insubordination and other un- 
 desirable characteristics. 
 
 Another phase of preparation that is of value to the 
 teacher is a visit to the school plant. Here she can 
 learn many things that will prepare her for the teaching 
 work. She should know the plan of the buildings, 
 
304 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 including the location of play-rooms, toilet-rooms, 
 store-rooms, and fire-escapes, as well as the usual 
 facilities. As far as possible, an inventory, mental at 
 least, should be made of all equipment, supplies, and 
 helps that are present. Lack of attention to this last 
 handicaps the work and sometimes leads to wasted 
 funds through duplication of supplies and equipment. 
 In addition, it is necessary that a teacher make tenta- 
 tive plans for the year's work. All courses should be 
 outlined tentatively; or, if already outlined in courses 
 of study, the outlines should be examined carefully so 
 that the teacher may be able to plan the work. It may 
 be said that the work should be planned in its general 
 features for the year, a little more specifically for the 
 next month, in detail for the following week, and with 
 the minutest care for the next day. 
 
 B. Definite Plans for the First Day. 
 
 1. The plans for the first day should include pro- 
 visions that will acquaint the teacher with the pupils. 
 One of the first essentials that enable a teacher to 
 maintain order is the ability to call the pupils by name. 
 If the teacher can secure a list of names of her pupils 
 beforehand and can memorize it, she will be able to 
 connect the faces of her pupils with the names in a 
 very short time. When the names of the pupils can 
 not be obtained until they come to school, the teacher 
 should secure them as soon as she begins her work. 
 Slips of paper passed around, upon which the pupils 
 
GENERAL TECHNIQUE 305 
 
 may write their names, can be collected and read to 
 the class. This will enable the teacher to become 
 familiar with the pronunciation of the names and learn 
 to whom they belong. At this time the pupils should 
 be assigned seats. In assigning seats it is best to ar- 
 range classes as compactly as possible. It will aid a 
 teacher to connect names and faces with one another 
 if a seating plot is made that can be consulted when- 
 ever she is in doubt about the right name. A seating 
 plot also helps to check the attendance quickly. 
 
 2. When the teacher has completed the plans for 
 getting acquainted with her pupils, she should outline 
 the procedure for informing them about the work to 
 be done. When the school does not provide books and 
 supplies, the pupils must be given proper directions 
 about their purchase. They must be given an idea of 
 the general requirements of the work, and should be 
 told about the larger features of the courses. In doing 
 this it is well for the teacher to emphasize the pleasant 
 features rather than the unpleasant ones. The main 
 aim of this is to provide for the larger phases and to 
 put the pupils into the right attitude toward the work. 
 
 3. It is the practice in many schools for the teachers 
 not to attempt any formal instruction m the first school 
 session. There are so many new things, and pupils 
 have so little background, that it is questionable 
 whether instruction pays at the start. If any attempt 
 is made at formal instruction, it must be restricted to 
 a review of things studied earlier or to training in study 
 
306 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 methods. No formal expository teaching is worth 
 while on the first day, though this is the form that 
 often is used. It is better not to attempt any formal 
 instruction in the first session, and to devote the time 
 to preparing for the next day, than for teachers and 
 pupils to tire themselves unduly by trying to run on 
 regular schedule under difficulties. Pupils and teachers 
 must make preparation for the year's work just as they 
 must make preparation for each day's lesson. 
 
 II. Teaching Postures. 
 
 It may be profitable to discuss the question of teach- 
 ing postures briefly. The best position for the instruc- 
 tor to take in teaching a class is a standing one a few 
 feet in front of the first row of seats. This posture 
 enables the teacher to hold the attention of the class 
 easily. Postures become habits, however, and teachers 
 must not become habituated to those that are too 
 exhaustive of energy. Teachers will find it best to take 
 a sitting position as soon as they can hold the attention 
 of the class in this way. The sitting posture puts a 
 greater premium upon the intellectual and emotional 
 forces than upon commanding physique; hence it re- 
 quires more mental alertness. It is necessary, how- 
 ever, that teachers prepare for possible periods of ill 
 health when it would be very detrimental for them to 
 stand continuously. Some teachers find it difiicult to 
 become enthusiastic over their work while seated. 
 
GENERAL TECHNIQUE 307 
 
 These may find it necessary to stand in order to develop 
 sufiicient enthusiasm. 
 
 III. Relationships of the Teacher. 
 
 The relationships of the teacher are not considered 
 ordinarily as a part of the technique of teaching, but 
 they play so important a part in the results of teaching 
 that are secured that they may be regarded as vital to 
 the technique. The proper attitude adopted by the 
 teacher makes it possible to do first-class work because 
 the cooperation of others is obtained. Without this 
 cooperation the work is very difficult and discouraging. 
 
 Teachers must adopt the proper attitude toward 
 supervisors. They must be loyal and must maintain 
 the position of subordinates. It sometimes happens 
 that the supervisor is not qualified for the position he 
 holds. In that case the teacher must adopt the atti- 
 tude maintained in the army, which does not recognize 
 personalities but salutes and obeys the uniform. The 
 teacher must maintain the right attitude toward the 
 office that the supervisor holds, even if the supervisor 
 is utterly unfitted to fill it. Teachers sometimes refuse 
 to carry out orders of their supervisors that they do 
 not approve of. In doing this they are insubordinate. 
 It often happens that the teacher is viewing things 
 from a wrong perspective, "making a mountain out of 
 a mole-hill," and that things are not so bad as they 
 seem. In any case, the teacher should do what is 
 
308 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 asked by the supervisor as long as it is in his sphere 
 of authority. If he requests the wrong things he will 
 be responsible for the results, and the school patrons 
 will attend to his case later. The best teaching re- 
 quires team-work, and the most arbitrary restrictions 
 allow many opportunities for initiative on the part of 
 subordinates. 
 
 Teachers must maintain the right attitudes toward 
 their co-workers. These must be the attitudes of sym- 
 pathy, sincerity, and cooperation. As a class, teachers 
 are of a more nervous temperament than average 
 human beings, and are unusually sensitive. This 
 makes it necessary for all to cooperate to prevent mis- 
 understandings. If all do their best to prevent the 
 wrong points of view from intruding, the work will be 
 much more pleasant. It often happens that teachers 
 are limited in their intercourse mainly to their fellow 
 workers or to their pupils. It is hard to find congenial 
 company among the rank and file of many small com- 
 munities. This puts restrictions upon teachers, as a 
 class, that seem hard to bear at times. The wisest plan 
 is to put up with these disagreeable features and to 
 remember that every profession has its drawbacks. 
 
 Toward the pupils the teachers should maintain the 
 attitudes most favorable to discipline. Outside of 
 school hours it often happens that teachers seek the 
 company of some of the pupils. This practice is 
 fraught with dangerous possibilities. This is true 
 especially when the teacher seeks the companionship 
 
GENERAL TECHNIQUE 309 
 
 of those of the opposite sex systematically. This must 
 be done with the utmost discretion. On the other 
 hand, the practice, which has become quite common, 
 for teachers to become the leaders of pupil groups in 
 out-of-school activities, such as Boy Scouts' patrols 
 and girls' camp-fires, is a very good one, because it gives 
 chances both for recreation and for character-molding. 
 Toward the community the teacher must adopt the 
 attitude of service. Teaching is primarily a calling of 
 service. Many things must be done that are not 
 heralded from the housetops and for which the only 
 reward is the satisfaction resulting from knowing that 
 one has done a good deed. In small communities the 
 demands of this sort that are made upon the teacher 
 are many. In some cases it may be necessary for 
 teachers to conserve their energies and to refuse to help 
 at times. The teaching duties should receive first 
 attention, and no amount of social service will com- 
 pensate for the systematic neglect of the school-room. 
 
 IV. Use of Lesson Types. 
 
 As has been pointed out in connection with the dis- 
 cussion of the formal class period, much of the teacher's 
 work is routine in nature. At times, however, it ought 
 to rise above this and partake of the characteristics of 
 an art. These are the occasions for the use of lesson 
 types. Until a teacher has mastered the technique 
 presented in Chapter V, however, and is sure of the 
 simpler phases, there is little excuse for attempting 
 
310 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 such difficult work as the expository, inductive, or 
 appreciation lessons. These forms require a mastery 
 of many simple activities, and fall flat unless well done. 
 
 When a teacher has learned to use the simple items 
 of technique, she is ready for more pretentious efforts. 
 These should not be attempted wholesale, but one at 
 a time. In reality, a method of teaching must be 
 assimilated so thoroughly by the teacher that it func- 
 tions mainly without thought, if it is to be most useful. 
 To learn to use one of the special teaching forms, a 
 teacher should take moments of comparative leisure 
 when she wishes to improve her methods, and plan out 
 the details of a few lessons that can be taught easily. 
 Then, when the day arrives for this work, she will find 
 herself prepared to try out the new method. Unless 
 these forms of special technique are mastered very 
 thoroughly, they can be of little value, because teachers 
 must rely mainly on moments of inspiration to add the 
 artistic touches to the class-room work. 
 
 American educational conditions do not permit 
 teachers to make adequate preparation in the first year 
 or two of their teaching work. As a result, many 
 adopt makeshifts that bring passable work, and then 
 little advance is made later. Instead of this, a begin- 
 ning teacher ought to have a year of probation^ in 
 which not more than half-time work is required. This 
 would give the novice a chance to make the right kind 
 
 *The University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, has tried 
 this plan in some of the city schools of the State, and reports very 
 favorably on it. 
 
GENERAL TECHNIQUE 311 
 
 of start, and thus insure future growth. Lesson types 
 are for the teacher-artist, and are of value only in so 
 far as the rank and file has the time and ability to use 
 them. 
 
 V. Books. 
 
 Books are one of the valuable sources of subject- 
 matter that may be used in the class-room. They 
 may be used to furnish the organization and main 
 materials of the course. They may be used as supple- 
 mentary subject-matter, which will round out the 
 teacher's outline or the regular text-book. Because 
 of their accessibility, much teaching should aim to train 
 pupils to use books intelligently and thus enable them 
 to continue their education after they have left the 
 school-room. 
 
 Under the conditions found at present in American 
 schools, text-books are a necessity. Most teachers are 
 poorly trained in the knowledge of subject-matter, and 
 the text-book, with its careful organization adapted to 
 the children, provides for the deficiency. With text- 
 books to furnish the content and the organization, the 
 work in our better American schools compares favor- 
 ably with the work in good English, German and 
 French schools, where the teachers do not use text- 
 books. Until a teacher has mastered the subject- 
 matter of a course so well that she can write her own 
 text, she must rely upon the one prepared for her. 
 
 In selecting a text-book or other book that is to be 
 
312 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 used very much, it is well if the teacher selects on the 
 basis of the characteristics of a good book. The pupils 
 labor so much over the text that hygienic requirements 
 must be met if this work does not injure their eyes. 
 Every book must be well organized and adapted to the 
 children who are to use it, but it must be printed so 
 that reading it does not produce unusual eye-strain. 
 A good book should be on unglazed paper, because the 
 reflection from glazed paper is hard on the eyes. It 
 must be bound securely to stand the wear and tear of 
 service. Most school-books are well bound, but many 
 are printed poorly. The type used in such books ought 
 not to be smaller than ten-point, and there ought not 
 to be any notes or other helps printed in very small 
 type that will fatigue unduly. Further, the lines of 
 printed matter should have generous spaces between 
 them — double leading, as it is called — because these 
 make it much easier to read. Books that have the 
 topical headings and important things in black-faced 
 type and italics also are easier to study than those 
 without these helps. 
 
 Teachers should use the text-book in such a way that 
 it is an aid. In other words, they should allow the 
 book to do a part of the teaching. Inexperienced 
 teachers will find it best to rely on the text-book for 
 the general order of topics. As they become more sure 
 of themselves, it will be possible for them to break 
 away from the text in those parts where it is deficient. 
 The text should be the servant and not the master. 
 
GENERAL TECHNIQUE 313 
 
 The teacher will find it helpful to prepare an outline 
 of the text while studying for each day's lesson. This 
 outline will be much more convenient than the book 
 for reference in class. Further, organizing the outline 
 compels the teacher to digest the lesson, and thus 
 insures a better lesson preparation. The pupils should 
 be taught to analyze their lessons in a similar way. 
 
 Books are very valuable as sources of supplementary 
 information. When assignments for the use of sup- 
 plementary materials are given to a class, unusual care 
 must be exercised to prevent the waste of time. Pupils 
 make mistakes when copying assignments from the 
 blackboard and when writing from dictation. It is 
 better to give the pupils mimeographed lists of the 
 assignments, if possible, or to write them on the black- 
 board in the study-room, where they will not be erased 
 but will be available for reference. In making general 
 assignments to supplementary texts, it is necessary to 
 provide enough copies so that there will be no difiiculty 
 because all want to use the same book at one time. 
 This kind of work furnishes a very good opportunity 
 for teaching pupils how to use books, especially how to 
 "skim" familiar materials for important points. 
 
 VI. The Laboratory. 
 
 Laboratory work is one of the new phases of public- 
 school education. It has been but a few years since 
 well equipped laboratories were first introduced gener- 
 ally into the public schools. As a result, the methods 
 
314 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 of the laboratory have been in a state of flux and have 
 not been so successful as the ardent champions of 
 laboratory work led people to expect them to be. 
 
 The laboratory may be very helpful if properly 
 directed. It will add interest to the science subjects 
 and make the school-work more real. To do this, it 
 is necessary that the exercises be as closely related to 
 life problems as possible. There must be no induction 
 of difficult laws, no emphasis on exact measurement, 
 and no mere recipe-following. These things are in 
 order in college work, but should not confront the 
 pupils when they are first introduced to a subject. The 
 greatest difficulty in the past has been that college 
 exercises have been condensed and given to the high- 
 school pupils. Instead, exercises suited to the ages 
 of the pupils should be used. The unusual success of 
 courses that have dealt with practical problems gives 
 assurance that this movement is of value. Adulterated 
 food and stains on clothing have furnished practical 
 problems in chemistry that proved much more edu- 
 cative than the work ordinarily given. 
 
 The more difficult things should be presented as 
 expository demonstrations, by the teacher. These 
 often are more valuable than many individual labora- 
 tory exercises performed by the pupils themselves on 
 the same points. It is possible to present very good 
 demonstrations with meager apparatus — "paper-and- 
 string" apparatus, as it is sometimes called. In fact, 
 simple apparatus often is a blessing, because the 
 
 I 
 
GENERAL TECHNIQUE 315 
 
 teacher is not tempted to display his own knowledge, 
 and as a result keeps in the realm of the pupils' com- 
 prehension. Several simple exercises illustrating a 
 principle are much better than one complicated one, 
 and are easier to present. 
 
 VII. The Blackboard. 
 
 The introduction of blackboards into the school- 
 room was one of the important events of educational 
 history, for it made possible new lines of work that 
 have been very helpful. Blackboard work has proved 
 very useful in educational work with groups, for it has 
 made possible the presentation simultaneously to a 
 number of pupils of subjects that had to be presented 
 individually before this device was provided. It also 
 helped because it gave an opportunity for the super- 
 vision of the work of the pupils at the blackboard. 
 
 By furnishing a means for presenting writing and 
 sketches where all the members of the class can see 
 them, this device has made it possible for the teacher 
 to disentangle intellectual relations and to represent 
 them one at a time. Many children have difficulty 
 in comprehending things presented orally, finding it 
 much easier to understand when the sense of vision 
 also can be used. Whenever a teacher discovers that 
 pupils do not catch the meaning of what is being said, 
 she will find it a great aid to use the blackboard. A 
 teacher need not be an artist. Crude sketches often 
 are very vivid because they analyze the idea or object 
 
316 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 into its component parts. Outlines and summaries 
 also are of much help. It is a very good plan for a 
 teacher to put summaries of the work on the board 
 at the close of every period of teaching that lends itself 
 to them. It is especially valuable if the pupils aid in 
 arranging the facts of the summary. Teachers find 
 that the blackboard is very useful in reviving waning 
 attention on the part of the pupils. A few marks or 
 words placed upon it breaks up the monotony enough 
 to renew interest. The chalk and blackboard should 
 be used much more than they are. A common fault 
 of beginning teachers is that they neglect this excellent 
 teaching aid. 
 
 The blackboard also is used much for the presenta- 
 tion of pupil work. This use frequently is merely 
 routine, as has been remarked earlier, and is deadening 
 because it presents nothing new. It may be most 
 valuable when the pupils are given new work. Its use 
 thus becomes a kind of supervised study. In directing 
 such work a teacher must be careful to provide for 
 individual differences. Enough work must be given to 
 keep the best pupils busy, and an opportunity must 
 be provided for the slow ones to complete their tasks. 
 In this work teachers must require each one to finish 
 his problem before beginning another, unless he stops 
 with the teacher's permission. If it becomes necessary 
 to help individual pupils, a teacher must not "bury" 
 herself at the board, and thus lose control of the others. 
 
GENERAL TECHNIQUE 317 
 
 Whenever a pupil needs more than the help of a word 
 or a suggestion, it is a good plan to ask a pupil who 
 has completed his problem to aid the slow one. The 
 supervision of such work is productive of eye-strain, 
 and a teacher must take care not to bring on trouble 
 in this way. Although a very effective teaching device, 
 this plan demands the ability to make quick percep- 
 tions, and the teacher who can not do this may have 
 trouble with it. 
 
 VIII. Devices. 
 
 Devices are concrete instances of detailed school- 
 room procedure that apply the principles of method in 
 unusually satisfactory ways. They are not principles 
 of method. Many have been given in the discussions 
 of topics in the foregoing chapters. A few more have 
 been collected by the writer, and these will be pre- 
 sented here without much comment. Some of these 
 can be adopted and used by teachers as they are given. 
 Others will need slight modifications to fit them for 
 particular situations. Most teachers have but few 
 devices in their teaching repertory. These are used 
 many, many times. It might be better if they had a 
 greater reserve to draw from, so that those best suited 
 might be used. One essential of a device, however, is 
 that it needs repetition to make it most successful. 
 Those presented here are given as found in the actual 
 school-room setting. 
 
318 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 A. Devices for Securing and Maintaining Good Order. 
 
 1. An amusing incident occurred that provoked an 
 uproar of laughter and disturbed the class equilibrium 
 in the reading class. It was impossible to secure the 
 attention of the class for the pupil who was reading. 
 After two or three pupils had tried to read and get the 
 class attention, the teacher called for all to read in 
 unison. This quickly restored the equilibrium and 
 gave the teacher control of the situation. 
 
 2. During the course of the recitation the teacher 
 was called from the room. The pupils immediately 
 took charge of the recitation. One arose and asked a 
 question, calling upon another to answer. When this 
 one had finished, she asked a question and named a 
 classmate who was expected to answer. This pro- 
 cedure was continued until the teacher returned. 
 
 3. During written work the teacher took a position 
 in the rear of the room, where she could observe the 
 pupils but where it was not easy for them to see her. 
 This tended to keep every one at his work. 
 
 4. In a class-room where the blackboard was used 
 frequently as a means for displaying sentences and 
 problems in order to discuss them, cardboard numbers 
 were placed above the blackboard to indicate the order 
 of work. When sentences or problems were assigned, 
 this eliminated the customary scramble for the choice 
 places, for each knew just where he was to put his 
 work. 
 
GENERAL TECHNIQUE 319 
 
 B. Devices for Economizing Time. 
 
 5. A teacher in Latin prose composition was pre- 
 pared with a set of cards for the day's work. Each of 
 these cards contained one of the sentences of the day s 
 lesson. When the recitation was called, the cards were 
 distributed to the pupils, and each went to the black- 
 board to write from memory the sentence he had 
 received. This saved the time teachers often waste in 
 dictating sentences to pupils at the board. 
 
 6. The teacher stood at the door and collected writ- 
 ten work as the pupils passed in dismissal. 
 
 7. The teacher .in algebra relieved herself of the task 
 of securing the daily record of work accomplished by 
 having a pupil record the responses. When the class 
 period began, the teacher handed the record-book to a 
 pupil. This pupil called the class roll while the others 
 continued the lesson. As the names were called the 
 owners responded with the amount of work accom- 
 plished. Different pupils did the recording on suc- 
 ceeding days. 
 
 C. Devices for Securing Clearness of Comprehension. 
 
 8. In a botany class the main topics of discussion 
 were placed on the blackboard by a pupil. The work 
 for the period centered around these points. 
 
 9. In a Latin class sentences were diagramed at the 
 blackboard. This showed grammatical constructions 
 clearly and reviewed English grammar. 
 
320 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 D. Devices for Securing Social Cooperation. 
 
 10. In a class studying Shakespeare certain pupils 
 read the parts of the characters in the play. Critics 
 were appointed from those who remained, and these 
 noted carefully the expression, action, and pronuncia- 
 tion of those who took the parts. 
 
 11. The informal arrangement of classes in a circle 
 or seated around a table led to an active participation 
 in the recitation. 
 
 12. Pupils who were unable to work some of the 
 arithmetic problems correctly were sent to the black- 
 board to try the work again. When one was sent, 
 another pupil who had completed his work was re- 
 quested to watch the one working at the blackboard 
 and to help him when he needed it. 
 
 13. The review was conducted by the pupils. One 
 would give a question and call upon another to answer. 
 This one would answer and then give another question, 
 etc. The pupil who asked the question was expected 
 to judge as to the correctness of the answer. If no one 
 else could answer the question, the one who gave it was 
 expected to answer. 
 
 E. Devices for Securing Competition and High Qual- 
 ity of Work. 
 
 14. Contests or "matches" between two divisions of 
 the class may be used in various ways. In one school 
 this took the form of a relay race on the conjugation 
 
GENERAL TECHNIQUE 321 
 
 of a Latin verb. The pupils in the first seats of two 
 rows of seats were given pieces of chalk. These went 
 to the board and wrote the first form, returned to their 
 seats, and gave the chalk to the next ones, seated 
 behind. These wrote the next form and then passed 
 the chalk. The row that first completed the conjuga- 
 tion correctly won. 
 
 Another school had a mice-killing contest as a prac- 
 tical outgrowth of their nature-study class. Two sides 
 were formed, and the pupils brought the tails to the 
 school as evidence of dead mice. The result was an 
 economic gain to the community through the exter- 
 mination of the pests, as well as valuable educational 
 outcomes. 
 
 15. Games similar to "authors" were used in which 
 the related groups were formed from the parts of verb 
 conjugations. These were most successful in drilling 
 on Latin verb forms. 
 
 16. The work in English composition was motivated 
 by the publication of the best work in the local city 
 paper. 
 
 17. In a beginning German class the pupils were sent 
 to the blackboard to write conjugations and declen- 
 sions. As soon as a class member made a mistake he 
 was asked to take his seat. Those who finished with- 
 out errors were permitted to leave the class, and those 
 who made mistakes were sent to the board again to 
 learn the forms. When they had written the forms 
 correctly, they were dismissed. 
 
322 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 18. In geometry the lettering on the figures was 
 changed. This prevented the memorizing of the proof. 
 
 F. General Devices. 
 
 19. In a room where the blackboard space was too 
 limited to accommodate all of the class at one time, 
 the pupils were assigned numbers. Odd numbers were 
 sent to the board on one day and even numbers on 
 the next. Those at the seats watched the work of those 
 at the board to catch mistakes. 
 
 20. Each pupil in the class marked his own work 
 before handing it in to the teacher. This led to the 
 discovery of errors that had been overlooked. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 A few pertinent suggestions applicable to the first 
 day's work are of value. The teacher should make 
 provisions for board and room before the school-work 
 begins. Knowledge of the school plant and of the 
 recent history of the institution will help to secure 
 proper orientation. Teachers should attend teachers' 
 meetings, especially the first ones that are held. The 
 year's work should be planned out tentatively. The 
 first school-day's plans should include provisions for 
 acquainting the teacher with the pupils, provisions for 
 informing the pupils about the work they are to take 
 and its nature, and plans for a few definite school ac- 
 tivities that prepare for future work. 
 
 Teachers find the teaching position in the front of 
 
GENERAL TECHNIQUE 323 
 
 the room the most effective. If the teacher stands, the 
 work will be more intensive. Most teachers need to 
 conserve their strength, and should learn to teach 
 effectively when using the sitting posture. 
 
 The teacher should recognize certain relationships 
 and their obligations. To the supervisor the attitude 
 of respectful subordination should be the rule. To 
 fellow teachers the attitude should be that of sym- 
 pathy and cooperation. Toward the pupils those 
 attitudes most favorable to discipline should be 
 adopted. Toward the community the attitude should 
 be that of service, with school duties coming first. 
 
 Lesson types are not for routine use. They should 
 be reserved for unusual situations when the work is 
 especially suited to them. The inexperienced teacher 
 should not try to apply all of them at once, but should 
 learn to use them one at a time. 
 
 Books are a valuable aid to teaching. Books should 
 be selected that meet the accepted hygienic require- 
 ments. In using them, they should be the servant and 
 not the master of the teacher. They are of much 
 worth as sources of supplementary information. 
 
 The laboratory work is a comparatively new and 
 unstandardized phase of education. It is of much 
 value if well directed and if devoted to the performance 
 of exercises suitable to the pupils. Difficult exercises 
 should be presented as demonstrations by the teacher. 
 
 The blackboard is of much aid in presenting mate- 
 rials objectively. It should be used frequently and 
 
324 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 will help to hold the attention of the pupils. It also 
 is of value as a means for supervising the pupils' 
 activities and for displaying their work. 
 Devices are of much aid. Those presented include 
 
 (1) devices for securing and maintaining good order, 
 
 (2) devices for economizing time, (3) devices for secur- 
 ing clearness of comprehension, (4) devices for securing 
 social cooperation, (5) devices for securing competi- 
 tion and high quality of work, and (6) general devices. 
 
 Suggested Readings 
 Burnett, T. J. Essentials of Teaching. Pp. 193, 241. 
 
 The use of the blackboard. 
 Charters, W. W.' Methods of Teaching. Pp. 370. 
 
 The use of the blackboard. 
 Earhart, Lida B. Types of Teaching. Pp. 28, 29. 
 
 The use of books. Chapter VII. The study of 
 
 objects. 
 Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. 
 
 Pp. 31-33. Suggestions for the first day. Chapter 
 
 XVII. Books as media of instruction. Chapter 
 
 XIX. The laboratory. 
 Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process. Chapter 
 
 XVII. The teacher in relation to supervision. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 LESSON PLANS 
 
 A NECESSITY 
 
 One of the essentials of good teaching is careful les- 
 son preparation. The important points on this topic 
 have been presented in the discussion of the teacher's 
 preparation. It will be worth while, however, to go 
 into the subject a little more minutely in connection 
 with the present topic, especially as it relates to the 
 teaching forms that have been given. Although some 
 kind of planning is a necessity for every teacher, the 
 kind that can be done is limited by many factors. 
 
 LACK OF TIME FOR COMPLEX PLANS 
 
 Few teachers have time for even the simplest detailed 
 lesson plan. By the time they have taught thirty or 
 forty pupils for five or more periods each day, they 
 have little energy left for anything but the most ele- 
 mentary lesson preparation and the routine duties that 
 must be met. Most teachers have little use for formal 
 lesson plans. To require them to write out plans for 
 all of their work is to overburden them with tasks, 
 because such plans become very routine and lifeless. 
 
 325 
 
326 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 On the other hand, they must make preparation for 
 their work, and the spirit of growth is more to be 
 desired than mere plan-making. If they can be stimu- 
 lated to make the best preparation of which they are 
 capable and are allowed to do it in their own way, the 
 work will be improved. Some teachers may choose to 
 jot down their suggestions in notes. Others may do 
 the work mentally and depend on their memories for 
 such suggestions as they may devise. Each should use 
 the method that suits her best, though the method 
 adopted should be the result of experimentation and 
 not the line of least resistance. For most teachers, 
 some form of written record will be the best, because 
 they forget the details of procedure easily. 
 
 MAKING PRACTICAL PREPARATION 
 
 I. Knowledge of Subject-Matter. 
 
 The first essential of a teacher's preparation is an 
 adequate knowledge of the subject-matter of the lesson. 
 In the lower grades of the public school the teacher 
 has little difficulty in mastering the subject-matter, 
 and method is very important. In the later years, on 
 the contrary, method becomes more and more subor- 
 dinated to a knowledge of the facts to be taught. This 
 means, then, that the high-school teacher must spend 
 much time in mastering lesson content. If every 
 teacher were thoroughly trained in method, and had 
 studied widely in college along the lines she teaches, 
 there would be more time for the artistic side, the side 
 
LESSON PLANS 327 
 
 of method. Under present conditions, however, in 
 which the average teacher has had little training and 
 often teaches subjects that she has studied for only a 
 short time, it is necessary for her to adopt many make- 
 shifts. She must spend most of her time on the first 
 essential — must struggle with the task of securing 
 enough information to keep the work going. 
 
 II. Method. 
 
 The second essential in a teacher's preparation is 
 method. When the minimum requirement in the way 
 of lesson content has been provided, it is well for the 
 teacher to think about the order of presentation. 
 When this is not to be the order of the text-book, the 
 teacher must give thought to what the pupils may be 
 expected to know. This is the real starting-point in 
 the teaching process — the point of contact, as it were. 
 In this it is better for the teacher to over-estimate 
 somewhat the knowledge that she expects her pupils 
 to have than to under-estimate it. In doing this, how- 
 ever, a teacher should not continue to assume that 
 pupils know facts that they do not know. The assump- 
 tion should never go beyond the -first question that she 
 asks. As soon as it is apparent that the pupils do not 
 know the point in question, it is necessary to go back 
 to more elementary things that they do know. This 
 implies, then, that the method used must be mainly one 
 that allows the pupils to express their own ideas. 
 
328 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 III. The Order of Presentation, 
 
 After the teacher has decided approximately what 
 the point of contact is to be, the next step is to decide 
 upon the order of presentation of the lesson facts, in 
 order to teach them in the way that is best suited to 
 the stage of development of the pupils. This will 
 determine the kind of devices that can be used, and 
 the order of important questions. The questions 
 should be formulated, if possible, during the teacher's 
 preparation, though it often is sufficient to formulate 
 the ideas in the form of statements that are essential. 
 This may be accomplished by putting these in the 
 outline of subject-matter that is carried to class. When 
 a teacher has difficulty in changing these statements 
 into good questions while before the class, it is best 
 to write the questions while preparing the work. 
 
 IV. Improving the Teaching Technique. 
 
 When a teacher has a little leisure time to be devoted 
 to the improvement of her technique, it often proves 
 of value for her to plan a new teaching form that she 
 has not been in the habit of using. The written form 
 that she adopts should involve as little extra labor as 
 possible. Some of the books on teaching technique 
 present a formal arrangement of the lesson plan, in 
 which the subject-matter is indicated in a column on 
 the left-hand side and the procedure on the right. 
 This form is often used by critic teachers in the super- 
 vision of practice teaching, but the student-teachers 
 
LESSON PLANS 329 
 
 often greatly dislike it. They prefer forms combining 
 subject-matter and procedure much as it is combined 
 in actual teaching. Those who are interested in the 
 formal plan will find ample illustrations of it in the 
 suggested readings given at the end of this chapter. 
 When the daily work is planned by a teacher who 
 is not teaching many classes a day, a formal plan may 
 prove advisable for the aid of the supervisor. It is 
 thought best, however, not to try to present examples 
 of such plans here. Instead, plans will be presented 
 that embody the technique of the special lesson forms. 
 These plans have been prepared by students in the 
 writer's college classes, with the exception of the type- 
 study lesson, which was prepared by the writer. 
 Comments will be made on each plan, showing its 
 strength and weakness. 
 
 MODEL PLANS 
 
 I. PLAN FOR AN ASSIGNMENT IN GENERAL 
 HISTORY 
 
 Prepared by Ralph Wood 
 
 Topic: Meyer's General History, Chapter LIII, 
 The Renaissance 
 
 "At the next meeting of the class we shall begin the 
 discussion of the Renaissance. In the text we shall 
 consider the subject-matter from article 669 on page 
 475 to article 678, page 480. If you will turn to those 
 
330 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 pages, I shall give you several questions on the text 
 that may be of help in getting this lesson. 
 
 "To understand the Renaissance is to have a basis 
 for interpreting and understanding many of the events 
 of modern history. The discovery of America, the 
 books before you, your religious freedom, might be 
 traced back to the Renaissance. Therefore get a good 
 definition for the word Renaissance, which literally 
 means 'new-birth.' Your author defines it in two 
 ways. Note his distinctions. 
 
 "This great movement had its beginning in Italy. 
 Show why it began in Italy and not elsewhere. In 
 Italy this movement consisted of two phases. Be sure 
 you understand what these phases were, and note the 
 particular name applied to one phase. 
 
 "You will observe that in article 672 our author calls 
 Dante 'The Forerunner of the Renaissance.' Bring to 
 class some facts concerning Dante gathered from a 
 source other than your text, and show how Dante was 
 a forerunner of the Renaissance. 
 
 "Professor Meyer says: 'To understand Petrarch is 
 to understand the Renaissance.' When you have read 
 about Petrarch, explain Professor Meyer's statement. 
 What was Boccaccio's contribution to the Renaissance? 
 Why should Italian scholars have been so concerned in 
 searching for old manuscripts? Who were patrons? 
 What did they have to do with the Renaissance? 
 What does the author mean by the expression, 'There 
 was many a Maecenas to encourage and further the 
 
LESSON PLANS 331 
 
 work'? Explain how the great libraries came into 
 existence. Show how the fall of Constantinople aided 
 the revival of learning in Italy. Consult the map 
 facing page 512." 
 
 Comments. 
 
 This lesson assignment is most complete, giving the 
 "what," "how," and "why" that are needed in the ideal 
 assignment. The pupils are expected to do a high 
 grade of work, and this assignment is too severe in 
 thought demands for ninth-year pupils. With older 
 ones who have been trained for such work it ought to 
 prove very successful. The plan is very informal and 
 few changes would be needed for actual use in the 
 class-room. 
 
 II. PLAN FOR AN ASSIGNMENT IN THIRD- 
 YEAR LATIN 
 
 Prepared by Irma Ruffner 
 
 Topic: Cicero, Fourth Oration Against Catiline, 
 Section 7 
 
 "Our lesson for to-morrow takes up the two pro- 
 posals for the punishment of the conspirators that had 
 been proposed in the senate before Cicero began the 
 delivery of this fourth oration against Catiline. You 
 remember that Silanus, the consul-elect, had first de- 
 clared himself as in favor of the death penalty. All 
 of the senators agreed, when called on, until it came to 
 
332 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 Csesar. He made a powerful speech in which he set 
 forth the danger involved in putting Roman citizens 
 to death without trial or appeal to the people. As a 
 substitute he proposed life imprisonment in Italian 
 cities and confiscation of their property. After this 
 speech there was a great revulsion of opinion, and 
 Cicero really feared that Caesar's proposal might be 
 adopted; for Cicero, as we know, favored the death 
 penalty. At this stage Cicero entered the debate and 
 delivered this oration. In the part we are to read 
 to-morrow he reviews the two opinions — sententice. 
 
 "Note the different ways of expressing the one — the 
 other. In the first sentence he uses unam and alteram ; 
 a little farther on he says alter — alter. The first alter 
 refers to Silanus, the second to Csesar, whose opinion 
 is then discussed at some length. 
 
 "The sentence at the top of page 112 will not bother 
 you if you are careful to get subject and main verb in 
 mind first, alter putat; then be careful to get the right 
 relations between dependent clauses. 
 
 "The conceptions of death that Cicero expresses in 
 the next two sentences are rather lofty ones and com- 
 pare favorably with certain Christian conceptions. In 
 lines 13 and 14 we have two objections that Cicero has 
 to offer to Caesar's plan. Study them carefully. The 
 distinguishing marks about this lesson are the many 
 verb forms. Be sure that you get the construction of 
 each verb in preparing to-morrow's lesson. The lesson 
 for to-morrow, then, will include only section 7." 
 
LESSON PLANS 333 
 
 Comments. 
 
 This assignment makes no conscious appeal to 
 motive, but in the average Cicero class this would not 
 be necessary. The various little suggestions that are 
 made will excite interest, and this will motivate. The 
 plan might have been better if it had drawn some of 
 the ideas from the pupils by means of questions instead 
 of presenting them all by the teacher. This is true 
 especially of the point about Silanus. This plan is an 
 informal one that exhibits the characteristics of one 
 that could be used in the class-room. 
 
 III. PLAN FOR A TYPE-STUDY LESSON IN 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Topic : The River 
 
 "Where does the river begin? Where does it end? 
 Where does all of the water come from that we find at 
 the mouth of the river? Where do the tributary 
 streams get this water? Where do the springs get the 
 water? When is the water mainly from melted ice and 
 snow? When does it rain most? What differences 
 are there in the amounts of water in the river at 
 different seasons of the year? What is the high-water 
 stage of the river? What is the low-water level? 
 What danger does the high water furnish to the people 
 living along the bottom-lands? What losses does it 
 cause them to suffer at times? 
 
334 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 "What differences are there in the color of the water 
 at different times? What causes it to be dark colored 
 after a heavy rain or when the snow melts? Where do 
 the particles of silt come from that give the water its 
 muddy appearance? Where does this silt originate? 
 Where does this silt go? What effect does the silt 
 that is deposited on the bottom-lands have upon the 
 crops that are raised on them? How does the deposit- 
 ing of the silt affect the channel of the river? What 
 else may cause the river to change its channel? 
 
 "What value is the river to the people living along 
 its banks? How do they get the fish? When do they 
 cut the ice? Describe the way they cut ice. What 
 do they haul in the boats that go up and down the 
 river? What pleasure does the river furnish to the 
 people? What are the dangers that lie in wait for 
 skaters, for swimmers, and for boaters?" 
 
 Comments. 
 
 This plan has been prepared with the Missouri River 
 in mind as a type. The thought movement is sug- 
 gested entirely by the questions, which are so framed 
 that they could be applied to most of our large rivers. 
 
 IV. PLAN FOR AN EXPOSITORY LESSON IN 
 I ENGLISH 
 
 Prepared by Goldie McCue 
 
 Topic: Exposition, What It Is and How to Write It 
 Approach. — "You will remember that at one time 
 
LESSON PLANS 335 
 
 we learned that there were four kinds of prose dis- 
 course. Name them, John." 
 
 Answer: "Narration, description, exposition, and 
 argumentation." 
 
 "Now we are going to take up one of these subjects — 
 exposition. You have done some of this work before. 
 In fact, every time you explained one of your cherished 
 plans to your friends you have used this type of dis- 
 course known as exposition. In the future all of your 
 reports that you will make in business, political, or 
 religious life will probably be of this type. A great 
 many of the papers the girls will write for their clubs 
 will be expository. The boys who become machinists 
 will use it in explaining to the inexperienced workmen. 
 In fact, I can think of no position in life that will not 
 require you to use your knowledge of exposition. Of 
 course, every boy and girl here wants to know exactly 
 what exposition is, and how you go about writing a 
 good expository theme. 
 
 Presentation. — "To put it quite simply, exposition 
 is explanation. Whatever the subject chosen, if what 
 you write is to be an expository theme, you must not 
 tell a story, you must not describe, you must not argue, 
 you must explain. If you are writing upon a law that 
 you learned in the science class, you must expound it, 
 make it clear to your readers; but you must not argue 
 for or against the truth of this law. If you went to 
 Niagara Falls, and wrote home to your friends about 
 
336 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 its foaming waters and dashing spray, what form of 
 discourse would that be?" 
 
 Answer: "Description." 
 
 "If you were studying that same falls in physical 
 geography, and the teacher asked you to write a para- 
 graph explaining why there was a falls there, what do 
 you think that would be?" 
 
 Answer: "Exposition." 
 
 "Hawthorne wrote a book called 'The House of the 
 Seven Gables.' What kind of discourse is it?" 
 
 Answer: "Narration." 
 
 "Yes; but if you should write a paragraph explain- 
 ing exactly how the seven gables were constructed, 
 what kind of discourse would you have then?" 
 
 Answer: "Exposition." 
 
 "We see, then, that exposition is to explain, to make 
 clear. It can be applied to many subjects as varied as 
 laws, definitions, the rules for an automobile driver, 
 the workings of the automobile, etc. The one essential 
 thing is that you clearly state the facts. Your reader 
 or hearer must grasp from your explanation the actual 
 facts, the actual working of the thing. Now, this 
 usually will mean more than the definition of the 
 thing; it will mean a full and orderly statement of the 
 subject. To give you a working definition of it, I shall 
 say: Exposition is that form of discourse which sets 
 forth in clear detail the meaning or purpose of the 
 subject under consideration. The next question is, 
 how can you write good exposition? Frequently you 
 
LESSON PLANS 337 
 
 will find that you can make your theme much clearer 
 as well as much more interesting if you will use exam- 
 ples, comparison, contrast, or even a slight amount of 
 description or narration." (Here the writer of this 
 plan would stop to show the use of these by several 
 examples.) 
 
 "Then you will find that the three principles that 
 you have met before will be absolutely necessary in 
 exposition. You will remember our friends' unity, 
 coherence, and emphasis. Well, you can make an 
 exposition as clear as crystal if you will use these 
 principles. In the first place, if you will stick to your 
 subject and not ramble off in any direction, you will 
 have unity. Secondly, you must take things up in a 
 natural order, and be careful to show your reader the 
 relation of each part, which means coherence. Finally, 
 you must make clear what things you deem essential 
 and what is a side issue. 
 
 "Now for a moment's review. Exposition is one of 
 the most important forms of prose discourse. Its pur- 
 pose is to explain, to make clear, to make the reader 
 understand. This may be accomplished best by the aid 
 of illustrations, examples, contrasts, and comparisons. 
 In expository writing we must not forget to use the 
 principles of unity, coherence, and emphasis. 
 
 Application. — "Your history teacher has told me 
 that you are studying feudalism. If you will write a 
 two-page theme upon this subject for me, keeping in 
 
338 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 mind the things we have discussed this morning, I 
 shall give you a mark in English. Furthermore, your 
 history teacher has agreed to accept it as the monthly 
 theme in that subject." 
 
 Comments. 
 
 The general plan of this lesson is very good. In 
 actual use before a class it might be necessary to make 
 some modifications and to use more questions and 
 illustrations than are given. Aside from these, the 
 plan seems one that would be of value in preparing 
 for the presentation of this topic. The plan might be 
 abbreviated very much and still aid a teacher in class- 
 room work. 
 
 V. PLAN FOR AN INDUCTIVE LESSON IN 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 Prepared by Henrietta Strangfeld 
 Topic : Rule for the Square of a Binomial 
 
 Preparation. — "By being able to square a binomial 
 at sight we will be able to solve problems more rapidly 
 and save much time. Therefore we will take up the 
 problem of squaring a binomial expression. What is a 
 binomial expression?" 
 Answer: "An expression consisting of two terms." 
 "In order to square any number, what must we do?" 
 Answer: "Multiply the number by itself." 
 
LESSON PLANS 339 
 
 Presentation: (Each problem is presented to the 
 class while the pupils are at the blackboard.) 
 
 (a + b)- = ? 
 
 a +b 
 a +b 
 
 as they have been 
 
 
 a2 + ab 
 + ab +b2 
 
 
 a2 + 2ab + b^ 
 
 The pupils all multiply it 
 tomed to doing. 
 
 (2 + 3)2=^? 
 
 accus- 
 
 In answer to this problem one pupil answers, 
 "Twenty-five." 
 
 "Yes; but work it out as you did the first one, and 
 prove to yourself that the answer is correct." 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 + 
 + 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 
 22 
 
 + 
 + 
 
 2-3 
 
 2-3 + 32 
 
 
 22 
 4 
 
 +2 23 +32 = 
 + 12 +9 = 
 
 25 
 
340 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 (m +n)2 = ? (r +8^ = 7 
 
 , m + n r + s 
 
 m + n r 4- s 
 
 m- + mn r^ + rs 
 
 + mn + n^ + rs + s^ 
 
 m^ + 2mn + 11^ r^ + 2rs + s^ 
 
 Comparison and Abstraction. — "In the examples 
 under presentation we find that (a + b)2 = a^ + 
 2ab + b2; that (2 + 3)^ == 2 + 2 (2-3) + 3^; that 
 (m + n)2==m2 + 2mn + n2; that (r + s)^ = r^ + 
 2rs + s\ 
 
 "What do you notice that is similar in each of these 
 cases?" 
 
 Answer: (Several different answers may be given.) 
 
 Generalization. — "From these examples I want 
 every pupil to draw some conclusions and be able to 
 state the same." (After several pupils have formed 
 and stated the conclusion drawn to the best of their 
 ability, give the generalization you would wish them 
 to retain, as: The square of the binomial equals the 
 square of the first term, plus the square of the second 
 term, plus twice the product of the first by the second.) 
 
 Application. — After the generalization was well in 
 mind a number of examples differing as much as pos- 
 sible are given, as: 
 
 (a + z)2=? (x + 2y)2.= ? (1 + 3x)2 = ? 
 
 (2a + 4z)2==? (16a4-b)2=? (etc.) 
 
LESSON PLANS 341 
 
 Comments. 
 
 This is a clear skeleton plan for an inductive lesson. 
 It might be necessary for the teacher to present more 
 instances as a basis for comparison than are given; 
 but as much is given here as any teacher needs to 
 include in a similar written guide. Whether more 
 details are needed will depend upon the responses of 
 the pupils. 
 
 VI. PLAN FOR AN INDUCTIVE LESSON IN 
 GERMAN 
 
 Prepared by Grace Griffith 
 
 Topic : The Rule for Strong and Weak Adjective 
 Endings 
 
 Preparation. — "To-morrow we shall take up the 
 weak declension of adjectives. It will be easy for you 
 to learn their inflectional endings, for there are only 
 two; but your especial problem will be to find out 
 when you should use the strong endings and when the 
 weak endings. Now, if there is any one thing in the 
 study of German that you should get fixed firmly in 
 mind, it is this adjective declension. You must learn 
 to be able to decide without hesitation whether your 
 ending is to be weak or strong, and then to know 
 immediately what the ending will be. This is one of 
 the most important points, and there are few sentences 
 that you will ever write in which you will not need to 
 use one of these sets of endings." 
 
342 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 (After the remainder of the assignment the teacher 
 will ask the pupils to bring examples with them to- 
 morrow, using both strong and weak endings.) 
 
 Presentation. — "Now let us consider some of the 
 examples of sentences in which are used either the 
 strong or weak endings of these adjectives or both." 
 
 Examples. — "Diese guten Manner sind hier. 
 
 "Welches warme Zimmer haben wir? 
 
 "Jede kleine Thiir ist offen. 
 
 "Jene rote Rose ist schon. 
 
 "Schone Frauen sind nicht immer gut. 
 
 "Wir haben gute Biicher" (etc.). 
 
 Comparison. — "In these sentences, when did we use 
 the weak endings and when the strong ones?" 
 
 Answer: "The adjectives with weak endings are 
 always preceded by another word." 
 
 "What are these words?" 
 
 Answer: "They are der and those words declined 
 like der, such as dieser, jener, jeder, mancher, solcher, 
 and welcher." 
 
 Generalization. — "What rule can we derive from 
 these facts?" 
 
 Answer: "An adjective is declined weak when used 
 with the definite article der, or with any of the follow- 
 ing words declined like der: dieser, jener, jeder, 
 mancher, solcher, and welcher. These may be called 
 der words, since they have endings like der." 
 
 Application. — "You may go to the board and I 
 shall give you sentences using adjectives. We shall 
 
LESSON PLANS 343 
 
 see if you will know correctly whether they will be 
 weak or strong." 
 
 Comments. 
 
 This plan is an outline of the major points in the 
 lesson. Many questions and answers may be needed 
 to lead the class thought to the point it attains so 
 directly in the plan, but the plan will keep the thought 
 from wandering. Teachers often experience much 
 difficulty in keeping the class from wandering, and it is 
 mainly because their lesson preparations are not clear. 
 The inductive lesson must be planned clearly if it is 
 to be very successful, though it is not necessary that 
 every detail be included. 
 
 VII. PLAN FOR A DEDUCTIVE LESSON IN 
 ENGLISH 
 
 / Prepared by Goldie McCue 
 
 Topic: What Kind of Man Is John Aldenf 
 
 The Problem. — The class has read far enough into 
 the story to find that Alden goes to Priscilla at the 
 bidding of Miles Standish to make the Captain's offer 
 of marriage to her. Upon Alden's arrival the poem 
 states that he and the maiden "sat down and talked 
 of the birds and the beautiful spring-time," and 
 Priscilla confesses that she is "so lonely and wretched." 
 The teacher asks: "Will love conquer young Alden 
 
344 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 into betraying the friendship of the Captain and into 
 seeking the young woman for himself?" 
 
 The Data. — One pupil may note that Alden has 
 been writing letters "full of the name and the fame of 
 the Puritan maiden Priscilla." Another may quote, 
 "Every sentence began or closed with the name of 
 Priscilla." From this they can argue that he really 
 loved her so deeply that he will not give her up to the 
 Captain. Another may give Alden's own answer when 
 the Captain asked him to make'the proposal : 
 
 "If you would have it well done, — I am only repeating your 
 
 maxim, — 
 You must do it yourself, you must not leave it to others!" 
 
 Those* of the opposite opinion may cite another 
 answer of Alden's : 
 
 "The name of friendship is sacred; 
 What you demand in that name, I have not the power to 
 deny you!" 
 
 Also the line : 
 
 Friendship prevailed over love, and Alden went on his 
 errand. 
 
 Also such statements as "This is the hand of the Lord" 
 and "This is the cross I must bear" may be brought 
 forward to show that Alden felt it his duty to carry out 
 the Captain's desire. 
 
 Application. — The teacher draws out from the 
 class that this is a conflict, as far as Alden is concerned, 
 between love and duty. "Now let us study into the 
 
LESSON PLANS 345 
 
 character of Alden to see whether he will be swayed 
 by love or duty," she suggests. The children will bring 
 out that he was a well educated, poetically inclined, 
 young Puritan. Then the teacher brings out from the 
 pupils how the Puritans looked upon right and wrong, 
 duty, etc. The children recall the Puritan rigidness in 
 regard to righteousness and the Puritan determination 
 to serve God in spite of all. 
 
 Inference. — The pupils then may infer that Alden 
 will remain true to his friendship for Standish rather 
 than to his love for Priscilla, because he is a Puritan 
 gentleman and must be true to what he considers his 
 duty. 
 
 Verification. — The class then reads on a few lines 
 to find Alden saying: 
 
 "So I have come to you now, with an offer and proffer of 
 
 marriage 
 Made by a good man and true, Miles Standish the Captain 
 
 of Plymouth!" 
 
 Comments. 
 
 Teachers often do interpreting similar to this in 
 their work, but frequently do not recognize it as de- 
 ductive teaching. Most deductive teaching omits some 
 of the steps in the actual class-work, but they are 
 always implied. 
 
346 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 VIII. PLAN FOR A DEDUCTIVE LESSON IN 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 Prepared by Jeannette Baker 
 Topic: Equation in One Unknown 
 
 Data. — "Diophantos of Alexandria (300 a. d.) was 
 the first great albegraist. He was the first mathema- 
 tician to develop the equation and to state that the 
 product of two negative quantities was a positive 
 quantity. Little is known of his life excepting the in- 
 formation contained in his epitaph, which reads as 
 follows: 'Diophantos passed 1/6 of his life in child- 
 hood, 1/12 in youth, 1/7 more as a bachelor, 5 years 
 after his marriage a son was born who died 4 years 
 before his father at half his father's age.' Let us find 
 out how old Diophantos was when he died. 
 
 Analysis. — "There is but one thing we want to find 
 — namely, the age of Diophantos. Let us see whether 
 all the conditions may be expressed in terms of the 
 unknown (Diophantos' age), which we will call x. 
 
 1/6 of his life was spent in childhood. 
 
 .*. x/6 = number of years spent in childhood. 
 
 1/12 of his life or x/12 = time spent in youth. 
 
 x/7 = time spent as a bachelor. 
 
 5 years = time he was married before his son was 
 born. 
 
 x/2 = age of son, or half the father's age. 
 
LESSON PLANS 347 
 
 4 yrs. — time between son's death and the death of 
 his father. 
 
 Principle. — "Since there is but one unknown and 
 every condition may be expressed in terms of this, we 
 know that we need only one equation; for when one 
 unknown is involved only one equation is necessary 
 for its solution. Fractions are involved, but we also 
 know, from our rules for equations, that multiplying 
 each member of an equation by the same number does 
 not destroy the equality. We may clear fractions. 
 
 Inference. — "Our equation is formed by adding all 
 of the periods of his life to get his total age. 
 
 x/6 + x/12 + x/7 + 5 + x/2 + 4 = X 
 Multiplying both members of the equation by 84, we 
 have: 
 
 14x + 7x 4- 12x + 420 + 42x + 336 = 84x 
 collecting: 
 
 9x = 756 
 
 X — 84 years, the age of Diophantos. 
 Verification. — "We must prove our answer now, so 
 as to be sure we are right. Do the different periods of 
 his life add up to 84 years? 
 
 1/6 of 84 years = 14 years, time spent in childhood. 
 1/12 of 84 years = 7 years, time spent in youth. 
 1/7 of 84 years = 12 years, time spent as a bachelor. 
 5 years, time married before son 
 was born. 
 84/2 = 42 years, age of son. 
 
348 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 4 years, time between death of 
 son and father. 
 
 84 years, age of Diophantos." 
 Adding. — (As far as possible, the work should be 
 done — the steps thought out — by the pupils.) 
 
 Comments. 
 
 Much of the mathematics teaching is deductive. 
 The form of this lesson would need much modification, 
 as recognized by Miss Baker in her note at the end, 
 before it would be real deductive teaching. Deductive 
 teaching implies that the pupils take an active part in 
 the proposal and evaluation of inferences. 
 
 IX; PLAN FOR A DRILL LESSON IN ENGLISH 
 ^ Prepared by Goldie McCue 
 
 Topic: Drill on the Four Forms of Prose Discourse 
 
 Motivation. — ''When you read, do you ever stop to 
 ask yourself why the author wrote? For example, 
 what is the purpose in Hawthorne's Old Stone Face, 
 which you read in the grades?" 
 
 Answer: "To tell a story." 
 
 "What is the purpose of this selection?" (A short 
 descriptive paragraph is read at this point.) 
 
 Answer: "To describe." 
 
 "Why did your author write your text?" 
 
LESSON PLANS 349 
 
 Answer: "To explain." 
 
 "Can any one think of another reason for writing or 
 speaking? Do you remember from your history the 
 contest between Stephen A. Douglas and Abraham 
 Lincoln? To what use did they put prose discourse?" 
 
 Ansiver: "To argue." 
 
 (The teacher now writes these four infinitives on the 
 board.) 
 
 "We shall have to find some names for these dif- 
 ferent ideas, so that we can have a handle by which to 
 use them. We do not want to say, 'This is prose that 
 tells a story.' What shall we say?" (As the teacher 
 gets the names of the four forms she puts them on the 
 board opposite the infinitive phrases. She asks the 
 class what advantage there would be in knowing these 
 names and their meaning.) After their replies she 
 says: 
 
 "Now, these are the names or handles of the tools 
 with which we are going to work. We shall use these 
 four frequently. Let us get them firmly in mind to- 
 day. 
 
 Drill Proper. — "What do we call the form that tells 
 a story? the form that describes an object? the one 
 that explains? the one that produces an argument?" 
 (She again repeats each one, the pupils answering in 
 concert.) "What does narration do? What does de- 
 scription do? exposition? argumentation?" (The 
 teacher then enumerates several selections of prose that 
 the class has read previously, and asks the pupils to 
 
350 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 classify as to the form to which each belongs. Teacher 
 erases the work on the board and has the girls name 
 the four forms; then the boys also, in unison. Then 
 several individuals are called upon to name the four 
 and tell the meaning of each.) 
 
 "Mary, you may name one of the forms, and John 
 will tell us the meaning, and alternate with forms and 
 meaning right back through the row." 
 
 Comments. 
 
 It might be questioned whether the four forms of 
 prose discourse are material for a drill lesson. Some 
 teachers might prefer to teach them as concepts and 
 thus secure the same results as are secured here by 
 drilling. The form of the lesson, however, is very good, 
 and the suggestions it contains may be of value for 
 other subjects that yield more drill outcomes than 
 English. 
 
 X. PLAN FOR LESSON IN APPRECIATION 
 IN ENGLISH 
 
 J 
 
 Prepared by Pauline Yates 
 Topic : The Vision of Sir Launjal 
 
 A. Negative Preparation. 
 
 1. Anticipatory interest. — (A week before the 
 lesson proper.) Teacher: "We shall finish our study 
 of Longfellow to-morrow, and after the study of Whit- 
 
LESSON PLANS 351 
 
 tier we shall come to the study of Lowell and his 
 beautiful poem, The Vision of Sir Launfal." 
 
 (The day before the lesson.) Teacher: "To-day 
 we shall take up the life and works of Lowell in our 
 Literatures. I hope you have all studied the lesson 
 carefully, so that you may know as much as possible 
 what sort of man it was who wrote such a fine poem as 
 The Vision of Sir Launfal. We are going to read it 
 to-morrow. 
 
 2. Overcoming Distractions. — Teacher: "The 
 spelling lesson for to-day is made up of rather un- 
 familiar words that are used in the poem. Look up in 
 the dictionary the meaning of the following words, and 
 also know how to spell them: list (verb), lay (noun), 
 aurora, vista, benedicite, shrive, dross, chalice, churlish, 
 groin (verb), spars, crypt, fretwork, arabesque, corbel, 
 flame-pennons, seneschal, decrepitly, and surcoat." 
 
 B. Positive Preparation. 
 
 Apperceptive basis. — The teacher should tell in 
 brief the story of the Holy Grail and explain the plot 
 of the poem as used by Lowell. The preludes. Summer 
 and Winter, should be explained as forebodings of the 
 nature of the parts. Some of the metaphors may also 
 be mentioned. 
 
 C. Lesson Proper. 
 
 1. Immediate Preparation. — (a) The teacher 
 must be so filled with knowledge and appreciation of 
 
352 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 the subject that it will overflow and inspire her pupils 
 with the same enthusiasm, (b) Aim, 
 
 Teacher: "As we have read in our books, The 
 Vision of Sir Launjal has been the most widely read of 
 any of Lowell's poems. In addition to having some 
 exceptionally fine nature descriptions, the poem 
 teaches a noble lesson of sympathy with suffering. We 
 shall study this poem carefully for two good reasons: 
 first — to become acquainted with one of the finest 
 poems in the English language and to learn to appre- 
 ciate it and others of the same general sort. Secondly, 
 we learn, through it, to know and appreciate about the 
 finest doctrine ever expressed: 
 
 Not what we give, but what we share, 
 For the gift without the giver is bare: 
 Who gives himself with his alms feeds three; 
 Himself, his hungering neighbor, and Me." 
 
 2. Presentation. — The teacher should then read 
 the entire poem in her best voice, using careful expres- 
 sion and pronunciation of words. 
 
 3. Discussion, esthetic. — The teacher should 
 study with the pupils the structure of the rime, 
 alliteration, onomatopoeia, and rhythm. All the de- 
 vices used to increase the musical qualities of the poem 
 should be noted. 
 
 4. Discussion, intellectual. — The meanings of 
 words should be studied, recalling those learned in the 
 previous spelling lesson, and the pupils should be per- 
 mitted to ask for meanings of words that may have 
 
LESSON PLANS 353 
 
 been overlooked by the teacher. These questions 
 should preferably be answered by other pupils in the 
 class whenever possible. Reading may then follow, 
 each pupil reading a part, the next called on continu- 
 ing, until the whole is read. The preludes should be 
 read over several times. 
 
 5. Reproduction. — The pupils should now be re- 
 quired to memorize selected parts, particularly the 
 preludes and the lines quoted earlier in this plan. The 
 rhythm and beauty of sound and familiarity of words 
 easily will lead the pupils to a desire to learn the lines. 
 After the assigned parts are learned, the teacher may 
 ask the pupils to reproduce some of the sections from 
 memory. 
 
 Comments. 
 
 This is a complete lesson that includes all of the 
 steps. It is very good, though a little more detailed in 
 some aspects than might be best. 
 
 XI. PLAN FOR A LESSON IN APPRECIATION 
 IN VERGIL 
 
 Prepared by Mary Corinne Rosebrook 
 
 Topic': Tennyson's poem To Vergil 
 
 1. Preparation. — Negative and positive prepara- 
 tion have been provided for before the day arrives on 
 which this lesson is to be presented. There is need, 
 however, for immediate preparation before the poem is 
 presented. 
 
354 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 Teacher: "To-day we are going to read and talk 
 about a poem of Tennyson's on Vergil for which I have 
 been preparing you for a week. My little secret is 
 going to come out this morning. I told you we would 
 talk about one of Tennyson's poems, but I did not tell 
 you which one or where you might find it, for I wanted 
 you to hear it for the first time here in class. 
 
 "I am so glad you have been having Tennyson's 
 Idyls of the King in your English class. You have at 
 least a 'speaking acquaintance' with the great English 
 poet. I want to tell you something of Tennyson's 
 relation to the classic poets first of all before we read 
 the poem. No doubt your English teacher has already 
 emphasized this." (The teacher briefly tells how Ten- 
 nyson studied the classics, of his love for them, how he 
 studied Greek and Latin in grammar school, and of his 
 good scholarship in these branches, how he constantly 
 employed figures and verse forms from the Latin and 
 Greek masters and continually alludes to mythology 
 and legendary history.) 
 
 2. Presentation. — "This poem that I am going to 
 read to you deals specifically with Vergil and is indeed 
 entitled To Vergil. It was written at the request of 
 the Mantuans for their celebration of the nineteenth 
 centenary of Vergil's death. Since we have studied 
 the iEneid so carefully and appreciatively all year, this 
 poem ought to mean much to us." 
 
 The teacher reads this poem smoothly and with 
 spirit, keeping the rhythm Tennyson intended it to 
 
LESSON PLANS 355 
 
 have. The children will be interested, for they will 
 recognize familiar words, such as "Ilion" and "Dido's 
 pyre," and will feel the rhythm of the poetry. 
 
 Teacher: ''Would you like to hear it again? We 
 got the effect of the beautiful language, verse-melody, 
 and rhythm this time. As I read it over the second 
 time, notice particularly the references Tennyson makes 
 to just what we have been studying." 
 
 After a second reading the teacher will see that the 
 pupils have enjoyed the poem from the esthetic point 
 of view. After this she will proceed with a short 
 intellectual discussion, rereading particular stanzas and 
 verses. She will call attention to the words that are 
 truly Vergilian and to the allusions to the ^Eneid. 
 Questions, as, Who were the Mantuans? What story 
 of the ^neid is referred to in the first stanza of the 
 poem? What examples do the pupils recall of Vergil 
 as a landscape-lover? and Why is Vergil called a Man- 
 tovano? will be asked. The teacher will explain other 
 references to the poetry of Vergil, as "happy Tityrus" 
 and "chanter of the Pollio." A few figures of speech 
 will be noticed, but there must not be a too detailed 
 study of the poem, for the general effect is of great 
 importance. 
 
 The poem will be read again at this point, perhaps 
 by a pupil. The teacher will tell the pupils where to 
 find it and to read it again for themselves. It is a 
 great English master's appreciation of the great Latin 
 poet Vergil. 
 
356 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 (This lesson ought to come near the close of the 
 year's study of Vergil's -^neid.) 
 
 Comments. 
 
 This lesson has implied the advanced preparation 
 and does not give a chance for reproduction. It is a 
 lesson similar to many that teachers may present. 
 
 Suggested Readings 
 
 Lesson plans are found in the following: 
 Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching. Chapter 
 
 XXV. 
 Earhart, Lida B. Types of Teaching. Appendix. 
 Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process. Chapter XVI. 
 
OUTLINE 
 
 Chapter I. Introduction. 
 
 Chapter II. The Factors that Condition Teaching. 
 Introductipn. 
 Objective conditions. 
 
 I. Physical conditions. 
 
 A. Temperature and humidity. 
 
 B. Ventilation. 
 
 C. Lighting. 
 
 II. Class-room management. 
 A. Routine factors. 
 
 1. Seating of pupils. 
 
 2. Pupil movements. 
 
 3. Handling materials. 
 
 III. Discipline. 
 
 A. Good discipline a necessity. 
 
 B. Changing character of discipline. 
 
 C. Social aspects. 
 
 D. Measures for securing good discipline. 
 
 1. Proper routine. 
 
 2. Correct attitude on the part of teacher. 
 
 3. Constructive measures. 
 
 a. Make work the master. 
 
 b. Individual assignments. 
 
 c. Stimulation of group responsibility. 
 
 d. Treatment of individual offenses. 
 
 IV. Individual differences. 
 
 A. Recently recognized problem. 
 
 B. Importance of and character of individual differ- 
 ences. 
 
 C. Provisions for individual differences. 
 
 1. Diversified curriculums. 
 
 2. Free election of courses. 
 
 357 
 
358 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 3. Grading pupils according to ability. 
 
 4. Study coaches for slow pupils. 
 
 5. Supplementary work for bright pupils. 
 
 6. Combination of plans. 
 Subjective conditions. 
 
 Chapter III. Subject-matter. 
 Nature of. 
 Origin of. 
 Functions of. 
 
 I. Intrinsic. 
 
 II. Preparatory. 
 
 III. Decorative. 
 
 IV. Disciplinary. 
 Selection of. 
 
 I. Basis of minimal essentials. 
 
 II. Basis of social needs. 
 
 A. Social needs change with time. 
 
 B. Social needs vary between communities. 
 
 C. Social needs vary among the individuals of a com- 
 munity. 
 
 III. Basis of relative values. 
 Arrangement of subject-matter for teaching. 
 
 I. According to relative values. 
 
 II. Pedagogical instead of logical. 
 
 III. Around pivotal points. 
 Preparation of subject-matter for teaching. 
 
 I. Knowledge of subject-matter alone not sufficient. 
 
 II. Differences between teacher's and pupil's prepara- 
 tion. 
 
 III. Necessity for constant preparation. 
 
 A. Term preparation. 
 
 B. Daily preparation. 
 
 Chapter IV. Outcomes of Teaching. 
 Types of outcomes: 
 I. Knowledge. 
 
 A. Facts. 
 
 B. Concepts. 
 
 C. Generalizations. 
 
 D. Mental attitudes and methods of thought. 
 
OUTLINE 359 
 
 II. Drill. 
 
 A. Habits. 
 
 B. Rote associations. 
 HI. Emotional. 
 
 A. Ideals, sentiments, and prejudices. 
 
 B. Appreciation and enjoyment. 
 IV. Practical abilities. 
 
 A. Expression. 
 
 B. Ability to study. 
 
 C. Development of individuality. 
 
 D. Moral development. 
 
 Nen'e modifications as the basis of outcomes. 
 Relation of outcomes to teaching method. 
 
 Chapter V. The Formal Class Period. 
 Introduction. 
 Types of activities. 
 
 I. Assignment. 
 
 A. Functions. 
 
 1. Must point out what is to be done. 
 
 2. Must tell how to do it. 
 
 3. Must motivate. 
 
 B. Time to make. 
 
 C. Length. 
 
 D. Method. 
 
 II. Recitation. 
 
 A. Functions. 
 
 1. A check on the assignment. 
 
 2. A time to organize the lesson content. 
 
 3. Introduction of new materials. 
 
 B. Forms of the recitation. 
 
 1. Mere reproduction. 
 
 2. Topical. 
 
 3. Question and answer. 
 
 a. Purpose of questions. 
 
 b. Social nature of the recitation question. 
 
 c. Form of cjuestions. 
 
 d. Number of questions. 
 
 e. Characteristics of good questions. 
 
 f. Distribution of questions. 
 
 g. Pupil answers. 
 
360 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 4. Pupil reports. 
 
 a. Advantages of. 
 
 b. Disadvantages of. 
 
 C. Characteristics of a good recitation. 
 III. Special teaching forms. 
 
 Chapter VI. Imparting Knowledge. 
 An important phase of the teacher's work. 
 Methods of imparting knowledge. 
 
 I. Type studies. 
 
 A. Nature of. 
 
 B. Outcomes. 
 
 C. Strength of the type-study method. 
 
 D. Weaknesses. 
 
 II. Exposition. 
 
 A. When to use exposition. 
 
 B. Technique of expository teaching. 
 
 1. Approach and statement of aim. 
 
 2. Presentation. 
 
 a. Presentation proper. 
 
 ( 1 ) Principles that aid. 
 
 (2) Use of analogies, stories, and illustrations. 
 
 b. Summary. 
 
 3. Application. 
 
 C. Value of expository teaching. 
 
 D. Defects of expository teaching. 
 
 Chapter VII. Imparting Knowledge (Continued). 
 
 III. Induction. 
 
 A. When to use the inductive lesson. 
 
 B. Technique of the inductive lesson. 
 
 1. Preparation. 
 
 2. Presentation. 
 
 3. Comparison and abstraction. 
 
 4. Generalization. 
 
 5. Application. 
 
 C. Strength of inductive teaching. 
 
 D. Defects and shortcomings of inductive teaching. 
 
 IV. Deduction. 
 
 A. Types of deductive teaching. 
 
 B. Technique of deductive teaching. 
 
OUTLINE 361 
 
 1. Data. 
 
 2. Principles. 
 
 3. Inference. 
 
 4. Verification. 
 
 C. Advantages of deductive teaching. 
 
 D. Limitations of deductive teaching. 
 V. Reflective thinking. 
 
 A. Opportunities for using reflective thinking. 
 . B. Steps in reflective thinking. 
 
 1. Defining the task or problem. 
 
 2. Methods of attack or solution. 
 
 3. Verification. 
 
 C. Value of reflective thinking. 
 Method and mental activity. 
 
 Chapter VIII. Forming Habits and Rote Associations. 
 I. Drill work. 
 
 A. Two kinds of drill outcomes. 
 
 B. Two phases of the problem. 
 
 C. The first question. 
 
 D. Technique of the drill lesson. 
 
 1. Motivation. 
 
 2. Focalization. 
 
 3. Repetition. 
 
 E. Devices that aid. 
 
 1. Emulation. 
 
 2. Competition. 
 
 3. Time limit. 
 
 4. Rhythm. 
 
 5. Variation. 
 
 6. Concert work. 
 
 7. Problems. 
 
 8. Approval. 
 
 9. Stern Necessity. 
 
 F. Psychology of drill work. 
 
 1. Length of drill exercises. 
 
 2. Pleasure aids, habit formation and memorizing. 
 
 3. Zeal and concentration necessary. 
 
 4. Forms of the drill exercise. 
 
 5. Trial and error indispensable. 
 
 6. Verbal directions a help. 
 
362 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 7. Understanding an aid to memorizing. 
 
 8. Memorizing by wholes. 
 
 9. The learning curve. 
 10. Age and drill exercises. 
 
 Chapter IX. Developing the Emotions. 
 Introduction. 
 
 I. A neglected phase of teaching. 
 
 II. Lack of development shown by the general popula- 
 tion. 
 
 Psychology of emotional teaching. 
 
 I. The radiation of emotional attitudes. 
 
 II. Individual differences. 
 Information as a basis of emotional teaching. 
 Scope of emotional development. 
 
 I. Appreciation. 
 
 A. Esthetic. 
 
 B. Social. 
 
 II. Enjoyment. 
 
 Technique of the lesson that develops the emotions. 
 
 I. Preliminary stages. 
 
 A. Negative preparation. 
 
 1. Anticipatory interest. 
 
 2. Overcoming distractions. 
 
 B. Positive preparation. 
 
 II. The lesson proper. 
 
 A. Immediate preparation. 
 
 B. The hour of appreciation. 
 
 C. Esthetic discussion. 
 
 D. Intellectual discussion. 
 
 E. Reproduction. 
 
 III. Value of this lesson. 
 Other suggestions. 
 
 Cumulative effects of emotional development. 
 
 Chapter X. The Review Exercise. 
 Nature of. 
 Functions of the review. 
 
 I. Organization of materials. 
 
 II. Repetition. 
 
 III. Recall of old knowledge in preparation for new. 
 
OUTLINE 363 
 
 IV. To discover whether a topic has been completed. 
 
 V. To test. 
 When to review. 
 How to review. 
 Importance of the review. 
 Time to be given to the review. 
 
 Chapter XI. Training in Application. 
 The problem. 
 Forms of application. . 
 
 I. Constructive or creative effort. 
 
 II. Translation work. 
 
 III. Problems. 
 
 Technique of training pupils in application. 
 
 I. Motivation. 
 
 II. Statement of problem or task. 
 
 III. Necessity of iniormation. 
 The application recitation. 
 Checking the pupils' work. 
 Cautions. 
 
 Aids. 
 
 Value of training pupils in application. 
 
 Chapter XII. Developing Individuality, 
 
 I. A neglected phase of present-day teaching. 
 
 II. Kind of individuality needed. 
 
 III. Methods that may be used. 
 
 A. Class as a social group. 
 1. Socialized recitation, 
 
 a. What it is. 
 
 b. When it can be used. 
 
 c. Merits and defects. 
 
 B. Stimulation of pupil responsibility. 
 
 1. Necessity for utilizing pupil responsibility. 
 
 2. Pupil cooperative government. 
 
 3. Pupil organizations. 
 
 IV. Moral training and development of individuality. 
 
 V. Scope of morality. 
 
 VI. Present status of moral education. 
 
 VII. Different outcomes needed at different age levels. 
 
 VIII. Methods of moral training. 
 
364 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 A. Methods must be suited to the outcomes desired. 
 
 B. Direct method. 
 
 C. Indirect method. 
 
 D. Necessity for'a definite program. 
 
 IX. The information needed as a basis for moral judg- 
 ments. 
 
 X. Individual differences and moral development. 
 
 Chapter XIII. Training Pupils to Study Effectively. 
 
 I. Need for such training. 
 
 II. Nature of study. 
 
 III. Purpose of training how to study. 
 
 IV. Technique of training how to study. 
 
 A. First essential — careful assignments. 
 
 B. Second essential — proper study conditions. 
 
 1. A study-time habit. 
 
 2. An environment free from distractions. 
 
 3. Favorable home conditions. 
 
 4. Good physical conditions. 
 
 5. The motions of study. 
 
 C. Study devices and aids, 
 
 1. How to use reference books. 
 
 2. Attitudes that aid. 
 
 3. The personal equation. 
 
 4. Procedure in studying for knowledge. 
 
 5. Procedure in drill work. 
 
 6. Intelligence must be used. 
 
 7. Resting. 
 
 8. Applying knowledge. 
 
 V. Supervised study. 
 
 A. Need of. 
 
 B. Value of. 
 
 C. Plans of. 
 
 1. The divided period. 
 
 2. Once-a-week plan. 
 
 3. Other forms. 
 
 D. Suggestions. 
 
 Chapter XIV. Measuring the Results of Teaching. 
 Introduction. 
 Methods of measuring teaching results. 
 
OUTLINE 365 
 
 I. Daily recitations. 
 
 II. Examinations. 
 
 A. Value of examinations. 
 
 B. Frequency. 
 
 C. Types of examinations. 
 
 1. Oral or written. 
 
 2. Announced or unannounced. 
 
 3. Time limit or work limit. 
 
 D. Types of questions in examinations. 
 
 III. Marks as measures of school-work. 
 
 A. Reliability of marks. 
 
 B. Factors that produce variability. 
 
 1. Inability of teachers to discriminate. 
 
 2. Different emphasis by different teachers upon the 
 same things. 
 
 3. Differences in standards between teachers. 
 
 C. The best marking system. 
 
 D. Distribution of marks. 
 1. The meaning of marks. 
 
 , 2. The frequency curve and its irregularities. 
 
 3. A proposed distribution. 
 
 4. A common standard the main essential. 
 
 5. Explanations of variations. 
 
 E. Suggestions that may aid. 
 
 1. How to secure accurate marking. 
 
 2. Using the average paper as a standard. 
 
 3. Avoiding extreme discriminations. 
 
 4. Sampling. 
 
 IV. Standards and scales. 
 A. Subjective standards. 
 
 1. Attitude of pupils and community toward the 
 teacher. 
 
 2. The number of pupils promoted. 
 
 3. The class-room technique. 
 
 4. The reactive attitude of the child. 
 
 5. The "Ten-point Scale." 
 
 Chapter XV. Tests and Standards. 
 I. Objective tests. 
 A. Tests as objective measuring instruments. 
 
366 THE TEACHER'S TECHNIQUE 
 
 B. What a test is. 
 
 C. How a test is made. 
 
 D. When to use tests. 
 
 E. Selecting the test. 
 
 II. Standards. 
 
 III. Causes of low scores. 
 
 IV. Mental tests as checks. 
 V. Tests as survey tools. 
 
 VI. Tests as instructional aids. 
 
 VII. Tests in educational guidance. 
 
 Chapter XVI. General Technique. 
 
 I. Suggestions for the first day. 
 
 A. Advanced preparation. 
 
 1. Preparations for physical comfort. 
 
 2. Acquaintance with the general situation. 
 
 3. Acquaintance with the school plant. 
 
 4. Tentative plans for the year's work. 
 
 B. Definite plans for the first day. 
 
 1. Measures for acquainting teacher and pupils. 
 
 2. Measures for informing pupils of the year's plans. 
 
 3. Teaching plans for the first day. 
 
 II. Teaching postures. 
 
 III. Relationships of the teacher. 
 
 A. To the supervisor. 
 
 B. To the co-workers. 
 
 C. To the pupils. 
 
 D. To the community. 
 
 IV. Use of lesson types. 
 
 V. Books. 
 
 A. Need for. 
 
 B. Characteristics of the best book. 
 
 C. How to use. 
 
 D. Value for supplementary information. 
 
 VI. Laboratory. 
 
 VII. Blackboard. 
 
 VIII. Devices. 
 
 A. Devices for securing and maintaining good order. 
 
 B. Devices for economizing time. 
 
 C. Devices for securing clearness of comprehension. 
 
 D. Devices for securing social cooperation. 
 
OUTLINE 367 
 
 E. Devices for securing competition and high quality 
 of work. 
 
 F. General devices. 
 
 Chapter XVII. Lesson Plans. 
 A necessity. 
 
 Lack of time for complex plans. 
 Making practical preparation. 
 
 I. Knowledge of subject-matter. 
 
 II. Method. 
 
 III. The order of presentation. 
 
 IV. Improving the teaching technique. 
 Model plans. 
 
 I. Assignment in General History. 
 
 II. Assignment in Third-year Latin. 
 
 III. Type-study lesson in Geography. 
 
 IV. Expository lesson in English. 
 
 V. Inductive lesson in Algebra. 
 
 VI. Inductive lesson in German. 
 
 VII. Deductive lesson in English, 
 
 VIII. Deductive lesson in Algebra. 
 
 IX. Drill lesson in English. 
 
 X. Lesson in appreciation in English. 
 
 XI. Lesson in appreciation in Vergil. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Ability to Study, 68. 
 Abstraction in inductive lesson, 
 
 118. 
 Advanced preparation for the 
 
 first day, 302. 
 Advantages of deductive teach- 
 ing, 124. 
 Advantage of pupil reports, 88. 
 Age and drill exercise, 156. 
 Aids in training pupils in appli- 
 cation, 204. 
 Analogies, 107. 
 Annotating as an aid to study, 
 
 238. 
 Announced examinations, 264. 
 Anticipatory interest, 168. 
 A priori standards, 277. 
 Application 
 
 Aids in training pupils in, 204. 
 Cautions in training pupils in, 
 
 202. 
 Constructive effort in, 193. 
 Creative effort in, 193. 
 Forms of, 193. 
 Problem involved in training 
 
 pupils in, 192. 
 Technique of training pupils 
 
 in, 196. 
 Training in, 192. 
 Value of training in, 205. 
 Application in expository teach- 
 ing, 110. 
 Application in inductive lesson, 
 
 119. 
 Application recitation, 198. 
 Applying knowledge as an aid to 
 
 study, 243. 
 Appreciation, 56, 165. 
 Esthetic, 165. 
 Hour of, 170. 
 
 Appreciation, pseudo-esthetic, 
 175. 
 Social, 165. 
 Approach in expository lesson, 
 
 103. 
 Approval, 149. 
 Arrangement of subject matter 
 
 for teaching, 50. 
 Arrangement of subject matter, 
 pedagogical versus logical, 51. 
 Arrangement of subject matter, 
 
 pivotal points for the, 52. 
 Assignment, 73. 
 Assistance in the, 74. 
 Clearness in, 74. 
 Functions of, 74. 
 Length of, 76. 
 Method of the, 77. 
 Motivation in the, 75. 
 When to make, 75. 
 Assignment in General History, 
 
 plan for an, 329. 
 Assignment in third-year Latin, 
 
 plan for an, 331. 
 Assignments 
 Individual, 25. 
 In supervised study, 229. 
 To individual pupils, 20. 
 Assistance in the assignment, 
 
 74. 
 Attitude, correct, on part of 
 
 teacher, 24. 
 Attitude that aids in successful 
 study, 235. 
 
 Baker, Jeannette, 346. 
 Best marking system, 269. 
 Blackboard, 315. 
 Blackboard work, 250. 
 Books, 311. 
 
 369 
 
370 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Bright pupils, supplementary 
 work for, 35. 
 
 Causes of low scores, 294. 
 
 Cautions in training pupils in 
 application, 202. 
 
 Changing character of discipline, 
 21. 
 
 Changing social needs, 48. 
 
 Characteristics of good questions, 
 85. 
 
 Characteristics of the good reci- 
 tation, 90. 
 
 Checking the pupils' work, 201. 
 
 Checking up function of the re- 
 view, 187. 
 
 Ciphering books, 6. 
 
 Class as a social group, 211. 
 
 Class room management, 17. 
 
 Class teaching, evolution of, 7. 
 
 Clearness in assignment, 74. 
 
 Commendation of pupil answers, 
 87. 
 
 Comparison in inductive lesson, 
 118. 
 
 Competition, 146. 
 
 Concentration necessary in drill 
 work, 151. 
 
 Concepts, 60. 
 
 Concert work, 148. 
 
 Constructive effort in application, 
 193. 
 
 Constructive preparation in les- 
 son in appreciation, 169. 
 
 Cooperative government, pupil, 
 27. 
 
 Correct attitude on part of 
 teacher, 24. 
 
 Creating a vacuum, 104. 
 
 Creative effort in application, 
 193. 
 
 Cumulative effects of emotional 
 development, 177. 
 
 Curriculums, diversified, 32. 
 
 Daily recitation as a measure of 
 
 teaching results, 258. 
 Daily record book, 259. 
 Data, 122. 
 
 Decorative function of subject- 
 matter, 44. 
 Deduction, 121. 
 Deductive lesson in Algebra, 
 
 plan for a, 346. 
 Deductive lesson in English, 
 
 plan for a, 343. 
 Deductive teaching 
 Advantages of, 124, 
 Limitations of, 125. 
 Technique of, 122. 
 Types of, 121. 
 Defects of expository teaching, 
 
 111. 
 Defects of inductive teaching, 
 
 120. 
 Defining the problem, 197. 
 Definite plans for the first day, 
 
 304. 
 Developing individuality, 209. 
 Methods that may be used in, 
 211. 
 Developing the emotions, 160. 
 
 Other suggestions for, 174. 
 Development of individuality, 
 68. 
 Moral training and, 216. 
 Devices, 317. 
 
 For economizing time, 319. 
 For securing and maintaining 
 
 good order, 318. 
 For securing competition and 
 
 high quality of work, 320. 
 For securing social coopera- 
 tion, 320. 
 General, 322. 
 In the review, 186. 
 That aid, 146. 
 Diagrams, 109. 
 Difference between teacher's and 
 
 pupil's preparation, 53. 
 Different outcomes at different 
 
 age levels, 218. 
 Disadvantages of pupil reports, 
 
 89. 
 Disciplinary function of subject- 
 matter, 45. 
 Disciplinary offenses, types of, 28. 
 Discipline, 20. 
 Changing character of, 21. 
 
INDEX 
 
 371 
 
 Discipline, good, a necessity, 20. 
 
 Measures for securing good, 23. 
 
 Social aspects of, 22. 
 Distribution of marks, 270. 
 Distribution of questions, 86. 
 Diversified curriculums, 32. 
 Divided period plan of super- 
 vised study, 248. 
 Drill exercises 
 
 Age and, 156. 
 
 Forms of the, 151. 
 
 Length of, 150. 
 Drill outcomes, 63. 
 
 Two kinds of, 139. 
 Drill work, 139. 
 
 Concentration necessary in, 
 151. 
 
 Psychology of, 150. 
 
 Verbal directions a help in, 
 152. 
 
 Zeal necessary in, 151. 
 Drill lesson, first question in, 142. 
 Drill lesson in English, plan for 
 a, 348. 
 
 Earhart, Lida B., 86. 
 Educational guidance, tests in, 
 
 298. 
 Emotional attitudes, radiation of, 
 
 220. 
 Emotional development 
 
 Cumulative effects of, 177. 
 
 Scope of, 164. 
 Emotional outcomes, 64. 
 Emotional teaching 
 
 Information and, 163. 
 
 Psychology of, 161. 
 Emotions 
 
 Developing the, 160. 
 
 Radiation of the, 162. 
 Empirical method of imparting 
 
 knowledge, 96. 
 Emulation, 146. 
 Enjoyment, 66, 166. 
 Esthetic appreciation, 165. 
 Esthetic discussion in lesson in 
 
 appreciation, 171. 
 Evolution of class teaching, 7. 
 Examinations, 260. 
 
 Examinations, announced, 264. 
 
 Exemptions from, 263. 
 
 Frequency of, 262. 
 
 Oral, 263. 
 
 Time limit, 265. 
 
 Types of, 263. 
 
 Types of questions in, 266. 
 
 Unannounced, 264. 
 
 Value of, 260. 
 
 Work limit, 265. 
 
 Written, 263. 
 Exemptions from examinations, 
 
 263. 
 Exposition, 101. 
 
 When to use, 102. 
 Expository lesson 
 
 Approach in, 103. 
 
 Presentation in, 105. 
 
 Presentation proper in, 105. 
 Expository lesson in English, 
 
 plan for a, 334. 
 Expository teaching 
 
 Defects of. 111. 
 
 Technique of, 102. 
 Expression, 67. 
 
 Factors that produce variability 
 
 in teachers' marks, 268. 
 Factors conditioning teaching, 12. 
 
 Objective, 12. 
 
 Subjective, 12. 
 Facts, 60. 
 First day 
 
 Advanced preparation for the, 
 302. 
 
 Definite plans for the, 304. 
 
 Suggestions for the, 302. 
 First essential in study training, 
 
 229. 
 First question in the drill lesson, 
 
 142. 
 Focalization, 144. 
 Formal class period, 73. 
 Form of questions, 84. 
 Forms of 
 
 Application, 193. 
 
 The drill exercise, 151. 
 
 The recitation, 80. 
 Free election of courses, 33. 
 Frequency curve, 270. 
 
372 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Frequency of examination, 262. 
 Functions of 
 
 The assignment, 74. 
 
 Subject-matter, 43. 
 
 The recitation, 78. 
 
 The review, 182. 
 
 General devices, 322. 
 
 General technique, 302. 
 
 Generalization in inductive les- 
 son, 118. 
 
 Generalizations, 61. 
 
 Good discipline a necessity, 20. 
 
 Government, pupil cooperative, 
 27. 
 
 Grading pupils according to 
 ability, 33. 
 
 Griffith, Grace, 341. 
 
 Group responsibility, stimulation 
 of, 26. 
 
 Group teaching, introduction of, 
 9. 
 
 Habit formation, pleasure and, 
 
 150. 
 Habits, 63, 139. 
 Hall-Quest, A. L., 246. 
 Handling materials, 18. 
 Hayward, F. H., 167. 
 Heating of schoolrooms, 14. 
 Home study, 232. 
 Honor sections, 34. 
 Hour of appreciation, 170. 
 How a test is made, 288. 
 How to review, 185. 
 Humidity of schoolrooms, 14. 
 
 Ideals, 65. 
 
 Illustrations, 108. 
 
 Immediate preparation in lesson 
 in appreciation, 170. 
 
 Imparting knowledge, 96. 
 Empirical method of, 96. 
 
 Importance and character of in- 
 dividual differences, 30. 
 
 Importance of the review, 187. 
 
 Improving the teaching tech- 
 nique, 328. 
 
 Individual assignments, 25. 
 
 Individual differences, 29. 
 And moral development, 222. 
 Importance and character of, 
 
 30. 
 Provisions for, 32. 
 Recently recognized problem 
 of, 29. 
 Individual pupils, assignments 
 
 to, 20. 
 Individualistic methods, persist- 
 ence of, 8. 
 Individualistic teaching, 5. 
 Individuality 
 Development of, 68. 
 Needed, kind of, 210. 
 Induction, 115. 
 Inductive lesson 
 Abstraction in, 118. 
 Application in, 119. 
 Comparison in, 118. 
 Generalization in, 118. 
 Preparation in, 116. 
 Presentation in, 117. 
 Technique of, 116. 
 When to use the, 115. 
 Inductive lesson in Algebra, plan 
 
 for an, 338. 
 Inductive lesson in German, 
 
 plan for a, 341. 
 Inductive teaching, defects of, 
 120. 
 Shortcomings of, 120. 
 Strength of, 119. 
 Inference, 123. 
 Information and emotional 
 
 teaching, 163. 
 Information and moral judg- 
 ments, 221. 
 Information necessary in appli- 
 cation work, 197. 
 Instructional aids, tests as, 
 
 297. 
 Intellectual discussion in lesson 
 
 in appreciation, 172. 
 Intelligence must be used in 
 
 studying, 240. 
 Intrinsic function of subject- 
 matter, 43. 
 Introduction of group teaching, 
 9. 
 
INDEX 
 
 373 
 
 Inventory function of review, 
 183. 
 
 Johnston, Charles Hughes, 279. 
 Johnston ten-point scale, 279. 
 
 Kind of individuahty needed, 
 210. 
 
 Knowledge of subject-matter, 
 326. 
 
 Knowledge outcomes of teach- 
 ing, 60. 
 
 Laboratory, 313. 
 
 Laboratory work, 250. 
 
 Lack of time for complex plans, 
 
 325. 
 Latin, plan for an assignment in 
 
 third-year, 331. 
 Learning curve, 154. 
 Learning telegraphy, 155. 
 Learning by heart in lesson in 
 
 appreciation, 172. 
 Length of drill exercises, 150. 
 Length of the assignment, 76. 
 Lesson facts, order of presenta- 
 tion of, 328. 
 Lesson in appreciation in Eng- 
 lish, plan for, 350. 
 Lesson in appreciation in Vergil, 
 
 plan for, 353. 
 Lesson in appreciation 
 Constructive preparation in, 
 
 169. 
 Esthetic discussion in, 171. 
 Immediate preparation in, 170. 
 Intellectual discussion in, 172. 
 Learning by heart in, 172. 
 Lesson proper in, 170. 
 Negative preparation in, 168. 
 Overcoming distractions in, 
 
 168. 
 Positive preparation in, 169. 
 Preliminary stages in, 167. 
 Reproduction in, 172. 
 Value of, 173. 
 Lesson plans, 325. 
 Lesson proper in lesson in ap- 
 preciation, 170. 
 Lesson types, use of, 309. 
 
 Lighting of schoolrooms, 16. 
 Limitations of deductive teach- 
 ing, 125. 
 
 Making practical preparation for 
 
 teaching, 326. 
 Maps, 194. 
 Marking 
 Point scale for, 274. 
 Suggestions that may aid in, 
 273. 
 Marking system, the best, 269. 
 Marks 
 As measures of school work, 
 
 267. 
 Distribution of, 270. 
 Factors that produce varia- 
 bility in teachers', 268. 
 Reliabilitv of, 267. 
 McCue, Goldie, 334, 343, 348. 
 Measures for securing good dis- 
 cipline, 23. 
 Measuring teaching results, 
 
 methods of, 258. 
 Measuring the results of teach- 
 ing, 257. 
 Memorizing by wholes, 123. 
 Pleasure and, 150. 
 Understanding an aid to, 
 153. 
 Mental activity, method and, 
 
 134. 
 Mental attitudes and methods 
 
 of thought, 62. 
 Mental tests as checks, 295. 
 Method, 327. 
 And mental activity, 134. 
 Of the assignment, 77. 
 Methods 
 Of attack or solution, 129. 
 Of measuring teaching results, 
 
 258. 
 Of moral training, 219. 
 That may be used in develop- 
 ing individuality, 211. 
 Minimal essentials, 46. 
 Model plans, 329. 
 Models, 109. 
 Moral development, 69. 
 Individual differences and, 222. 
 
374 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Moral education, present status 
 
 of, 217. 
 Moral judgments, information 
 
 and, 221. 
 Moral training and development 
 
 of individuality, 216. 
 Moral training, methods of, 219. 
 Motions of study, 233. 
 Motivation, 142, 196. 
 Motivation in the assignment, 
 
 75. 
 
 Nature of study, 228. 
 
 Nature of subject-matter, 41. 
 
 Nature of the review, 182. 
 
 Nature of type studies, 97. 
 
 Need for study training, 227. 
 
 Need for supervised study, 244. 
 
 Negative preparation in lesson in 
 appreciation, 168. 
 
 Neglected phase of present-day 
 teaching, 209. 
 
 Nerve modifications and out- 
 comes, 69. 
 
 New materials in the recitation, 
 79. 
 
 Number of questions, 85. 
 
 Objective factors conditioning 
 
 teaching, 12. 
 Objective tests, 285. 
 Once a week plan of supervised 
 
 study, 249. 
 Opportunities for reflective 
 
 thinking, 126. 
 Oral examinations, 263. 
 Order of presentation of lesson 
 
 facts, 328. 
 Organization of materials in the 
 
 review, 182. 
 Organizing function of the reci- 
 tation, 79. 
 Origin of subject-matter, 41. 
 Other suggestions for developing 
 
 the emotions, 174. 
 Outcomes from type studies, 98. 
 Outcomes of teaching, 59. 
 Knowledge, 60. 
 Types of, 60. 
 Outlines, 109, 195. 
 
 Outlines in topical recitations, 
 81. 
 
 Outlining as an aid to study, 238. 
 
 Overcoming distractions in les- 
 son in appreciation, 168. 
 
 Pedagogical versus logical ar- 
 rangement of subject-mat- 
 ter, 51. 
 
 Persistence o f individualistic 
 methods, 8. 
 
 Personal equation in successful 
 study, 236. 
 
 Physical condition and study 
 success, 233. 
 
 Pictures, 109. 
 
 Pivotal points for the arrange- 
 ment of subject-matter, 52. 
 
 Plan for an assignment in Gen- 
 eral History, 329. 
 
 Plan for an assignment in third- 
 year Latin, 331. 
 
 Plan for a deductive lesson in 
 Algebra, 346. 
 
 Plan for a deductive lesson in 
 English, 343. 
 
 Plan for a drill lesson in Eng- 
 lish, 348. 
 
 Plan for an expository lesson in 
 English, 334. 
 
 Plan for an inductive lesson in 
 Algebra, 338. 
 
 Plan for an inductive lesson in 
 German, 341. 
 
 Plan for a lesson in appreciation 
 in English, 350. 
 
 Plan for a lesson in appreciation 
 in Vergil, 353. 
 
 Plan for a type study lesson in 
 Geography, 333. 
 
 Plans of supervised study, 245. 
 
 Plans, model, 329. 
 
 Plateaus in learning curve, 155. 
 
 Pleasure and habit formation, 
 150. 
 
 Pleasure and memorizing, 150. 
 
 Point scale for marking, 274. 
 
 Positive preparation in lesson in 
 appreciation, 169. 
 
 Postures, teaching, 306. 
 
INDEX 
 
 375 
 
 Practical abilities, 67. 
 
 Prejudices, 65. 
 
 Preliminary stages in lesson in 
 appreciation, 167. 
 
 Preparation of subject matter 
 for teaching, 52. 
 
 Preparation in inductive lesson, 
 116. 
 
 Preparatory function of subject 
 matter, 43. 
 
 Present status of moral educa- 
 tion, 217. 
 
 Presentation in expository les- 
 son, 105. 
 
 Presentation in inductive lesson, 
 117. 
 
 Presentation proper in exposi- 
 tory lesson, 105. 
 
 Principles, 122. 
 
 Problems, 149, 196. 
 
 Problems in the review, 187. 
 
 Problem involved in training pu- 
 pils in application, 192. 
 
 Problem solving, 127. 
 
 Procedure in drill work, 239. 
 
 Procedure in studying for knowl- 
 edge, 236. 
 
 Proper routine, 23. 
 
 Provisions for individual differ- 
 ences, 32. 
 
 Pseudo-esthetic appreciation, 175. 
 
 Psychology of drill work, 150. 
 
 Psychology of emotional teach- 
 ing, 161. 
 
 Pupil answers, 86. 
 
 Commendation of, 87. 
 Repeating, 87. 
 
 Pupil cooperative government, 
 27, 214. 
 
 Pupil enterprises, 176. 
 
 Pupil movements, 18. 
 
 Pupil preparation for the review, 
 186. 
 
 Pupil reports, 88. 
 Advantages of, 88. 
 Disadvantages of, 89. 
 
 Purpose of questions in the reci- 
 tation, 82. 
 
 Purpose of training how to 
 study, 229. 
 
 Question and answer recitation, 
 
 82. 
 Questions 
 Characteristics of good, 85. 
 Distribution of, 86. 
 Form of, 84. 
 In the recitation, purpose of, 
 
 82. 
 Number of, 85. 
 Question, thought development 
 and the, 84. 
 
 Radiation of emotional attitudes, 
 
 220. 
 Radiation of emotions, 162. 
 Recall of old knowledge in 
 
 preparation for new, 183. 
 Recently recognized problem of 
 
 individual differences, 29. 
 Recitation, 77. 
 
 As a check, 78. 
 
 As a measure of teaching re- 
 sults, 258. 
 
 Characteristics of the good, 90. 
 
 Forms of the, 80. 
 
 Functions of the, 78. 
 
 New materials in the, 79. 
 
 Organizing function of, 79. 
 
 Question and answer, 82. 
 
 Reproduction in the, 80. 
 
 Social nature of the, 83. 
 
 Topical, 81. 
 Red letter lesson, 167. 
 Reference books, how to use, 234. 
 Reflective thinking, 126. 
 
 Opportunities for, 126. 
 
 Steps in, 127. 
 
 Value of, 132. 
 Regimen of work, 25. 
 Relationships of the teacher, 
 
 307. 
 Relative importance of kinds of 
 
 subject-matter, 50. 
 Relative values, 49. 
 Reliability of marks, 267. 
 Repeating pupil answers, 87. 
 Repetition, 144. 
 Repetition in the review, 183. 
 Reproduction in lesson in appre- 
 ciation, 172. 
 
376 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Reproduction in the recitation, 
 
 80. 
 Responsibility, stimulation of 
 
 group, 26. 
 Rest pauses, 241. 
 Retarded, sections for, 34. 
 Review 
 
 Checking functions of the, 187. 
 
 Devices in the, 186. 
 
 Functions of the, 182. 
 
 How to, 185. 
 
 Importance of the, 187. 
 
 Inventory function of, 183. 
 
 Nature of the, 182. 
 
 Organization of materials in. 
 182. 
 
 Problems in, 187. 
 
 Pupil preparation for the, 186. 
 
 Repetition in the, 183. 
 
 Testing function of, 184. 
 
 Time to be given to the, 188. 
 
 When to, 184. 
 Review exercise, 182. 
 Rhythm, 148. 
 
 Rosebrook, Mary Corinne, 353. 
 Rote associations, 64, 139. 
 Routine factors, 17. 
 Ruffner, Irma, 331. 
 
 Sampling, 276. 
 
 Scales, standards and, 276. 
 
 Scope of emotional development, 
 164. 
 
 Scope of morality, 216. 
 
 Scores, causes of low, 294. 
 
 Seating of pupils, 17. 
 
 Second essential in study train- 
 ing, 230. 
 
 Sections for retarded, 34. 
 
 Selecting the test, 291. 
 
 Selection of subject-matter, 45. 
 
 Sentiments, 65. 
 
 Shortcomings of inductive teach- 
 ing, 120. 
 
 Slow pupils, study coaches for, 
 35. 
 
 Social appreciation, 165. 
 
 Social aspect of the teaching 
 process, 10. 
 
 Social aspects of discipline, 22. 
 
 Social cooperation, devices for 
 
 securing, 320. 
 Social nature of the recitation, 
 
 83. 
 Social needs, 47. 
 Socialized recitation, 211. 
 Special teaching forms, 91. 
 Standardizing a test, 289. 
 Standards, 292. 
 
 A -priori, 277. 
 
 And scales, 276. 
 
 Subjective, 277. 
 
 Tests and, 285. 
 Steps in reflective thinking, 127. 
 Stern necessity, 149. 
 Stimulation of group responsi- 
 bility, 26. 
 Stimulation of pupil responsi- 
 bility, 214. 
 Stories, 108. 
 
 Strangfeld, Henrietta, 338. 
 Strength of inductive teaching, 
 
 119. 
 Strength of type study method, 
 
 98. 
 Study 
 
 Aids, 234. 
 
 Annotating as an aid to, 238. 
 
 Coaches for slow pupils, 35. 
 
 Devices, 234. 
 
 Environment, 231. 
 
 Home, 232. 
 
 Motions of, 233. 
 
 Outlining as an aid to, 238. 
 
 Programs, 236. 
 Studying for knowledge, pro- 
 cedure in, 236. 
 Study success, physical condi- 
 tions and, 233. 
 Study training 
 
 First essential in, 229. 
 
 Need for, 227. 
 
 Second essential in, 230. 
 Subjective conditions, 36. 
 Subjective factors conditioning 
 
 teaching, 12. 
 Subjective standards, 277. 
 Subject-matter, 41. 
 
 Disciplinary function of, 45. 
 
 Functions of, 43. 
 
INDEX 
 
 377 
 
 Subject-matter, intrinsic function 
 of, 43. 
 
 Knowledge of, 326. 
 
 Nature of, 41. 
 
 Origin of, 41. 
 
 Preparatory function of, 43. 
 
 Selection of, 45. 
 
 Teacher's knowledge of, 52. 
 Successful study 
 
 Attitudes that aid in, 235. 
 
 Personal equation in, 236. 
 Suggestions for the first day, 302. 
 Suggestions in supervised study, 
 
 250. 
 Suggestions that may aid in 
 
 marking, 273. 
 Summaries, 110. 
 Supervised study, 243. 
 
 Assignments in, 229. 
 
 Divided period plan of, 248. 
 
 Need for, 244. 
 
 Once a week plan of, 249. 
 
 Plans of, 245. 
 
 Suggestions in, 250. 
 
 Value of, 245. 
 Supplementary work for bright 
 
 pupils, 35. 
 Survey tools, tests as, 296. 
 
 Teacher, relationship of the, 307. 
 
 Teacher's knowledge of subject- 
 matter, 52. 
 
 Teacher's preparation, 54. 
 
 Teaching calendar, 54. 
 
 Teaching methods and outcomes, 
 70. 
 
 Teaching postures, 306. 
 
 Teaching process, social aspects 
 of the, 10. 
 
 Teaching pupils to study effec- 
 tively, 227. 
 
 Teaching technique, improving 
 the, 328. 
 
 Technique, general, 302. 
 
 Technique of deductive teach- 
 ing, 122. 
 
 Technique of expository teach- 
 ing, 102. 
 
 Technique of inductive lesson, 
 116. 
 
 Technique of lesson that devel- 
 ops the emotions, 167. 
 Technique of the drill lesson, 
 
 142. 
 Technique of training how to 
 
 study, 229. 
 Technique of training pupils in 
 
 application, 196. 
 Test 
 Selecting the, 291. 
 Standardizing a, 289. 
 Testing function of review, 184. 
 Tests 
 
 And standards, 285. 
 As instructional aids, 297. 
 As objective measuring in- 
 stilments, 285. 
 As sur\^ey tools, 296. 
 In educational guidance, 298. 
 Objective, 285. 
 When to use, 289. 
 Themes, 194. 
 Thought development and the 
 
 question, 84. 
 Time limit, 147. 
 Time limit examinations, 265. 
 Time to be given to the review, 
 
 188. 
 Topical recitation, 81. 
 Topical recitation, outlines in, 81. 
 Training how to study, purpose 
 
 of. 229. 
 Training how to study, tech- 
 nique of, 229. 
 Training in application, 192. 
 Translation work, 195. 
 Treatment of individual of- 
 fenses, 27. 
 Two kinds of drill work out- 
 comes, 139. 
 Two phases of the problem, 141. 
 Types of deductive teaching, 121, 
 Types of disciplinary offenses, 28. 
 Types of examinations, 263. 
 Types of questions in examina- 
 tions, 266. 
 Types of outcomes of teaching, 
 
 60. 
 Type studies, 97. 
 Nature of, 97. 
 
/ ut^c 
 
 378 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Type studies, outcomes from, 98. 
 Type-study lesson in Geography, 
 
 plan for a, 333. 
 Type-study method, strength of, 
 
 98. 
 Type-study method, weaknesses 
 
 of, 100. 
 
 Unannounced examinations, 264. 
 Understanding an aid to memo- 
 rizing, 153. 
 Use of lesson types, 309. 
 
 Vacuum, creating a, 104. 
 Value of examinations, 260. 
 Value of expository teaching, 
 
 110. 
 Value of lesson in appreciation, 
 
 173. 
 Value of reflective thinking, 132. 
 Value of supervised study, 245. 
 Value of training in application, 
 
 205. 
 
 Variation, 148. 
 Varying social needs, 48. 
 Ventilation of schoolroom, 15. 
 Verbal directions a help in drill 
 
 work, 152. 
 Verification, 123, 130. 
 
 Weakness of type-study method, 
 100. 
 
 What a test is, 287. 
 
 When to make assignment, 75. 
 
 When to review, 184. 
 
 When to use exposition, 102. 
 
 When to use tests, 289. 
 
 When to use the inductive les- 
 son, 115. 
 
 Wood, Ralph, 329. 
 
 Work limit examinations, 265. 
 
 Written examinations, 263. 
 
 Yates, Pauline, 350. 
 
 Zeal necessary in drill work, 151. 
 
 Jt