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EUROPE AND OTHER CONTINENTS 
 
 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
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TARR AND MCMURRY GEOGRAPHIES 
 
 THIRD BOOK 
 
 EUROPE AND OTHER CONTINENTS 
 
 WITH 
 
 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
 ^ALPH S. TARR, B.S., F.G.S.A. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF DYNAMIC GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY 
 
 FRANK M. McMURRY, Ph.D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING AT TEACHERS 
 COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 WITH NU3IEROUS MAPS AND MANY ILLUSTRA TIONS, CHIEFLY 
 P HO TOG RA PHS OF ACTUAL SCENES 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 
 1901 
 
 All rights reserved, 
 

 THE LIBRARY OF 
 CONGRESS, 
 
 Two Copies Received 
 
 MAY. 2 1901 
 
 Copyright entry 
 
 CLASS CL/XXc 
 \ 
 COP 
 
 6 1 
 
 ^XXc N».| 
 "* ^ ' — * 
 
 COPTRIGHT, 1901, 
 
 By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 
 
 J. S. Cushing & Co. - Berwick & Smith 
 Norwood Mass. U.S.A. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 Eeview of General Geography. — Following our plan of 
 providing frequent -reviews of salient points, we have in this 
 book prefaced sections devoted to the continents with a few 
 chapters on general geography. Especially important sub- 
 jects, such as winds, ocean currents, climate, etc., which served 
 as topics in the preceding book, are again taken up. But the 
 matter is not merely repeated, for these discussions assume 
 some knowledge of the subject treated and carry the inquiry 
 further than before. By this plan a review is provided, and, 
 at the same time, a more advanced and wider knowledge is 
 obtained. 
 
 Eeview of North America. — A common defect in the 
 teaching of geography is that the facts previously learned 
 about the United States fade from the pupil's memory while 
 other countries are being studied. Yet the relation between 
 North America and the other continents is so marked that this 
 defect is unnecessary. For example, most of the industries 
 and important principles of physiography and climate have 
 received the attention of a child when he has completed a 
 general study of the United States. Foreign lands illustrate 
 the same great ideas under slightly different conditions. This 
 means that the comprehension of foreign countries may best 
 be gained by our children if they use their previous knowledge 
 of the United States as a basis of comparison. If, then, this 
 old related knowledge is carefully called to mind when the 
 physiography, climate, and industries of a foreign land are 
 approached, our pupils will not only secure a fuller apprecia- 
 tion of that region, but will also keep alive their present 
 knowledge of the United States by bringing it into use. 
 
vi PREFACE 
 
 The above has been a controlling idea in writing this vol- 
 ume. Accordingly in approaching the physiography of South 
 America (p. 96), the physiography and climate of Europe 
 (pp. 150-163), grazing in Argentina (p. 119), mining in Great 
 Britain (p. 118), etc., we have reproduced the corresponding 
 situation in our own country at some length. Besides this, 
 we have included in the text scores of brief comparisons with 
 the United States. By this means incidental reviews are con- 
 tinually provided, which are especially attractive to both 
 teachers and pupils because they contain more of motive than 
 the ordinary " review for review's sake." 
 
 To supplement this kind of review several sets of questions, 
 which call for still different comparisons with the United 
 States, are included in the book, one series being found at the 
 close of the treatment of each continent. These are likewise 
 rich in motive, inasmuch as they recall leading facts in regard 
 to the United States from varying points of view. It should 
 be kept in mind also that each set at the same time reviews 
 another continent from a new point of view. 
 
 Many of the facts in regard to the United States which 
 these questions call for are not presented in the text treating 
 of the various continents, and answers for a few of them are 
 not indicated in the maps. Also pupils may have forgotten 
 other important information about the United States. For 
 these reasons Section XXIV, covering thirty-two pages, is an 
 organized review of Xorth America alone. It includes the 
 principal facts about our continent which every pupil should 
 know on completing the grades. In several important respects 
 it is different from that presented at the close of our Second 
 Book, and possesses, therefore, an element of freshness. 
 
 The title of the last section, " The United States in Com- 
 parison with Other Countries," indicates provision for still 
 further review. It has seemed to the authors an anti-climax 
 to close several years' study of geography with the Islands of 
 
PREFACE vii 
 
 the Pacific, lands farthest away and of least interest to us. 
 On the other hand, it has been deemed highly important that, 
 after all the countries of the world have been treated, the 
 closing chapter should summarize the situation and show the 
 rank of our own land and its relation to others. This secures 
 a final reconsideration of the principal facts in our geography, 
 while at the same time it brings them into proper relation and 
 perspective. 
 
 On the whole, we are of the opinion that reviews should 
 occupy a large part of the time of instruction ; and by the 
 plan followed we hope that pupils will have a fairly complete 
 knowledge of the United States and the rest of the world in 
 their possession, not only when they finish the grades, but in 
 years to follow. 
 
 Fulness of Treatment. — The plan of this series of 
 geographies provides for a fulness of treatment of foreign 
 countries corresponding to that of the United States in the 
 Second Book. Europe naturally receives most attention, the 
 British Isles occupying thirty-five pages and Germany thirty- 
 four. Our plan may be understood by reference to the British 
 Isles. In that section we state the leading points of history, 
 physiography, and climate, and point out their relation to the 
 marvellous natural development. The relation of the indus- 
 tries and cities to one another is brought out, as well as reasons 
 for the supremacy of the British on the sea, their many colo- 
 nies, and their vast foreign trade. Such extensive treatment 
 frees the earnest teacher from the necessity of overtaxing 
 strength in ransacking libraries in search of sufficient material 
 to produce reasonably vivid, correct, and stimulating pictures 
 in the minds of pupils. 
 
 Suggestions and References. — At the same time this 
 volume invites both teacher and pupil to go beyond the text. 
 The book is intended for the last two years of the grammar 
 school, and probably some children will find the text alone as 
 
Vlll PREFACE 
 
 much as they can master. But for others some of the sugges- 
 tions and references will no doubt prove interesting and lead 
 to research. Thus the course of study is made flexible by 
 offering more than the average amount of work for those who 
 are capable of doing more. Also, by means of the references, 
 specific sources are indicated to which the instructor may go 
 for further knowledge. 
 
 Physiographic Basis and Causal Sequence. — The same 
 close sequence sought after in the preceding work has been 
 attempted here. Physiography is considered the basis for the 
 causal series of facts, and we have therefore introduced the 
 subject freely ; but not too freely, provided each physical fact 
 is shown really to function in man's relation to the earth. 
 We have endeavored to provide that the effects of carefully 
 selected facts about glacial action, altitude, winds, ocean cur- 
 rents, etc., may be traced to individual countries in such a 
 manner that pupils will plainly see the connection. Physi- 
 ography that is clearly shown to have a real bearing upon man 
 greatly enriches the subject of geography; it is the unused 
 physical geography in the grades that is a stumbling block, 
 and this we have tried to avoid. 
 
 Types. — The study of the United States has, as suggested 
 above, furnished occasion for detailed treatment of most kinds 
 of geographic topics. Some important features and occupa- 
 tions, however, are not found in the United States, and to 
 these we have endeavored to give the same careful considera- 
 tion as was given to other representative topics in the Second 
 Book. Por instance, so far as space permits, the Brazilian 
 forest is presented as a type of tropical forests on page 113. 
 Other illustrations may be found in the treatment of the rub- 
 ber industry on page 115 ; the linen industry on page 191 ; 
 and the silk industry on page 229. The object is to continue 
 to acquaint the learner properly with the basal ^units of 
 geography. 
 
PREFACE ix 
 
 Political and Belief Maps. — We again point to our 
 political maps, as clear, artistic, and unburdened with unnec- 
 essary details. There is not a city which an American child 
 needs to remember that is not to be found on these maps ; 
 why then make them larger and less distinct by adding other 
 names ? 
 
 The main features of the relief of the country are presented 
 in the political maps so that they may be before the eye when 
 these maps are studied. But for the study of the relief itself 
 we have had prepared a set of continent models. Half tones 
 of these appear in their proper places in the book and give 
 pictures of the relief of the continents, which are accurate in 
 general features and in detail. 
 
 Other Illustrations. — Many black maps are used, some 
 to show the location of cities and the distribution of products, 
 and some to illustrate the climatic sections. A series of maps 
 gives a graphic view of the density of population of the conti- 
 nents ; and each continent has its railways represented either 
 by special maps (Figs. 119, 394, and 395) or, where the roads 
 are few in number, by lines inserted on the political maps. 
 The colonies of some of the leading nations are also shown 
 on black maps (Figs. 142 and 193) and the great commercial 
 routes of the world are represented on a single map (Fig. 433). 
 It is believed that this large number of maps, each devoted 
 to a specific object, will be found of great value. 
 
 Besides the maps and diagrams there are many half tones 
 of photographs selected to supplement the text. They are not 
 introduced merely as pictures, but as a part of the fund of 
 information offered. For this purpose the half tone is the 
 best adapted. There is reason for confidence in the accuracy 
 of such views. 
 
 Acknowledgments. — The political and many of the black 
 maps were made by the Matthews-Northrup Co. of Buffalo ; 
 the relief maps by E. E. Howell of Washington. The world 
 
X PREFACE 
 
 maps showing the distribution of products (Section XXV) are 
 in part based upon maps kindly furnished to us by the Phila- 
 delphia Commercial Museum, and a few of them are actual 
 reproductions of the Museum maps. Our photographs have 
 been selected from various sources ; but in this volume, as in 
 those which precede it, the larger number have been purchased 
 from William H. Rail of Philadelphia. Through the kindness 
 of Commander Webster we have obtained permission to use 
 the photographs reproduced in Figures 244, 285, 286, 287, and 
 290 ; and Figures 42, 48, 54, 55, 56, 62, 65, 67, 69, 72, 87, 88, 
 252, 268, 337, 342, 346, and 348 are borrowed from Ratzel's 
 " History of Mankind." A number of European views were 
 loaned by Dr. Heinrich Pies of Cornell University ; and the 
 wash drawings were made by Mr. C. W. Furlong, also of 
 Cornell. 
 
 ■Again we are deeply indebted to Mr. Philip Emerson of the 
 Cobbet School, Lynn, Massachusetts, for his suggestive criti- 
 cism of the manuscript and for further aid in the preparation 
 of the section on Australia. Valuable assistance in the prepa- 
 ration of statistical tables, books of reference, etc., has again 
 been rendered by Mr. P. H. Whitbeck of Cornell University. 
 While we have drawn upon many sources for the information 
 upon which the text in this volume is based, the extensive use 
 that has been made of Mill's " International Geography" and 
 the "Statesman's Yearbook" — books that every geography 
 teacher should have at hand — calls for special acknowl- 
 edgment. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PART I. GENERAL GEOGEAPHY 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Section I. The Earth as a Planet ...... 1 
 
 Stars and Planets, 1. Ocean Basins and Continents, 3. 
 Mountains and Volcanoes, 5. 
 Section II. Movements of the Earth and their Results . 8 
 Daily Motion, 8. Yearly Motion, 8. Results of the 
 Earth's Revolution and Inclination of its Axis, 11. 
 Boundaries of the Zones, 15. 
 Section III. Maps (Latitude and Longitude) .... 18 
 
 Latitude, 18. Longitude, 19. Longitude- and Time, 21. 
 Maps of the World, 22. 
 Section IV. Wind and Rain Belts ...... 25 
 
 Winds. Cause of Winds, 25. The Wind Belts, 26. 
 Rain. Causes for Rain, 28. Rain Belts, 31. Migra- 
 tion of the Rain Belts, 34. Monsoons, 34. Cyclonic 
 Storms, 38. 
 Section V. Distribution of Temperature and a Study of 
 
 Ocean Currents . . . . . . . . .41 
 
 Distribution of Temperature. Effect of Highlands, 41. 
 Effect of Distance from Sea, 41. Effect of Prevail- 
 ing Winds, 44. Ocean Currents. Cause of Ocean Cur- 
 rents, 45. The Pacific Currents, 46. Eddies of the 
 Southern Oceans, 48. North Atlantic Currents, 48. 
 Section VI. Plants and Animals ...... 52 
 
 Zones of Life, 52. Tropical Forest Belt, 52. Savannas, 
 55. The Desert, 57. Life in Temperate Zones, 59. 
 Steppes and Arid Plains, 60. Prairies, 61. Forests of 
 the Temperate Zone, 61. People of the Temperate 
 Zone, 62. Life in the Frigid Zone, 63. Oceanic Life, 
 64. Causes for Distribution of Plants and Animals, 65. 
 xi 
 
xii TABLE OF COX TENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Section VII. The Human Race 71 
 
 Divisions of Mankind. Ethiopians, 71. American In- 
 dians, 72. Mongolians, 73. Caucasians, 74. Distribution 
 of Races, 75. Development of Civilization. Need of 
 Food, 78. Development of Agriculture, 79. Develop- 
 ment of Grazing, 80. Development of Fishing, 82. 
 Development in the Temperate Zone, 82. Shelter, 82. 
 Sites for Houses, 84. Towns and Cities, 85. Clothing, 
 86. The Development of Language, 87. Inventions, 
 88. Development of the State, 89. Development of 
 Religion, 91. 
 
 PART II. SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 Section VIII 96 
 
 Introductory Sections. Physiography, 96. Climate, 100. 
 Plant Life, 104. Animal Life, 105. The People, 107. 
 Brazil. Physiography and Climate, 112. The Tropical 
 Forest, 113. Products of the Forest, 115. Coffee 
 Raising, 116. Other Industries in Brazil, 117. Cities, 
 117. Argentina. Physiography and Climate, 118. Cattle 
 Raising, 119. Farming, 121. Manufacturing and Com- 
 merce, 122. Cities, 123. Uruguay and Paraguay. Uru- 
 guay, 123. Paraguay, 124. The Guianas and Vene- 
 zuela. The Guianas, 125. Venezuela, 127. Tropical 
 Andean Countries. Points of Resemblance, 129. Co- 
 lombia, 132. Ecuador, 133. Peru, 136. Bolivia, 140. 
 Chile. Physiography and Climate, 142. Mineral 
 Wealth, 143. Agriculture, Manufacturing, and Gen- 
 eral Development, 144. Cities, 145. Islands near the 
 Continent, 145. 
 
 PART III. EUROPE 
 
 Section IX. Physiography, Climate, and People . . . 149 
 Phrysiography. Highlands and Lowlands, 150. Coal 
 Beds, 153. The Great Ice Sheet, 154. The Coast Line, 
 156. Climate. Influence of Latitude, 157. Resem- 
 blance to Western North America, 160. Influence of 
 Cyclonic Storms, 161. Effect of Mountain Ranges, 162. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS Xlii 
 
 Inland Seas, 163. People. Their Origin, 164. The 
 Greeks, 164. The Romans, 165. Decline of the Roman 
 Empire, 166. Later Development of 'European Nations, 
 167. Influence of the Discovery of America, 171. 
 
 Section X. The British Isles ....... 173 
 
 Inhabitants, 173. Position, Size, and Importance, 174. 
 Physiography and Climate, 175. Kinds of Industries, 
 179. Agriculture, 180. Fishing, 182. Mining, 183. 
 Reasons for Development of Manufacturing, 185. 
 Woollen and Cotton Manufactures, 186. Iron and 
 Steel Manufacturing, 188. Ireland, 189. Location of 
 Principal Cities, 192. London, 194. Other English 
 Cities, 197. Cities of Scotland, 198. Cities of Ireland, 
 199. Scenery-, 200. Fuller Reasons for the Greatness 
 of the British Empire, 201. Government, 205. 
 
 Section XI. The Netherlands and Belgium . . . . 208 
 The Netherlands (Holland). Physiography, 208. People 
 and Government, 209. Agriculture, 210. Reclaimed 
 Land, 210. Manufacturing, 212. Commerce, 213. Colo- 
 nies, 213. Cities, 215. Belgium. Phisiography, 216. 
 People and Government, 216. Agriculture, 217. Mining 
 and Manufacturing, 218. Commerce, 219. Cities, 219. 
 Luxemburg, 220. 
 
 Section XII. France 222 
 
 People and Government, 222. Physiography and Climate, 
 224. Agriculture, 225. Minerals, 226. Manufactur- 
 ing, 227. Wool and Cotton Manufactures, 228. Silk 
 Manufacturing, 229. Other Manufactures, 230. Paris, 
 231. {Location, 231 ; Paris as an Art Centre, 231 ; Manu- 
 factures of Paris, 234; Commerce of Paris, 234.) Other 
 Cities, 234. Commerce of France, 236. Colonies, 236. 
 
 Section XIII. Spain and Portugal 238 
 
 People and Government, 238. Physiography and Climate, 
 241. Agriculture and Grazing, 242. Mining, 244. 
 Manufacturing, 245. Principal Cities of Spain, 245. 
 Colonies of Spain, 248. Principal Cities and Colonies 
 of Portugal, 249. 
 
 Section XIV. Norway, Sweden, and Denmark . . . 251 
 
 People, 251. Physiography and Climate, 252. Agricultu- 
 ral Districts, 253. Industries and Cities of Norway, 
 
xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 254. Scenery on the Western Coast, 257. Industries 
 and Cities of Sweden, 258. Industries and Cities of 
 Denmark, 261. Colonies of Denmark, 262. 
 
 Section XV. Russia 264 
 
 Size and Position, 264. Physiography, 265. Climate, 266. 
 Climatic Belts, 266. People and Government, 267. 
 Lumbering, 269. Farming and Grazing, 269. Mineral 
 Wealth, 270. Manufacturing, 271. Principal Cities 
 and their Commerce. Moscow and Nijni Novgorod, 
 271. St. Petersburg, 273. Odessa, 274. Warsaw and 
 Lodz, 275. 
 
 Section XVI. German Empire ....... 277 
 
 Extent and Position, 277. People and Government, 278. 
 Defence, 279. Physiography, 281. Climate, 283. For- 
 ests, 284. Agriculture and Grazing, 285. Mining, 286. 
 Manufacturing, 287. Germany's Rapid Advance, 289. 
 Colonies and Emigrants, 291. Principal Cities and their 
 Commerce. Berlin, 292. Interior Cities near Berlin, 
 294. Seaports, 296. Cities along the Rhine, 297. 
 
 Section XVII. Switzerland ....... 301 
 
 Physiography and Climate, 301. People and Government, 
 302. Farming, 303. Manufacturing, 304. Leading 
 Cities, 305. Scenery and Tourists, 307. 
 
 Section XVIII. Italy 309 
 
 Extent and Position, 309. People and Government, 309. 
 Physiography and Climate, 310. Agriculture, 312. 
 Mining and Fishing, 314. Manufacturing, 315. Prin- 
 cipal Cities, 316. (Naples and Vicinity, 316; Home, 318; 
 Other Italian Cities, 321.) San Marino and Malta, 324. 
 
 Section XIX. Austria-Hungary ....... 326 
 
 Physiography and Climate, 326. People and Government, 
 329. Rain Products, Natural Resources, 331. Manu- 
 facturing and Commerce, 332. Principal Cities, 334. 
 Small Countries, 337. 
 
 Section XX. The Balkan Peninsula ...... 338 
 
 Physiography and Climate, 338. People, 339. Monte- 
 negro, 341. Servia, 341. Roumania and Bulgaria, 342. 
 Turkey in Europe, 343. Greece, 346. Islands near 
 Greece, 350. Review of Europe and Comparison ■with 
 North America. 351. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS XV 
 
 PART IV. ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, AND 
 ISLAND GROUPS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Section XXI. Asia 353 
 
 Size and Position, 353. Physiography, 354. Climate, 358. 
 Plants and Animals, 359. People, 3(33. Turkish or 
 Ottoman Empire, 365. (Conditions in the Empire, 366; 
 The Hohj Land, 369; Mesopotamia, 372.) Arabia, 372. 
 Persia, 374. Afghanistan, 376. Russia in Asia, 378. 
 India, 381. {Physiography and Climate, 381; Farming, 
 382 ; Forest and Wild Animals, 384 ; Domestic Animals, 
 
 385 ; Mining and Manufacturing, 386 ; Famines and Plagues, 
 
 386 ; People, 387 ; Beligion, 387 ; Government, 388 ; Balu- 
 chistan and Burma, 390 ; Base of Himalayas, 390 ; Other 
 Countries, 390 ; Principal Cities, 391.) Ceylon, 393. 
 Indo-China and the Malay Peninsula, 393. (Siam, 394 ; 
 French Indo-China, 395 ; Straits Settlements, 395.) Chinese 
 Empire, 396. (Area and Population, 396 ; Climate, 397 ; 
 People and Civilization, 398 ; Natural Resources, 402 ; Gov- 
 ernment, 403; Principal Cities, 404.) Korea, 405. Japan, 
 405. (Physiography and Climate, 406 ; People and Govern- 
 ment, 407; Becent Advance, 408; Resources, 410; Principal 
 Cities, 410.) 
 
 Section XXII. Africa ......... 415 
 
 Physiography, 415. Climate, 417. Plants and Animals, 
 419. The People, 422. Exploration and Settlement, 
 424. Northern Africa. Political Divisions, 427. The 
 Sahara, 427. Egypt and Neighboring British Terri- 
 tory, 430. ( The Nile, 430 ; Agriculture, 433 ; The People, 
 434; Suez Caned, 438; Cities, 439.) The Barbary States, 
 440. Southern Africa. Comparison "\vith Northern 
 Africa, 444. The People, 445. Agriculture and Graz- 
 ing, 446. Mineral Wealth, 448. Commerce and Cities, 
 449. Central Africa. The Rivers, 451. Resources, 453. 
 The People, 453. Divisions of Central Africa, 455. 
 Need of Railways, 457. Islands near Africa, 458. 
 
 Section XXIII. Australia and Island Groups .... 461 
 Australia. Physiography, 461. Climate, 464. Plants 
 and Animals, 406. History, 468. Sheep Raising, 471. 
 
xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Animal Products, 473. Farming, 474. Mining, 475. 
 Manufacturing, 475. Cities, 476. Island Groups. New 
 Zealand, 478. The East Indies, 480. Islands of the 
 Pacific, 482. 
 
 Section XXIV. Review of North America .... 487 
 Growth of the Continent, 487. The United States. 
 Physiography, 488. Climate, 492. Industries, 493. Lum- 
 bering, 493 ; Fishing, 495 ; Agriculture and Related Manu- 
 facturing, 495 ; Mining and Manufacturing dependent upon 
 Mining, 504; Manufacturing, 510; Commerce, 511. Gov- 
 ernment, 514. Outlying Territories and Dependencies 
 of the United States. Alaska, 515. Cuba and Porto 
 Rico, 515. Hawaiian Islands, 515. Guam and Samoa, 
 516. Philippine Islands, 516. Countries North of the 
 United States. Canada and Newfoundland, 516. Isl- 
 ands North of North America, 518. Countries South 
 of the United States. Mexico, 519. Central America, 
 520. Islands, 521. 
 
 Section XXV. The United States in Comparison with Other 
 
 Countries .......... 523 
 
 Area and Population, 523. Leading Raw Products, 524. 
 Manufacturing and Commerce, 530. Dependence upon 
 other Nations, 533. Exports and Imports, 537. Reasons 
 for the Rank of the United States, 540. 
 
 Appendix I. References to Books, Articles, etc. . . 542 
 
 Appendix II. Tables of Area, Population, etc. . . . 548 
 
LIST OF MAPS 
 
 COLORED POLITICAL MAPS 
 
 FIGURE 
 
 75. South America 
 
 122. The British Isles . 
 
 154. Western Europe 
 
 172. Europe . 
 
 200. Central Europe 
 
 241. Asia 
 
 258. Holt Land 
 
 297. Africa 
 
 338. Australia 
 
 356. North America 
 
 357. United States 
 
 358. New England . 
 
 359. Middle Atlantic States 
 
 360. Southern States 
 
 361. Central States 
 
 362. Western States 
 398. Canada . 
 
 434. The Hemispheres . 
 
 435. Mercator Chart of World 
 
 Facing 96 
 173 
 
 222 
 251 
 301 
 353 
 370 
 415 
 461 
 486 
 486 
 486 
 486 
 486 
 486 
 486 
 517 
 542 
 542 
 
 RELIEF MAPS 
 
 76. 
 
 South America 
 
 
 
 
 ... 97 
 
 109. 
 
 Europe .... 
 
 
 
 
 Facing 149 
 
 243. 
 
 Asia . ... 
 
 
 
 
 355 
 
 298. 
 
 Africa .... 
 
 
 
 
 . 416 
 
 339. 
 
 Australia 
 
 
 
 
 . 462 
 
 363. 
 
 North America 
 
 
 
 
 .486 
 
 366. 
 
 United States 
 
 
 
 
 . 490 
 
XV 111 
 
 LIST OF MAPS 
 
 CITY MAPS 
 
 FIGURE 
 
 136. London and Liverpool 
 
 162. Paris and Vicinity 
 
 177. Stockholm 
 
 196. Berlin and Vicinity 
 
 225. Vienna and Vicinity 
 
 233. Constantinople and Vicinity 
 
 313. Cairo and Vicinity 
 
 PAGE 
 
 193 
 
 232 
 259 
 295 
 334 
 343 
 432 
 
 MAPS ILLUSTRATING CLIMATE 
 
 25. 
 26. 
 27. 
 28. 
 29. 
 30. 
 31. 
 32. 
 33. 
 34. 
 35. 
 36. 
 
 39. 
 116. 
 117. 
 118. 
 124. 
 125. 
 126. 
 299. 
 341. 
 341. 
 367. 
 
 States 
 
 Wind Belts of the Earth . 
 
 Winds and Rainfall of South America 
 
 Winds and Rainfall of Africa . 
 
 Winds and Rainfall of Australia 
 
 Rainfall of the Earth 
 
 Winds and Rainfall of Western United 
 
 Shifting of Wind and Rain Belts 
 
 Shifting of Wind and Rain Belts 
 
 Summer Monsoons of India . 
 
 Winter Monsoons of India . 
 
 A Cyclonic Storm, Europe . 
 
 Isothermal Chart of the World for January 
 
 Isothermal Chart of the World for July 
 
 Ocean Currents of the World . 
 
 Ocean Currents of the North Atlantic 
 
 Isotherms of Europe for July . 
 
 Isotherms of Europe for January 
 
 Rainfall of Europe .... 
 
 Isotherms of British Isles for July . 
 
 Isotherms of British Isles for January 
 
 Rainfall of British Isles . 
 
 Vegetation Zones of Africa 
 
 Isotherms of Southeastern Australia, January 
 
 Isotherms of Southeastern Australia, July 
 
 Rainfall of United States ..... 
 
 27 
 30 
 30 
 31 
 32 
 33 
 35 
 35 
 36 
 
 42 
 43 
 
 47 
 49 
 158 
 159 
 163 
 175 
 176 
 177 
 418 
 464 
 464 
 492 
 
LIST OF MAPS 
 
 XIX 
 
 PRODUCT MAPS 
 
 FIGURE PAGE 
 
 113. Coal Fields of Europe ....... 154 
 
 131. Coal Fields of British Isles 184 
 
 368. Principal Forest Regions of the United States . . 493 
 
 369. Fishing Grounds near North America .... 494 
 
 371. Principal Corn-raising Districts of the United States 496 
 
 372. Principal Oat-raising Districts of the United States . 496 
 374. Principal Wheat-raising Districts of the United States 497 
 381. Principal Cotton-raising Districts of the United States 501 
 
 384. Principal Tobacco-raising Districts of the United States 503 
 
 385. Principal Fruit-raising Districts of the United States 503 
 
 386. Coal Fields of the United States ..... 504 
 
 389. Principal Iron, Copper, Oil, and Gas Districts of the 
 
 United States ......... 506 
 
 390. Principal Gold and Silver Regions of the United States 508 
 
 404. World Map for Corn 524 
 
 405. World Map for Wheat 525 
 
 407. World Map for Cotton 526 
 
 409. World Map for Sheep and Cattle ..... 526 
 
 411. World Map for Coal 527 
 
 413. World Map for Iron 528 
 
 415. World Map for Silver 529 
 
 417. World Map for Gold 530 
 
 419. World Map for Petroleum and Rubber .... 531 
 
 420. Manufacturing Districts of the World .... 531 
 
 425. World Map for Coffee ....... 534 
 
 427. World Map for Beet and Cane Sugar .... 534 
 
 429. World Map for Raw Silk 535 
 
 431. World Map for Tea 536 
 
 432. World Map for Rice 536 
 
 DENSITY OF POPULATION MAPS 
 
 85. South America . . . . . . . . .111 
 
 120. Europe 169 
 
 253. Asia 365 
 
 304. Africa 423 
 
XX 
 
 LIST OF MAPS 
 
 FIGURE PAGE 
 
 347. Australia 470 
 
 393. Distribution of Cities and Towns in the United States 510 
 
 597. North America 
 
 514 
 
 RAILWAY, COMMERCIAL ROUTES, AND 
 COLONY MAPS 
 
 119. Railways of Europe 108 
 
 (Railways of South America, Asia, Africa, and Australia on colored Politi- 
 cal Maps.) 
 
 142. The British Empire 202 
 
 193. 
 
 394. 
 395. 
 396. 
 433. 
 
 Colonies of Germany, United States, France, and The 
 Netherlands ......... 290 
 
 Railways of North America 
 Railways of Eastern United States . 
 Navigable Rivers of the United States 
 Leading Transportation Routes of the YY 
 
 Facing 511 
 
 512 
 
 . 513 
 
 . 538 
 
 OTHER MAPS 
 
 3. Land and Water Hemispheres . . . . . 
 
 5. Girdle of Mountains and Volcanoes in the Pacific 
 
 22. Standard Time Felts of the United States 
 
 23. The Meaning of Mercator Maps 
 60. Distribution of Races of Mankind 
 74. Distribution of Religions 
 
 114. The Great Ice Sheet of Europe 
 
 146. The Netherlands .... 
 
 364. The Great Ice Sheet of the United States 
 
 365. The Fall Line of Eastern United States 
 
 399. The Countries of Central America . 
 
 400. The West Indies ...... 
 
 4 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 77 
 
 94 
 
 155 
 
 208 
 
 487 
 
 489 
 
 520 
 
 522 
 
EUROPE AND OTHER CONTINENTS 
 
 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
Paet I 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 o^K<i 
 
 I. THE EARTH AS A PLANET 
 
 Stars and Planets. — As we look into the heavens at 
 night, thousands of stars meet our gaze, and by the help 
 of powerful telescopes many more thousands have been 
 discovered. The stars are fiery hot bodies like the sun, 
 but so far away that they appear only as twinkling lights. 
 
 Some impression of the immensity of the universe is gained 
 when we reflect that some of the stars are so distant that their 
 light, which is now reaching our eyes, may have started toward 
 us as long ago as the time of Christ. Yet light travels so rap- 
 idly that it takes less than nine minutes for it to pass over the 
 93,000,000 miles that separate us from the sun. 
 
 Some of the brightest of the heavenly bodies have no 
 light of their own, but, like the moon, merely reflect 
 light that falls upon them from the sun. They do not 
 remain in one part of the heavens, as the true stars do, 
 but slowly change their position. For this reason they 
 were long ago called planets, which means wanderers. 
 
 The planets are much nearer to us than the myriads of 
 stars ; in fact, they are members of the solar family to 
 
 B 1 
 
2 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 which the earth belongs. The sun is the centre of this 
 family, or solar system, and supplies the members of it 
 with light and heat. The eight large planets, named in 
 the order of their distance from the sun, are Mercury, 
 Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. 
 
 Neptune 
 
 /"""N Earth Mars 
 
 Venus Mercury 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 The circles at the top show the relative size of the planets ; the lower figure 
 shows their relative distances from the sun. 
 
 The two most distant of the planets cannot be seen without a 
 telescope ; but the others are easily seen, and Venus is the most 
 brilliant object in the heavens, after the sun and moon. It 
 appears either as the Evening Star or Morning Star. Find 
 some of the planets in the sky. 
 
 There is a very close resemblance among the members of 
 
THE EARTH AS A PLANET 6 
 
 this solar family. All are spherical in form, and each one, whose 
 movements are known, rotates upon an axis while revolving 
 about the sun ; but the periods required to complete their revolu- 
 tions vary greatly with different planets. For example, Mer- 
 cury, about 36,000,000 miles from the sun, takes less than three 
 months for one journey around it; while Neptune, about 
 2,700,000,000 miles distant, requires 165 years for a single 
 revolution. How far is the earth from the sun, and how long 
 does it take for one revolution ? 
 
 Ocean Basins and Continents. — It is believed that all 
 of the planets were once hot bodies like the sun and the 
 
 Eastern 
 United States 
 
 Overflowed 
 margin of the 
 Continent 
 
 Sea LeveL 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 To illustrate the fact that the oceans fill the great depressions in the earth's 
 crust that lie between the continent upfolds. 
 
 stars. The larger planets have not cooled as much as the 
 earth, and some of them seem still to be hot. For exam- 
 ple, the atmosphere of Jupiter is always full of clouds, 
 as if the heat of the planet caused the ocean water to 
 rise as steam. On the other hand, Mercury, Mars, Venus, 
 and the Earth (Fig. 1), being so much smaller, have of 
 course cooled more quickly. They have therefore be- 
 come solid, and a cold " crust " of minerals and rocks has 
 formed around the still heated interior. 
 
 You will recall that, as the interior of the earth con- 
 tinues to cool and contract, the crust settles upon it and 
 is thus thrown into folds and wrinkles. It is these ffreat 
 
4 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 upfolds that form the continents, while the downfolds 
 form the ocean basins. 
 
 Water fills the extensive, depressed portions of the 
 earth's surface, and even overflows the lower margin of the 
 elevated areas (Fig. 2). Thus only about one-fourth of 
 the earth's surface rises above the water. In which hemi- 
 sphere is most of the land? (Fig. 3.) In which is most 
 of the water ? Locate the five oceans on a globe. 1 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 The land and water hemispheres. 
 
 While a broad ocean encircles the south polar region, land 
 surrounds the north pole, extending southward in two great 
 masses that are almost united at Bering Strait. The smaller 
 of these, in the western hemisphere, includes North and South 
 America, the New World ; while the much larger Old World 
 includes the great continents of Eurasia and Africa. South 
 of Asia, in the southern hemisphere, is Australia, also classed 
 as a continent. Find each of these on a globe. 
 
 Compare the continents with each other and with the United 
 States in size (see Tables just before Index). Three are tri- 
 
 1 See also the two maps inserted just before the list of Books of Refer- 
 ence. 
 
THE EARTH AS A PLANET 
 
 angular in shape with the apex of the triangle pointing south- 
 ward, while Eurasia has its greatest extent from east to west. 
 Compare them as to their regularity of outline. Tell what 
 bodies of water separate each continent from the others. 
 
 Mountains and Volcanoes. — As the heated interior of 
 the earth has contracted, it has not only thrown the sur- 
 face into a -few 
 broad folds, 
 forming conti- 
 nents and ocean 
 basins, but here 
 and there the 
 crust has been 
 crumpled into 
 narrower folds, 
 forming moun- 
 tain ranges. Dur- 
 ing the growth 
 of mountains the 
 rocks are both 
 
 folded and broken. Through the cracks thus formed 
 melted rock sometimes rises in such quantities as to build 
 lofty peaks or cones known as volcanoes (Fig. 4). From 
 Cape Horn to Alaska there is an almost unbroken series 
 of mountain systems, among whose peaks are many vol- 
 canoes, some of which are still in action. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Mount St. Helens, a volcanic cone near Portland, 
 Oregon (copyrighted, 1899, by H. A. Hale). 
 
 Name the western ranges of North and South America, and 
 such volcanoes of North America as you remember. Some of 
 these mountain ranges are still rising, especially in South 
 America, where within the last century the land in some places 
 has been uplifted several feet. This rising of the land has 
 
6 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 been accompanied by destructive earthquake shocks caused by 
 the slipping of the rocks as they moved one upon another. 
 
 A great girdle of mountains and volcanoes borders the 
 Pacific (Fig. 5), reaching from Cape Horn to Alaska, and 
 thence to the Kurile Islands by the way of the Aleutian chain. 
 It then continues southward along the Japanese Islands 
 to the Philippines and the East Indies, all of which are 
 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 The girdle of mountains and volcanoes encircling the Pacific Ocean. Extinct 
 volcanoes shown by circles, others by black dots. 
 
 mountainous islands where elevation is still in progress and 
 where active volcanoes abound. 
 
 There are other mountain ranges and associated pla- 
 teaus on each of the continents to be studied about later. 
 Just now it is important to speak of but one other series 
 of mountain folds, and these extend nearly east and west, 
 while the mountains of the girdle just mentioned reach for 
 the most part in a north and south direction. The east 
 
THE EARTH AS A PLANET 7 
 
 and west series includes the mountain systems of Furasia, 
 among 1 which are the lofty ranges of central and southern 
 Asia. These ranges reach their greatest elevation in the 
 Himalayas on the southern border of the plateau of Tibet. 
 Here are the loftiest mountains of the world. Other 
 mountain chains of this series are situated much farther 
 west, among the highest being the Caucasus, Alps, and 
 Pyrenees in Europe. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) What is a star? — (2) Give some idea 
 of the distance of the stars from us. (3) What is a planet ? (4) Name 
 the eight planets. (5) Mention some points of similarity among them. 
 (6) Of difference. (7) How has the earth's crust been formed, with 
 its continents and ocean basins? (8) What is the extent and position 
 of the water surf ace. (9) Describe each of the five oceans. (10) Sim- 
 ilarly describe the land surface. (11) Tell about the girdle of moun- 
 tains and volcanoes which encircles the Pacific. (12) Name and locate 
 some of the mountain systems which extend east and west. 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Find the north star. (2) Find some of the 
 constellations. (The Great Dipper and Cassiopeia are always in sight 
 at the north, and the Pleiades and Orion may be seen in the east on 
 autumn evenings.) (3) Write out the observations you have made 
 about the moon. (4) Make a careful sketch of Venus or Jupiter and the 
 stars near them. After some days or weeks make a similar drawing and 
 compare the two. (5) What might be some of the effects if the earth's 
 revolution about the sun required a much longer period? (6) What 
 changes might result if there were less water in the ocean depressions? 
 (Think of effects on size of continents ; on commerce ; on climate; and 
 on land adapted to agriculture.) (7) State some of the changes that 
 would result if there were enough water to raise the level of the sea a 
 thousand feet. (8) Draw a map of the Pacific Ocean, and with colored 
 pencil, or ink, draw lines to show the surrounding mountain ranges of 
 the continents and the island chains (Fig. 5). 
 
 Books of Reference for each Section are Listed at the 
 End of the Book. 
 
II. MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH AND THEIR 
 RESULTS 
 
 Daily Motion. — Like the other planets the earth is 
 rapidly rotating, that is, turning on one of its diame- 
 ters, called the axis. When we glance out of the window 
 of a moving car, the objects we pass appear to be mov- 
 ing in the direction opposite to that in which we are 
 travelling. It seems as though we were standing still. 
 In a similar way the rotation of the earth makes the sun 
 appear to rise and set, and for a long time people believed 
 that it was the sun that moved, and not the earth. 
 
 In what direction must the earth rotate, since the sun ap- 
 pears to move from east to west ? The period of time required 
 for one rotation is called a clay. Since the circumference of 
 the earth at the equator is about twenty-five thousand miles, 
 how far does a point on the equator move in an hour ? In a 
 minute ? 
 
 By rotating a globe or an apple in the sunlight show how 
 day and night are caused on the earth. Hold the sphere still ; 
 what would be true on opposite sides of the earth if it did not 
 rotate at all ? What might be the effect upon life on the earth 
 if the same side were always toward the sun ? 
 
 Yearly Motion. — While the earth makes one complete 
 rotation in a day, it requires a whole year to make one jour- 
 ney, or revolution, around the sun. As the earth travels 
 along its path, the stars on one side of the sun are visible 
 on July evenings, and quite different stars and constella- 
 tions on January evenings. 
 
MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH 
 
 But this change in the appearance of stars is much 
 less noticeable than the changes in the seasons, which are 
 also due ill part 
 
 c 
 
 A 
 
 to the earth's 
 
 revolution around 
 
 the sun. If one 
 
 part of our planet, 
 
 as for instance the 
 
 north pole, or the 
 
 equator, or the 
 
 south pole, were 
 
 always turned 
 
 toward the sun, 
 
 revolution would 
 
 not cause changes 
 
 of season. As a 
 
 matter of fact, however, the portion of the earth which is 
 
 turned toward the 
 sun is continually 
 chano-ino-. 
 
 Place an ink 
 bottle upon your 
 desk. Then rest 
 the blunt end of 
 your pencil upon 
 the table a few 
 inches to the left 
 of the bottle, with 
 the pointed end 
 inclined from you 
 
 (Fig. 6). Notice that neither end of the pencil is now 
 
 inclined toward or away from the bottle. 
 
10 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 Now keeping the pointed end inclined from you, 
 always in the same direction, slowly move the pencil 
 
 away from you 
 
 L x \ in a circle around 
 
 the bottle. When 
 the side farthest 
 from you is 
 reached, the blunt 
 end of the pencil 
 is toward the bot- 
 tle, while the 
 point is turned 
 away (Fig. 7). 
 On reaching the 
 right side, the two 
 ends are again so 
 placed that neither is turned from the bottle (Fig. 8) ; 
 but on arriving 
 at the side near- 
 est to you, the 
 pencil point is 
 inclined toward 
 the bottle, while 
 the blunt end is 
 turned away 
 (Fig. 9). 
 
 These p o s i- 
 tions of the pen- 
 cil well illustrate 
 those of the FlG - 9 - 
 
 earth's axis with relation to the sun. The bottle 
 represents the sun; the circular path followed by the 
 
 "N 
 
MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH 11 
 
 pencil represents the earth's orbit or the slightly elliptical 
 path taken by the earth in its journey about the sun ; and 
 the pencil stands for the earth's axis. The pencil, instead 
 of being perpendicular to the surface of the desk, was 
 somewhat inclined ; and the earth's axis is also inclined 
 to the plane through which the earth revolves, or the plane 
 of the orbit (Fig. 10). The axis of the earth remains in 
 this one position, pointing toward the north star. 
 
 Results of the Earth's Revolution and Inclination of its 
 Axis. — This fact of the unchanging inclination of its 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 To illustrate the inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit. 
 
 axis, as the earth revolves about the sun, may seem a 
 small thing in itself ; but it is really of such momentous 
 importance that hundreds of our customs are regulated by 
 it. It determines the time when lamps shall be lighted, 
 when grain shall be planted and harvested, and when the 
 navigation of rivers and lakes shall open and close in cold 
 climates. It also greatly influences the kind of clothing 
 that we wear and the sports that we enjoy. Name some 
 other of its influences. It does all this by continually 
 changing the length of our day and the inclination at 
 which the sun's rays reach the earth's surface. 
 
 Figure 11, showing the position of the earth on Sep- 
 tember 23, corresponds to the first position of the pencil 
 (Fig. 6). Although the axis is inclined, neither pole is 
 
12 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 turned from the sun, and the light therefore extends from 
 pole to pole. Then the sun's rays are vertical at the 
 
 equator, and the days 
 and nights are equal 
 over all the earth. 
 This time is called 
 the autumnal equinox 
 (the latter from two 
 words meaning equal 
 and nigM). 
 
 Figure 12 repre- 
 sents the earth in 
 the second position 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 Position of the earth September 23. Notice that 
 the vertical rays (heavy line in middle) are at 
 the equator. Compare with Figure 6. 
 
 of the pencil, or that of December 21, when the earth's 
 revolution has brought the south polar region toward the 
 sun and into the light, while the north polar region is 
 shrouded in dark- 
 ness. The vertical 
 rays have now passed 
 south to the Tropic 
 of Capricorn. Ex- 
 amine a globe to see 
 what countries are 
 crossed by this line. 
 Here the sun seems 
 to turn and move 
 northward, and for 
 that reason this parallel is called a tropic (from a word 
 meaning to tur)i). 
 
 When the sun is vertical over the Tropic of Capricorn, it is 
 summer for lands south of this tropic, and the people of these 
 lands have their longest day. Indeed, the south pole itself has 
 
 Ftg. 12. 
 
 Position of the earth December 21. Where are 
 the vertical rays now ? What about the north 
 pole ? Compare with Figure 7. 
 
MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH 
 
 13 
 
 been constantly in the sunlight for three months, and on 
 December 21 the entire region within the Antarctic Circle 
 has sunlight for the full twenty-four hours. On the other 
 hand, we whose homes are in the northern hemisphere have 
 our shortest day at this date, and winter is upon us. The 
 north pole has been entirely without sunlight for three months, 
 and the whole area within the Arctic Circle is in darkness 
 even at midday. What is the condition of Europe then ? 
 
 Figure 13 shows the third position, or that of March 
 21, when the poles 
 are again turned 
 neither toward nor 
 away from the sun. 
 The equator is once 
 more under the verti- 
 cal rays of the sun, 
 and the days and 
 nights are equal the 
 world over. This 
 period, called the ver- 
 nal equinox, is the commencement of our spring. 
 
 this date our 
 
 Fig. K 
 
 Position of the earth March 21. Where are the 
 rays vertical ? Compare with Figure 8. 
 
 After 
 days 
 gradually lengthen un- 
 til, on June 21, the 
 continued revolution of 
 the earth has brought 
 it into the fourth posi- 
 tion (Fig. 9). The 
 sun's rays are then 
 "vertical over the Tropic 
 of Cancer (Fig. 11), 
 and at this date we 
 have our longest day, and summer is upon us. 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 Position of the earth June 21. 
 Figure 9. 
 
 Compare with 
 
14 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 What countries of the northern continents are then warmed 
 by the vertical rajs of the sun ? (See a globe or map.) The 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 To illustrate the revolution of the earth around the sun. The shaded portion 
 represents night. The end of the axis around which the earth rotates is the 
 point where the lines come together (the north pole). At what date is 
 this pole turned toward the sun ? Away from it ? Neither toward nor 
 away from i t ? What portions of the earth do the sun's rays reach at each 
 of these times ? 
 
 Arctic region is in the midst of its longest day and summer, 
 while the Antarctic is wrapped in the darkness of its long 
 winter night. Why ? In what direction from us does the 
 sun rise and set at this time ? 
 
MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH 
 
 15 
 
 After this the sun again seems to turn, this time 
 moving southward. Year after year, as the earth revolves 
 around the sun, exactly these changes take place. 
 
 Boundaries of the Zones. — The amount of inclination 
 of the earth's axis has not been stated, but you have no 
 doubt discovered 
 that that is a mat- 
 ter of very great 
 importance. 
 
 In considering 
 the amount, it is 
 necessary to speak 
 of angles. Angles 
 may be measured 
 by the use of cir- 
 cles. A right angle, 
 for instance, is one 
 that includes one- 
 fourth of a circle 
 between its sides 
 (Fig. 16). It is 
 customary to di- 
 vide circles into 
 parts, or degrees 
 (indicated by the sign °), the number chosen being 360, a num- 
 ber which is exactly divisible by numerous other numbers, as 
 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, etc. Since a right angle includes one- 
 fourth of a circle, it contains one-fourth of 360°, or 90° ; and 
 an angle that is one-half as large as a right angle contains 45°. 
 By drawing lines from the centre of a circle to its circumference, 
 construct an angle of 90° ; and others of 120°, 45°, and 22f ° 
 
 / Right 
 
 
 I Angle 
 
 / 45° \ 
 
 1 q0 ° 
 
 / Angle \ 
 
 I Right 
 
 Right J 
 
 \ Angle 
 
 Angle J 
 
 \ *o m 
 
 VO° / 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 To illustrate the meaning of angles. 
 
 The angle in Figure 17 is 23|-°, and shows just 
 how far the pencil (Figs. 6-9) should be inclined. Hold 
 
16 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 your pencil perpendicular to the top of the table; now tilt 
 it about 23|-°. That is the position of the earth's axis 
 with reference to the plane of its 
 orbit, and year after year it remains 
 at that angle. 
 
 This is the reason why the tropics 
 and polar circles are situated just where 
 they are. On June 21, when the north 
 pole is turned toward the sun, the 
 vertical rays fall 23|° north of the 
 equator, because the axis is inclined 
 On that account the 
 Tropic of Cancer lies 23|° north of 
 At this date, also, the sunlight reaches the 
 
 fforth Pole 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 An angle of 23£° drawn in that amount 
 a right angle. 
 
 the equator 
 same number of de- 
 grees beyond the 
 north pole, and there- 
 fore the Arctic Circle 
 is located 23 1 - from 
 the pole. 
 
 On December 21 
 the earth's revolution 
 has caused the north 
 pole to turn away 
 from the sun, and 
 the vertical rays then 
 fall 23|° south of the 
 
 equator, while the 
 sunlight reaches the 
 same distance beyond 
 the south pole. Thus 
 the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle are 
 
 
 ctic C/> 
 
 . 0i 
 
 ^zone . 
 
 South Pole 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 A map of the zones. Make a drawins 
 to this. 
 
 similar 
 
MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH 17 
 
 located. It is plain, therefore, that the inclination of the 
 earth's axis determines the exact boundaries of the zones. 
 
 Show each zone on a globe and point out its boundaries (Fig. 
 18). What is the width of each in degrees? Find the ap- 
 proximate width in miles. (Each of these degrees is about 
 sixty-nine miles.) What is the direction of the sun's rays in 
 each zone, and the resulting temperature ? Should you expect 
 to find a very different temperature in moving across the 
 boundary line between two neighboring zones ? Why ? 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) What is the earth's axis? (2) What 
 was formerly believed about the earth's movement? (3) In what 
 direction does the earth rotate ? (4) What changes in the stars result 
 from the earth's revolution ? (5) What other effect of revolution is 
 noticeable? (6) With a pencil, illustrate the movement of the 
 earth around the sun (Figs. 6-9). (7) What is the earth's orbit? 
 (8) What is the plane of the earth's orbit? (9) How are we affected 
 by these positions of the earth? (10) Describe the position of the 
 earth, the length of day, etc., on September 23. (11) On Decem- 
 ber 21. (12) March 21. (13) June 21. (14) How may angles be 
 measured? (15) Give examples. (16) How much is the axis of the 
 earth inclined ? (17) How does this inclination of the earth's axis 
 serve to fix the boundaries of the zones? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Find out why the earth is slightly flattened at 
 the poles. (2) What might be some of the effects if each rotation 
 lasted longer than twenty-four hours ? (3) If much less ? (4) At 
 what time of day does your shadow always point directly north? 
 (5) Notice how your shadow changes with the season in early morn- 
 ing. At noon. In the evening. (6) Tell about the direction and 
 length of a man's shadow at noon on December 21st, at various points 
 between the poles. (7) On June 21. (8) On September 23. (9) How 
 long is our longest night? Our shortest? (10) Make a sketch of the 
 eastern and western horizons as seen from your home. On it locate 
 the position of the rising and setting sun at different times of year. 
 
 (11) Which zone experiences the slightest change of seasons? Why? 
 
 (12) What advantages and disadvantages do you see in that fact for 
 people living there ? (13) Is it once or twice each year that the verti- 
 cal rays of the sun fall upon any one place in the Torrid Zone? 
 (14) What might be the effect of a greater inclination of the earth's 
 axis ? Of a less inclination ? 
 
III. MAPS. (LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE) 
 
 globe in east 
 
 Horth p. 
 
 To aid in locating cities, lakes, and other points on the 
 earth's surface two sets of circles are used, one extending 
 east and west, the other north and south. When maps of 
 any part of the earth's surface are made, these circles are 
 drawn on them. In a study of the earth tlie}^ are of 
 much the same advantage as the names and numbers 
 of streets when one is finding his way in a large city. 
 Latitude. — The circles which are extended around the 
 and west directions are called circles of 
 latitude (Eig. 19). The 
 two tropics and the Arctic 
 and Antarctic circles are 
 examples, and there are 
 many others. In order 
 that they may be of use 
 they must be numbered. 
 Accordingly, the equator, 
 or the circle which is 
 midway between the poles, 
 is called 0° latitude. All 
 circles north of this, that is 
 all in the northern hemi- 
 The globe, showing the two hemispheres sphere, are said to be ill 
 and some of the circles of latitude. . , 
 
 north latitude ; all south 
 of it, or in the southern hemisphere, are in south latitude. 
 Since these circles are parallel to each other, they are 
 often called parallels of latitude. 
 
 18 
 
 ZyZO'S. Lat. 
 /23h"s. Lat. 
 
 *o, 
 
 /.!■■ 
 
 °s ' 
 
 /ffl'S. Lat. 
 '-^60'S. Lat. 
 
 ie tt. 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
MAPS. (LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE} 19 
 
 It has been said (p. 15) that a circle may be divided 
 into 360 parts, or degrees. One-fourth of 360 is 90 ; and 
 since the distance from the equator to either pole is one- 
 fourth of that around the earth, there are just 90° from 
 the equator to either pole. Accordingly the circles of lati- 
 tude in each hemisphere are numbered from 0° at the 
 equator to 90° at the poles. Since the circumference of 
 the earth is about 25,000 miles, dividing that by 360 
 makes the length of each degree of latitude about 69 
 miles. Therefore latitude is merely distance from the 
 equator. 
 
 What cities in the United States are near the fortieth 
 parallel of north latitude? What is the latitude of Key 
 West Y Of New York ? Of Madrid in Spain ? Of Peking ? 
 Of Kimberley in South Africa ? Of the Tropic of Cancer ? Of 
 the Tropic of Capricorn ? Of the Arctic Circle ? Of the 
 Antarctic Circle ? 
 
 Longitude. — It is evident that the distance of any place 
 north or south of the equator can be easily found by the 
 use of circles of latitude. But of course there must be 
 some means of locating points in east and west directions 
 also. This is made possible by the use of meridians, or 
 circles extending northward and southward across the 
 equator. 
 
 Notice on Figure 21 how the meridians converge toward 
 the poles, coming nearer and nearer together until they 
 finally reach the poles. Since they meet at these two 
 points, though spreading far apart at the equator, it is plain 
 that they cannot be parallel (Fig. 20). Degrees of longi- 
 tude, therefore, are not of the same length in all places. 
 At the equator, which is 25,000 miles in length, each of 
 the 360° is about 69 miles ; but where the meridians cross 
 
20 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 the smaller Arctic Circle, the length of a degree of longi- 
 tude is much less. 
 
 To number the circles of longitude, a prime or zero 
 meridian must be selected from which to commence. 
 The one most commonly chosen for this purpose is that 
 passing through Greenwich near London. All circles 
 of lonsritude east of this meridian are numbered as east 
 
 longitude (E. Long.) until 
 the opposite side of the 
 earth, or meridian 180°, 
 is reached (Fig. 21). All 
 west of the Greenwich 
 g meridian, as far as 180°, 
 are numbered as west 
 longitude (W. Long.). 
 
 W& 
 
 The 180th meridian is a 
 continuation, on the other 
 side of the earth, of the 
 Greenwich or zero meridian, 
 
 *°S.POLE s °° 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 The earth, cut in halves alona: the Green- 
 wich meridian, showing some of the and the two together make a 
 meridians. complete circle. Hence we 
 
 may speak of circles of 
 longitude as well as circles of latitude. Why must the 
 meridian marked 180° E. Long, be the same as the one marked 
 180° W. Long.? Which meridian passes near New York ? Den- 
 ver ? Vienna ? Jerusalem ? 
 
 Find the latitude and longitude of Chicago. Of New 
 Orleans. St. Petersburg. Eome. Peking. 
 
 If a large map is made of a small part of the earth, the 
 circles of latitude and longitude are too far apart to be of much 
 use. Therefore, it is customary to divide each degree into 
 sixty parts called minutes, just as each hour is divided into 
 sixty parts. Each minute of latitude and longitude is divided 
 into sixty parts called seconds, as each minute of time is divided 
 
MAPS. {LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE) 
 
 21 
 
 into sixty seconds. The sign for a degree is ° ; for a minute ' ; 
 for a second ". Thus 60 degrees, 40 minutes, and 20 seconds 
 north latitude is marked 60° 40' 20" 1ST. Lat. Examine some 
 map of a small section to find these signs. 
 
 Longitude and Time. — The meridians are of use in 
 determining time also. When it is noon at one point on 
 a meridian it is noon at 
 all other places along the 
 same meridian. For ex- 
 ample, when it is noon at 
 your home, it is midday 
 at all other places which 
 are exactly north or south 
 of you. Just one twenty- 
 fourth of the distance 
 around the world to your 
 east, that is 15° east of 
 yon, it is exactly one hour 
 later. What is true on 
 your west ? 
 
 You will recall that the 
 United States is divided 
 into belts of Standard 
 Time (Fig. 22), each belt having the time of its central 
 meridian. These central meridians are taken 15° apart, 
 so that the difference in time between adjoining belts is 
 exactly one hour. 
 
 In order that the system may accord with that of other 
 parts of the world, the time of the Greenwich meridian is 
 taken as the basis. Thus the whole world, like the United 
 States, may be divided into standard time belts, with a 
 change of an hour at every fifteenth meridian. 
 
 \%r 
 
 n 9>tucj e £ aster " 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 To show how the meridians converge at the 
 pole. Trace the 0° meridian to the op- 
 posite side of the glohe. What is it num- 
 bered there ? Trace some of the others. 
 
99 
 
 GENERAL GEOGEA PH Y 
 
 Maps of the World. — When we wish to represent the 
 earth accurately we must use a globe ; but this involves 
 so many inconveniences that geographers have invented 
 other kinds of maps. However, the fact that the earth 
 is a sphere makes it impossible to draw flat maps of large 
 sections without some distortion. You can understand 
 the difficulty if you try to flatten the half of a hollow 
 
 sxa.nda.rd time in the united states. 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 Standard time belts of the United States. Find the central meridian for each 
 time belt. Why are the actual boundaries of these belts so irregular? 
 
 rubber ball upon a table. You could not possibly do this 
 without stretching it out of shape along the edges. 
 
 A small part of the earth is so nearly flat that it may be 
 represented on a map without distortion ; but when half 
 of the whole earth is to be shown there is much distor- 
 tion. For example, in a map of the hemispheres (Fig. 20) 
 you can easily see that the meridian in the centre is 
 shorter than those on the outside ; but on a globe all 
 the meridians are of the same length, since all reach from 
 
MAPS. {LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE) 
 
 23 
 
 the equator to the poles. On such a map, therefore, lands 
 at the edge must be represented as longer from north to 
 south than those near the central meridian. 
 
 A map of the whole earth, like Figure 25, is called a 
 
 I h"SH° 130 i2ono~Too — 90 — BO _ fo~ToTH? I 7 I 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 To illustrate the distortion on Mercator maps. A shows a globe with the 
 meridians converging at the pole. B shows three of these meridians 
 coming to a point at the north pole, as they do on a globe. For a Mer- 
 cator map these meridians are spread apart and made parallel as they 
 would be on a cylinder (a cylinder is drawn around the globe in A) rolled 
 out flat, as in C. This, of course, distorts the lands, making them too 
 broad in the north. Compare A, B, and C, to understand that this is so. 
 Notice, also, that the parallels of latitude are drawn farther apart toward 
 the north. 
 
 Mercator map, after the man who first made one. It is 
 drawn as though the lands and waters near the poles 
 were stretched out until the meridians are parallel. At 
 the same time all the parallels of latitude are made as 
 long as the equator. (See Fig. 23.) 
 
 In a Mercator map, the farther you go from' the equator, the 
 more the lands are distorted. Greenland, for instance, and 
 
24 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 northern North America and Eurasia, are greatly exaggerated 
 in breadth. Also the Arctic Ocean looks like a long extent of 
 water, instead of a great gulf opening from the Atlantic, which 
 it really is. On such a "map the poles themselves cannot be 
 shown at all. 
 
 There are other ways of representing a part or all of the 
 earth. For example, see Figures 3 and 29. Compare the differ- 
 ent maps of this book to see how the form of continents varies 
 in those drawn after different plans. From these statements 
 you can see how very important it is to use a globe frequently, 
 in order to keep in mind the real shape of the continents. 1 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) By what lines are places on the 
 earth's surface accurately located? (2) How is latitude indicated 
 on maps ? What is latitude ? (3) What is the starting point for 
 measuring it ? (4) What is the length of a degree of latitude ? How 
 is it determined ? (5) How is longitude indicated ? What is longi- 
 tude ? (6) What is the starting point for measuring it ? (7) What 
 is the length of a degree of longitude at the equator? Why? 
 (8) How are the meridians numbered? (9) What subdivisions of 
 degrees are there? Why are they necessary? (10) How does the 
 time change in going eastward? Westward? (11) Tell about 
 Standard Time in the United States. (12) Why is it difficult to make 
 accurate maps of large parts of the earth? (13) In what way are 
 hemisphere maps distorted ? (14) Mercator maps? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Compare the latitude of the most southern 
 point in the United States with the most southern point in Europe. 
 (2) Compare the longitude of eastern United States with that of 
 western South America. (3) Find some places that have nearly the 
 same latitude as your home. The same longitude. (4) Ask a sur- 
 veyor to tell you the exact latitude and longitude of the city hall, or 
 your town centre. (5) Show on a globe or map where a ship would 
 be in the Atlantic when in zero latitude and longitude. (6) What 
 city is about 45° N. Lat. and 93° W. Long. ? (7) What islands are 
 nearly 14° N. Lat. and 145° E. Long. ? (8) Since the sun's rays travel 
 over 15° of longitude in an hour of time, how many minutes of longi- 
 tude do they travel over in one minute of time? 
 
 1 Small globes are so cheap that every school should have at least one. 
 
IV. WIND AND RAIN BELTS 
 
 One great lesson of geography is that all nature is 
 bound together. Each force influences others, and all of 
 the forces together affect not only the plants and animals 
 of the earth, but the life of man himself. For example, 
 it is because of the earth's form and motions that the sun's 
 heat is distributed in belts which change with the seasons. 
 In turn these different zones of heat have determined the 
 great belts of winds and the distribution of rainfall. If 
 we would clearly understand life conditions upon the differ- 
 ent continents, we must know about these belts of wind 
 and rain. 
 
 Winds 
 
 Cause of Winds. — The principal cause of winds is illus- 
 trated every time a fire is kindled. The flame warms the 
 air and causes it to expand and grow lighter. This lighter 
 air is then forced to rise by the pressure of the colder, 
 heavier air round about, which pushes in underneath, and, 
 by crowding the warm air upward, produces a draught. 
 So long as the fire burns, this movement is kept up. 
 
 The winds of the globe are produced in a similar 
 manner. Whenever the air is cooler in one place than in 
 neighboring regions, the cool, heavy air settles down, flows 
 beneath the warmer air and slowly raises it. Then the 
 warm air, which has been lifted, flows out and away at a 
 higher altitude. Thus, either in the case of a gentle 
 breeze or of a violent hurricane, we may think of four 
 
 25 
 
26 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 directions of movement of the air. Illustrate them by a 
 drawing. 
 
 The Wind Belts So long as the vertical rays of the 
 
 sun produce a heated belt near the equator, with cooler 
 air to the north and south where the rays are slanting, 
 there must be an extensive system of winds on the earth. 
 From the cooler regions on the two sides, the air flows 
 steadily toward the central part of the heated belt, pro- 
 ducing the trade winds (Figs. 2-1 and 25). As the trade 
 winds approach the central line of the heated belt, or the 
 
 e t s ; 
 
 \t, 
 
 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 Diagram to show, by arrows, the movement of the greater winds of the earth. 
 
 heat equator, they travel more slowly. Then, owing to 
 expansion from heat, and to pressure from the colder air 
 behind, the air rises over a broad area to a great height. 
 In this belt of rising air, whatever winds are felt are light 
 and changeable, and calms often prevail ; hence the name 
 belt of calms. 
 
 At an elevation of several thousand feet this air flows 
 outward, above the trade winds, toward the poles, produc- 
 ing the anti-trades (Fig. 24). About a third of the distance 
 to the poles, near latitude 30°, much of the air of the anti- 
 trades settles to the earth again, near the place where the 
 
WIND AND BAIN BELTS 
 
 27 
 
28 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 trade winds begin. Since the movement of the air here is 
 downward, there can of course be little wind in this belt, 
 which is known as the horse latitudes (Figs. 24 and 25). 
 
 If the earth did not rotate, the trades and antitrades 
 would no doubt follow the meridians directly toward and 
 away from the equator ; but rotation turns them from their 
 course, to the right in the northern hemisphere, and to the 
 left in the southern. Thus the trade winds blow from 
 the northeast and the southeast, while the anti-trades re- 
 turn in the opposite directions at higher altitudes. 
 
 Beyond the horse latitudes much of the air of the anti- 
 trades flows on toward the poles as westerly winds, both 
 high in the heavens and at the surface. Travelling on- 
 ward, and coming into smaller and smaller space as the 
 poles are approached, portions of the air continue to turn 
 back toward the equator, while the remainder sweeps on 
 as westerly winds. These are plainly felt in the United 
 States, Canada, northern and central Europe, and over the 
 great Southern Ocean ; and since the prevailing winds over 
 these vast areas are from the west, these belts are known as 
 the regions of prevailing ivesterliea (Fig. 25). 
 
 The great wind and calm belts that encircle the earth 
 are not always in exactly the same place. As the vertical 
 rays of the sun move north and south from tropic to 
 tropic, the zone of greatest heat must follow. So the belts 
 of heat, and therefore of winds (Figs. 31 and 32), change 
 their positions every year, shifting northward in summer 
 and southward in winter. 
 
 Raix 
 
 Causes for Rain. — Knowing the wind belts that encir- 
 cle the earth, we have a key to the principal rain belts ; 
 
WIND AND BAIN BELTS 29 
 
 for winds are the water carriers of the earth. Water 
 which is evaporated from the surface of the oceans and 
 lands, is borne along in the air. As rain or snow it de- 
 scends to the earth, abundantly along most coasts, and, 
 usually, less liberally toward the interior of the continents. 
 
 It is an important fact that there can be more water vapor 
 in warm than in cool air. Therefore, whenever air is cooled 
 sufficiently some of the water vapor which it bears is condensed. 
 For example, vapor condenses on an ice-water pitcher because 
 the air next it is cooled; and dew forms on grass when the air 
 near the ground grows cool in the evening. In a like manner 
 the vapor in our breath forms a little cloud when the breath in 
 winter is cooled by mixture with the cold outside air. 
 
 Rain is usually caused hj the cooling of air which is 
 rising to higher levels and therefore expanding. When 
 you open the valve of a bicycle tire, the outrushing air 
 expands and grows cool ; and if you place your 
 finger over the valve, you can feel the coolness. In a simi- 
 lar way, when air rises above the surface of the earth it 
 expands because there is less air above to press upon 
 it. Then it grows cool ; and while doing so some of its 
 vapor may be condensed to form clouds and raindrops. 
 So whenever air from the damp oceans is rising over 
 highlands, or whenever it is being raised over warm 
 lands by the cooler air that pushes underneath, as in the 
 belt of calms, rainfall naturally results. Briefly, — when 
 air rises, it expands and cools; and then rain commonly 
 folloivs. 
 
 On the other hand, air that is settling grows warmer, 
 and instead of giving up its vapor, it becomes dry and 
 clear. This may again be illustrated by reference to the 
 
30 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 The rainy belt of calms of South America. Also the 
 rainy east coasts and arid west coasts of the trade- 
 wind belts. 
 
 bicycle; for 
 when air is 
 pumped into the 
 tire, the pump 
 becomes warm 
 as the air is com- 
 pressed. In a 
 like manner, air 
 that is descend- 
 ing toward the 
 earth's surface 
 is compressed 
 and warmed be- 
 cause of the 
 increasing press- 
 ure of the at- 
 
 mosphere above. 
 Since there can 
 be more vapor 
 in warm than in 
 cool air, when 
 air flows down 
 the mountain 
 slopes, or de- 
 scends from 
 high altitudes, 
 as in the horse 
 latitudes, clouds 
 disappear and 
 water is evapo- 
 rated from the 
 
 ^^S^T^rfSPTJ 
 
 [^Desert 
 QHnjiigAt Rainfall 
 [^Moderate " 
 Heavy " 
 
 Very Heavy •• 
 
 ■ I., n.-ml.- 'J.) F,a.-t r-..i.i 10 Orr-inwlcb .;.j 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 To illustrate the desert regions in the trade-wind and 
 horse latitude belts of Africa. Also to show the 
 heavy rainfall in the belt of calms. Find the simi- 
 lar belts on Figures 26, 28, and 30. 
 
WIND AND RAIN BELTS 
 
 31 
 
 As the morning advances and the heat grows 
 
 ground. Briefly, — when air descends, it becomes denser and 
 grows warmer ; then the sky is clear and the weather dry. 
 
 Rain Belts. — The belt of calms is the most rainy belt 
 of the earth (see Figs. 26, 27, and 28), because its 
 hot, moisture-laden air is rising and cooling. After a 
 clear night in that region, the sun usually rises in a cloud- 
 less sky 
 more intense, 
 the damp air 
 rises more rap- 
 idly ; then small 
 clouds appear 
 and grow stead- 
 ily until rain 
 falls from them. 
 Showers occur 
 pr actically 
 every day, in- 
 creasing in the 
 afternoon. 
 When the sun 
 sets and the air 
 rises less active- 
 ly, the clouds 
 melt away, the 
 
 stars appear, and the night is as clear as before. Our hot, 
 muggy summer days, with heavy thunder showers in the 
 afternoon and evening, illustrate the Aveather that is re- 
 peated day after day in this belt of calms. 
 
 Since the trade winds blow from cooler to warmer re- 
 gions, and are therefore steadily growing warmer, their 
 air tends to take up moisture rather than to drop it. The 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 Showing the heavy rainfall on the east-facing coast of 
 Australia where the trade winds hlow. Notice also 
 the arid interior and west coast. What is the condi- 
 tion in the helt of calms ? What resemblance do you 
 see to Figure 30 ? 
 
32 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
WIND AND RAIN BELTS 
 
 33 
 
 trades commence on the edge of the horse latitudes, where 
 the descending air is also growing warmer and evaporating 
 moisture. Thus both north and south of the rainy belt of 
 calms there is a belt of little rainfall. Within these 
 belts are the Sahara and most of the other desert 
 regions of the earth. Point them out in Figures 26, 27, 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 The heavy rainfall where the prevailing westerlies blow over the rising coast. 
 What is the condition farther east? What is the case where the trade 
 winds blow ? Why ? 
 
 and 28. Which of our Pacific Coast States is partly in 
 the horse latitudes ? (Fig. 30.) 
 
 Although the trades are drying winds, they obtain 
 much vapor when they pass over the ocean. Therefore, 
 wherever they blow from the ocean upon the rising 
 slopes of the land, and especially upon mountain slopes, 
 
34 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 the moist air is cooled in rising, and abundant rain falls. 
 Owing to this, the eastern or windward slopes of lands in 
 the trade-wind belts have abundant rainfall, while the west- 
 ern or leeward slopes, and the level interiors of continents, 
 have little. Notice how clearly this is shown on the 
 rainfall maps (Figs. 26 to 30). What sections in North 
 America are thus affected ? 
 
 In the broad belts of westerly winds, where the air rises 
 over western coasts and islands, there is heavy rainfall. 
 Find examples in Figures 28 and 30. On the other hand, 
 slopes further east, in the interior, receive little rainfall 
 from such winds and may even be deserts (Fig. 30). 
 Name some of our states that are thus made arid. 
 
 Migration of the Rainfall Belts. — Since the belts of heat, and 
 therefore of winds, shift north and south each year (p. 28), many 
 places have heavy rainfall at one season and dry air at another. 
 In the torrid zone, for example, many places are within the 
 belt of calms during the summer of their hemisphere, and are 
 swept by the drying trades in their cooler months (Figs. 31 and 
 32), thus dividing the year into wet and dry seasons. 
 
 Monsoons. — We have thus far studied the great wind 
 belts, and the rain belts that are dependent upon them. 
 But in many regions these regular winds are greatly inter- 
 fered with, and the rainfall must consequently be affected. 
 One of the chief sources of such disturbance is the differ- 
 ence between the temperature of land and water. 
 
 Land warms and cools much more quickly than water. 
 How hot the stones feel in summer compared with pond 
 water ! And how quickly the ground freezes in autumn, 
 while we are still waiting for skating on the ponds ! Like- 
 wise in summer the continents are warmer than the 
 oceans; in winter, cooler. 
 
WIND AND BAIN BELTS 
 
 35 
 
 Places in the interior of continents, far from the ocean, 
 naturally have the greatest extremes of temperature. 
 During the winter, the heavy air over the cold land settles 
 
 120 If) 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 Winds and rainfall in South America and Africa from December to February. 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 Winds and rainfall in South America and Africa from June to August. Com- 
 pare with Figure 31 to see how the belts of heavy rain have migrated as 
 the wind belts have shifted with the change of season. 
 
 down as drying air, and presses outward beneath the 
 warmer air which lies over the oceans. This produces 
 dry land winds. In summer, on the other hand, the air 
 
36 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 over the cool waters crowds in, raises the hot air of the 
 continents, and produces ocean winds and rain. This is 
 well illustrated in the southern part of Asia. Heated by 
 the nearly vertical rays of the sun during the northern 
 summer, the land there becomes warmer than the ocean. 
 Toward this heated area the cooler air from over the 
 Indian Ocean crowds in, causing ocean winds. 
 
 This makes the summer winds opposite in direction to 
 those of winter when the air is flowing out toward the 
 
 warmer Indian 
 
 Ocean from the 
 cold lands of 
 interior Asia 
 (Fig. 34). 
 Winds of this 
 k i n d, w h i c h 
 blow in opj30site 
 directions in 
 different sea- 
 sons, are better 
 developed in 
 India than in 
 any other part 
 of the earth, and 
 it was there that 
 they received their name, monsoon winds. The term 
 monsoon is now applied to inward-flowing summer winds 
 and outward-flowing winter winds of any large mass of 
 land. 
 
 When the summer monsoons blow, the rainy season 
 comes in India (Fig. 33). The rainfall is especially 
 heavy where the moisture -laden air rises up the steep slope 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
 The winds and rainfall daring the summer monsoon 
 of India. 
 
WIND AND BAIN BELTS 
 
 37 
 
 of the Himalayas. In one part of this district, opposite the 
 head of the Bay of Bengal, there is three times as much 
 rain in July alone as falls in well-watered portions of the 
 United States during the entire year. The winter mon- 
 soon, on the other hand, is so dry that vegetation withers 
 and the soil becomes parched and cracked, as in a desert 
 (Fig. 34). 
 
 While the north and south temperate zones are both called 
 temperate, and have many features in common, they are quite 
 unlike in some re- 
 spects. In the 
 northern hemi- 
 sphere the broad 
 continents become 
 very hot in sum- 
 mer and cold in 
 winter. Since the 
 temperature of the 
 oceans remains 
 more uniform, the 
 regular winds are 
 greatly interfered 
 with, as by the 
 monsoons. In the 
 south temperate 
 zone, on the other 
 hand, there is 
 little land and a vast expanse of ocean. The temperature 
 of the water changes but little, and the narrow lands have 
 their temperature largely determined by winds from the oceans. 
 In the south temperate zone, therefore, there is little chance 
 for winds between land and water to change the course of the 
 westerly winds. Hence the west winds blow much more regu- 
 larly there than in the northern hemisphere. Sailors call these 
 inclement southern latitudes the " roaring forties," and shun 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 Map of the winter monsoon winds and rainfall of 
 India. Compare with Figure 33, and notice espe- 
 cially how very light the rainfall is in one season and 
 how heavy it is in the opposite season. 
 
38 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 the stormy voyage around Cape Horn, where the west winds 
 blow with wonderful steadiness. 
 
 Cyclonic Storms. — There is another great source of dis- 
 turbance of the regular winds, which we studied about in the 
 
 preceding book. 
 It was learned 
 there that in 
 northern United 
 States and 
 southern Can- 
 ada there ap- 
 pears, every few 
 days, an area of 
 loiv pressure 
 where the air is 
 lighter than that 
 over the sur- 
 rounding re- 
 gion. Toward 
 such a low-pres- 
 sure area heavier 
 air from the sur- 
 Fig. 35. rounding coun- 
 
 A cyclonic storm in Europe which came from the ocean, try hurries, even 
 The heavy hlack line shows the course followed hy its f rnrn distances 
 centre. Notice how the winds hlow toward the centre. 
 
 of hundreds of 
 miles. Thus winds are caused which on the south side 
 blow from the south, on the east side from the east, etc. 
 
 Owing to the earth's rotation, these winds are turned 
 from their straight course and therefore move spirally 
 toward the centre of low pressure. On nearing this centre 
 the air rises, and as it does so the vapor condenses, forming 
 
WIND AND BAIN BELTS 39 
 
 clouds and rain. Such great, whirling eddies of air, with 
 their accompanying clouds and rain, are known as cyclonic 
 storms. It is these that cause most of the rainfall of 
 northeastern United States and Canada. 
 
 We learned further, that instead of remaining in one 
 place, the cyclonic storms steadily travel onward, usually 
 beginning in the northwest or southwest and always pass- 
 ing eastward. They generally follow the Great Lakes, 
 pass down the St. Lawrence, and then out upon the ocean, 
 which they frequently cross, even entering Europe. In- 
 deed, they sometimes travel far into Asia before finally 
 dying out. 
 
 Since the movement of their centre is always eastward, 
 these storms are doubtless a part of the prevailing wester- 
 lies. But since they are composed of currents of air from 
 all directions, they are a source of numerous disturbances 
 in the lower layers of this great eastward drift of air. 
 Indeed, they resemble eddies in a river, where the water 
 of the eddies is whirling around in various directions, 
 though the general current of the river is down stream. 
 
 In Europe and western Asia, as in America, the extent 
 of the country upon which rain may be falling from the 
 clouds of one of these storms is sometimes ver} r great. 
 Places hundreds of miles apart may be receiving rain at 
 the same time. In Eurasia also, as in America, the weather 
 is made changeable by these storms. That is, in any 
 particular locality it may be warm and pleasant one day, 
 stormy the next, then clear and cool or cold. Similar 
 cyclonic storms develop in the prevailing westerly belt of 
 the southern hemisphere, where they bring changes of 
 weather to southern South America, Australia, and the 
 islands of the great Southern Ocean. 
 
40 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Why should we study about winds ? 
 (2) Explain the cause of wind. (3) Explain the trade winds. 
 (4) Tell about the belt of calms. Locate the belt. (5) Explain the 
 anti-trade winds. (6) Where are the horse latitudes ? How about 
 the wind there ? (7) What directions are taken by trades and anti- 
 trades? Why? (8) What are the prevailing westerlies? Where 
 felt? (9) Why do these belts of wind shift north and south each 
 year? (10) Explain how it happens that when air rises, rain com- 
 monly follows. (11) Also, why, when it settles, dry weather results. 
 (12) Tell about the rainfall in the belt of calms. (13) In the trade-wind 
 belts. (14) In the horse latitudes. (15) In the belt of prevailing 
 westerlies. (16) Why do some places have both a rainy and a dry 
 season each year? (17) Explain monsoons. (18) Where are they 
 best developed ? (19) What is their influence on rainfall? (20) Why 
 are the winds in the northern hemisphere less regular than those in 
 the southern? (21) Tell about cyclonic storms in the United States. 
 (22) In Eurasia. 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Make a drawing to show the direction of the 
 regular winds of the world. (2) Watch the higher clouds to see in 
 what direction they are moving. (3) Explain what is meant by a 
 rainfall of sixty inches. (I) Measure the amount of rain that falls in 
 a wash-tub during a single storm. (5) Write a clear statement of the 
 reason why there are desert belts both north and south of the equator. 
 Give examples. (6) Examine and explain some maps issued by the 
 Weather Bureau. (7) Observe and record the changes in wind 
 direction, temperature, and rainfall during the passage of a cyclonic 
 storm. (8) Read the chapter on cyclonic storms in Tarr's First 
 Book of Physical Geography, pp. 102-125. 
 
V. DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE AND A 
 STUDY OF OCEAN CURRENTS 
 
 Distribution op Temperature 
 
 Although you have studied about belts of wind and 
 rain, you have noted that there are many irregularities 
 and exceptions. This is due to the fact that the boun- 
 daries of the heat belts are also irregular, as is shown 
 by the isotherms 1 on the isothermal charts of the world. 
 
 If nothing else influenced temperature excepting dis- 
 tance from the equator, the isothermal lines would be 
 parallel to the circles of latitude. In our study of North 
 America, however, we have already learned that the 
 temperature of a country is determined by several factors 
 besides latitude. These are (1) altitude; (2) the nearness 
 to a large body of water ; (3) the direction of the 'prevailing 
 winds; and (4) ocean currents. Let us see how each 
 of these causes interferes with the regularity of the iso- 
 therms. 
 
 Effect of Highlands. — Mountains are colder in both 
 summer and winter than low lands in the same latitude. 
 Therefore, in crossing mountain chains the isotherms bend 
 toward the equator. Our small maps do not show this. 
 
 Effect of Distance from Sea. — Comparing Figures 36 and 
 
 1 An isotherm is a line connecting places having the same average 
 temperature. 
 
 41 
 
42 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE 
 
 43 
 
44 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 37 you will notice that the winter isotherms of the north 
 temperate zone bend toward the equator over the conti- 
 nents because the land then becomes very cold. During 
 the summer, on the contrary, the isotherms curve pole- 
 ward, showing that the interiors are then warmer than 
 the coast lands in the same latitude. This gives great 
 temperature changes from winter to summer, as, for ex- 
 ample, on the plains of the United States and Canada. 
 Where else on the charts do you find similar extremes of 
 temperature ? In what continent is there a still greater 
 seasonal change in temperature than in North America? 
 Why? 
 
 Effect of Prevailing Winds. — Along the coast of western 
 North America, from California to Alaska, the isotherms 
 do not follow the parallels of latitude, as we might expect, 
 but extend northward and southward almost parallel with 
 the coast. The reason for this peculiarity is that the 
 prevailing winds are the westerlies, which, blowing from 
 the Pacific, bring to the land the nearly uniform tempera- 
 ture of the ocean. Can you find other windward coasts 
 where a similar influence is exerted ? 
 
 You will notice that there is only about 20° difference 
 between winter and summer temperatures on the western 
 coast of North America. But on the eastern coast of the 
 United States the difference between summer and winter 
 is much more marked, because, while some of the winds 
 are from the ocean, still more are from the land, which is 
 cold in winter and warm in summer. Compare the 
 eastern and western coasts of Eurasia in this respect. 
 Why does the southeastern coast of South America 
 have less change from summer to winter than north- 
 eastern North America ? 
 
distribution of temperature 45 
 
 Ocean Currents 
 
 Cause of Ocean Currents. — There are also many 
 variations in the course of the isotherms over the 
 oceans. To explain these it is necessary to understand 
 the ocean currents, which, you will remember, are caused 
 by the winds. By blowing steadily over the surface of 
 the water the winds not only set it dancing in waves, but 
 also cause it to drift before them. This fact is illustrated 
 by the currents along the northern shores of the Indian 
 Ocean. In winter the waters flow southwestward, driven 
 by the northeast monsoon ; but during the summer mon- 
 soon, when the wind changes to the southwest, the currents 
 are reversed, and there is a drift toward the northeast. 
 
 Knowing the direction of the regular winds, we can 
 understand the course of the ocean currents. Were there 
 no continents, the waters of the ocean would drift round 
 the earth in two sets of opposite currents, eastward in 
 temperate latitudes, where the prevailing westerlies blow, 
 and westward in the trade-wind belts. 
 
 In the broad expanse of ocean to the south of Africa and 
 South America, where there are no lands to check the water, 
 there is a steady eastward drift of the water (Fig. 38). But 
 where the oceans are partly enclosed between the conti- 
 nents, the great currents are so turned by the land as to 
 form five vast eddies of slowly drifting surface waters, two 
 north of the equator and three south of it. These bring 
 enormous quantities of cool water into the torrid zone, so 
 tempering the heat as to make that region habitable. 
 And they also bear back toward polar latitudes stores of 
 heat sufficient to adapt, to man's commerce and tillage, 
 shores and lands that would otherwise be icebound. 
 
46 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 The Pacific Currents. — In the Pacific Ocean the equa- 
 torial drift, caused by the northeast and southeast trades, 
 moves toward the continents and islands of the Old World 
 (Fig. 38). Upon approaching these lands the drifts are 
 turned, a part to the south, a part to the north. Under 
 the influence of the earth's rotation the southern current 
 is turned to the left, the northern to the right. Thus the 
 northern current swings past the East Indies and Japan, 
 and, still turning under the influence of rotation, leaves the 
 Asiatic coast and returns toward America, now driven by 
 the westerly winds as a broad drift. Approaching British 
 Columbia, most of the water continues to circle to the 
 right, passing southward and, as it turns eastward again 
 in the trade-wind belt, finally completing the great eddy 
 of the North Pacific. 
 
 Where this drift crosses from Japan it is known as the 
 Japan Current (Fig. 38). In its waters tree trunks and 
 other tropical products are borne far away to the treeless 
 islets northeast of Japan. The northward bend of the 
 isotherms over the ocean (Fig.- 36) suggests the enormous 
 stores of heat which this current carries from the torrid 
 £one. The westerly winds bear some of this warmth to 
 the western slopes of Canada and the United States. 
 
 A small branch of the current turns northward along the 
 Alaskan coast, and its warm waters temper the winds of Alaska. 
 There is also a current between the Japan Current and the 
 coast of Asia. But this is a drift of cold water from the north, 
 as you can see by noticing how it bends the isotherms south- 
 ward near the coast (Fig. 37). Winds from this cold current 
 chill the Siberian coast, and cause the harbors, like that of 
 Vladivostok, to be icebound in winter. This explains why 
 Kussia has leased the Chinese harbor at Port Arthur south of 
 
Wi 
 
 J4H 
 
48 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Korea, as a terminus of the great Siberian railway, — that her 
 commerce and war-ships might not be shut up in winter. 
 
 Eddies of the Southern Oceans. — In the South Pacific, 
 South Atlantic, and Indian oceans, the same causes have 
 produced eddies similar to that of the North Pacific ; but 
 here the earth's rotation deflects both winds and water 
 currents to the left. Some of the water of these eddies 
 joins the broad West Wind Drift of the distant southern 
 ocean ; but much of it turns northward until it once more 
 reaches the trade-wind belt, thus completing the eddies. 
 
 The north-moving portion of these eddies brings cool water 
 toward the equator and thus chills the ocean, and, therefore, 
 the winds that blow upon the neighboring lands. On Fig- 
 ure 36 find some places where the isotherms bend northward, 
 showing this effect of these currents. Where do they bend 
 southward, showing that warm water is being carried from 
 the torrid zone ? Compare the isothermal and ocean current 
 charts (Figs. 36, 37, and 38) to see which currents are responsi- 
 ble for this bending of the isotherms. 
 
 North Atlantic Currents. — In the North Atlantic the 
 isotherms are even more irregular, and we readily see that 
 the effect of the currents on the lands and peoples is 
 more important. To value rightly these effects on life 
 we should know their causes. Since the eastern angle of 
 South America is south of the equator, it turns more of 
 the equatorial drift of water into the North Atlantic than 
 into the South Atlantic, as Figure 38 shows. The greater 
 part of this northward-moving drift circles to the right, 
 outside the West Indies (Fig. 39), and crosses the ocean 
 toward Spain. A large portion of it then returns to the 
 trade-wind belt, completing the eddy. 
 
DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE 
 
 49 
 
 A small part of the equatorial drift passes into the 
 Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, and there is heated 
 still further. Escaping between Florida and Cuba, this 
 current is increased in velocity as it is forced through 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 A diagram to show the currents of the North Atlantic. In order to illustrate 
 the currents clearly it has seemed necessary to make them as if they were 
 sharply hounded, like a river in its channel. As a matter of fact, however, 
 the boundaries of these great currents and drifts are so indefinite that, in 
 crossing them, one would not be able to detect the boundaries even by using 
 the greatest care. 
 
 that narrow strait. Its speed increases to four or five 
 miles per hour, and it therefore well deserves the name 
 of Gulf Stream. 
 
 Turning toward the right, the Gulf Stream reaches the 
 belt of prevailing westerly winds, where its waters are 
 
50 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 driven onward to the northern coast of Europe. This 
 drift is joined by water, driven by the west winds, from 
 the great North Atlantic Eddy, and thus vast quantities 
 of warm water are moved into the northeastern Atlantic 
 and even into the Arctic to the north of Europe. 
 
 Westerly winds, warmed in passing over this drift, have 
 made possible the great civilized nations of northern Europe, 
 the fatherland of so many Americans. What a striking con- 
 trast these nations present to the scattered savages of dreary 
 Labrador and Kamchatka, in the same latitude, whose winds 
 come either from the land or from over cold currents. Notice 
 how far northward the isotherms of the northeastern Atlantic 
 curve in January (Fig. 36), when the strong westerly winds of 
 that season bear warm waters onward into the cold northern 
 ocean. Owing to this warmth Russia is able to have a harbor 
 on the very shores of the Arctic. 
 
 Much of the water which enters the Arctic from the 
 south returns in the Labrador Current (Yig. 39), a cold 
 current which flows between the Gulf Stream and the 
 shores of Labrador and New England. It is partly the 
 easterly cyclonic winds from over this cold current that 
 make Labrador so bleak, and the New England coast so 
 agreeable in summer and so damp and chilly in winter. 
 
 The isotherms of the North Atlantic are close together as 
 they leave America, but spread apart like a fan toward the 
 Old World (Figs. 36 and 37). The cause is evident. On the 
 American side the currents approach each other, one from the 
 north bearing Arctic cold, the other from the warm south. 
 This causes great temperature contrasts between our northern 
 and southern coasts. On the European side one part of 
 the ocean drift passes northward, raising the temperature- and 
 bending the isotherms far northward. The remainder turns 
 southward and. beinsr somewhat cooler than the region into 
 
DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE 51 
 
 which it enters, slightly lowers the temperature and bends the 
 isotherms southward. Thus the isotherms are spread apart. 
 
 When the first settlers came from England they ex- 
 pected to find in the New World a climate like their own 
 in the same latitude. They were unprepared for the 
 severe winters which they actually found, and thus the 
 first settlements on the New England and Canadian coasts 
 were failures. 
 
 Review Questions — (1) "What factors determine the temperature 
 of a country? (2) What is an isotherm? (3) How do highlands 
 affect the isotherms? (I) Give examples showing how isotherms 
 are affected by distance from the ocean. (5) By prevailing winds. 
 (6) State the cause of ocean currents. (7) Locate the five vast eddies 
 of ocean waters. (8) Teh about the Japan Current and its effects. 
 (9) Tell about other currents in the North Pacific and their 
 effects. (10) Tell about the eddies in the southern oceans, and 
 their influence on the isotherms. (11) Describe the Xorth Atlantic 
 Eddy and the Gulf Stream. (12) How do they influence the iso- 
 therms? (13) In what respects are the Gulf Stream and the West 
 "Wind Drift particularly important? (II) Locate the Labrador Cur- 
 rent and state its influences. (15) How are ocean currents of great 
 service in both frigid and torrid zones ? 
 
 Suggestions — (1) Does the presence of a warm or cold current 
 near a certain country necessarily greatly affect the climate of that 
 country? ("2) Locate the cold ocean currents of the world. The 
 warm currents. (3) What is the effect of warm currents upon the 
 building of coral islands ? (I) TeU about the icebergs in the Labra- 
 dor Current. (5) Estimate the length of the circumference of the 
 great eddy in the North Pacific. (6) Name several points in the 
 world that have about the same average temperature in January 
 as Chicago. (7) Which of these would have about the same range 
 of temperature, — or difference between summer and winter, — that 
 Chicago has ? (8) What is meant by the heat equator ? Where is it 
 in July? (Figs. 31 and 32.) In January? "Where farthest from the 
 geographic equator? Why? (9) Follow one of the isotherms on the 
 map and explain the larger irregularities. 
 
VI. PLANTS AND ANIMALS 
 
 Zones of Life. — As there are three zones of climate, 
 — tropical, temperate, and frigid, — so there are three 
 great divisions of life ; for both plants and animals vary 
 with temperature and rainfall. State some reasons why 
 this must be true and give illustrations. But since there 
 are differences of climate within each of the great zones, 
 there must also be differences in the plant and animal life. 
 We shall now study about some of the great life zones. 
 
 Tropical Forest Belt. — The tropical zone is a region of 
 continual warmth and, in many portions, of abundant 
 rainfall. Name some of the sections in this belt that 
 have heavy rainfall. In this hot climate the vegetation 
 retains its leaves and grows throughout the year. Owing 
 to this fact and to the abundant moisture, the foliage is 
 very heavy (Fig. 40) and the ground is densely shaded. 
 Among the trees there are many of great value either for 
 their wood, their sap, or their fruits. Mention some of 
 them. Name some valuable food plants that grow only 
 in tropical regions. 
 
 The dense foliage of the forests greatly hinders evaporation, 
 and renders the atmosphere so damp that many plants thrive 
 with their roots in the air instead of in the soil. Aside from 
 trees, therefore, there are vines and hanging plants without 
 number (Fig. 86), some of the most beautiful kinds being 
 the orchids which abound. The forest tangle thus produced 
 is almost impenetrable. 
 
PLANTS AND ANIMALS 53 
 
 The labor required to clear land producing such vegeta- 
 tion — and to keep it clear for farming — is far greater 
 than in the temperate forest regions of the United States. 
 This difficulty is increased, too, by the extreme heat and 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 A view in the tropical forest of South America, showing the dense tangle of 
 
 vegetation. 
 
 by the unhealthfulness resulting from dampness. For 
 these reasons, in spite of the great fertility of the soil, 
 the zone of dense tropical forests is almost everywhere 
 sparsely inhabited ; and in nearly every case its inhabit- 
 
54 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 ants are savages. They have become accustomed to the 
 climate, and, owing to the ever present supply of food 
 which the surrounding trees and bushes afford, they find 
 little work necessary. Is that good fortune for them ? 
 On the other hand, there is an enormous variety of ani- 
 mals in this forest belt. Can you give reasons why ? 
 
 Among the animals insects are especially abundant. Some, like 
 the beautiful butterflies, thrive because of the abundance and 
 
 variety of tropical 
 flowers ; others, like 
 many species of ants, 
 live in the decaying 
 wood ; and still 
 others have their 
 homes in the ground. 
 Some are harmless; 
 but many, like the 
 ants, which swarm 
 in great numbers, 
 are very trouble- 
 some. 
 
 Where there is 
 much fruit and in- 
 sect life for food, 
 birds abound; and 
 the variety and 
 beauty of the hum- 
 ming-birds, parrots, 
 paroquets, birds of 
 paradise, and other species of bird life in the tropical forest, 
 are far famed. 
 
 Among the mammals there is less variety and abundance, 
 the greatest number, as the monkeys and sloths (Fig. 81), being 
 tree-dwellers. Others, like the tapir, live in the swampy 
 undergrowth ; and some very large animals, like the rhinoce- 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 The tiger of India. 
 
PLANTS AND ANIMALS 55 
 
 ros and elephant (Fig. 52), still live in the dense forest, where 
 it is difficult to hunt them. Occasionally, too, fierce animals, 
 such as the tiger (Fig. 41), in the Old World, and the jaguar, 
 in the New, lurk in the densely growing vegetation, ready to 
 pounce upon the more defenceless, plant-eating animals. 
 
 Keptiles also thrive in the warmth and dampness of the 
 forest. Great snakes twine themselves like huge vines among 
 the trees and underbrush, and poisonous serpents are common. 
 The standing bodies of water encourage water life, — for ex- 
 ample, the turtle and alligator among reptiles, and the hippo- 
 potamus and manatee among mammals. 
 
 It is, first of all, the dampness and warmth that lead to so 
 much animal life. But another fact should also be kept in 
 mind ; namely, that there is a great abundance of plants upon 
 which the animals can feed. Even those, like the jaguar, that 
 live upon other animals, are finally dependent upon plants ; 
 for the animals upon which they feed are, in most cases, 
 plant eaters. 
 
 Savannas. — On either side of the tropical forest is a 
 belt where the-temperature is always high, but where the 
 rainfall varies with the season, being rainy when the belt 
 of calms migrates to it, and dry in the opposite season 
 when swept by the trade winds (p. 34). This belt of 
 alternate dry and moist conditions is best developed in 
 the interior of continents, and is rarely found on east- 
 facing coasts. Why not ? 
 
 Owing to the absence of rain during one season, dense 
 forests are impossible ; but some plants, such as grasses, 
 thrive. These are therefore grass-covered lands and are 
 known as savannas (Fig. 42). 
 
 The downs of northern Australia, the park lands lying 
 both north and south of the equator in Africa, the campos 
 of Brazil, and the llanos of Venezuela and Colombia, are all 
 
56 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 examples of savannas. They are dry and barren in one 
 season, fresh and green in the other. Trees, such as palms, 
 line the streams ; but elsewhere the land is open. Grass-eating 
 animals roam about ; for example, in Africa the antelope, 
 gazelle, zebra, giraffe, buffalo, elephant, and rhinoceros. In 
 addition there are some flesh-eating animals, such as the lion 
 (Fig. 43). 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 Negro huts on the savanna along the Upper Nile. 
 
 While tropical forests are unsuited to the life^ of any 
 persons but indolent savages, the open savannas invite 
 human inhabitants in spite of the heat. They* also com- 
 pel industry, because provision must be made for the 
 period of drought. Therefore those African negroes who 
 inhabit the grass lands keep flocks and carry on rude 
 forms of agriculture. Where settled by white men, 
 these savannas are to-day mainly grazing lands ; but they 
 are no doubt destined to become the seat of important 
 
PLANTS AND ANIMALS 
 
 57 
 
 agriculture, for they are adapted to the cultivation of 
 many subtropical plants. 
 
 The Desert. — While the savannas grade into tropical 
 forests on the side next to the equator, they are gradually 
 replaced by deserts on the other side. Locate these deserts 
 in Australia south of the equator, in Asia north of the 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 The African lion. 
 
 equator, and in Africa and America on both sides of the 
 equator (Figs. 26-30). Explain their aridity. 
 
 In the desert there are vast stretches in which the sand 
 is moved before the wind and piled into sand hills or dunes. 
 There are also tracts glistening with salt where the water 
 of interior basins has evaporated and left salt upon the 
 surface. Parts of the desert are broad plains ; but there 
 are also stony plateaus, deep valleys, and mountain ranges. 
 
58 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Throughout much of the desert there is such a lack of 
 
 rain that the surface is barren and desolate at all times. 
 
 But even there, plants and animals are not entirely 
 
 lacking. In some sections there are scattered clumps 
 
 of coarse grass ; and 
 there are prickly plants, 
 like the cacti and the 
 acacias, in which the 
 leaves and steins are as 
 small as possible to pre- 
 vent evaporation. In 
 place of a dense tropi- 
 cal foliage there is a 
 marked absence of 
 leaves, and a large part 
 of the plant is under- 
 ground. This is be- 
 cause the roots must 
 struggle hard to find the necessary moisture, and the por- 
 tion above ground must use as little moisture as possible 
 and waste none ; for years may pass before rain comes. 
 
 That the soil is usually fertile is proved by the fact 
 that wherever there is fresh water, as along a stream, 
 vegetation thrives. Such watered spots in the desert are 
 called oases. The Sahara caravans halt in these garden 
 patches, where tall date palms grow and supply a fruit of 
 great value as a food. 
 
 tfiG. 44 
 The " Ship of the Desert.' 
 
 Why so named ' 
 
 One of the few animals native to the deserts of the Old 
 World is the ostrich. Another, much used by man, is the 
 camel (Fig. 44). The latter well illustrates how animals 
 become adapted to their surroundings. Each foot has a broad 
 sole which aids it in travelling by preventing the feet from 
 
PLANTS AND ANIMALS 
 
 59 
 
 sinking into the sand. The nostrils can be closed when neces- 
 sary and the eyes are protected by a veil of hair. Both of 
 these devices are of much use in keeping out the sand which 
 is so often blown about. The camel is further provided with 
 pouches in which enough water may be stored to serve it two 
 or three days ; and owing to its fatty hump, which can be drawn 
 upon for the nourishment of its body, it can also go without 
 food longer than most other animals. 
 
 Human beings naturally shun the desert. Permanent 
 homes can exist only on the oases (Fig. 45) ; but wander- 
 ing tribes, or nomads, roam about there. They live in 
 temporary tents, 
 and are engaged 
 in herding, or in 
 driving caravans 
 of camels laden 
 with articles of 
 trade. Sometimes 
 they even raid 
 the caravans of 
 others for the 
 booty they may 
 obtain. 
 
 Life in Temperate Zones. — The land of temperate zones 
 is typically forest covered. This is not due to abundance 
 of rainfall so much as to moderate evaporation in the cool 
 climate, which permits the ground to remain moist through- 
 out the summer. Thus a broad forest belt crosses the 
 northern interiors of both North America and Europe. 
 Owing to the less extensive rainfall in some parts, and to 
 the rigor of the climate in others, the forest is more open 
 than in the tropics. 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 Loading a camel on an oasis in Algeria. 
 
60 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Steppes and Arid Plains. — There are also treeless, grass- 
 covered lands in the temperate belt, usually on the border 
 of the deserts in the interior of continents where the rain- 
 fall is light. In the Old World, where these tracts are 
 called steppes, there is a broad strip extending from south- 
 eastern Europe to central Asia. The Great Plains of 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 A group of Persian nomads with their summer tents. 
 
 western North America, and the treeless plains, or pampas, 
 of Argentina are also steppes (Fig. 91). 
 
 Spring rains cause the grass to be green in spring and 
 early summer ; but drought then changes it to gray and 
 yellow. There are no trees excepting along the streams ; 
 and only on the very border of the steppes is there rain- 
 fall enough for agriculture without irrigation. The wild 
 animals are grass eaters (Jierhivora), and the steppes 
 
PLANTS AND ANIMALS 61 
 
 formerly supported great herds of deer, antelope, and 
 bison ; but • cattle, sheep, horses, and camels have largely 
 replaced them. The inhabitants of the steppes in the Old 
 World have for many centuries led a pastoral life and 
 have become nomads. They wander about and live in 
 tents during the summer (Fig. 46) ; but in winter they 
 select more permanent homes for the sake of protection 
 against the weather. They depend upon the horse to such 
 an extent that it has become almost a part of their life. 
 
 Prairies. — Besides the vast tracts of arid steppes, there are 
 some treeless plains even in parts of the temperate zone where 
 the rainfall is heavy enough for tree growth. Examples of 
 these are the prairies in the United States and some of the 
 plains in southern Russia. Some think that fires have removed 
 the forests ; others that the fine-grained soil has prevented tree 
 growth ; but probably each cause has aided. 
 
 Forests of the Temperate Zone. — Near the torrid zone 
 the trees are for the most part tropical in kind. In the 
 cooler temperate latitudes, however, they are principally of 
 two sorts : (1) the evergreens, including the pine, spruce, 
 and hemlock, that have needle-like leaves which remain 
 green throughout the winter, and (2) the deciduous trees, 
 whose leaves are much larger, but fall when frost comes. 
 
 The value of the forests to man is great, for the coldness of 
 the climate in the densely inhabited temperate zone demands 
 that men shall build permanent houses for their protection. 
 To what other uses is the wood put ? On the other hand, the 
 forests have interfered with man's development, for the trees 
 must be cut away before agriculture is possible. In Europe, 
 however, a large part of the forest has been removed, and 
 much has also been cleared away in the United States. What 
 about Canada ? 
 
62 
 
 G EJSERA L GEO G RAPH Y 
 
 The temperate forest was the home of many wild animals, 
 now mostly exterminated, or greatly reduced in number. 
 Name some of those of North America. Owing to the coldness 
 of the northern sections these animals are protected by fur, 
 which men find of such use that the hunting of fur-bearing 
 animals is one of their occupations in the forest. 
 
 People of the Temperate Zone. — In the temperate zone 
 of North and South America, Europe, Asia, and Australia, 
 both the cleared forest lands and the humid, grass-covered 
 plains have become the seats of extensive agricultural 
 
 industries. In 
 fact, the temper- 
 ate zones are 
 the agricultural 
 zones of the 
 world, and they 
 might almost be 
 called the zones 
 of grain (Fig. 
 47). Make a list 
 of the grains that 
 are cultivated ; 
 also of the fruits. 
 In this tem- 
 perate belt, too, man has developed most highly. The 
 simple life of the savage in the tropical forest, and of the 
 nomad on the desert and steppes, contrasts strikingly with 
 the varied life of the agricultural people in the temperate 
 belt. Not only are the latter more highly civilized, but 
 they have so increased in numbers that the temperate zone 
 is the most densely populated belt in the world. Suggest 
 some reasons for this. 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 A field of grain in Russia with the forest in the back- 
 ground — a familiar scene in the cool temperate 
 belt. Have you seen a view resembling this ? 
 
PLANTS AND ANIMALS 
 
 63 
 
 Life in the Frigid Zone. — As one passes to the colder 
 margin of the north temperate zone the trees become 
 stunted and the conditions grow less favorable to agricul- 
 ture. Beyond this, stretch vast expanses of frozen ground 
 known as the tundras. These are covered with snow in 
 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 A camp on the edge of the tundra of northern Asia. What do you see in this 
 
 picture ? 
 
 winter ; but in summer, when the snow melts, they are in 
 most places exposed to the air. 
 
 During summer the frost leaves the ground to a depth of 
 two or three feet, although below that depth the earth remains 
 frozen for scores of feet. The continual thawing at this sea- 
 son keeps the soil so moist that the tundras are everywhere 
 swampy, even on the hillsides. Then everything grows rap- 
 idly ; the green grass springs up and bright flowers dot the 
 turf. No large bushes or trees are to be seen, for all plants 
 remain as close to the ground as possible. Why should they ? 
 
64 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 These regions are often compared with the tropical deserts 
 in their absence of animal life; and the reindeer is compared 
 to the camel because it permits a few persons to eke out an 
 existence in the frozen desert (Fig. 48). But there are differ- 
 ences; the tundra is a desert because the cold prohibits most 
 forms of life during the greater part of the year, while the 
 tropical desert is always forbidding. Why ? During the short 
 summer, when the tundra blossoms into life, swarms of insects, 
 especially mosquitoes, infest the morasses ; and the berries of 
 the previous season, uncovered from the snows, supply food to 
 land birds. Why should these birds, together with the foxes 
 and polar bears, be protected with thick white coats ? 
 
 While life in most forms is scarce on the tundras, along the 
 seacoast it exists in abundance. Vast numbers of birds feed 
 upon the minute sea animals in summer, and migrate southward 
 in winter when ice covers the sea and cuts off their food supply. 
 The walrus, whale, narwhal, and seal sport in the water, the 
 latter in such numbers as to supply the chief food for the scat- 
 tered colonies of Eskimos and other people who live along the 
 coast. 
 
 Oceanic Life There is little variety in the plant life 
 
 of the sea. Animal life, on the other hand, is extremely 
 varied and abundant. Countless millions of minute crea- 
 tures, floating in the surface waters, serve as food for larger 
 species, such as the whale and the food fishes. Some of 
 the food fishes, as the mackerel and menhaden, swim at the 
 surface in multitudes, called schools. Others, as the hali- 
 but and cod, live on the bottom, especially on those shallow 
 banks that are swept by the food-bringing currents. 
 
 Animals inhabit all parts of the ocean, even the deep sea 
 and the surface water far from land. But the chief fishing 
 grounds are the seacoast itself and those shallow banks near 
 the coast that can be easily reached. Besides the various 
 species of food fish, there are shellfish, such as clams and oys- 
 
PLANTS AND ANIMALS 
 
 65 
 
 ters ; and crustaceans, such as crabs and lobsters. Among the 
 important lower forms unsuited for food are the sponges, and 
 the tiny corals out of whose limy skeletons many islands in 
 the ocean have been built. 
 
 Some of the higher ocean animals once lived entirely on 
 land, and have slowly adapted themselves to the ocean. 
 The polar bear, for instance, lives partly on the 
 ice-covered sea ; and many birds, as the penguins 
 and ducks, spend part of their time in the water. 
 The seals, related to the bears, still crawl upon 
 the shore at times, though their natural home is 
 now the water ; but the whale never leaves the 
 water, though he must still have air to breathe. 
 
 Causes for Distribution of Plants and 
 Animals. — In what has been said 
 about the tropical forests, the 
 camel, seal, and whale, there lies 
 the suggestion that the different 
 sections of the earth 
 were not sup- 
 plied with cer- 
 tain forms of 
 life at the be- 
 ginning which 
 they were to 
 preserve 
 throughout 
 
 all ages. On the contrary, it seems that plants and ani- 
 mals, like man himself, have been forced to adapt them- 
 selves to the conditions which surrounded them. 
 
 This is now generally believed to be the truth. Plants 
 and animals, like the earth itself, have been constantly 
 changing ; and the wonderful ways in which they are now 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 The kansraroo of Australia. 
 
66 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 adapted to their surroundings is the result of ages of 
 struggle in which tens of thousands of species have been 
 destroyed because they could not fit themselves to the 
 changing conditions. This conclusion finds support from 
 a study of life upon oceanic islands. 
 
 Many islands far from land support some of the plants 
 and animals that exist upon the nearest continents. For 
 instance, the Bermudas have forms of life similar to those 
 of North America. But many of the species living on the 
 mainland, particularly those kinds that could not endure 
 a long journey, are absent from such islands. 
 
 Birds, bats, and insects, being able to fly, naturally find 
 their way to the islands. Some reptiles are also found, 
 since, without food or water, they are able to float long dis- 
 tances clinging to logs. But large and highly developed 
 mammals, like the elephant, tiger, or deer, are almost always 
 absent from oceanic islands. 
 
 Australia is really a great oceanic island ; but it has many 
 large animals which differ from those found on the other 
 continents. There are kangaroos (Fig. 49), some varieties 
 of which are large, others small like rats, but all of which 
 leap clumsily about on two legs, aided by the large, mus- 
 cular tail. And there is the duck-billed platypus, which, 
 though a mammal, lays eggs as birds and reptiles do. 
 The peculiarity of these Australian mammals is that their 
 young are not nearly so developed as are the young of the 
 higher mammals. Other Australian mammals, birds, and 
 even plants are also peculiar. 
 
 Fossils in the rocks prove that, long ago, animals similar 
 to those of Australia lived on the other continents. It 
 is believed that mammals reached Australia in those 
 
PLANTS AND ANIMALS 
 
 67 
 
 ancient times when that continent was still connected 
 
 with other lands. Then came a sinking of a part of the 
 
 earth's crust, 
 
 separating 
 
 Australia 
 
 from the other 
 
 continents, 
 
 where fierce 
 
 animals later 
 
 developed 
 
 which were 
 
 unable to 
 
 cross the sea 
 
 to Australia. fig. 50. 
 
 Therefore the The llama of Peru, a South American animal not found in 
 
 North America. 
 
 weak ma m- 
 
 mals were able to survive in Australia while the same 
 
 kind elsewhere were destroyed. 
 
 Fig. 51. 
 
 Buffalo cow and camel in the Nile. These animals are common to Africa 
 
 and southern Asia. 
 
 North and South America have some animals in com- 
 mon, such as the puma, jaguar, and tapir ; but on the 
 
68 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 whole there is a marked difference between the faunas of 
 the two continents (Fig. 50). One reason for this differ- 
 ence is that in past ages South America was entirely cut 
 off from the northern continent. 
 
 Africa has much the same climate as South America ; 
 but, being so widely separated by ocean water, the faunas 
 of these two continents are entirely 
 different. On the other hand, many 
 of the animals of southern Asia, such 
 as the lion and elephant (Fig. 52), 
 are similar to those of Africa (Fig. 
 51), since the two land areas are so 
 close together. 
 
 The north temperate zone, includ- 
 ing much of North America and 
 Eurasia, has closely related species of 
 plant and animal life. Throughout 
 this vast area there are pines, spruces, 
 hemlocks, oaks, maples, etc., on the 
 one hand, and bears, wild cats, 
 wolves, deer, foxes, beavers, etc., 
 on the other. The reindeer of 
 Europe and Asia (Fig. 48) is almost 
 identical with the caribou of Amer- 
 ica ; and there is also a close re- 
 The elephant, an animal semblance among the birds. This 
 
 common to southern ..,.,. .1 i . -i-x 
 
 Asia and Africa. similarity is partly due to similarity 
 
 in climate, and partly, perhaps, to a 
 former connection of the two lands. There is, however, 
 little resemblance between the life of this belt and that of 
 central Africa and southern Asia ; for the vast desert belt 
 and the lofty mountains have served as barriers to the 
 spread of plants and animals. 
 
 Fig. 
 
PLANTS AND ANIMALS 
 
 69 
 
 Thus it is seen that the life on each continent has varied 
 from time to time, and that both plants and animals have 
 spread wherever conditions allowed. The great- 
 est barrier to a general distribution has been the 
 ocean ; but deserts and mountains have also 
 offered effective resistance. State why. 
 
 Changes throughout the ages, causing variations 
 in climate, in the land surface, in the food supply, 
 and in the introduction of new enemies, have 
 brought death to many species. This may be illus- \ 
 trated by those extinct relatives of the elephant, I 
 the huge mammoths and mastodons, that formerly 
 lived in the cold temper- -^ gg| -^^^ f 
 
 is 
 
 also 
 
 ate zone. It 
 illustrated by many 
 birds. In former times 
 running birds (Fig. 53), 
 like the ostrich, were 
 abundant ; but they are 
 now giving place to small 
 flying birds, that are bet- 
 ter adapted to their en- 
 vironment. 
 
 Man is at present one 
 of the most effective 
 agents in producing 
 changes in the plant and 
 animal world. He is 
 constantly developing 
 new varieties of each, 
 while destroying older forms. He has improved and domesti- 
 cated many wild animals, but has exterminated some, like the 
 auk, and nearly destroyed others, like the bison. The changes 
 he has caused in the vegetable kingdom are to be seen on every 
 hand. Can you mention some of them ? 
 
 The emu of Australia, one of the running 
 birds. 
 
70 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) By what factors are life zones deter- 
 mined? (2) Describe the conditions of plant life in the tropical 
 forest. (3) What effect have these conditions upon human beings? 
 (4) Upon animals? (5) What is the origin of savannas? (6) Lo- 
 cate some of them. (7) What about plants, animals, and people 
 there ? (8) Tell about the desert : cause, characteristics, plants, 
 oases, animals, and people. (9) Tell about the conditions of life on 
 the steppes and arid plains. (10) What is known about the cause 
 of prairies? (11) Tell about the temperate forests: trees, animals, 
 and human inhabitants. (12) Tell about life in the frigid zone. 
 (13) Tell about the tundras: vegetation, similarity to the desert, 
 animal life, and human inhabitants. (14) Tell about ocean life : 
 plants, food fishes, other important animals and land animals that have 
 learned to live in the sea. (15) What about the adaptation of animals 
 to their surroundings ? (16) What light is thrown upon this question 
 by the life on ocean islands ? (17) Give some facts about Australian 
 animals and the reasons for their peculiarity. (18) Tell about the 
 animals on each of the other continents. (19) What are the great 
 barriers to the spread of life ? (20) Name some causes for extermi- 
 nation of species. 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Make a collection of different kinds of wood. 
 (2) Notice how some of them are polished for use as furniture. (3) See 
 some orchids, if possible. (4) Visit a museum to see specimens of 
 tropical animals. (5) Examine a cactus closely. (6) Examine and 
 compare the foliage of some evergreens and deciduous trees. (7) Find 
 out what is meant by evolution and the survival of the fittest, as these 
 terms are applied to plants and animals. (8) What dangerous ene- 
 mies have you observed for certain plants? (9) For certain animals? 
 (10) Collect pictures of animals belonging to different parts of the 
 world. 
 
VII. THE HUMAN RACE 
 
 Divisions of Mankind 
 
 Man, like plants and animals, varies in different parts 
 of the world. He is influenced by bis surroundings, as 
 they are, and in the course of time has developed differ- 
 ently in the various lands of the earth. Concerning the 
 origin of the human 
 
 race, and its divisions, 
 people hold different 
 views ; but mankind 
 in general may be di- 
 vided into four great 
 groups. 
 
 Ethiopians. — Alto- 
 gether there are about 
 one and one-half bill- 
 ion human beings up- 
 on the earth, or twenty 
 times the number in 
 the United States. 
 Of these the lowest are 
 the negroes (Figs. 54 
 and 62) or Ethiopians, who number about one hundred 
 and seventy-five million. This is often called the black 
 race. There are many subdivisions of this group, but 
 they are all characterized by a deep brown or black skin, 
 short, black, woolly hair, broad flat noses, and prominent 
 cheek bones. 
 
 71 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 An African negro girl. 
 
72 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 The home of the Ethiopians is Africa south of the 
 Sahara 'desert (Fig. 60), though many have been trans- 
 ported to other lands as slaves, and have there mingled 
 more or less with the other races. In their original home 
 the negroes are savages, or barbarians of low type. 
 
 The native Australians (Fig. 55), the Papuans of New 
 Guinea, the Negritos of the Philippines, and the blacks on 
 
 some other islands in that 
 part of the world resemble 
 the negroes most closely, 
 though differing from 
 them in some important 
 respects. They are 
 shorter, for example, their 
 hair is less woolly, their 
 noses straighter, and their 
 lips less thick. 
 
 American Indians. — 
 A second great division 
 of the human race is that 
 of the red men or Ameri- 
 can Indians, often called 
 the red race. It is the 
 smallest of the four 
 groups, numbering about twenty-two million. These 
 people, who in some respects resemble the Mongolians 
 (p. 73), were in possession of both North and South 
 America when Columbus discovered America. They 
 were, however, divided into many tribes. While the 
 Indians have been largely displaced by white men, many, 
 especially in the tropics (Figs. 56, 61, and pp. 107-109), 
 are still living' in the savage state. 
 
 Fig. 55. 
 A native of New South Wales, Australia. 
 
THE HUMAN RACE 
 
 73 
 
 They are distinguished by a copper-colored skin, promi- 
 nent cheek bones, black eyes, and long, coarse black hair. 
 When discovered 
 many were sav- 
 ages, while others 
 had risen to the 
 stage of barbar- 
 ism. In fact, the 
 Aztecs of North 
 America and the 
 Incas of South 
 America had even 
 developed some 
 of the arts of civ- 
 ilization (p. 109). 
 
 Mongolians. — 
 The third divi- 
 sion, the Mongo- 
 lian or yellow race, 
 numbering about 
 five hundred and forty million, are typically Asiatic 
 people, the greater number being found in Asia and the 
 islands of the Pacific (Fig. 60). Some, as the Finns, 
 Lapps, and Turks, have settled in Europe, while the 
 Eskimos have spread eastward along the shores of Arctic 
 America. 
 
 The Mongolians, typically represented by the Chinese 
 and Japanese (Figs. 57 and 68), have a yellowish and in 
 some cases even a white skin, prominent cheek bones, small 
 oblique eyes, a small nose, and long, coarse black hair. 
 In places, as on the more remote islands, the Mongolians 
 are uncivilized ; but the great majority may be classed as 
 
 Fig. 56. 
 South American Indians. 
 
74 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 civilized people, although their standard of civilization 
 differs from that of the white race. 
 
 Caucasians. — By far the largest and most civilized of 
 the four divisions of mankind is the white or Caucasian 
 
 Fig. 57. 
 Japanese ladies. 
 
 race, which numbers about seven hundred and seventy 
 million. Their original home is not known. Some be- 
 lieve it to have been in the plateau of central Asia, others 
 in the northern part of Africa. With the dawn of his- 
 tory the white peoples of Europe were mostly barbarians ; 
 
THE HUMAN RACE 
 
 75 
 
 but civilization had begun to develop in southern and west- 
 ern Asia and along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 At present the white race occupies most of Europe, 
 North- and South America, Australia, and large portions 
 of Asia and Africa. It 
 is the most widely dis- 
 tributed of the four di- 
 visions (Fig. 60). Be- 
 sides Europeans (Fig. 
 58) it includes the 
 Egyptians, Arabs, and 
 Abyssinians of Africa ; 
 also the Arabs, Persians, 
 Armenians, Afghans, and 
 Hindus of Asia (Fig. 
 59). 
 
 While for various 
 reasons the Caucasians 
 differ greatly in charac- 
 teristics, two main 
 branches are recognized : 
 (1) the fair type (Fig. 
 58), with florid complex- 
 ion, light brown, flaxen, or red hair, blue or gray eyes, and 
 height above the average ; (2) the dark type (Fig. 59), 
 with fair skin, dark brown and black hair, often wavy or 
 curly, and black eyes. In temperament both are active, 
 enterprising, and imaginative, though the fair type is 
 more solid, the dark type more emotional. 
 
 Distribution of Races. — For centuries these four great 
 divisions of the human race have been changing within 
 themselves until there are now many subdivisions of 
 
 
 'A 
 
 Hik 
 
 A 
 
 ^fc 
 
 
 '■■■ ' w-- : ■•'■4- : - i^* 
 .'»»)Wri>-.fM 
 4 '5 <?^4^ 
 
 
 til 
 
 " "*■$*<,- :'|I|W 
 
 
 5L»- 
 
 HP 
 
 
 
 
 
 MM 
 
 ^^SE^^iKste£p5 
 
 
 jj^^r^ n 
 
 ^^^siffeSS 
 
 ---• 
 
 
 Fig. 58. 
 A Belgian peasant girl. 
 
70 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 each group. By war and invasion they have encroached 
 upon one another, and have intermixed to some extent. 
 But the leaders are the whites, who, having learned the 
 use of ships in exploring distant lands, have spread with 
 
 Fig. 59. 
 A group of Indian Brahmins, who belong to the dark type of Caucasians. 
 
 a rapidit}^ never seen before. Also, being more advanced 
 than the others, the white races have readily conquered 
 the weaker people and taken their lands from them. They 
 now dominate the world (see Fig. 60), the only division 
 that has held out against them being the Mongolians, 
 whose very numbers have in large measure served to 
 protect them. 
 
78 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Development of Civilization 
 
 The facts of history indicate that the civilized races 
 of the world have developed from a state of savagery 
 or barbarism. It is further believed that certain races 
 have not developed because of unfavorable surroundings. 
 
 These are called natural races 
 because they still depend di- 
 rectly upon nature for their 
 food, clothing, and shelter, while 
 the more civilized races have 
 to a certain extent risen above 
 such dependence. Therefore, 
 by studying the natural races 
 we may gain some hints con- 
 cerning the development of civ- 
 ilization. 
 
 Need of Food. — The most 
 essential need of man is food ; 
 and human beings in general 
 are so constituted that they will 
 obtain their food in the easiest 
 possible manner. If it grows 
 upon trees near b}*, or can be 
 obtained by simple hunting de- 
 vices (Tigs. 56 and 61), man is 
 apt to do no more work than is 
 necessary to secure food that is 
 Fig. oi. near at hand. His life is simple, 
 
 An Indian hunter in the Amazon hi s needs are few, and his ad- 
 forest. 
 
 vance is slight. It is in the 
 tropics that these conditions exist, and it is there that we 
 find the least civilization. 
 
THE HUMAN BACE 
 
 79 
 
 Where these conditions are found only a small number 
 can live, because there is a limit to the food that is easily 
 available ; therefore the tropical forest zone is for the 
 most part sparsely inhabited. In fact, it is said that parts 
 of the tropical forest average but one person for every 
 twenty-four square miles ; and most of the inhabitants 
 dwell near the rivers. Can 
 you suggest reasons for living 
 there ? When the numbers 
 increase greatly, new means 
 of obtaining food must be 
 found ; and for this purpose 
 war and even cannibalism are 
 sometimes resorted to. 
 
 Development of Agri- 
 culture. — But by far the 
 most common means of add- 
 ing to the supply of food is 
 through the care of plants 
 and animals. The plant world 
 offers valuable foods stored in 
 seeds, bulbs, and roots. Under 
 natural conditions these foods 
 are scattered, and agriculture 
 doubtless began by gathering them from the wild plants, 
 as many native tribes still do. A step in advance would 
 be made by planting such seeds near the home and keeping 
 out the weeds (Fig. 62). 
 
 Moreover, in some climates it is neeesmry to store a 
 supply against a season of need. For example, the winter 
 of the temperate zones and the dry season of the savannas 
 must be provided for. This encourages industry, thrift, 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 An African negro woman planting. 
 
80 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 the building of permanent homes, and inventions for sav- 
 ing labor. Thus agriculture is one of the great civilizers. 
 
 Agriculture probably began upon the open lands; and among 
 natural races it is for the most part still confined there. Later 
 small patches were cleared in the forest; but this was difficult, 
 especially in tropical countries, where the fight against weeds 
 is a hard one. It is so hard, in fact, that there is little devel- 
 opment of agriculture in such woodlands. The temperate forest 
 also offers difficulties, but fewer than that of the tropics, and 
 consequently much of it has been cleared. The frigid zone and 
 the true desert permit no agriculture ; but where irrigation is 
 possible the latter may be made to yield a harvest. Mankind 
 early learned to cultivate the soil by aid of irrigation, and 
 some of the seats of early civilization, as in Egypt and Persia, 
 
 were on river flood-plains, 
 
 where agriculture was car- 
 ried on in that way. 
 
 Development of Graz- 
 ing. — In spite of the 
 fact that it has been 
 difficult to domesticate 
 animals, mankind has 
 made many of them serve 
 his needs. For example, 
 the dog has been made 
 to aid in hunting ; the 
 ox, horse, camel and 
 buffalo (Fig. 63) to 
 serve as beasts, of bur- 
 den ; the sheep, cow, goat, and others to supply materials 
 for clothing and food. Name some of the kinds of food 
 and clothing obtained from these animals. 
 
 While it was doubtless the needs of the farmer that 
 
 The buffalo in Egypt, one of the many native 
 animals that have been domesticated by 
 natural races. 
 
THE HUMAN RACE 
 
 81 
 
 led to the domestication of many animals, it is the herders 
 who have come to take care of them most extensively. 
 The people who make grazing their occupation find it 
 necessary to roam about with their herds in search of 
 grass, and are therefore called nomads or wanderers. They 
 naturally show preference for the open plains. Why? 
 
 The life of the nomad tends to make him restless, self- 
 reliant, and warlike, while that of the farmer is peaceful. Each 
 
 Fig. 64. 
 One of the boats in use in Burma in southern Asia. 
 
 class is capable of development to a certain extent, although 
 in different ways ; but the best character comes from a union 
 of the two natures. Fortunately this union has often been 
 effected, though at cost of many human lives. Agricultural 
 people have been much exposed to the raids of nomads, who 
 had little to lose and much to gain by such war. In con- 
 sequence most agricultural races have become mixed with 
 nomadic people; for the latter have often conquered whole 
 sections of agricultural country. Tor example, the Chinese 
 are an agricultural race who have been influenced in this 
 manner ; and nomadic hordes from Asia made many incursions 
 into Europe in early days. 
 
82 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Development of Fishing. — A third direction .in which 
 natural races have made progress is by contact with the 
 sea. To obtain food from the sea, boats were needed (Fig. 
 64) ; and when men had come to use them with skill, they 
 were able to explore regions beyond their horizon. The 
 use of the boat produces men of energy, courage, and skill. 
 Partly as a result of this, and partly because of the protec- 
 tion which the sea furnishes against invasion, the highest 
 advance of races has occurred along the seacoast, especially 
 on islands and peninsulas. Why there ? It may be said, 
 in fact, that civilization has in general spread from the 
 coast to the interior. 
 
 Development in the Temperate Zone. — It is along the 
 coasts of the temperate zones that the greatest prog- 
 ress has occurred, because, while there are difficulties to 
 overcome, they are not great enough to discourage. The 
 need of storing supplies for winter has led, by natural 
 steps, to the accumulation of wealth, to trade, and to 
 various other forms of industry. The farmer, herder, 
 and fisherman supply food ; but they in turn need imple- 
 ments, clothing, and other articles. At first, among nat- 
 ural races, each man supplies these for himself ; but with 
 further development it is found desirable to devote one's 
 whole time to one's special occupation. Thus some obtain 
 food, others make weapons, tools, etc. ; and by the ex- 
 change which thus arises, commerce is developed, and 
 with it a great advance is made. 
 
 Shelter. — Even the most primitive races have need 
 of shelter from the heat, cold, or rain. To this day some 
 live in hollow trees, like the beasts ; but most have 
 developed a higher type of shelter. A more advanced 
 stage is reached when the limbs of low trees and bushes 
 
THE HUMAN RACE 
 
 83 
 
 4? 
 
 ■:uM 
 
 .■.■:■■■■' ■*■ 
 
 • .";■ , ^ i 
 
 > ■ ■'■..■■ ■•■■ ,'■■ : ■■•-' 
 
 , Vr ^ 
 
 are bent over and woven together for protection ; or 
 when bushes are stuck into the ground and their limbs 
 fastened together. Beginning with these simple devices, 
 there is every - - - 7 _ . 
 
 gradation to the 
 elaborate grass 
 huts of the ne- 
 groes (Fig. 65) 
 and the wooden 
 houses of the 
 whites. 
 
 Early races 
 often lived in 
 caves, especially 
 where the cli- 
 mate was so cold 
 that winter pro- 
 tection was necessary. This was true of early Europeans 
 and of some American Indians ; it is still practised in 
 parts of the earth. It is a step in advance to build partial 
 houses beneath overhanging cliffs, where the roof and one 
 wall are supplied by the solid rock, as among the cliff 
 dwellers of western United States. Then comes the house 
 composed entirely of stone, or of dried clay, either the 
 sun-dried adobe or the baked brick. The highest devel- 
 opment of architecture is reached in the massive public 
 buildings of the present day. 
 
 Nomadic races, travelling about as they do, require portable 
 dwellings (Fig. 46) ; and their most common shelter is com- 
 posed of skins, which are not only light but easily obtained 
 from their herds. In case of longer residence in one place 
 they may build more permanent homes, either of wood, clay, 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 Huts in a negro village in Africa. 
 
84 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 or stone. Also, with abundance of wool and other kinds of 
 animal hair, these people have learned to weave blankets and 
 rugs, which are an additional shelter when travelling. 
 
 From these facts it is seen that natural and semi-civilized 
 races obtain shelter by the use of materials near at hand and 
 adapted to their mode of life. This is especially well illus- 
 trated by the Eskimos, whose summer homes, when they are 
 moving about, are made of seal and walrus skins ; while their 
 winter shelter is built of blocks of ice or snow, the most 
 available building materials. 
 
 Sites for Houses. — The sites for these dwellings often 
 seem to be selected with reference only to the nearness 
 of building materials 
 or of food. But very 
 commonly they are 
 determined by the" ne- 
 cessity for protection 
 from man or beast. 
 The cliff dwellers of 
 the West, for example, 
 selected their sites with 
 the idea of defence 
 against wandering 
 tribes of savage Ind- 
 ians ; and the Pueblo 
 Indians built their 
 pueblos upon hills for 
 the same reason. Civ- 
 ilized people, likewise, 
 have often located their 
 castles upon lofty cliffs. 
 
 Find illustrations in the sections on Europe. Among 
 natural races, houses are sometimes built in the treetops 
 
 Fig. 66. 
 Houses in the trees in New Guinea. 
 
THE HUMAN FACE 
 
 85 
 
 (Fig. 66) for protection against enemies ; and sometimes 
 they are even built on posts or piles in the water (Fig. 67). 
 Towns and Cities. — The same reason that induces nat- 
 ural races to build their houses in positions which afford 
 protection from enemies, has caused people to collect in 
 villages (Fig; 65), towns, and cities. These are often 
 
 Fig. (57. 
 A village on piles in New Guinea. 
 
 surrounded by water (Fig. 67) or by stockades ; and in 
 the Middle Ages the cities of Europe were very effectively 
 protected by walls of stone. Many European and Asiatic 
 cities are still enclosed in walls, and in Asia they are even 
 now kept in repair ; but the modern cannon render such 
 defences of little value. 
 
 While the sites of some cities have been selected for no 
 other reason than their ease of defence, the growth of civiliza- 
 
86 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 tion has given other reasons for people to collect in cities. 
 For example, some have simply wanted to live together, or 
 to be near valuable mineral deposits, or near water power, etc. 
 Give other reasons. 
 
 Clothing. — In regard to clothing, as to shelter, there are 
 many varied customs. Here again the natural races show 
 most dependence 
 upon their surround- 
 ings. Some of those 
 in the tropical zone 
 find very little cloth- 
 ing necessary (Figs. 
 56, 61, and 87). 
 Others clothe them- 
 selves in bark, as 
 some of the Germanic 
 people of Europe did 
 in early times. In 
 the cold climates 
 skins are used, as 
 among many of our 
 European ancestors, 
 and at the present 
 time among the Eski- 
 mos, Lapps, Fuegians, 
 and some of the North 
 American Indians. What other reason than cold would lead 
 these people to use fur-bearing skins ? 
 
 From the use of such simple natural products it is but a 
 step to crude hand manufacture; then follows manufacture by 
 machinery, run first by hand or foot (Fig. 58), .then by water 
 power, and finally by steam and electric power. Doubtless at 
 first such native products as the wool of animals, the fibre of 
 wood, wild cotton, and flax were used; then plants and animals 
 were raised for their fibre and hair. Even the insects are called 
 upon to aid man in his attempt to clothe himself ; for silk is 
 used in many lands. 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 Japanese rain coats. 
 
THE HUMAN BACE 
 
 87 
 
 The Development of Language. — There are hundreds 
 of different languages among the races of the earth, and 
 no one knows their origin and history. In the very ear- 
 liest times about which we know there were vast differences 
 of speech ; and even since history began to be recorded, the 
 speech of na- 
 tions has greatly 
 changed. For 
 example, the 
 Greek and Ital- 
 ian languages 
 of to-day are 
 very different 
 from the Greek 
 and Latin of two 
 thousand years 
 ago. 
 
 This being the 
 case, it is easy to 
 see how, if time 
 enough is granted, races separated by the sea, mountains, 
 or desert will slowly give up old words and evolve new ones. 
 This is thought to be the origin of the many different lan- 
 guages of the globe. How are these differences in language 
 important in checking commerce and preventing sympathy 
 of one nation for another ? 
 
 Many natural races have no written language ; others have 
 a kind of picture writing (Fig. 69) ; that is, they represent 
 their ideas by drawing pictures. It is from such a beginning, it 
 is believed, that our writing and, later, our printing have de- 
 veloped. Writing and printing have been among the most 
 powerful aids to civilization. Can you suggest reasons for this ? 
 
 Message sticks from West Australia — the carvings 
 convey messages. 
 
88 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Inventions. — Even the lowest races are gifted with, 
 some ingenuity and power of invention. The savage hunt- 
 ers of the forest make the bow, arrow, and spear (Figs. 5Q 
 and 61). Most if not all races know the use of fire and 
 
 how to make it. 
 Also pottery- 
 making is com- 
 mon to all parts 
 of the earth. 
 
 Farming has 
 been responsible 
 for many inven- 
 tions — the im- 
 plements for 
 loosening the 
 ground (Fig. 
 62), for i3lant- 
 ing, for reaping, 
 for employing 
 beasts of burden, 
 including the 
 harness itself, 
 being good ex- 
 amples. Fishing 
 has also given rise to many ingenious devices, especially in 
 the demand for boats. Some boats are of bark, as among 
 the Indians ; or of skin, as among the Eskimos, where bark 
 is absent ; or of hollowed logs, as in many parts of the 
 world. In time the small, open boats (Fig. 70) were re- 
 placed by larger, covered vessels (Fig. 71); and finally 
 huge ships have been made of steel. As to motive 
 power, oars and paddles (Fig. 67) were first used, then 
 
 Fig. 70. 
 
 A boat with an outrigger to prevent capsizing 
 waiian Islands. 
 
 •Ha- 
 
THE HUMAN RACE 
 
 89 
 
 the wind was called into service (Fig. 71), and finally 
 steam. Ships are one of man's most important inven- 
 tions. Why ? Of what 
 service have printing, 
 gunpowder, steam, elec- 
 tricity, and labor-saving 
 machinery been in ad- 
 vancing civilization ? 
 
 Civilized man, instead of 
 depending upon wild plants 
 and animals for food and 
 clothing, has learned to 
 cultivate the choicest of 
 plants. He has tamed and 
 domesticated many species 
 of animals, too, and used 
 them not merely as a source 
 of food but also as an aid in 
 his work. More than this, 
 he has learned to control 
 some of the forces of nature and has caused them to do his 
 work in an improved fashion. The result of it all is that thou- 
 sands of people are able to live where only one could exist in the 
 natural state. For example, while in some parts of the tropics 
 there is an average of but one savage for every twenty-four 
 square miles, there are whole countries that average several 
 thousand civilized men on the same area. 
 
 Fig. 71. 
 
 A Chinese junk, a form of sailing boat long- 
 in use by the Chinese. 
 
 Development of the State. — While in some tribes there 
 is scarcely any real government, the need of a leader so 
 frequently arises, as in the management of a boat or in 
 war, that in most cases there is some organization. 
 Further than that, war is so common among savage and 
 barbarous races that it is of interest for different tribes to 
 
90 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 combine under a good leader. This forms a beginning 
 of tribal government and of the State. 
 
 Sometimes, as among the Indians, the chief is merely a 
 representative of the people, leading them, but not having 
 absolute power. In other cases he is a despot to whom 
 all subjects must yield obedience. Their property, move- 
 ments, and very lives are at his mercy, his authority often 
 being made especially secure by means of religious beliefs 
 and rites, as among many African tribes. 
 
 In early times Europe was occupied by scattered, war- 
 ring tribes governed in this loose manner. But with the 
 development of Roman civilization on the Mediterranean, 
 much of western Europe came under the Roman influence, 
 and laws and customs were established which have aided 
 greatly in the later civilization of European nations. With 
 the decline of the Roman Empire, however, these tribes 
 sank back in part to their old conditions. Kings ruled 
 portions of the country and fought battles with neighbors, 
 aided by leaders or lords, who themselves often became so 
 powerful as to be dangerous rivals to the kings. These 
 lords lived in well-protected castles, surrounded by farms 
 which were worked by the common people, oy peasants, who 
 were little better than slaves. They were called vassals, 
 and were required to serve their lords and to fight for 
 them. 
 
 Under such conditions little advance was possible ; 
 for while a few persons possessed much power, the masses 
 were kept in poverty and ignorance. Little by little, how- 
 ever, the people have made progress toward freedom ; and 
 to-day they are in the main emancipated, although in their 
 kings and lords most countries of Europe still preserve 
 relics of the old system. 
 
THE HUMAN RACE 91 
 
 Among the causes which have aided in the elevation of 
 the people, perhaps none were of more importance than the 
 discovery and exploration of new lands. Explain how that 
 is true. The masses reached the point where they de- 
 manded the right to make their own laws ; and in some 
 countries, as in France, they even replaced the monarchy 
 by a republic. In England a full measure of liberty was 
 obtained without abolishing the monarchy, but only after 
 many severe struggles. In America, separated from the 
 Old World customs, and peopled by those who fled from 
 oppression, the love of freedom was prominent from the 
 very first ; and neither hereditary king nor lord checks the 
 masses from the full enjoyment of their liberty. 
 
 Development of Religion. — True religion is the climax 
 of man's development ; yet every race has some form 
 of religion. Among savages it is little more than super- 
 stition. They are surrounded by nature, which they 
 do not understand. Life and death mystify them ; the 
 tree develops from a seed, and the savages know not why ; 
 on every hand is mystery. They seek a cause, and, seeing 
 none, are led to believe in spirits which they try to com- 
 prehend. Some they suppose to be evil, others good. 
 Believing that these spirits have great influence over 
 their lives, they try to win favor with them by offering 
 sacrifices and worshipping them. 
 
 Such religion, if it may be so called, takes many forms. 
 Some races, as the negroes, believe in witchcraft; and among 
 them the witch doctor is sometimes more powerful than the 
 ruler himself. If disease comes, it is ascribed to an evil spirit, 
 and it is believed that the witch doctor can effect a cure. To 
 ward off such evil influences charms are worn, gross rites are 
 observed, and images or objects, called fetishes (Fig. 72), are 
 
92 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 worshipped because they are believed to possess magic power. 
 
 Among these objects are included fire, the sun, the earthquake, 
 and many animals. So far as God is concerned, 
 if these people have any conception of Him, 
 it is of the crudest kind. The negroes, the 
 Indians, the Eskimos, and even our own 
 ancestors two thousand years ago had little 
 more than this form of relisrion. 
 
 Most races believe in a future life, 
 though often vaguely, and as their only 
 way of explaining the mystery of death. 
 The Indians, for example, think that 
 upon death the human spirit goes to a 
 happier place, where conditions are some- 
 what similar to those on earth. They 
 therefore bury hunting implements with 
 the dead. All people with such views as 
 the preceding are called heathens (Fig. 
 74), and are often said to have no reli- 
 gion. From our point of view they have 
 no true religion ; but they have something 
 akin to it. 
 
 Among the semi-civilized and civilized 
 races there are forms of belief in which the conception of 
 God is higher, and the idea of future reward and punish- 
 ment is taught. Of these religions five call for special 
 mention. 
 
 Buddhism, followed especially in ea'stern Asia (Fig. 74), 
 was established in India five or six hundred years before 
 the time of Christ as a result of the work and teachings 
 of Buddha (Fig. 73). But there are many differences in 
 the religious beliefs and customs of the Asiatic people, 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
 A fetish from 
 Africa. 
 
THE HUMAN RACE 
 
 93 
 
 
 and in consequence there are many sects. Brahminism is 
 one of the most common forms of belief, being especially 
 followed in India. It would be difficult correctly to de- 
 scribe the religions of the Asiatic people in a few words ; 
 but idolatry, or 
 the worship of 
 idols, is preva- 
 lent among them. 
 Ancestor wor- 
 ship is common 
 in China ; and 
 the doctrine of 
 caste in India, 
 — that is, the 
 doctrine of class 
 distinction. Both 
 of these doc- 
 trines, which are 
 a part of their 
 religion, are op- 
 posed to prog- 
 ress, as we shall 
 see. 
 
 The Jewish re- 
 ligion, still fol- 
 lowed by many, 
 upholds the worship of one righteous God, as taught in the 
 Old Testament. From this, two other religions have de- 
 veloped, Mohammedanism and Christianity: The prophet 
 Mohammed lived about six centuries after Christ, and the 
 Koran contains his teachings. Mohammedans deny the 
 divinity of Christ. This religion has been spread by the 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 A statue, or idol, of Buddha in India. 
 
94 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 sword with wonderful rapidity, especially among the 
 semi-civilized people of Asia and Africa (Fig. 74). 
 Many of its followers became fanatics who, believing that 
 they thus obtained future happiness, willingly died if they 
 could die killing a Christian. 
 
 The Christian religion, the common belief in America 
 and most of Europe, has spread slowly, but it now num- 
 
 Fig. 74. 
 
 Diagram to show the distribution of religions. So small a map is of course 
 only true in general — for example, it must omit many of the small sections 
 where Christian missionaries have made converts. 
 
 bers about 440,000,000 followers. Its success, however, 
 must not be measured by numbers alone ; for Christians 
 make up most of the really civilized people of the world 
 (Fig. 74). It is no accident that this is so, for Christi- 
 anity has been one of the chief factors in making civili- 
 zation possible. 
 
 Religious belief has had much to do with inventions 
 and the growth of industry. The Chinese, for example, 
 
THE HUMAN RACE 95 
 
 have long opposed new inventions because their ancestor 
 worship cultivated undue reverence for past customs ; 
 also they have been unwilling to dig into the ground, for 
 fear of disturbing the evil spirits that are supposed to 
 dwell there. Partly for such reasons, our study of geog- 
 raphy is chiefly concerned with Christian countries ; for 
 there we find the most varied and extensive uses of the 
 earth in the service of man. 
 
 Questions. — (1) Tell about the Ethiopians ; their characteristics 
 and distribution. (2) Do the same for the American Indians. 
 (3) Mongolians. (4) Caucasians. (5) Give reasons for" the greater 
 advance of the Caucasians. (6) What is believed about the early 
 development of civilization ? (7) How is food obtained by natural 
 races? (8) Tell about the development of agriculture. (9) Of graz- 
 ing. (10) What is the effect of the mixture of farming and nomadic 
 races? (11) What influence has the development of fishing had upon 
 civilization? (12) In what kind of regions has the greatest advance 
 of mankind taken place? Why? (13) How do natural races secure 
 shelter? Give examples. (14) What influences aid in the selection 
 of sites for homes ? For towns and cities ? (15) What materials 
 are employed in clothing? (16) What is known about the origin 
 of speech and written language ? (17) Give examples of early 
 inventions. (18) What inventions have been especially important? 
 (19) Tell about the simplest forms of government. (20) The more 
 advanced forms. Give examples. (21) Tell about the development 
 of religion. (22) Give some facts about Buddhism and Brahminism; 
 Jewish religion ; Mohammedanism ; Christianity. 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) What members of the divisions of mankind 
 — other than whites — have you seen in your own neighborhood? 
 (2) What different nationalities of whites ? (3) Find pictures illus- 
 trating human life in the various zones. (4) Help to make a collection 
 of pictures for the school to illustrate the various forms of shelter 
 and clothing. Also find such pictures in this book. (5) Find some 
 one who has specimens of primitive implements, as Indian arrow- 
 heads, and examine them. (6) Find out something about the ways 
 in which savage races ornament their clothing and person. 
 
Paet II (Section VIII) 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 Map Questions (Fig. 75). — (1) In what zones does South America 
 lie ? (2) What would you expect the climate to be in the northern part ? 
 In the central part? In the southern part? (3) During what months 
 does winter come in the extreme south? (4) What large rivers drain 
 the continent? (5) Do you find any lakes? (6) To what extent is 
 the coast line irregular? (7) Draw an outline map and locate upon 
 it the mountains and rivers. Add the boundary lines of the principal 
 countries. (8) On Figure 75 are there many islands? Where are most 
 of them? (9) Find Cape Horn. It is south of what island? What 
 strait separates this island from the mainland? (10) Which country 
 has most railways? What does this indicate about the people? (11) In 
 what zone is that country? How may the climate have influenced the 
 building of railways? 
 
 Introductory Sections 
 
 Physiography. — North and South America resemble 
 each other in several respects. The former is triangular 
 in shape and has its main highland masses on the two 
 sides. What are their names ? The western mountains 
 are the younger and loftier, and they have many volcanic 
 cones. They occupy a great breadth of country, the west- 
 ernmost, or Coast Ranges, rising from the very shores of 
 the Pacific. Between the extensive highlands on the two 
 sides of the continent are low plains stretching from the 
 Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 South America is likewise triangular in shape, broad at 
 the north and tapering toward the south, and its princi- 
 pal highlands are on the two sides (Fig. 76). Those 
 on the west, the Andes (Fig. 77), form one of the 
 
PHYSIOGRAPHY 
 
 97 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
 Relief map of South America. In what portion are the highlands ? Which 
 are highest? Locate the lowlands. 
 
98 
 
 SOUTH AMEBIC A 
 
 loftiest mountain systems in the world, and between the 
 ranges are included deep valleys and lofty plateaus. 
 Throughout the entire length of the continent these 
 mountains, rising from the very seacoast, extend inland 
 for a distance of many miles. 
 
 Many of the highest peaks of the Andes are volcanic cones. 
 One of them, Aconcagua, in Chile, reaches an elevation of nearly 
 
 Fig. 77. 
 A view in one of the higher valleys of the lofty Andes. 
 
 twenty -three thousand feet, and is one of the loftiest peaks in 
 the world. Some of the volcanoes are still active, and in a num- 
 ber of cases the eruptions have been terribly violent. Frequent 
 and destructive earthquake shocks have also been experienced 
 in this region ; for the Andes are still rising, and as the rocks 
 move they often break and cause the earth to tremble. 
 
 1 
 
PHYSIOGRAPHY 99 
 
 On the eastern side of South America the most ex- 
 tensive highlands are those in eastern Brazil (Fig. 76). 
 This region, like New England, consists of ancient rocks, 
 rising in the form of high hills and low mountains. The 
 highest point is a little over ten thousand feet. The 
 Guiana highland (Fig. 76), between the Amazon and 
 Orinoco rivers, resembles the upland of Brazil and may be 
 considered a part of it, although separated from it by the 
 Amazon lowland. The remainder of the continent is low- 
 land (Fig. 76) and mainly a vast plain extending from 
 southern Argentina to the Caribbean Sea. 
 
 In South America, as in North America, the growth of 
 mountains has raised the two sides of the continent and left 
 a depression into which the sea once entered. But waste from 
 the mountains, washed down by rain and rivers, has filled 
 this depression and built the broad plains that are now there. 
 By uplift these plains have been elevated to form dry land. 
 
 In two important respects North and South America are 
 unlike in physiography. In the first place, their large 
 rivers flow in different directions. Describe from memory 
 the three or four principal river systems of North America. 
 Make a sketch of the three largest rivers of South America. 
 One of these is the largest in the world. Which is it ? 
 Which one most nearly corresponds to the Mississippi in 
 position and direction of flow ? 
 
 A second difference between the two continents is in 
 regard to their coast lines. It will be remembered that 
 much of the North American coast has been made irreg- 
 ular by the sinking of the land. Much of the South 
 American coast, on the other hand, has been rising. In 
 the former case, many fine harbors were formed ; in the 
 latter, the coast line is made straight because the level sea 
 LofC. 
 
100 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 bottom is being raised. Notice how very regular is most 
 of the western coast of South America. It is the most 
 regular coast line of long extent in the world ; for a dis- 
 tance of three thousand miles there is a general absence 
 of good natural harbors. What effect must this have 
 upon the development of the continent ? 
 
 Climate. — A large portion of South America lies in the 
 tropical zone and consequently has a hot climate. Where 
 does the Tropic of Capricorn cross the continent ? The 
 portion south of this tropic reaches into the south temper- 
 ate zone, and its climate, therefore, resembles that of the 
 United States. What countries of South America are 
 partly or wholly in the temperate zone? During what 
 months do they have summer ? What effect on tempera- 
 ture are their north winds likely to have ? 
 
 Of coarse the mountains must cause different kinds of climate 
 in each of these zones. For instance, in Ecuador, where the 
 equator crosses the Andes, the temperature at the base of the 
 mountains near sea level is high throughout the year; in other 
 words, there is perpetual summer. Higher up the mountain 
 sides the climate is cooler and there is perpetual spring. Still 
 higher up, the temperature is so low that snow remains on the 
 ground throughout the year (Fig. 77). There, in a distance of 
 a few miles, are found dense tropical forests (Figs. 40 and 
 80), fields where the products of temperate latitudes are raised, 
 and barren, frigid mountain peaks on which only the hardiest 
 of plants can grow (Fig. 78). 
 
 The winds, together with the highlands, are the key to 
 the rainfall. On the map (Fig. 25) it is seen that the 
 belt of calms extends across the continent in the neigh- 
 borhood of the equator. North of this belt the northeast 
 trade winds blow (Fig. 25), while south of it is the zone 
 of southeast trade winds. Still farther south are the 
 
Fig. 78. 
 
 A diagram to illustrate change in vegetation with elevation. What do you see 
 in the picture? In order to hring all this within a single view, the slope 
 has been exaggerated and the horizontal distance shortened. It might be 
 a hundred miles from the foreground to the base of the mountains. 
 
102 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 horse latitudes, and then come the prevailing westerlies 
 (Fig. 25), which blow across the southern end of the 
 continent. 
 
 We may therefore expect heavy rainfall in the vicinity 
 of the equator (Fig. 26), where the air is constantly ris- 
 ing. The northern coast must also receive abundant 
 rains (Fig. 26) because the trade winds come from the 
 ocean and are forced to rise in passing over the slopes. 
 
 A view on the arid plateau of Bolivia — a train of alpacas is crossing here. 
 
 The highlands in eastern Brazil must likewise be well 
 watered by the vapor-laden southeast trades (Fig. 26). 
 Of course, these winds lose much of their moisture in 
 travelling across the continent, but on approaching the 
 Andes they are forced to a still greater height ; accord- 
 ingly, the eastern side of these ranges is wet by frequent 
 rains (Fig. 26). 
 
 South of the belt of calms, both in the trade- wind and 
 horse latitude belts, the western slopes and the valleys of 
 the Andes (Fig. 26) are far too arid for agriculture with- 
 
CLIMATE 103 
 
 out irrigation. In this region large areas are veritable des- 
 erts. This arid condition is due to the influence of the 
 mountains, which interfere with the trade winds so that the 
 prevailing winds are from the south, and therefore paral- 
 lel to the coast (Fig. 25). Since these winds are blowing 
 toward the equator, and therefore becoming steadily 
 warmer, they do not give up their moisture and form 
 rain. Thus there are deserts on the very coast. 
 
 Farther south the influence of the prevailing westerlies 
 is felt. In this part of the continent, therefore, it is the 
 western side that receives the rain, while the eastern part 
 is dry (Fig. 29). In rising over the land these winds 
 cause abundant rainfall in southern Chile ; but, being 
 robbed of their vapor as they cross the mountains, they 
 descend as dry winds upon the plains of Patagonia. With 
 what portion of the United States may the climate of this 
 region be compared '? 
 
 From the above we see that while most of South Amer- 
 ica is well supplied with rain, two extensive areas on 
 opposite sides of the Andes are arid. Locate them 
 (Fig. 29). 
 
 The heavy rain in the tropical section of the continent sup- 
 plies the three great rivers with an abundance of water, and 
 encourages a rank growth of tropical vegetation. But each 
 year, as the season changes, the belts of rainfall migrate north- 
 ward and southward (Figs. 31 and 32). Therefore on each side 
 of the equator is a belt where the rainfall varies with the season, 
 being dry at one time of year and well watered in the opposite 
 season. In the rainy season the rivers are flooded, and vegeta- 
 tion grows profusely ; but with the dry season the streams 
 shrink in size, and the plains become dry and parched. It is 
 because of this dry period that there are open savannas both 
 north and south of the equatorial forest. Trees cannot survive 
 
104 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 the drought ; but grass is able to mature its seeds during the 
 rainy season, then die down to the ground and remain dormant 
 until the next period of rains. 
 
 Plant Life. — In the warm, rainy belt the great humid- 
 ity and high temperature are favorable to an extraordi- 
 
 Tropical vegetation in the damp lowlands of Ecuador, where there are heavy 
 equatorial rains. The boats are dugouts, that is, logs hollowed out iu boat 
 form by the uatives. 
 
 nary growth of plant life (Figs. 40 and 80). So dense are 
 the vast jungles of the Amazon that travel through them 
 is almost impossible (p. 113) ; and the difficulties in the way 
 of clearing the forest are so serious that immense areas have 
 never been settled by other than savage Indians. In fact, 
 much of this forest wilderness has never been explored. 
 
 In the desert of the west coast, on the other hand, plant 
 life is very scanty (Fig. 79). There are some parts, for 
 instance the desert of Atacama in northern Chile, where, 
 
PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE 105 
 
 as in other arid sections of the world, there is almost no 
 life of any kind. 
 
 The rainy belt and the desert illustrate the two extremes 
 of abundance and scarcity of life. But there are other 
 conditions in South America. For example, the llanos of 
 the Orinoco valley and the campos of Brazil are broad 
 tracts of treeless plains, or savannas. Why? (see p. 55). 
 What is the cause of the treeless pampas of Argentina ? 
 (p. 60). With what portion of the United States may 
 they be compared ? 
 
 In those sections where the climate is cool and the rain- 
 fall moderate, as on the mountain slopes and in the south 
 temperate zone, the land is forest covered ; but the for- 
 ests are much more open than the tropical jungle. The 
 extreme southern part of the continent has a climate so 
 cold (Fig. 108) that the plants become dwarfed, as is the 
 case near the tree line in northern Canada. 
 
 Animal Life. — In the tropical forest there is a great variety 
 of tree-dwelling animals, among which are many insects and. 
 beautiful birds. Among the larger animals may be mentioned 
 the fruit-eating monkey, the fierce jaguar (Fig. 81), which preys 
 upon other animals, and the sloth (Fig. 81), a creature which 
 even sleeps suspended, back downward, from the branches of 
 the trees. There are also many reptiles, including serpents 
 and the iguana (Fig. 81), a tree lizard often several feet in 
 length. Some of the serpents are small and poisonous ; others, 
 like the boa constrictor (Fig. 81), are large and powerful 
 enough to crush a deer in their coils. The boa, coiled among 
 the trees awaiting its prey, resembles a vine. 
 
 The beautiful butterflies and ants are most noticeable among 
 the insects. Some of the ants live in the ground, others in 
 decayed vegetation, and many of them are terrible pests. 
 Among the most interesting insects are the termites, commonly 
 called white ants, which live in colonies, and build houses of 
 
LLAMA 
 
 ARMADILLO. 
 
 Fig. 81. 
 Some of the animals of South America, 
 
THE PEOPLE 107 
 
 earth. With so many insects there are naturally numerous 
 species of insect eaters. One of the most interesting of these 
 is the ant-eater (Fig. 81), whose long claws are adapted to 
 digging the ants from their earthy or woody dwelling places, 
 while its sharp-pointed snout and long tongue aid it in finding 
 and devouring its food. 
 
 Besides these animals there is the tapir (Fig. 81), five or six 
 feet in length, which wanders about at night, feeding along the 
 watercourses ; and the armadillo (Fig. 81), a burrowing ani- 
 mal protected by an armor. When attacked by an enemy, the 
 armadillo rolls itself into a ball, enclosing its soft under parts. 
 In the river waters and swamps are fishes, turtles, and alliga- 
 tors (Fig. 81). The turtle eggs and fish are among the princi- 
 pal foods for the forest Indians. Here also is found the 
 manatee (Fig. 81), or sea cow, a mammal that has become 
 adapted to life in the water. It lives both in fresh and salt 
 water and ascends the Amazon even as far as Ecuador. 
 
 On the open plains, herds of deer roam about, and also the rhea 
 (Fig. 81) — often called the American ostrich — one of the few 
 large running birds (p. 69). It lives on the open plains, as in 
 Patagonia, where are also found herds of guanaco, a kind of 
 wild llama. 
 
 Among the crags and peaks of the Andes dwells the condor 
 (Fig. 81), the largest of the flying birds — so large that it kills 
 and carries off small deer. In the mountain valleys live the 
 llama (Fig. 81) and its allies, the vicuna and alpaca, both wild 
 and domesticated (Figs. 50, 79, and 105). Like other mountain 
 dwellers the llama is sure-footed on the rocks, and is thus of great 
 use as a beast of burden ; and the cold climate causes it to have 
 a thick coat of wool which is of value to man. Because of its 
 usefulness the llama is sometimes called the American camel. 
 
 The People. — When South America was discovered by 
 Columbus, it was inhabited solely by red men. Of these 
 many were typical savages ; and even at the present day 
 some of the forest Indians are savages (Figs. 56 and 61), 
 
108 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 living solely upon fish, game, and the abundant fruits. It 
 is still unsafe for white men to go among them, and indeed 
 
 there are forest tribes 
 which still practise canni- 
 balism (Fig. 82). 
 
 Along the coast and 
 some of the larger rivers 
 the red men found by the 
 early explorers were more 
 advanced. Like most of 
 the North American In- 
 dians, they were in the 
 lower stages of barbarism. 
 In a crude way they cul- 
 tivated the soil and manu- 
 factured a few simple 
 implements. Many In- 
 dians in the more remote 
 districts still live in this primitive way, though large 
 numbers have mixed with the white settlers and adopted 
 their customs. 
 
 But among the Andes, especially in Peru, Bolivia, and 
 Ecuador, the Spanish explorers found tribes of Indians, 
 under control of the Incas, who had developed far beyond 
 their neighbors. Indeed, like the Pueblo and Aztec 
 Indians of North America, they had reached the early 
 stages of civilization. The temperate climate of their 
 mountain valley homes favored advance. And the pro- 
 tection from the inroads of their more savage neighbors, 
 which the arid country and mountain barriers offered, gave 
 them the opportunity to develop arts and to advance in 
 other ways. 
 
 Fig. 82. 
 
 A caunibal girl from the tropical forest of 
 Peru. 
 
THE PEOPLE 
 
 109 
 
 By the aid of irrigation the Incas tilled the soil, cultivating 
 the potato, corn, and Peruvian cotton, all of which they had 
 improved from 
 wild plants. 
 They domesti- 
 cated the llama 
 and alpaca (Figs. 
 50, 79, 81, and 
 105) for their 
 wool (Fig. 83) 
 and for use as 
 beasts of burden 
 and work animals 
 on the farm. 
 They had well- 
 organized armies, 
 built roads (Fig. 
 84), and had a 
 rude postal and 
 express system 
 by swift runners. 
 Although the In- 
 cas had not in- 
 vented writing, 
 they kept records 
 by means of 
 knotted strings. 
 Their e m p i r e, 
 which extended 
 for more than two thousand miles along the Andes, and from 
 the Pacific to the trackless forests of the Amazon, was governed 
 by a powerful chief whose capital was Cuzco in Peru. All 
 together the stage of advancement reached by these red men 
 was wonderful (see also p. 137). 
 
 The Spanish, encouraged by the discovery of rich de- 
 posits of gold and silver, seized almost all of South 
 
 Fig. 83. 
 Some of the cloth and other articles made by the Incas. 
 
110 
 
 SOUTH AMEBIC A 
 
 America excepting Brazil, which was settled by the Por- 
 tuguese. They treated the aborigines with great cruelty, 
 especially the Incas, whom they robbed of their treasures 
 and reduced to slavery. As in North America, the Span- 
 iards intermarried freely with the Indians, so that the 
 present inhabitants of South America are to a large extent 
 of mixed blood. The introduction of negro slaves has 
 led to a still greater mixture of peoples. Therefore, while 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 A bridge made by the Incas. 
 
 there are still pure-blooded Indians and negroes, and also 
 pure-blooded white men, especially Spanish and Portu- 
 guese, the greater number of the South Americans are a 
 mixture of two or more of these very different races. 
 This fact is one of the main reasons for the unstable gov- 
 ernments of some of the South American countries. 
 
 Spain maintained her control in South America for 
 fully three hundred years. But in the early part of the 
 
THE PEOPLE 
 
 111 
 
 nineteenth century the colonies revolted and established 
 themselves as independent republics, modelled after the 
 United States. 
 They were led 
 to fight for their 
 independence 
 partly because 
 of the success of 
 our own Revolu- 
 tion, but chiefly 
 because of op- 
 pression by the 
 Spaniards, who 
 treated their 
 colonies merely 
 as sources of 
 wealth. 
 
 Brazil also 
 became indepen- 
 dent of Portu- 
 gal, and, after 
 being for a long 
 time ruled by an 
 emperor, estab- 
 lished a repub- 
 lican form of 
 government in 1889. Of late there have been many im- 
 migrants from European countries, especially from Ger- 
 many and southern Europe. Special inducements have 
 been offered to such colonists, and the recent development 
 in portions of South America, particularly of Argentina and 
 southern Brazil, has been partly due to these immigrants. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA, 
 ty or Population. 
 
 Less than 1 per Square Mile. 
 
 £±Z3 1-25 
 
 ES^ 25-125 
 
 Fig. 85. 
 
112 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Physiography and Climate. — This is the largest coun- 
 try in South America. It is even larger than the United 
 States without Alaska, and nearly as large as Europe. 
 While reaching north of the equator on one side, it ex- 
 tends into the south temperate zone on the other side. 
 How many degrees of latitude does it include ? Since so 
 large a part of Brazil is in the torrid zone and on the east- 
 ern slope of the continent, its climate is not only warm 
 but moist. Why the latter ? 
 
 Eastern Brazil is a highland of ancient mountains worn 
 down to the condition of hills and low mountains. Nu- 
 merous streams drain this upland in various directions. 
 Point out some of these and show where they empty 
 (Fig. 75). Trace the divide between those flowing into 
 the Amazon and Parana and those flowing into the At- 
 lantic. What is the name of the largest river emptying 
 directly into the Atlantic ? 
 
 The northern third of Brazil is mainly a vast level 
 plain, throughout most of its extent occupied by dense 
 forest and drained by the Amazon. What is the condi- 
 tion on the campos? Why? (p. 55). The rainfall in 
 the Amazon valley is so heavy, and the slope of the land 
 so gentle, that the Amazon and its larger tributaries are 
 swollen to great breadth. At times of flood the rivers 
 overflow the surrounding country and transform it to an 
 immense swamp through which many branching channels 
 extend. In places the Amazon is several miles in width, 
 and resembles a great lake rather than a river. Boats are 
 able to pass up the Amazon nearly to the base of the 
 
BRAZIL 
 
 113 
 
 Andes, a distance of twenty-two hundred miles from the 
 seacoast. Some of the tributaries are also navigable. 
 Along the route of navigation there are settlements, such 
 as Manaos which is reached by ocean steamers ; but at 
 a distance from 
 the river there is 
 nothing but an 
 almost unknown 
 wilderness. 
 
 The Tropical 
 Forest. — The A Bl- 
 azon forest offers 
 a typical illustra- 
 tion of the tropi- 
 cal forest (Fig. 
 40) where plants, 
 encouraged by the 
 uniformly high 
 temperature and 
 great dampness, 
 grow luxuriantly 
 in the rich soil. 
 Not only is the 
 rainfall heavy, but 
 evaporation is re- 
 tarded by the 
 dense vegetation, 
 so that the forest 
 is reeking with moisture. Consequently at night time, when 
 the temperature falls, such heavy dews collect that the plants 
 are wet by them as by a rain. 
 
 In these woods there is occasionally a giant tree (Fig. 86) 
 reaching to a height of from 180 to 200 feet and with a cir- 
 cumference of from 20 to 40 feet, while the distance to the 
 lower limbs may be 100 feet from the ground. Between these 
 
 
 
 
 Wit v> "J 
 
 
 
 ~~~r^rr --Tr- = - ' 
 
 
 
 Fig. 86. 
 
 A scene in the tropical forest showing one of the giant 
 trees from around which some of the undergrowth 
 has been removed. 
 
114 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 giant trees are smaller ones struggling to rise into the light, 
 while in competition with them are shrubs, bushes, ferns, and 
 many vines which twine about the tree trunks or hang from 
 the lower limbs (Fig. 86). There are also epiphytes, or plants 
 which, owing to the excessive moisture, are able to live cling- 
 ing to others, with 
 
 " ,■ ■■'■ '■■#& 
 
 their roots in the 
 air instead of the 
 ground. Among 
 the epiphytes are 
 many beautiful 
 orchids, including 
 the vanilla, whose 
 beans are of value 
 in making per- 
 fumes and flavor- 
 ing extracts. 
 
 One of the fea- 
 tures of such a 
 forest is the dense 
 gloom and the 
 silence, broken 
 now and then by 
 the crash of a fall- 
 ing tree, or the sor- 
 rowful notes of 
 birds, or the fright- 
 ful howling of 
 monkeys, or perchance the shrill scream of an animal which 
 has fallen prey to the boa (Fig. 81). Why might we expect 
 the animals in large part to be tree dwellers ? 
 
 To one whose home is in the temperate zone the tropical 
 forest appears very strange, for the woods are much the same 
 throughout the year. There is no time when all the trees send 
 forth their leaves and blossoms ; nor is there a time when all 
 the leaves change and fall to the ground. Some of the trees 
 blossom throughout the year ; others have their blossoms at 
 
 Fig. 87. 
 Some of the Indians of tropical South America. No- 
 tice the nose and lip ornaments. 
 
BRAZIL 115 
 
 regular seasons ; thus flowers and fruit may be seen at all 
 times of the year. 
 
 Products of the Forest. — Among the trees of the tropi- 
 cal forest are many useful kinds. Some produce gums, 
 such as caoutchouc, from which rubber is made ; or edible 
 fruits and nuts, or A^aluable timber and dyewoods. In 
 fact, the name Brazil is derived from a word applied to a 
 dyewood found in the Amazon forests. 
 
 Many of the inhabitants near the rivers, who have par- 
 tially adopted the customs of civilization, make long jour- 
 neys into the forest to collect the products, both for their 
 own use and for shipment down the Amazon. But the 
 difficulties of travel, and the warmth and dampness of the 
 climate, are opposed to much work. Therefore the re- 
 sources of this part of Brazil are only partially developed. 
 
 The natives still cultivate the manclioca, which was one of 
 their principal sources of food when white men appeared. 
 This plant has beneath the soil an enlargement of the root 
 which in shape resembles a long sweet potato. A dish of dry 
 meal, or farina, made from the mandioca is commonly seen on 
 Brazilian tables, and it is often stewed with beans. Mandioca 
 bears much the same relation to these people that wheat bears 
 to those who live in temperate climates. It is from this plant 
 that tapioca is made. 
 
 The Indians are also engaged in obtaining rubber, a product 
 of immense importance because of its many uses, for example, 
 as a packing around the valves of machinery, and as an insu- 
 lator around wires and cables. Name other uses of rubber. 
 
 When gathering rubber, the natives encamp in the forest in 
 lightly built huts (Fig. 88). Various paths through the dense 
 undergrowth lead from these huts to the rubber trees which 
 are scattered here and there. Each collector makes holes in 
 the bark and inserts tubes of clay which carry the sap to bam- 
 boo dishes. Collecting the dishes from a number of trees, the 
 
116 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 native returns to his hut and pours the contents into a larger 
 dish, perhaps the shell of a large turtle. 
 
 The sap must then be subjected to a process of smoking, for 
 if left standing too long the resin in it separates, and it is 
 spoiled. As a result of the smoking, which is clone by burn- 
 ing the nuts of a palm, the milky sap assumes a grayish yellow 
 
 color, and becomes 
 
 firm. First one 
 layer of sap is at- 
 tached to a shovel 
 and smoked ; then 
 another layer is 
 added and smoked ; 
 and this is repeated 
 until the coat- 
 ing of rubber on 
 each side of the 
 shovel is about 
 eight inches thick. 
 It is then cut off 
 and hung in the sun to dry, after which it is ready for shipment 
 down the river to Paka ; hence the name, Para rubber. Find 
 this city on Figure 75. Rubber ranks next to coffee as an 
 export from Brazil, and one of the principal markets for it 
 is the United States. 
 
 Coffee Raising. — The coffee tree is a native of Abys- 
 sinia in Africa. It was introduced into Brazil in the 
 eighteenth century, and has proved so successful that 
 Brazil now produces more than one-half of all the coffee 
 raised in the world. Coffee is cultivated all the way 
 from southern Brazil to the Amazon, and it is estimated 
 that there are fully five hundred million coffee trees in 
 Brazil alone. 
 
 Coffee raising requires great care and expense. The plant 
 must have a warm climate. It cannot stand extreme heat 
 
 Fig. 88. 
 An Indian hut on the Amazon. 
 
BRAZIL 117 
 
 or frost. The soil must be fertile, and the plant must be 
 protected from winds. It grows best at altitudes of from fif- 
 teen hundred to forty-five hundred feet. First, the seeds are 
 planted in nurseries ; then, after twelve or eighteen months, 
 they are set out in rows from five to eight feet apart. By care- 
 ful pruning, the height of the trees is kept at about eight feet. 
 The full crop is obtained in the sixth year, and the tree bears 
 well until the twentieth year, each tree producing from thirty . 
 to forty pounds a year. 
 
 The small white flower grows in clusters, and the fruit, which 
 is also clustered, looks somewhat like a medium-sized cherry. 
 Inside of the husk are two kernels with the flat faces together. 
 The berries are picked, dried in the sun, and hulled by machin- 
 ery, the picking being done from April to September. After 
 being sorted in the cities the coffee is shipped in bags. For- 
 merly most of the Brazilian coffee left the port of Rio de 
 Janeiro, but now more than half of it is sent from Santos. 
 Coffee is the principal export of Brazil, and much of it comes 
 to the United States. 
 
 Other Industries in Brazil. — On the highlands of Brazil, 
 where coffee raising is carried on, other crops are also 
 produced, such as cotton, sugar, tobacco, fruit, and corn. 
 Much cocoa is cultivated in the tropical section, and in 
 the extreme south many cattle are raised. The rocks of the 
 highlands have produced some valuable minerals, especially 
 gold and diamonds. Indeed, at one time, the southern 
 part of Brazil was the principal diamond-producing region 
 in the world. Both coal and iron are also present, though 
 they are not yet mined. 
 
 Cities. — The capital and largest city of the republic is 
 Rio de Janeiro, a city about as large as Boston, and the 
 second in size in South America. It is situated upon a fine 
 harbor (Fig. 89) and is surrounded by excellent farming 
 country and coffee plantations. Several other Brazilian 
 
 
118 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 cities are seaports connected with the interior by short 
 railway lines which bring the coffee and other products 
 for shipment. The most important are Bahia, Santos, 
 the seaport of Sao Paulo, and Pernambtjco, the chief 
 port for the export of sugar and cotton. Compare the size 
 of each of these with some city in the United States (Tables 
 
 Fig. 89. 
 A part of the city and harbor of Rio de Janeiro. 
 
 just before Index). On the Para River, near the mouth of 
 the Amazon, and connected with it by a branch of the river, 
 is Para, from which most of the rubber, vanilla, and other 
 products from the Amazon forest are shipped to America 
 and Europe. 
 
 Argentina 
 
 Physiography and Climate. — This is by far the most 
 advanced of South American countries, and the reasons 
 
ARGENTINA 
 
 119 
 
 are not difficult to understand. In the first place, Argen- 
 tina extends from just within the torrid zone to the ex- 
 treme southern end of South America. Thus the country 
 is for the most part within the temperate zone, whose cli- 
 mate is favorable to the development of energetic people. 
 Also the range of climate, from arid to rainy (Fig. 26) 
 and from tropical to temperate, insures a considerable 
 range of products. A second reason for rapid advance- 
 ment is the fact that, while there are mountains in the 
 west, the re- 
 mainder of the 
 country is 
 largely one vast 
 expanse of pam- 
 pas (Fig. 90). 
 These o p e n, 
 treeless plains 
 have made it 
 easy for settlers 
 to move about 
 
 and to carry on the industries of farming and ranching. 
 This is quite in contrast to the unfavorable conditions in 
 the Amazon valley ; but it may be compared with the ease 
 of settlement which the plains and prairies of the United 
 States have afforded. 
 
 Such favorable conditions have served to attract many 
 immigrants from Europe, and there is, therefore, a larger 
 percentage of pure-blooded whites here than in other 
 parts of South America. Largely for this reason the 
 government of Argentina is decidedly better than that 
 in most South American countries. 
 
 Cattle Raising. — The open plains are well adapted 
 
 Fig. 90. 
 On the pampas of Argentina. 
 
120 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 to ranching, and it is estimated that there are nearly one 
 hundred million sheep and twenty-five million cattle in 
 this country. Stock raising in Argentina differs in some 
 respects from ranching in the United States. 
 
 In the latter country the cattle usually roam at large, some- 
 times straying over a hundred miles from home in their search 
 for grass or for protection against storms. This makes necessary 
 two round-ups every year, one in May or June, for branding 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~'"" — ' ' ^:: !, : - : 
 
 ^isij 
 
 ■Jr\-'- T*T* 
 
 \\_ 
 
 ,,^^W^' fvW- 
 
 
 sJkt^sS-? 
 
 S.TLX—f-**'- 
 
 
 
 
 '" - 
 
 j~~~^HI 
 
 IHHI 
 
 
 Fig. 91. 
 On the pampas of Argentina. 
 
 the calves and driving the stock back nearer the ranch house ; 
 and the other, early in the fall, for collecting the steers that 
 are to be shipped to market. 
 
 In the United States sheep are likewise allowed to graze 
 upon the " range " where there are no fences. They, however, 
 are under the care of a herder who selects some spot near 
 water for a camp, returning to shelter at night ; and when the 
 grass is eaten in one place, the camp is moved to a new centre. 
 
 While stock raising in some parts of Argentina is similar to 
 that in the United States, the most advanced methods employed 
 may be illustrated by the following brief description of one of 
 the large cattle ranches. 
 
ARGENTINA 121 
 
 This ranch contains over 74,000 acres, which are divided 
 into three sections, each surrounded by wire fence. Each sec- 
 tion is subdivided into smaller tracts by means of wire fences, 
 the cost of fencing being fully as great as the original cost of 
 the land. There are 22,000 head of cattle and 60,000 sheep 
 divided into groups of from 4000 to 5000 head, each group 
 being kept in one of the enclosures. They are thus prevented 
 from straying, and require so little care that one man is able 
 to take charge of a group. 
 
 All the animals are of ihe best breeds, and four hundred fine 
 Durham cows are kept for the use of their milk in cheese manu- 
 facture. The chief profit of the ranch comes from the wool 
 and skins of the sheep and from the sale of fat steers, usually 
 sold when two years old. Many of the largest cattle and sheep 
 ranches are owned by Englishmen and Scotchmen. 
 
 Formerly the herds roamed over the plains, feeding on gov- 
 ernment land, as is the custom in the United States. The 
 government of Argentina, however, recognizing that ranching 
 would be more successful if the cattle owners controlled large 
 bodies of land, has been in the habit of selling large tracts to 
 the ranchmen, who after purchase fence in their land. In 
 western United States, on the other hand, ranchmen cannot 
 obtain large tracts of government land because of the laws 
 which restrict its sale to small blocks. But some of our west- 
 ern land, owned by the railways, can be bought in large tracts, 
 and there the custom is growing to purchase and fence land, 
 introduce better stock, and care for it, as in Argentina. 
 
 Farming. — The climate and soil in many parts of 
 Argentina are favorable to agriculture. In the warm 
 northern portion sugar-cane, coffee, and tobacco are 
 produced ; in the more temperate part, where the rain- 
 fall is sufficient, grains are raised and alfalfa for hay. 
 There is also much fruit raising, especially grapes, from 
 which wine and. raisins are made. 
 
 Wheat is the most important agricultural product, the 
 
122 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 value of the crop being fully $50,000,000 a year, making 
 the Argentine plains one of the great wheat-producing 
 sections of the world. The climate is favorable, the soil 
 fertile, and the land level or gently rolling, as in Minne- 
 sota and the Dakotas. Agriculture in the south is pro- 
 hibited by the cold ; but sheep raising is carried on even 
 in Patagonia and on the stormy islands beyond the Strait 
 of Magellan. 
 
 Manufacturing and Commerce. — Besides the industries 
 mentioned above, there is some lumbering and mining in 
 the mountainous portion. But although the words Argen- 
 tina and Plata mean silver, their use as proper names 
 comes from the fact that the natives wore silver orna- 
 ments rather than from any abundance of the white metal 
 in Argentina. 
 
 In the large cities there is considerable manufacturing, 
 largely connected with the raw products of the country, 
 as, for instance, dairying, woollen mills, flour, sugar, wine, 
 and cotton manufacturing, the preparation of hides, etc. 
 Nevertheless, a large part of the raw products is sent 
 abroad, particularly wool, sheepskins, hides, wheat, corn, 
 and meat. On the other hand, machinery, cloth, and other 
 manufactured articles must be imported. 
 
 With such a development of the resources it is natural 
 that there should be means of ready transportation. The 
 broad Parana River, which empties into the Plata estuary, 
 offers extensive water connection with the interior ; and 
 railways ramify the well-settled portions of the country, 
 connecting all the important cities. In fact, because of the 
 superior development of Argentina there are more rail- 
 ways here than in any other South American country. In 
 resources, industrial development, government, and educa- 
 
URUGUAY AND PARAGUAY 
 
 123 
 
 ticmal system Argentina, of all the South American coun- 
 tries, bears the closest resemblance to the United States. 
 
 Cities. — By far the most important city is Buenos 
 Aires, which is the largest city in South America, and 
 considerably larger than St. Louis in the United States. 
 There is a certain resemblance between Buenos Aires and 
 New York, the metropolis of North America. 
 
 Each is situated on a good harbor on an estuary, and each 
 has water connection with a very productive interior having a 
 temperate climate. Moreover, from various parts of the inte- 
 rior, in each case, railway lines converge toward the seaport, 
 while steamship lines extend to all quarters of the globe. New 
 York, however, is a gateway to a much larger and more varied 
 country, and one of greater resources. In addition, New York 
 has been developed for a longer time. Consequently it is much 
 larger than Buenos Aires. 
 
 Buenos Aires is a biisy and rapidly growing city with much 
 manufacturing, especially flour milling, brewing, and the can- 
 ning and preserving of meat. It also has an extensive commerce. 
 Just below the city, on the Plata estuary, is the seaport of La 
 Plata; and upstream, on the Parana, is the rapidly growing 
 city of Bosario, which is an important railway centre as well 
 as a river port. In the interior are a number of towns and 
 cities, among which the railway centre Cordoba is the largest. 
 
 Uruguay and Paraguay 
 
 Uruguay. — Like so much of Argentina this is a region 
 of plains, well watered and excellently adapted to agricul- 
 ture. Naturally, therefore, cattle and sheep raising are im- 
 portant industries. But although the climate and soil are 
 favorable to the same crops that thrive in northern Argen- 
 tina, there has been little progress in agriculture. Indeed, 
 
124 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 quite in contrast to its neighbor Argentina, this country 
 is but slightly developed. The government is very bad 
 indeed, for a few men control the army and make and 
 unmake presidents almost at will. 
 
 The principal products of Uruguay are those connected 
 with cattle and sheep; namely, dried beef, corned beef, ox 
 tongues, hides, tallow, horns, sheepskins, and wool. The 
 famous Liebig extract of beef is made in this country. 
 
 Hfffe 
 
 Fig. 92. 
 
 Ranch houses on the plains of Uruguay. 
 
 The company disposes of more than one thousand cattle 
 a day during the summer months, and exports tongues, 
 canned meats, beef extracts, and other products, to the 
 value of $15,000,000 a year. 
 
 The capital and largest city is the seaport of Monte- 
 video, situated at one end of a semicircular bay on the 
 Plata estuary. 
 
 Paraguay. — Like Bolivia this little country is without 
 a seacoast, though it has access to the sea by way of the 
 Parana River. It is a region of hills and plains covered 
 with forests in part, but with many tracts of pasture land 
 upon which large herds of cattle feed. The climate is hot 
 and dry, with most of the hot winds from the north. For- 
 
THE QUI AN AS 125 
 
 tunately most of the rain falls during the hot summer 
 when the ocean winds blow toward the heated land. 
 
 The agricultural products are those of the warm tem- 
 perate and tropical zones, including tobacco, rice, sugar- 
 cane, and oranges, while from the forests rubber, dyewoods, 
 and valuable timber are obtained. There is but one rail- 
 way which connects the capital, Asuncion, with Monte- 
 video on the sea. 
 
 A peculiar product, and the principal export of this country, 
 is yerba matt, or Paraguay tea. Although not used as exten- 
 sively as our tea, which comes mainly from China and Japan, 
 it is very popular in South America, where its use was learned 
 from the red men. The tea is made by roasting and pulveriz- 
 ing the leaves of a wild holly, which, however, has lately been 
 cultivated. South Americans drink this tea at their meals, 
 and have become addicted to its use much as other people have 
 to tea and coffee. Like tea and coffee, it is a stimulant, being 
 considered very refreshing when taken by those fatigued. 
 
 The Guianas and Venezuela 
 
 The Guianas. — North of Brazil are three small coun- 
 tries, the only portions of the South American continent 
 now under control of European nations. They belong to 
 Great Britain, Holland, and France, respectively. Gold 
 is obtained in each of the Guianas, although the develop- 
 ment in this direction has gone little farther than the 
 washing of alluvial gravels. 
 
 In these small countries a large part of the surface is 
 still a forest wilderness inhabited chiefly by Indians who 
 have little contact with white men. This tropical forest, 
 like that of the Amazon, which it closely resembles, sup- 
 plies rubber and valuable timber ; but its resources are 
 
126 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 only slightly developed. Near the coast, however, there 
 is a strip of cultivated land from which is obtained sugar- 
 cane, bananas, cotton, and a few other products. Of late, 
 especially in Dutch Guiana, attention has been turned to 
 the production of cocoa and coffee. 
 
 The Guianas are so slightly developed that there is but 
 one short railway, and in most sections almost no roads. 
 
 Fig. 93. 
 A cocoanut grove on the northern coast of South America. 
 
 There are practically no exports except sugar, molasses, 
 and rum — all made from sugar-cane. Flour, clothing, 
 and other manufactured articles are imported. 
 
 British Guiana once belonged to the Dutch, who, coming 
 from the diked lands of Holland, imitated the conditions of 
 their mother country by building dikes to shut out the sea 
 from an extensive mangrove swamp, which they transformed 
 to tillable land. Even the capital, Georgetown, is below the 
 high-water mark. It is protected from the sea by a stone wall, 
 and drained by means of steam pumps and by canals which 
 open at low tide. 
 
 Dutch Guiana, once called Surinam, was originally settled by 
 the British; but after the war with Holland, in 1667, it was 
 
VENEZUELA 
 
 127 
 
 turned over to the Dutch in exchange for New York. It is 
 easy to see that the Dutch did not get the better of the bargain. 
 What is the capital of this colony ? 
 
 French Guiana is even less developed than the other Guianas. 
 The fact that it has been used as a penal colony for French 
 convicts has given it a bad reputation and aided in preventing its 
 settlement. Name its capital. 
 
 Venezuela. 1 — This country includes one of the spurs 
 of the Andes and also a portion of the Guiana highland. 
 
 Fig. 91. 
 
 The lower Orinoco. Notice how broad it is and how deep it must be to float 
 the large United States cruiser. Yet this picture is taken at Ciudad 
 Bolivar, far up the river. Find it on the map, Fig. 75. 
 
 But a large part of Venezuela is occupied by the broad 
 plains of the Orinoco valley. Some of these plains, the 
 treeless llanos (p. 55), are the seat of extensive cattle 
 raising, as in the case of the pampas of Argentina. In 
 parts of Venezuela, for example upon the mountain slopes, 
 are vast forests which produce valuable dyewoods and 
 
 1 This name, which means " little Venice," was applied to the country 
 because, when first visited in 1199, white men found an Indian village 
 built on piles or posts in the water along the shores of Lake Maracaibo. 
 
128 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 rubber. Among the mountains also are found valuable 
 mineral deposits, especially gold. 
 
 There is some agriculture. Hardy crops, like po- 
 tatoes, beans, and barley, are raised even at altitudes of 
 eight thousand feet ; but below five thousand feet are 
 found such semi-tropical and tropical products as sugar- 
 cane, bananas, cocoa, and coffee (Fig. 95). The latter is 
 
 Fig. 95. 
 Drying coffee at Caracas. The dark-colored portion is covered with coffee 
 
 the chief export ; in fact, Venezuela is one of the leading 
 coffee-producing sections of South America. 
 
 The capital, Caracas (Fig. 96), five or six miles from 
 the sea, is situated upon a highland over three thousand 
 feet above sea level. It is connected with its ports by a 
 short railway line which winds about in its descent to the 
 sea. 
 
 In 1812 Caracas was visited by one of the most terrible 
 earthquakes ever recorded. Being Ascension Day, a great 
 part of the population was at church. The first shock caused 
 
TROPICAL ANDEAN COUNTRIES 
 
 129 
 
 the bell to toll, but after all clanger was thought past, there 
 came a terrible subterranean noise, resembling the rolling of 
 thunder, but louder and longer than thunder is commonly 
 heard. Then came a shaking of the earth so tremendous that 
 churches and houses were overthrown and the inhabitants 
 buried beneath their ruins. On that day fully twelve thou- 
 
 Fig. 96. 
 The city of Caracas, nestled among the mountains. 
 
 sand persons perished. People were told that it was sent as 
 a punishment for revolting from the rule of Spain. 
 
 Tropical Andean Countries 
 
 Points of Resemblance. — These countries, Colombia, 
 Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, are all crossed by the lofty 
 Andes and are therefore mountainous. Each of them ex- 
 tends eastward beyond the mountains, to the plains of the 
 upper Amazon and Orinoco valleys. In Colombia these 
 plains include a portion of the llanos. Why then are they 
 treeless? (p. 55). Elsewhere the plains are covered with 
 a dense tropical forest (Figs. 40, 86, and 97), resembling 
 that of the Amazon in density of plant growth and in 
 human inhabitants. What can you tell about it then ? 
 
 There is, of course, great variety of climate in this sec- 
 
130 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 tion. Tropical heat prevails throughout the lowlands 
 (Fig. 80) ; but the heavy rainfall near the equator con- 
 trasts strikingly with the arid conditions of southern Peru 
 
 Building houses in a clearing 
 
 Fig. 97. 
 
 in the forest of Peru on the eastern side of the 
 Andes. 
 
 and northern Chile, which lie in the belt of southeast 
 trades (p. 34). 
 
 The elevation due to mountains and plateaus also causes dif- 
 ferences in climate (p. 100). This may be illustrated by the 
 vegetation. Up to an altitude of three thousand to four thou- 
 sand feet, bananas, sugar-cane, cocoa, and other plants of hot 
 climates flourish. Above this, to an elevation of six or seven 
 thousand feet, the cooler climate permits the growth of to- 
 bacco, corn, and coffee. From this height up to about ten thou- 
 
TROPICAL ANDEAN COUNTRIES 131 
 
 sand feet, wheat and our northern vegetables and fruits do 
 well ; but above ten thousand feet the bleak mountain peaks 
 are too cold for farming. There is therefore a great variety of 
 farm products in the western part of South America. 
 
 The fact that this section is so mountainous furnishes 
 an explanation of its importance in the production of 
 minerals. Both gold and silver ores, and other minerals 
 as well, are found from the northern to the southern 
 limit of the Andes, and this is therefore one of the great 
 mineral-producing regions of the world. It was the 
 abundance of precious metals which attracted the Span- 
 iards to the continent. 
 
 The precious metals were mined for use in Spain rather 
 than in the colonies. In fact, the welfare of the latter was not 
 considered; and of the Spaniards who came to manage the 
 mines and govern the... people, few remained as permanent 
 settlers. They exerted a destructive influence therefore, and 
 the permanent population which they left consisted mainly of 
 Indians and half-breeds. 
 
 Goaded by the Spanish misgovernment, these colonies 
 revolted in the early part of the last century and es- 
 tablished independent republics. But the nature of the 
 population was such that real republican government was 
 impossible. In each of the countries ambitious leaders, 
 usually generals in the army, have again and again over- 
 turned the government after a revolution. This has 
 seriously interfered with the development of industry and 
 commerce ; for not only have lives and property been 
 lost, but a feeling of uncertainty has been introduced 
 which has prevented settlers from coming, and capitalists 
 from investing money for the development of the re- 
 sources. 
 
132 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 None of the capitals of the Andean countries are on the 
 coast, and several are in the interior at a considerable elevation 
 above sea level. In choosing such sites the Spaniards have 
 had the example set them both by their Spanish ancestors 
 and by the Incas ; for Cuzco, the capital of the Incas, and 
 Madrid, the Spanish capital, are both at a considerable eleva- 
 tion above sea level and many miles from the coast. The 
 principal objects in the selection of these sites are to be near 
 the mines, to secure a cooler and more healthful climate, and 
 to obtain protection from attack by sea. 
 
 Doubtless another reason why these cities are not on the 
 coast is the absence of good harbors. Throughout almost its 
 entire extent, except in the cold southern portion of Chile, the 
 coast is wonderfully straight. Why ? (p. 99). Even in the 
 present century the coast has risen several feet in a part of 
 Peru and Chile. This uplift occurred during earthquake 
 shocks, and it was, without question, the slipping of the rocks 
 that caused the shocks. 
 
 Colombia. — This country, named after Columbus, in- 
 cludes the Isthmus of Panama, and therefore has seacoast 
 
 on both oceans. 
 It is of espe- 
 cial importance 
 to us, since the 
 great Panama 
 ship canal is be- 
 ing constructed 
 across the nar- 
 rowest part of 
 the Isthmus. 
 Of what advan- 
 tage would such 
 a canal be to the 
 United States ? What two cities are located at the ends 
 
 Fig. 98. 
 A native village in Colombia on the Panama Railway. 
 
ECUADOR 
 
 133 
 
 of this proposed canal ? A railway connects these two 
 cities, and many goods are carried over it ; for vessels ap- 
 proach from one side and unload and transfer their cargoes 
 to the other ocean, where other vessels await. Thus the 
 long voyage around South America may be saved. 
 
 It is in Colombia that several of the Andean ranges 
 terminate, so that the western part of the country is very 
 mountainous. Here there is much mineral wealth, gold 
 and silver being of most importance, though emeralds of 
 excellent grade are also obtained. In the eastern portion 
 of the country, on the other hand, are treeless llanos 
 on which large numbers of cattle are raised, as in Vene- 
 zuela. Coffee is the principal agricultural product and the 
 chief export ; but sugar-cane, tobacco, and cocoa are also 
 produced. On the mountain slopes the grains, fruits, and 
 vegetables of temperate climates are grown. 
 
 Although the resources of Colombia are extensive, they 
 have been little developed as yet. The present inhabitants 
 are for the most part of mixed blood, uneducated, and unpro- 
 gressive. There is practically no manufacturing, and it is 
 even necessary to import some of the food that is consumed. 
 Roads are few, and only about five hundred miles of railway 
 have been built in the entire country. The Magdalena River, 
 however, is navigable. What city is near its mouth ? 
 
 Bogota, the capital and largest city, is situated far 
 in the interior and at an elevation of about a mile 
 and a half above sea level. It has an agreeable cli- 
 mate, even though within the tropics. . 
 
 Ecuador. — Why should this name, the Spanish for equa- 
 tor, be applied to this country ? In the Andes of Ecua- 
 dor there are many volcanoes, including Cotopaxi, the 
 
13-1 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 loftiest active- volcano in the world, and Chimborazo, 
 which is still higher but no longer active. 
 
 Naturally, because of its position, this country has a hot, 
 damp climate near sea level (Fig. 80), but is much more 
 temperate on the mountain slopes. The principal occu- 
 pations are cattle raising and farming. The chief farm 
 
 Fig. 99. 
 
 A native house in Ecuador. Can you suggest reasons for building it on posts 
 rather than on the ground ? 
 
 products are wheat and barley on the highlands, and 
 coffee, sugar-cane, and cocoa on the warm lowlands. The 
 latter is the most important product of Ecuador, and 
 fully one-fifth of all the cocoa produced in the world 
 conies from there. 
 
 To cultivate cocoa the underbrush is cleared from the 
 forest and cocoa trees are planted in the shade of the larger 
 forest trees. This delicate plant requires not merely shade 
 but also a warm, humid atmosphere with copious rains. At 
 
ECUADOR 
 
 135 
 
 the end of the fifth or sixth year, having reached a height 
 of eight or nine feet, it begins to bear fruit. The tree, which 
 at maturity is twenty or thirty feet high, has small pink and 
 yellow blossoms which grow directly from the main trunk and 
 branches. It blossoms throughout the year, and its leaves are 
 always green. 
 
 From each blossom there develops a golden-colored pod, 
 several inches in length, enclosing a number of seeds or beans 
 which are surrounded by a cellular tissue. They are bitter 
 and about the size of a large almond. After being washed, 
 dried, and roasted, the beans are ready to be made into choc- 
 olate, which, because of its agreeable taste and nutritious 
 qualities, is widely used as a drink and as an ingredient of 
 candies. By what routes might cocoa well be shipped from 
 Guayaquil to New York ? 
 
 Another product of Ecuador, and of some other South Amer- 
 ican countries, is sarsaparilla, which is obtained from the 
 large fleshy roots of a species of smilax. The juice from 
 this root is much used in the manufacture of certain medi- 
 cines. The rubber industry is also well developed ; and now 
 that the accessible supply from wild trees is becoming ex- 
 hausted, attention is being given to the planting of rubber 
 trees. 
 
 Even in the cities there is practically no manufacturing. 
 One of the reasons for this is the almost total absence of roads, 
 making the transportation of heavy machinery very difficult. 
 This fact also interferes greatly with mining operations among 
 the mountains. Therefore, although there is much gold and 
 silver, mining is as yet slightly developed. 
 
 Quito, the capital of Ecuador, is situated among the 
 mountains of the interior at an elevation of about nine 
 thousand feet. But the largest city is the seaport Guay- 
 aquil, the westernmost of the large cities of South 
 America. It is in W. Long. 80°. Does it lie to the east 
 or west of Washington ? 
 
136 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 Peru. — The broad, forest-covered plains on the eastern 
 side of the rugged Andes are drained by some of the 
 larger headwaters of the Amazon, and thus Peru is pro- 
 vided with water communication to the Atlantic. While 
 much of this dense tropical forest 
 is an almost unexplored wilderness, 
 the mountain valleys are settled 
 mainly by the descendants of the 
 Incas. 
 
 In Peru there are not only variations 
 in climate due to altitude, as in Ecua- 
 dor and Colombia, but also great dif- 
 ferences in rainfall. The heavy fall of 
 rain on the eastern side of the Andes 
 offers a striking contrast to the arid and 
 even desert climate along their western 
 slopes (Pig. 26). State the cause of 
 this aridity once more (p. 103). So 
 little rain falls in southwestern Peru 
 that in some parts, even close by the 
 sea, there is an average of but one 
 shower in seven years. 
 
 Fig. 100. 
 A Peruvian Indian. 
 
 Peru was one of the most valu- 
 able sources of gold and silver 
 for the Spanish conquerors. The Incas who dwelt 
 there had accumulated gold for ornament, and this the 
 Spaniards seized. Then, opening mines, they forced the 
 Indians to work as slaves. Since that time vast quanti- 
 ties of gold and silver have been obtained in that country, 
 and valuable deposits of gold, petroleum, and copper have 
 also been found. 
 
 There is much agriculture in Peru, the principal 
 crops being corn, wheat, and potatoes among the moun- 
 
PERU 
 
 137 
 
 tains, and sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, and coffee in the 
 lower, warmer sections. Even in the arid portion there 
 is some farming ; for, as in southern California, the rains 
 and snows of the mountains supply the short rivers with 
 water for irrigation in the valleys and on the narrow 
 
 Fig. 101. 
 Ruins of an ancient Inca " palace " — an Inca Indian in the foreground. 
 
 coastal plains. Thus, even in the desert, there are gar- 
 dens, vineyards, and fields of cotton and sugar-cane. 
 
 The Incas (p. 109) cultivated a number of native plants 
 already mentioned. Can you name them ? The value of 
 coca, from which cocaine is made, was also taught by the 
 Incas. This plant is cultivated in the warm valleys on the 
 eastern slopes of the Andes, at an elevation of five or six 
 thousand feet, where frosts are unknown. The leaves, after 
 being dried in the sun, are chewed, and they produce such in- 
 
138 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 vigorating effects that a small quantity enables one to endure 
 great fatigue. Before the Spaniards arrived the leaves were 
 highly prized ; and to-day both coca leaves and cocaine are 
 exported from Peru. 
 
 Chiachona, or Peruvian bark, from which the valuable medi- 
 cine quinine is obtained, was also known to the Incas and is 
 
 Fig. 102. 
 A view of Lima, the capital of Peru. 
 
 still an important Peruvian product. It is obtained from an 
 evergreen tree whose leaves resemble those of the laurel. 
 
 Before the year 1879 Peru was making rapid progress; 
 but by a war with Chile at that time the nation became 
 almost paralyzed. Although there is some manufacturing, 
 especially connected with sugar production, most manu- 
 factured articles must be imported. 
 
 The Peruvians have built two railway lines into the 
 mountains, one from the port of Callao, and another 
 
PERU 
 
 139 
 
 from Arequipa to Lake Titicaca (Figs. 103 and 106). The 
 first passes through Lima and then climbs the mountains, 
 crossing deep gorges by means of high trestles, winding about 
 on the very edges of precipices, tunnelling through the 
 mountain rock, and finally crossing the western range of the 
 Andes at an elevation of 15,645 feet. 
 
 Lima, the capital (Fig. 102), founded by the Spanish 
 conquerors in 1535, is situated at the base of the Andes. 
 As in other Spanish countries the Moorish style of archi- 
 tecture prevails, and the houses are commonly built around 
 
 Fig. 103. 
 Lake Titicaca with the snowy ranges of the Ancles in the far distance. 
 
 an open courtyard. The walls of the lower story are two 
 or three feet thick, made of adobe or sun-dried brick ; and 
 if a second story is added, it is made of bamboo coated 
 with adobe. By this method of construction, the buildings 
 are better able to withstand earthquake shocks, and the 
 inhabitants are in less danger from falling walls. 
 
 Callao, the seaport of Lima, is about seven miles from 
 the capital. Its harbor is but little more than an open 
 roadstead partially protected by an island on the south- 
 west side. However, since the winds and ocean swells 
 are from the south, while the coast is practically never 
 visited by storms, this slight protection is sufficient. 
 
140 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 Arequipa, at an elevation of seven thousand feet, is sepa- 
 rated from the sea by sixty miles of desert. Cuzco, the old 
 Inca capital, is on an interior table-land, at an elevation of over 
 eleven thousand feet. The ruins of the Inca citadels and 
 "palaces" (Fig. 101) are still to be seen, and many pure-blooded 
 and half-breed Incas still dwell in and near the city. 
 
 Bolivia. — This country, named after General Bolivar, 
 the great South American leader in the revolt against 
 
 Spain, was robbed 
 of its seacoast by 
 Chile during the 
 war between 
 Chile and Peru. 
 What other South 
 American coun- 
 try has no sea- 
 coast ? In a broad 
 valley between 
 the mountains is 
 Lake Titicaca 
 (Figs. 103 and 
 106), partly in Peru and partly in Bolivia. This lake, the 
 greatest in South America, is almost as large as Lake Erie ; 
 and its elevation, twelve thousand five hundred feet above 
 the sea, makes it the most elevated great lake in the world. 
 The Incas occupied this region also, and mined much 
 gold. Besides gold the Spanish have found veins of 
 copper, tin, and silver, so that mining has been one of the 
 most important industries of the country. It is said that 
 over three billion dollars' worth of silver has been secured 
 since the Spanish discovery. Bolivia is also one of the 
 great tin-producing countries of the world. 
 
 Fig. 104. 
 
 A stage coach fording a stream in Bolivia. From 
 this it will be seen how difficult it would be to draw 
 heavy machinery. 
 
BOLIVIA 
 
 141 
 
 The mining and reduction of the ore are done by very crude 
 methods. For example, instead of using costly machines for 
 
 Fig. 105. 
 A group of llamas in the Andes. 
 
 crushing the ore, as in the United States, one method followed 
 is to roll boulders 
 around on the ore 
 until it is crushed. 
 Since there are 
 practically no 
 railways, goods 
 are transported 
 for the most part 
 by trains of pack- 
 mules, donkeys, 
 alpacas, or llamas 
 (Figs. 79 and 
 105). The llama 
 here, as in Peru, 
 is of great value 
 to the inhabitants, not merely as a beast of burden, but also as 
 a source of wool for clothing. 
 
 Fig. 106. 
 
 An Indian boy in a rush boat on Lake Titicaca. The 
 fact that rushes are still used in making boats shows 
 how these people cling to ancient customs. 
 
142 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 Much of eastern Bolivia, like eastern Peru and the 
 Amazon valley, is an almost unknown forest wilderness. 
 But in the mountain valleys and on the plateaus agricul- 
 ture is carried on, with products similar to those of Peru. 
 Most of these are consumed at home, though some coffee 
 is exported. The farming methods are very crude. For 
 example, the wooden plough, resembling that used by the 
 ancient Egyptians, may still be seen, being drawn by 
 cattle yoked behind the horns. Doubtless such methods 
 are partly explained by the fact that not more than a 
 quarter of the people have an}^ white blood. 
 
 A railway line connects western Bolivia with the sea. 
 Better railways and the improvement of the rivers, so as 
 to permit river transportation to the Atlantic, are among 
 the greatest needs of the country. Through what rivers 
 could boats pass to the sea ? Find the capital of Bolivia. 
 La Paz, the largest city, has twice as many inhabitants 
 as the capital. 
 
 Chile 
 
 Physiography and Climate. — ■ Since the divide between 
 the Atlantic and Pacific drainage forms the eastern boun- 
 dary line of Chile, the country is very narrow in an east 
 and west direction. It is also very mountainous (Fig. 
 107). Much of the coast line is regular like that of the 
 rest of South America ; how is it with the southern portion ? 
 
 The climate varies more than "that of any other South 
 American country. The northern part is within the 
 torrid zone, while the southern end reaches far into the 
 bleak south temperate zone (Fig. 108) ; and on the moun- 
 tain slopes there is every climate from frigid 1 to torrid. 
 
 1 The name Chile is derived from an Indian word signifying snow. 
 
CHILE 143 
 
 Moreover, northern Chile is arid and in places an absolute 
 desert ; but central and southern Chile reach into the 
 rainy belt of prevailing westerlies (Fig. 29). The most 
 fully settled and best developed section lies in the middle 
 part between the hot, arid north and the bleak, rainy south. 
 This portion of the coast is bathed by a cold current from 
 
 Fig. 107. 
 Snow-covered mountains of Chile. 
 
 the south, which cools the atmosphere of Chile as the 
 Labrador current chills that of New England (Fig. 38). 
 Mineral Wealth. — There is much mineral wealth, in- 
 cluding lead, silver, coal, and copper. The latter is of such 
 importance that Chile, like the United States, is one of the 
 great copper-producing countries of the world. There are 
 also beds of nitrate of soda which were captured during the 
 war of 1879-80, and at present yield the government an 
 annual income of fully 810,000,000. Nitrate is the princi- 
 pal export. 
 
 The nitrate beds occur in the midst of the desert of Atacama, 
 in which rain almost never falls. The substance occurs in lay- 
 ers a few inches to one or two feet thick, over an area thirty 
 
144 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 or forty miles in breadth. In color it varies, being white, 
 yellow, blue, brown, etc., according to the impurities contained. 
 After being dug out, the pure nitrate is dissolved and sepa- 
 rated from the impurities, and then sold. Its chief use is that 
 of a fertilizer, for which purpose great quantities are shipped 
 from the port of Iquique. It is believed that the nitrate. was 
 deposited in lagoons which were shut off from the sea and sub- 
 jected to evaporation in the arid climate. 
 
 Agriculture, Manufacturing, and General Development. 
 
 — There is much agriculture in Chile, especially in the 
 
 _ 
 
 Fig. 108. 
 
 A view in the Strait of Magellan at the hleak southern end of Chile. Snow 
 
 remains on these mountains throughout the year. 
 
 rainy middle portion. The principal crops are the vari- 
 ous grains, tobacco, and vegetables, thus resembling agri- 
 culture in many parts of the United States. More wheat 
 and barley are produced than are needed at home, so that 
 Chile helps to supply other nations with grain,, Large 
 herds of cattle are also reared, and sheep raising is one 
 of the chief industries in southern Chile. Hides, shoe 
 leather, and wool are exported. More manufacturing is 
 carried on than in most South American countries, the 
 principal kinds being flour milling, cheese making, tan- 
 ning, and shoe manufacturing ; but as elsewhere on that 
 continent, machinery and many other manufactured arti- 
 cles are purchased in Europe and the United States. 
 
ISLANDS NEAR THE CONTINENT 145 
 
 Chile is one of the most progressive countries in South 
 America. Its government is stable, and its industries 
 are -well developed. This progress is doubtless in large 
 part due to the temperate climate, which requires energy 
 on the part of its inhabitants, and invites settlers from the 
 temperate climate of Europe. It is interesting to note 
 that the two most advanced nations of South America lie 
 side by side in the temperate zone. 
 
 Cities. — The principal cities are Santiago, the capital 
 and largest city, situated inland, and Valparaiso, its 
 seaport. As at Callao (p. 139), the harbor of Valparaiso 
 is open to the north ; but this is not a serious objection, 
 because the wind seldom blows from that quarter. 
 
 Islands near the Continent 
 
 The Galapagos 1 Islands, about six hundred miles west of 
 Ecuador on the equator, are a group of small volcanic islands 
 owned by Ecuador. They are too far from the continent to 
 show on our map. When discovered they were uninhabited 
 by man, and the only large animals living there were gigantic 
 tortoises, which wandered about in great numbers, free from 
 danger of enemies. 
 
 Just east of the southern tip of South America are the Falk- 
 land Islands, which belong to Great Britain. Their surface is 
 hilly and rugged, and the climate is raw. There is some sheep 
 raising and fishing. Still farther east are the islands of Soxith 
 Georgia, also British. They are inhospitable, ice-bound lands 
 with no permanent inhabitants. Yet they are no nearer the 
 south frigid zone than are parts of Great Britain to the north 
 frigid zone. But while Great Britain is bathed by a warm 
 current, South Georgia is swept by cold, ice-laden currents 
 from the Antarctic, pushed forward by the prevailing wester- 
 lies (Eig. 38). 
 
 1 A Spanish word for tortoise. 
 
146 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 Just off the coast of Venezuela, opposite the mouth of the 
 Orinoco, is the low island of Trinidad, also a British posses- 
 sion. This island is especially noted for its extensive pitch 
 lake, from which asphaltum is obtained for use in making 
 asphalt pavements. The asphaltum oozes slowly from the 
 ground, and, as it is dug out, more oozes forth, as if there were 
 an inexhaustible supply beneath the surface. 
 
 West of Chile, and belonging to that country, is the island 
 of Juan Fernandez. This is the island where Selkirk was 
 wrecked, and by some is thought to be the island home of Rob- 
 inson Crusoe. It seems quite certain, however, that Defoe 
 described Tobago just north of Trinidad. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) State some resemblances between South 
 America and North America. (2) Describe the highland regions. 
 (3) The lowlands. (4) In what respects do North and South 
 America differ? (5) Tell about the differences in temperature in 
 different parts of South America. (6) Explain the regions of heavy 
 rainfall. (7) Where are the arid belts? Give the reasons. (8) What 
 about the rainfall in the south ? (9) Why does the rainfall vary with 
 the season in the tropical belt? (10) What differences in the plant 
 life are found in South America? AVhy ? (11) Tell about the ani- 
 mals of the tropical forest. (12) Of the plains and mountains. 
 (13) Describe the Indian life in the forest. (14) What can you tell 
 about the Incas? (15) State the main facts in the history of South 
 America since the whites came. (16) Describe the principal physio- 
 graphic features of Brazil. (17) What are the variations in climate? 
 (18) Tell about the influence of rainfall upon the vegetation and the 
 rivers. (19) Describe the tropical forest of the Amazon. (20) What 
 valuable products are found? (21) What can you tell about mandi- 
 oca? (22) Describe the gathering of rubber. (23) Tell about coffee 
 raising. (24) What other products come from Brazil? (25) Name 
 and locate the principal cities; what can you say about each? 
 (26) Describe the physiography of Argentina. (27) What influ- 
 ence have the physiography, and climate had upon development? 
 (28) Describe ranching in Argentina. (29) How does it differ from 
 that of the United States? Why? (30) What are the principal 
 farm products ? (31) Tell about manufacturing. (32) About com- 
 merce. (33) How does Argentina differ from many other South 
 American countries? (34) Compare Buenos Aires with New York. 
 
QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 
 
 147 
 
 (35) Locate the other cities named. (36) What are the industries of 
 Uruguay? (37) Name the capital. (38) Compare Uruguay with Ar- 
 gentina. (39) What about the climate and products of Paraguay? 
 (40) Tell about Paraguay tea. (41) Name the three Guianas. 
 (42) What are the conditions and products? (43) What can you 
 tell about British Guiana? (44) About Dutch Guiana? (45) About 
 French Guiana? (46) Describe the physiography of Venezuela. 
 (47) What are the principal industries? (48) What can you tell 
 about Caracas? (49) Name the Andean countries. (50) Tell about 
 the climate, its variations, and influence on the farm products. 
 (51) What about the minerals? (52) What was the influence of the 
 Spaniards ? (53) Give reasons for the locations of the capitals. 
 (54) Of what importance is the Isthmus of Panama? (55) Describe 
 the physiography and industries of Colombia. (56) What about the 
 capital ? (57) Tell about the effect of climate on the industries in 
 Ecuador. (58) Describe the cultivation of the cocoa plant. (59) Name 
 some other products. (60) Why is there little mining and manufac- 
 turing? (61) Locate the principal cities. (62) Tell about the physi- 
 ography and climate of Peru. (63) About the minerals and agricultural 
 products. (64) What products did the Incas cultivate? (65) Tell 
 about the railways. (66) Locate and tell about the principal cities. 
 (67) What about the large lake in Bolivia? (68) Tell about the 
 mining. (69) The other industries. (70) The transportation of 
 goods. (71) Describe the physiography of Chile. (72) The climate. 
 (73) What mineral products are found ? (74) Tell about the nitrate 
 of soda beds. (75) What other industries are developed? (76) Why 
 is Chile so progressive ? (77) Locate the two largest cities. (78) Lo- 
 cate each of the island groups mentioned. For what is each important? 
 
 Review and Comparison with North America. — (1) Which 
 of the two Americas has the advantage in regard to latitude ? Show 
 how. (2) Tell about the effects of the trade winds in each continent 
 (Figs. 26 and 30). (3) Of the prevailing westerlies (Figs. 29 and 30). 
 (4) Locate the arid sections in each continent, and give the reasons 
 for the lack of rain (Figs. 25 and 29). (5) Point out the rainiest 
 section in each and state the causes. (6) Which of the two continents 
 has the better position for world commerce? Why? (7) Into what 
 ocean do the principal rivers of South America flow? Of North 
 America? (8) What can you say about the regularity of the coast 
 of the two grand divisions? Which has the advantage in this respect? 
 How? (9) Locate the principal coast cities of South America. Of 
 
148 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 North America. Give the main advantages of the location in each 
 case. (10) What about the number of lakes in each continent and 
 their value for commerce? (11) What interior cities in each conti- 
 nent can you locate ? (12) Compare both Brazil and Argentina with 
 the United States in area. In population. (13) Compare Chile with 
 Texas in these two respects. (14) What important farm products 
 are common to South America and the United States? 1 (15) Name 
 some products that are extensively raised in one and not in the other. 
 
 (16) Which parts of each continent are especially noted for cotton ? 
 Coffee ? Wheat ? Cattle and sheep ? Copper ? Precious metals ? 
 
 (17) What is the prevailing kind of government in North and in South 
 America ? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Give several reasons why South America has 
 been much less rapidly settled than North America. (2) What parts 
 of North America have been rising and on that account possess 
 few good natural harbors ? (3) How does the Spaniards' treatment 
 of the Incas compare with their treatment of the North American In- 
 dians? (4) Write a description of the Brazilian forest with its animal 
 life. (5) Find out some of the ways in which coffee is often adul- 
 terated. (6) Make a sand model of South America. A drawing. 
 (7) If you were expecting to emigrate there, where would you prefer 
 to settle ? Why ? (8) What products of South America are you 
 probably seeing and using from week to week? (9) Is Brazil likely 
 to rival the United States in importance in the future? Why? 
 (10) What are the prevailing languages in South America? How 
 has that come about? (11) How do you account for the similarity 
 in the governments of North and South America? (12) Is it an 
 advantage or a disadvantage for South America that it has so many 
 more countries than North America? 
 
 1 Help in answering questions 14 to 16 may be obtained from the two 
 closing: sections of the book. 
 
■<■■ '■: ' I- 
 
 ARCTIC 
 
 * 
 
 f 
 
 V 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 "V 
 
 y 
 
 C) 
 
 
 
 4^ 
 
 V<3 
 
 ^ North 
 
 ^> 
 
 
 J^ A ^"^~ ^ 
 ~~v?3 S .. / °B6rlm 
 
Part III 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 oi*<c 
 
 The continent of Europe was named when only the 
 southern part of it was known ; that is, the portion that 
 is separated from Africa and Asia by water. On Figure 
 109 find what these bodies of water are called. As ex- 
 ploration extended, it was found that Europe was really 
 continuous with Asia, being in fact a great peninsula 
 extending westward. Europe and Asia together actually 
 form a single continent called Eurasia; but since Europe 
 has been long considered a separate continent, and has 
 figured so prominently as the home of the civilized races, 
 it seems best to treat it separately. 
 
 On the map (Fig. 172) trace the boundary between Europe 
 and Asia. Make an outline map, inserting the boundaries and 
 names of the European countries. Add the names of the seas 
 and the larger islands. What countries are partly or wholly 
 on peninsulas ? Add to the map the large rivers with their 
 names Where are the chief divides ? Mark with heavy lines 
 the location, of the principal mountains (Fig. 109). Write their 
 names on the map. From what has previously been learned, 
 what can you tell about the people of Europe ? About the cli- 
 mate ? What does the peculiar condition of the Caspian Sea 
 tell about the climate in that section ? 
 
 149 
 
IX. PHYSIOGRAPHY, CLIMATE, AND PEOPLE 
 
 Physiography 
 
 Highlands and Lowlands. — As in the case of North 
 America, the development of the continent of Europe has 
 required millions of years. Far back in time mountains 
 appeared above the sea in the northwestern portion of the 
 
 Fig. 110. 
 
 A view over the snow-capped peaks of the Caucasus Mountains. 
 
 fills the valley. 
 
 A sea of fog 
 
 continent. Although greatly worn by the weathering of 
 the ages, and much reduced in elevation, these mountains 
 may still be seen in Finland, Scandinavia (the peninsula 
 occupied by Norway and Sweden), and Scotland (Figs. 127 
 and 129), as well as in Germany and Belgium. They re- 
 
 150 
 
 
PHYSIOGRAPHY 
 
 151 
 
 semble the mountains of New England and eastern Canada, 
 that have likewise been greatly worn by weathering. 
 
 Other mountain ranges were later formed in southern 
 Europe ; but, like those of western America, they are 
 young and their recent growth has been vigorous. There- 
 
 FlG. 111. 
 
 Lake Geneva in a valley among the Alps. 
 
 lake. 
 
 The Rhone River flows out of this 
 
 fore the Pyrenees (Fig. 155), Alps, and Caucasus (Fig. 
 110) are still of great height. Find each on Figure 109. 
 The mountains of North and South America form contin- 
 uous chains, with the highest mountains in the west, 
 extending north and south. But in Europe the loftiest 
 mountains are in the south, extending in various direc- 
 tions, though mainly east and west. How does this con- 
 
152 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 dition promise a different effect on the climate ? It is to 
 the fact that the mountains are not continuous, and that 
 they consist of chains extending in various directions, that 
 Europe owes much of its extremely irregular outline. 
 
 Besides the mountains mentioned, there is a long, low chain, 
 known as the Urals, which extends north and south on the 
 eastern side, and for a part of the distance forms the boundary 
 between Europe and Asia. Other scattered highlands are 
 shown on Figure 109. Where mainly are they situated ? 
 
 Next to the Caucasus (Fig. 110) the loftiest of all these 
 mountains are the Alps (Figs. Ill, 201, 204, and 205), whose 
 rains and snows find their way to the sea through several of the 
 large rivers of Europe. What are some of their names (Fig. 
 172). Headwaters of four of these rivers are within forty miles 
 of each other in the Alps. What large rivers of Europe do not 
 rise in the Alps (Fig. 109) ? 
 
 Between the low mountains of the north and east and 
 the higher ranges of the south there is a very extensive 
 
 lowland (Fig. 
 109). A part of 
 this has been 
 submerged by 
 the sinking of 
 the land, thus 
 forming the shal- 
 low Baltic Sea. 
 Beginning in the 
 west with south- 
 ern England, and 
 passing through Belgium and Holland, or the " Low 
 Countries," this plain broadens as it extends eastward 
 across Germany (Fig. 112) until it includes almost all 
 
 Fig. 112. 
 
 Looking across the level plain of North Germany 
 Peat is dug on this plain near the river. 
 
PHYSIOGRAPHY 153 
 
 of Russia (Fig. 109). Estimate its length east and west. 
 About two-thirds of Europe is included in this plain. 
 
 Some of the streams in the mountains, as in Scandinavia 
 and Switzerland, have abundant water power; but most of 
 the rivers flow with gentle slope over broad plains. As a 
 result, most of the rivers are navigable for long distances ; 
 for example, the Seine for 350 miles and the Rhine for 550 
 miles. The level plains also encourage the building of canals ; 
 and thus, by river, canal, and lake, the Black and Caspian seas 
 are connected with the Baltic and North seas ; and the North 
 and Caspian seas are connected with the Mediterranean. 
 
 Coal Beds. — While these mountains and plains were 
 forming, coal beds were also accumulating, as was the 
 case in America during the Coal Period. 
 
 Vast swampy tracts were covered with a luxuriant vegeta- 
 tion ; then this land was lowered beneath the sea, and the plant 
 remains became covered over and pressed closely together by 
 the weight of thick layers of sand, gravel, and mud. After a 
 while the sea bottom emerged once more, and rank vegetation 
 returned, but this time with its roots in the ocean mud that 
 had buried the earlier swamps. In the course of hundreds of 
 years the land again sank and the plants were covered much 
 as before. Thus one layer of dense vegetation after another 
 was buried deep in the earth ; and there it has slowly changed 
 to the coal that is of so much use in warming houses, cooking 
 food, and running machinery. 
 
 Figure 113 shows the parts of Europe in which coal beds occur. 
 In what countries are they ? Most of the coal is bituminous 
 or soft coal, though there is some anthracite. In a number 
 of sections lignite or brown coal is mined. This is a poor vari- 
 ety formed in much the same way as the bituminous, but at 
 a later time than the Coal Period. Peat (Fig. 112) is also 
 dug for fuel in western Europe, where the damp climate favors 
 its formation. 
 
154 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 The Great Ice Sheet. — At the same period that eastern 
 North America was invaded by a great ice sheet from the 
 north, snow accumulated on the highlands of northwestern 
 
 
 ARCTIC 
 
 Fig. 113. 
 Coal map of Europe. 
 
 Figure 114 
 
 Europe and spread outward in all directions, 
 shows the extent of the European ice sheet. 
 
 One glacier, with its centre in the Scandinavian peninsula, 
 spread southward over the Russian plains, and into Germany 
 and Holland. Smaller ice sheets were developed in the 
 highlands of Scotland, Ireland, and Wales ; and these, united, 
 covered all the British Isles, excepting the extreme southern 
 part (Fig. 114). The British glaciers also flowed out into the 
 North Sea and joined forces with the Scandinavian glacier. 
 
PHYSIOGRAPHY 
 
 155 
 
 During this same period the glaciers of the Alps and other 
 mountains were much more extensive than now, extending far 
 down the mountain valleys. These facts are known by the 
 deposits of drift that the ice left, by the boulders and pebbles 
 
 that the glacier moved, and by the scratches that were made on 
 the rock as the ice dragged these fragments along. 
 
 In Europe, as in North America, the ice cap was over a 
 mile thick ; and when it slowly moved over the surface 
 it swept away the soil that had accumulated, and ground 
 the rock fragments to bits. These bits of rock it depos- 
 ited elsewhere as drift, so that, while the bed rock was 
 left bare in some places, in others it was covered with 
 a deep glacial soil containing boulders and pebbles. In 
 
156 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 many places the drift blocked the stream valleys and thus 
 caused innumerable falls and small lakes. In Figure 109 
 note the distribution of lakes in Europe (see also Figs. 
 
 122 and 200).. 
 The greater 
 number of these 
 lakes are too 
 small to be shown 
 on our maps. Of 
 what service are 
 lakes and falls to 
 man ? 
 
 The Coast Line. 
 — The irregular- 
 ities of the coast 
 line of northern 
 Europe, like 
 those of north- 
 eastern North America, are due to the sinking of the land. 
 The Baltic Sea and its gulfs represent old land valleys ; 
 and the hills of this submerged land form either islands, 
 peninsulas, or shallow banks where food fish abound. 
 
 It seems to be well proved that, before the Glacial Period, 
 the British Isles were connected with the mainland by low 
 plains where the North Sea and English Channel now exist. 
 An elevation of only a few hundred feet would restore this 
 condition by changing the bed of the North Sea to dry 
 land. This would then extend the continent westward beyond 
 the British Isles, thus destroying the bays and harbors, and 
 altering the entire outline of northwestern Europe. 
 
 In southern Europe the rising and sinking of small 
 areas of land — while the mountains were forming — has 
 
 Fig. 115. 
 
 A fjord on the coast of Norway — a mountain valley 
 into which the sea has been admitted by sinking of 
 the land. (See also Fig. 173.) 
 
CLIMATE 157 
 
 made many peninsulas, with bays, gulfs, islands, and seas 
 between. The Mediterranean itself occupies a basin, thou- 
 sands of feet in depth, formed by the sinking of this part 
 of the earth's crust. Some of these islands, however, are 
 partly or wholly built up by volcanic action. What vol- 
 cano is on the island of Sicily (Fig. 200) ? 
 
 As a result of all these land movements, Europe has the 
 most irregular coast of all the continents. Name its large 
 peninsulas. How many of them are mountainous ? Name the 
 larger gulfs and seas that border the continent. How about 
 the number of fine harbors ? Show by examples how this great 
 irregularity of the coast is of advantage in allowing vessels to 
 proceed far into the interior of the continent. 
 
 Climate 
 
 Influence of Latitude. — Trace the 50th parallel of lati- 
 tude on a globe or map of the world. Notice that while 
 the 49th parallel forms the northern boundary of western 
 United States, it passes entirely south of England, crosses 
 France near Paris, and extends through southern Germany 
 and Russia. From this it is evident that by far the larger 
 part of Europe lies farther north than the United States, 
 and due east of Canada. St. Petersburg is in the same 
 latitude as northern Labrador ; and the tips of the penin- 
 sulas of southern Europe reach about as far south as the 
 southern boundary of Virginia. 
 
 In the far north, near the Arctic, the climate is bleak, 
 and there are barren, frozen tundras. South of this is a 
 belt of fir, spruce, and pine, like that which stretches east 
 and west across central Canada. But contrary to what 
 might be expected from latitude alone, the climate in and 
 just south of this belt of evergreen forest permits the 
 
158 
 
 EUROPE 
 
CLIMA TE 
 
 159 
 
 M \ 
 
 
 
 «/ /-a/7- ~'K-M' s ^li^m M 
 
160 EUROPE 
 
 growth of the grains and fruits that flourish in south- 
 ern Canada and northern United States. In southern 
 Europe, in the latitude of central United States, such 
 semi-tropical fruits as oranges, lemons, olives, and figs are 
 cultivated. That is to say, the products of the greater 
 part of Europe are such as grow several hundred miles 
 farther south in eastern North America. 
 
 That these products are raised in great abundance in 
 Europe is indicated by the number of people there ; for, 
 although the continent is much less than half the size of 
 North America, it supports four times as many inhabit- 
 ants, or nearly 400,000,000. Let us see the explanation 
 of these remarkable facts. 
 
 Resemblance to Western North America. — In several 
 respects the climate of Europe is so similar to that of 
 western North America that a brief review will be useful. 
 It will be recalled that our western coast, north of San 
 Francisco, is under the control of the prevailing westerlies 
 (Fig. 25). These winds from the Pacific so temper the cold 
 of winter and the heat of summer as to produce a very mild 
 climate for some distance inland ; but toward the east, 
 or interior, the influence of the ocean decreases and the 
 extremes of temperature become greater. South of San 
 Francisco the influence of the horse latitudes and the 
 trade-wind belts is felt, and whatever wind there is, usually 
 blows either along the coast or from the land. 
 
 The vapor-laden westerlies, rising over the highlands 
 north of San Francisco, cause an abundance of rain, so that 
 western Washington and Oregon have the heaviest rain- 
 fall in the United States. In crossing the mountains, 
 however, the winds are so deprived of moisture that the 
 plateaus and plains beyond are arid (Fig. 30). Southern 
 
CLIMATE 161 
 
 California has rain in winter, especially in the mountains ; 
 but in summer, when the trade-wind belt has moved north- 
 ward (Figs. 31 and 32), the winds blow either along the 
 coast or from the land. Therefore the climate is so dry 
 that agriculture can be carried on only by irrigation. 
 
 Now turn to northern Europe. The prevailing wester- 
 lies are felt there as in the United States. Blowing from 
 the ocean, and, what is especially important, from across 
 the warm ocean current (p. 50), they distribute an enor- 
 mous amount of heat over the land. It is the westerlies 
 from these warm waters, more than any other factor, that 
 allow crops to be raised nearer the pole in Europe than 
 in any other part of the globe. If these conditions were 
 not present, much of that densely populated continent 
 (Fig. 120) would be a barren waste, like Labrador. 
 
 The effect of the ocean winds is naturally greatest 
 near the coast, as in western North America. Therefore 
 England has a mild, rainy climate ; but the farther east- 
 ward one goes, the less is the influence of the ocean. 
 Thus eastern Russia experiences great extremes of heat 
 and cold, and there is danger of serious droughts. Com- 
 pare the summer and winter temperature (Figs. 116 and 
 117) and the rainfall (Fig. 118) of these two sections. 
 
 Southern Europe, like southern California, is not affected 
 by the westerlies in summer, for it lies then within the 
 belt of the horse latitudes. This accounts for the fact 
 that southern Spain, Italy, and Greece receive very little 
 rain in summer. Examine Figure 118 to see where in 
 Europe the rainfall is light. Find some places where 
 there is abundant rain on mountain slopes. 
 
 Influence of Cyclonic Storms. — Thus far we have seen 
 a striking- resemblance in the climates of the two conti- 
 
162 EUROPE 
 
 nents. But there are also notable differences. The 
 westerlies are less regular in Europe than in western 
 North America because of frequent interruption by the 
 cyclonic storms, which, after passing over eastern North 
 America, often cross the ocean and continue across Europe 
 (p. 35). Why cannot their arrival be predicted as well 
 as in the United States ? 
 
 As in eastern United States and Canada, the cyclonic storms 
 cause variable winds (Fig. 35). For example, when a storm 
 centre is west of the British Isles the westerlies are checked 
 and the winds blow toward the centre, or from the east. But 
 while storm winds from the east bring rain to eastern North 
 America, the same kind of winds cannot bring rain to eastern 
 Europe, because there is no great ocean near at hand to supply 
 the vapor. On account of the absence of ocean water, therefore, 
 eastern Europe has little rain, as eastern America would have 
 if there were land instead of water to the east of it. 
 
 Effect of Mountain Ranges. — The direction in which 
 the highlands extend is a second cause of great difference 
 between the climates of Europe and America. In Amer- 
 ica, where high mountains extend north and south along 
 the entire western margin of the continent, the warm, 
 damp westerlies are soon deprived of their moisture. This 
 leaves a vast arid and semi-arid area in the interior. 
 
 In Europe, on the other hand, where the higher ranges 
 extend nearly east and west, the mountains do not so 
 seriously interfere with the movement of vapor to the 
 interior. Consequently the west winds surrender their 
 moisture only very gradually. This accounts for the fact 
 that in the belt of westerlies, from western Ireland to 
 eastern Russia, there is rainfall enough for agriculture. 
 
 The east-west direction of the lofty mountains has a marked 
 influence on the climate of those portions of Europe that lie 
 
CLIMATE 
 
 163 
 
 on their north and south sides. Rising like great walls, the 
 mountains prevent south winds from bearing northward the 
 heat of the Mediterranean basin; and they also interfere with 
 the passage of the chilling winds from the north. We know 
 that Florida, much farther south than southern Europe, is 
 
 Fig. 118. 
 
 visited by cold waves and accompanying frosts ; but mountain 
 barriers prevent such winds in portions of southern Europe. 
 
 Inland Seas. — The numerous inland seas are another great 
 factor in influencing the climate of parts of Europe. Draw 
 a sketch map of Europe, locating these seas. How does the 
 Mediterranean compare in length with Lake Superior ? It 
 will be remembered that our Great Lakes produce a marked 
 influence on the climate of the neighboring land, moderating 
 
164 EUROPE 
 
 the heat of summer and the cold of winter. It is this influ- 
 ence, added to that of the mountain barrier, that gives to south- 
 ern Italy, Greece, France, and Spain such an equable and almost 
 tropical climate. How must these seas influence the rainfall ? 
 
 People 
 
 Their Origin. — It is generally believed that the white 
 races now living in Europe belonged at one time — long 
 before there was any written history — to one great family 
 (p. 74). It is further believed by some that their origi- 
 nal home was in Asia, by others that it was in northern 
 Africa. However that may be, at the earliest time about 
 which we have definite information, most parts of Europe 
 were inhabited by uncivilized tribes having many different 
 languages and customs. But the more advanced inhabit- 
 ants of Egypt and southern and eastern Asia had already 
 begun to exert a strong influence upon those Europeans 
 who dwelt nearest them along the Mediterranean shores. 
 
 The Greeks. — Among the latter the Greeks took the 
 lead. Their warm climate was favorable to many kinds 
 of vegetation, and still not so hot as to destroy the energy 
 of the people. Good harbors were numerous ; the sea 
 was so narrow that it could be crossed with safety ; and 
 thus navigation developed. Not only were the valuable 
 treasures of neighboring shores brought in ships, but much 
 trade was also carried on. with the Far East by means of 
 caravans that crossed the intervening deserts. 
 
 In time the Greeks even surpassed their teachers, the 
 Asiatics, and became the most highly civilized people of 
 the world. The writings of the ancient Greek philoso- 
 phers, and the works of art produced by their sculptors, 
 are to this day classed among the most wonderful of man's 
 
PEOPLE 165 
 
 works. They also founded the first republics, or govern- 
 ments by the people, of which we have historic account. 
 But the fact that Greece is so mountainous, with many 
 enclosed valleys, was unfavorable to the development of a 
 united, powerful nation ; and the country was therefore 
 divided into small and independent states. This weakness 
 accounts in part for the fact that, before the time of Christ, 
 the Greeks were conquered by their neighbors. 
 
 The Romans. — Their later conquerors, the Romans, 
 lived in Italy, with Rome as their capital. The Romans 
 possessed a remarkable power for organization, and grew 
 into a great nation, not only subduing the tribes around 
 them, but finally obtaining control of all the countries 
 bordering the Mediterranean. They even waged victori- 
 ous war far to the north and west, under the leadership 
 of Julius Ceesar, and for hundreds of years the Rhine and 
 Danube rivers marked the northern boundary of the 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 Much of this territory was held by force and governed 
 by rulers sent from Rome. You see on the map (Fig. 109) 
 that the sources of these two rivers are close together in 
 the Alps, and that they form an almost continuous line 
 from the North to the Black Sea. While the Romans 
 claimed all territory south of this border, wild, barbarous 
 tribes possessed all upon the other side. Thus Europe 
 was divided into parts, controlled by two very different 
 classes of people. 
 
 On the one hand, there were the Romans, representing the 
 dark Caucasian type (p. 75), the most powerful nation then on 
 the earth, and highly civilized. They had excellent roads, 
 luxurious homes, magnificent public buildings, and various 
 kinds of amusement. Although for a long time they wor- 
 
166 EUROPE 
 
 shipped heathen gods, and bitterly persecuted the Christians, 
 a little more than three hundred years after the time of Christ 
 their government adopted the Christian religion. 
 
 On the other hand, there were vast hordes of barbarians 
 representing the fair type of Caucasians (p. 75) and mostly 
 free from Roman rule. They were divided into many indepen- 
 dent tribes, and had made little advance in the civilizing arts. 
 But they learned much from the Romans, adopted many of 
 their best customs, and, in time, even accepted the Christian 
 religion. The history of Europe, the customs of its people, 
 and the very language of many of its nations, have all been 
 profoundly influenced by the Romans. The descendants of 
 these barbarians now form the powerful nations of northern 
 Europe ; and since those who settled Canada and the United 
 States came largely from these nations, we ourselves are 
 descendants of the barbarians of northern Europe. 
 
 Decline of the Roman Empire. — In time the Roman 
 Empire began to decay. The great wealth that the 
 higher classes had accumulated allowed them to live in 
 the most luxurious fashion ; and, being surrounded by 
 hosts of slaves, — enemies captured in war, — they were 
 unfortunately deprived of the necessity for work. In 
 consequence the Romans gradually lost the ability and 
 energy to defend their own country. 
 
 Their barbarian neighbors, on the other hand, were in- 
 creasing in power. They were a hardy, energetic people, 
 and they knew how to apply the many lessons learned from 
 the Romans. The time came when they ceased to fear 
 their once powerful foes. Then one body after another 
 marched into the . Roman territory as conquerors, finally 
 sacking the city of Rome in the year 410. At the same 
 time the distant parts of the Empire threw off the Roman 
 yoke, and thus the Roman Empire crumbled and fell. 
 
PEOPLE 167 
 
 Later Development of European Nations. — Thus we see 
 that, while the Roman Empire was at one time far-reach- 
 ing, it did not succeed in binding its various peoples 
 closely together, as one great nation with common interests. 
 Nor have their descendants been brought together since 
 that time. One of the most important reasons for this 
 failure is the fact that so many parts of the continent are 
 quite detached from all others. Spain, for example, is not 
 only a peninsula, but it is separated from France by a high 
 range of mountains. The British Isles are entirely cut 
 off by water ; Scandinavia nearly so ; and Italy itself is 
 bounded on the north by lofty mountains, and by water on 
 all other sides. It is natural that people living in such 
 isolated positions should not feel a common interest with 
 those who are so separated from them. Thus have arisen 
 many different customs, beliefs, and languages. 
 
 In consequence of such differences and lack of common 
 interests there are many more nations in Europe than 
 in North America. Count them (Fig. 172). There have 
 been many jealousies and disputes between them which 
 have been settled by war, and their boundaries have been 
 subjected to numerous changes, as one nation or another 
 has seized territory during war. Notice also how irregu- 
 lar are some of the boundary lines. Those of Germany, 
 for example, have been determined only after the loss of 
 tens of thousands of human lives. 
 
 People who carry on frequent wars and still thrive 
 must possess an enormous amount of energy, and this is 
 true of the inhabitants of Europe. After the fall of 
 Rome little progress was made for a thousand years, and 
 men were righting in one part of Europe or another during 
 most of that period. After this time, known as the " Dark 
 
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 REiNDEER 
 
 Fig. 121. 
 Some of the few wild animals of Europe. Domestic animals are abundant, including 
 the reindeer of the tundras. Even the bear is tamed and exhibited. Have you ever 
 seen one of these European bears performing on the street ? 
 
PEOPLE 171 
 
 Ages,'' the people roused themselves for other work. They 
 began to explore the world and to make inventions ; and 
 then our modern civilization began to develop. 
 
 Influence of the Discovery of America. — Of their many 
 great achievements within modern times, probably the 
 greatest was the discovery of America. In thinking of 
 this event we are apt to consider only the mighty influ- 
 ence Europe has had on America. But the New World 
 has also exerted a powerful influence upon Europe. The 
 encouragement given to navigation by this discovery led 
 Europeans to explore other parts of the world. Their 
 knowledge was thereby greatly increased and their wealth 
 as well. Also, the crowded condition of Europe has been 
 much relieved ; for many nations have poured forth emi- 
 grants, not only to North and South America, but also to 
 Australia and Africa and, more recently, even to Asia. 
 It is a peculiar tie that binds the newly settled countries 
 to Europe ; for, inasmuch as that continent has furnished 
 most of the civilized population to these newer lands, it 
 may be considered the Fatherland of them all. 
 
 Review Questions. (1) Give reasons for and against treating 
 Europe as a separate continent. (2) Tell about the highlands. 
 (3) The lowlands. (4) The coal beds. (5) The Ice Age. (6) Locate 
 the boundary of the ice sheet on Figure 114. (7) Tell about the coast 
 line in northern Europe. (8) In southern Europe. (9) Of what 
 advantage is the irregularity of the European coast? (10) Give 
 the latitude of northern and of southern Europe. (11) How about 
 its vegetation ? (12) Its population? (13) Tell about the winds and 
 rainfall of western North America. (14) Remembering its latitude, 
 explain the mild climate of Europe. (15) How are its regular wester- 
 lies interfered with? (16) How is the east and west direction of its 
 mountain ranges of great importance? (17) What is the influence 
 of its inland seas? (18) Tell about the inhabitants of Europe in 
 early times. (19) Which country took the lead in making progress, 
 
172 EUROPE 
 
 and why? (20) Tell about the Greeks. (21) About the Romans 
 and the extent of their territory. (22) Compare them with their 
 barbarian neighbors in appearance and manner of life. (23) Why 
 are these barbarians of especial interest to us? (24) Tell about the 
 decline of the Roman Empire. (25) Give some reasons why Europe 
 is divided into so many nations. (26) How has the discovery of the 
 New World proved of great benefit to Europe ? (27) In what respect 
 is Europe the Fatherland of other countries? 
 
 Correlation with North America. (1) Compare Europe with 
 North America in regard to highlands. (2) To lowlands. (3) Dis- 
 tribution of coal beds. 1 (4) Extent of ice covering. (5) Irregularity 
 of coast lines. (6) Latitude. (7) Vegetation (see also pp. 59 and 61). 
 (8) Population. (9) In what respects are the two continents alike in 
 climate? (10) In what respects unlike? (11) Compare the number 
 of degrees of longitude in Europe with the number in North America. 
 (12) Are the cyclonic storms as much needed in Europe as in America? 
 Why? (13) Why should the most densely populated part of Europe 
 be on the western side, while the most densely populated part of 
 North America is on the eastern side? 
 
 Suggestions. (1) What results might follow if the mountains of 
 Europe extended north and south near the western coast? (2) What 
 disadvantages do some of the European countries suffer in consequence 
 of the east and west direction of the mountains on their south? 
 (3) Mention some of the results if the land should rise near Gibraltar, 
 changing the Mediterranean to a closed sea. How would the British 
 Isles be influenced? Also Italy? (4) In Figures 116 and 117 trace 
 some of the isotherms across Europe and explain the causes of their 
 irregularity. (5) In what section would you expect to find most wild 
 animals? (Fig. 121). (6) Give reasons why some European countries, 
 such as Germany, take much better care of their forests than Ameri- 
 cans do. (7) Can you tell about any of the great wars and great 
 generals of Germany, England, or France ? (8) Can you tell of any 
 of the changes in boundary lines ; for example, in Poland, or between 
 France and Germany? (9) Explain how the adoption of Christian- 
 ity by the Roman government was an event of great importance. 
 (10) What distinguished Greeks and Romans can you name? 
 
 1 Some of these comparisons will be made easier by examining the fig- 
 ures in Section XXIV. 
 
Longitude (i West from 4 Greenwich 2 
 
 BRITISH ISLES 
 
 Scale of Miles. 
 
 i 50 , 
 
 Cities with over 1,000,000. . . . LOUtlOU 
 
 Cities with 200,000 to 1,000,000. . Liverpool 
 Cities with 100,000 to 200,000 . . .Portsmouth 
 
 Smaller Places Plymouth q ]/l/ ra th 
 
 Capitals of Countries s Other Places 
 
 Fig. 122. 
 
X. THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 Map Questions (Fig. 122). (1) Walk toward the British Isles. 
 (2) What two large islands do they include? (3) What waters sepa- 
 rate these two? (4) Name the three divisions of Great Britain. 
 (5) Where are the Orkney Islands? (6) The Hebrides? (7) The 
 Shetland Islands ? (8) Find the Channel Islands. They are included 
 among the British Isles. (9) What sea lies east of Great Britain ? 
 
 (10) What country of Europe is nearest to Great Britain ? (Fig. 172). 
 
 (11) What waters separate the two? (12) Make a sketch map of the 
 British Isles. (13) Compare the coast line with that of Spain (Fig. 
 154). With that of Norway (Fig. 172). What suggestion do you 
 get from this comparison? (14) Notice how many of the large cities 
 of Great Britain are on or near the coal fields (Fig. 131). Why is 
 this so? 
 
 Inhabitants. — When Caesar invaded Britain in 55 B.C., 
 he found the island inhabited by barbarians whose ances- 
 tors had crossed over from the continent. For the next 
 four centuries the Romans governed Britain, introducing 
 Christianity, building many excellent roads, and erecting 
 strong walls in the north for protection against the inroads 
 of wild tribes beyond. 
 
 After the downfall of the Roman Empire, invaders from 
 the mainland continued to visit the British coast, either to 
 plunder the natives or to make permanent settlements. 
 Among these invaders were the Angles and Saxons, from 
 whom the names English and Anglo-Saxon have been 
 derived. 
 
 The Northmen from Scandinavia also raided the coast ; and 
 the Danes from Denmark at one time ruled a large part of Eng- 
 land. Since the natives had no well-organized government, 
 
 173 
 
174 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 they were unable to resist these inroads by water ; but those 
 who lived in the interior, or among the mountains, or on the 
 more distant island of Ireland, were less open to attack. For 
 this reason the Irish, the Welsh, and the Scotch Highlanders 
 were less influenced by the invaders than inhabitants of what 
 we now call England. 
 
 The Normans from Normandy in France, themselves 
 descendants of the piratical Scandinavian vikings, entered 
 
 England as con- 
 querors in 1066. 
 For a long time 
 after that there 
 existed three 
 kingdoms, Eng- 
 land, Scotland, 
 and Ireland ; 
 but Scotland 
 and England 
 were united in 
 1603, and Ire- 
 land was added 
 in 1801. Thus a United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
 Ireland was formed, and the name United Kingdom is 
 now commonly applied to these islands. 
 
 From this brief history it is plain that the inhabitants 
 have descended from several different peoples, and that 
 their language and customs have been influenced by each. 
 As a result of their surroundings and history the British 
 people have developed a forcefulness which in large part 
 explains the wonderful advancement of the empire. 
 
 Position, Size, and Importance. — London is fully seven 
 hundred miles farther north than New York City, and the 
 
 Fig. 123. 
 Ancient cottage near the Lakes of Killarney in Ireland. 
 
THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 175 
 
 British Isles are in the same latitude as Labrador. Eng- 
 land itself is smaller than New England ; and the British 
 Isles, including England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, and 
 several hundred small islands, are not much larger than 
 the state of Col- 
 
 orado. 
 
 Yet in spite of 
 their northern 
 position and 
 small area, the 
 largest city in the 
 world is located 
 in the British 
 Isles. More than 
 that, Great Brit- 
 ain has more 
 manu f a c t u ring, 
 after the United 
 States, more 
 foreign trade, a 
 greater number 
 of vessels upon 
 the sea, and more 
 colonies (Fig. 
 142) than any 
 other nation in 
 existence (Fig. 193). There are of course reasons for 
 these remarkable facts, and we shall next look for them. 
 
 Physiography and Climate. — The southwesterly winds 
 from over the warm ocean (p. 161) offer a partial expla- 
 nation of the above facts. Two days out of three these 
 winds blow across the British Isles ; and, since they have 
 
 Fig. 124. 
 July isotherms for the British Isles. 
 
176 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 traversed a vast expanse of warm water, they greatly tem- 
 per the climate. Indeed, the winter season (Fig. 125) 
 is milder than that in northern United States, and the 
 summer (Fig. 124) is cooler (Figs. 86 and 37). The 
 
 latter fact is due 
 partly to the low 
 inclination of the 
 sun's rays in these 
 northern lati- 
 tudes, and partly 
 to the fact that 
 the ocean water, 
 though warm, is 
 cooler than land 
 warmed by a sum- 
 mer sun. Thus 
 a temperature is 
 caused which 
 favors active ex- 
 ertion through- 
 out the year, the 
 summer days be- 
 ing rarely hot, 
 the winter rarely 
 excessively cold. 
 The prevailing 
 
 westerlies, carrying an abundance of moisture (p. 161), so 
 distribute it over the islands that no section suffers from 
 drought. Yet the western portions receive more rain 
 than the eastern because the ocean winds visit them first 
 (Fig. 126). 
 
 The highlands also influence the rainfall. A highland rim 
 
 Fig. 125. 
 January isotherms for the British Isles. 
 
THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 177 
 
 extends around Ireland (Fig. 122), giving to the surface of that 
 island the form of a shallow plate. How does that influence the 
 rainfall ? (Fig. 126). Highlands are also found in Wales, west- 
 ern England, and most of Scotland (Fig. 122). Examine Figure 
 126 to see 
 where the rain- 
 fall is heaviest 
 in Great Brit- 
 ain. Where is 
 the rainfall 
 lightest? 
 Why? 
 
 As already 
 stated (p. 
 150), the 
 mountains of 
 Great Brit- 
 ain, like those 
 of New Eng- 
 land, are so 
 old that they 
 are worn very 
 low. While 
 this upland is 
 rarely more 
 than one or 
 two thousand 
 feet above 
 sea-level, 
 
 there are occasional peaks of hard rock that rise to a 
 greater height (Fig. 127). For example, the granite peak 
 of Ben Nevis in Scotland, the highest point in the British 
 Isles, is forty-three hundred feet in elevation. The Scot- 
 
 Fig. 126. 
 Rainfall map of the British Isles. 
 
178 EUROPE 
 
 tish Highlands are so rugged and barren that few people 
 are able to live there. 
 
 Where the rocks are softer and less disturbed by 
 folding there are lower and more level tracts, or plains. 
 Point out the broadest plains of Ireland, Scotland, and 
 England (Fig. 122). Notice especially the narrow low- 
 land of southern Scotland, near Edinburgh and Glas- 
 
 Fig. 127. 
 A view in the Highlands of Scotland. 
 
 gow. There the rocks are so much softer than those 
 of the Highlands that instead of barren, hilly country, 
 there is a fertile lowland, upon which, as in many parts of 
 England, there are thriving industries. 
 
 What have you already learned (p. 154) about the Great Ice 
 Age in the British Isles ? As in northeastern North America, 
 the glaciers had an important effect upon the soil and caused 
 many lakes (Figs. 128 and 134). Explain how. 
 
 The coast line is very irregular, as can be seen from the 
 map (Fig. 122). How does the coast compare with that 
 
THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 179 
 
 of New England? You have already learned that this 
 irregularity is due to sinking of the land ; and that the 
 many islands are the crests of former hills, while the bays 
 and harbors are submerged valleys. Since the moun- 
 tainous western portion had more deep valleys for the sea 
 to enter than the level plains of the east, there are more 
 good harbors on the west coast than on the eastern side 
 
 Fig. 12S. 
 The beautiful Loch Lomond in Scotland, a lake caused by the glacier. 
 
 of the islands. On both sides, however, the mouths of 
 the larger rivers usually make good ports. Why ? 
 
 Kinds of Industries. — In our study of the United States 
 we saw that the people are mainly engaged in the seven 
 great industries of lumbering, ranching, agriculture, fish- 
 ing, mining, manufacturing, and commerce. The first two 
 are almost wanting in the British Isles, but the others are 
 extensively developed. 
 
 While it is true that in early times a large part of this land 
 was densely wooded, little forest now remains, and lumber is 
 consequently one of the leading imports. Since no portion of 
 
180 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 the British Isles is arid, the ranching industry is not devel- 
 oped there as in western United States. 
 
 Agriculture. — In connection with agriculture, however, 
 much live stock is raised. In fact, grazing has of late so 
 increased in importance that there is now twice as much 
 land in pasture as in crops, and the British Isles are noted 
 
 Fig. 129. 
 Pasture land in the Highlands of Scotland. 
 
 for their great number of fine cattle, sheep, and horses. 
 The importance of grazing is partly explained by the fact 
 that much of the surface, like that of New England, is too 
 rocky or mountainous to be cultivated (Figs. 127 and 
 129). Besides this, some of the plains in eastern Eng- 
 land, although too sterile for farming, make excellent 
 pasture land. Two other facts favorable to stock raising 
 are the mild winters, and the damp atmosphere which 
 encourages the growth of grass. In addition to these 
 
THE BRITISH ISLES 181 
 
 causes, the cheapness with which grain is raised in other 
 countries, like the United States, and transported to the 
 British Isles on the large steamships, has made it less 
 necessary for the British to raise grain. 
 
 Owing to these conditions, there are more than thirty million 
 sheep in the British Isles. The Cheviot variety, in southern 
 Scotland, and the Southdowns, near London, are among the 
 most noted kinds. Fine breeds of horses and cattle are raised 
 on the more fertile lowlands, where the grass is long ; for horses 
 and cattle cannot eat as short grass as sheep can. 
 
 Several of the smaller islands are also widely known for 
 live stock. For instance, the Shetlands are famous for 
 Shetland ponies ; and on the three Channel Islands, — Jersey, 
 Guernsey, and Alderney, — near the French coast, three breeds 
 of cattle have been developed which are well known in the 
 United States. What conclusions can you draw in regard to 
 the dairy business in the British Isles ? Mention other uses 
 of so much live stock. Would you expect to find a dense popu- 
 lation in these grazing sections ? (see Fig. 120). Why ? 
 
 The cool summer climate, which is of advantage in some 
 respects, is unfavorable to many kinds of farming ; for 
 example, it prevents the production of corn, cotton, tobacco, 
 and grapes, which require warm summers. More hardy 
 products, however, as oats, barley, and wheat, are exten- 
 sively cultivated. Turnips, potatoes, beans, and peas are 
 other important crops ; also hops, which, together with 
 barley, are used in the manufacture of beer. Owing to 
 the many towns and cities, truck farming is of importance ; 
 and fruit and vegetable gardens are found near all the towns. 
 
 The demand for farm land has been so great that large areas 
 of swamp have been reclaimed by careful drainage, and these 
 now make the most fertile farms. But in spite of the care that 
 has been given to cultivating the soil and to raising live stock, 
 
182 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 far less food is produced than is needed by the inhabitants. 
 Such vast multitudes are engaged in other occupations that if 
 they were deprived of food from abroad, they would, it is said, 
 begin to suffer from famine within a month. How different 
 that is from our own country, whose area is so large, and 
 climate so varied, that it not only supplies the food we need, 
 but produces enormous quantities to be sent abroad. 
 
 Fishing. — Since the early inhabitants had to cross the sea 
 
 Fig. 130. 
 
 A cottage in southwestern Englaud. 
 
 in order to reach these islands, and since most of their descend- 
 ants have lived either on or near the coast, it is natural that, 
 as a people, they should become accustomed to a seafaring life. 
 This sort of life has also been encouraged by the fact that food 
 fish abound on the shallow banks of the North Sea and of the 
 ocean to the north and west of the islands. More than one 
 hundred thousand men and twenty-five thousand boats from 
 the British Isles are employed in the fishing industry. Among 
 the fish caught are cod, haddock, and herring, as off the coast 
 of New England and Newfoundland. Another important kind 
 is a flat-fish, the sole, which resembles the flounder of the 
 
THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 183 
 
 New England coast. Salmon enter the rivers of northern 
 Great Britain, and oysters are found along the southern coast. 
 Many fishing hamlets are scattered along the shore ; but the 
 fishing industry here, as in New England, is becoming more 
 and more centralized in the large towns, which possess the 
 capital for large vessels and expensive fishing outfits. The 
 chief centres of the trade, like Boston and Gloucester in Massa- 
 chusetts, are London, Hull, and Grimsby (Eig. 136, near 
 Hull) in England, and Aberdeen in Scotland. 
 
 Mining. — One of the resources of the British Isles 
 which early attracted people from southern Europe was 
 the tin in southwestern England. This metal is not 
 mined in many parts of the world, but has always been 
 in great demand ; and even before the time of Caesar, 
 ships from the Mediterranean came to England to obtain 
 tin for use in the manufacture of bronze. Small quanti- 
 ties of copper, lead, zinc, and even gold and silver ores 
 have also been discovered in the British Isles, but at pres- 
 ent there is almost no mining of these metals. 
 
 On the other hand, the abundance of two other min- 
 erals, coal and iron ore, reminds us of our own country. 
 We have already learned that Pennsylvania is the most 
 important of our states in coal production, bituminous 
 coal being mined in the neighborhood of Pittsburg, and 
 the anthracite or hard variety about Wilkes Barre and 
 Scranton. But coal is mined in many other parts of the 
 United States. Can you name some ? This one small 
 island of Great Britain, however, produces almost as 
 much coal as all of our states together ; and the United 
 States and Great Britain are the leading coal-producing 
 countries of the world. 
 
 Eigure 131 shows the sections of Great Britain in which coal 
 is found. While most of the coal is bituminous, that in South 
 
184 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 COALFIELDS 
 
 CHEAT 181UTAIX. 
 
 X B T II 
 
 Wales is mainly anthracite. Large numbers of miners in the 
 United States are Welshmen who have come from that section. 
 
 Iron ore is also abundant and favorably located. You 
 will remember that in the United States the Lake Supe- 
 rior district, now the leading iron-producing centre of the 
 world, has no coal, and that its ore is transported to the coal 
 
 fields of Pennsyl- 
 
 &:[fc * ScakjC vania and other 
 
 states to be 
 smelted. But in 
 Pennsylvania, 
 coal, iron, and 
 limestone are 
 near together; 
 and at Birming- 
 ham, Alabama, 
 they occur in the 
 same valley side 
 by side, making 
 this district the 
 most favorable 
 for iron smelting 
 in the United 
 States. 
 
 Parts of Great 
 Britain possess 
 the same advan- 
 tage as Birming- 
 ham, Alabama, 
 
 ENGLISH 
 
 A map showing 
 
 Fig. 131. 
 
 the coal fields of the British Isles. 
 
 whose name, in fact, is derived from the close resemblance 
 of conditions about it to those about Birmingham, Eng- 
 land. None of the British iron ore is far from coal ; and 
 
THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 185 
 
 in places the same shaft is used to bring both coal and 
 iron to the surface. Limestone is also abundant and near 
 at hand. What suggestions do these facts give concerning 
 the development of manufactures and the location of large 
 cities ? 
 
 Besides these minerals, various building stones are exten- 
 sively quarried, as granite in Scotland, and slate in northern 
 
 Fig. 132. 
 A castle in Wales, situated on one of the hills of hard rock. 
 
 Wales. Salt is also found ; and there is clay of such excellent 
 quality for earthenware that several towns have become noted 
 for their potteries, as Trenton and Cincinnati have in the 
 United States. The extent of the mining industry in the 
 United Kingdom is indicated by the fact that more than half 
 a million persons are employed there underground. 
 
 Reasons for Development of Manufacturing. — Consider- 
 ing the abundance of coal and iron ore on the one hand, 
 
186 EUROPE 
 
 and of wool from the millions of sheep on the other, it is 
 clear that Great Britain is able to manufacture exten- 
 sively. Even in very early times the English were 
 engaged in the weaving of woollen cloth. Later, owing 
 to numerous wars and to the oppression from rulers on 
 the continent, England became a refuge for oppressed 
 industrial people from the mainland, so that such manu- 
 facturing rapidly increased. 
 
 As in New England, the hilly sections have abundant 
 water power due to the glacier. This also favored manu- 
 facturing ; and later, when steam was employed, the 
 abundant stores of coal were of great importance. The 
 use of steam has led to the building of many factories, and 
 to the growth of manufacturing centres. Therefore, the 
 making of cloth on hand looms at the homes of the 
 weavers has been generally abandoned, although this 
 form of manufacturing still lingers in parts of Ireland. 
 
 The peculiar energy and inventive genius of the British, 
 which kept their machinery in advance of that used by other 
 nations, must also be considered. For example, it was the 
 Scotchman, James Watt, who invented the modern steam engine ; 
 and it was George Stephenson who invented the first locomotive. 
 The very smallness of the country is another advantage ; for 
 no matter where a factory may be located, it is near the coal 
 fields and within a few miles of a shipping point. 
 
 Woollen and Cotton Manufactures. — In the mountain- 
 ous section of northern England, near both coal and wool, 
 are hundreds of factories engaged in the manufacture 
 of woollen cloth. The principal centre of this trade is 
 Leeds, which has the added advantage of water power. 
 On the western side of this hilly region is Bradford, 
 
THE BRITISH ISLES 187 
 
 noted for its broadcloth and worsted goods ; and neigh- 
 boring cities manufacture woollen yarn, hosiery, carpets, 
 and blankets. The woollen industry extends northward 
 into Scotland and southward to Leicester, whose sur- 
 rounding plains produce a breed of sheep that yields a 
 wool for worsted yarn. 
 
 From the spinning and weaving of wool it was easy to 
 move to cotton manufacturing ; and on the western side 
 of the northern mountains we find a great cotton-manu- 
 facturing industry. Dampness is one of the points in 
 favor of that section, for in a dry air cotton is in danger 
 of becoming too brittle to spin and weave easily. Another 
 reason why this work is best developed on the west side 
 of the island is the fact that it is nearer the United States, 
 from which so much of the raw cotton comes. 
 
 The centre of the cotton manufacturing is Manchester. 
 What cities do you find located near by ? This portion of 
 Great Britain, including southern Scotland and the two 
 sides of the mountain range of northern England, is the 
 seat of the greatest textile industry in the world. Can 
 you name cities of New England which are likewise 
 engaged in cotton and woollen manufacture ? 
 
 In spite of the enormous number of sheep in the British 
 Isles, the manufacturing industry has so far outgrown the 
 local supply of wool that millions of pounds must be imported 
 every year. This condition resembles that of New England, 
 where much of the wool is brought from Ohio and more western 
 states, as well as from foreign countries. As to cotton, since 
 the British climate will not permit its cultivation, it is necessary 
 to import about two billion pounds a year to supply the mills. 
 Although much cotton is now obtained from Egypt, India, and 
 other parts of the British Empire, our Southern States still 
 supply the greatest quantity. 
 
188 EUROPE 
 
 Iron and Steel Manufacturing. — In early times iron ore 
 was mined from swamps, or bogs, in England and smelted 
 by means of charcoal, as bog iron ore was mined and 
 smelted in New England during Colonial times.. The 
 value of coal in smelting was not discovered until the 
 eighteenth century ; but since the discovery of this use 
 of coal, a great iron and steel industry has grown up in 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Doubtless you can name some of the cities of the United 
 States which are engaged in iron and steel work. In what 
 states are they situated ? Some are near the coal fields ; 
 which are they? Have you named any in New England? 
 There is no coal there. Do you recall the metal manufactories 
 that are most prominent in New England, and the reasons for 
 their development ? 
 
 The cities in Great Britain that are most noted for iron 
 and steel products are Birmingham and Sheffield in 
 England, and Glasgow in Scotland. Birmingham manu- 
 factures jewelry, watches, firearms, bicycles, steam engines, 
 etc. Sheffield has for centuries been distinguished for 
 cutlery, the existence of grindstone quarries in the neigh- 
 borhood being a partial reason for this particular industry. 
 Why ? It also manufactures steel rails and armor plates 
 for warships. Glasgow, on the Clyde, is a centre for 
 shipbuilding and for the manufacture of locomotives and 
 machinery of various kinds. 
 
 In cities round about these places are similar works ; and 
 as in New England, many of those occupied with the textile 
 industry also produce textile machinery and other iron and 
 steel goods. The island is so small that coal and iron are 
 cheaply shipped to various points ; and on this account, manu- 
 facturing, though best developed near the coal fields, is not 
 confined to these districts. 
 
THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 189 
 
 Thus we see that here, as in the United States, coal 
 makes possible an enormous industrial development. But 
 in spite of the forest of chimneys in England and southern 
 Scotland, the output of coal is more than sufficient to meet 
 the demands. The materials to be manufactured, how- 
 ever, are not sufficient ; for all the cotton, much of the 
 wool, and part of the iron ore must be imported. 
 
 These three industries, connected with cotton, wool, 
 and iron, have made Great Britain one of the great work- 
 
 Fig. 133. 
 
 The Clyde, at Glasgow. 
 
 shops of the world. The most important is cotton manu- 
 facturing ; iron ranks next, and wool is third. 
 
 Ireland. — Ireland forms a striking contrast to Great 
 Britain in several respects. In the first place it is mainly 
 a country of farms instead of manufactures. The mild 
 climate and damp atmosphere insure excellent grass 
 throughout the year, and about four-fifths of the farm 
 land is in pasture. It follows, therefore, that great num- 
 bers of cattle, sheep, and horses are raised. As in Great 
 
190 EUROPE 
 
 Britain, the principal grain is oats ; but barley, wheat, 
 potatoes, and turnips are also raised. 
 
 Again, unlike Great Britain, Ireland is very barren of 
 minerals. Building stones, such as granite, marble, and 
 sandstone, are found, but there is extremely little coal or 
 iron. For that reason, whatever manufacturing has been 
 developed is located chiefly on the eastern side, where 
 
 Fig. 134. 
 
 The famous lakes of Killarney in the hilly part of southwestern Ireland. 
 They are formed where glacial drift has obstructed the drainage. 
 
 coal is easily obtained from England or Scotland. At 
 one point the two islands are only thirteen miles apart. 
 
 The lack of coal for use in the homes is partly made up by 
 the abundance of " turf " or peat. Owing to the deposits of 
 glacial drift, which have obstructed the streams (Fig. 134), the 
 level interior is so poorly drained that marshes or bogs occupy 
 about one-twelfth of the entire surface of the island. The 
 water in these bogs protects the swamp vegetation from decay, 
 so that it accumulates, forming a sod, which, when dug up and 
 dried, makes a fairly good fuel. It will be remembered that 
 
THE BRITISH ISLES 191 
 
 similar deposits, in the larger swamps of the Coal Period, 
 caused the coal beds which are now of so much value (p. 153). 
 
 While manufacturing is little developed, there is one 
 kind that nourishes in Ireland ; namely, the making of 
 linen. The Irish linens, which take high rank in our 
 country, are made from the inner bark of the flax plant. 
 Flax is grown in various parts of the United States, but 
 mainly for the sake of the seed, from which linseed oil is 
 made for use in mixing paints and in making varnish. 
 In Ireland, however, flax is raised chiefly for its fibre. 
 
 The damp climate of Ireland is favorable to the growth of 
 flax, and the cheap labor makes possible the great amount of 
 care required in preparing it for the manufacture of linen. 
 The stem of flax is tall and slender, and a field of it presents 
 somewhat the same appearance as a field of oats. Instead 
 of being cut, like grain, it is pulled up and left lying upon 
 the ground for some time, exposed to the dew and weather, 
 so that the gummy substance, which holds the woody matter 
 and fibre together, may decay. After the fibre has been sepa- 
 rated from the woody core by machinery, it is split and combed 
 out with a steel brush and thus made ready for spinning. 
 
 Travellers in northern Ireland in summer see field after field 
 covered with flax, which is used chiefly in linen factories at 
 Belfast. ■ The fibre is made into thread in much the same 
 manner as cotton or wool, and this is then woven into napkins, 
 tablecloths, etc. Name other articles made of linen. 
 
 Ireland forms a third contrast to Great Britain in regard to 
 population. Not only is it far less densely peopled, but the 
 number of inhabitants is decreasing. Partly because of the 
 unfavorable laws imposed by England, the Irish have long 
 been discontented with their lot; and since the disastrous 
 potato famine in 1846, they have been abandoning the coun- 
 try. They have sought refuge chiefly in America, and since 
 the above date, the number of inhabitants has been reduced 
 from 8,000,000 to 5,000,000. 
 
192 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Location of Principal Cities. — The cities most distin- 
 guished for manufacturing have already been mentioned ; 
 namely, Leeds, Bradford, Manchester, Sheffield, 
 Birmingham, and Glasgow. What industries are de- 
 veloped in each ? 
 
 There are other large cities along the coast ; for so much 
 manufacturing calls for an enormous import of raw mate- 
 
 Fig. 135. 
 Commerce on the Thames below London Bridge. 
 
 rials and food, as well as the export of manufactured 
 goods. These cities must, therefore, be the gateways to 
 and from the island. And since Great Britain lies rather 
 far north, between Europe and the New World, these 
 shipping points must be located on the eastern, western, 
 and southern sides, at those points where the best harbors 
 exist, and not far from the great industrial centres. 
 
Fig. 136. 
 The location of London and of Liverpool. 
 
194 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 First among the coastal cities to be noted is London, 
 with Bristol opposite it on the west. Farther north is 
 Hull, with Liverpool on the opposite side ; and in 
 southern Scotland is Edinburgh, near the coast, paired 
 with Glasgow on the west. On the south side the 
 two most important ports are Southampton and Ports- 
 mouth. What are the principal cities of Ireland ? 
 Steamships, railway lines, and canals connect the various 
 
 Fig. 137. 
 The British Museum at London. 
 
 cities, carrying immense quantities of freight. In Great 
 Britain and Ireland there are nearly four thousand miles 
 of canal and over twenty-one thousand miles of railway. 
 
 London. — This city, the largest in the world, is situated 
 on the Thames River. The Thames, like many other 
 British rivers, has a wide, deep mouth, owing to the sink- 
 ing of the land, and London is located as far inland as 
 high tide allows vessels to go, or fifty miles from the 
 open sea. The advantage of this position lies in the fact 
 
THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 195 
 
 that it is in the interior of the island, yet has direct water 
 communication with foreign countries. 
 
 Before the Roman occupation the site of London was a 
 fortified camp, situated on a low hill surrounded by tidal 
 marshes and mud flats. The Romans maintained a ferry at 
 this point ; and the building of the first London Bridge, over 
 eight hundred years ago, gave the city a great start. Since 
 
 Fig. 138. 
 Windsor Castle. 
 
 that time it has grown until Greater London now covers an 
 area of 690 square miles and includes fully 6,500,000 persons. 
 How does that compare with the number in Scotland ? Ire- 
 land ? New York City ? 
 
 As in all great cities, one of the principal industries is 
 manufacturing, nearly all kinds of goods being made, as 
 in New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia. But New York, 
 we know, owes its greatness largely to the fact that it is 
 the gateway to a vast productive interior, while almost 
 
196 EUROPE 
 
 any point in England can be reached by rail from London 
 in a few hours. Nevertheless, although Great Britain is 
 small, its population is nearly one-half as great as that of 
 the United States, and the port of London is the point of 
 entrance for much of their food. 
 
 In fact, this is the greatest shipping point in the world. Its 
 rows of piers extend twenty miles down the river, and its rail- 
 ways radiate in all directions (Fig. 136). However, the fact 
 that London lacks coal and iron near at hand, places it at 
 some disadvantage compared with Liverpool and Glasgow. 
 
 London is not so noted for its export of manufactured goods 
 as some of the ports nearer the great manufacturing cities; but 
 it is the chief centre for imports. For example, nearly all the 
 tea and wine used in Great Britain enter London. The great 
 warehouses are filled with goods from all climes, — ■ as flour, 
 sugar, meat, tobacco, hides, and cocoanuts, — and many thou- 
 sands of men are employed in them. Among the interesting 
 sights of London are the wine-cellars, which occupy many acres 
 of space underground and, like a city, are divided up into 
 streets and lighted by gas. 
 
 Besides being the capital of the British Empire (Fig. 
 142), which is the name applied to the United Kingdom 
 and its dependencies, London is the centre for the publi- 
 cation of books and magazines, and is provided with noted 
 picture galleries, libraries, museums, and many magnificent 
 buildings. Its wealth and trade are so extensive that it 
 has been the money centre of the world, though New 
 York, the money centre of the United States, now rivals 
 it. The leading bank, called the Bank of England, is the 
 agent of the government in many of its business transac- 
 tions and employs about a thousand persons. 
 
 Being a very old city, many of the London streets are nar- 
 row and crooked. Some of the principal streets are too narrow 
 
THE BRITISH ISLES 197 
 
 for street cars, so that, unlike American cities, the people have 
 to be transported mainly by omnibuses. One of the largest 
 companies runs thirteen hundred buses, and employs five thou- 
 sand men and fifteen thousand horses. However, an under- 
 ground railway, which encircles the great city, running under 
 houses and streets, carries an enormous number of passengers. 
 Near London are many places of interest. Just below the 
 city, on the south side of the river, is the Greenwich observa- 
 tory, from which meridians of longitude are numbered and 
 time is regulated. A few miles up the river is Windsor Castle 
 (Fig. 138), the palace of the sovereigns of the Empire. Find 
 Cambridge and Oxford (Fig. 136), the two leading university 
 towns of Great Britain. 
 
 Other English Cities. — Southwest of London, on the 
 coast, is Southampton, where ocean steamers from the 
 United States often stop (Fig. 143), and where fast 
 trains wait to convey passengers to the metropolis. 
 Close to Southampton is Portsmouth, which has a 
 great navy yard. 
 
 Almost due west of London, at the mouth of the Severn 
 River, is Bristol, which is engaged in the lumber trade and 
 in the manufacture of tobacco and chocolate. It was formerly 
 next to London in size, but Liverpool has now far outstripped 
 it. Can you suggest some reason why ? Just west of Bristol 
 is Cardiff in Wales, the chief point in Great Britain for the 
 export of coal. 
 
 Knowing the occupation of the dense population in 
 northern England, we can tell the principal exports of 
 Hull and Liverpool. What must they be? The 
 former city naturally trades mainly with Europe, and 
 the latter with the Americas and West Africa. 
 
 Before the discovery of the New World, the west side 
 of Great Britain had little commerce, and Liverpool 
 
198 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 (Fig. 136), therefore, had little business or growth. But, 
 with the settlement of America the city grew until it 
 now has an immense trade with North and South Amer- 
 ica, and is the third city in size in the United Kingdom. 
 Many passengers from America land at this port and go 
 
 by rail to Lon- 
 don. Besides its 
 commerce, Liv- 
 erpool is also 
 important for 
 its shipbuild- 
 ing. What cir- 
 cumstances are 
 favorable to that 
 industry? A 
 ship canal, about 
 thirty-five miles 
 in length, has 
 recently been 
 built to Man- 
 chester, at an 
 expense of 
 175,000,000. 
 
 Cities of Scot- 
 land. — Glas- 
 gow, on the 
 western side of 
 the lowland plain of southern Scotland, is not only a great 
 manufacturing centre (p. 188), but it is also a leading 
 shipping point for the same reasons that Liverpool is. 
 State them. Fifty years ago the Clyde could be forded 
 at this place ; but it has been deepened by dredging until 
 
 Fig. 139. 
 The churchyard described in Gray's Elegy. 
 
THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 199 
 
 the largest vessels now enter (Fig. 133), and the popu- 
 lation has so increased that the city is now next to 
 London in size. What must be some of its principal 
 imports and exports? Why? 
 
 Edinburgh, unlike the other great cities named, is 
 neither a shipping point nor an important manufacturing 
 centre. It is distinguished as the capital of Scotland, and 
 one of the most beautiful cities of the British Isles. Its 
 
 Fig. 140. 
 Kenilworth Castle, described by Scott iu " Kenilworth." 
 
 importance is historical rather than commercial ; for in 
 the early days it commanded the entrance to the lowland 
 of southern Scotland. The well-known University of 
 Edinburgh is situated here. Leith, a short distance 
 away, is the port for Edinburgh. 
 
 Farther north on the coast are the important ports of Dun- 
 dee and Aberdeen (p. 183). The former sends forth a num- 
 ber of Arctic whaling vessels each year, and is also engaged in 
 the manufacture of linen and other textiles. 
 
 Cities of Ireland. — The principal cities of Ireland are 
 
200 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 on the east and south sides. Why ? What has already- 
 been said about Belfast? (p. 191). It is also noted for 
 its shipbuilding. Dublin, the capital and largest city, 
 and the chief port for the English trade, ships farm and 
 other products to England, and receives manufactured 
 goods in return. Queenstown has a fine harbor, and is 
 a stopping point for some of the vessels bound from 
 America to Great Britain. 
 
 Scenery. — The number of places of interest and beauty in 
 the British Isles is very great. This is of advantage, not 
 
 merely to the Brit- 
 ish, but also to the 
 large number of 
 tourists from 
 other countries 
 who visit the isl- 
 ands. 
 
 One of the most 
 attractive parts is 
 the Lake District 
 in northwestern 
 England; another 
 is the Killarney 
 Lakes in Ireland 
 (Fig. 134); and 
 
 there is so much 
 Shakespeare's house at Stratford-on-Avon. Since this coast andsomuch 
 picture was taken, the house has been somewhat ' 
 
 changed in appearance. ni Hy country, 
 
 that the variety 
 of views and of means of entertainment is very great. The 
 fact that distances are so short that desirable points are readily 
 reached, is important for the many who have little money, but 
 need a restful vacation. 
 
 There are also many historic places which are visited by 
 great numbers. Among these may be mentioned the home of 
 
 
 
 Jm 
 
 « " ■■ft 
 
 "I-; -U;« « !=L3|: 
 
 mmiM-.-'^ 
 
 fjL-'jr 
 
 Ety^ 
 
 
 Hull 
 
 1 flnBMin Isiiil 
 
THE BRITISH ISLES 201 
 
 Shakespeare (Fig. 141) ; many cathedrals ; and the ruins of 
 castles, the ancient homes of noblemen (Figs. 132 and 140). 
 
 Fuller Reasons for the Greatness of the British Empire. — 
 While we have learned many facts about the British 
 Isles, some important questions are not yet fully answered. 
 For example, why does this little country possess more 
 colonies (Fig. 142) than any other nation of the earth ? 
 Further, why should it have the greatest foreign trade ? 
 And why the greatest number of vessels upon the sea ? 
 
 Some of the reasons in answer to these questions are as 
 follows. The fact that Great Britain is so small — it is 
 impossible to find a point more than seventy miles from 
 the salt water — is a reason why many of the British 
 have been sailors. It is not surprising, therefore, that 
 they have produced many explorers, such as the Cabots 
 who sailed from Bristol, Sir Francis Drake, and Sir Walter 
 Raleigh. What parts of the world did they explore? 
 
 Nor is it to be wondered at that, as these explorers dis- 
 covered new parts of the world, they laid claim to them 
 in the name of their mother country. In this way, and 
 by war, Great Britain came into possession of the Thir- 
 teen Colonies of North America, Canada, India, Australia, 
 much of Africa, and many other places (Fig. 142). At 
 present her territory includes about one-fifth of the land 
 surface of the globe and one-fourth of its inhabitants. 
 
 These colonies and dependencies help to explain Great 
 Britain's enormous foreign commerce ; for the colonies 
 have found it more advantageous to trade with the mother 
 country than with other nations speaking a different lan- 
 guage and having less understanding of them or sym- 
 pathy with them. They sell to her their raw products, 
 including food, and she in return sends to them clothing, 
 
THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 203 
 
 steel goods, and other manufactured articles. It is largely 
 the exchange of goods with these colonies that has made 
 the foreign trade of Great Britain nearly twice that of 
 any other nation. Next to her colonies Great Britain's 
 greatest trade is with the United States. 
 
 Some of the reasons why this little island should own 
 more vessels than any other nation have already appeared. 
 In fishing, exploring, and making settlements, a large 
 
 Fig. 143. 
 
 The Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, a German steamship which makes a stop at 
 Southampton. It is one of the largest steamships, cost $2,500,000, and 
 consumes ahout 500 tons of coal a day. The crew numbers about 500. 
 
 number of ships have been needed ; and for the proper 
 defence of her widely distributed colonies many warships 
 have been required. Another reason for so large a navy 
 is the fact that the British Isles are cut off from all other 
 nations by water. They must, therefore, rely rather upon 
 warships for defence than upon a standing army. 
 
 Further than this, the British are actually forced to 
 own many ships. Here are over forty million people 
 living on two small islands, from whose soil it is impossi- 
 ble to obtain the necessary food. They must send ships 
 
204 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 away for their flour, meat, sugar, coffee, etc.; and they 
 must send abroad for much of their raw material for 
 manufacture. Also in order to pay for the raw materials 
 and food, their manufactured goods must be shipped to 
 all parts of the world; otherwise their extensive manu- 
 facturing would be impossible. 
 
 These facts show why a very large number of vessels must 
 be employed ; and there are two reasons why the British, 
 
 rather than other nations, should 
 own them. In the first place, 
 such trade is profitable. In the 
 second place, when they own 
 their own vessels they can send 
 them where they will, and are, 
 therefore, independent in case of 
 war. 
 
 These facts, coupled with 
 the remarkable energy of the 
 British, are the principal 
 reasons why the United King- 
 dom greatly surpasses all other 
 nations in the number of her 
 warships and merchant ves- 
 sels. To illustrate the im- 
 mense importance of the 
 shipping interests of Great 
 Britain it may be stated that 
 every day in the year there 
 are said to be fully a thousand 
 ships entering her ports. 
 
 Few persons appreciate the 
 magnitude of a single large steamship, or its carrying power 
 and cost (Figs. 143 and 144). Measure off a distance out of 
 
 Fig. 144. 
 The same steamer as in Figure 143, to 
 show its great size in comparison 
 with a high building in New York 
 City and with the Washington 
 Monument (555 feet high). The 
 length of this steamer is 648 feet, 
 its width 66 and its depth 43 feet. 
 
THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 205 
 
 doors as long as the steamship in Figure 144. Compare it 
 with the length of an ordinary freight car. This vessel is able 
 to accommodate about two thousand persons besides the crew, 
 and an enormous amount of freight in addition. 
 
 Government. — The government of the United Kingdom 
 is a limited monarchy, the present ruler being King 
 Edward VII. We know that in the United States our 
 
 Fig. 145. 
 The House of Parliament. 
 
 general laws are made at Washington by a Congress com- 
 posed of a Senate and a House of Representatives. In the 
 United Kingdom the law-making body corresponding to 
 this is called Parliament. It is likewise composed of two 
 bodies, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. 
 
 The House of Lords is made up of men with inherited 
 titles who are not elected by the people. In former times the 
 Lords were so powerful that the people had little control of 
 the government ; but for many generations their power has 
 been restricted, and the House of Commons, whose members 
 
206 EUROPE 
 
 are elected by popular vote, is now by far the more important. 
 Through them the people are able to make their own laws, and 
 the government is therefore one of great freedom. 
 
 While the sovereign is nominally the executive, like our 
 President, the execution of laws is really in charge of a Cabi- 
 net composed of a Prime Minister and several other Ministers, 
 who are responsible to the House of Commons for their actions. 
 If the Ministers lose the support of the House, they are obliged 
 to resign ; and then others are appointed who will carry out 
 the wishes of the people. 
 
 That this government is highly satisfactory is proved 
 by the fact that there is little desire on the part of the 
 many British colonies to sever their connection with the 
 mother country. Undoubtedly either Canada or Aus- 
 tralia could, if it chose, separate itself from the mother 
 country. But the mutual protection which their union 
 furnishes, and the advantages of trade which it offers, 
 prohibit any serious thought of such action. Most of 
 the British colonists, therefore, form a loyal part of the 
 British Empire, always ready to support the government 
 and proud of their citizenship. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Relate the early history of the British 
 Isles. (2) Give their location. Their area. (3) What noteworthy 
 facts about their importance ? (4) Tell about their climate. (5) Their 
 physiography. (6) The effects of the ice sheet. (7) The coast line. 
 (8) What two common industries are little developed in these islands? 
 Why? (9) Why is so much of the land in grass? (10) Tell about 
 the live stock. (11) What crops cannot be raised ? Why? (12) What 
 are the principal farm products? (13) What disadvantage do the 
 people suffer in regard to food supply ? (14) Give the principal facts 
 about the fishing industry. (15) What metals are found in small 
 quantities? (16) How about the abundance of coal and iron ore? 
 (17) Locate the chief coal fields in Great Britain. (18) Name the 
 sections of the United States that are noted for iron ore. (19) Tell 
 about the iron ore in Great Britain. (20) Name other important 
 mineral products. (21) Give reasons for the development of textile 
 
THE BRITISH ISLES 207 
 
 manufacturing in Great Britain. (22) What cities are especially 
 noted for the manufacture of woollen goods ? (23) For cotton ? 
 (24) Tell about the manufacture of iron and steel goods. (25) What 
 about the farm products of Ireland? What about minerals there? 
 (26) About manufacturing? (27) What is used for fuel ? (28) Tell 
 about the linen industry of Ireland. (29) About the population. 
 (30) Name and locate the cities in Great Britain that are distinguished 
 for manufacturing. (31) Name and locate the principal coast cities. 
 
 (32) Tell about London : its location, principal kinds of business, etc. 
 
 (33) What noted palaces are nearby? (34) Tell about each of the 
 other cities mentioned. Locate each. (35) What can you say about 
 the scenery of the British Isles ? (36) Give some reasons why the 
 British Isles have more colonies than any other country. (37) Why 
 more foreign trade ? (38) Why the greatest number of vessels ? 
 (39) Tell about their government. 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) On a sketch map of Great Britain mark the 
 position of the highlands and lowlands. (2) Considering the prevail- 
 ing winds, which side of the great cities must be most free from smoke ? 
 (3) Why are sheep able to eat shorter grass than cattle? (4) Make 
 a list of goods made out of flax, and place samples in the school 
 cabinet. (5) Write a paper telling in what ways the people of the 
 British Isles and the United States depend on one another. (6) State 
 ways in which New England and Great Britain resemble each other. 
 (7) Talk with some Irishman to see how he feels toward England, 
 and why. (8) What names of British cities have you met in your 
 study of the United States ? In what portions of the United States 
 are they? (9) Collect pictures of scenes in the British Isles. (10) What 
 books have you read which describe the scenery or the people of these 
 islands ? (11) Find out other facts about the large steamships. 
 (12) What advantages do you see in the fact that the British Isles are 
 near the continent, yet separated by water? (13) Read in George 
 Eliot's "Silas Marner" for a description of old-fashioned manufac- 
 turing by hand looms. (14) Also in "John Halifax, Gentleman," 
 for an account of the introduction of steam into the factories. (15) 
 Read Gray's " Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard." (16) Read 
 Scott's " Kenilworth." (17) Find out some fa,cts about Queen 
 Victoria. 
 
XL THE NETHERLANDS AND BELGIUM 
 
 Map Questions (Fig. 154). — (1) Compare the area of the 
 Netherlands with that of Belgium ; with that of Great Britain. 
 
 (2) Compare the coast lines of the Netherlands and Belgium. 
 
 (3) What large river crosses the Netherlands? Through what coun- 
 tries does it pass ? (4) What countries border the Netherlands ? 
 (5) Belgium ? (6) Make an outline map of these two countries. 
 
 The Netherlands (Hollakd) 
 
 Physiography. — Figure 146 shows the Netherlands to 
 be a peculiar country. The greater portion is very low, 
 
 and some parts are as 
 much as fifteen feet be- 
 low sea level. In fact, 
 if protection against sea 
 and river were not pro- 
 vided, about one-half of 
 the surface would be 
 occasionally or perma- 
 nently under water. 
 This explains why the 
 country, sometimes 
 called Holland, is more 
 commonly known as the 
 Netherlands, a word 
 meaning low country. 
 
 The Khine has brought 
 much of the soil, some of it, 
 no doubt, all the way from the Alps. A large part of the country 
 is, in fact, a delta of sand and clay built by the Khine, and it 
 
 208 
 
 Map to show the portion of the Netherlands 
 that is below sea level. 
 
THE NETHERLANDS 209 
 
 is so low and level that over much of the surface the only nota- 
 ble elevations are either sand dunes, thrown up by the wind, 
 or glacial moraines of sand and gravel. In Figure 114 notice 
 how far the ice sheet reached in this section. Hard rocks are 
 found only in the eastern and southeastern parts, where the 
 highest point is a little over a thousand feet. 
 
 In so level a country there can be little water power ; 
 and little mineral wealth may be expected in the soft 
 clays and sands. Some iron is found in the bogs, which 
 are extensive, and a small amount of coal is mined in the 
 extreme southeast. Under the circumstances, is there 
 promise of much manufacturing ? 
 
 Owing to all these disadvantages the Netherlands 
 might seem to be incapable of supporting a large popula- 
 tion. Nevertheless that country has about two-thirds as 
 many inhabitants as the remarkably productive state of 
 New York, which is four times as large. 
 
 People and Government. — Perhaps the leading explana- 
 tion of this prosperity is the high character of the Dutch 
 people, as the Netherlander are called. For centuries 
 they have felt an intense love for civil and religious lib- 
 erty ; but, being a small nation, they have suffered many 
 hardships in attempting to establish independence and 
 tolerant laws. At one time they were under German 
 control ; later they came under the cruel rule of Spain ; 
 but finally they obtained their independence, and their 
 form of government is now a limited monarchy. 
 
 While their belief in freedom brought them untold suffer- 
 ing, it was a cause of progress as well. It was to Holland 
 that the Pilgrims first fled when religious persecutions drove 
 them from England ; and from time to time large numbers of 
 Huguenots, Germans, and others found refuge there. These 
 
210 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 immigrants, who were persecuted and driven from home be- 
 cause of their advanced ideas, have nearly always been among 
 the most enlightened people of Europe. Their settlement in 
 the Netherlands therefore had a great influence on the intelli- 
 gence with which Dutch industries were developed. 
 
 Agriculture. — Agriculture, including grazing, is the 
 principal industry of the kingdom, although, largely on 
 account of swamps and sand dunes, a fifth of its area is 
 waste land. The principal farm products are grains, such 
 
 Fig. 147. 
 A farm scene on the plains of Holland. 
 
 as rye, oats, wheat, barley, and buckwheat ; also potatoes, 
 sugar beets, beans, peas, and flax. More land is devoted 
 to pasturage (Fig. 147) than to these crops, partly because 
 much of the higher land is too sandy for cultivation, and 
 partly because the moisture in the lowlands aids in the 
 growth of excellent grass (Fig. 147). Cattle, hogs, sheep, 
 and horses are raised in great numbers ; and quantities of 
 butter and cheese are made. 
 
 Reclaimed Land. — There is, of course, good reason why the 
 Dutch have been willing to endure the labor and danger in-. 
 
THE NETHERLANDS 211 
 
 volved in reclaiming large tracts of land from the sea. As the 
 population increased, and the need of new farm land grew, it 
 was found possible to keep the high tides and rivers from 
 overflowing the salt marshes and flood plains. In this way 
 the people have added large areas of fertile land, and have 
 also been encouraged to undertake the even more difficult task 
 of reclaiming the shallow sea bottom. 
 
 Such drainage began in the twelfth century and has con- 
 tinued until the present day. It has already about doubled 
 the area of the Netherlands, and now a scheme is under way 
 to reclaim the Zuider Zee itself (Fig. 146). 
 
 The first step in reclaiming a section of land is to build dikes 
 or embankments around it. Then the water is pumped from 
 the enclosure and emptied into the rivers or the sea. Wind- 
 mills were formerly employed for pumping, and many are still 
 in use (Fig. 147) ; but more recently steam pumps have been 
 introduced. And since they run all the time, while windmills 
 work only when the wind blows, the use of steam has made it 
 possible to drain areas which could not have been kept dry by 
 windmills alone. It has sometimes required years, after the 
 dikes were finished, to pump all the water out of a portion of 
 land prepared for drainage. Even then pumping must be con- 
 tinued in order to keep out the water which falls as rain and 
 that which soaks through the soil. 
 
 The ditches for draining the land really form canals, which, 
 by means of their embankments, enclose houses, gardens, and 
 fields, much as fences or stone walls enclose houses and gar- 
 dens in other countries. They are so numerous that they 
 extend over the lowlands in a great network. 
 
 On the coast the sea is kept out partly by sand dunes. 
 There are also sixteen hundred miles of sea dikes for this 
 purpose, besides many smaller dikes which prevent the rivers 
 from overflowing the lowlands. Since the sea dikes must be 
 very strong, stone is often brought from foreign countries to 
 be used in their construction. They are sometimes fully three 
 hundred feet thick and thirty feet high. Some idea of the 
 resistance that they must offer is gained by standing behind 
 
ZV1 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 them at high tide and listening to the beating of the waves 
 against the opposite side, perhaps ten feet above one's head. 
 
 Manufacturing. — Although there is very little coal or 
 water power in the kingdom, there is an abundance of 
 
 coal near by in 
 Belgium and 
 Germany. It is 
 also not far to 
 the great coal 
 fields of Eng- 
 land. Estimate 
 the distance 
 (Fig. 154). 
 Accordingly, 
 since the people 
 require quanti- 
 ties of cloth, 
 shoes, machin- 
 ery, etc., they 
 import coal and 
 many of the 
 FlG ' 148- necessary raw 
 
 a Dutch windmill. materials and 
 
 manufacture for themselves. The strangers who fled to the 
 Netherlands to escape persecution did much toward devel- 
 oping early manufacturing, and this industry now ranks 
 next in importance to agriculture. 
 
 The growth of manufacturing has also been aided by the 
 efforts of the Dutch to reclaim land from the sea. The wind- 
 mills, with their enclosing buildings, were valuable not merely 
 as houses, storehouses, and pumps, but also for the purpose of 
 grinding grain. Thus, lacking waterpower, the Putch learned 
 
 
 
 X-. 
 
 
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 p 
 
 
 
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 ebb 55 
 
 
 1 
 
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 f 
 
 
 
 
 
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 Wk u|. 
 
 
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THE NETHERLANDS 213 
 
 to make use of wind power to some extent. Again, in order 
 to build their canals and dikes, and to drain the land, they 
 needed implements, such as ploughs and pile drivers, and these 
 they manufactured. Also, having an abundance of clay, and 
 needing both bricks and tile in their drainage work, they 
 developed manufacturing in these directions. Necessity is an 
 excellent teacher, and the Dutch have had ample opportunity 
 to take lessons from her. 
 
 Commerce. — -Commerce is highly developed for several 
 reasons. In the first place, the ditches, built primarily 
 for purpose of drainage, are also valuable as canals ; and 
 these, together with the rivers, make transportation by 
 water very easy to all sections of the country. The flat- 
 topped dikes also make excellent wagon roads ; and the 
 level nature of the land renders the construction of tram- 
 ways and railways a simple matter. Many of the railways 
 connect directly with the European trunk lines. 
 
 In the second place, the position of Holland gives her 
 a distinct commercial advantage. The Netherlands lie 
 directly in the path of entrance to northern Europe, and 
 the country is crossed by the Rhine River, which is navi- 
 gable for a long distance into Germany. Therefore much 
 of the American and British trade with central Europe 
 is carried on through Holland. 
 
 Colonies. — The Dutch colonies (Fig. 193) furnish a 
 third reason for an extensive development of commerce. 
 Since the very earliest times the Dutch have been in close 
 contact with the salt water. Not only have they battled 
 with the sea in reclaiming land, but to visit some of their 
 near neighbors they have been obliged to cross it. More- 
 over, both the Zuider Zee and the North Sea, near at 
 hand, contain many food fish ; and this fact has led to an 
 
214 EUROPE 
 
 important development of the fisheries, one of the leading 
 industries of the country, The men have therefore be- 
 come expert sailors ; and when discoveries of new lands 
 were being made, the Dutch sailors naturally shared in 
 the explorations and obtained colonies. 
 
 Fig. 149. 
 A canal in Amsterdam. Notice the peculiar fronts of the Dutch houses. 
 
 The attempt of the Dutch to colonize our Hudson valley 
 was thwarted by the English ; but Holland retains possession 
 of other important regions. Of these, Dutch Guiana in South 
 America has already been mentioned (p. 126) ; but the most 
 important are Java and several other East India islands. 
 The manufacture of raw products from the colonies constitutes 
 one of the principal industries of the coast cities. 
 
 The possession of these colonies, Holland's position, her 
 water and rail connections with other countries, and her 
 many canals and excellent roads make the transportation 
 of goods an important industry. 
 
THE NETHERLANDS 
 
 215 
 
 PrUHyi' 
 H'ItHSmi 
 
 nlrinEs 
 
 : - - ;' ■■" y ij 
 
 ItifiiWJ 
 
 nrSIuKi 
 
 h t 
 
 Ijlpijj 
 
 W m -"^^^^^B^S553fflSB^^Sil 
 
 wk\ 
 
 
 Fig. 150. 
 A canal in the city of Rotterdam. 
 
 Cities. — Amsterdam and Rotterdam are the two 
 principal commercial centres. The former, the largest 
 city in the Neth- 
 erlands, is about 
 the size of Balti- 
 more. It is con- 
 nected with the 
 ocean by canal, 
 and is noted for 
 its university and 
 museums, as well 
 as its shipping, 
 manufacturing, 
 and diamond cut- 
 ting. The dia- 
 monds are brought in the rough from the great diamond 
 fields of South Africa, where the Dutch were formerly 
 in control, and at Amsterdam they are cut and polished 
 ready for setting. 
 
 The rulers of Holland are crowned at Amsterdam, 
 although the capital is The Hague, where the govern- 
 ment buildings are situated. Because of the sea breezes, 
 and the excellent bathing in the shallow water on the 
 long sandy beach near by, The Hague is also noted as a 
 summer resort. 
 
 Rotterdam (Fig. 150), next to Amsterdam in size, 
 is the great seaport of the Netherlands. Its location near 
 the mouth of the Rhine makes it one of the principal 
 ports for the interior of the continent, and explains 
 why it is the European terminus for some of the great 
 steamship lines from New York and other parts of the 
 world. 
 
216 EUROPE 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Physiography. — The surface of Belgium forcibly re- 
 calls that of Holland. The land is low and flat in the 
 northern and western parts, and gradually rises and 
 grows more rolling toward the south and east. 
 
 However, the highest point in Belgium (2230 feet) is 
 more than twice that in the Netherlands. Instead of 
 being caused by glacial moraines and sand dunes, this 
 highland is a mountainous region, formed by upheaval 
 of the earth's crust (Fig. 151). The weathering of ages, 
 which has worn these mountains so low, has revealed 
 valuable mineral deposits, especially coal and iron, which 
 fortunately occur near together, as in England. Lead, 
 zinc, and silver are also obtained. 
 
 Belgium, therefore, possesses agricultural advantages 
 similar to those of Holland, while the minerals secure 
 opportunities for manufacturing far superior to those of 
 the Dutch. These facts help to explain why, although 
 Belgium is even smaller than Holland, its population is 
 one-fourth larger, or about 6,500,000. How does that 
 compare with the population of New York state ? Indeed, 
 the small country of Belgium is one of the most densely 
 populated regions on the earth. Figure out the number 
 of inhabitants per square mile and compare it with the 
 number in New York, or in your own state. 
 
 People and Government. — Like the Dutch, the Belgians 
 have endured untold sufferings in their long struggle 
 for independence. Their country has been, to some 
 extent, a battlefield for the larger countries or powers of 
 Europe ; for example, the battle of Waterloo, by which the 
 career of Napoleon Bonaparte was ended, was fought 
 
BELGIUM 
 
 217 
 
 there in 1815. Since 1830, however, the Belgians have 
 been independent. Their form of government is a limited 
 monarchy. 
 
 Fig. 151. 
 A view in the hilly section of southern Belgium. 
 
 The intelligence of the Belgians is of the highest order. 
 Even during the Middle Ages their woollen manufactures were 
 the best developed in Europe, and at various times the kings 
 of England have induced Belgian artisans to move to England 
 for the purpose of improving the factory work. Since the 
 great nations of Europe have declared Belgium neutral terri- 
 tory, thus prohibiting further fighting there, the people have 
 found it necessary to keep only a small standing army, and 
 have devoted themselves to the industries. As a result, Bel- 
 gium has enjoyed a wonderful industrial growth. 
 
 Agriculture. — A very small part of Belgium is below 
 sea level ; but, as in the Netherlands, much of the country 
 
218 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 is so flat and fertile that a view on the Belgian plain 
 would closely resemble that in Figure 147. More than 
 
 half the inhabitants are 
 engaged in agriculture, 
 the chief products, be- 
 sides live stock, being 
 grain, flax, hemp, fruit, 
 and sugar beets. 
 Among the farm ani- 
 mals, the Flemish 1 
 horses are especially 
 noted for their great 
 size and strength. 
 
 The Belgian method of 
 farming forms a striking 
 contrast to that in the 
 United States; for, in- 
 stead of ranging from one 
 hundred to several thousand acres, farms in Belgium usually 
 contain not more than two or three acres. To a large extent, 
 spading takes the place of ploughing, and such hand labor, 
 guided by the experience of many generations, secures large 
 yields of the best quality. Flemish flax is the best in the 
 world. In spite of such careful cultivation of the soil much 
 food has to be imported, as in Great Britain. 
 
 Mining and Manufacturing. — Quite distinct from the 
 level northern plain, close set with farms and towns, is 
 the hilly region of the southern angle (Fig. 15-1), covered 
 with forests and rich in minerals. More than one hundred 
 thousand men are engaged in mining, and coal and coke 
 
 1 Derived from Flanders, a former country of Europe which included 
 a part of the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. Nearly half the Belgians 
 speak the Flemish language. 
 
 
 Fig. 152. 
 A dog team in Belgium. 
 
BELGIUM 219 
 
 are among the leading exports. Around the northwest 
 slope of the hilly region is located one of the world's busiest 
 industrial regions. As in England, there are three impor- 
 tant kinds of manufacturing, namely cotton, wool, and 
 iron and steel. Linen and glass are also made. But the 
 country is so small, and there are so many waterways and 
 railways, — as in the Netherlands, — that coal is transported 
 cheaply to all sections. Manufacturing, therefore, is well 
 distributed, although the coal comes from the southern 
 portion. 
 
 Commerce. — By its position Belgium secures many of 
 the advantages that Holland enjoys ; that is, it is a gate- 
 way to and from the interior of Europe. To be sure, 
 its coast line is only about forty miles in length and the 
 water there is shallow ; but Antwerp has an excellent 
 harbor. There is no large river like the Rhine in 
 Holland, but two smaller streams, rising in France, are 
 navigable for some distance. There is also an extensive 
 system of canals. Besides these waterways, Belgium has 
 more miles of railway, for its size, than any other country 
 in Europe ; and the railways are closely connected with 
 the large trunk lines. For these reasons transportation 
 of goods is one of the leading industries in Belgium. 
 
 While the Belgians do not possess such valuable colonies as 
 the Dutch, they have been prominent in African exploration. 
 It was the Belgian king who sent Stanley to Africa, and the 
 King of Belgium is sovereign of Kongo State. 
 
 Cities. — Brussels, the capital and largest city, situated 
 in the heart of the kingdom, is about the size of Boston. 
 The name Brussels carpets suggests one of its industries ; 
 but carriage making and lace making are at present among 
 its most important kinds of manufacture. It is an intel- 
 
220 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 lectual as well as a political and commercial centre, hav- 
 ing numerous picture galleries, museums, and schools. 
 
 Antwerp, next in size, is situated about sixty miles 
 from the sea, on a small river. Some of the great steam- 
 ship lines from New York have their European terminus 
 there, and the port is one of the most important on the 
 
 Fig. 153. 
 A view in Ghent. Notice the peculiar architecture of the houses. 
 
 continent. The leading kinds of manufacturing are sugar 
 refining, distilling, lace making, and shipbuilding. 
 
 Many other cities are distinguished for manufacturing. 
 The largest are Liege, the "Birmingham of Belgium," en- 
 gaged in the manufacture of firearms, cutlery, glass, and 
 various kinds of machinery; and Ghent (Fig. 153), noted 
 for linen and cotton goods, and for machinery. 
 
 Luxemburg, on the southeastern border of Belgium, is a 
 small duchy governed by a hereditary grand duke and a par- 
 
BELGIUM 221 
 
 liament. Like Belgium, by agreement of the powers of Europe, 
 it is neutral territory. Agriculture, iron mining, and manu- 
 facturing are the principal industries. 
 
 Review Questions. — The Netherlands. — (1) Tell about the 
 physiography of Holland. (2) What are the principal mineral prod- 
 ucts? (3) How does Holland compare with New York in size and 
 population? (4) Tell about the people; the government; agriculture. 
 (5) State i-easons for reclaiming the land. (G) Tell how it is done. 
 (7) What has aided the development of manufacturing? (8) Give 
 three reasons for the extensive development of Dutch commerce. 
 
 (9) How have the Dutch come to have several important colonies? 
 
 (10) Name the principal colonies. (11) Tell about the chief cities. 
 Belgium. — (12) Compare Belgium with Holland as to physi- 
 ography. (13) Tell about the importance of Belgium; its people 
 and government ; its agriculture ; its mining and manufacturing. 
 (14) What reasons are there for its important commerce? (15) What 
 about colonies? (16) Locate and tell about each of the cities. (17) 
 What about Luxemburg? 
 
 Suggestions. — The Netherlands. — (1) Why are the winds 
 likely to blow with special force and regularity across Holland? 
 (2) Why is this fact of value to the Dutch ? (3) What effect must 
 the winds have upon the rank vapors that rise from the damp soil ? 
 
 (4) What do you know about the flower gardens of the Dutch? 
 
 (5) Have you seen any Dutch pottery, especially Delft wares? 
 
 (6) Why did not the Pilgrims remain in Holland instead of coming 
 to America? (7) Why should not Rotterdam be as large a city as 
 New York? (8) Find out about the Peace Conference of 1899 at 
 The Hague. (9) What reasons are there for selecting a small country 
 like Holland for this purpose, and for making treaties between nations 
 which have been at war ? 
 
 Belgium. — (10) There are greater extremes of temperature in 
 Belgium than in England. Why? (11) Find out some facts about 
 the battle of Waterloo. (12) Give several reasons for spading instead 
 of ploughing land. (13) Examine a piece of lace. From what mate- 
 rial is lace manufactured, and how is the work done? (14) Towns 
 in Belgium usually have .two names. Why? (15) Would you ex- 
 pect fishing to be as important an industry with the Belgians as with 
 the Dutch? Why? 
 
XII. FRANCE 
 
 Map Questions (Fig. 154). — (1) France is the nearest country to 
 the British Isles. Estimate the distance. (2) Compare the two 
 countries as to area. (3) As to population. (4) What waters 
 border France? (5) What countries? (6) In what respects is its 
 position favorable to commerce? (7) What do you observe about 
 the general direction of the rivers ? (8) Locate the island of Corsica, 
 a part of France. 
 
 People and Government. — The early inhabitants of 
 France, called Gauls, were conquered by the Romans 
 (p. 165), who taught them their language and many of 
 their customs. After the fall of Rome, France, like 
 
 most European 
 countries, was 
 divided into in- 
 dependent king- 
 do m s, which 
 were often at 
 war with one 
 another or with 
 neighboring 
 countries. 
 
 The situation 
 of France has, 
 however, tended 
 to bring the 
 kingdoms together ; for the country is enclosed on 
 two sides by the sea, and elsewhere, in large part, by 
 mountains. Notice how completely the Pyrenees — which 
 
 Fig. 155. 
 A valley on the French side of the Pyrenees. 
 
Fig. 154. 
 
FRANCE 
 
 223 
 
 range from six thousand to ten thousand feet in height 
 — separate France from Spain ; and notice what a barrier 
 the lofty Alps form along the Italian and Swiss bounda- 
 ries. Even north of the Alps, a part of the boundary is 
 formed by high- 
 lands. While the 
 inhabitants were 
 thus protected 
 from invasion, 
 there were few 
 barriers within 
 France itself that 
 kept them apart. 
 It was not diffi- 
 cult, therefore, to 
 bring them under 
 one rule. 
 
 Monaco in the 
 southeast, and An- 
 dorra in the Pyre- 
 nees (p. 240), are 
 the only excep- 
 tions. The princi- 
 pality of Monaco, 
 only eight square 
 miles in area, is 
 a noted winter re- 
 sort because of the 
 
 fine climate. Its revenue is obtained from the gambling tables 
 at Monte Carlo. 
 
 Owing partly to the close union of the people, France 
 has at several periods approached first rank among 
 European nations. Indeed, at the beginning of the last 
 
 Fig. 156. 
 A view in central southern France (Monts d'Au- 
 vergne on the map). This is a region of extinct 
 volcanoes (Fig. 158) , and the church is built upon 
 a steep lava hill. 
 
224 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 century, under the lead of Napoleon Bonaparte, she was 
 beyond question the most powerful of them all. Just 
 previous to that time the people had developed such a 
 hatred of monarchy that they rose in a mass, overturned 
 the government, and formed a republic. There have been 
 numerous changes since then, including a period when 
 Napoleon himself was Emperor ; but in 1871 a republican 
 government, somewhat like that of the United States, 
 
 Fig. 157. 
 A street scene in Nice (near Monaco), showing the nature of the vegetation in 
 that warm climate. Find out whether Nice is north or south of your home. 
 
 was once more established. This has continued down 
 to the present time, and under its administration France 
 still ranks as one of the six Great Powers of Europe. 
 
 Physiography and Climate. — As we have seen, the 
 chief highlands of France are in the south and southeast. 
 Among these highlands the loftiest are the Alps, whose 
 highest peak, Mt. Blanc (15,781 feet), is in France. Had 
 the mountains stretched along the western coast, the 
 history of France would have been very different. As it 
 
FBANCE 225 
 
 is, the prevailing westerlies are allowed to distribute their 
 rain somewhat evenly over the country, supplying all 
 sections with an abundance of moisture for agriculture. 
 
 The position of the highlands is of great importance 
 for commerce as well as for farming. Fully three-fourths 
 of France is a comparatively level plain sloping westward 
 from the low central plateau, which rises steeply as the 
 western wall of the long Rhone valley. All but one of 
 the large rivers rise in this plateau and flow gently down 
 its slope to the Atlantic. Thus navigation is possible 
 far into the country. Locate and name the three largest 
 rivers. How does the Rhone differ from the other 
 two? 
 
 As might be expected, the summers are warmer than 
 in England, since France lies almost entirely south of 
 that country and is less under the influence of the ocean. 
 The southeastern section, though as far north as Boston, 
 has a semi-tropical climate (Fig. 157), owing to the 
 presence of the warm Mediterranean waters and to the 
 protection from cold north winds afforded by the Alps 
 (pp. 162 and 163). These facts give promise of several 
 important farm products that could not thrive in England. 
 
 Agriculture. — France is primarily a farming country, 
 and nearly half the people devote their energies to agri- 
 culture, including grazing. The same grains are raised 
 as in England. What are they? (p. 181). Wheat is the 
 most important, and more of this grain is produced than 
 in any other European country excepting Russia. Yet 
 France raises only about half as much wheat as the United 
 States, and not nearly enough for the needs of her people. 
 Grapes, not important in the British Isles, thrive in the 
 warmer climate of central and southern France. 
 
226 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Grapes form the most valuable of all French crops, and more 
 are raised in France than in any other country of the world. 
 This fruit, although capable of enduring severe cold, requires a 
 warm summer. The distribution of the vineyards, therefore, 
 shows forcibly the difference between the climates of England 
 and France. Grapes do not mature well in northern France, 
 but they flourish in the warm valleys from the Loire southward. 
 
 The Rhone valley and the Mediterranean coast are 
 further noted for their groves of olive, orange, and mul- 
 berry trees. The latter are cultivated for the sake of 
 their leaves, which are fed to the silk-worm (p. 229). 
 
 As in other countries, the highlands, as a rule, are 
 capable of little cultivation and are usually given over to 
 
 grazing. Give 
 examples from 
 other countries. 
 As in England, 
 too, there are 
 broad tracts of 
 lowland which 
 are better adapt- 
 ed to the produc- 
 tion of grass than 
 to other crops. 
 These facts ex- 
 plain why there 
 are more than 
 thirteen million 
 cattle and twenty-one million sheep in France. What 
 does that signify in regard to manufacturing? 
 
 Minerals. — France is quite inferior to the British Isles 
 in its mineral products. Coal is the most valuable min- 
 
 Fig. 158. 
 
 A farm scene in southern central France. The moun- 
 tain peak is an extinct volcano, one of the Monts 
 d'Auvergne (Figs. 154 and 156). 
 
FRANCE 
 
 227 
 
 A: 
 
 eral ; but while Great Britain, after supplying her many 
 factories, exports a large amount of coal, France has to 
 import some. The principal coal beds, from which more 
 than half the output comes, lie close to Belgium. They 
 are, in fact, a continuation of the deposits that were found 
 to be so plentiful in that country. The other beds are 
 small and scattered, but the best of them lie near the 
 centre of the country, not far from St. Etiekne. Of 
 what advantage is this location ? 
 
 The quantity of iron produced is small and comes mainly 
 from the northeast, near the coal fields. Fine clays for porce- 
 lain abound in central France, and building stones are quarried 
 in nearly every part. 
 
 Manufacturing. — In spite of the limited supply of fuel, 
 France is a great manufacturing nation. Besides silk 
 and wine, in the 
 production of 
 which this country 
 is the leading na- 
 tion of the world, 
 there is extensive 
 manufacturing of 
 metal, cotton, and 
 woollen goods. 
 One reason for 
 these manufactures 
 is the fact that coal 
 is easily obtained 
 either in France or 
 from the neighboring countries of Belgium, Germany, and 
 England. Another reason has to do with the nature of 
 the people themselves. 
 
 Fig. 159. 
 A village in southern France. 
 
228 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 When considering the manufacture of cotton goods in the 
 cotton belt of the United States, the statement was made that 
 it required such skill to control the machinery, that the un- 
 trained negroes had hitherto been little identified with cotton 
 manufacturing. The English, however, possess a high degree of 
 skill, and their manufactured goods have in consequence been 
 both cheap and durable. It is partly on this account that they 
 
 have developed manufacturing 
 to such an enormous extent. 
 
 But the Frenchman has, in 
 addition, a peculiar apprecia- 
 tion of what is graceful, deli- 
 cate, and elegant. This is 
 illustrated by the fact that our 
 fashions in dress originate in 
 France ; and a skirt, a pair of 
 gloves, or a bonnet from Paris 
 is expected to be a trifle more 
 desirable than that bought 
 elsewhere. The French have 
 accordingly specialized in this 
 direction ; and thus their ar- 
 tistic sense has had great in- 
 fluence upon both the kind 
 
 _ and amount of their manu- 
 A cliff dwelling in southern France. . . . 
 
 There are not many of these houses ; f actunng. Their artistic taste 
 
 hut the fact that there are any suggests is exercised less, however, upon 
 
 how very poor some of the peasants cotton than n other d 
 
 in List D6 
 
 for the cotton mills are mainly 
 engaged in furnishing simple, inexpensive cloth to the large 
 number of peasants and other poor people. 
 
 Wool and Cotton Manufactures. — The northern part of 
 France, including Lille, Roubaix, and Reims, as well 
 as cities near the mouth of the Seine, is the section 
 especially noted for the woollen industry. Here coal is 
 
FRANCE 229 
 
 most easily obtained ; and large numbers of sheep are 
 raised on the hills and plains near by. Besides this, 
 foreign wool from Argentina and Australia is easily im- 
 ported at Havre and at the Belgian port of Antwerp. 
 Remembering that the goods turned out — as hosiery, 
 carpets, and underclothing — are of high grade, and such 
 as wealthy people wish, we see that this location, between 
 the two wealthiest capitals of the world, is specially ad- 
 vantageous. Woollen cloths are, next to silk goods, the 
 most important French export to Great Britain. 
 
 Cotton manufacturing — mainly for the home market, 
 as indicated above — is also extensively developed near 
 the coal fields of northern France. An important reason 
 for such work at this point is the ease with which Amer- 
 ican cotton may be imported ; and this explains why 
 Rouen on the Seine is a prominent centre for cotton 
 goods. There are also cotton factories in eastern France, 
 where water power is used instead of steam power. Why 
 should there be water power in that section ? 
 
 Silk Manufacturing Because the climate and soil of 
 
 the Rhone valley are adapted to the mulberry tree, and 
 because coal mines are near by, this section is a great silk- 
 manufacturing region. Lyon is the centre, although St. 
 Etienne and Paris are also noted for this industry. 
 
 The traveller in the Rhone valley sees grove after grove 
 of mulberry trees, carefully cared for in order to supply an 
 abundance of leaves for the silk-worm to eat in summer. 
 
 The silk-worm moth, at the end of the caterpillar stage, 
 weaves a cocoon about itself. The material of which the co- 
 coon is composed is a thread, about two miles in length, which 
 must be very carefully unwound. The single strand is such 
 extremely fine silk that, in order to make a fibre strong 
 
230 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 enough for spinning and weaving, it is united with severa. 
 others. 
 
 Since the worms are reared under cover, the silk industry 
 may be carried on in any climate well adapted to the mulberry 
 tree. It is possible, therefore, to make raw silk in many parts 
 of the world; but the feeding of the worms and the trans- 
 formation of the cocoons into silk for the market require 
 much labor, care, and skill. On that account silk production 
 is chiefly confined to those parts of the world where laborers 
 
 1 
 
 
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 ffiiiiMirfiter*-'-" 
 
 
 
 S3 10 
 
 
 
 I^^A^L i^S&cSH^ 
 
 
 -1 > MM 
 
 ill t >\ • Q ' - 
 
 Mil -!**> 
 
 
 JmBM 
 
 i' 
 
 .mm isjuwiji^iML^ 
 
 ^^""^; ; T ' ~ " r ■—■-■ 
 
 
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 4 a HI _,.- 
 
 TfTT—ii- .-^«^=^^, - 
 
 Fig. 161. 
 A view looking over Paris, with the Seine in the centre of the picture. 
 
 will accept low wages, and where, owing to generations of 
 such work, habits of watchfulness and care have been devel- 
 oped. China accordingly produces the greatest amount of raw 
 silk ; but France, in the midst of the civilized world where the 
 market for silk goods is greatest, also produces a large quantity 
 and is the leading country for the manufacture of silk. Make 
 as long a list of silk goods as you can. 
 
 Other Manufactures. — \The extensive cultivation of 
 grapes has been referred to. Much of the wine made from 
 them is consumed at home, for in France even the day 
 
FRANCS 231 
 
 laborer very often drinks wine at his meals in place of or 
 mixed with water. An enormous amount of wine is also 
 shipped abroad, as for example to London, whose wine 
 cellars have already been mentioned (p. 196). The manu- 
 facture of steel goods is important in some places, but to 
 no such extent as in Great Britain. Other kinds of manu- 
 facturing are mentioned under the cities. 
 
 Paris. — Paris, the capital of France, is the largest city 
 on the continent of Europe and the third largest in the 
 world. It numbers more than 2,500,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Location (Fig. 162). — As in the case of London, there 
 is a definite reason for the exact site ; for an island in the 
 Seine at that point made the river easier to bridge over, 
 while at the same time it aided in defence. Aside from 
 that, the Seine, having a slower current than the Rhone, 
 and being less subject to overflows than the Loire, is 
 more easily navigable than any other river in France. 
 Its upper tributaries bring it into close touch with eastern 
 France ; and, by the aid of canals, there is water connec- 
 tion with the Loire and Saone, and with the Rhine in 
 Germany. Furthermore, Paris is situated on the main 
 trade route from the Mediterranean to northern and cen- 
 tral France, which follows the Rhone, the Saone, and the 
 Seine. In addition, Paris is located in the midst of the 
 most fertile portion of the country, and not very far from 
 several other densely populated countries. For these sev- 
 eral reasons it has always been the principal French city. 
 
 Paris as an Art Centre. — Reference has already been 
 made to the appreciation of grace and elegance charac- 
 teristic of the French people. Napoleon and other rulers 
 collected art treasures from various nations, and founded 
 'collections and schools which have made Paris famous. 
 
Fig. 162. 
 
 To show Paris and surrounding country. Notice how closely the railways follow 
 
 the stream valleys. Why should they ? 
 
FRANCE 
 
 233 
 
 The superiority of the city in this respect is recognized 
 in America by the large number of men and women who go 
 there every year 
 for the study of 
 art. It is not 
 strange, there- 
 fore, that Paris 
 should be distin- 
 guished the world 
 over for its beauty 
 as a city. The 
 wide streets, the 
 beautiful parks 
 with their foun- 
 tains and statues, 
 and the fine pub- 
 lic buildings and 
 old royal palaces, 
 are wonderfully 
 attractive. Even 
 the dwelling 
 houses are in har- 
 mony, for it is 
 required by law 
 that new build- 
 ings must har- 
 monize with those near by. Therefore one seldom sees 
 an unattractive house in Paris. 
 
 One of the old palaces, known as the Louvre, is the most 
 noted art gallery in the world. It contains thousands of works 
 of art, the most celebrated of all being the Venus of Melos 
 (Fig. 163), discovered in 1820 on the little Greek island of Melos 
 
 Fig. 163. 
 
 Statues in the Louyre — the Venus de Melos at the 
 
 farther end of the hall. 
 
234 EUROPE 
 
 in the Mediterranean Sea. Among the paintings, one of the 
 most famous is Raphael's Madonna and Child with St. John, 
 pictures of which are often seen in our country. 
 
 Among the many interesting suburbs of Paris is Versailles, 
 where there is another palace that was erected in the days of 
 royalty. It is now mainly used as a museum, and scores of 
 the large rooms are decorated with the finest of paintings. It 
 is among such treasures that the students of art spend much of 
 their time ; and it is partly because of the beautiful surround- 
 ings that many foreigners reside permanently in Paris. 
 
 Manufactures of Paris. — Like other great cities, Paris has 
 too many industries to be specially identified with any one. 
 Yet the superior taste of the Parisians has led them to pay 
 especial attention to the manufacture of articles which com- 
 bine utility with beauty, such as jewelry, furniture, gloves, 
 fashionable shoes, etc. The Sevres porcelain is made in the 
 suburbs of Paris, and both this and the Limoges ware, manu- 
 factured at Limoges, are celebrated for their beauty. 
 
 Commerce of Paris. — Although so far inland, Paris 
 ships more goods by water than any other French city. 
 The extensive canal connections have already been men- 
 tioned (p. 231). Vast sums have been spent in dredging 
 the lower Seine, so that the depth of water between Rouen 
 and Paris now exceeds ten feet. Small vessels can pro- 
 ceed directly to Paris, but larger ships transfer their 
 goods at Havre and Rouen. Besides this, the chief rail- 
 ways of France radiate in all directions from Paris (Fig. 
 162). All together, therefore, Paris is the political, artis- 
 tic, manufacturing, and commercial centre of France. 
 
 Other Cities. — Havre, which is almost as busy a 
 harbor as Marseille, has an extensive trade in coffee 
 from Brazil, and in wheat and other materials from the 
 United States. Another important port is Bordeaux, on 
 the Garonne River, in the midst of a fertile grape-raising 
 
FRANCE 
 
 235 
 
 district. It is the chief port for the export of French 
 wines. Locate the cities previously named and tell for 
 what each is important. Note especially Lyon, next to 
 Paris in size, and a little smaller than Baltimore. 
 
 The third French city in size, and its leading seaport, 
 is Marseille, which is almost as large as Lyon. The 
 delta of the Rhone is too marshy for a city, and Marseille 
 occupies the nearest point where there is a good harbor 
 and where other conditions are favorable for a town. 
 
 Fig. 164. 
 
 Fontainebleau, a beautiful wooded park south of Paris. 
 
 For many centuries the Rhone valley was the principal 
 gateway from the Mediterranean to much of Europe. 
 One route leads to the Seine valley, and thence to Paris 
 (p. 231), northern France, and Belgium. Another enters 
 Switzerland through Lake Geneva, out of which the Rhone 
 flows ; and still a third route leads, through an opening 
 in the mountains, into the Rhine valley and Germany. 
 
 Since Marseille is the sole good seaport for the Rhone 
 valley, it is not surprising that it has long been a great ship- 
 ping point for wares to and from Asia and the shores of the 
 
236 EUROPE 
 
 Mediterranean. Among its chief imports are grain from 
 Kussia and Italy; oil seeds of various kinds from India and 
 Africa ; wines and dried fruits from the shores of the Mediter- 
 ranean ; and rice, tea, spices, and silk from the East. What 
 must be some of the exports ? The olives raised in the neigh- 
 borhood make the refining of olive oil an important industry. 
 
 Commerce of France. — Notwithstanding the great 
 amount of internal commerce on the numerous rivers, 
 canals, and railways, and notwithstanding the extensive 
 foreign trade, France is not a great maritime nation like 
 the United Kingdom (p. 202). In fact, her merchant 
 marine is only one-tenth as large as that of the British 
 Isles and three-fifths that of Norway. This is not entirely 
 because of lack of acquaintance with the sea, for there are 
 more French than British fishermen. The small number 
 of good harbors, and the frequent and destructive wars 
 during the last century, are among the reasons why France 
 depends so largely upon other nations, as upon British and 
 Norwegians, for vessels to carry her goods. Why is it 
 safer for her to be thus dependent than for Great Britain ? 
 
 Colonies (Fig. 193). — On the other hand, France has been 
 extensively engaged in exploration. You may recall her plan 
 to take possession of Canada and the Mississippi valley. A 
 large number of people in the province of Quebec and in New 
 Orleans — where the French made their largest settlements — 
 still speak the French language. Although this territory was 
 given up, France still owns two small islands near Newfound- 
 land. Other possessions in the New World are French Guiana 
 in South America, and some small islands in the West Indies. 
 
 In Asia, France holds a part of Indo-China and a very small 
 bit of India; and she has numerous islands in different por- 
 tions of the world (Fig. 193). But her most important colo- 
 nies are in Africa, as follows : (1) Algeria and Tunis, across 
 
FRANCE 237 
 
 the Mediterranean ; (2) a vast area south of these countries, 
 including a large part of the Sahara Desert, the Sudan, the 
 upper Niger, and the country north of the Kongo River ; and 
 (3) the large island of Madagascar, east of southern Africa. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Tell about the early inhabitants ; (2) the 
 influence of the boundary line for unity; (3) the government; (4) the 
 physiography and climate. (5) What are the principal farm products? 
 (6) Which of these have been found in Great Britain? (7) Which 
 have not been found there? Why? (8) Tell about the mineral prod- 
 ucts. (9) Give reasons for the extensive manufacturing. (10) Tell 
 about the woollen manufactures. (11) Cotton manufactures. (12) Tell 
 about silk and silk manufacturing. (13) What about other manu- 
 factures ? (14) Tell about Paris : its size ; location ; artistic attrac- 
 tions; manufactures; commerce. (15) Tell about: (a) Havre, 
 (b) Bordeaux, (c) Lyon. (16) What are the reasons for the location 
 of Marseille ? For what is it important ? (17) What is there peculiar 
 about the commerce of France ? (18) Tell about the colonies. 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) What is the name of the present President of 
 France? (2) Give reasons why one river, as the Loire, might be much 
 more subject to overflows than another, as the Seine. (3) Examine 
 Figure 114 to see if the glacier reached into any part of France during 
 the Glacial Period. (4) Raise a silk-worm from the egg. (5) Examine 
 a cocoon and see if you can unravel some of its thread. (6) Also un- 
 ravel a piece of silk goods and examine the threads. (7) What influ- 
 ence on the commerce of Marseille has the construction of railway 
 tunnels through the Alps probably had? (8) The construction of the 
 Suez Canal? Why? (9) Why is the present French language so dif- 
 ferent from Latin, though the French formerly spoke Latin ? (10) See 
 if you can find any porcelain ware from Sevres or Limoges. (11) What 
 changes might be brought about in your locality if the people there 
 prided themselves greatly on the beauty of the streets, houses, etc., as 
 the Parisians do ? (12) What pictures of fine statuary have you seen ? 
 (13) Find the names of some of the great French painters. (14) Read 
 some stories from French history ; for example, the story of Roland in 
 the days of Charlemagne, when the Pyrenees helped the French to keep 
 the Saracens back ; the story of the French Revolution ; the story of 
 Joan of Arc, etc. (15) Make an outline sketch of France, with the prin- 
 cipal mountains, rivers, and cities. (16) On an outline map of the 
 world, sketch in the French colonies with their names. 
 
XIII. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 
 
 Map Questions. (Fig. 154.) — (1) What other cities in the world 
 are in about the same latitude as Madrid? (2) Compare the area 
 of the Spanish peninsula with that of France (App. II.). (3) Com- 
 pare the populations (App. II.). (4) Compare the directions taken by 
 the rivers. (5) Judging from the map, what would you expect as to 
 the number of good harbors ? (6) What has been stated about the 
 temperature and rainfall in Spain? (pp. 161 and 164). (7) AVhat 
 islands in the Mediterranean Sea belong to Spain ? 
 
 People and Government. — The people of this peninsula 
 once had much the same rank among nations as is now 
 held by the British. Name countries that they controlled. 
 Mention some noted Spanish and Portuguese explorers. 
 
 Now, however, both Spain and Portugal are classed 
 among the weaker nations of Europe ; and, strange to say, 
 the very successes which they formerly attained were one 
 cause of their downfall. In the first place, their many dis- 
 coveries and foreign conquests withdrew large numbers of 
 the most energetic citizens from the peninsula. And, in 
 the second place, the vast amount of gold and silver 
 brought from Mexico, Peru, and elsewhere allowed many 
 of those persons remaining at home to give themselves up 
 to lives of enjoyment and luxury. Thus the characters 
 of the people at large were seriously undermined. 
 
 In its earlier history Spain developed a spirit of intoler- 
 ance that has also proved a serious obstacle to progress. 
 Being within easy reach of Italy, the peninsula, as a 
 whole, became Christianized by the Romans. But after 
 the downfall of Rome, the Moors of northern Africa, who 
 
 238 
 
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 
 
 239 
 
 were Mohammedans, and therefore avowed enemies of 
 Christians (p. 93), invaded Spain from Morocco, and 
 conquered most of the country. 
 
 This was about 700 a.d. ; and for nearly eight cen- 
 turies after that there was almost constant warfare between 
 the two peoples, the Christians maintaining themselves in 
 the north, and the Mohammedans in the south of the pen- 
 
 Fig. 165. 
 The Alhambra, one of the last strongholds of the Moors. 
 
 insula. Gradually the Moors became confined to Granada 
 in the southern part ; and in 1492 they were finally over- 
 come even there, and largely expelled from the country. 
 The Moors were a wonderfully enlightened people, and 
 they developed agriculture, industry, commerce, and archi- 
 tecture to an extent the Spaniards have never equalled. 
 But the long struggle between the two races and reli- 
 gions, and the defence the Spaniards made, embittered 
 them not only against the Moors, but also against others 
 who disagreed with them in religious faith. This spirit 
 
240 EUROPE 
 
 of intolerance, which has, in a measure, continued down to 
 the present time, is one cause of the loss to Spain of her 
 foreign territory. It led to religious persecution, which 
 resulted not only in the death of many persons, but also in 
 additional loss of population through the departure of 
 many whose energy and industry were of great value to 
 the country. Some Jews were also driven out, and 
 thus the country was deprived of farmers, artificers, and 
 tradesmen of higher grade than the warriors who re- 
 mained. 
 
 The mountainous character of the peninsula has been a 
 third cause for the decline of Spain and Portugal. The 
 various races on the peninsula, cut off from one another 
 by table-lands and mountain ranges, have never been 
 fairly blended into one people, as we have seen (p. 174) 
 was done in Great Britain. For centuries they were 
 divided into small, independent kingdoms having differ- 
 ent languages. Just before the discovery of America, 
 however, most of these states were brought under one 
 rule by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella; and later 
 even Portugal was joined to Spain. 
 
 But Portugal, which is naturally separated from Spain 
 by deep gorges and canyons, soon broke away. Also 
 Andorra, a tiny country in the Pyrenees, was never fully 
 conquered and is still independent ; and the union of some 
 of the others has been by force rather than by choice. At 
 present the parts of Spain are held together under a lim- 
 ited monarchy, and the same is true of Portugal. 
 
 Altogether, then, the lack of industry among the Span- 
 ish, their pride and intolerance, and their lack of union 
 have been serious drawbacks both in the government of 
 colonies and in growth at home. While numerous other 
 
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 241 
 
 European nations have been advancing they have been 
 steadily losing power. The Portuguese, however, have 
 suffered much less in this respect than the Spanish. 
 
 Physiography and Climate. — The key to many impor- 
 tant facts about Spain and Portugal is found in the exten- 
 sive elevation of the land. On the northern boundary 
 stand the Pyrenees, continued on the west by the Canta- 
 brian Mountains, while in the extreme south are the lofty 
 Sierra Nevada ranges. Between these two systems is a 
 broad plateau, from two to three thousand feet in eleva- 
 tion, with numerous short, broken mountain ranges. 
 
 In the Ebro valley on the northeast and the Guadal- 
 quiver (meaning Great River) valley on the southwest 
 there are lowlands. Point to these rivers on the map. 
 The only other extensive lowland is a narrow strip near 
 the sea, which reaches most of the distance around the 
 peninsula. A very large proportion of the surface, there- 
 fore, is made up of plateaus and mountains. 
 
 This condition of elevated surface is important, in the 
 first place, in preventing Spain from becoming a great 
 thoroughfare for the transportation of goods. The posi- 
 tion of the peninsula, between the two busiest seas of the 
 world, and between Africa and central Europe, suggests 
 that it might be a valuable route for commerce. But the 
 highlands separate, rather than unite, these regions. 
 
 The highlands have an important influence also on the_ 
 climate. Owing to the elevation the interior has cold 
 winters, though the summers are hot ; and because of the 
 fringe of mountains, the rainfall is light everywhere 
 excepting near the coast, where the vapor is condensed 
 in rising over the slopes. Thus, while the northwestern 
 coast receives from 30 to 60 inches of rain per year, the 
 
242 EUROPE 
 
 amount decreases toward the interior until, at Madrid, 
 there is a rainfall of only about 10 inches. Why so 
 much rain in the northwest? The southern portion of 
 Spain, like southern California, being in the horse lati- 
 tudes (p. 161), is so arid that agriculture without irriga- 
 tion is impossible. 
 
 There are several other effects produced by the highlands. 
 In the first place, the rivers are unnavigable ; for in descend- 
 ing from the arid plateau to the coastal plains their courses 
 are rapid and their volume slight. Besides that, most of them 
 have cut such deep, narrow valleys, like that of our Colorado 
 Canyon, that they are not only useless for irrigation but are 
 even a great hindrance to communication. The Guadalquiver, 
 which has a wide valley and which vessels are able to ascend as 
 far as Seville, is the principal exception. 
 
 Since the interior is so arid and rugged, it must have little 
 timber, little agriculture, few people, and few roads, railways, 
 and canals. With one or two exceptions, therefore, the chief 
 towns are to be found along the coast. 
 
 Agriculture and Grazing. — In one respect the elevation 
 of the land is an advantage because it insures great 
 variety of climate, and hence many kinds of farm prod- 
 ucts. What countries of South America does this condi- 
 tion call to mind? 
 
 We may expect grazing in the uplands and among the 
 mountains, as in similar rugged and arid regions else- 
 where. Name some of them. Spain is noted for the 
 excellent grade of its sheep and mules. There are also 
 many cattle, especially in the rainy northwest ; but the 
 fact that so much of the country is arid explains why 
 there are many more sheep and goats than cattle. The 
 sheep often wander about in flocks of ten thousand under 
 the care of a number of shepherds and their dogs. In 
 
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 
 
 243 
 
 Fig. 166. 
 A sheep pasture at the Convent of Palos in Spain. 
 
 summer they feed among the mountains, but in winter 
 they are driven down to the more protected lowlands for 
 shelter. 
 
 Wheat is the most common crop in Spain, since it re- 
 quires compara- 
 tively little 
 rain. 
 
 Although a 
 large amount of 
 wheat is raised, 
 there is far less 
 than might be, 
 since so many of 
 the Spaniards 
 lack energy and 
 enterprise. For 
 example, they 
 
 use antiquated methods of farming, such as rude wooden 
 ploughs drawn by oxen, and sickles for cutting the grain by 
 hand. Horses and goats are employed in threshing to tramp 
 the wheat kernel from the chaff, as is done in New Mexico 
 and Spanish countries south of the United States. 
 
 In many of the valleys where irrigation is possible, and 
 especially on the lowlands along the coast, the farmers are 
 more progressive and prosperous. Besides wheat, barley, rye, 
 and corn are raised, and these are among the staple foods of 
 the people. Quantities of grapes are also grown in Spain and 
 Portugal; and in the southern part of the peninsula the bark 
 of the cork oak is a source of income to both countries. 
 
 The arid southeastern coast is wonderfully productive. 
 One reason is the warm climate, due to the influence of the 
 Mediterranean ; another is the number of mountain streams, 
 which, though useless for navigation, are extremely valuable 
 for irrigation. Some of the products of this section, besides 
 wheat and corn, are cotton, grapes, olives, figs, dates, oranges, 
 
244 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 lemons, and rice. Several crops of some products may be 
 raised in a year. But the development of the region, with its 
 admirable irrigation works, is the result of the genius and 
 energy of the Moors, rather than of the Spaniards. 
 
 Mining. — Spain is remarkably rich in minerals. Lead 
 and silver are mined in the upper valley of the Guadal- 
 quiver, and along the southeastern coast. Some distance 
 northeast of Seville a large quantity of quicksilver, or 
 
 Fig. 167. 
 A wooden-wheeled ox cart, to illustrate the backwardness of the Spaniards. 
 
 mercury, is obtained. Northwest of Seville, and in 
 southern Portugal, are some noted copper mines which 
 are worthy of comparison with the copper mines in 
 northern Michigan and Butte, Montana. Coal and iron 
 ore are found in several parts of the peninsula, but the 
 largest output of each occurs on the northern slope of 
 the Cantabrian Mountains (Fig. 168). Spain produces 
 more quicksilver than any other country, and is exceeded 
 only by the United States in the output of copper and 
 lead. 
 
 Here, however, as in other industries, the character of the 
 people prevents proper development of the resources. Much 
 
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 
 
 245 
 
 of the benefit from the mines is due to the capital and 
 enterprise of foreigners ; the English and French are in con- 
 trol of the copper 
 
 mines, and the 
 Rothschilds own 
 the quicksilver. 
 
 Manufacturing. 
 ■ — -From what has 
 been said above it 
 is apparent that 
 manufacturing 
 cannot flourish. 
 This fact is all the 
 more evident when 
 we consider that 
 more than two- 
 thirds of the Span- 
 iards, and three- 
 fourth s of the 
 Portuguese, cannot 
 
 read. Thus, although they have coal beds, much of their iron 
 ore, instead of being smelted at home, is shipped to the coal 
 fields of Swansea in Wales to be smelted. In some places, 
 however, as will, be seen in the study of the cities, there is 
 manufacturing of certain kinds. 
 
 Fig. 168. 
 
 One of the great pits from which iron ore is obtained 
 at Bilbao, Spain. 
 
 Principal Cities of Spain. — Madrid, the metropolis 
 and capital of Spain, is nearly as large as Baltimore ; 
 but unlike most other large cities so far studied, it is not 
 an important manufacturing centre. Why not ? The 
 explanation of its size is found in its central location, and 
 the fact that it is the seat of government. In crossing the 
 peninsula to connect the coastal cities, all the principal 
 railway lines converge at this point, and thus Madrid has 
 become the intellectual and political centre of the country. 
 
246 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 To some extent, Madrid, with its wide streets, magnificent 
 royal palace, and one of the finest art galleries in the world, 
 
 recalls the attrac- 
 tions of Paris. 
 But one of its 
 most frequented 
 places is an enor- 
 mous building, 
 which seats many 
 thousands and 
 which is used for 
 bull fighting. In 
 its indulgence in 
 this brutal sport 
 the city bears no 
 resemblance to 
 Paris ; nor is there 
 any resemblance 
 in its surround- 
 ings. Prom the 
 streets of Madrid one looks across the country for miles and 
 miles, seeing not a tree nor fence nor house ; only the weeds 
 and scattered vegetation of an arid waste. 
 
 In the vicinity of Madrid is a labyrinth of buildings, called 
 the Escorial, a royal palace and monastery erected by the king, 
 Philip II. Although built at great expense, in a village about 
 twenty-five miles from Madrid, it now stands idle, competing 
 in interest to the visitor with a chocolate factory near by, and 
 serving strongly as a reminder of the extravagance of the ruler 
 of Spain at the height of its glory. 
 
 The city next in importance upon the highlands of 
 Spain is Granada, the last stronghold of the Moors. 
 To this point among the mountains, at the intersection 
 of the best routes of travel from east to west, and from 
 north to south, these people withdrew. Here they main- 
 
 Fig. 169. 
 A Spanish bull fight. 
 
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 247 
 
 tained themselves for two hundred years and developed a 
 city of four hundred thousand population. At present, 
 Granada contains less than one-fourth as many inhabitants, 
 and its principal attraction is the Moorish palace, or Alham- 
 bra (Fig. 165), one of the finest examples of Moorish 
 architecture in existence. 
 
 On the outside, this castle presents only bare stone walls, 
 as ugly as such walls usually are ; but within, all is beauty. 
 The courts, with marble fountains of surpassing grace in 
 the centre, and with arcades which have exquisitely carved 
 columns and ceilings of marble, are particular attractions. 
 
 On the lowlands west of Granada are Seville and Cadiz, 
 both flourishing cities at the time when vast stores of plunder 
 were being brought from the Spanish colonies in the New 
 World. Cadiz is now a fortified naval harbor ; and Seville 
 is recovering a degree of her former commercial importance. 
 One tobacco factory in Seville employs about five thousand 
 women in making cigars and cigarettes. 
 
 A Moorish palace at Seville, called the Alcazar, rivals even 
 the Alhambra as a marvel of carving in stone. In summer 
 this is one of the hottest cities in Spain, and the buildings, 
 almost invariably white, cause the city to appear in the dis- 
 tance like a solid mass of white marble. Why should that 
 color be selected for buildings in a hot country? 
 
 Gibraltar, a steep hill, with bold cliffs rising on nearly 
 all sides, and with a town at its base, has belonged to 
 England since 1704. This rock hill (Fig. 170) is, per- 
 haps, the strongest fortification in the world, and guards 
 the entrance to the Mediterranean. Why should the Eng- 
 lish especially want such a stronghold there ? 
 
 Malaga grapes serve to remind us of the coastal city by that 
 name, and of the products about it. It has one of the warmest 
 climates in Europe; and in addition to grapes, such semi- 
 
248 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 tropical fruits as olives, dates, and lemons are cultivated in 
 its vicinity. Malaga has a poor harbor, but good roads lead 
 northward from this point over the mountains, and it is a 
 point of export for wine, raisins, and fruits. 
 
 Valencia and Barcelona are the leading seaports of 
 Spain. The region about the former is a beautiful gar- 
 den, much like southern California, which it resembles 
 also in products. Name some of the products. In addi- 
 
 Fig. 170. 
 
 The rock of Gibraltar from the Spanish coast, showing the narrow neck of 
 land which connects it with the mainland. 
 
 tion, rice, one of the staple foods, is grown on the low- 
 lands near the coast. Barcelona, the second Spanish 
 city in size, is the principal seaport and an important 
 manufacturing centre as well. Cotton and other textiles 
 are its principal manufactured goods. 
 
 On the whole Spain is poorly provided with harbors ; 
 and while the majority of the people dwell near the coast, 
 and many engage in fishing, they take a small share in 
 international commerce. 
 
 Colonies of Spain. — The only remnants now left to Spain of 
 her once magnificent foreign possessions are for the most part 
 
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 
 
 249 
 
 in Africa. These include a few small settlements on the coast 
 of Morocco ; a portion of the western coast of Sahara, having 
 little value ; and a few small islands in the Gulf of Guinea. The 
 Canary Islands west of the northern coast of Africa and the 
 Balearic Isles in the Mediterranean also belong to Spain. 
 
 • Principal Cities and Colonies of Portugal. — Lisbon 
 and Oporto are the chief cities of Portugal. The 
 former, the capital and metropolis, lying on a broad bay 
 
 Fig. 171. 
 The harbor and city of Oporto. Describe the situation of the city. 
 
 where the Tagus River enters the sea, has one of the finest 
 harbors in the world. With its white houses, its cathe- 
 drals and palaces — all partly buried in trees on the hill- 
 sides surrounding the harbor — it vies in beauty with the 
 most attractive cities in the world. 
 
 The misfortunes of Lisbon have been many. It has suffered 
 from sieges, plagues, and earthquakes. The most terrible 
 catastrophe happened in 1755, when an earthquake, followed 
 by fire, destroyed most of the houses and a large part of the 
 population. 
 
 Oporto gives the name to Port wine. The lower part of 
 
250 EUROPE 
 
 the Douro valley is one of the richest wine districts in Europe, 
 and Oporto, like Bordeaux, is an important point for its export. 
 Portugal, like Spain, and partly for the same reason, has 
 lost much of her foreign territory. The Azores Islands, far 
 to the west in the Atlantic, and the Madeira Islands, to the 
 southwest, are a part of the kingdom. A number of the Azores 
 Islanders have settled in Gloucester and other fishing centre's 
 of New England, where they are among the most successful 
 fishermen. Why should they be thus skilful? The Cape 
 Verde Islands, also a volcanic group, off the coast of Africa, 
 are treated as dependencies. Portugal also has large posses- 
 sions on the mainland of Africa and smaller ones in Asia. 
 
 Review Questioxs. — (1) Tell about the former greatness of 
 Spain. (2) Give some of the causes of her downfall. (3) What 
 kind of government has Spain ? (4) Portugal ? (5) Describe the 
 highlands of the peninsula. (6) Mention several consequences of this 
 elevated condition of the land. (7) Tell about agriculture and graz- 
 ing. (8) Tell about the mining. (9) What can you say about manu- 
 facturing? (10) Give the main facts about the following cities: 
 (a) Madrid, (b) Granada, (c) Seville, (d) Cadiz, (e) Malaga, (/) Va- 
 lencia, (g) Barcelona. (11) For what is Gibraltar noted? (12) What 
 about the colonies of Spain ? (13) Tell about (a) Lisbon, (b) Oporto. 
 (14) What about the colonies of Portugal ? (15) Name and locate the 
 principal cities of Spain and Portugal. (16) The rivers. 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) About what portion of the boundary line 
 between Spain and Portugal is formed by rivers ? (2) What must be 
 the influence of railways upon the old-fashioned methods of farming 
 in the interior ? (3) Recall the Spaniards' treatment of the Incas 
 in South America. (4) Look in the report of the Twelfth Census 
 to see what per cent of our population cannot read. (5) Read about 
 the great fleet, called the Spanish Armada, that was once sent out to 
 conquer England. (6) Find out about some events in our recent war 
 with Spain. (7) Learn what is meant by the Pillars of Hercules. 
 (8) Find other pictures of Moorish architecture. (9) Read Wash- 
 ington Irving's " The Alhambra." (10) Make a sketch of the Spanish 
 peninsula, including the principal rivers and cities. 
 
XIV. NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 
 
 Map Questions (Fig. 172). — (1) The Scandinavian peninsula is 
 the largest in Europe. What is its length in degrees? In miles V 
 (2) How does its western coast remind you of the western coast of 
 Scotland and Ireland? (3) What evidences do you see of glacial 
 action? Where? (4) What do you observe about the rivers of 
 Sweden? (5) Which of these three countries has the largest popu- 
 lation ? (6) How does it compare with New York State in area and 
 population? With your own state ? (See Appendix II.) (7) Make 
 the same comparison for the smallest of the three countries. (8) What 
 points in North America are in about the same latitude as Bergen, 
 Christiania, and Stockholm ? (9) On Figure 3S, find how near to 
 Scandinavia the Gulf Stream drift reaches. 
 
 People. — The people of these three countries have long 
 been more or less united, for the well-settled southern por- 
 tions of Norway and Sweden are not separated by any 
 natural barrier, while only a narrow, shallow sea separates 
 Scandinavia from Denmark. Being descended from a 
 common stock, and at times having a single government, 
 they have many interests in common. The written lan- 
 guage of the Norwegians and Danes is still the same, and 
 Norway and Sweden are united under one king, although 
 they have separate local government. Denmark is now 
 independent, and, like Norway and Sweden, is a limited 
 monarchy. 
 
 These people, formerly called Northmen, or Norsemen, have 
 been closely connected with our own history. They made some 
 of the early invasions and settlements in Great Britain (p. 173), 
 and are thereby to be numbered among our ancestors. Their 
 daring seamen reached Greenland, by way of Iceland, and dis- 
 covered America nearly five hundred years before Columbus 
 
 251 
 
252 EUROPE 
 
 approached its shores. In the present century they have 
 migrated to the United States by thousands, and have chosen 
 homes in many states, but particularly in Minnesota, Illinois, 
 and Wisconsin. 
 
 Physiography and Climate. — There are only about one- 
 fourth as many inhabitants in these three countries together 
 as there are in the British Isles ; yet in spite of frequent 
 European wars, they have preserved their independence 
 through many centuries. This has been due in part to 
 their peculiar position. The only land approach to Scan- 
 dinavia is by way of Lapland in Russia, which is so far 
 north that it is very cold. Thus the peninsula is almost 
 as isolated from other nations as is Great Britain. 
 
 Denmark, on the other hand, is partly connected with 
 Germany. However, the most important parts of Den- 
 mark, the islands, are completely separated by water. 
 These islands and, the Danish peninsula (Fig. 200) are 
 the higher portions of a lowland that were left project- 
 ing above the water when sinking of the land changed 
 the Baltic valley to a shallow sea (p. 152). Standing at 
 the entrance to the Baltic, they guard the approaches to 
 this inland sea, and naturally Germany, Russia, and other 
 nations have long coveted them. But as neither of the 
 Great Powers was willing that one of the others should 
 hold them, little Denmark has been allowed to continue 
 its independent existence. 
 
 The rugged surface and severe climate of Scandinavia 
 have also served as a protection against invaders. From 
 its southern to its northern end the peninsula is moun- 
 tainous. It is an ancient mountain land (p. 150), much 
 worn, and cut by deep stream valleys. While some peaks 
 reach an elevation of six to eight thousand feet, most of 
 
NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 
 
 20o 
 
 them are lower and of so nearly the same height that 
 the upland resembles a plateau when viewed across the 
 mountain crests. 
 The boundary 
 between Nor- 
 way and Sweden 
 follows the di- 
 vide between 
 the east and 
 west flowing 
 streams; and 
 since the moun- 
 tains descend 
 steeply into the 
 ocean on the 
 western side, 
 those streams 
 which flow tow- 
 ard the west are 
 the shorter. 
 Therefore, in all 
 but the south- 
 ern part, Nor- 
 way is a narrow, 
 
 Fig. 173. 
 
 A Norwegian fjord with steep cliffs rising from the 
 
 very water's edge. 
 
 mountainous region crossed by short streams flowing in 
 deep, steep-sided valleys (Fig. 173). 
 
 Agricultural Districts. — The mountainous surface and 
 cold climate are unfavorable to agriculture, although the 
 warm ocean waters (p. 161) exert an enormous influ- 
 ence here, as in the British Isles. In rising over the moun- 
 tains, the westerly winds supply abundant rain and snow, 
 and it is the latter which causes the numerous glaciers. 
 
254 EUBOPE 
 
 Since the slope on the eastern side is much the longer, 
 Sweden has extensive lowlands throughout its length. 
 But these lowlands are so far north, and so protected 
 from the influence of the sea, that in all but the southern 
 part agriculture is of little importance. 
 
 Although Denmark is free from mountains, the northern 
 and western portion of the Danish peninsula (called Jut- 
 land) is a sandy waste, so that only the islands and the 
 southeastern part of the peninsula are very productive. 
 
 In these three countries, therefore, there is a compara- 
 tively small area that is valuable for agriculture, and the 
 sections lie near together, namely, in southern Norway 
 and Sweden and in eastern Denmark. 
 
 Industries and Cities of Norway. — Since less than four 
 thousand (out of a total of one hundred and twentj T -five 
 thousand) square miles in Norway have a soil and climate 
 adapted to agriculture or pasturage, the amount of stock 
 and grain produced is small. Therefore, much meat, 
 flour, and other food must be imported. Also, while 
 there are some silver and copper mines, coal is entirely 
 lacking, because the rocks were formed before the Coal 
 Period. Manufacturing, therefore, is little developed. 
 Even the fine water power is little used, because raw 
 products for manufacturing are not abundant. 
 
 On what, then, do the two million inhabitants depend 
 for a living ? They have two valuable resources, — lumber 
 and fish. More than one-fifth of the country is forest- 
 covered — pines being most common — and lumber, wooden 
 goods, and paper are the most important exports. As in 
 Maine, the rapidly flowing rivers are of use in moving 
 the logs from the forest, and also in supplying power for 
 the sawmills and planing mills. 
 
NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 
 
 255 
 
 Fish abound on the shallow banks along the irregular 
 western coast, especially codfish in the neighborhood of 
 the far northern Lofoden Islands. The North Sea with its 
 many fish is also close at hand, and the Arctic Ocean 
 with its seals and whales. Over a hundred thousand Nor- 
 wegians are engaged in the fishing industry. Along the 
 fjords every family owns a boat, and knows how to make 
 
 Fig. 174. 
 Bergen, Norway, with its deep, narrow fjord harbor. 
 
 as well as use one. While the men are at sea the women 
 work the small farms or garden patches. 
 
 The abundance of lumber and the love for the sea, 
 developed through centuries of experience in navigating 
 the deep fjords and in fishing, have given rise to a third 
 great industry, that of carrying goods for other nations. 
 The timber for wooden vessels is easily supplied, and this 
 small Norwegian nation has at present a greater number 
 of freight vessels than any other European country ex- 
 cepting the British Isles. 
 
256 
 
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 These facts help to explain why the Norwegian towns 
 are found along the coast. Indeed, it is rare to find even 
 a village in the interior. The two principal cities are 
 Christiania, the capital and largest city, and Bergen 
 (Fig. 174). The former is situated at the head of a long, 
 narrow, sunken valley, or fjord, which makes an excellent 
 harbor, and the city is the principal port and distribut- 
 
 Fig. 175. 
 
 North Cape, the northern point in Norway. The summer sun is shining here 
 at midnight, because the cape is within the Arctic circle. 
 
 ing centre for southern Norway. Bergen is the important 
 fishing port, as Aberdeen is in Scotland and Gloucester 
 in Massachusetts. Being so near the open ocean, and 
 therefore influenced by the warm water and warm ocean 
 winds, this port is seldom frozen over. But the harbor 
 of Christiania, with cold land to the north, east, and west, 
 and a shallow sea to the south, freezes early and is ice- 
 bound for four months in the year. 
 
NOB WAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 
 
 257 
 
 Scenery on the Western Coast. — As in the British Isles and 
 northeastern North America, the sinking of the Scandinavian 
 peninsula has caused the sea to enter the river valleys, forming 
 many bays, peninsulas, and islands. It is estimated that there 
 are fully ten thousand islands along the coast of Norway. 
 Owing to the fact that, before the sinking took place, the river 
 valleys were deeply cut in hard rock, the bays are usually 
 long, narrow, and deep fjords (Fig. 173). 
 
 Some of the fjords extend fully ninety miles inland, and 
 swollen streams from the mountains frequently plunge, for a 
 fall of a thousand feet or more, over the vertical cliffs which 
 bound the fjords. The cliffs are often only barren rock ; but 
 here and there, where the slopes are not too steep, green forests 
 cover the surface ; glaciers are frequently in sight ; and occa- 
 sionally, upon a 
 level patch, a ham- 
 let of fishermen's 
 homes (Fig. 115) 
 is seen. These 
 hamlets are usu- 
 ally upon the deltas 
 of small streams 
 and are connected 
 with the outer 
 world, and with 
 other villages, by 
 no road or path- 
 way excepting the 
 waters of the fjord, 
 man must learn to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '-&-■•' M-:- :^' ;\ ■•/;- 
 
 mm 
 
 ^Zt^J§j 
 
 !*■*>- 
 
 
 ■ ,,,-ff-^-— — 
 
 Ska- 
 
 
 
 W^ 
 
 M, ' 
 
 
 
 m '-' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ssSiiiL ' •'*'& 
 
 
 _.. _ 
 
 
 
 
 W-i '.v wJ^fPs! 
 
 Fig. 176. 
 
 Hammerfest, Norway, far within the Arctic circle. 
 This town is the nearest to the pole of any in the 
 world excepting TJpernivik in Greenland, where all 
 but a few of the inhabitants are Eskimos. 
 
 So isolated a,re these hamlets that each 
 do many things, — farm, fish, tan his 
 leather, make his shoes, build his boat, his house, and many 
 other kinds of work. 
 
 Hundreds of visitors from all parts of the world travel by 
 steamer along this coast every summer to enjoy the beautiful 
 scenery. Another attraction is the sight of the sun at mid- 
 night (Fig. 175). At Bergen, Christiania, and Stockholm, 
 which are in nearly the same latitude, the shortest night is 
 s 
 
258 EUROPE 
 
 less than six hours ; at Trondhjem it is about four ; arid at 
 Hammerfest (Fig. 176), far within the Arctic Circle and near 
 North Cape (Fig. 175), the sun does not set from May 13 
 to July 29. 
 
 Industries and Cities of Sweden. — Agriculture is the 
 leading industry of Sweden, for fertile soil, swept by the 
 glacier (Fig. 114) from the northern and western high- 
 lands, has been scattered over the lower lands. In con- 
 sequence, the southern part of the country presents much 
 the same appearance as New England. Oats are raised 
 in most abundance, but rye, barley, wheat, and potatoes are 
 also produced in large quantities. One reason why these 
 products can mature here is the absence of cool summer 
 winds from the ocean ; another is the great length of the 
 summer clays in this far northern latitude. Much live 
 stock is also raised, and butter is exported to Great Britain. 
 
 However, nearly one-half the area of Sweden is covered 
 with forest, and lumber is by far the greatest article of 
 export, as in Norway. Indeed, these two countries supply 
 much of the lumber needed in western Europe. Their 
 wood is especially valued because of its hardness and dura- 
 bility — qualities that are clue to the closeness of the 
 annual rings caused by the shortness of the summer season. 
 
 Mining is the third important industry. There are 
 silver, lead, zinc, and copper mines. Some coal is found 
 in the southern end, and the country has long been noted 
 for its excellent iron ore. But since the principal iron 
 mines are located far from the coal, there is little iron 
 manufacturing in Sweden. However, as in portions of 
 the Lake Superior district of the United States, some of 
 the iron ore is smelted by the use of charcoal, and some 
 by coal mined in Sweden or brought from other countries. 
 
NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 
 
 259 
 
 The Swedish iron is of such excellent quality that it is 
 eagerly sought where the highest grade of steel tools is 
 manufactured, as in Sheffield, England. 
 
 Sweden possesses excellent water power for various kinds 
 
 Fig. 177. 
 
 To show the location of Stockholm, with branching arms of the sea on one 
 side and lakes (shaded) , caused by glacial deposits, on the other. 
 
 of manufacturing, and in recent years the numerous rivers 
 have begun to be utilized, so that manufacturing is making 
 rapid progress there. 
 
 The two principal cities — Stockholm, the capital, and 
 Gothenburg — are on the coast : but there are other small 
 seaports and inland mining towns. Stockholm is the resi- 
 
 
260 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 dence of the king of the united countries, who is also 
 required to spend a part of each year in Norway. The 
 situation of this city is one of marvellous beauty, on an 
 excellent harbor (Fig. 177) ; but unfortunately it is 
 blocked with ice for four months each year. Owing to 
 the numerous lakes (Fig. 177) and to canals, it is con- 
 nected by water, as well as by rail, with the chief points 
 
 Fig. 178. 
 The royal palace at Stockholm. 
 
 in a populous region, and is therefore the principal distrib- 
 uting centre for imports. Gothenburg, the chief centre for 
 exports, possesses the important advantage that its har- 
 bor is seldom frozen over. It is connected with Stockholm 
 by railway as well as by lake and canal. Much of the 
 distance between these two cities is occupied by lakes. 
 
 The principal foreign trade of both Norway and Sweden is 
 with Great Britain. Give reasons for this. What must be 
 the main articles of import and export ? Next to Great Brit- 
 ain comes Germany. Can you suggest reasons for this ? 
 
NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 
 
 261 
 
 Industries and Cities of Denmark. — There is neither 
 coal nor metal in the rocks of Denmark, so that there is 
 no mining in the country. The only mineral product of 
 value is clay, well suited to the manufacture of porcelain, 
 which is an important industry. As in Ireland, the lack 
 of coal for fuel is partially met by peat from the bogs and 
 swamps of the northern and western parts. 
 
 The fact that butter constitutes one-half the exports of 
 Denmark throws much light upon the principal occupa- 
 tion of the people. Farming, especially dairying, is the 
 chief industry; and in this small country there are a mill- 
 ion and a half dairy cows and nearly as many sheep, be- 
 sides many horses, goats, and pigs. The laws of the nation 
 discourage large farms, so that each farmer, by carefully 
 cultivating a small patch of land, as in Belgium, obtains 
 the most that it can yield. 
 
 The nearness to good fishing banks has naturally made 
 fishing impor- 
 tant ; and this, 
 together with 
 the influence of 
 island life, has 
 created such a 
 love for the sea 
 that large num- 
 bers of Danes 
 serve as sailors on 
 British and other 
 foreign vessels. 
 
 As in the case 
 
 of Norway and Sweden, the principal foreign trade of 
 Denmark is with Great Britain. Why ? What goods 
 
 Fig. 179. 
 A view in Copenhagen. 
 
262 EUROPE 
 
 can well be exchanged ? One might therefore expect an 
 important seaport on the western coast ; but that coast is 
 so low, and so shut in by sand bars, that good harbors are 
 lacking. In fact, the only harbor in all Denmark that 
 admits large vessels is Copenhagen (merchants' harbor) 
 on Seeland Island. The shipping, therefore, is centred at 
 that port. And since this point guards the entrance to 
 the Baltic Sea, there is a double reason why Copenhagen 
 is the principal city of Denmark. The fact that it is the 
 capital also increases its importance. While it approaches 
 Buffalo in size, the next largest city is only one-tenth as 
 populous. 
 
 Colonies of Denmark. — The Danes, even more than the Nor- 
 wegians, have been daring seamen and explorers of foreign 
 lands. Although some of their possessions have been lost, 
 Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and three small West Indian 
 Islands are still Danish colonies ; and Iceland is a Danish 
 dependency. In the Faroes, consisting of a score of small 
 islands north of Scotland, the principal products are sheep and 
 fish. Why might yon expect these two particularly ? 
 
 Iceland, which is larger than Ireland, and more than twice 
 the size of Denmark, is an island of volcanic origin. Over 
 a hundred volcanoes are found there, twenty-five of which 
 have been in eruption during historic times. Mt. Hecla is 
 one of the most noted of these. Destructive earthquakes are 
 common, and there are also geysers similar to those found in 
 our Yellowstone National Park. 
 
 The interior is a desert plateau, for the most part covered 
 with snow, and hence uninhabited. Near the sea, however, 
 there is some good pasture land, and the people are prin- 
 cipally engaged in raising cattle and sheep. Fishing is im- 
 portant, and down from the eider duck is a valuable product. 
 Sea-birds, which abound, are one of the principal sources of 
 food. 
 
NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 263 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) What about the people of these three 
 countries ? (2) What about their government ? (3) How have they 
 been related to our history ? (4) Mention some geographic facts that 
 have helped to preserve their independence. (5) Describe briefly the 
 surface of Norway; of Sweden; of Denmark. (6) Where are the 
 principal farming sections? (7) Tell about agriculture in Norway. 
 (8) AVhy is there little manufacturing there ? (9) What is the 
 principal export? Why? (10) What about fishing? (11) Give 
 reasons for the large merchant fleet of Norway. (12) Tell about the 
 cities of Norway. (13) Describe the scenery on the western coast. 
 (14) Tell about Sweden : the principal industry ; the forests ; the 
 mining; the manufacturing; the principal cities. (15) What are 
 the principal industries in Denmark? (16) Where are the harbors? 
 (17) Tell about Copenhagen. (18) Tell about the foreign territory 
 of Denmark. (19) What are the important facts about Iceland? 
 (20) Give some reasons why Norway, Sweden, and Denmark have 
 their principal foreign trade with the British Isles. 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Why should the telephone prove of special im- 
 portance among the fishing towns scattered along the coast of Nor- 
 way ? (2) By use of a globe explain why the sun need not set for 
 weeks at a time at Hammerfest. (3) Why is the whale and seal 
 fishing important as a means of furnishing light during the long night 
 of this northern land? (4) What do you know about the life of the 
 Laplanders ? (5) Why should Bergen be one of the rainiest cities of 
 Europe ? (6) Give reasons why harbors on the Baltic should be 
 blocked by ice much oftener than those on the western coast of Nor- 
 way. (7) Have you ever seen Swedish matches ? Can you give a 
 reason why so many matches should be made in that country? (8) 
 Give all the reasons you can to explain why the Norsemen should 
 have become such daring navigators. (9) Hans Christian Andersen 
 was a native of Denmark. What stories do you know that were writ- 
 ten by him ? (10) Read and retell stories of the Norse gods in old- 
 time mythology. (11) Read parts of The Saga of King Olaf, a poem 
 by Longfellow. 
 
XV. RUSSIA 
 
 Map Questions (Fig. 172). — (1) About how much of Europe is 
 included in Russia ? (2) What part of the distance from pole to 
 equator is included? (3) What does this suggest concerning tem- 
 perature and rainfall? (4) How much of the boundary of Russia 
 is. sea coast? (5) Name the seas which border it. (6) Name the 
 mountains on or near the border. (7) What portion of Russia is occu- 
 pied by plains? (Fig. 109). (8) In what directions do the large rivers 
 flow ? Name the three longest. (9) What peculiar fact do you notice 
 about the Caspian Sea? (10) Find Poland, Finland, and Lapland. 
 (11) What parts of Asia are in the Russian Empire? (Fig. 241). 
 
 Size and Position. — Russia in Europe is larger than all 
 the other European countries together ; and the Russian 
 Empire, which includes Siberia and other lands in Asia, 
 occupies about one-sixth of all the land upon the globe. The 
 empire extends from the Baltic on the west to the Pacific 
 on the east, and within its borders is included a great 
 variety of climate. What countries in North and South 
 America approach it in area ? In variety of climate ? 
 
 In spite of its vast extent, the development of Russia 
 is greatly hindered by the lack of good harbors. In this 
 respect it contrasts strongly with the United States. To 
 be sure, the sea forms a large portion of the Russian 
 boundary ; but Archangel, the principal port on the 
 White Sea, is icebound for nine months, and the Baltic 
 ports for four or five months each year. Besides this, the 
 entrances to the Baltic (p. 252) and Black seas are 
 guarded by foreign nations. Why are the Caspian ports 
 of little use ? 
 
 264 
 
RUSSIA 
 
 265 
 
 Physiography. — Most of the large rivers in western 
 Europe have their sources in the mountains. Give exam- 
 ples (Fig. 109). It is not so, however, in Russia where 
 the .central divide is a low, hilly region less than twelve 
 hundred feet above sea level at its highest point. Aside 
 from the mountains along the border this is the highest 
 part of Russia. How does it compare in altitude with 
 the highest point in flat Holland? (p. 209). 
 
 From what has been said, it is evident that most of 
 Russia is a remarkably level plain (see also Fig. 109). 
 Since several of the rivers are very long, what must be 
 true as to the velocity of their currents ? What must 
 follow as to their value for navigation ? What about the 
 ease of canal construction ? 
 
 In southeastern Russia, on the other hand, are the 
 lofty Caucasus Mountains (Fig. 110), in which one of 
 the peaks, the extinct volcano, Mt. Elbruz, is the highest 
 mountain in Europe. But at the very base of these 
 mountains are broad plains which in places are even lower 
 than the level of the sea. 
 
 The Caspian Sea, into which the longest river of Europe 
 pours its floods, is the largest inland sea in the world. It was 
 formerly much larger than now ; in fact, ocean water once 
 reached from the Black^JSea, across Siberia, to the Arctic. 
 Changes in the earth's crust have raised much of this ocean 
 bottom above sea level and left large inland seas in the depres- 
 sions. But, in spite of the enormous volume of w r ater which 
 enters these inland seas, the evaporation in that dry climate 
 has caused them so to shrink in size that neither the Caspian 
 nor the Aral Sea (Fig. 241) is now connected with the ocean. 
 The surface of the Caspian is now eighty-five feet below sea 
 level, and by evaporation it is steadily growing smaller and 
 Salter, leaving broad, salt-covered plains round about it. 
 
266 EUROPE 
 
 Climate. — The influence of distance from the ocean 
 upon temperature and rainfall is well illustrated in Russia. 
 Moscow is in the same latitude as Edinburgh ; but while 
 at Edinburgh the average temperature for January is 37°, 
 at Moscow it is nearly 25° colder (Fig. 117). Notice which 
 summer isotherms pass nearest to these two cities. It was 
 the severity of the Russian winter that caused Napoleon 
 Bonaparte to lose nearly the whole of a great army when 
 he was invading that country in 1812. What effect must 
 this cold have upon navigation of the rivers ? 
 
 Extreme drought, as well as extremes of temperature, are 
 found in parts of eastern Russia. Although the rain-bearing 
 winds meet with no barrier in sweeping over such level land, 
 they nevertheless deposit so much moisture on the coun- 
 tries of western Europe that no part of Russia has heavy 
 rainfall ; and the eastern part averages less than twenty 
 inches per year (Fig. 118). Since this amount is barely 
 sufficient for agriculture, the crops suffer, and famines 
 follow in especially dry seasons. Southeastern Russia is 
 altogether too arid for farming, being not only far from 
 the ocean, but so far south that it is not greatly influenced 
 by the prevailing westerlies. 
 
 Climatic Belts. — Russia may be divided into several belts, 
 according to climate. In the north are the frozen tundras, 
 even in summer too cold for agriculture. The scattered Lap- 
 landers, who are able to live in the far north, have habits 
 resembling the Eskimos' (Fig. 180). They have, however, 
 domesticated the reindeer (Fig. 121), which feeds on moss and 
 is therefore able to live farther north than sheep, cattle, and 
 horses. Without this animal most of the Lapps could not 
 exist in this bleak region. 
 
 South of the tundras, the warmer climate permits the 
 growth of forests, including such trees as pine, fir, oak, beech, 
 
RUSSIA 
 
 267 
 
 and birch. Some of this timber has been cut away, and farms 
 have taken the place of forest; but much woodland still remains. 
 
 The forest belt 
 is gradually re- 
 placed on the 
 south by open, 
 grass-covered 
 plains similar to 
 those of central 
 and western 
 United States. 
 This is the best 
 agricultural belt 
 of Russia, where 
 grains are raised 
 in enormous quan- 
 tities, especially 
 in the "black 
 earth " belt, where 
 the soil is fine- 
 grained, black, and very fertile. The climate of the grassy 
 plains gradually becomes more arid toward the south and east, 
 until on the steppes farming is impossible. There herding is 
 the main industry, as in the arid section of the United States. 
 Both on the steppes and in the forest belt the summers are warm 
 and the winters cold and accompanied by icy winds which 
 sweep over the plains from the north. 
 
 In the extreme southern part of Russia, near the Caucasus 
 Mountains, there is abundant rainfall ; and, being so far south, 
 the crops of warm temperate climates are raised (p. 270). 
 But around the Caspian Sea most of the land is a desert. 
 
 Fig. 180. 
 
 A Laplander's hut. The home of the Laplanders is in 
 
 northern Scandinavia and northwestern Russia. 
 
 People and Government. — The plains of Russia have 
 offered no better barrier to the inroads of invaders than 
 to the winds. We therefore find many kinds of people 
 united under Russian rule. Most of these belong to the 
 
268 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 white race, but to a different division from the German 
 and British peoples. The Russians are Slavs, originally 
 from Asia ; while the inhabitants of Germany, Scandi- 
 navia, and the British 
 Isles are of the Teutonic 
 division. But Russia 
 also contains many Jews, 
 Teutons, and other 
 people, including the 
 Lapps (Figs. 180 and 
 181) and Finns who are 
 classed with the Mon- 
 golian race. All together 
 not less than forty lan- 
 guages are spoken within 
 the realm. 
 
 In former centuries, 
 while other parts of Europe 
 were advancing in civiliza- 
 tion, Russia was being 
 raided by outsiders and 
 its progress retarded by 
 conquest. The country 
 was so remote from west- 
 ern Europe that it felt little influence from the growing civili- 
 zation of the west. Moreover, approach by water was then 
 difficult, because formerly the only Russian sea-coast was on 
 the Arctic. It was not until the time of Peter the Great 
 (1682-1725) that Russia began to learn the lessons of civiliza- 
 tion from other European nations. 
 
 These facts help to explain why Russia is so slightly ad- 
 vanced in some directions. While the common people of other 
 European nations were demanding greater liberty, and were 
 constantly acquiring education, the mass of the Russians 
 
 §' :: : ; " 
 
 
 
 — Av..:1 
 
 ^^^HRBHP^X ' L +sSa»*iwp 
 
 
 luMr wilbw^^ 
 
 
 ^^^t£31& 
 
 n 
 
 W ; slSf i*$^M?M 
 
 
 ran ' """""83B > J5^j*m^{$k;i'iF$* 
 
 ■ 
 
 Kit -^^Z^jKL ' * : *Y ? ^~ ^HMiw^T iflr : ? 
 
 
 Bk .- --'T' ^•-■^Sgt^^jBgM 
 
 SSm 
 
 Ifce^* -iaS? 
 
 " ~^mm 
 
 w > o^dMHK. 
 
 sSIIm 
 
 
 
 ^Kr>'j^?- -2^Sa ' s^-^N . • 
 
 
 ■ / i^^^^ME' 'm 
 
 
 lM;WgSm |.^ 
 
 
 Fig. 181. 
 A Lapp boy from Lapland in Russia. 
 
RUSSIA 
 
 269 
 
 were kept in subjection and ignorance. They were mere serfs, 
 who were little better than slaves to their lords, the nobles. 
 Although the serfs were liberated in the middle of the last 
 century, almost no attempt has been made to educate the 
 masses, and at present they possess little liberty. 
 
 The emperor, or Czar, is an absolute monarch " whose 
 will alone is law." On purely local matters, however, 
 the peasants have a voice. Those of a locality meet in a 
 Mir, or assembly, to discuss matters of common interest 
 and. to elect officers from their number, somewhat as is 
 done in town-meetings in the United States. Naturally, in 
 this day of popular government, many of the people are 
 dissatisfied, and it is on account of this discontent that 
 attempts are made to assassinate the Czar. The attack 
 is against the form of government, rather than against 
 the Czar, who personally is usually an estimable man. 
 
 Lumbering. — Nearly a third of European Russia is forest- 
 covered, and the timber resources, as in Norway (p. 254), 
 are among the greatest of the country. Tins forest sup- 
 plies not only lumber, but pulp for paper and bark for 
 tanning. Many fur-bearing animals live in the forest, as 
 was formerly the case in other parts of Europe. 
 
 Farming and Grazing. — Both in the forest region and on 
 the open plains to the south, there is extensive agriculture. 
 Fully nine-tenths of the people are supported by farming, 
 which makes Russia primarily an agricultural country. 
 
 The most important crops are the grains, especially 
 rye, wheat, barley, and oats. Russia ranks next to the 
 United States among grain-producing countries, and wheat 
 is one of its principal exports. Another important crop is 
 hay ; and potatoes, sugar beets, and flax are extensively 
 raised in the cool temperate climate. 
 
270 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Iii southern Russia the warm climate permits the culture 
 of grapes, tobacco, and corn; and south of the Caucasus even 
 
 olives and cotton 
 are produced. 
 
 Farming in 
 Russia is very 
 crudely done, as 
 might be expected 
 from the charac- 
 ter of the people. 
 Aside from old- 
 fashioned imple- 
 ments, their roads, 
 which are a fair 
 index to the de- 
 velopment of a 
 nation, are ex- 
 tremely bad. The 
 level nature of the 
 land makes this of 
 little importance in dry weather ; but in wet seasons the roads 
 become so impassable that crops cannot be carried to market. 
 Undoubtedly the farm products in southern Russia would be 
 far more extensive if good roads were provided. This may" be 
 said also of some parts of the United States. 
 
 On the grazing lands of the arid steppes, which resemble 
 our western plains, many sheep, cattle, and horses are raised. 
 The nomadic herdsmen, such as the Cossacks, still retain 
 many of the customs of the shepherds and herders of Bible 
 times, who dwelt farther south in Asia. 
 
 Mineral Wealth. — Some parts of Russia contain mineral 
 deposits of great value. In the Ural Mountains, for ex- 
 ample, are gold, silver, copper, platinum, and other metals, 
 besides some precious stones and graphite, or " black lead," 
 which is used in lead pencils. 
 
 Fig. 182. 
 
 A fisherman's house in Finland. Fishing is a very 
 important industry in Russian waters ; and there is 
 a great demand for fish owing to the number of 
 fast days kept by the Greek Church, to which the 
 majority of Russians belong. 
 
RUSSIA 271 
 
 Coal and iron are mined in several parts of Russia 
 (Fig. 113), and each year the amount is increasing. 
 As in Great Britain, some of the iron ore is so near coal 
 and limestone that it is easily smelted. 
 
 Russia ranks next to the United States in the production 
 of petroleum. In our own country this oil was found to be 
 remarkably abundant in western Pennsylvania, eastern Ohio, 
 and West Virginia. The Russian petroleum is also found 
 in several places, especially at Baku on the Caspian. But since 
 its quality is not as good as that of the United States, it is 
 less useful for kerosene. Large quantities are therefore con- 
 sumed as fuel for steamers on the Caspian and Volga ; and, 
 as in southern California, the oil is also used in locomotives._ 
 
 Manufacturing. — Although numerous factories have recently 
 been established in Russia, about six-sevenths of the manufac- 
 turing population carry on the work by hand in their own homes. 
 What a contrast to the United States and to Great Britain ! 
 
 Distilling and brewing are the principal forms of manufac- 
 turing not done in the homes ; then come cotton manufacturing 
 and sugar refining, while flour mills, woollen and linen fac- 
 tories, and iron works follow. What raw products of Russia 
 encourage these industries ? 
 
 Principal Cities and their Commerce 
 
 Moscow and Nijni Novgorod. — The former isolation of 
 Russia from other countries is illustrated by the fact that 
 the principal cities were for a long time situated far in the 
 interior. For example, Moscow, the second city in size 
 and one of the chief manufacturing centres, and once the 
 capital of the empire, is located almost in the centre of the 
 realm, as Madrid is in Spain. The point was well chosen, 
 because rivers, which canals could easily connect, diverge 
 from this section in all directions. By the introduction 
 
272 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 of railways the advantage of this location was so increased 
 that Moscow is now the great railway centre of Russia, as 
 Madrid is of Spain, and for the same reason. State this 
 reason (p. 245). But the land about the city, unlike that 
 around Madrid, is fertile and densely populated. 
 
 Fig. 183. 
 A view of Moscow. Notice how very level the country is. 
 
 Not only is Moscow adorned with royal palaces and govern- 
 ment buildings, but it is the holy city of Russia, and therefore 
 has numerous convents and churches (Fig. 184). The Univer- 
 sity of Moscow, the largest in the empire, is attended by nsarly 
 four thousand students. 
 
 East of Moscow, on the Volga River, is Nijni Novgokob, 
 renowned for its annual fairs. A great trade centre is needed 
 somewhere in this region for the exchange of Asiatic and 
 
BUS SI A 
 
 273 
 
 of Russian prod- 
 ucts, and this city 
 is suitable for the 
 purpose because 
 of its superio r 
 water connec- 
 tions. Point them 
 out (Map, Fig. 
 172). The fairs, 
 held in August 
 and September, 
 are the greatest in 
 Europe, and at- 
 tract as many as 
 two h u u d r e d 
 thousand strangers 
 annually. In a 
 single season 
 goods are ex- 
 changed to the 
 value of nearly 
 $200,000,000, and 
 prices are fixed on crops and other materials for the coming 
 year. Why could not such a centre for trade be better located 
 upon the Caspian Sea? 
 
 St. Petersburg. — While the two cities just described 
 are very old, their position in the interior is not well 
 adapted for communication with distant nations. It was 
 this fact which led Peter the Great, in 1703, to found 
 St. Petersburg at the head of the Gulf of Finland. The 
 site selected is very marshy, and the climate is cold, 
 foggy, and unheal thful. Moreover, the arm of the sea on 
 which the city is situated is so shallow that a ship canal 
 twenty miles in length has been necessary to connect it 
 with the deeper water farther west. In addition, the 
 
 Fig. 184. 
 Greek Church at Moscow. 
 
274 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 harbor is ice-bound for more than four months each 
 year. 
 
 Yet in spite of all these disadvantages, St. Petersburg 
 is already the largest city in Russia, and the fifth in size 
 in Europe — facts that show how much such a seaport was 
 needed. It is also one of the most magnificent of cities, 
 having especially wide streets, splendid public buildings, 
 
 Fig. 185. 
 St. Isaac's Church in St. Petersburg. 
 
 and fine residences. More goods are shipped by this route 
 than from any other Baltic port, Riga, to the southwest, 
 having about half as much shipping. 
 
 Odessa. — Odessa, another important port, was founded 
 a little over a century ago when Russia obtained possession 
 of the northwestern coast of the Black Sea. Since the 
 harbor is rarely frozen over for more than a few days, 
 it possesses a great advantage over St. Petersburg, 
 which it equals in its shipping trade. Besides being the 
 chief outlet for the vast grain trade of southern Russia, 
 
BUS SI A 
 
 275 
 
 and the principal port on the Black Sea, Odessa is an 
 important flour-milling centre, like Minneapolis. 
 
 Warsaw and Lodz. — Thus far the Russians have found no 
 opportunity to obtain possession of Constantinople, although 
 they have, no doubt, felt many a yearning in that direction. 
 Why ? But their progress in the west has not been confined 
 to the establishment of seaports. They have extended their 
 territory in various directions, one of their most important ac- 
 
 Fig. 186. 
 A view of Helsingfors in Finland. 
 
 quisitions being a part of Poland, in which are situated two of 
 the leading cities of Russia, — Warsaw and Lodz. The former 
 is a centre for the railways that connect Russia with western 
 Europe, and the latter is a manufacturing centre. Much coal 
 and iron are mined in this vicinity. 
 
 Finland, whose capital is Helsingfors (Fig. 186), although a 
 part of the Russian Empire, has a measure of independence. 
 There is a parliament which makes laws, but the Czar has the 
 right of veto. Unlike the Russians, most of whom belong to 
 the Greek Church, the Finns are mostly Protestants, belonging 
 to the Lutheran Church. Mistreatment by the Russian gov- 
 ernment has recently led to the migration of many Finns to 
 the United States. 
 
276 EUROPE 
 
 Remembering that Russia owns Siberia also, and has 
 lately been establishing ports on the Pacific coast and 
 building railways to them, it is evident that this is one 
 of the most progressive of European nations. Russia is 
 now one of the six Great Powers, and, with the education 
 of the people and the development of the immense re- 
 sources, the nation promises to grow rapidly more powerful. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Tell about the size of the Russian Em- 
 pire. (2) What can you say about its position with reference to the 
 sea? (3) Describe its surface features. (4) Tell about the rivers. 
 (5) Tell about the Caspian Sea. (6) How does the climate vary? 
 (7) Describe the climatic belts. (8) Tell about the people. (9) What 
 about the government? (10) Tell about lumbering. (11) What 
 are the principal farm products? What influence have the roads? 
 (12) What about grazing? (13) What mineral products are found? 
 Where? (14) For what purpose is some of the petroleum used? 
 (15) What is the condition of manufacturing? (16) Tell about each 
 of the cities: (a) Moscow — location, comparison with Madrid, im- 
 portance; (b) Nijni Novgorod- — location, fairs; (c) St. Petersburg 
 — location, surroundings, importance; (d) Odessa — location, im- 
 portance; (e) Warsaw; (/) Lodz. (17) What are the conditions in 
 Finland? (18) What about Russia's future? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Compare the area of the Caspian Sea with that 
 of Lake Superior. (2) Read about how the inhabitants of Moscow 
 burned their houses in 1812 rather than give shelter to Napoleon's 
 army. What followed ? (3) What must be some of the difficulties 
 connected with building good roads in southern Russia? (4) What 
 did Kosciusko, the Pole, do to make his name memorable to Ameri- 
 cans ? (5) Have you read the story of Thaddeus of Warsaw ? If sc 
 what can you tell about it ? (6) Read about how Peter the Greao 
 wandered through European countries as a common workman, in 
 order to obtain the benefit of Western ideas. (7) Make a sketch 
 map of Russia, with principal rivers, cities, etc. (8) Compai-e the 
 area and population of Russia and the United States. Also the degrees 
 of latitude included in the two countries. (9) Where else besides on 
 the Atlantic, Pacific, and Mediterranean does Russia desire an opening 
 to the sea? 
 
XVI. GERMAN EMPIRE 
 
 Map Questions (Fig. 200 opposite p. 301). — (1) Compare the 
 latitude of Berlin with that of London. (2) Of New York. (3) Esti- 
 mate the greatest length of Germany from east to west. From north 
 to south. (4) How does it compare in size with the British Isles? 
 Russia? (5) How much of the boundary is natural? (See also Fig. 
 172.) (6) Point out the principal rivers. To what extent do they 
 correspond in general direction? (7) Is most of the surface plain or 
 mountainous? (Fig. 109). Where are the mountains? (8) What 
 facts do you notice about the coast line? (9) Is the North Sea or the 
 Baltic the more favorable place for seaports ? Why? 
 
 Extent and Position. — The German Empire contains 
 209,000 square miles, which is an area a little larger than 
 France and twice the size of Colorado. But it has about 
 56,000,000 inhabitants, or over a hundred times as many 
 as Colorado and 17,000,000 more than France. 
 
 The position of this great nation offers a marked con- 
 trast to that of Great Britain. Only about one-third of 
 its boundary is water, while its frontier comes in contact 
 with seven independent countries, aside from Luxemburg. 
 What are their names ? 
 
 The location of the British Isles is regarded as favor- 
 able for world commerce, inasmuch as densely populated 
 Europe lies near at hand on one side, while the far-away 
 New World is on the other side. The situation of Ger- 
 many possesses great advantages, also. Owing to her cen- 
 tral location, most of the markets of the continent are at 
 her very doors, while two of her principal ports, Hamburg 
 and Bremen, face Great Britain and the West. On the 
 
 277 
 
278 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 map (Fig. 172) find some of the large cities that can be 
 quickly reached from Germany- In these clays of rail- 
 ways Germany's central position is superior to that of 
 England for European trade. 
 
 People and Government. — It has required a great 
 struggle, which has lasted through centuries, to bring 
 
 under one rule 
 the various people 
 within the boun- 
 dary line of the 
 German Empire. 
 In early times 
 north Germany 
 was occupied by 
 men of Germanic 
 stock and south 
 Germanyby Celts, 
 the same races 
 that the Romans 
 found in Britain. 
 The Celts were 
 finally overcome 
 by the Germans, 
 although they 
 have left numer- 
 ous traces of 
 themselves. 
 They were dark eyed and dark haired, while the Germanic 
 people were light complexioned ; and the former character- 
 istics are to this clay common in south Germany. Besides 
 the Celtic and Germanic peoples, Slavs and other races 
 from the east settled in early times in the eastern part. 
 
 Fig. 187. 
 A German peasant girl spinning. 
 
GERMAN EMPIRE 279 
 
 For centuries there was, at best, only a loose confederation 
 to hold these varied peoples together ; and the numerous states 
 which occupied the region were often at war with one another 
 and with surrounding nations. Their condition was, in some 
 respects, similar to our own during and immediately following 
 the Revolutionary War. There was, however, one important 
 fact to their disadvantage — their meddlesome neighbors helped 
 to intensify the quarrels that arose among them. 
 
 During the War of 1866 Prussia and Austria, the prin- 
 cipal kingdoms of the German Confederation, strove with 
 each other for the exclusive leadership. Prussia proved 
 successful, and Austria withdrew from the union. Soon 
 afterward, in 1870, the German states, without Austria, 
 joined in a war against France, in which they met with 
 signal victory, taking possession of even Paris itself. In 
 1871 the new German Empire, with its present boun- 
 daries, was established. 
 
 All together there are twenty-six states within the Empire, 
 some of them being kingdoms, some duchies, and some merely 
 free towns. The smallest of all is the city of Bremen, occupy- 
 ing only ninety-nine square miles, while Prussia, the largest, 
 contains more than one-half of the entire empire, and has a 
 population of about 32,000,000. They are all united under a 
 central authority, more closely and less independently than 
 our states. In place of a President they have an Emperor 
 (the King of Prussia being by law Emperor of Germany), and 
 their form of government is a constitutional monarchy (Fig. 
 188). However, the power of the Emperor is much greater than 
 that of the British king, though less absolute than that of the 
 Russian Czar. 
 
 Defence. — In the war of 1870, the Germans not only 
 defeated the French but compelled them to pay a large 
 sum of money. At the same time they seized the French 
 
280 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 territory west of the Rhine, called Alsace-Lorraine, in 
 which Metz and Strassburg are situated. This is a sug- 
 gestion of the way in which much of Germany's irregular 
 frontier line has been determined. To a great extent 
 mountains form the southern boundary, and water the 
 northern ; but the eastern and western limits, largely 
 
 Fig. 188. 
 
 The German Reichstag, corresponding to our House of Representatives, meets 
 in this building, in Berlin. The other legislative branch, called the Bun- 
 desrath, is composed of members appointed by the various German states. 
 
 decided by war, do not follow any natural barrier. Draw 
 an outline map of Germany. 
 
 In order to preserve her present boundaries, Germany 
 must be prepared to defend them at any time. This need 
 calls many citizens to an occupation which we have not 
 thus far considered, namely, that of 'preparing for ivar. 
 
 It is a fact that each of the great European nations is jeal- 
 ously watching the others ; and as no one of them knows how 
 soon a dispute may arise with its neighbor, each maintains a 
 large and thoroughly equipped army. The object of each is to 
 
GERMAN EMPIRE 281 
 
 be so dangerous that others may fear to offend or attack it; 
 and if once involved in war, to come off victorious. 
 
 For such reasons all able-bodied young men in Germany are 
 required to devote usually two full years and parts of several 
 succeeding years to active military training. Most of them 
 enter the service at about the age of twenty ; and as there are 
 about four hundred thousand males arriving at that age every 
 year, one can obtain some idea of what it costs a European 
 nation to have close neighbors. The peace footing of the Ger- 
 man army is almost six hundred thousand men, which is larger 
 than the number employed in all the mines of the British 
 Isles. In addition to this, the German navy calls for many 
 recruits. As all these men are, for the time being, withdrawn 
 from industrial pursuits, the nation loses the fruits of their 
 labor for that period. Thus the productiveness of the nation 
 is reduced. 
 
 Extensive fortifications are built near the boundary, as at 
 Cologne, Metz, an I Strassburg on the French side, and Konigs- 
 berg and Posen, near Russia. They are also numerous in the 
 neighborhood of the great interior cities, and at strategic points 
 here and there. The expense of these fortifications, and the 
 vast sums required to keep up the army and navy, form a 
 heavy drain upon the nation. 
 
 Germany is not unlike the other European nations in these 
 respects. As already stated (p. 203), the British, having no 
 immediate neighbors, rely mainly upon their powerful navy 
 for defence. But every one of the Great Powers is calling for 
 many men, and expending large sums of money either for the 
 army or navy, or both. In fact, preparation for war is one of 
 the great occupations of Europe to-day. 
 
 Physiography. — Germany consists of two quite differ- 
 ent parts. The southern section is mainly a mountainous 
 region of ancient date, and therefore worn low (Fig. 189), 
 like the mountains of Great Britain and New England. 
 It is, in fact, a plateau from one to two thousand feet 
 
282 EUROPE 
 
 in height, with some ranges, like the Erzgebirge, rising 
 high enough to be commonly classed as mountains. Only 
 in the extreme south, on the edge of the Alps, is a great 
 altitude reached, one peak being nearly ten thousand 
 feet above sea level. 
 
 Valuable minerals have been revealed by the wearing 
 away of these ancient mountains ; indeed, the mineral 
 
 Fig. 189. 
 
 The city of Stuttgart in the low plateau of ancient mountain land of southern 
 
 Germany. 
 
 belt of southern Belgium and northeastern France is but 
 a continuation of the highlands which cross southern and 
 central Germany. 
 
 Northern Germany is a lowland, broadening toward the 
 east until it merges into the plains of Russia. In the 
 neighborhood of Holland the plain is very low and flat 
 (Fig. 190) ; but in most places, owing to the irregular 
 deposits left by the Scandinavian glaciers, it is rolling. 
 
GERMAN EMPIRE 
 
 283 
 
 Elevations in this part of Germany rarely exceed six 
 hundred feet. This plain is, in large part, included in 
 Prussia, the greatest and most powerful of the German 
 kingdoms. 
 
 Most of the drainage is northward into the North and Baltic 
 seas. What river rises in the highland region of southern 
 Germany and 
 crosses Austria, 
 finally to enter 
 the Black Sea ? 
 Name and trace 
 the courses of 
 four large rivers 
 which flow north- 
 ward. Of these 
 the Rhine is the 
 most important. 
 Notice the large 
 number of cities 
 along its banks. While parts of the Rhine valley are broad 
 and densely settled, the river in the central part of its course 
 flows through a deep and beautiful gorge cut in the highlands 
 (p. 297). 
 
 Climate. —The average yearly rainfall is about twenty- 
 eight inches, although the amount decreases toward the 
 east until, near the Russian border, it does not exceed 
 twenty inches. That these figures may be better appre- 
 ciated, we may recall the fact that the average rainfall in 
 most parts of the United States east of the Mississippi 
 River is over forty inches. 
 
 Note the number of degrees of latitude included in 
 Germany. Nevertheless, owing to the difference in ele- 
 vation, the southern plateau is about as cold in winter 
 
 Fig. 190. 
 A view on the very level plain of north Germany. 
 
284 EUROPE 
 
 as the northern lowland. Notice (Fig. 117) that the win- 
 ter isotherms extend nearly north across Germany. In 
 summer, however, the southern part is warmer than the 
 northern. But the valleys of the south, being low and 
 enclosed, are warmer than the northern plains both in 
 winter and in summer, and are therefore capable of pro- 
 ducing such crops as tobacco and grapes. 
 
 The increase in extremes of temperature toward the 
 east, or away from the ocean, is illustrated on the coast. 
 The North Sea is almost free from ice, while the Baltic 
 ports are frozen over for a time ; and the farther east they 
 lie, the longer their trade is arrested by the cold. What 
 must be some of the results of this fact ? 
 
 Forests. — That the mountains of Germany are low 
 enough to be well wooded, is indicated by the frequent 
 use of the word wald (the German for wood) in the 
 mountain names. Where the soil is poor, as in the 
 stretches of sand deposited during the Ice Age, much of 
 the lowland is also wooded. All together about one-fourth 
 of the surface of the empire is covered with trees. 
 
 The tendency of the German people to useful and sensible 
 economy is well illustrated in their treatment of the woodlands. 
 Instead of wantonly devastating them by fire and the axe — as 
 has been done in so many parts of our own country — they 
 maintain an excellent system of forest culture. Trees are 
 planted in place of those that are cut for timber, these are 
 given proper care, and thus the woods continue to be abundant. 
 By this system, also, forest culture becomes profitable. It is 
 partly due to the encouragement received from the success in 
 Germany, that forest reservations have been established in 
 various parts of the United States, and schools of forestry 
 founded, as in New York, for the purpose of studying how to 
 care properly for our woods. 
 
G EBMA N EM PIE E 
 
 285 
 
 Agriculture and Grazing. — On the whole, Germany has 
 not a fertile soil ; but the farm products are very exten- 
 sive, because the people are both industrious and intelli- 
 gent, and their method of cultivating the soil is excellent. 
 What countries may well be contrasted with them in this 
 respect ? 
 
 More than one-third of the population are de- 
 pendent for their living upon agriculture, the leading 
 
 Fig. 191. 
 
 A view on the Rhine at Bingen. Notice the opposite bank where the earth has 
 been terraced so that even the hill slope may be used for vineyards. 
 
 industry of the nation. Germany is one of the most 
 important grain-producing countries of Europe ; but 
 here rye replaces wheat as the principal grain. Potatoes, 
 introduced from America, are raised in such quantities 
 that, like rye, they form one of the principal foods. 
 These two crops are extensively cultivated, both because 
 they are a cheap food, and because they flourish in the 
 light soil and cool summer climate, characteristic of so 
 
286 EUROPE 
 
 much of Germany. Sugar beets, hay, oats, and barley are 
 other important crops of the northern plains, while in the 
 Rhine and other warm, sheltered valleys of the south, 
 hops, tobacco, and grapes are raised in large quantities. 
 
 Since much of the lowland is too sandy for cultivation, and 
 much of the highland too rugged, it is not surprising that one- 
 sixth of all the surface consists of natural pasture. Cattle for 
 beef and for dairy purposes are kept in nearly all parts of the 
 empire, but .especially in the damper climate of the west. Con- 
 trary to the condition in most countries, sheep are less numer- 
 ous than cattle. The number of sheep is decreasing because 
 wool may be so cheaply imported; but swine have greatly 
 increased, largely because of the cheap food supplied by ref- 
 use from the beet sugar factories, which have been increasing 
 in number (p. 288). 
 
 Mining. — Next to Great Britain, Germany is the great- 
 est mining country of Europe ; and, as in the United 
 Kingdom, her most valuable minerals, coal and iron, often 
 occur in the same region. Germany and Belgium together 
 produce more zinc than all the rest of the world ; and nearly 
 half the silver obtained in Europe is mined in Germany. 
 Much lead and copper also come from Germany. 
 
 This country resembles our own in the wide distribution of 
 its coal beds. The coal fields that were found in Belgium and 
 northeastern France (p. 227) extend into Germany in the 
 neighborhood of Aachen ; and from this point eastward to the 
 Russian border there are several important coal fields. 
 
 There are also immense salt mines, as at Stassfurt, north- 
 west of Halle, from which are obtained not only table salt, but 
 products used in the manufacture of soap, in dyeing, bleach- 
 ing, glass making, and calico printing. The Germans employ 
 thoroughly scientific methods in their mining work ; and it is 
 from them that other nations have learned many of the meth- 
 ods which are employed in reducing ores to metal. 
 
GERMAN EMPIRE 287 
 
 Manufacturing. — From the above facts we may expect 
 to find Germany a great manufacturing country, with her 
 manufacturing centres well distributed. Explain why. 
 
 About a third of the inhabitants are dependent upon 
 manufacturing, and in recent years Germany has so ad- 
 vanced in this industry that she now ranks next to the 
 United Kingdom in the quantity and excellence of her goods. 
 
 The distribution of the coal and iron gives the key to 
 the principal centres for iron manufacturing. The busi- 
 est section is along the Rhine, in the vicinity of Cologne, 
 which may well be compared with northern England in 
 the extent of its industries (p. 188). A second centre is 
 about Dresden and Chemnitz, and a third at Breslau 
 in the southeastern corner of the empire. 
 
 As in other countries that we have studied, the textile 
 industries are best developed near the coal fields. There- 
 fore the sections mentioned above are distinguished for 
 cotton, woollen, and silk factories as well as for iron. 
 
 The extensive forests partly account for a third occupa- 
 tion of many sections, namely the manufacture of furni- 
 ture, paper, and other materials made of wood. 
 
 An excellent illustration of the fact that the Germans use 
 scientific methods in their manufacturing, as in other indus- 
 tries, is found in their manufacture of dyestuffs. They have 
 discovered how to make dyes from mineral products so cheaply 
 that the expensive vegetable dyes formerly in use have been 
 practically abandoned. This is of importance in the manufac- 
 ture of various kinds of colored textiles. 
 
 The map (Fig. 200) shows no cities south of Breslau ; yet 
 a busy manufacturing centre exists there. The explanation 
 is that the people carry on this work largely in their own 
 homes, instead of in factories. Living in a hilly country, 
 where agriculture is not very profitable, they spin and weave 
 
288 EUROPE 
 
 the flax and wool raised, near by. They also make lace and 
 carve wood ; but, although villages stretch for miles along the 
 valleys, there are no large towns. 
 
 The manufacture of spirituous liquors is another prominent 
 German industry. A portion of the immense potato crop is 
 made into spirits, and also some of the beets. But beer, in 
 which barley and hops are used, is the common beverage. 
 From the grapes of southern Germany much wine is manu- 
 factured, though not nearly so much as in France. 
 
 The sugar beet has led to still another noted German indus- 
 try. The ancient Greeks and Romans knew nothing of sugar, 
 and in fact the people of Europe knew little about it until 
 about two centuries ago. Then they began to import sugar 
 from countries whose hot, moist climate and fertile soil were 
 favorable to the cultivation of sugar cane. At present the 
 leading countries for the production of sugar cane are the 
 West Indies, Java, the lower Mississippi near New Orleans, 
 and the Hawaiian and Philippine islands. In those places the 
 cane is grown for the sake of its sap, which, by boiling, is 
 converted into brown sugar and the by-product, molasses. 
 
 For a long time nearly all sugar was obtained from sugar 
 cane, although maple trees supplied a small amount ; but 
 German chemists found a means of extracting sugar from 
 beets. By improving the process, and by developing the 
 beets until they contained more sugar, the great industries 
 of sugar beet raising, and the refining of beet root sugar, 
 have been made possible. Each year this source of sugar 
 has been proving a more formidable rival to sugar cane, 
 until now a large part of the sugar consumed in Europe, 
 and even some of that used in North America, is obtained 
 from sugar beets. One important reason why this industry 
 has thrived is that sugar beets grow in a cool temperate 
 climate where population is dense and markets are 
 numerous. 
 
GERMAN EMPIRE 
 
 289 
 
 Formerly Germany had to rely upon foreigners for sugar ; 
 but since the development of this industry, beet sugar has 
 become one of its greatest exports. Nevertheless, the popu- 
 lation is so dense and so many are engaged in manufactur- 
 ing, that, like the 
 British, the Ger- 
 mans cannot raise 
 all the food they 
 need. Therefore 
 
 much food, such as 
 wheat and meat, as 
 well as raw materi- 
 als for manufacture, 
 such as cotton, wool, 
 and silk, must come 
 from abroad. 
 
 Germany's Rapid 
 Advance. — No Eu- 
 ropean country in 
 the last quarter of a 
 century has experi- 
 enced such rapid 
 growth as Germany. 
 For example, in the 
 twenty-five years 
 preceding 1895 her 
 increase in popula- 
 tion was over 11,000,000, while France had an increase of 
 only 2,500,000. The empire has had a corresponding gain 
 in wealth. 
 
 Undoubtedly the strong central government established 
 in 1871, and with it the laying* aside of the petty jeal- 
 
 Fig. 192. 
 
 Storks at Strassburg, — a familiar bird in Ger- 
 many which builds nests on the chimneys. 
 
GERMAN EMPIRE 291 
 
 ousies that paralyzed industries, is one cause of this ad- 
 vance. But there are many other causes, of which one 
 of the most influential is education and the encourage- 
 ment of science. Every German child is forced by law 
 to attend school ; and careful attention is given to the 
 study of the various industries, foreign products, lan- 
 guages, etc. In the higher commercial and technical 
 schools, young men obtain excellent preparation for vari- 
 ous kinds of business, while in many other countries there 
 is little or no provision for such education. 
 
 The value of scientific work is fully recognized and 
 encouraged by the government ; and that such encourage- 
 ment is profitable to the nation is proved by the wonderful 
 development of the sugar industry, the mines, and the 
 factories. Not many years ago much of the manufacturing 
 was done by hand ; but now the best machinery has been 
 introduced, and Germany is one of the three leading manu- 
 facturing nations of the world. Name the other two. 
 
 Coupled with the advantage of an excellent education is the 
 fact that Germans live less extravagantly than many people. 
 They economize in their food and their clothing; for instance, 
 the people as a whole eat the cheap black bread, made of 
 rye, instead of the more expensive wheat bread. Thus they 
 learn to save money, even on a small income ; and this is one 
 of the reasons why Germans prosper in business, both at home 
 and abroad, where others have failed. 
 
 The construction of railway tunnels through the Alps, 
 thereby improving communication with the Mediterranean, is 
 another important cause of progress. Explain how. 
 
 Colonies and Emigrants. — The recent acquisition of foreign 
 territory is an indication of the growth of Germany. The 
 empire is now in possession of extensive areas in the island of 
 New Guinea, north of Australia, and in both east and west 
 Africa, as well as smaller colonies elsewhere (Fig. 193). 
 
292 EUROPE 
 
 Many Germans have emigrated to various parts of the New 
 World. Fully five million emigrants have come to the United 
 States within the last seventy-five years, while the British 
 Isles have sent us not quite seven million. Naturally many 
 of the German emigrants to other countries have kept up trade 
 with their fatherland, and have theieby increased the commerce 
 of Germany. 
 
 Principal Cities and their Commerce 
 
 After the preceding- statements, it may not be surpris- 
 ing to learn that the leading German cities have expe- 
 rienced as rapid a growth as those of America. In the 
 twenty years between 1870 and 1890, for example, Berlin 
 had a more rapid growth than New York, and added as 
 many actual new residents as Chicago. In 1875 Boston 
 had almost a hundred thousand more inhabitants than 
 Hamburg ; but now Hamburg has nearly a hundred 
 thousand more than Boston. Other German cities have 
 increased, and are still increasing, in population at much 
 the same rate. 
 
 Berlin. — The position of Berlin, on a small river (Fig. 
 196) on the North German plain, midway between the 
 coast and the highlands, may not at first seem advanta- 
 geous. But the Oder and some of the tributaries of the 
 Elbe approach so near each other in this section that they 
 have easily been united by canal. Thus Berlin has water 
 connection with both Hamburg and Stettin, as well as 
 with all parts of these two river systems, — a very impor- 
 tant aid in obtaining fuel, food, etc., for the city. Observe 
 also (Fig. 200) that Berlin lies on the direct route from 
 Hamburg to Breslau, and from Stettin to Leipzig, and that 
 other large cities surround it. It is, moreover, on the 
 
GERMAN EMPIRE 
 
 293 
 
 route of several great European railways, and is therefore 
 one of the important railway centres of the continent. 
 
 With such excellent connections, by water and by rail, 
 Berlin has naturally become one of the great manufactur- 
 ing cities. Fully half the residents are supported by this 
 industry, which includes brewing, the manufacture of fancy 
 
 Fig. 194. 
 The Dresden Art Museum. 
 
 articles, clothing, machinery, etc. Besides being the 
 capital of Prussia and of the German Empire, Berlin is 
 the centre of German banking. It is noted for its art and 
 music, and for its great university, the largest in the 
 empire. There are a number of suburbs, one being 
 Potsdam (Fig. 196), the German " Versailles," in which 
 are located several royal palaces. 
 
294 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Interior Cities near Berlin. — Among the cities not far 
 from Berlin is Leipzig, the fourth largest in the empire. 
 It is situated at the junction of two small streams at a 
 point where roads from the highland meet those from the 
 lowland. Formerly it was a centre for wagon roads, 
 and now it has naturally become a railway centre. Owing 
 to its favorable position, Leipzig is, next to Berlin, the 
 
 most important 
 trade centre of 
 Germany. One 
 of its leading 
 articles of com- 
 merce is fur. It 
 is the seat of a 
 noted univer- 
 sity, and a cen- 
 t r e for the 
 German book- 
 trade. 
 
 Dresden, 
 southeast of 
 Leipzig, is 
 noted for its art 
 museum (Fig. 
 194), which ri- 
 vals the Louvre 
 of Paris. The 
 beautiful Dresden china is made in this vicinity, and in 
 recent years much manufacturing has developed, for Dres- 
 den is situated on a navigable river and has coal near at 
 hand. It is, moreover, the capital of Saxony, the most 
 densely settled German state. 
 
 Fig. 195. 
 A German residence. 
 
>^ JUSG 1" K 1TN" f \ 
 
 Fig. 196. 
 Berlin and vicinity. 
 
296 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Chemnitz, near by, has important textile industries ; and 
 Halle and Magdeburg, farther to the northwest, and in the 
 centre of the chief beet-growing area, are extensively engaged 
 in the manufacture of sugar. 
 
 Breslau, only a little smaller than Leipzig, is on a navi- 
 gable river, and has the advantage of being near a very rich 
 
 coal and iron 
 field. It is, there- 
 fore, a great 
 manufacturing 
 city, and its sit- 
 uation near the 
 frontier makes 
 it an important 
 market for east- 
 ern and central 
 Europe. 
 
 Seaports. — 
 Hamburg, 
 which is larger 
 than St. Louis, 
 is the second 
 city in Germany, and the most important seaport on the 
 continent. The reasons for this are clear when it is known 
 that the estuary of the Elbe (Fig. 196) makes an excel- 
 lent harbor, usually free from ice, and that Germany has 
 an extensive foreign trade. Name some articles which 
 that port probably receives from the United States. 
 What water connections has Hamburg with the in- 
 terior ? 
 
 Bremen and Stettin also admit large vessels, and are the 
 chief rivals of Hamburg ; but they together have less than one- 
 
 Fig. 197. 
 A castle on the Rhine. 
 
GERMAN EMPIRE 
 
 297 
 
 half as much commerce as Hamburg. In what respects are 
 they less favorably situated for commerce than Hamburg ? 
 
 Name other Baltic ports besides Stettin. Which is a natural 
 outlet for wheat 
 from Russian Po- 
 land ? Estimate 
 the distance saved 
 to the Baltic 
 ports by the con- 
 struction of the 
 Kaiser Wilhelm 
 canal, which is 
 sixty-one miles 
 in length. 
 
 Cities along the 
 Rhine. — The 
 
 Rhine, the most 
 important river 
 of Germany, is 
 often compared 
 with the Hudson 
 in scenery. 
 
 Both rivers 
 have parts that 
 are shut in by 
 high, rocky cliffs, 
 well wooded to 
 the top. But the 
 Rhine is much 
 narrower than the 
 Hudson, so that 
 
 Fig. 198. 
 The Cologne Cathedral, one of the most beautiful 
 Gothic edifices in the world, was begun in 1248 and 
 completed in 1880. 
 
 these walls seem loftier ; and since the stream is more wind- 
 ing, they often stand out boldly, as if in the very path of 
 boats, to bar their further progress. When one journeys 
 
298 EUROPE 
 
 along the more beautiful portion, a fine old castle — perhaps in 
 ruins, or possibly still kept up as a palatial residence (Fig. 197) 
 — often comes into view, as a turn in the course reveals an 
 especially bold cliff. Frequently one sees several such re- 
 minders of the past from a single point on the river. There are 
 many terraced vineyards on the sloping hillsides (Fig. 191), and 
 likewise many a quaint village built on a narrow strip of flood 
 plain between the river and the cliff. Since the Rhine receives 
 more large tributaries than the Hudson, there are more wild 
 glens on the sides and more broad, wooded valleys, which open 
 up charming views from the river. 
 
 In regard to the distribution of cities along its banks, the 
 Rhine offers still further contrast to the Hudson. The latter 
 has a large population at only two points ; namely, near its 
 mouth, where there are millions of people, and about one hun- 
 dred and fifty miles to the north, where Albany, Troy, and 
 Cohoes are situated. Between Yonkers (just above New York 
 City) and Albany there is not a city with twenty-five thousand 
 inhabitants. The Rhine, on the other hand, while having no 
 enormous collection of people at any one point, has many popu- 
 lous cities distributed along its course. What have you already 
 learned about Rotterdam at its mouth ? How does it compare 
 with New York City in size ? 
 
 On ascending the river into Germany we come to the 
 great manufacturing region already mentioned (p. 287). 
 What cities do you find there? Cologne, the largest, 
 with a population of more than a third of a million, is 
 directly on the river bank. It is a great shipping point, 
 since railways cross the river, and boats from London and 
 other places are able to ascend to this point. 
 
 Elberfeld and Barmen have important textile manufac- 
 tories ; Essen is famous for the Krupp steel works ; Krefeld 
 is an important silk manufacturing town ; Aachen (Aix-la- 
 Chapelle in French) manufactures woollen cloth. 
 
GERMAN EMPIRE 
 
 299 
 
 Just beyond the great bend in the Rhine is Frank- 
 fort, on a navigable tributary, the Main, along which lies 
 the easiest route from the Rhine valley to the Danube. 
 Since the railway from the German plain to the upper 
 Rhine passes Frankfort, it is a centre of important trade 
 
 Fig. 199. 
 A scene in Frankfort. 
 
 routes, and therefore one of the leading trading and 
 banking centres in western Germany. It has long been 
 a prominent city, and was the capital of the old German 
 Confederation (p. 279). 
 
 Railways to the Danube pass through Munich, the 
 capital of the kingdom of Bavaria. Although so far to 
 the south, and so distant from coal, Munich is the third 
 city in size in the realm. It is on the trade routes from 
 
300 EUROPE 
 
 Germany to Italy and to Austria, and is accordingly an 
 important railway centre. Much of its renown is due to 
 its art collections and its art industries, such as work in 
 bronze, gold, silver, glass painting, and porcelain manufac- 
 turing. 
 
 North of Munich, on the road to Berlin, is Nuremberg, a 
 city widely known for its careful preservation of the old art 
 and architecture that made it famous in former centuries, and 
 for its present manufacture of toys. It is a centre for several 
 railways, and one of the most rapidly growing German cities. 
 
 Review Questions. — Give (1) the area of Germany; (2) the 
 population ; (3) the boundaries. (4) What advantage does Ger- 
 many's position give her for European trade? Tell about (5) the 
 early inhabitants; (6) the government; (7) preparation for war; 
 (8) physiography; (9) rainfall; (10) temperature; (11) forests; 
 (12) agriculture; (13) grazing; (14) mining; (15) manufacturing. 
 (16) Give some of the causes for Germany's recent advance. (17) What 
 about the growth of German cities ? Tell (18) about Berlin ; (19) cities 
 near Berlin ; (20) the seaports. (21) Compare the Rhine with the 
 Hudson. (22) What about cities along its banks? (23) Give reasons 
 for the importance of Munich. 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Look in an atlas to find in what part of the 
 empire the larger states, such as Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, etc., are 
 situated. (2) People often assert that the peace of Europe is pre- 
 served by extensive preparation for war ; in what sense can this be 
 true ? (3) What must be some of the benefits of two years of active 
 training in the army, aside from preparation for war ? What some of 
 the disadvantages ? What relation has this to emigration ? (4) What 
 is the size of our standing army? W T hy so small? (5) What seaports 
 of Europe most nearly approach Hamburg in size? (6) How may the 
 Kaiser Wilhelm canal possibly prove an injury to Hamburg? (7) Show 
 that Germany in her industries resembles Great Britain, while con- 
 trasting with Russia and Norway. (8) Find out something about 
 Goethe, Schiller, Humboldt, Emperor William the First, Bismarck, 
 Von Moltke, Wagner, and Schumann. (9) Read about Martin Luther 
 and the German Reformation. 
 
Fig. 200. 
 
XVII. SWITZERLAND 
 
 Map Questions (Fig. 200). — (1) What countries surround 
 Switzerland ? (2) From which one is it least completely separated by 
 mountains ? (3) What large rivers rise among the Alps ? In what 
 directions do they flow? (4) Notice the lakes among the Alps. (5) 
 How does the area of Switzerland compare with that of your own 
 state? (6) What reasons can you suggest for so small a nation 
 remaining independent in the midst of powerful countries? 
 
 Physiography and Climate. — This is a very mountain- 
 ous country (Figs. Ill and 203-205), for the Jura 
 Mountains are on the northwestern border, while the 
 Alps occupy the southern half. Between these two 
 mountain systems, which extend northeast and southwest, 
 is a low, hilly plateau, from one to two thousand feet in 
 altitude. About one-third of Switzerland is included in 
 the plateau belt. \ln so rugged a country one would not 
 expect to find a large population ; yet Switzerland is 
 almost as densely settled as France, and much more so 
 than the state of New York. 
 
 It is evident that the temperature of this mountainous 
 country must be low, and that it must vary greatly with 
 the altitude. This is well illustrated in the Alps, at whose 
 base are found chestnut and walnut trees, which are re- 
 placed higher up by beech, maple, and other trees of the cool 
 temperate zones, and still higher by a belt of evergreens. 
 Above these come dwarfed trees, shrubs, grass, etc. ; and 
 higher still, at an average elevation of about nine thou- 
 sand feet above sea level, the snow line is reached. 
 
 301 
 
302 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 The numerous lofty mountains, rising in the path of the pre- 
 vailing westerlies, cause Switzerland to be one of the wettest 
 
 countries on the 
 continent. On 
 the higher moun- 
 tains much snow 
 falls, and, sliding 
 down the moun- 
 tain sides in the 
 form of ava- 
 lanches, it gath- 
 ers in the valleys 
 to produce 
 streams of ice, or 
 glaciers (Fig. 
 201). These move 
 slowly down the 
 valleys until they 
 reach a point be- 
 low the snow line 
 where the ice 
 melts . They 
 Fig. 201. there deposit 
 
 A glacier in the Swiss Alps. terminal mo- 
 
 raines, which, 
 though smaller, resemble the moraines made by the conti- 
 nental glaciers of the Ice Age. The Rhone and many other 
 rivers are supplied with water by the melting of the Alpine 
 glaciers. 
 
 People and Government. — People who dwell among 
 mountains develop a spirit of independence, as is illus- 
 trated by the story of William Tell. Thus we find that, 
 as early as 1291, an agreement was made among a few of 
 the small Swiss states, or cantons, for mutual protection 
 against oppression. Many a time since then foreigners 
 
SWITZERLAND 
 
 303 
 
 have attempted to conquer the Swiss ; but aided by the 
 
 difficult approaches to their country, and by the mountain 
 
 fastnesses to which they could retreat, they have been 
 
 able to maintain their freedom, 
 
 although the entire area of 
 
 the country is only one-third 
 
 that of Pennsylvania. Their 
 
 twenty-two, cantons, united 
 
 somewhat as are our own states, 
 
 now constitute a republic, whose 
 
 neutrality is guaranteed by the 
 
 Great Powers of Europe. 
 
 But while there is one stable 
 government, there is not one com- 
 mon language. The country is 
 most open toward the north, for 
 the plateau of Switzerland merges 
 into that of Germany. Naturally, 
 therefore, German-speaking people 
 are most abundant, making up 72 
 per cent of the population. The 
 approach from France is much 
 more difficult, and the French 
 population constitutes only 22 
 per cent of the whole, while but 
 5 per cent speak Italian. 
 
 Fig. 202. 
 A Swiss peasant costume. 
 
 Farming. — Owing to the 
 mountainous condition, only 
 one acre in nine is fit for the plough. Yet agriculture is 
 the principal industry. On the lower lands grain, grapes, 
 and the silk- worm are raised, as in the neighboring coun- 
 tries ; and on the lower mountains dairy-farming is impor- 
 tant, as might be expected. The population is so dense, 
 
304 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 however, that much food must be imported, though some 
 products, such as cheese and condensed milk, are exported. 
 Manufacturing. — Switzerland is very poor in mineral 
 deposits, and coal is entirely lacking. This scarcity of 
 raw materials would suggest that there is little manufac- 
 turing, but the inference is false. That the Swiss possess 
 marked mechanical skill is indicated by the remarkable 
 wood carving for which they have long been noted. Like 
 
 A view of Lake Lucerne. The wall on the left bounds a road which is cut in 
 the rock on the mountain side. 
 
 New Englanders, in spite of the absence of coal, cotton, 
 and ore deposits, they have engaged extensively in the 
 manufacture of light articles, such as textile goods, jewel- 
 lery, etc. 
 
 Some other facts, too, are favorable to the Swiss. Owing 
 to the steep slopes, and to the plentiful supply of water from 
 the snow-covered mountains, water power is so abundant that 
 Switzerland is taking a leading place in the use of such power 
 for the generation of electricity. 
 
 Also, while nature presents great obstacles to internal 
 
SWITZERLAND 
 
 305 
 
 commerce, excellent materials for road building are every- 
 where present ; and Switzerland, unlike Russia, takes pride in 
 its especially fine roads (Fig. 203). Further than that, the com- 
 mercial position 
 of Switzerland is 
 advantageous, 
 since it is entirely 
 surrounded by 
 densely populated 
 countries which 
 supply raw ma- 
 terials and fur- 
 nish a market for 
 manuf act ur ed 
 goods. The influ- 
 ence of the latter 
 fact upon the cities 
 is very marked. 
 
 Leading Cities. 
 
 — The largest 
 
 city, Zurich, on 
 
 Lake Zurich, is 
 
 an important 
 
 railway centre. 
 
 The St. Gothard 
 
 railway, which 
 
 runs northward 
 
 from Genoa and 
 
 Milan, connects 
 
 the city with Italy, while other railways bring it in touch 
 
 with France, Germany, and Austria. These roads are 
 
 especially important for the introduction of foods and 
 
 raw materials for manufacture. Therefore Zurich is the 
 
 centre of one of the principal manufacturing districts, 
 
 Fig. 204. 
 
 The Matterhorn peak, one of the steepest in Switzer- 
 land. 
 
306 EUROPE 
 
 t 
 
 and is itself especially noted for the manufacture of silks, 
 cotton, and machinery. 
 
 The St. Gothard Tunnel, from which the railway takes its 
 name, is the longest tunnel in the world, and is a marvel of 
 engineering skill. Before reaching the main tunnel several 
 smaller ones are entered, through which the train winds in a 
 spiral course, so that once or twice a passenger comes out of 
 the mountain almost directly over the point where he entered 
 it ; and in some cases he can see, far below him, two places, 
 one above the other, at which the train entered to follow its 
 spiral course in the mountain rock. This method of construc- 
 tion is rendered necessary because the grade is so steep that a 
 train could not be drawn directly up a straight track. The 
 main tunnel, which is nine and one-fourth miles long, is quite 
 straight. Since silk-making is the chief manufacturing indus- 
 try in Switzerland, this tunnel, by opening connection with 
 the raw silk market of northern Italy, has greatly aided in its 
 development. The value of such tunnels is further indicated 
 by the fact that, notwithstanding the great expense, another, 
 the Simplon Tunnel, is now being built a short distance west 
 of the St. Gothard. 
 
 Basel, which, with its suburbs, forms the second 
 centre of population in Switzerland, is the busiest railway 
 point in the country. It is on the main line of the St. 
 Gothard railway, and on the Rhine where it enters Ger- 
 many from Switzerland. Why is its position, near both 
 France and Germany, favorable to manufacturing- ? 
 
 Geneva, situated on the southwestern end of Lake 
 Geneva, where the Rhone enters France, is a noted educa- 
 tional centre. It is on a very ancient and important trade 
 route from southern France to Germany (p. 235), and 
 therefore has excellent railway connections. Water power 
 is much used in generating electricity for use in manufac- 
 
SWITZERLAND 307 
 
 turing, and the city has long been distinguished for the 
 manufacture of jewellery and scientific instruments. 
 
 Berne, the capital, is centrally located and an important 
 stronghold ; but because it has a less favorable situation for 
 commerce, it is a much smaller city than those mentioned. 
 
 These Swiss cities are situated upon the plateau because 
 the climate and soil are more favorable than among the 
 
 Fig. 205. 
 Lake Lucerne. 
 
 mountains, and because food and raw materials for manu- 
 facture are more easily brought there. Their commerce 
 is extensive, since they import much raw material and 
 pay for it by the export of manufactured goods and dairy 
 products. 
 
 Scenery and Tourists. — Many of the Swiss cities are beauti- 
 fully situated upon lakes, and within sight of mountain peaks 
 always covered by snow. Lucerne, for example, is surrounded 
 by most beautiful and varied scenery. The city is located 
 
308 EUROPE 
 
 upon the star-shaped Lake Lucerne, and lofty mountains rise 
 in the immediate neighborhood (Figs. 203 and 205). Mt. 
 Rigi is near by, from whose summit one obtains a magnificent 
 view of the lake, bordered by green meadows and numerous 
 villages over four thousand feet below, while in several direc- 
 tions, as far as the eye can reach, are the crests of stupendous, 
 jagged mountains. On account of such scenery Switzerland 
 is the most noted summer resort of Europe, and the entertain- 
 ment of visitors is one of the leading occupations of the people. 
 There are many hotels and fine roads ; and some of the lower 
 mountain tops may be reached by rail. Every summer many 
 Americans cross the ocean to enjoy the Swiss scenery. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) What are the principal physiographic 
 features? (2) How does the temperature vary ? (3) What about the 
 rainfall? (4) Tell about the glaciers. (5) Give reasons why the 
 Swiss have been able to maintain their independence. (6) What 
 about their language? (7) What about raw materials? (8) Give 
 reasons for the development of manufacturing. (9) For what is Zurich 
 important? (10) Tell about the St. Gothard Tunnel. (11) Tell about 
 («) Basel. (1>) Geneva, (c) Berne. (12) Why do so many tourists 
 visit Switzerland? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) What other factors besides altitude cause 
 great variety of climate in Switzerland ? (2) How T may the lakes 
 act as filters and regulators for the rivers? (3) The Rhone enters 
 Lake Geneva laden with sediment derived from the glaciers ; but it 
 leaves the lake clear of sediment. By such deposits extensive deltas 
 ai-e built in all of the lakes. Of what value is that fact ? (4) What 
 special reasons are there for giving particular attention to the study 
 of English and other foreign languages in the Swiss schools ? (5) Why 
 has Switzerland, unlike many European countries, not come into pos- 
 session of colonies ? (6) Find the meaning of referendum and 
 popular initiative in Swiss legislation. (7) W"hy should Switzerland 
 be selected as a place of refuge by persecuted people and political 
 refugees from other nations? (8) Why did Calvin take refuge in 
 Switzerland ? (9) Read that portion of the story of William Tell 
 which is supposed to have occurred about Lake Lucerne. (10) Find 
 out about Louis Agassiz : where born ; where he later lived ; and 
 what he did to establish his explanation of the Great Ice Age. 
 
XVIII. ITALY. 
 
 Map Questions (Fig. 200). — (1) Of what does the shape of Italy 
 remind you? (2) How does its latitude compare with that of 
 Spain? (3) What neighboring islands belong to it? (4) Point 
 out the principal river. (5) How are the lofty mountains in the 
 north likely to affect the climate ? (6) What countries border 
 Italy ? (7) What seas border the peninsula ? (8) How does its 
 position seem to be advantageous for commerce? 
 
 Extent and Position. — Italy is "the very heart of the 
 Mediterranean lands, and plays a great part as a link in 
 the chain of communication between northwestern Eu- 
 rope and the Far East." For example, mails from London 
 to India go by rail to Brindisi in southeastern Italy, and 
 thence by steamer. What countries in Africa lie nearest 
 to Italy? (Fig. 297). Estimate the distance to them. 
 
 The area of Italy, including the islands of Sicily and 
 Sardinia, is only a little greater than that of Colorado, 
 but its population is about 32,000,000. It is the smallest 
 of the six Great Powers, but is the most densely popu- 
 lated of any excepting the United Kingdom. Name the 
 Powers. 
 
 People and Government. — The inhabitants of Italy are a 
 mixture of many races. In early times, the central position 
 of the Italian peninsula was of importance in aiding the 
 government at Rome to control the lands bordering on 
 the Mediterranean sea. At that time people from the sur- 
 rounding lands of Europe, Asia, and Africa were brought to 
 the peninsula, often as slaves captured in war. Later, when 
 
 309 
 
310 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 the power of the Roman Empire was weakened, hordes of 
 barbarians invaded Itaty. Nevertheless, the permanent 
 settlers have invariably been won over to one language ; 
 
 and Italian, 
 which is a 
 growth out of 
 the speech of the 
 ancient Romans, 
 is now the uni- 
 versal tongue. 
 
 For centuries 
 after the fall of 
 Rome, Italy was 
 broken up into a 
 number of sepa- 
 rate and inde- 
 pendent king- 
 doms ; but here, 
 as in other coun- 
 tries, the ten- 
 dency of recent 
 times has been 
 toward unity. In 
 1860 several of the independent states united to form the 
 kingdom of Italy ; and later others were added until, in 
 1870, or about the same time that the German Empire was 
 formed (p. 279), the present kingdom was established 
 with Rome as its capital. Like most of the European 
 countries, Italy is governed by a limited, or constitutional, 
 monarchy. 
 
 Physiography and Climate. — The Italian peninsula is 
 mountainous throughout most of its extent. In the north 
 
 Fig. 206. 
 An Italian girl carrying charcoal. 
 
ITALY 
 
 311 
 
 are the Alps, some of whose highest peaks are on the 
 boundary line between Italy and Switzerland. The 
 Alpine ranges curve around in northwestern Italy and 
 join the Appen- 
 nines, which ex- 
 tend the entire 
 length of the 
 peninsula and 
 form its very 
 backbone. The 
 principal low- 
 lands, therefore, 
 are the narrow 
 coastal plains 
 and the Po 
 valley. 
 
 We think of 
 Italy as a sunny 
 land of flowers, 
 
 although Milan and Venice are on nearly the same parallel 
 as Montreal. One reason for the pleasant climate is that 
 the lofty Alps form a great wall which cuts off the cold 
 north winds. Another reason is that the peninsula is 
 under the equalizing influence of the Mediterranean, whose 
 waters have a temperature of over 50°. On these accounts 
 the Italian winters are mild, and in the extreme south the 
 temperature seldom falls to the freezing point. 
 
 Much of Italy has an abundance of rain ; but, excepting 
 in the north, the greater part comes in winter. The sum- 
 mer drought is due to the fact that the horse latitude belt 
 moves northward in summer (p. 34) ; therefore southern 
 Italy at that season resembles southern Spain in climate. 
 
 Fig. 207. 
 An Italian team at Naples. 
 
312 EUROPE 
 
 Italy has more rainfall than Spain, partly because it is 
 farther north and partly because of the differences in the high- 
 lands. Notice (Fig. 172) that while nearly half of Spain is 
 south of the fortieth parallel, only the southern part of Italy 
 reaches below that parallel. Therefore, the influence of the 
 horse latitudes is felt much less in Italy than in Spain. We 
 learned (p. 241) that the highlands of Spain caused the vapor 
 of the ocean winds to condense on their slopes, and that the 
 interior was therefore dry. But the Appennine highlands of 
 Italy are near the centre, and thus cause rain on both sides of 
 the peninsula. The slopes of the Alps likewise influence the 
 rain, causing the heaviest rainfall in the north. Thus in 
 many parts of Italy there is moisture enough for farming. 
 
 Agriculture. — Such a climate, together with a fertile 
 soil, helps to explain why agriculture is the principal 
 industry in Italy. Among the products are many that 
 thrive in semi-tropical climates, as well as others that are 
 common in the countries of northern Europe. The cli- 
 mate is so favorable that, by the aid of irrigation, from 
 four to ten crops may be raised in a year. 
 
 The most extensive farming district is the Po basin. Long- 
 before the dawn of human history this valley was merely an 
 arm of the Adriatic Sea ; but as centuries passed, it was partly 
 filled with sediment brought by the many mountain streams. 
 The Po is even now building its delta out into the Adriatic (Fig. 
 200). By an uplift of the sea bottom this region was finally 
 changed to dry land. How does this history compare with 
 that of the South American plains ? (p. 99). These plains of 
 the Po valley are very fertile, and there is an abundance of 
 rainfall ; yet the people depend upon irrigation more exten- 
 sively than in any other part of Europe. 
 
 There are several reasons for such extensive irrigation. In 
 the first place the fact that the tributaries have their sources 
 in the mountains, and often in the glaciers and snows of the 
 
ITALY 
 
 313 
 
 Alps, insures a permanent supply of water to the gently slop- 
 ing land. Besides this, the rivers frequently flow through 
 lakes — some of them among the most beautiful in the world 
 — which act as great reservoirs for water supply. 
 
 At one season of the year these streams rise in flood. Ex- 
 plain why. Since the floods would devastate the country un- 
 less they were controlled, dikes are common here as in 
 
 Fig. 208. 
 
 A herd of goats in the streets of Naples. These are driven ahout the city, 
 and even into the houses, to he milked. 
 
 Holland. Diking not only prevents the water from spreading 
 over the plains, but it also checks the rivers from depositing 
 their load of sediment there, as was formerly done. Some of 
 the sediment is therefore left in the river beds, which are 
 thus slowly built up higher and higher. As a result, the dikes 
 must likewise be raised. Hence the lower Po, like the lower 
 Rhine, is higher than the surrounding land. 
 
 Where irrigation is so easy, the extensive cultivation 
 of rice is possible. This is an important crop in northern 
 
314 EUROPE 
 
 Italy, but corn and wheat are raised in still greater quan- 
 tities. Grapes are cultivated to such an extent that Italy 
 ranks second among the wine-producing countries of the 
 world ; and so many silk -worms are reared that raw silk 
 is the most valuable export of the country. Among the 
 other important products are eggs, which are exported in 
 large quantities ; also olives, oranges, lemons, flax, hemp, 
 and wool. 
 
 One great drawback to the proper development of agricul- 
 ture is the presence of broad, marshy tracts infested with 
 mosquitoes whose bite causes malaria. This is true to such 
 an extent in the southern half of the country, that vast areas 
 have been abandoned, although they are adapted for irrigation 
 and have a fertile soil and a warm climate. It is stated that 
 two-thirds of the railway officials in Sicily are attacked by the 
 fever every summer, and that one-sixth of the entire popula- 
 tion of Italy suffers from it. It is not to be wondered at, 
 therefore, that the Italian government is seriously considering 
 what steps may be taken to drain the swamps. 
 
 Some of the mountain slopes are also unsuited to agricul- 
 ture ; but they often form excellent pasture land, to which the 
 animals are driven in summer. There are extensive forest 
 tracts under government supervision, as in Germany. Among 
 the important Italian trees is the chestnut, which is planted 
 in groves for the nuts, which are used as a food by the poor. 
 
 Mining and Fishing. — The fact that the rocks of the Italian 
 peninsula have been formed in recent geological times accounts 
 for the general absence of valuable minerals. There is a little 
 iron, zinc, and copper ore ; but the most important mineral 
 product is the sulphur of Sicily ; indeed, until a few years ago 
 this island produced most of the sulphur used in the world. 
 Another important mineral product is marble, of such rare 
 beauty that it is prized the world over. 
 
 Fishing is also important; but the fish of the Mediterranean 
 are quite different from those of the North Atlantic. Among 
 
ITALY 
 
 315 
 
 the peculiar products of the sea are precious coral and sponges. 
 You will remember that we found sponge fishing important 
 also among the Bahama Islands east of Florida. 
 
 Manufacturing. — As 
 in Switzerland, electri- 
 city generated by water 
 power supplies the 
 place of coal to some 
 extent. Consequently 
 there is more manufac- 
 turing than one might 
 infer from the lack of 
 fuel. While much raw 
 silk is produced, and 
 there is some silk man- 
 ufacturing, a large part 
 of the silk is sent to 
 France, Switzerland, 
 and elsewhere, to be 
 made into cloth. There 
 are also factories for 
 woollen, cotton, and flax 
 weaving, and for other 
 purposes. 
 
 Most European coun- 
 tries take pride in their 
 
 fine art galleries ; but Italy far surpasses them all and is the 
 very storehouse of art, whether architecture, painting, or sculp- 
 ture be considered. Accordingly, the characteristic manufac- 
 tured articles are those of an artistic nature, as glass work, 
 lace, earthenware, statuary, wood carving, coral carving, and 
 straw plaiting. In what other country have we found that the 
 artistic taste of the people greatly affects their manufactures ? 
 
 Fig. 209. 
 
 The leaning tower of Pisa, which has become 
 tilted because of settling on one side. 
 
316 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Principal Cities. — Estimate the average width of the 
 Italian peninsula. Since it possesses many excellent har- 
 bors, we may 
 
 expect to find 
 numerous large 
 cities along the 
 coast, as in Great 
 Britain. 
 
 Najjles and 
 Vicinity. — The 
 most populous 
 city is Naples 
 (Figs. 207 and 
 208) in the 
 southern part of 
 the peninsula. 
 The semicircu- 
 lar bay on which 
 it is situated presents one of the most magnificent sights in 
 the world. On the northwest is the city itself,- — about the 
 size of Boston, — rising upon an amphitheatre of hills ; 
 toward the east is Mt. Vesuvius (Fig. 211), with the crests 
 of the Appennines in the distant background ; and on the 
 southeast is a steep, rocky coast, behind which are numer- 
 ous villages partly concealed among groves of orange, 
 lemon, and palm trees. 
 
 This is one of the most fertile sections of Italy, — thanks to 
 the ashes that have been thrown out of Vesuvius, — and the 
 agricultural population is one of the densest in Europe. The 
 harbor, too, is good, so that there is more shipping here than 
 at any other Italian port with the exception of Genoa. But 
 the secret of so large a city in this agricultural region is found 
 
 Fig. 210. 
 
 Gate of the Appian Way — one of the ruins of Ancient 
 Rome. 
 
ITALY 
 
 317 
 
 partly in the peculiar character of Italians, who feel a dread of 
 isolated homes such as are common throughout the farming 
 districts of the United States. Consequently they crowd into 
 the villages and cities, even though they must travel a long 
 distance to their field of work, or must suffer now and then 
 from extreme want. 
 
 Within plain sight of Naples stands Mt. Vesuvius, a cone of 
 lava and ashes nearly a mile in height, from whose crater vol- 
 
 Fig. 211. 
 A view of Vesuvius, with a part of Pompeii in the foreground. 
 
 umes of steam constantly pour forth. At the time of Christ the 
 slopes of this mountain were dotted with productive farms, 
 while thriving towns spread over the country at its base. But 
 in the year 79 an appalling eruption took place which com- 
 pletely buried Pompeii, Herculaneum, and many villages 
 beneath showers of ashes and streams of volcanic mud. Since 
 then many eruptions have been recorded, the last violent one 
 occurring in 1872. During the last half-century the buried 
 cities, especially Pompeii, have been unearthed at great labor 
 and cost. By these excavations much has been learned about 
 
318 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 the buildings and customs of the people who lived nearly two 
 thousand years ago. . 
 
 At present, tourists daily ascend to the top of Vesuvius. 
 There they see one of the most awful sights in the world when 
 they cautiously approach to the very edge of the crater — an 
 opening perhaps a fourth of a mile across — and peer down 
 
 Fig. 212. 
 
 The Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, where the Pope lives. 
 
 into the abyss. Reports like the thunderings of cannon come 
 from far below, and lumps of lava as large as a man's head are 
 often hurled upward. Not seldom lava lumps rise above the 
 mouth of the opening and fall here and there outside, making 
 one's visit all the more exciting by the slight danger of being hit. 
 
 Ancient and Modem Rome. — By far the most interest- 
 ing spot in Italy is Rome, the " Eternal City," long the 
 
ITALY 
 
 319 
 
 capital of the ancient world, afterward the capital of the 
 empire of the Popes, and now the capital of Italy. 
 
 The site of Rome was well chosen. It lay near the 
 centre of the Mediterranean, and near the centre of the 
 Italian peninsula as well. In that part of Italy the fertile 
 coastal plains are broad and are intersected by the Tiber, 
 
 Fig. 213. 
 Interior of St. Peter's. 
 
 the largest river of the country except the Po. In that 
 vicinity, also, the Appennines reach their highest altitude, 
 which insures abundant water supply for the Tiber and 
 for the plains. Moreover, the valley of the Tiber offers 
 one of the most convenient routes across the peninsula. 
 These are some of the advantages that attracted to ancient 
 Rome a population of fully a million, and caused the 
 
320 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 surrounding country to be thickly settled and carefully 
 tilled. 
 
 Now, however, the city contains less than half as many 
 inhabitants, while the neighboring plains for miles around, 
 though beautiful pasture land, have scarcely a tree or a house 
 upon them. The reason for this strange lack of suburban life 
 is the very prevalent malaria. At present, the country is of 
 use for little else than grazing ; and as soon as summer ap- 
 
 -'I : \\ CUD 
 -■ ■-,'-■ -;l..(.-.w- .fir' i- 1 
 
 ilftflltlftiii 
 
 .■ '-L-- ~L;.. _- H 
 
 Fig. 214. 
 Ruins of the Colosseum at Rome. 
 
 proaches even the herdsmen flee with their cattle and sheep 
 to the mountains. 
 
 The lower course of the Tiber has gradually become so 
 choked with sediment that it overflows easily; and drainage was 
 so neglected during the Middle Ages, when the petty war lords 
 of the neighborhood were fighting, that vast sums of money 
 would now be needed to free the lands from standing waters. 
 Even the city of Rome is flooded in its lower sections when 
 there is an unusual rise of the Tiber. 
 
 But while agriculture and commerce do not flourish near 
 Rome, fine residences, public buildings, art galleries, and not- 
 able ruins (Fig. 210) are numerous in the city. The dome of 
 
ITALY 
 
 321 
 
 
 ■ °^ 
 
 f^k 
 
 
 Aim 
 
 ^kjjjgjjjrr 
 
 St. Peter's (Fig. 213) — the largest and most famous church in 
 the world — towers above everything else ; and the Vatican, 
 where the Pope resides, is the largest palace in Christendom. 
 In the Vatican are some of the finest and most beautiful of 
 paintings (Fig. 212). 
 
 The ruins of ancient Rome vie in interest with these products 
 of later Rome, and cover so many acres that the city is almost 
 as much a tomb as 
 a living city. The 
 most conspicuous 
 relic of the past 
 is the Colosseum 
 (Fig. 214), a 
 huge, oval-shaped 
 theatre, open to 
 the sky, with 
 seats for forty or 
 fifty thousand 
 persons. In the 
 days of the Ro- 
 man Empire it was used to witness life and death struggles 
 between men, and between men and wild beasts. 
 
 The Forum is another extensive ruin within the city limits. 
 It was the great public square, on a lowland between some hills ; 
 but its monuments, arches, and other ornaments were covered 
 with rubbish during the centuries succeeding the fall of the 
 Empire. The excavation of this famous spot has not yet been 
 completed, whole buildings, as well as smaller objects, having 
 been buried in that locality. 
 
 Other Italian Cities. — With the exception of Rome and 
 Naples the large cities of the Italian peninsula are in 
 the northern part. The principal city south of Naples is 
 Palermo, the capital of Sicily, and about the size of 
 Detroit. It is situated in the midst of extensive fruit 
 groves. What fruits would you expect to find there ? 
 
 Fig. 215. 
 A view of a part of Venice. 
 
322 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 The first large city north of Rome is Florence, on 
 the western base of the Appennines at a junction of roads 
 
 across the moun- 
 tains. Straw 
 plaiting, mosaic 
 work, and silk 
 manufacturing 
 are important 
 Florentine in- 
 dustries ; and 
 the city is fa- 
 mous for its art 
 galleries. 
 
 Milan, the 
 third Italian 
 city in size, 
 owes its impor- 
 tance largely to 
 its location at 
 the crossing of 
 roads running 
 east and west in 
 the Po Valley, 
 and north and 
 south over the 
 Alps. Turin 
 has flourished 
 
 The " Bridge of Sighs " in Venice, across which prison- 
 ers were led to hear their sentence before being 
 thrown into a dungeon. 
 
 for a similar reason. From very early times these cities 
 have been important trade centres because of their location 
 at the crossing of trade routes in a fertile, "densely popu- 
 lated valley. The railways across the Alps (p. 306) have 
 greatly increased their importance. 
 
ITALY 323 
 
 Milan possesses a magnificent cathedral built of white 
 marble and adorned with one hundred and twenty-two spires 
 and over four thousand statues. On the wall of an old monas- 
 tery in Milan is Da Vinci's famous painting, "The Last Supper," 
 photographs of which are often seen in our homes. The city is 
 the centre of the silk trade, and manufactures much cutlery. 
 
 Genoa, although separated from the Po Valley by the 
 low Appennines, is the natural port of Milan and Turin. 
 Since it is a port of outlet for so fertile a region, and 
 is now connected with central Europe by railway (p. 305), 
 this city is the most important seaport in Italy. 
 
 The principal seaport of the Adriatic is Venice, one of 
 the most interesting European cities. When hordes of bar- 
 barians were invading Italy, some of the residents retreated 
 to a number of small islands in a lagoon, protected from 
 the sea waves by low sand bars. The people developed 
 into a hardy, independent race, largely through contact 
 with the sea. Their very position forced them to become 
 sailors ; and the site of their city was favorable for com- 
 merce between central Europe and the East. Protected 
 from attack by land, Venice rose in power, and with power 
 came wealth. Many beautiful houses, churches, palaces, 
 and museums are reminders of the ancient splendor ; but 
 the city has fallen, like Spain, partly through too much 
 wealth and corruption. 
 
 The city is built upon more than a hundred small islands, about 
 two and a half miles from the mainland, with which it is now 
 connected by railway. Naturally, canals take the place of 
 streets. There are one hundred and fifty canals, the main one, 
 or Grand Canal, being flanked on either side by fine residences, 
 whose steps lead down into the water. It is crossed by the 
 noted marble bridge, the Rialto, and has the beautiful church of 
 St. Mark, and the palace of the Doges, near one end. All together 
 
324 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 nearly four hundred bridges join the different islands, and 
 there are many narrow footpaths, but since the chief thorough- 
 fares are canals, 
 gondolas (Fig. 
 217) take the 
 place of wagons, 
 carriages, and 
 street cars. No 
 doubt thousands 
 of children in 
 that city have 
 never seen a 
 horse. 
 
 San Marino and 
 Malta. — San Ma- 
 rino, on the op- 
 posite side of the 
 peninsula from 
 Florence, a 1- 
 thou g h s u r- 
 rounded by lands 
 that belong to the 
 kingdom of Italy, 
 is, like Andorra 
 (p. 240), a tiny, independent republic. It is the oldest and 
 smallest republic in the world, and owes its independence 
 partly to the fact that the city is on a high hill and, therefore, 
 difficult to capture. 
 
 South of Sicily is the tiny island of Malta (Fig. 172), which, 
 like Gibraltar, belongs to Great Britain, and is strongly fortified. 
 
 Fig. 217. 
 
 A gondola in Venice — the ducal palace, or palace of 
 the Doges, is seen on the farther side. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) In what respects is Italy's position favor- 
 able? (2) What about the size of the peninsula? (3) Tell about 
 the origin of the people. (4) Tell about the government. (5) What 
 are the principal features of the physiography ? (6) What factors 
 equalize the temperature? (7) Tell about the rainfall. (8) What 
 crops are raised ? (9) Of what value is irrigation ? (10) What con- 
 
ITALY 325 
 
 ditions especially favor it in the Po Valley? (11) Name the leading 
 agricultural products. (12) What about malaria? (13) What min- 
 eral products come from Italy ? (14) What other raw products ? (15) 
 What is the condition of manufacturing? (16) Write from memory 
 a brief description of Naples and vicinity, including Vesuvius and 
 Pompeii. (17) Give the reasons for the location of Rome. (18) 
 AVhat changes have occurred since the days of the Roman Empire? 
 (19) Tell the principal facts about each of the other cities men- 
 tioned : (a) Palermo, (b) Florence, (c) Milan, (d) Turin, (e) Genoa, 
 (/) Venice. (20) What is said about San Marino and Malta? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Great Britain has a population of 330 persons 
 to the square mile ; Italy has 280. The riches of the former depend 
 largely upon her manufactures ; the latter has little manufacturing. 
 What suggestion do you see, therefore, as to the wealth of Italy? 
 (2) Why should Italy have been relatively much more important 
 in former times than now? (3) What colonies has Italy in eastern 
 Africa? Suggest reasons why Italy has so few colonies. (4) What 
 must have been the influence upon Genoa and Venice of the discovery 
 of the ocean route to India? Why? (5) What must have been the 
 influence of the opening of the Suez Canal? Why? (6) Would you 
 expect that Italy would have a large navy ? Find out how her navy 
 ranks with those of the other five Great Powers ; with that of the 
 United States. (7) Mention advantages and disadvantages of life in 
 Venice. (8) Mention some of the uses of sulphur. (9) What rea- 
 sons can you give for the peculiar occupations taken up by Italian 
 immigrants to this country? (10) Make a collection of the different 
 famous pictures of the Madonna. (11) Find out about the Catacombs 
 of Rome ; the Roads ; the Aqueducts. (12) Find out about some of 
 the ancient Romans and Roman customs. (13) Ask some lawyer 
 to tell you what influence Roman law has had upon our own law. 
 (14) Find some facts about Csesar, Cicero, Dante, and Garibaldi. 
 
XIX. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 
 
 Map Questions (Fig. 200, facing p. 301). — (1) Compare Austria- 
 Hungary with Germany in area. (2) Compare the two countries in 
 population. (3) Compare the two in number of large cities. In 
 which, therefore, would you expect to find most development ? 
 
 (4) About what proportion of the boundary is formed by water? 
 
 (5) What countries border this empire ? (6) How does its latitude 
 compare with that of France? Of Italy? (7) What portions are 
 mountainous? (8) What would you say about the variety of cli- 
 mate ? (9) What sections do not belong to the Dauube basin ? 
 
 Physiography and Climate. — A large proportion of the 
 
 boundary line of Austria- Hungary is determined by moun- 
 tain ranges. 
 Point out these 
 ranges. Notice 
 that the Russian 
 boundary ex- 
 tends across an 
 open plain. 
 This plain is 
 Austria's share 
 of Poland, a 
 kingdom which 
 once extended 
 from the Baltic 
 Sea to the Car- 
 pathian Moun- 
 tains. Poland 
 was conquered 
 and divided be- 
 
 Fig. 218. 
 
 „ A „ tween Austria, 
 
 A street in a small Alpine village of western 
 
 Austria. Prussia, and 
 
 326 
 
A USTRIA-H UNGAE Y 
 
 327 
 
 Russia, Austria receiving the smallest share and Russia 
 the largest. 
 
 Austria-Hungary is one of the most mountainous coun- 
 tries in Europe. It includes the eastern half of the Alps 
 (Fig. 218), besides several other ranges. These moun- 
 tains together form a circle enclosing a broad plain 
 (Fig. 219), through which the Danube River flows. At 
 two points this circle is completely broken : once near 
 Vienna, where the Danube enters the great Hungarian 
 
 Fig. 219. 
 The Danube where it 'flows through the Hungarian plain. 
 
 plain (Figs. 200 and 225), and again on the southeastern 
 boundary, where the river leaves the plain. 
 
 The Danube Valley is the great trade route of Austria- 
 Hungary, since it offers the best passageway through the 
 mountains. The fact that the river is navigable from 
 Germany to its mouth adds greatly to the value of this 
 route. On the southeastern border, where the river 
 passes through the mountains in a deep gorge (Fig. 220), 
 there is a point, known as the " Iron Gate," where the 
 water flows with rapid current ; but a ship canal, cut on 
 one side of the river, now leads around these rapids. 
 
328 
 
 EC HOPE 
 
 
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 ^^^mm 
 
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 W ■ i ■ ■'*■ IHI 
 
 '■ .-'•■■ ■-■'■ -^ 
 
 !!K ~ 
 
 Transportation is all the more confined to the river 
 route because of the peculiar coast line of Austria- Hun- 
 gary. Although the country is next in size to Russia 
 
 among European 
 nations, it has 
 only a small 
 amount of coast. 
 Estimate its 
 length. There 
 a r e n u merous 
 harbors, to be 
 sure, but they 
 are difficult of 
 access from the 
 interior, because 
 of the rugged 
 mountains that 
 rise from the 
 very seashore. 
 At only two points on the Adriatic can good harbors be 
 reached from the Danube lowlands without difficulty. 
 What cities are located at these points ? 
 
 In so mountainous a country there is naturally much 
 variation both in rainfall and in temperature. Every- 
 where excepting on the higher mountains, however, the 
 temperature is favorable for the growth of grains and 
 other crops of temperate latitudes. That is, the summers 
 are warm and the winters are cold ; but the extremes are 
 much greater than in England. Why ? The rainfall of 
 the lowlands, which averages little over twenty inches, is 
 barely sufficient for agriculture, and the plains of Hun- 
 gary are subject to serious drought in summer. 
 
 Fig. 220. 
 
 The gorge where the Danube passes through the moun- 
 tains in the southeast. Serviais on the right. The 
 " Iron Gate " is not far distant from this scene. 
 
A US 1 HI A- II UN GARY 
 
 329 
 
 People and Government. — Such a rugged surface, with 
 many enclosed valleys, separates the people and favors the 
 development of very different customs amongst the inhabit- 
 ants of different 
 sections. More- 
 over, the ease of 
 approach from 
 the north and 
 east has led to 
 repeated inva- 
 sions from these 
 directions. The 
 result has been 
 that the empire 
 of Austria-Hun- 
 gary is a mixture 
 of many people. 
 Germanic peo- 
 ple, who form 
 about a fourth of 
 the entire popu- 
 lation, are most 
 numerous in 
 Austria ; while 
 the Magyars, a 
 race allied to the 
 Mongolian, form 
 nearly half the population of Hungary; but races related to 
 the Slavs of Russia are more numerous than either of the 
 other groups. There are, in addition, large numbers allied 
 to the Italians and other peoples (Fig. 221). German is 
 the official language and is spoken by the educated classes. 
 
 Fig. 221. 
 A Gypsy family and hut in Austria-Hungary. 
 
330 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 There are at least a dozen different languages in the empire, 
 and often two or three are spoken in a single town. To be 
 sure, a statement similar to this might be made in regard 
 to the United States, for we certainly have a great variety of 
 people speaking different languages. But no matter from 
 what part of the earth our citizens have come, they have 
 usually modified their former customs to an astonishing degree, 
 and, in most cases, have become genuine Americans in spirit. 
 The principal exception are the Chinamen, who, instead of 
 
 Fig. 222! 
 The Parliament building at Vienna. 
 
 identifying themselves with our ideals and interests, in most 
 cases remain Chinamen as long as they live. 
 
 The many distinct peoples of Austria-Hungary resemble the 
 Chinamen in their tendency to remain apart. They are not 
 only dissimilar in religion, ambitions, and customs, but their 
 interests are often conflicting; and they are jealous and sus- 
 picious of, and often hostile to, one another. 
 
 It has been a difficult matter to bring these people under 
 a common rule. Nevertheless, in 1867, the Austrian Empire 
 and the kingdom of Hungary were united under Emperor 
 
A US TRIA-HUNGA R Y 
 
 331 
 
 Joseph to form the empire of Austria-Hungary. Each of 
 the countries preserves its own constitution, makes its own 
 laws, and is independent of the other in many respects, 
 as we found to be the case in Norway and Sweden (p. 251). 
 But they work together in matters of common interest, 
 such as the army and navy, foreign affairs, and finance. 
 Much trouble has arisen because of the different ideals 
 and customs of the peoples ; and, quite unlike the German 
 Empire, there is danger that the union of Austria-Hun- 
 gary may not long endure. 
 
 Natural Resources. — Many of the mountain slopes are 
 forest-covered, and in the remoter parts wild animals 
 are still found. Since nearly one-third of the empire is 
 wooded, lumber forms one of the important resources of 
 the country. 
 
 Where the woods have been cleared away, there are 
 pastures for sheep and goats. Many cattle are also raised, 
 especially on the 
 more fertile low- 
 lands. 
 
 Near the Adri- 
 atic and in the 
 warmer valleys 
 there are many 
 vineyards ; and 
 the mulberry is 
 raised for the 
 silk- worm, as in 
 
 Italy (p. 314) and southern France (p. 226). Flax, 
 hemp, corn, sugar beets, and tobacco are other impor- 
 tant crops. But the grains, especially wheat, rye, barley, 
 and oats, are the staple agricultural products of both 
 
 Fig. 223. 
 The wonderfully level Hungarian plain. 
 
332 EUROPE 
 
 Austria and Hungary. The broad plains of the Danube 
 (Figs. 219 and 223) form one of the leading wheat-pro- 
 ducing regions of Europe. A large amount of this grain 
 is exported, since the people, like the Germans, live much 
 upon rye bread. 
 
 There is much mineral wealth in the mountains, including 
 deposits of salt, gold, silver, lead, mercury, and copper. The 
 Hungarian opal is celebrated for its beauty ; and the excellent 
 quality of the clays has made possible the manufacture of fine 
 porcelain ware. The mineral quartz supplies the material for 
 the Bohemian glass blowers, who make some of the finest ware 
 in the world. Their glass is beautifully colored by adding 
 small quantities of mineral substances, such as silver, copper, 
 and cobalt, mined in the country. 
 
 Both coal and iron are widely distributed (Fig. 113), 
 and Austria-Hungary ranks third among the coal-produc- 
 ing countries of Europe. Some of the best deposits are 
 in the northwest, near Prague, which explains why that 
 city is extensively engaged in iron manufacturing. 
 
 Manufacturing and Commerce. — Even at the time of the 
 Romans, Austrian iron ore was smelted by the use of char- 
 coal, and the people have long been extensively engaged 
 in other forms of manufacture. Austria-Hungary does 
 not, however, manufacture nearly as much as Great Brit- 
 ain, Germany, or France. Owing partly to the poor facil- 
 ities for commerce, and partly to lack of education and 
 common interests among the people, there has been far 
 less development of manufacturing than might be expected 
 from the wonderful resources of the country. 
 
 Much of the manufacturing is still done either by hand 
 or by very simple machines. But there has been great 
 progress in recent years, and numerous cotton, woollen, 
 
A USTRIA-BUNGAR Y 
 
 flour, and paper mills, iron manufactories, and beet-sugar 
 refineries have been set up. There is also silk weaving, for 
 in artistic taste many of the Austrians resemble the French 
 (p. 228). On the whole, the chief manufacturing region is 
 in the northwest, next to Germany, while the principal 
 agricultural section is in the central and eastern parts. 
 
 Fig. 224. . 
 
 Cut showing a castle in Austria, a little village at the base of the hill, and a 
 mill at the left. Notice the thick walls, formerly of use to protect the 
 castle from attack. 
 
 There is an extensive internal commerce along the navi- 
 gable rivers and the railways ; but, owing to the limited 
 coast line, ocean commerce is much less developed than in 
 other large European nations. Austria-Hungary has, in 
 fact, a smaller merchant marine than the little country of 
 Greece. 
 
 The most natural trade route leads either down the Danube 
 into the Black Sea or else westward into Germany, and thence 
 
334 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 down the Rhine Valley. Why in these directions ? Less than 
 one-third of the foreign shipping goes by way of Trieste. This 
 means that the greater part of the foreign trade of the empire 
 is carried on through foreign ports. What disadvantages do 
 you see in that fact ? Trace the chief routes. 
 
 Fig. 225. 
 To show the location of Vienna at the crossing of railway routes. 
 
 Principal Cities. — While there are many small cities in 
 this empire, there are surprisingly few large ones. The 
 two largest, Vienna, the capital of Austria, and Buda- 
 pest, the capital of Hungary, are located on the Danube 
 
A US TRIA-H UNGA R Y 
 
 335 
 
 River and not on the sea-coast. Suggest reasons for this 
 fact. 
 
 Vienna, which is larger than Philadelphia, is the great- 
 est city in Austria-Hungary and the fourth largest in 
 Europe. The reason for its size is found first of all in its 
 location (Fig. 225), on a large river in the central part of 
 Europe. Moreover, it is situated at an opening between 
 
 Fig. 226. 
 A view in Vienna. 
 
 mountains, through which, from the earliest times, the 
 best routes have passed from western Europe to Asia, and 
 from northern Europe to the Mediterranean. The rail- 
 ways which lead from St. Petersburg to Rome, and from 
 Berlin and Paris to Constantinople, naturally converge 
 toward this point, making the city a great railway and 
 trade centre. Trace these roads on Figure 119. What 
 countries do they cross ? 
 
336 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Vienna is a beautiful city, with many public buildings 
 (Figs. 222 and 226), including the palace of the emperor and 
 some fine museums. The noted University of Vienna is also 
 located here. Naturally there is much manufacturing in and 
 near a city so favorably situated for bringing materials, by rail 
 or river, from all parts of the kingdom. 
 
 Budapest (Fig. 227), consisting of two towns (Buda 
 and Pest) on opposite banks of the Danube, is the seat of 
 
 1 r 1 T 
 
 Fig. 227. 
 Looking across the Danube from Pest to Buda. 
 
 the Hungarian government and the home of the emperor 
 for a part of each year. These twin cities are located at 
 a point where the Danube is easily bridged ; but Buda- 
 pest has not so fine a location as Vienna and is only about 
 one-third as large. The city is in the midst of the great 
 wheat-raising plains of the Danube, and, like Odessa on 
 the Black Sea, has naturally become extensively engaged 
 in flour manufacture and grain shipment. 
 
A U STRIA-HUNG AR Y 337 
 
 Prague, the third city of Austria-Hungary, is situated on 
 the navigable Elbe, which since early times has been an impor- 
 tant trade route. Located in the midst of a rich mineral region, 
 it is a noted manufacturing centre, and in population is a little 
 larger than Providence, Rhode Island. Trieste, a city about 
 the size of Rochester, New York, is the largest Austrian sea- 
 port. Although separated from the main part of the country by 
 mountain ranges, it is connected with the interior by a rail- 
 way. Even as far back as the time of the Romans, the pass 
 which the railway takes in crossing the mountains was followed 
 as the route of entrance to the Danube Valley. Fiume, south- 
 east of Trieste, has an excellent harbor and is rapidly growing 
 as a port of export for Hungary. 
 
 Small Countries. — On the boundary between Austria and 
 Switzerland is Liechtenstein, a very small independent coun- 
 try united with Austria-Hungary by a customs treaty. Two 
 other countries, Bosnia and Herzegovina, formerly parts of 
 Turkey, are now practically a part of Austria-Hungary, and 
 are therefore not marked separately on our maps. They 
 include the mountainous land northwest of Montenegro and 
 Servia. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Tell about the physiography of Austria- 
 Hungary. (2) Tell about the climate. (3) What is the condition of the 
 people? (4) What about the government? (5) Name the principal raw 
 products. (6) What is the condition of manufacturing? (7) What 
 about the commerce? (8) Give reasons for the location of Vienna. 
 (9) Tell about the following cities : (a) Budapest, (b) Prague, (c) Tri- 
 este, (d) Fiume. (10) What is said about small countries? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) How must the construction of tunnels through 
 the Alps have affected Austria-Hungary? (2) What would you say as 
 to the relative importance of the Danube and Rhine rivers? (3) Find 
 some Bohemia glass to see how beautiful it is. (4) In an atlas look 
 up Austria-Hungary to find the portions which are called Tyrol, Mora- 
 via, Bohemia, and Transylvania. (5) Look up some facts about the 
 history of Poland. (6) Suggest reasons for the absence of Austrian col- 
 onies. (7) Find out something about the Triple Alliance. (8) Read 
 about the influence of Emperor Francis Joseph in holding the different 
 parts of the empire together. (9) Find out something about Kossuth. 
 
XX. THE BALKAN PENINSULA 
 
 Map Questions (Fig. 200, facing p. 301). — (1) What countries 
 border Roumania? (2) Name the countries south of the Danube. 
 (3) What does the map tell you about the surface of each ? (4) What 
 may you expect about the variations in climate on this peninsula? 
 Why? About the rainfall? Why? (5) Compare the number of 
 large cities with the number in Germany and Italy. What inferences 
 do you draw concerning the condition of the people? (6) Compare 
 the area of Turkey in Europe with that of your own state. 
 
 Physiography and Climate. — This double-pointed penin- 
 sula is bounded on one side by the Adriatic and Mediter- 
 ranean seas, on 
 the other by the 
 iEgean and 
 Black seas. It 
 is unlike other 
 European pen- 
 insulas in hav- 
 ing a very long 
 land boundary. 
 Trace it. 
 Throughout al- 
 most its entire extent the surface is mountainous, which 
 offers an explanation of the large number of separate 
 countries on the peninsula. How ? Many of the valleys 
 are suitable to agriculture, the most extensive being the 
 plains of the Danube in Roumania and Bulgaria. 
 
 The climate varies greatly from mountain to valley and 
 from interior to seashore. Along the southern coast 
 the winters are mild, as elsewhere near the Mediterranean ; 
 but in the northeast, near Russia, hot summers are fol- 
 
 338 
 
 Fig. 228. 
 A view in Bulgaria, showing its rugged surface. 
 
THE BALKAN PENINSULA 
 
 339 
 
 lowed by cold winters, when icy winds sweep down from 
 the Russian steppes, and the Danube freezes over. 
 
 In so mountainous a land there is also much variation 
 in rainfall. On the western slopes, for example near the 
 shores of the Adriatic, there is an abundance of rain : but 
 on the east coast and in the interior valleys, especially in 
 Greece, there is so little rain that agriculture depends 
 
 A scene just outside Constantinople. These are' Asiatic black buffaloes, which 
 are used there as beasts of burden. 
 
 upon irrigation. Why is this true of Greece particularly? 
 (p. 161). 
 
 People. — The eastern point of the Balkan peninsula 
 comes so close to Asia that it has been called a " bridge " 
 between Europe and Asia. At each of two points, the 
 Dardanelles and the Bosporus, the continents are separated 
 only by a narrow strait, a barrier so slight that the animals 
 and plants of the country belong to both European and 
 Asiatic species. 
 
 This region has also been a bridge for the passage 
 of many peoples. The early inhabitants of the Balkan 
 peninsula belonged to several divisions of the white race. 
 
340 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Among these were the Greeks, who settled along the coast 
 and there developed the Greek civilization. Later the 
 
 region came under the control of 
 the Romans, and at that time Con- 
 stantinople became renowned for 
 its trade. With the decline of the 
 Roman Empire, Slavs from the 
 Russian plains entered and drove 
 the Greeks back to the coast and a 
 considerable body of the Romans 
 to the mountainous interior. After- 
 ward these Slavs, known as Ser- 
 vians and Bulgarians, accepted 
 Christianity, adopted civilized 
 ways, and finally became rulers 
 of the peninsula. 
 
 Still later came the Moham- 
 medan Turks, who, crossing from Asia, brought the penin- 
 sula under their dominion. Wherever the Turks went 
 they brought ruin ; and for four centuries, while the rest 
 of Europe was advancing, they held this region in sub- 
 jection and prevented progress. During the nineteenth 
 century, however, many of its people have thrown off the 
 Turkish yoke, so that Turkey in Europe is now less than 
 one-quarter as large as it was a hundred years ago. Never- 
 theless, the effects of long Turkish misgovernment are 
 clearly seen throughout the entire peninsula. 
 
 Aside from Roumania, five nations now occupy the 
 Balkan peninsula : Montenegro, Servia, Bulgaria, the 
 Ottoman Empire or Turkey, and Greece ; and two others, 
 Bosnia and Herzegovina, are under control of Austria- 
 Hungary (p. 337). 
 
 Fig. 230. 
 A Roumanian peasant. 
 
THE BALKAN PENINSULA 
 
 341 
 
 Montenegro. — This tiny principality, which is smaller than 
 the state of Connecticut, has maintained, its independence 
 largely because of its situation among the mountains. The 
 country is of slight importance ; its soil is so poor that there 
 is little agriculture ; there is 
 less manufacturing, and not 
 a single railway. The prin- 
 cipal occupation is cattle 
 raising. 
 
 Servia. — Bordering on 
 southern Hungary, Servia 
 shares some of the advan- 
 tages of that country, in- 
 cluding navigation of the 
 Danube. Since much of 
 its surface is rugged and 
 heavily forested, only a 
 small portion is culti- 
 vated. Among the leading 
 products are corn, wheat, 
 and other grains, remind- 
 ing us of Hungary. 
 There is also much fruit 
 raising, particularly that of 
 grapes and plums, which, 
 
 when dried, are sold as raisins and prunes. Many cattle, 
 sheep, and pigs are raised for export, the pigs being 
 allowed to roam in the oak and beech forests. Why there ? 
 
 The resources of Servia are only partially developed. 
 For example, although coal, iron, lead, silver, and other 
 metals are known to exist, there is very little mining and 
 not much manufacturing. It will require more time to 
 recover from the centuries of Turkish misrule. 
 
 Fig. 231. 
 
 A Turkish lady, at Constantinople, in 
 
 street dress. 
 
342 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 The capital of the kingdom is Belgrade, a city finely 
 situated upon the Danube. 
 
 Roumania and Bulgaria. — These two countries have 
 much in common. Although the Danube separates them 
 for a long distance, they together control its lower course. 
 This is a fact of much importance to Austria-Hungary. 
 Why ? Broad plains suited to agriculture border the 
 Danube in both countries, though the plains are far more 
 extensive in Roumania than in Bulgaria. Naturally, there- 
 fore, there is much farming. While each of these king- 
 
 Fig. 232. 
 An oil field iu Roumania. Each of the derricks in this valley is over an oil well. 
 
 doms has been freed from Turkish rule, Bulgaria is still 
 tributary to that country ; that is, although in most re- 
 spects independent and self-governing, it is obliged to pay 
 an annual tribute in money to Turkey. 
 
 In both countries wheat and other grains are among the 
 chief crops. But the warmer climate of Bulgaria, south 
 of the Balkan Mountains, permits the culture of products 
 that cannot be raised extensively in Roumania ; for 
 example, the mulberry for silk, and roses for the valua- 
 ble perfume, attar of roses. Many sheep as well as other 
 live stock are raised in each country ; in fact, herding is 
 
THE BALKAN PENINSULA 
 
 343 
 
 almost the sole industry on the barren steppes of eastern 
 Roumania. There are large tracts of forest in each, but 
 there is more in Bulgaria, owing to its rugged surface, 
 than in Roumania. Each country has valuable mineral 
 deposits ; but, as in Servia, there is little mining. Why ? 
 Nor is there much manufacturing, excepting such hand 
 work as the manufacture of Turkish rugs. 
 
 With so slight development of the resources, there are 
 few large cities. By far the largest is Bucharest, the 
 capital of Roumania. Find the capital of Bulgaria. 
 
 Turkey in Europe. — The Turks, who are Moham- 
 medans, are controlled by ideas very unlike those of other 
 Europeans. 
 
 They are un- ^ Black Sea 
 
 progressive, 
 and inclined to 
 grant no rights 
 to Christians, 
 many of whom 
 still live in Tur- 
 key. Their ruler 
 or Sultan has 
 absolute power, 
 which he exer- 
 cises with little 
 conscience, and 
 the government 
 is the worst in 
 Europe. 
 
 Since these people entered Europe from Asia and seized 
 countries belonging to Christians, it would seem that the Great 
 Powers of Europe might unite to drive them back. That they 
 
 Fig. 233. 
 Map showing the location of Constantinople. 
 
344 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 fail to do this is not because Turkey is considered a desirable 
 neighbor, but rather because of jealousies among the Powers. 
 The fact that the Turks control the narrow strait leading from 
 the Black Sea gives them a strong position. Russia would, 
 beyond question, like to obtain control of the strait, but other 
 
 nations object. 
 Why? Thus 
 Turkey in Eu- 
 rope is permitted 
 to continue its 
 existence. We 
 have already 
 seen, howeve r, 
 that she has lost 
 much of her terri- 
 tory during the. 
 nineteenth cen- 
 tury (p. 340). 
 
 Fig. 234. 
 St. Sophia, a beautiful church in Constantinople now 
 used as a Mohammedan mosque. This illustrates the 
 Byzantiue style of architecture — Byzantium having 
 been the early name of Constantinople. 
 
 Not only are 
 the mass of 
 Turks in igno- 
 rance and pov- 
 erty, but they are not encouraged to develop the resources 
 of their land. There are valuable mineral deposits, prac- 
 tically unworked ; the great forest tracts have been nearly 
 destro} ;r ed ; and broad areas of farm land are cultivated 
 by the use of oxen and tame buffaloes, and by the crude 
 methods of early centuries. Among the principal crops 
 are wheat, corn, flax, hemp, and tobacco. Figs, and grapes 
 for raisins, are also raised. Cattle and sheep are numerous. 
 
 As in other slightly developed states, there is little produc- 
 tion beyond raw materials ; and while other nations in Europe 
 have rapidly developed in manufacturing, Turkey produces 
 chiefly hand-made goods. Among the latter are the famous 
 
THE BALKAN PENINSULA 
 
 345 
 
 Turkish rugs, and some very beautiful articles in leather and 
 metal, showing that the Turks have much artistic skill. With 
 so little industry there is naturally almost no means of trans- 
 portation ; in fact, the roads are everywhere bad, and railways 
 are almost lacking (Fig. 119). 
 
 Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, 
 has been famous for many centuries. Being situated on 
 the Bosporus, where the beautiful, river-like outlet of 
 the Black Sea passes through a valley in the low plateau, 
 it commands the channel through which the commerce of 
 the Black Sea 
 must pass. This 
 is a natural site 
 for a city ; for 
 in addition to 
 its location on 
 this water route, 
 it is the point 
 where the cross- 
 ing can best be 
 made from Eu- 
 rope to Asia. 
 The presence of 
 a harbor on the 
 European side 
 — a small bay at the river mouth called the " Golden 
 Horn " — and the fact that the founders were Europeans 
 trading in Asia, rather than Asiatics trading in Europe, 
 are reasons why a large city has grown up on the European 
 and not on the Asiatic side. 
 
 The site of Constantinople is so advantageous that it was 
 the seat of a Greek colony centuries before the time of Christ. 
 
 Fig. 235. 
 A street view in Constantinople. 
 
346 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Later the Roman Emperor Oonstantine named the city after 
 himself (Constantine and polls, meaning city) and made it the 
 capital of the Roman Empire. For centuries it was noted as 
 one of the richest and most prosperous cities of Europe. It is 
 still a great centre, and ranks seventh in size among European 
 cities. It is even larger than our American city St. Louis. 
 
 After being captured by the Turks, Constantinople lost 
 much of its beauty ; but some of its ancient splendor still 
 remains (Fig. 234). There are palaces, mosques, and other 
 interesting and costly buildings ; but almost side by side with 
 them are the dwellings of the common people, who live in the 
 most squalid poverty. The houses, street scenes, people, and 
 customs remind one of Asia rather than of Europe. 
 
 Greece. — The southern end 
 of the Balkan peninsula is 
 occupied by Greece. Owing 
 to the many short mountain 
 ranges extending in different 
 directions, the coast line is 
 irregular, with numerous 
 peninsulas, islands, deep bays, 
 and fine harbors, formed by 
 the sinking of the irregular 
 land. The influence of the 
 Mediterranean causes a warm, 
 pleasant climate, as in south- 
 ern Italy ; and the rainfall, 
 which is moderate in win- 
 ter, is so light in summer 
 that irrigation is necessary 
 for agriculture. The surface 
 
 is so rough and rocky that large sections are unfit for 
 
 farming. 
 
 Fig. 236. 
 A Greek peasant costume. 
 
THE BALKAN PENINSULA 
 
 347 
 
 It was in this small peninsula, under what to our eyes 
 appear to be very unfavorable conditions, that the mar- 
 vellous civilization of ancient Hellas, or Greece, was devel- 
 oped. But these conditions really had the tendency to 
 develop strong intellectual powers and brave men. The 
 sea and mountains protected the races from invasion, and 
 the many fine harbors and inlets permitted constant inter- 
 course by water. By the commerce which thus arose the 
 
 Fig. 237. 
 A view of the Acropolis at Athens. 
 
 Greeks became so acquainted with the sea that they were 
 almost as much at home upon it as upon the land. 
 
 In all parts of the world it has been under such general con- 
 ditions as these that strong races have been evolved. It was 
 true in Scandinavia, in the British Isles, and in the Spanish 
 and Italian peninsulas. It is also true in the Japanese Islands, 
 the home of the most highly developed Asiatics. 
 
 Because of their ability to navigate the inland seas, the 
 European Greeks, in very early times, carried on constant 
 communication with the people from whom they had sepa- 
 rated, and who still dwelt opposite them, on the coast of 
 
us 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Fig. 238. 
 A shepherd and sheep in Greece. 
 
 Asia. The arts and customs of their mother country they 
 improved upon, and in time became the greatest power in 
 the then known world. They developed an art and a 
 civilization which, with all our advancement, we have not 
 been able to excel. They also became explorers, and 
 cruised about the entire shores of the Mediterranean at a 
 
 time when most 
 of Europe was 
 occupied by 
 savages or bar- 
 barians. They 
 entered into 
 trade relations 
 with their neigh- 
 bors, taught 
 them Greek arts, 
 and established 
 many colonies. Greek arts and literature, we should 
 note, decayed with the loss of freedom in the Greek cities 
 which were conquered by barbarians from the north. 
 
 Through colonies in the Italian peninsula, and also 
 through the immigration of individual Greeks, this people 
 exerted a strong influence upon the Romans. Rome finally 
 conquered Greece, although much of Roman civilization, 
 and therefore the civilization of Europe, was due to Greek 
 thought. After the decline of the Roman Empire other 
 northern peoples devastated Greece, and finally the Turks 
 entered and carried ruin to this as to other parts of the 
 Balkan peninsula. Greece is now independent and gov- 
 erned as a limited monarchy. 
 
 In this little country there are few natural resources. 
 There is no coal, and therefore little manufacturing. 
 
THE BALKAN PENINSULA 
 
 349 
 
 There is some mining, as of lead and zinc ; but the principal 
 occupations are herding and agriculture. Large numbers 
 of sheep and goats are raised ; and the chief farm products 
 are grain, tobacco, olives, and fruits. Among the latter is 
 the small variety of grape, known as the currant. These, 
 together with raisin grapes, are cultivated in large quanti- 
 ties on the steep hillsides and, after being gathered, are 
 dried in the warm, drv summer air. 
 
 Fig. 239. 
 A general view of Athens. 
 
 The neighborhood of the sea has led the Greeks to 
 continue their seafaring life, and they still carry on 
 an extensive foreign trade. Many are also engaged in 
 fisheries, and in securing bath sponges from the shallow 
 sea bottom among the Greek islands. 
 
 Athens, the capital and most important city, with 
 about one hundred thousand inhabitants, is situated in- 
 land six miles from its port, Piraeus. The principal 
 streets of the present city are quite modern, but ruins 
 of the ancient Athens are still numerous. The most noted 
 buildings, and some of the finest temples of ancient Greece, 
 stood upon the Acropolis (Fig. 237), a level-topped rocky 
 
350 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 hill with precipitous sides. This remarkable stronghold was 
 the natural centre for settlements in the surrounding plain. 
 
 Islands near Greece. — The many islands in the neighborhood 
 of Greece are either mountain crests or else volcanic cones. 
 
 Occasionally we 
 hear of an earth- 
 quake shock in 
 this island region 
 or archipelago, 
 showing that the 
 mountains are 
 still growing. The 
 largest island 
 near Greece, and 
 the last to be 
 separated from 
 Turkey (1898), is 
 Crete (Fig. 172), 
 which, like the 
 smaller islands, is 
 under the control of the Grecian government and inhabited 
 mainly by Greeks. The inhabitants are engaged in industries 
 that are the same as in Greece itself. 
 
 w% 
 
 tin 
 
 \t%m. " 
 
 
 i 
 
 | |Jj$| 
 
 
 ne&^Sft 
 
 
 
 
 ml 
 
 
 ^'''fev,. *' ; . 
 
 |' -r?^iffiB 
 
 *%'iiv&& 
 
 
 ' jImSe* V* 
 
 'Ui 
 
 Fig. 240. 
 
 View of an olive grove on the island of Corfu, a Greek 
 island off the coast west of Turkey (Fig. 200). 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Describe the physiography of the Balkan 
 peninsula. (2) Tell about the climate. (3) State some of the main 
 facts in its history. (4) Why were there so many invasions ? (5) Name 
 the countries of the peninsula. (6) What can you say about Monte- 
 negro? (7) Tell about Servia. (8) In what respects do Bulgaria 
 and Roumania resemble each other ? (9) Mention some differences. 
 (10) Locate the capitals. (11) Tell about Turkey in Europe : charac- 
 ter of the people; government; resources; manufacturing. (12) What 
 special reasons are there for a large city at Constantinople? (13) Give 
 other facts about the city. (14) Describe Greece: its physiography; 
 climate; reasons for former importance ; influence; reasons for decline; 
 present condition ; resources. (15) Tell about Athens. (16) What 
 can you tell about the islands near Greece ? 
 
THE BALKAN PENINSULA 351 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) On Figure 119 note the number of railways in 
 this part of Europe. Why are there so few ? (2) What reasons can 
 you suggest for the fact that these eastern countries are in a constant 
 state of unrest? (3) Turkey is occasionally referred to as the "sick 
 man of Europe." Why? (4) How was Greece finely situated for the 
 trade of the ancient world? (5) Learn some facts about Homer, 
 Plato, Aristotle, and other noted Greeks. (6) Read some of the an- 
 cient Greek myths. (7) Read about the defence of the Pass of Ther- 
 mopylae. (8) What reasons can you suggest for the fact that ancient 
 Greece was divided into several independent states, not unlike our own, 
 but lacking a federal union ? 
 
 REVIEW OF EUROPE AND COMPARISON WITH NORTH AMERICA 
 
 For area, population, etc., see Appendix II. 
 
 (1) Compare the climate of western Europe with that of the west 
 coast of North America (p. 160). (2) Make the same comparison for the 
 east coast of North America (p. 162). (3) Explain the resemblances 
 and differences (pp. 160-163). (4)" What European countries were 
 covered either wholly or partly by an ice sheet in the Glacial Period? 
 (Fig. 114). (5) Is the coast line of Europe more or less irregular 
 than that of North America? Which continent has the advantage in 
 this respect? How is it an advantage ? (6) Name and locate the prin- 
 cipal mountain ranges in each continent. Which continent has the ad- 
 vantage as to the direction of the ranges ? Why? (p. 162). (7) Name 
 and locate the principal rivers in each continent. Which are the larg- 
 est ? (8) Draw an outline map of Europe inserting the boundaries and 
 names of the countries. (9) How do our larger Western states com- 
 pare in area with France and Germany? In population ? (10) Name 
 the six Great Powers. (11) Which are the two or three most pro- 
 gressive countries ? Give some reasons. (12) What is the prevailing 
 kind of government in Europe? In North America? How do you 
 account for the difference? (13) Which European country has, per- 
 haps, the best location for world commerce? Why? (14) Which is 
 best situated for continental commerce? Why? (p. 277). (15) Which 
 country of North America has the most favorable position for trade? 
 How ? (16) Compare the five largest European cities with the five 
 largest in North America as to population. (17) State the main ad- 
 vantages of the position of each. (18) Name and locate the five 
 largest seaports of Europe (Fig. 172). (19) How do they compare in 
 population with New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, and San 
 
352 EUROPE 
 
 Francisco? (20) Name and locate the five largest interior cities and 
 compare their population with that of Chicago, St. Louis, Cleveland, 
 Buffalo, and Cincinnati. (21) What cities of Europe and North 
 America are near the 46th parallel of latitude? The 50th? The 
 60th ? (22) Name some agricultural products common to both Europe 
 and the United States. (23) Name others that are found in the United 
 States but not in Europe. Why this difference ? (24) In what coun- 
 tries of Europe is silk produced? Why do we not raise silk-worms? 
 (p. 230). (25) Where are grapes raised extensively? Why not in 
 Great Britain? (p. 181). (26) Why is there so little agriculture in 
 Scandinavia? What are the leading industries there ? (27) In what 
 countries are sugar beets produced extensively? (28) In what coun- 
 tries is most lumber obtained? (29) Make a list of the European 
 countries which have extensive coal deposits. (30) Which countries 
 have little or none? What is the effect on the industries in each case? 
 (31) Which countries have little or no mining? (32) Which countries 
 have important manufacturing industries? Which have very little? 
 Give the reasons for this difference. (33) With which group would 
 the United States be classed with regard to mining and manufac- 
 turing? (34) Which of the European nationalities have you seen on 
 our streets ? (35) Where were the beginnings of civilization in 
 Europe? Why there? (36) How do you account for the fact that 
 Europeans pay more attention to fine art than Americans do? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Find, in the Statesman's Yearbook or else- 
 where, the number of men necessary for the standing armies of each 
 of the six Great Powers. How do these armies compare in size with 
 the standing army of the United States ? (2) What illustrations can 
 you give of the fact that nations, like individuals, often flourish for a 
 time and then decline ? (3) In the case of nations, what are some of 
 the causes of such changes? (4) Is the United States a young or au 
 old nation ? (5) Write a paper stating some of the advantages that 
 we enjoy over European countries. (6) State some of the advantages 
 that they enjoy over us. (7) Which one of the European countries 
 would you prefer to visit? Why? (8) How does the prospect for the 
 future growth of the United States compare with that of the European 
 countries ? Why ? 
 

 ^ 
 
 8^**3(^3^ 
 
 fc 
 
Part IV 
 
 ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA AND 
 ISLAND GROUPS 
 
 XXL ASIA 
 
 Map Questions (Fig. 241). (1) Compare the greatest length and 
 breadth of Asia with that of North America (Fig. 434). (2) Compare 
 its area with that of other continents. (For- Areas, see Appendix II.) 
 (3) Where are the mountains; (4) the plains? (5) Draw an outline 
 map of Asia, adding the names and boundaries of the countries. 
 
 (6) Find four large inland seas and lakes. Which have no outlets? 
 
 (7) Find the area of China, India, and Siberia. About how many 
 times as large as Pennsylvania is each? (8) What facts concerning 
 the climate do you infer from the map ? (9) What does the general 
 absence of railways (Fig. 241) tell about the development of the 
 people? In what part has there probably been most progress? (10) 
 Name some of the large islands near Asia. Name some of the largest 
 islands between Asia and Australia (Fig. 338). 
 
 Size and Position. — Asia, the largest of the continents, 
 includes almost one-third of the land of the globe. Its 
 immense size is shown by the fact that it reaches from 
 near the equator to a point halfway between the Arctic 
 Circle and the North Pole. How many degrees is that ? 
 How many miles ? It is six thousand miles from the Medi- 
 terranean Sea to Bering Straits ; and so many degrees 
 of longitude are included in Asia that, according to our 
 plan for standard time, one would need to change his 
 2 a 353 
 
354 
 
 ASIA 
 
 watch ten different times in going from one extreme to the 
 other. How many changes are necessary in crossing the 
 United States ? (Fig. 22), 
 
 This great land mass, which reaches to within fifty miles of 
 North America, is united to Africa by the Isthmus of Suez, 
 
 Fig. 242. 
 The volcano of Fujiyama in Japan. 
 
 while for a long distance the two continents are separated only 
 by the narrow Red Sea. What is its connection Avith Europe ? 
 Why are the two often called Eurasia? (p. 149). In what 
 zones does Asia lie ? Is the same true of any other continent ? 
 
 Physiography (Fig. 243). Asia resembles Europe in 
 the irregularity of its mountains. While many of them 
 

 
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 Mi 
 
PHYSIOGRAPHY 
 
 355 
 
 extend east and west, there are others running nearly 
 north and south. Name some of each. The islands and 
 peninsulas are due to uplift of the earth's crust, while the 
 seas which they enclose occupy depressions between the 
 uplifted parts. Since the mountain growth has not en- 
 tirely ceased, many of the islands are still slowly rising ; 
 and, as the rocks move and break, earthquake shocks are 
 common, some of them being terribly destructive. There 
 
 Fig. 244. 
 The gorge of the Yangtse-kiang in China. 
 
 are also many volcanoes (Fig. 242); in fact, the islands 
 off eastern and southeastern Asia form the most active 
 volcanic and earthquake region in the world. 
 
 Although northern and western Asia is a vast plain, so much 
 of the continent is mountainous that more than one-twelfth of 
 the surface has an elevation above 10,000 feet. Here are found 
 the Himalayas (meaning abode of snow), whose loftiest peak, 
 Mt. Everest (29,000 feet), is the highest in the world. Locate 
 it. And here, too, are other ranges whose peaks rise above 
 
356 
 
 ASIA 
 
 valleys themselves 11,000 feet above sea level, or higher than 
 most mountains. Between the mountains are table-lands, like 
 that of Tibet (Fig. 245), whose elevation is from 10,000 to 
 15,000 feet, or in places as high as the loftiest peaks of the 
 Alps. 
 
 Fig. 245. 
 A farm-house iu bleak Tibet, with a snow-capped mountain in the distance. 
 
 Much of central Asia is so arid that some of the rivers 
 from the mountains end in the desert sands, which are 
 often heaped by the wind into low hills or dunes. But 
 from the margin of the great central highland large rivers 
 flow north, south, and east to the sea. On an outline map 
 of Asia draw heavy lines to show the chief mountain 
 chains, and then add the larger rivers with their names. 
 
PHYSIOGRAPHY 
 
 357 
 
 Fed by the rains, snows, and melting glaciers of the 
 mountains, these streams have a great volume of water 
 and bear immense quantities of sediment, which they 
 spread out over their broad flood plains or build into deltas 
 in the sea. In the east and south these fertile, river-made 
 plains are valuable for agriculture, and are the seats of 
 the densest populations in the whole world. 
 
 Fig. 246. 
 A tropical scene in a village in Ceylon. 
 
 Many of the rivers are deep and navigable (Fig. 244) ; yet 
 some of the largest lose much of their value for transportation 
 because they flow northward over the cold plains of Siberia. 
 This reminds us of the rivers of northern Canada, which also 
 flow into the Arctic and are therefore frozen during a large 
 part of the year. 
 
 A great variety of mineral wealth is revealed by the weather- 
 ing of the upturned mountain rocks. Precious stones, includ- 
 ing diamonds, sapphires, and rubies ; the precious metals, gold, 
 silver, and platinum ; the baser metals, such as iron, copper 
 
358 
 
 ASIA 
 
 and lead ; and vast coal beds are all found in various parts of 
 Asia. But, because of the peculiar character of the people, 
 the great mineral wealth has been only slightly developed. 
 
 Climate. — In so vast a land, with such differences in 
 elevation, there are, naturally, many different climates. 
 Tropical heat is found in southern Asia, with dense for- 
 ests in the belt of calms (Fig. 246), and in those places 
 where ocean winds blow over the land ; but where winds 
 
 Fig. -247. 
 A group of Persian natives on the desert of eastern Asia. 
 
 from the ocean cannot reach, there are broad deserts (Fig. 
 247). Upon the mountain slopes (Fig. 245), and in the 
 more northern latitudes, the climate is either temperate or 
 frigid, as in North America and Europe. 
 
 For example, the climate about Peking resembles that of 
 northeastern United States ; and the plains of central Siberia 
 resemble in climate the plains of Minnesota and Dakota, and 
 produce the same crops. Such a climate, with warm summers 
 and very cold winters, is called continental ; and since Asia is 
 the largest continent, the continental climate is best developed 
 there. Thus where the Arctic Circle crosses the Lena Kiver, 
 
CLIMATE 359 
 
 the average temperature is 60° in July and 60° below zero 
 in January, a range of 120° between summer and winter. This 
 is the lowest winter temperature known in the world, and this 
 point is therefore called the cold pole of the earth. 
 
 During the winter, when such a cold blanket of air covers the 
 interior of Asia, the wind blows outward toward the warmer 
 ocean, producing the winter monsoon (pp. 34-37) . Accordingly, 
 throughout most of Asia the winter rainfall is light. Why ? 
 But in summer, when ocean winds blow toward the warm land, 
 there is abundant rain near the coast, especially where the damp 
 summer monsoons rise over the mountains, as in India(Fig. 33). 
 
 As in northwestern United States, where the Cascade Ranges 
 drain the prevailing westerlies of their moisture, the mountains 
 of Asia cause the summer monsoons to reach the interior with 
 little vapor. It is for this reason that a large part of the 
 interior of Asia is arid, and often such a complete desert that 
 it is shunned by all living things. That this arid country is 
 growing even more arid, is indicated by the fact that the Aral 
 and Caspian seas are surrounded by salt plains formerly cov- 
 ered with shallow water. During the last century the Caspian 
 has grown decidedly smaller, having lost fully seven thousand 
 square miles of its area through evaporation. 
 
 Plants and Animals. — The cold northern part of 
 Siberia, like northern Europe and America, is tundra. 
 Describe it (p. 63). Toward the south the tundra 
 grades into the forest, low, stunted trees being followed 
 by true forests of evergreens, birches, poplars, etc. Far- 
 ther south, where the rainfall is light and the evaporation 
 rapid because of the higher temperature, the soil is so dry 
 in summer that the forests disappear. These steppes are 
 covered with luxuriant grass in the north, but farther 
 south the}^ grade into the desert. Since northern Asia 
 is really a continuation of Europe, the wild plants and 
 animals, as well as the farm products, resemble those 
 
HE M.N.CCBUFFALO. TIGER 
 
 ELEPHANT 
 
 Fig. 248. 
 Some of the animals of Asia. 
 
PLANTS AND ANIMALS 
 
 361 
 
 of Europe. Name some of the European farm prod- 
 ucts. 
 
 In southern Asia, on the other hand, from Arabia to 
 China, the plants and animals resemble those of Africa 
 rather than those of 
 Europe and northern 
 Asia (p. 68). One 
 reason for this is that 
 southern Asia has a 
 tropical climate like 
 Africa ; another is 
 that a mountain 
 and desert barrier 
 separates northern 
 from southern Asia. 
 Trace this barrier 
 on Figure 243. As 
 in Africa, the arid 
 portion, including 
 Arabia, Persia, and 
 central Asia, is the home of the camel (Fig. 248) and 
 ostrich (Fig. 300), while the elephant and rhinoceros 
 (Fig. 248) live on the savannas and in the tropical jun- 
 gles. Southern Asia is also the home of the fierce tiger 
 and numerous species of monkeys and apes (Fig. 248). 
 
 It was in Asia, probably the seat of the oldest civilization 
 of mankind, that men first learned to make use of some of the 
 animals and plants that are now so valuable in all parts of the 
 world. No one knows what race first domesticated the horse, 
 dog, sheep, and several other animals, nor who first cultivated 
 wheat and many other plants ; but long before Europe was 
 civilized the people of Asia knew their value. At the time of 
 
 Fig. 249. 
 The banyan, or Indian fig tree, from whose 
 lower branches shoots descend and take root 
 — common in Ceylon and other parts of 
 southern Asia. 
 
362 
 
 ASIA 
 
 Herodotus (about 484-420 b.c.) the people of India grew cot- 
 ton and wove it into cloth ; and they kept sheep, horses, cattle, 
 and goats. Tea and oranges were introduced into Europe from 
 China, and the lemon tree came from India. 
 
 The extent to which the Asiatic people have employed ani- 
 mals in their service is indicated by the following facts. On 
 the frozen tundras, where none of the other large domesticated 
 animals thrive, the reindeer (Fig. 48) not only supplies milk, 
 meat, and hides, but is also used as a work animal. The camel, 
 whose original home seems to have been Asia, makes human 
 habitation possible in the desert (Figs. 248, 265, and 283). 
 
 Fig. 250. 
 Native humped cattle used as draught-animals in Burma. 
 
 Elephants are domesticated and made to work in the dense 
 tropical forest (Figs. 251 and 277) ; and the buffalo is used as 
 a work animal in hot, damp lands where horses find the climate 
 trying (Figs. 250 and 274). Among the lofty plateaus and 
 mountains, where the air is so rarefied and the slopes so steep 
 that other work animals cannot be used, the yak is domesti- 
 cated. Upon the steppes, where herds of cattle, sheep, and 
 goats are kept, the horse is so necessary to the herder that the 
 men almost live in the saddle. Indeed, the word Cossack, applied 
 to Russians who dwell on the steppes, means horseman. 
 
PEOPLE 
 
 363 
 
 People. — Early progress toward civilization was made 
 possible in Asia largely because certain portions were 
 so favorably situ- 
 ated. Th§ flood 
 plains of the 
 Euphrates and 
 of the Indian and 
 Chinese rivers 
 had a fertile soil 
 and an abund- 
 ance of water for 
 irrigation. They 
 were, moreover, 
 protected from 
 invasion by 
 ocean, desert, 
 and mountain 
 barriers, and the inhabitants could therefore cultivate the 
 arts of peace. Among the shut-in valleys of the lofty 
 mountains, also, were centres where development was pos- 
 sible because so protected from wandering hordes. 
 
 Asiatic peoples, moving into Europe, carried the civili- 
 zation of their old home with them, and in time advanced 
 much beyond those whom they left behind. In fact, 
 while Europeans have been progressing the Asiatics have 
 been standing still, and in some cases even falling back. 
 
 It would be difficult to give all the reasons for this last fact, 
 but there are three that are prominent. One is the very isola- 
 tion which made the first development possible; for the people 
 were so cut off and separated geographically that they failed 
 to learn from others, as those Europeans who dwelt along the 
 Mediterranean were able to do. A second reason is that 
 
 Fig. 251. 
 
 An elephant in Ceylon drawing a cart loaded with 
 
 cocoanuts. 
 
304 
 
 ASIA 
 
 many Asiatics, like, for example, the Chinese, have felt that 
 their civilization was the best, and have therefore refused 
 
 to learn. A third reason is 
 found in the wonderful de- 
 velopment of navigation by 
 Europeans who have thereby 
 learned many useful lessons 
 from all parts of the world, 
 acquired wealth, and founded 
 distant colonies. The sea, for- 
 merly a protection to many 
 Asiatic people, has, in recent 
 times, even been used as a 
 highway of attack upon them. 
 Where European civiliza- 
 tion has been adopted, as in 
 Japan and parts of India, 
 rapid progress has followed. 
 This indicates the possibili- 
 ties of these people. 
 Fig. 252. 
 
 More than half of the 
 human race lives in Asia, 
 two-thirds of them belong- 
 ing to the yellow division (p. 73) while the remainder are 
 mainly whites. But although there are more than eight 
 hundred million human beings there, most of the conti- 
 nent is sparsely settled. The mountain slopes, the cold 
 plateaus, the steppes, deserts, forests, and tundras support 
 but few inhabitants (Fig. 253). In these places, hunting, 
 fishing, and herding are the leading industries. Nearly 
 seven-eighths of the people dwell near the coast, especially 
 on the river flood plains and deltas of the south and east. 
 There almost every foot of available land is cultivated, 
 and soil is even transferred to boats on the rivers. 
 
 Chinese women. Notice their feet. It 
 is a custom of the Chinese to prevent 
 the feet of women from growing. 
 
PEOPLE 
 
 365 
 
 There is a wide difference between the religions beliefs of 
 the Europeans and Asiatics (pp. 93-95). Christianity has 
 spread westward along the shores of the Mediterranean, but 
 it has made little progress across the desert and mountainous 
 land to the east, where earlier religions had a strong foothold. 
 Two-thirds of the Asiatics are Brahmins or Buddhists, as were 
 
 Fig. 253. 
 
 their ancestors (Fig. 254). Many others are of the Mohammedan 
 faith, which originated in Asia long after Christ, and has not 
 only replaced the Jewish and Christian religions in most of 
 western Asia, where they started, but has even spread eastward. 
 
 Turkish or Ottoman Empire. — While Constantinople, 
 the capital of the Turkish Empire, is in Europe, Turkey 
 has ten times as much land in Asia as in Europe. 
 
366 
 
 ASIA 
 
 Conditions in the Empire. — Turkey in Asia, although 
 of little importance among nations at the present time, is 
 of peculiar interest to us because of its historical associa- 
 tions. It is with- 
 in its territory 
 that many of the 
 places mentioned 
 in the Bible are 
 located (Fig. 
 258) ; here also 
 Christ was born, 
 as well as the 
 prophet Moham- 
 med ; and it was 
 from this centre 
 that much of the 
 ancient civiliza- 
 tion spread along 
 the shores of the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 Much of Tur- 
 key in Asia is 
 table-land, with 
 short mountain 
 ranges and ex- 
 tinct volcanoes, 
 of which Mt. Ar- 
 arat is an example. Excepting along the coast of the 
 Mediterranean and Black seas, where the wind brings 
 vapor, there is little rainfall. The streams are usually 
 short and shallow, and there are numerous salt lakes. 
 Point out the two principal rivers (Fig. 241). 
 
 Fig. 254. 
 Worshipping at a Shinto temple in Japan. 
 
TURKISH EMPIRE 
 
 367 
 
 Some of the mountain slopes are forested, but elsewhere 
 the country is open, and in places suited to herding and 
 agriculture. In the valleys, wheat, grapes, olives, figs, 
 oranges, and cotton are raised, usually by the aid of irri- 
 gation. Smyrna is the most important seaport. Locate 
 it. Find Trebizond. 
 
 Fig. 255. 
 Spinning as done in Palestine and other parts of Turkey in Europe. 
 
 The inhabitants, though so near Europe, have not advanced 
 as Europeans have. The valuable minerals are scarcely 
 worked at all; herding and farming are carried on in much 
 the same way as in the time of Christ ; and there is practically 
 no manufacturing excepting that done by hand (Figs. 255 and 
 257). Some of this work, however, is very beautiful, as, for 
 example, the Turkish rugs already mentioned (p. 345). 
 
 The unfortunate history of the region furnishes an expla- 
 nation of its lack of development. Asia Minor, the peninsula 
 between the Mediterranean and Black seas, was the pathway 
 
368 
 
 ASIA 
 
 for the ancient caravan trade between Europe and Asia. While 
 this brought prosperity, it also led to many invasions. More 
 than five centuries before Christ the country was conquered by 
 the Persians ; two centuries later it came under the control of 
 the Greeks ; and later still it became a part of the Roman 
 Empire. After that, with the decline of the Roman Empire, 
 came invasions by wandering Turks, Tartars, and others. It 
 was by this route that the Mohammedan Turks gained a foot- 
 
 Fig. 256. 
 A view of Bethany and the mountain slopes near Jerusalem. 
 
 hold in southwestern Europe, and by their occupation devas- 
 tated the country. Notwithstanding Mohammedan persecution, 
 many of the inhabitants still profess the Christian religion, 
 although at great cost, as is proved by the recent terrible 
 massacres of the Armenians. 
 
 There are two parts of Turkey in Asia that merit special 
 mention ; namely, the Holy Land, and the valley of the 
 Euphrates and Tigris rivers, or Mesopotamia. 
 
THE HOLY LAND 
 
 569 
 
 Fig. 257. 
 Armenian women spinning 
 
 The Holy Land (Fig. 258). — This part of Turkey in 
 Asia possesses peculiar interest for us. Back of a straight 
 coast, with no good harbors, lies a narrow coastal plain, 
 beyond which are 
 two low mountain 
 ranges including 
 between them the 
 remarkable de- 
 pression in which 
 the Dead Sea is 
 situated. While 
 Hebron (Fig. 258) 
 is about three 
 thousand feet 
 above sea level, 
 the surface of the 
 Dead Sea, a few 
 miles to the east, is almost thirteen hundred feet below 
 sea level, being the deepest depression on the lands of 
 the world. Although fed by the river Jordan (Fig. 259), 
 which flows out of a fresh-water lake, the Sea of Galilee 
 (Fig. 260), the Dead Sea is so dense from the salt it con- 
 tains that a person cannot sink in it. The fact that it is 
 salt shows that the climate is arid, for otherwise the 
 depression would be filled with water, and, by overflowing, 
 the sea would soon become freshened. The Jordan Valley 
 lies no farther south than southern Alabama ; yet since it 
 is so low and enclosed, its climate is almost tropical. 
 
 Before the coming of the Jews this region was divided 
 
 into small countries, often under the rule of their more 
 
 advanced and powerful neighbors, the Egyptians. Then 
 
 the Jews entered this "promised land" and created a 
 
 2b 
 
370 
 
 ASIA 
 
 kingdom which attained its greatest power under Solo- 
 mon. It was here that many of the events in the Old 
 Testament occurred, including the advance in religion 
 from the belief in many gods to the acceptance of one all- 
 powerful God. Persians, Egyptians, and Romans later 
 ruled over Palestine, and it was during the control of the 
 latter people that Christ was born at Bethlehem. What 
 
 Fig. 259. 
 The river Jordan. 
 
 events in the life of Christ can you mention that occurred 
 at some of the places marked on the map ? (Fig. 258). 
 
 At that time, as we learn from the Bible, the region was 
 highly developed. Wheat was raised upon the uplands, 
 and olives, figs, and grapes in the valleys, while herds of 
 sheep roamed over the plateaus and mountains. Recall 
 events from the Bible that indicate these occupations. 
 Palestine lay on the great caravan route which, leading 
 from Egypt to the distant East, ran northward as far as 
 Damascus (Fig. 241) in order to avoid the Syrian desert. 
 
HOLY LAND. 
 
 Scale of Miles. 
 
 Railroads - Highways =» 
 Dry River Bed 
 
 Part of Jordan Valley below 
 Sta Level shown in purple. 
 
 Longitude East 35 from G 
 
 Fig. 258. 
 

THE HOLY LAND 
 
 371 
 
 Throngs of people, therefore, passed this way. Jerusalem 
 (Fig. 258), the capital, was a great city, situated upon 
 a lofty elevation that made it an important stronghold. 
 
 The city is now visited by many Christians, and also by 
 Mohammedan pilgrims who believe that Mohammed ascended 
 
 Fig. 260. 
 Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee. 
 
 to heaven from there. Very little of importance is to be seen, 
 for much of the country, once "flowing with milk and honey/' 
 is in ruins. Even the usual mode of travel is by mule or 
 camel, as in olden times, although a short railway climbs the 
 mountains from the sea-coast, at Joppa, to Jerusalem, and 
 another follows the old caravan route through Nazareth, past 
 the Sea of Galilee to Damascus. Trace these two lines. Re- 
 cently a steamboat has been placed on the Dead Sea for the 
 use of tourists. . 
 
372 
 
 ASIA 
 
 Fig. 261. 
 A part of Bethlehem. 
 
 Mesopotamia. — This region, including the fertile val- 
 leys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, has suffered the 
 same fate as the rest of Turkey in Asia. Formerly a 
 
 country of great 
 resources, 
 crossed by a 
 network of irri- 
 gation canals, 
 " a garden of 
 the Lord," it has 
 been devastated 
 by the Arabs 
 and Turks until 
 it is now almost 
 a waste. Baby- 
 lon and Nineveh, once the seats of a wonderful civilization, 
 are now marked only by mounds of ruins. From these 
 ruins records are at present being unearthed which prom- 
 ise to throw much light upon ancient history. 
 
 There is still some agriculture by irrigation ; but, now that 
 the rivers are no longer prevented from overflowing, the fertile 
 plains are for the most part untilled. The sites of the gardens 
 of old are at present either barren desert or fever-breeding 
 swamp ; and the nomad has replaced the farmer. 
 
 Under such conditions there can be little commerce, though 
 the Tigris is navigable with steamboats as far up as Bagdad. 
 This city, situated on the caravan route to the east, was of 
 much importance in ancient times. There is still some trade 
 between Europe and India along this route. 
 
 Arabia. — This peninsula is a plateau several thousand 
 feet in elevation, with a fringe of mountains (Fig. 263), 
 most prominent in the south and west. What waters 
 
ARABIA 
 
 373 
 
 border Arabia ? Since the coast line is wonderfully regu- 
 lar, there are few harbors and therefore few coastal cities. 
 Nevertheless, the enclosed seas favored the early develop- 
 ment of navigation here as in the Mediterranean. There- 
 fore in very early times Arabian ships carried on commerce 
 with Africa, India, and even with eastern Asia. 
 
 The climate is hot along the coast, but cool on the 
 plateau and among the mountains. A great part of the 
 
 Fig. 262. 
 A view in Jerusalem. 
 
 interior is desert, and almost everywhere the rainfall is 
 light. Why? (p. 359). What about large rivers ? Coffee 
 is raised in the southwest, near Mocha ; the date palm 
 flourishes in many places ; and fruits and vegetables are 
 produced in many of the valleys. Myrrh and frankin- 
 cense, mentioned in the Bible, are obtained from the gums 
 of shrubs that grow on the arid slopes of southern Arabia. 
 In so unfavorable a climate the population is necessarily 
 sparse and largely nomadic. Cattle, sheep, goats, horses, 
 
374 
 
 ASIA 
 
 donkeys, and dromedaries are raised in large numbers, the 
 three last being celebrated for their excellent qualities. 
 
 Most of the Arabian peninsula is independent, though with- 
 out a well-organized government. Turkey controls the west 
 coast and the Persian Gulf coast as far as Oman. Oman, 
 whose capital is the seaport of Maskat, was formerly an im- 
 portant kingdom ; it still has extensive pearl fisheries. 
 
 The British 
 have a foothold 
 on the southwest- 
 ern coast at Aden, 
 one of their most 
 important coaling 
 stations. The city 
 of Aden, whose- 
 excellent harbor 
 is well fortified, 
 is in a great crater 
 surrounded by 
 barren hills (Fig. 
 264). It is as large 
 as Sacramento, Cal., yet there is not enough rainfall to supply 
 the necessary drinking water, although great reservoirs are 
 built to store it. An additional supply is obtained by condens- 
 ing the steam made from boiling sea water. 
 
 Mecca, a Turkish city about fifty miles from the sea, is 
 sacred to all Mohammedans. It was here that Mohammed 
 was born, and every Mohammedan is supposed to make a 
 pilgrimage to it at least once during his lifetime. Most of 
 these pilgrims come by sea, and every year the city, as well 
 as the roads leading to it, are crowded with them. 
 
 Persia. — Like Arabia, Persia is an elevated table-land 
 with large tracts of desert and salt steppes of little or no 
 use to man. The arid climate prevents the formation of 
 large rivers ; but the rains and snows of the parallel 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 263. 
 A view among the Arabian mountains. 
 
PERSIA 
 
 375 
 
 mountain ranges permit some irrigation in the broad 
 valleys. There is so little rainfall, however, and evapora- 
 tion is so rapid during the hot, dry summer, that water 
 for irrigation is often led from the mountains in under- 
 ground tunnels. Why are tunnels preferable to ditches ? 
 
 Fig. 264. 
 A view of a part of Aden from the city water tanks. 
 
 The main farm products are tobacco, wheat, barley, 
 cotton, and opium. Much silk is also produced, and roses 
 are cultivated for the manufacture of attar of roses. The 
 principal agricultural portion is near the Caspian Sea, 
 where there is sufficient rainfall for crops and also for 
 extensive forests on the mountain slopes. Among the 
 
376 
 
 ASIA 
 
 mineral deposits is the precious stone turquoise ; but there 
 is little mining. Along the coast of both Arabia and 
 Persia precious pearls and pearl shells are found. 
 
 Nearly two million Persians belong to nomadic tribes (Figs. 
 265 and 266) which roam about the desert, dwelling in tents, 
 and herding goats, sheep, and other animals. There is no 
 extensive manufacturing, but the Persians, like the Turks, do 
 some very beautiful hand weaving, as, for example, shawls and 
 rugs. Their carving and inlaid metal and wood work are also 
 wonderfully artistic. 
 
 Fig. 265. 
 A drove of camels in Persia. 
 
 The government of Persia resembles that of Turkey and 
 is therefore very bad. The ruler, or Shah, an absolute 
 monarch, controls the lives and property of his subjects, 
 who are mostly Mohammedans. Teheran, the capital, 
 has some beautiful mosques, though the dwelling-houses 
 are made of sun-dried bricks and face narrow, filthy streets 
 (Fig. 267). 
 
 Afghanistan. — This country, " one of the waste places of 
 the world," is a region of sand, bare rocks, and snow-capped 
 
AFGHANISTAN 
 
 377 
 
 mountains. Only in the valleys is the soil made to yield a har- 
 vest ; and even there the cold, blustering winters and the dry, 
 scorching summers make one of the worst of climates. Under 
 such unfavorable 
 conditions there has 
 developed a people 
 noted for hardiness, 
 stubbornness, brav- 
 ery, and cruelty. 
 
 Little is known 
 about Afghanistan. 
 Entrance to the 
 country across the 
 lofty mountain 
 passes and desert 
 sands is exceedingly 
 difficult ; and the 
 Afghans have a ha- 
 tred for all Chris- 
 tians, especially for 
 the British, whom 
 they have fought 
 fiercely. Indeed, it 
 has been said that 
 the boundary be- 
 tween India and 
 Afghanistan should 
 be " drawn in crim- 
 son," because of the blood spilt there. Since Great Britain has 
 pushed her Indian frontier northward, while Kussia has en- 
 croached on the opposite side of Afghanistan, this country is 
 often called the " buffer state " between these two rival 
 powers. 
 
 As in other Asiatic countries so far studied, the government 
 is very bad. The ruler, the merciless Amir, holds his author- 
 ity by means of the. terror which he inspires. His seat of 
 government is at Kabul, nestled among lofty mountains. 
 
 Fig. 266. 
 A Persian nomad girl. 
 
378 
 
 ASIA 
 
 Russia in Asia. — This vast section of the Russian 
 Empire includes about one-eighth of the land surface of 
 the globe. There are several divisions, such as Turkes- 
 tan and the dependencies of Bokhara and Khiva ; but by 
 far the largest is Siberia, which is a million square miles 
 larger than Europe, and even larger than the United 
 States, Mexico, and Central America combined. Yet it 
 has less than one-twelfth as many inhabitants as the 
 United States alone. 
 
 Fig. 267. 
 A wedding procession passing through a street in Teheran. 
 
 The climatic belts of Russia in Asia are merely a con- 
 tinuation of the belts in European Russia (p. 266). In 
 the north of Siberia are the tundras, with a scattered 
 people who resemble the Eskimos (Fig. 268) of North 
 America and make a bare living by the help of the rein- 
 deer (Fig. 48). South of the tundras are the forests 
 (p. 359), containing many valuable fur-bearing animals, 
 such as the sable, ermine, and fox, and peopled mainly by 
 
RUSSIA IN ASIA 
 
 379 
 
 hunters and lumbermen. There are some farms in the 
 
 clearings ; and when the forests are removed this should 
 
 become a great agricultural region. Still farther south 
 
 are the broad Kirghiz steppes 
 
 (p. 359), watered enough for 
 
 farming in the north, but 
 
 more and more arid toward 
 
 the south in Turkestan and 
 
 Bokhara. 
 
 Fig. 268. 
 
 A Yakout woman from the cold tun- 
 dra reaion of Siberia. 
 
 While there are some tracts 
 of salt-covered plains and sandy 
 desert where men do not live, 
 most of the steppe country is 
 adapted to herding. Upon these 
 steppes, grass and flowers ap- 
 pear in spring when the snow 
 melts ; but the drought soon 
 comes, and the plants wither. 
 Then, as in western United 
 States, the country looks like a 
 
 desert, though sheep, cattle, goats, horses, and camels find 
 much nourishment in the dried grass, which is a kind of 
 natural hay. 
 
 Siberia has attained a reputation in the past, mainly as 
 a source of minerals, and as a place of exile for Russians 
 whom the government wishes to dispose of for political 
 or other reasons. Gold has been found in a number of 
 places, as in the Urals and near Lake Baikal, the largest 
 fresh-water lake on the continent. But while there is 
 much mineral wealth in Siberia, there has been little 
 mining, excepting in the western part near Russia. 
 
 A new era seems about to open for this vast empire, for the 
 Russian government is now constructing extensive railways 
 
380 
 
 ASIA 
 
 which will open up the country for development. One system 
 extends eastward from the Caspian Sea to Turkestan (Fig. 241), 
 while another and longer one reaches from Russia in Europe 
 to the Pacific Ocean. Trace it on Figure 241. Hitherto trans- 
 portation across the vast plains, arid steppes, and rugged east- 
 ern mountains has been difficult in the extreme. While the 
 large rivers are very useful in summer, their importance for 
 commerce is greatly lessened because some of them lead into 
 salt lakes without outlet, while others enter the frozen Arctic 
 and are themselves frozen over during a large part of the year. 
 
 Fig. 269. 
 A village in Siberia. 
 
 Heretofore the products of Siberia could not easily be 
 exported ; nor could machinery and other manufactured arti- 
 cles be brought in without the greatest difficulty. But by the 
 building of railways we may expect a rapid development of 
 Siberia, whose resources are far greater than the sparseness of 
 the population would indicate. Indeed, since the longer rail- 
 way was begun there has been a rapid increase in population 
 and exports, especially of corn. 
 
 There are some important cities in Russia in Asia. 
 The largest in the southwest is Tashkend, which is about 
 the size of Indianapolis. Tiflis, between the Black and 
 Caspian seas, is really in Asia, though the Russian gov- 
 
BUS SI A IN ASIA 
 
 381 
 
 eminent classes this region with its European provinces. 
 It is about the size of Tashkend. There are a number of 
 other cities with a population of from fifty to a hundred 
 thousand. In Siberia there are no large cities, though 
 several along the railway, including Irkutsk and Vladi- 
 vostok, are now growing rapidly. 
 
 
 
 
 
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 K-^ena 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 270. 
 The valley of Cashmere among the mountains of northern India. 
 
 India. — This densely populated peninsula, with its 
 warm climate, offers a striking contrast to cold, sparsely 
 populated (Fig. 253), and slightly developed Siberia. 
 
 Physiography and Climate. — Lying largely in the 
 torrid zone, the Indian peninsula has a hot climate. Its 
 position in the trade-wind belt might lead us to expect 
 much desert, especially on the lee or western side. 
 But this coast really has a heavy rainfall because it is 
 
382 
 
 ASIA 
 
 reached by the summer monsoons (Fig. 33). In the 
 winter, however, when the winds blow from the land, the 
 climate is so dry that plants wither ; and in Baluchistan, 
 which is not affected by the summer monsoons, there is 
 true desert. Southern India and Ceylon, on the other 
 hand, have a heavy rainfall at all seasons. Why ? 
 
 India, which is in the form of a triangle, has a remark- 
 ably regular coast and therefore few good harbors. Most 
 of the peninsula is a plateau, rarely more than two thousand 
 feet high and largely covered with lava flows like those of 
 the Snake River Valley of western United States. 
 
 North of the 
 plateau is a 
 broad lowland 
 occupied by the 
 B r a h m a p u tra, 
 Ganges, and In- 
 dus rivers, 
 which, like the 
 Po of Italy, have 
 built the plains 
 out of sediment 
 brought from 
 the mountains. 
 Among the lofty 
 mountains which lie to the north of the river plains, the 
 highest are the Himalayas, in which there are scores 
 of peaks each reaching an altitude of over four miles. 
 Even the mountain passes are from seventeen to nineteen 
 thousand feet above sea level, or much higher than Mt. 
 Blanc in the Alps. 
 
 Farming. — This mountain system has formed a north- 
 
 Fig. 271. 
 Natives of the Cashmere valley (Fig. 270). 
 
INDIA 
 
 383 
 
 ward barrier to British conquest, as in former days it 
 served as a barrier to invasion from nomadic hordes which 
 overran Asia Minor. With such protection the fertile 
 plains and deltas of the three great rivers became the seat 
 of early civilization. From the very earliest times the 
 people have been engaged in farming, and at present fully 
 three-fifths of the population follow that occupation. 
 
 As there are 287,000,000 inhabitants in an area of about 
 1,559,000 square miles, it will be seen that there is an average 
 of 184 persons for every square mile ; and in parts of the coun- 
 try there are 500 per square mile. The density of population 
 may be better understood by 
 remembering that there are 
 only twenty persons per 
 square mile in the United 
 States. There are, in fact, 
 almost as many people in 
 India as in North America, 
 South America, and Africa 
 together. 
 
 Millet, which grows on 
 the dryer lands, and rice, 
 which is raised on the 
 river lowlands where the 
 land can be flooded, are 
 the staple foods of the na- 
 tives. After the dense 
 population is fed, however, 
 little is left for export. 
 Wheat, on the other hand, 
 is raised for export, and 
 India is a vast granary for Great Britain. Much cotton is 
 also produced. Some of this is manufactured into coarse 
 
 Fig. 272. 
 A tea plant. 
 
384 
 
 ASIA 
 
 fabrics for use at home and for export to China and Africa ; 
 but much is exported as raw cotton, for use in the cotton 
 mills of Great Britain. Other agricultural products are 
 tea, sugar cane, tobacco, opium obtained from a species of 
 poppy, indigo of value as a dye, and jute grown upon the 
 sandy river bars for the sake of its coarse, strong fibre. 
 
 Fig. 273. 
 A native village near Calcutta — notice the bamboo on the right. 
 
 For the production of rice, and for other crops as well, 
 irrigation is necessary in many places. Therefore this country, 
 favored by large rivers fed by the rains, snows, and melting 
 glaciers of the mountains, has some of the most extensive 
 irrigation works in the world. 
 
 Forests and Wild Animals. — There are valuable forests on 
 the mountain slopes, where the trees, including pines, firs, and 
 junipers, resemble those of Europe; and there are also mag- 
 nolias and the beautiful deodar, a species of cedar. In the 
 hotter portions are valuable medicinal plants and spices, such 
 as pepper and cinnamon.. The teak, whose strong, durable 
 
INDIA 
 
 385 
 
 wood is of great value in building, and the mango, whose fruit 
 is important as a food between harvests, are both common in 
 many localities. Besides these, the bamboo and various palms 
 are of great value. The bamboo is employed in hundreds of 
 ways in making implements and building houses (Fig. 273) ; 
 and the palms supply juices for drink, fibre for ropes and 
 mats, and cocoanuts (Fig. 251) for food and oil. 
 
 In parts of the Ganges Valley and elsewhere there axe jungles, 
 or tracts of waste land densely covered with bamboos, canes, 
 etc., and very 
 difficult to pene- 
 trate. From 
 these wastes the 
 lion has almost 
 disappeared; but 
 the elephant is 
 still found, and 
 there are various 
 species of the 
 monkey ; also the 
 rhinoceros, buffa- 
 lo, leopard, wild 
 boar, wolf, and 
 Bengal tiger (Fig. 
 248). The tiger 
 is much dreaded, 
 for it not only 
 preys upon cattle, 
 but even attacks men. Among the Himalayas, goats, sheep, 
 asses, and dogs still exist in a wild state. Crocodiles live in 
 the rivers ; and venomous serpents are said to kill as many as 
 twenty thousand persons each year. 
 
 Domestic Animals. — Owing to their religion the Hindus, as 
 the people of India are called, live mainly upon vegetable food. 
 But many animals, such as the yak, elephant, camel, and buffalo, 
 are raised for a variety of purposes (p. 362). Large numbers of 
 sheep are kept for their wool, and humped cattle for their milk — 
 2c 
 
 Fig. 274. 
 A bullock cart in Bombay. 
 
386 ASIA 
 
 an important article of food — and also as draught-animals. 
 Since fish are eaten, fishing is an important industry. 
 
 Mining and Manufacturing . — In addition to the raw 
 products of farms and forests there are valuable minerals, 
 including salt, petroleum, coal, and iron. India has long 
 been noted for hand-made goods of great beauty ; but 
 with the exception of these there is little manufactur- 
 ing. Of late, however, there has been a marked develop- 
 ment of cotton manufacturing by machinery. 
 
 It is even more unnatural that cotton should be shipped all 
 the way to England for manufacture than that the cotton of 
 our Southern States should be sent to England and New Eng- 
 land. Therefore, as the South is learning to make cotton goods 
 near the cotton fields, so we may expect that the people of 
 India will in time develop an extensive cotton-manufacturing 
 industry in their own country. 
 
 Famines and Plagues. — Although these people are so ex- 
 tensively engaged in agriculture, there are times when they do 
 not raise enough food for their own use, and then terrible fam- 
 ines result. These occur when rain fails ; and it may be that 
 one section suffers while another has an abundance. With the 
 building of railways the danger of famines decreases, for then 
 different sections are brought more closely together. The first 
 railway was begun in 1854, and there is now a network across 
 the peninsula (Fig. 241). 
 
 But even the railways do not entirely remove the danger ; 
 and probably famines will not cease so long as such vast num- 
 bers depend entirely upon the products of the soil. There is 
 need that some of them adopt other forms of industry, as for 
 example manufacturing, and thus secure the means of buying 
 food from other less densely settled regions. An even greater 
 need is the construction of still more extensive irrigation sys- 
 tems, for there is rainfall enough in some seasons if the water 
 could be stored in reservoirs for use when wanted. 
 
INDIA 
 
 387 
 
 India has also been visited by plagues which have destroyed 
 tens of thousands of lives. With a population so dense, in a 
 climate so hot, disease spreads with rapidity and with terrible 
 effect, particularly among people who are not properly nourished 
 and whose surroundings are not always the cleanest. 
 
 People. — India was originally inhabited by a swarthy 
 race, which was gradually replaced by white people, or 
 Aryans, from the north, who now make up the bulk of the 
 population. Although protected by the sea and by the 
 mountains of the 
 north, a break in 
 the mountain 
 barrier in the 
 northwest has 
 permitted attack 
 from that direc- 
 tion. But the 
 various invasions 
 from that quarter FlG - 27u 
 
 have never com- ^ tom ^ anc * mos i u e in India, 
 
 pletely devastated the country, as was done in Asia 
 Minor. One of these invasions was by the Mongols, who 
 introduced Mohammedanism into northern India. The 
 capital of their empire was Delhi, and it is said that the 
 present Delhi is built upon the ruins of ten older cities. 
 
 Religion. — India is the home of Brahmanism, which is pro- 
 fessed by three-fourths of the people, while about one-fifth are 
 Mohammedans. There are only about seven million Buddhists 
 and two million Christians. Brahmanism, as already stated 
 (p. 93), teaches the belief in caste, which is quite different 
 from our belief in the equality of man with man, and is a great 
 drawback to the development of the people. How ? Although 
 grouped under the general term of Brahmanism, these people 
 
388 
 
 ASIA 
 
 have a great variety of religious beliefs and customs, as might 
 be expected in a country made up of many tribes speaking dif- 
 ferent languages ; but throughout India there are numerous 
 general customs based upon the rule of the priests or Brahmans. 
 The people have many religious superstitions. For example 
 the Ganges, doubtless because of its great value for irrigating 
 
 and fertilizing the 
 soil, is considered 
 a sacred river (Fig. 
 279) ; and bathing 
 in its waters is 
 supposed to wash 
 away disease, 
 though, since the 
 waters are also 
 used for drinking, 
 this custom is no 
 doubt responsible 
 for the spread of 
 much disease. 
 The conscientious 
 Hindu makes at 
 least one pilgrim- 
 age to the holy river 
 as a means of gain- 
 ing divine favor 
 and forgiveness. 
 
 Crovernment. — 
 Over three hun- 
 dred years ago a 
 company of Lon- 
 don merchants 
 obtained a foot- 
 hold in India for trading purposes. The peninsula was 
 then divided among many native rulers, and at various 
 
 Fig. 276. 
 
 The Great Pagoda in India — a sacred temple. 
 
INDIA 
 
 389 
 
 times the British government was called upon to settle 
 disputes between them. Partly in this way, and partly 
 through the necessity of intervening for the protection 
 of British subjects engaged in the Indian trade, Great 
 Britain gradually gained control of the peninsula. India 
 was formally transferred to Great Britain in 1858, and in 
 1877 the Indian Empire was established as a part of the 
 
 Fig. 277. 
 Elephants at work in a lumber yard in Burma. 
 
 British Empire. The king of the British Isles is also 
 styled Emperor of India. 
 
 By their protection and wise direction, the British are able 
 to maintain their hold upon this vast country, whose popula- 
 tion is more than seven times that of the British Isles. Through- 
 out India there is an average of but one Britisher to every 
 three thousand natives, and by far the greater number of gov- 
 ernment officers are Hindus. One of the members of the 
 
390 ASIA 
 
 British ministry is Secretary of State for India ; and, as in the 
 case of Canada, a governor-general, called the Viceroy, is sent 
 from Great Britain as chief executive officer. The British 
 have not attempted to overturn the numerous native states ; 
 nor have they interfered seriously with the firmly established 
 customs of the people. They have endeavored to guide and 
 direct the people rather than to control them absolutely. 
 
 Baluchistan and Burma. — The Indian Empire is not con- 
 fined to the Indian peninsula. It includes also the desert 
 country of Baluchistan to the west and fertile Burma to 
 the east. In the latter country there are great numbers 
 of Mongolians, or people of the yellow race. Vast quanti- 
 ties of rice are raised, and there are other valuable products, 
 as rubies, sapphires, and tropical woods. In Burma the 
 elephant is used for moving logs (Fig. 277), drawing 
 ploughs, and carrying passengers. Rangoon, the seaport, 
 is noted for its export of rice ; but Mandalay, farther 
 up the Irawadi River, is the largest city in Burma. 
 
 Base of Himalayas. — Between Burma and the penin- 
 sula of India, at the base of the Himalaya Mountains, is 
 the region which has the heaviest rainfall in the world. 
 Much tea is raised on the hills of that section (Figs. 272 
 and 278) ; for tea requires a hot climate, an abundance 
 of rain, and sufficient slope to prevent the water from 
 standing about the roots of the plant. 
 
 The tea plant, which is three or four feet high, has bright 
 green leaves resembling those of a rose bush. The leaves are 
 picked several times a year, often by boys and girls. After 
 they are picked they are dried in the sun and later in buildings, 
 in order to remove all moisture before packing. 
 
 Other Countries. — Just north of this tea district, among the 
 Himalayas, are Nepal and Bhutan, which, though small, retain 
 their independence because so protected by the mountains. 
 
INDIA 
 
 391 
 
 At one time Portugal and France had important colonies in 
 India; but they now control only very small sections, too small 
 to be shown on our map. 
 
 Principal Cities. — So many Hindus are engaged in 
 farming that only about five per cent of them dwell in 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 g. ■. , . ; 
 
 iML±* 
 
 Fig. 278. 
 Picking: tea in India. 
 
 large towns. Nevertheless, there are seventy-five cities 
 with a population of over fifty thousand, while two, 
 Calcutta and Bombay, have over eight hundred thousand. 
 Calcutta, the largest city, is a seaport on the Ganges 
 delta and the natural outlet of the fertile Ganges Valley; 
 but it has a poor harbor on a river whose volume is vari- 
 able. It has some manufacturing, — being near coal 
 
392 
 
 ASIA 
 
 fields, — but it is chief!)' important as a commercial centre 
 and as the residence of the Viceroy. 
 
 Farther up the Ganges are the smaller cities, Lucknow and 
 Benares. The latter, the " holy city of the Hindus," is on 
 that part of the Ganges which is deemed most holy. At this 
 point temples (Fig. 279) line the banks of the river for miles, 
 and a steady stream of pilgrims pours in and out of the city. 
 
 Fig. 279. 
 
 Temples along the Ganges at Benares. 
 
 While there are several cities on the Ganges, there are none 
 on the Indus large enough to find a place on our map. This 
 is not because the Indus is useless for irrigation, but because 
 of shallow waters and sand bars which interfere with naviga- 
 tion. These are due to the fact that the river, though well 
 supplied with water from the mountains, loses much of it by 
 evaporation in crossing the arid plains. Thus it is obliged to 
 deposit some of its sediment as sand bars in its channel. 
 
CEYLON 
 
 393 
 
 Bombay, next in size to Calcutta and the nearest port 
 to England, is a great business centre. It is, moreover, 
 the only Indian 
 city with a really 
 good harbor. 
 Madras, the 
 third largest city, 
 is situated at a 
 point where there 
 is only an open 
 roadstead pro- 
 tected by a break- 
 water. 
 
 Ceylon. — With a 
 fertile soil, abun- 
 dant rainfall, and 
 high though equa- 
 ble temperature, 
 Ceylon is a beauti- 
 ful tropical garden, 
 and was considered 
 by the Arabs to be 
 the Garden of 
 Eden. A chain of islands and coral reefs which nearly con- 
 nect Ceylon with the mainland is therefore called "Adam's 
 Bridge." Over this it is proposed to extend a railway from 
 the mainland. Among the products of Ceylon are cocoanuts, 
 rice, fruit, coffee, and tea. The island is the third most im- 
 portant tea-producing section in the world. Other products 
 are sapphires and rubies from the stream gravels, and beauti- 
 ful pearls and mother of pearl obtained from shellfish which 
 live among the coral reefs. 
 
 Indo-China and the Malay Peninsula. — This peninsula 
 consists of a series of mountain chains, spreading fan- 
 
 Fig. 280. 
 A group of kings in Ceylon. 
 
394 
 
 ASIA 
 
 shaped southward, with numerous long, narrow valleys 
 between, which broaden toward the south and terminate 
 in fertile, populous delta plains at the river mouths. In 
 addition to Burma, a part of the Indian Empire, there are 
 three divisions of this peninsula: (1) Siam, (2) French 
 Indo- China, and (3) the British Straits Settlements. 
 
 Siam. — In this tropical country most of the inhabitants, 
 who are either Chinese or Malays, live along the rivers 
 
 and irrigation 
 canals, where 
 they are largely 
 engaged in the 
 production of 
 rice. Millet, 
 which is raised 
 in the drier 
 places, competes 
 with rice in im- 
 portance as a 
 food. Among 
 the mineral pro- 
 ducts are rubies, 
 sapphires, gold, and tin. The forests yield tropical woods, 
 especially teak wood, for use at home and for export. 
 
 Siam is a monarchy, the king being assisted by a council of 
 ministers and a legislative body of noblemen. The poorer 
 classes are still kept in a kind of serfdom by the local gov- 
 ernors ; that is, they may be compelled to labor for the gov- 
 ernors for two or three months each year. 
 
 Bangkok, the capital and largest city, is situated on the 
 banks of a muddy river up which vessels of small draught are 
 able to pass to the city. Most of the inhabitants live either 
 in poor houses on narrow, ill-kept streets, or else in boats and 
 
 Fig. 281. 
 A Buddhist temple at Bangkok. 
 
1ND0-CHINA 
 
 395 
 
 floating houses on the river ; but the king has magnificent 
 palaces decorated with carved marble and frescoed with gold. 
 Buddhism is the religion of the country ; and in Bangkok alone 
 there are said to be ten thousand Buddhist priests whose 
 temples (Fig. 281), decorated with gold, silver, and jewels, are 
 wonderfully gorgeous. Next to the king the white elephant is 
 held in highest reverence, and Siam is often called ''the Land 
 of the White Elephant." 
 
 French Indo-China. — This dependency of France resembles 
 Siam in climate and 
 people. Its forest- 
 covered hills yield 
 valuable teak and 
 iron wood, and in 
 its valleys are ex- 
 tensive fields of 
 rice and millet. 
 Rice culture is here 
 favored by the 
 warm, damp cli- 
 mate and by the 
 broad, easily 
 flooded deltas and 
 flood plains of the F IG ogo. 
 
 Mekong and other A Malay house in the Straits Settlements, 
 
 rivers. Silk, cot- 
 ton, tea, and spices are other products, and there are also 
 extensive coal beds. Some coal is exported. 
 
 Straits Settlements. — This is the name given to the British 
 possessions on the southern end of the Malay peninsula. In 
 that hot, damp country, so near the equator, such tropical 
 products as rice, cocoanuts, gutta-percha, and spices are 
 obtained. Extensive deposits of tin are found in this region, 
 which supplies about half the tin used in the world. The 
 mining is done crudely by Chinese, while the native Malays 
 are mainly engaged in farming and fishing. 
 
 The only city of importance is Singapore, situated almost on 
 
396 
 
 ASIA 
 
 the equator, on a small island barely separated from the southern 
 tip of the Mala}^ peninsula. Being a free port, or a port freely 
 open to the commerce of all nations, and being situated on a 
 narrow strait through which many ships of various nations 
 are passing, Singapore is an extremely busy city. 
 
 Chinese Empire. Area and Population. — This empire, 
 which is nearly as large as Siberia, has more inhabitants 
 than any other nation in the world. It includes nearly 
 half the population of Asia ; that is, about the same 
 
 number as are 
 found in North 
 America, South 
 America, Africa, 
 Australia, the 
 British Isles, and 
 G e r m a n y t o- 
 g e t h e r. O r, 
 otherwise ex- 
 pressed, it has 
 fully twenty-five 
 FlG - 283 - million more 
 
 A scene in the arid mountainous part of China, where npnn l P tban livp 
 camels are used. r l 
 
 in all of Europe. 
 The hordes of Chinese who live on the river flood plains 
 and deltas of the south and east make this the most densely 
 settled larsre area on the globe. 
 
 ^Nevertheless, there are outlying provinces of great extent, 
 such as Mongolia, Turkestan, and Tibet, where the population 
 is very sparse (Fig. 253). This is because of the ragged 
 mountains (Fig. 245) and the vast desert plateaus where the 
 dryness is unfavorable to all industries save herding. There 
 are large sections, as in the great Desert of Gobi, where even 
 this industry is impossible. Strangers find it difficult to enter 
 
CHINA 397 
 
 some of these remote districts ; and the holy city of Lassa in 
 Tibet has been visited, it is said, by only three Europeans. 
 The inhabitants wish to save their city and its sacred temples 
 from intrusion, and they capture and often torture those whose 
 curiosity leads them there. Over these wild regions the Chi- 
 nese government is able to exert only a very slight authority. 
 
 Climate. — Most of the densely settled part of China 
 has a temperate climate with an abundance of rain during 
 the summer monsoon. In the north, for example near 
 Peking, which is in about the same latitude as Philadel- 
 phia, the summers are warm and the winters cold ; but 
 farther south, as at Canton, just south of the Tropic of 
 Cancer, the climate is tropical, and there is rain through- 
 out the year. Toward the interior the climate grows 
 steadily drier, and, with increasing elevation, colder also. 
 
 In the China Sea, as in other parts of southern Asia, fierce 
 typhoons are encountered in the late summer and early au- 
 tumn. They resemble the hurricanes which develop in the 
 West Indies and often cause great damage along their path, 
 which frequently skirts our southern coast, and then extends 
 northeastward into the Atlantic. The typhoons of Asia, de- 
 veloping in the East Indies, also cause much destruction of life 
 and property, especially on the low delta plains, over which 
 great sea waves are driven by the typhoon winds. 
 
 The rains and snows of the Chinese mountains supply 
 water for a number of large rivers. The two most im- 
 portant are the Hoang-ho and the Yangtse-kiang (Fig. 
 244), whose floods spread out over the broad deltas and 
 flood plains, thus depositing sediment and adding fertility 
 to the soil. The greatest rise, which in the Yangtse-kiang 
 reaches a height of fully forty feet, occurs during the 
 summer rains, between July and October. 
 
398 
 
 ASIA 
 
 It is with great difficulty that the Hoang-ho is controlled, 
 and in the last twenty -five hundred years its lower course has 
 changed eleven different times. In some cases this has caused 
 a change of three hundred miles in the position of the river 
 mouth. A single flood destroyed a million people. Because 
 
 of the repeated destruction of 
 life and property, the Hoang- 
 ho has been called " China's 
 Sorrow." 
 
 People and Civilization. 
 — The Chinese Empire is 
 inhabited by people of 
 varied origin, with differ- 
 ent customs, religions, and 
 languages. The Mongoli- 
 ans, who form the basis of 
 the population, apparently 
 came from western Asia, 
 bringing with them the 
 knowledge of irrigation. 
 Although China is partially 
 protected on the west by 
 mountain ranges and desert, 
 the constant danger of invasion by nomads led, as early 
 as 212 B.C., to the construction of the Great Wall (Fig. 
 241) along the northern frontier. 
 
 This wall, twelve hundred miles long in a straight line, and 
 fifteen hundred miles with all of its windings, passes up and 
 down hill (Fig. 285) and even over a mountain peak. It is 
 twenty-five feet wide and thirty feet high, and at short dis- 
 tances apart are strong watch-towers rising still higher. This 
 wonderful structure, which required armies of men to build, 
 was so well made that it is still perfect in many places. 
 
 Fig. 284. 
 A Chinese mandarin in his official dress. 
 
CHINA 
 
 399 
 
 Long before Europeans had emerged from the state of 
 barbarism, the Chinese had developed a remarkable civili- 
 zation. The art of printing, the manufacture of gun- 
 powder, the production of silk and silk goods, the baking 
 
 Fig. 285. 
 A part of the Great Wall of China. 
 
 of porcelain or china ware, and other important arts were 
 known to them long before Europeans learned them. 
 
 But in spite of their early start, the Chinese have been 
 outstripped by Europeans (p. 364). Their peculiar cus- 
 toms in part account for their failure to advance farther. 
 They are followers of Confucius, and his doctrine is 
 everywhere taught. In fact, no one can be appointed a 
 
400 
 
 ASIA 
 
 government official who has not passed an examination in 
 the Chinese classics, including the doctrine of Confucius. 
 
 One of their doctrines is ancestor worship, which leads them 
 to regard new customs as bad. This tends to check develop- 
 ment, and is one of the reasons why they object to adopting 
 European and American civilization. The strength of their 
 
 Fig. 286. 
 A scene in a public court at Shanghai. 
 
 ancestor worship is indicated by the fact that disobedience to 
 parents is regarded in China as one of the worst of sins, for 
 which children may be whipped to death. By law the punish- 
 ment for striking a parent is death. 
 
 The conservatism of the Chinese is shown by their objection 
 to the introduction of labor-saving machinery, and it is also 
 shown by their means of transportation. Much of the traffic is 
 
CHINA 
 
 401 
 
 Fig. 287. 
 A typical Chinese village and canal. 
 
 carried on by means of canals (Fig. 287), of which the largest 
 is the Grand Canal (Fig. 241), built more than twelve hundred 
 years ago. The 
 rivers are also 
 used (Fig. 244), 
 even where trans- 
 portation on them 
 seems almost im- 
 possible ; yet, in- 
 stead of steam, 
 they make use of 
 poles, oars, and 
 sails. Good roads 
 are rare, and one 
 of the principal 
 vehicles is the 
 wheelbarrow, even 
 for carrying trav- 
 ellers. There are, 
 
 for example, two thousand passenger wheelbarrows in Shang- 
 hai. Pack animals and men are used for carrying loads, and 
 the more prosperous persons are carried in chairs by their 
 servants. It is evident that a man's time in China is not 
 valued very highly. 
 
 Doubtless one of the main reasons for the Chinese objection 
 to foreigners and their methods is the fear that the introduc- 
 tion of steam and machinery will throw people out of employ- 
 ment. The strength of this fear is illustrated by the fact that 
 when, finally, in 1876, the Chinese government agreed to allow 
 the building of a railway, so much opposition was raised that 
 it was bought up and destroyed. Since then, however, one or 
 two short lines have been permitted. Unjust treatment on 
 the part of European nations, which have seized and held 
 Chinese territory, is another important cause for objection to 
 foreigners. It was a combination of these causes that led to 
 the uprising of 1900, in which an attempt was made to kill all 
 foreigners in China. 
 2d 
 
402 
 
 ASIA 
 
 Natural Resources. — Though many Chinese are engaged 
 in fishing, both in the rivers and the ocean, they are in 
 a the main an agricultural 
 
 people. Their farming 
 methods are very crude ; 
 yet they are so careful 
 and industrious, and 
 labor is of so little 
 value, that they till 
 every bit of land possi- 
 ble. For example, water 
 for irrigation, instead of 
 being distributed only 
 over moderate slopes, as 
 in the United States, is 
 often taken to the very 
 tops of hills. It is first 
 raised from the river by 
 FlG - 288, means of wheels, turned 
 
 A Chinese pagoda or temple. either by men Qr bj 
 
 buffaloes, and then pumped upward from one terrace to 
 the next until the whole hillside has been watered. 
 
 The principal food of the Chinese is rice ; but their 
 main products for export are tea and silk. Tea is raised 
 on the damp hill slopes of the south, where the condi- 
 tions resemble those in India (p. 390). Fully forty thou- 
 sand men and women are employed in carrying tea into 
 Fuchau alone. They receive but ten cents a day for 
 their labor. In the warm south, great quantities of silk 
 are obtained, as in France, from the cocoon of the silk- 
 worm caterpillar. Some of the caterpillars feed on forest 
 trees, others are carefully, fed on the mulberry leaf. 
 
CHINA 403 
 
 As in other countries of southern Asia, the bamboo is one of 
 the most valuable products. The seeds are ground up for food, 
 and in spring the tender roots and stalks are eaten. The roofs 
 and walls of houses, as well as nearly all articles of furniture, 
 are made of bamboo wood. It is, moreover, woven into mats, 
 baskets, and hats, while paper is made from its pulp. 
 
 The Chinese are an artistic people, and they make some 
 very beautiful china ware and silk fabrics ; but they still do 
 the work by hand, as has been the custom for thousands of 
 years. There is almost no other kind of manufacturing, nor is 
 there much development of the wonderful mineral resources. 
 It is said that China contains the largest coal fields in the 
 world, in which both bituminous and anthracite coal occur ; 
 and there are also deposits of gold, silver, lead, and iron ore. 
 
 Sometime, when China awakens from her long sleep, there 
 will be a wonderful advance of this vast empire of varied 
 resources and really able people. Many Chinamen are well 
 educated, and as a race they are noted for their politeness, 
 honesty, and thrift. These qualities are well recognized in 
 the East Indies and southeastern Asia, where so many of the 
 tradesmen are Chinese. They need merely to appreciate the 
 advantages of modern civilization; and it would be a help to 
 this end if the people of Europe and America had a better 
 understanding of the excellent qualities of the Chinese. 
 
 Government. — The Chinese government is peculiar. 
 The Emperor, who has a right to nominate his own suc- 
 cessor, is known as the "Son of Heaven." He has under 
 him a Viceroy for each province, who must collect money 
 for the imperial government, but is partly independent of 
 the Emperor. The present Emperor is not a Chinaman 
 but belongs to the Manchu division of the yellow race, 
 which invaded and conquered China in 1644. It was then 
 that the Manchu custom of wearing a long queue, or 
 " pigtail," was introduced into China, 
 
404 
 
 ASIA 
 
 Principal Cities. — There are many cities in China, all 
 densely crowded. The poorer classes live huddled to- 
 gether, while the wealthier classes and officials dwell in 
 comfort and luxury. The largest city is Canton, which 
 has more inhabitants than Chicago. It is situated on a 
 densely populated delta and is a port of outlet for pro- 
 ductive southern China, being especially noted for its silk. 
 It is said that three hundred thousand people, or one- 
 
 Fig. 289. 
 The harbor of Hongkong. 
 
 eighth of the inhabitants, live in boats moored in the 
 river. 
 
 Hongkong (Fig. 289), an island which commands the 
 approach to Canton, belongs to the British. To Hongkong 
 many of the products of China are sent for export to 
 Europe and America. It is therefore a very busy place. 
 Hankau and Wuchang, on opposite sides of the 
 Yangtse-kiang River, are important river ports for tea. 
 As in the case of most Chinese cities, the number of in- 
 habitants is uncertain. For example, by some estimates 
 
KOREA 405 
 
 Hankau has a population of a million and a half, by 
 others, only eight hundred thousand. 
 
 The treaty port 1 of Shanghai is another large city ; 
 but Tientsin, the port nearest Peking, and the northern 
 terminus of the Grand Canal, is still larger, having a 
 population of about a million. It was from this point that 
 the allied forces started, in 1900, to relieve the foreigners 
 who were besieged in Peking by the Chinese Boxers. 
 
 Peking, the capital of China, is situated on a broad, 
 sandy plain. It has been the capital of a kingdom for three 
 thousand years and of the Chinese Empire for over eight 
 centuries. This city, like others in China, is surrounded 
 by a high wall with gates that are closed at night, as of 
 old in Europe. It is a rectangular city, with one portion 
 reserved for the gardens and palaces of the imperial gov- 
 ernment. This part is known as the " Forbidden City," 
 because the Chinese government refused to permit for- 
 eigners to enter it. 
 
 Korea. — This mountainous peninsula has a temperate cli- 
 mate and is adapted to the production of such crops as grains 
 in the north, and rice, tobacco, and cotton in the south. In 
 many respects the inhabitants resemble the Chinese ; in fact, 
 Korea was a dependency of China until freed by the war 
 between China and Japan in 1894. While there are great 
 natural resources, including both coal and iron, there has been 
 little advance. The government is an absolute monarchy; 
 the people have few rights ; and, until 1882, the country was 
 closed to foreigners. But now foreign influence is begin- 
 ning to be felt in this " Hermit Kingdom," whose capital is 
 Seoul. 
 
 Japan. — This island empire extends from Formosa, 
 
 1 Foreigners are not allowed to trade in all Chinese cities, and those 
 ports where this privilege is allowed by treaty are called " Treaty Ports." 
 
406 
 
 ASIA 
 
 Fig. 290. 
 The gate at the entrance to Seoul in Korea. 
 
 captured from the Chinese in 1894, to the Kurile Islands 
 far to the north. How many degrees is that ? About 
 
 h o w many 
 miles ? The lo- 
 cation of the 
 islands with ref- 
 erence to the 
 mainland re- 
 in i n d s us of 
 the British 
 Isles ; and, in 
 fact, Japan's 
 isolation from 
 other countries 
 has secured to 
 her the same 
 freedom from invasion as has long proved of such advan- 
 tage to the British. 
 
 Physiography and Climate. — Notwithstanding the great 
 length of the empire, its narrow islands occupy an area but 
 little greater than that of California. So much of this is 
 mountainous that not more than one-sixth of the surface 
 can be cultivated, and many of the lowlands are difficult to 
 reach because of the rugged surface and the absence of navi- 
 gable rivers. There are numerous volcanoes (Fig. 242) ; 
 and, since the mountains are still growing (p. 355), many 
 earthquakes. These are so frequent and violent that in 
 building their houses the people must allow for their force. 
 Nipon, the main island of Japan, has a warm temperate 
 climate — due to the Japanese current (Fig. 38) — and an 
 abundance of rain. Other islands near by have a similar 
 climate ; but Formosa is partly within the tropics. 
 
JAPAN 407 
 
 Under these conditions, in several respects so unfavor- 
 able, a dense population has developed, equal to more than 
 half the number in the 
 
 United States. In many . ^fl^""'^' r 
 
 ways the Japanese are the «. '■■■- -:,' : .^% r r 
 
 most advanced people in e^H 
 
 Asia. , jjjbs- 
 
 People and Government. , u« 
 
 — In early times Japan *' \ 
 
 was invaded by Mongolians 
 from the mainland, who ex- 
 pelled the original inhab- 
 itants to the more barren FlG - 2!)1 - 
 
 A Japanese peasant family travelling, 
 northern islands. J^rom 
 
 these Mongolians are descended the present Japanese, a 
 people noted for their smallness of stature and their won- 
 derful artistic instinct. 
 
 Centuries before the time of Christ they had developed 
 a civilization resembling that of their kinsmen, the Chinese. 
 Their fine taste led to the manufacture of many beautiful 
 articles of silk, metal, glass, and wood. Like the Chinese, 
 they for a long time did not care for modern civilization, 
 and closed their ports to the outside world. In 1853, 
 however, United States war-ships under Commodore 
 Perry entered Yokohama and induced the Japanese to 
 open their ports to our commerce. After this important 
 step the country, in 1868, was freely opened to the 
 world. 
 
 One great drawback to the advance of Japan was the 
 nature of the government, which resembled that of Europe 
 in the Middle Ages. While the Mikado was nominally 
 emperor, the real power was in the hands of noblemen 
 
408 
 
 ASIA 
 
 who, by the feudal system, had large numbers of peasants, 
 not only to work for them, but to fight when necessary. 
 
 After the coun- 
 try was opened 
 to foreigners the 
 power of the 
 noblemen was 
 lessened, and 
 the Mikado be- 
 came the real 
 emperor. At 
 present he is 
 aided by two 
 legislative . bod- 
 ies, one consist- 
 ing mainly of 
 noblemen, the 
 other elected by qualified voters. There is also a Cabinet 
 appointed by the Mikado, as the Cabinet of the United 
 States is appointed by the President. 
 
 Recent Advance. — Since these changes the Japanese 
 have become noted for their willingness to learn the 
 lessons of Western civilization, and their progress has 
 been truly marvellous. New schools have been started, 
 and education has been made compulsory. Americans and 
 Europeans have been induced to go to Japan to teach, 
 and Japanese students have been sent to Europe and 
 America to study in the universities and to learn what 
 they could of Western civilization. Thus, in a generation 
 the Japanese have added to their own knowledge that of 
 Europe and America ; and they have learned their lessons 
 so well that, with their patience, skill, and intelligence, 
 
 Fig. 292. 
 A Japanese travelling-chair. 
 
JAPAN 
 
 409 
 
 they alone of all the nations in Asia have taken rank 
 with the great nations of the world. 
 
 The progress that has been made is suggested by the follow- 
 ing facts : over seven hundred newspapers and periodicals are 
 now published in Japan. While in 1872 there was only one 
 short railway from Yokohama to Tokio, a distance of eighteen 
 miles, there are now more than three thousand miles of rail- 
 
 Fig. 293. 
 A temple in Japan. 
 
 way in the empire. There are many large manufactories of 
 various kinds ; and, as in the British Isles, cotton and other 
 raw products are even imported for manufacture. 
 
 Everywhere there are signs of progress ; but many ancient 
 customs are still preserved (Figs. 291 and 292), so that Japan 
 is a peculiar mixture of ancient and modern. There are the 
 Buddhist temples, and idols still worshipped (Figs. 254, 293, 
 and 294) ; and the sedan chair is extensively used for travel- 
 ling. Man power (Fig. 295) is much used still for carrying 
 
410 
 
 ASIA 
 
 passengers and merchandise, for there are but few domestic 
 animals in Japan. It seems strange to us to see such customs 
 within sound of the whistle of a woollen factory or railway- 
 engine ; but to the Japanese the 
 factories and railways are what 
 seem strange, and they deserve 
 the greatest credit for their 
 wisdom in realizing the value 
 of these modern inventions. 
 What Japan has done China 
 may also do if she will. 
 
 Resources. — Among the 
 mountains there are valuable 
 deposits of gold, silver, cop- 
 per, iron, and coal; and these 
 are now well developed. The 
 mountain sides are covered 
 with forests of great value, 
 including giant cedars, cam- 
 phor laurels, and lacquer 
 trees ; and wherever the soil 
 is favorable there is agricul- 
 ture. Among the products 
 of the farm are wheat, sugar 
 cane, and rice, the latter being 
 the chief article of food, as 
 among other Mongolians. As 
 in China, both tea and silk are 
 produced, and these form two of the main articles of 
 export. Much of our tea comes from Japan. Besides 
 these industries, fully two and a half millions of people are 
 engaged in fishing. 
 
 Principal Cities. — Tokio, a city about the size of 
 
 Fig. 294. 
 A Japanese Pagoda. 
 
JAPAN 
 
 411 
 
 Philadelphia, is the capital of Japan. Besides being the 
 home of the Mikado, and therefore having many govern- 
 ment buildings, 
 it has numer- 
 ous manufac- 
 tories. Yoko- 
 hama, at the 
 entrance to To- 
 kio Bay, was a 
 mere fishing vil- 
 lage when vis- 
 ited by Perry ; 
 but since the 
 harbor of Tokio 
 is unsuited for the large modern ships, Yokohama has 
 
 Fig. 295. 
 A jiurikisha, or " man-power-carriage. 
 
 Fig. 29(3. 
 A view of Yokohama and its harbor. 
 
412 ASIA 
 
 grown rapidly and now has the largest foreign trade in 
 Japan. 
 
 Other important cities, having a population of several hun- 
 dred thousand, are Osaka, noted for its cotton manufacturing ; 
 Kioto, the former capital, and the centre of the tea district ; 
 and Nagoya, a centre for porcelain manufacturing, for which 
 Japan has long been noted. All these cities are connected by 
 railway lines, which have been a great aid in the development 
 of their industries. State how. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Tell about the size of Asia; also its 
 position with reference to the zones and other continents. (2) Tell 
 about its physiography, including mountains, rivers, and mineral 
 wealth. (3) Describe the climate. (4) Tell about the plants and 
 animals, showing the contrast between northern and southern Asia. 
 (5) What about the use of plants and animals in Asia in ancient 
 times? (6) In what sections were the beginnings of civilization 
 probably made? Why there? (7) Give reasons why Europeans 
 have so outdistanced the Asiatics. (8) Tell about the population 
 of Asia and its distribution. (9) Tell about the religions of Asia. 
 (10) Why is Turkey in Asia of special interest to us? (11) Describe 
 its surface, climate, and industries. (12) Why, and from what peoples, 
 has Asia. Minor suffered frequent invasions? (13) Tell about the 
 Holy Land : its surface; climate; history; present condition. (14) 
 Tell about Mesopotamia. (15) Describe the surface and climate of 
 Arabia. (16) Tell about its government, products, and principal 
 cities. (17) Give the main facts about Persia. (18) Do the same for 
 Afghanistan. (19) Compare the area of Siberia with that of various 
 countries of the world. (20) Compare the climatic belts of* Russia 
 in Asia with those of Russia in Europe. (21) What about the future 
 of Siberia ? (22) Tell about India : its climate and surface ; popula- 
 tion ; agricultural products ; forests and jungles ; wild and domesti- 
 cated animals ; minerals ; manufactures ; famines and plagues ; people 
 and their religion. (23) How did the British gain control over India, 
 and how is the control exercised? (24) Tell about Baluchistan and 
 Burma. (25) For what are the countries at the base of the Himalayas 
 important? (26) Locate and tell about the principal cities of India. 
 (27) What can you tell about Ceylon ? (28) Give the principal facts 
 about Siam. (29) Do the same for French Indo-China ; for Straits 
 
QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 413 
 
 Settlements. (30) Tell about China : area ; number of inhabitants 
 and their distribution ; climate and rivers ; people and their early 
 civilization ; reasons for their recent lack of development, giving ex- 
 amples; agricultural products; minerals and manufactures; govern- 
 ment; principal cities. (31) What can you tell about Korea? 
 (32) Tell about Japan: position; area; physiography and climate; 
 population; people and government ; recent advance; resources; chief 
 cities. 
 
 Review and Comparison with North America. 1 — (1) How 
 
 do North America and Asia differ in form, coast line, islands, moun- 
 tains, direction of rivers, and deserts ? (2) What other differences 
 between the two continents can you mention ? What resemblances ? 
 (3) Is the Canadian Pacific railway north or south of the Si- 
 berian railway? Which is the longer? (4) Is San Francisco north 
 or south of Peking? (5) Name the three peninsulas of southern 
 Asia ; of southern Europe. Which of the six is nearest the latitude 
 of Florida? (6) Name the large rivers of Asia and of Canada that 
 flow into the Arctic Ocean. On a globe estimate the distance between 
 the mouths of the Mackenzie and Lena rivers. (7) How do the great 
 rivers of China compare in length with the Mississippi ? With the 
 Volga? (8) How do the interior lakes and seas of Asia compare in 
 value for commerce with our Great Lakes ? (9) With what lake in 
 North America may the Aral Sea be compared? (10) What ocean 
 currents affect the climate of Asia? Of North America ? (11) Com- 
 pare the climatic belts of Siberia with those of Canada. (12) Is 
 western Asia more or less suited to agriculture and commerce than 
 western North America? Why? (13) In what portions of North 
 America and Asia is rice cultivated? (14) Answer the same question 
 for cotton. (15) What important crops in Asia are not extensively 
 produced in the United States ? (16) Name some of the leading im- 
 ports from Asia to the United States. (17) What about mining in 
 Asia compared with that in the United States? (18) Make the same 
 comparison for manufacturing ; for railways. (19) What is the pre- 
 vailing kind of government in each of the two continents ? (20) Com- 
 pare the population of the five largest cities of Asia with the five 
 largest in North America. (21) What are the advantages to the 
 United States of its control of the Philippines ? The disadvantages ? 
 
 1 Aid in answering some of these questions may be obtained in Section 
 XXV. and Appendix II. 
 
414 ASIA 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) What do you know about recent massacres of 
 Armenian Christians by the Turks ? (2) Why, do you suppose, has 
 Turkey not laid claim to all of Arabia? (3) Estimate the area of 
 the Holy Land. (4) Make a sand or clay map of the Holy Land 
 (Fig. 258). (5) Point out on the map (Fig. 258) some of the places 
 often mentioned in the New Testament and describe some of the 
 events that occurred there. (6) What Bible events have their scene 
 in Mesopotamia? (7) Write a paper to show to what extent our 
 present civilization is indebted to the Holy Land. (8) Find out some 
 facts about the Crusades. (9) Find out the length of the railway 
 across Siberia. (10) About how far is it by rail from Lisbon in Por- 
 tugal to Port Arthur on the Pacific? (11) Read Kipling's Jungle 
 Books. (12) Why should the Great AVall of China have less value 
 now than formerly? (13) How is Peking poorly situated for the 
 capital of so vast an empire? (14) Find out about our laws for the 
 exclusion of the Chinese, and the reasons why they were passed. (15) 
 Describe some of the events connected with the siege of the legations 
 and the relief expeditions sent to Peking in 1900. (16) Find some 
 facts about the destruction of Galveston by the hurricane in 1900. 
 Look for an account of the destruction caused by a typhoon in south- 
 eastern Asia — they are often found in the illustrated papers and 
 newspapers in October-December. (17) What Asiatic countries have 
 you seen represented among the immigrants to the United States? 
 (18) Examine pictures of buildings in Asia (in this book or else- 
 where), to note how different are their styles of architecture from our 
 own. (19) Write a paper telling in what respects you would expect 
 to find an Asiatic city different from one of our own. (20) By what 
 water routes could you go from New York to Tientsin ? Would it be 
 nearer to go by rail as far as either San Francisco or Seattle? (21) By 
 what three all-water routes could you go from New York to Bombay? 
 Which is the shortest? (22) Find some facts about Confucius, Mo- 
 hammed, and Buddha. (23) Who was Omar Khayyam, and what did 
 he write? (24) Find some facts about the conquest of parts of Asia 
 by Alexander the Great. (25) Who first reached Tndia by water? 
 (26) Who was Marco Polo? (27) Find some facts about missionary 
 work in Asiatic countries. 
 
Fig. 297. 
 
XXII. AFRICA 
 
 Map Questions (Fig. 297). — (1) Compare the size of Africa with 
 that of the other continents. (2) Sketch the eastern hemisphere to 
 show the position of Africa. (3) Sketch the outline of Africa, and 
 locate the principal rivers and lakes. (4) What peculiarity do you 
 notice about the location of the mountains? (5) What zones cross 
 Africa? (6) What kind of climate (temperature and rainfall) would 
 you expect to find (a) in the extreme north ; (b) in the extreme south ; 
 (c) at the equator ; (d) near the tropics? (7) Find the desert country 
 north and south of the equator. Explain its cause. (8) How does 
 it happen that the Nile has water enough to flow so far through the 
 desert? (9) In what sections are the most railways? What reasons 
 can you suggest? (10) Where are the large cities? Compare their 
 number with those in other continents. Why should there be this 
 difference ? 
 
 Physiography. — Africa, the second continent in size, 
 resembles South America in outline. Its form is roughly 
 that of a triangle, broad at the north and tapering toward 
 the south. The coast line is remarkably regular, in strik- 
 ing contrast with the coast of Europe, Asia, and North 
 America, and resembling that of South America and 
 Australia. What must be some of the consequences of 
 such regularity ? What gulfs, seas, and large islands are 
 found on the map of Africa ? 
 
 Africa differs from all other continents in its mountain 
 systems. It is mainly a plateau, but near the coast the 
 plateau edges are broken and the rocks upturned, so that 
 there is an almost complete mountain rim. Trace this 
 rim (Fig. 298); from what part of the coast is it absent? 
 In northern Africa the Atlas ranges reach an elevation of 
 fourteen thousand feet ; but the loftiest mountains are in 
 
 415 
 
416 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 the east central part. Among the latter is the volcanic 
 cone of Kilimanjaro, the highest peak on the continent. 
 Find this peak and trace the mountains from there north- 
 ward. Notice the elevated land in Abyssinia. 
 
 Fig. 298. 
 
 
PHYSIOGRAPHY 417 
 
 Owing to the mountain rim the rivers of Africa are peculiar. 
 For instance, the Niger, after rising among the highlands near 
 the west coast, sweeps around in a great curve before entering 
 the Atlantic. The Zambesi, in the south, also rises near the 
 west coast but crosses the continent eastward to the Indian 
 Ocean. Trace the courses of the Nile and the Kongo, the two 
 largest rivers. 
 
 In descending from the plateau each of these streams is 
 interrupted by rapids and falls. Find the Victoria Falls of 
 the Zambesi (Fig. 297) ; the cataracts of the Nile ; also 
 Leopoldville on the Kongo, below which are some falls. 
 Rapids also occur in the Niger. How will these great rivers 
 compare, therefore, with the Mississippi or Amazon as routes 
 for commerce ? How must these falls affect the development 
 of Africa ? 
 
 In one part of Africa there are several large lakes. Name 
 the three largest. Into what rivers do they empty ? Notice 
 that they are among the mountains ; their basins were not 
 formed by glaciers, as were most lakes of North America, but 
 by movements of the earth's crust. 
 
 Climate. — The equator crosses so near the middle of 
 Africa that only the northern and southern ends are in 
 the temperate zones. Therefore the climate of most of 
 the continent, like that of South America, is tropical. 
 Since the altitude of so much of Africa is so nearly uni- 
 form, the belts of climate extend nearly east and west. 
 What is true in this respect in South America ? 
 
 In equatorial Africa, that is for some distance both to 
 the north and south of the equator, there is such a hot, 
 rainy climate that, as in the Amazon Valley, the land is 
 densely covered with a tropical forest (Fig. 299). This 
 is especially well illustrated at the base of the plateau 
 where the narrow strip of coast land is hot, reeking with 
 moisture, and the seat of deadly malaria. These condi- 
 2e 
 
418 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 tions have greatly interfered with exploration, for disease 
 
 is apt to seize white men even while they are crossing the 
 
 coastal strip. 
 
 The interior, owing to its greater elevation, is somewhat 
 
 cooler and less unheal thful ; but even there tropical heat and 
 
 rain prevail in 
 the equatorial 
 belt. It is this 
 heavy rainfall 
 that supplies the 
 Kongo and- Nile 
 with their im- 
 mense volumes 
 of water. Both 
 to the north and 
 to the south of 
 the rainy equa- 
 torial region is 
 the savanna belt 
 (Fig. 299), 
 where the rain- 
 fall varies with 
 the season. Why 
 (p. 34) ? 
 
 In the savan- 
 nas (p. 55), where 
 the climate is always hot, the rainy season lasts for several 
 months ; but the remainder of the year is so dry that trees 
 do not thrive. Therefore, excepting along the streams, the 
 country is open and grass-covered. This condition of drought 
 is suggested on the map (Fig. 297) by the small number -of 
 streams. It is also indicated by Lake Chad ; for, although a 
 good sized stream enters this lake, it has no outlet. Notice 
 
 Fig. 299. 
 
 To show the influence of climate on vegetation. In 
 the savanna area there are numerous forest-covered 
 sections, especially near the rivers. 
 
CLIMATE 419 
 
 that the boundary of the lake is marked by a broken line, 
 meaning that it cannot be fixed. During the dry season the 
 lake is smaller than Lake Erie ; but with the wet season it 
 rises, overflows the surrounding country,- and becomes several 
 times as large. Where are the corresponding savannas in South 
 America? (p. 103). 
 
 As the tropical forest grades into the savanna, so the 
 savanna grades into the true desert (Fig. 299), where the 
 influence of the drying trade winds is felt at all times of 
 the year. The northern desert is larger and better developed 
 than that south of the equator. This is due partly to the 
 fact that the continent is so broad in the north, and partly 
 to the large land areas which lie to the north and east — ■ 
 the directions from which the winds of northern Africa 
 must come. On the mountain slopes near the Mediter- 
 ranean there is moderate rainfall ; and likewise on the 
 southeastern slopes of South Africa where the winds blow 
 from the sea. 
 
 The Sahara, which in places extends to the very shores of 
 the Mediterranean, forms a part of the most extensive desert 
 belt of the world. Trace this belt into Asia. It is character- 
 ized by cloudless skies and almost complete absence of rain ; 
 but here and there, on the mountain slopes, there is moderate 
 rainfall. It is this which supplies the widely scattered springs 
 and the short mountain streams. In the dry, clear desert air 
 the nights are cool, even in summer, although the midday tem- 
 perature may reach 100° or even 125° in the shade. 
 
 Plants and Animals. — Northern Africa is so close to 
 southern Europe that there is a marked resemblance 
 between the animals and plants on the two sides of the 
 Mediterranean. The desert, however, serves as an effec- 
 tive barrier to their spread southward. 
 
ELEPHANT 
 
 The M.N. Co., Buffalo. 
 
 
 Fig. 300. 
 Some of the African animals. 
 
 LION 
 
PLANTS AND ANIMALS 
 
 421 
 
 Portions of the desert, especially where covered with 
 dunes of moving sand, are almost void of plant life. 
 Animals are also few 
 in number and limited 
 in kind, among them 
 being the ostrich (Fig. 
 300) and the camel 
 (Fig. 301). What 
 have you previously 
 learned a "bout the 
 plants and animals of 
 the desert ? (p. 58). 
 The oases, on the 
 other hand, support a 
 number of plants. Of 
 these the date palm is most notable, for it is an important 
 source of food for the nomads of the desert. 
 
 In the desert of South Africa there is a resemblance to the 
 plants and animals of the Sahara; but many of the species 
 
 are different. 
 The dense tropi- 
 cal forest is as 
 effective a bar- 
 r i e r to the 
 spread of desert 
 , hfeasthe desert 
 itself is to the 
 spread of plants 
 ■and animals 
 that are adapted 
 to humid cli- 
 mates. What 
 would happen to seeds carried by winds or animals from one 
 of these places to the other? 
 
 Fig. 302. 
 A crocodile on the bank of the Nile. 
 
422 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 The open country between the desert and the tropical 
 forest abounds in large animals (Fig. 300). Among these, 
 
 on the savannas, and on the 
 edge of the forest, are the 
 antelope, giraffe, buffalo, zebra, 
 elephant, lion, leopard, and 
 rhinoceros, while the crocodile 
 (Fig. 302) and the huge hip- 
 popotamus live in the rivers. 
 The dense forest itself is 
 shunned by many of the larger 
 forms, though teeming with 
 insect life, birds, reptiles, 
 and tree-dwelling mammals. 
 Among the latter are the ba- 
 boon, the gorilla, and the chim- 
 panzee (Fig. 300). 
 
 There is a close resemblance 
 between the animals and plants 
 of Africa and Asia (p. 361). 
 Those of the Sahara are also 
 found in the deserts of Asia ; 
 and the tropical life of the 
 savannas and forests of Africa 
 is similar to that of southern 
 Asia. They are, in fact, so closely alike that the two regions 
 are classed as one great life zone, the Ethiopian. But although 
 in the same latitude with South America, the African animals 
 and plants differ greatly from those of South America because 
 of the broad ocean barrier. 
 
 The People. — Central and southern Africa is the home 
 of the negroes, who are divided into many tribes with dif- 
 ferent customs. Some are fierce and warlike, others peace- 
 
 Fig. 303. 
 A Zulu warrior in fighting dress. 
 
PEOPLE 
 
 423 
 
 ful ; those dwelling in the forest live by hunting ; those 
 upon the savaifnas, by primitive agriculture and by herd- 
 ing. For centuries they were captured by the whites and 
 sold in slavery ; 
 but the day of 
 the white slave- 
 trade is now al- 
 . most past. In 
 spite of the for- 
 mer frequency of 
 slave-hunting 
 raids, and the 
 great destruction 
 of life in the 
 fierce tribal wars, 
 there are many 
 negroes left. 
 With a fertile 
 soil, and in a 
 warm climate, 
 they are able to 
 
 support themselves with a minimum of work, especially 
 along the rivers and on the savannas. 
 
 While the forest and much of the savanna have been 
 dominated by the negro even down to the present day, 
 the arid sections of northern Africa have been held by 
 the whites since very early times. Near the border line 
 between the two races there has been such a mixture of 
 blood that the population is largely of half-breeds. 
 
 The whites of northern Africa are in part herders, living 
 the nomadic life so characteristic of such lands. They are 
 energetic and intelligent, though fierce and warlike. Upon 
 
 AFRICA. 
 Density of Population 
 
 I I Less than 1 per Square Mile, 
 EE3 1-25 " •'• 
 
 l'iV.UU 
 
 Fig. 304. 
 
424 
 
 AFBICA 
 
 the oases are colonies of farmers, especially along the lower 
 Nile, which is really an immense oasis in frhe midst of an 
 almost trackless desert; but since the means of support are 
 meagre, the desert itself must always be thinly inhabited. 
 
 Northern Africa figured prominently in the early his- 
 tory of Europe. To the ancient civilization of Egypt 
 the early Europeans owed a part of their civilization. 
 For those who dwelt upon the shores of the enclosed 
 Mediterranean, after gaining knowledge of sailing, .often 
 came in contact with the Egyptians. 
 
 The Egyptian nation, once powerful and highly developed, 
 was later conquered by the Romans, and finally fell into de- 
 cay. Its promi- 
 nence in olden 
 times is indicated 
 by the part it 
 played in the Old 
 Testament his- 
 tory. Give some 
 examples. 
 
 Although the 
 Greeks and Ro- 
 mans were famil- 
 iar with northern 
 Africa near the 
 Mediterranean, most of the remainder of the great conti- 
 nent was a vast unknown. Yet that such ignorance was 
 not due entirely to distance is proved by the fact that the 
 Mediterranean people were in communication with the more 
 distant lands of southern Asia. It was the broad desert bar- 
 rier, with its fierce nomadic inhabitants, that checked explora- 
 tion by land ; and the terrors of voyages on the open ocean in 
 small boats prohibited exploration by water. 
 
 Exploration and Settlement. — The Indies, famed for 
 their precious stones, spices, and other valuable products, 
 
 Fig. 305. 
 Nubians of the Nile. 
 
EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT 
 
 425 
 
 were reached, by long journeys overland." But even be- 
 fore the famous voyage of Columbus, the Portuguese — the 
 most progressive sailors of that day — were engaged in an 
 attempt to reach these distant lands by sailing around the 
 southern end of Africa. After various voyages, the Cape 
 of Good Hope was finally passed and the way to the Indies 
 by water was opened in 1498. 
 
 Fig. 306. 
 
 A pyramid in the desert near Cairo — one of the remarkable works of the 
 
 ancient Egyptians. 
 
 The Portuguese made settlements on the east and west coasts 
 of Africa, and they still have extensive possessions there (Fig. 
 297). But progress toward development and settlement has 
 been slow for various reasons, among which perhaps the most 
 important is the fact that so much of Africa is tropical. The 
 desert is forbidding, and the hot, damp climate of the coastal 
 strip, upon which colonies were naturally first established, was 
 found particularly unheal thful (p. 417). In addition, travel 
 into the interior was prevented by hostile hordes of blacks, and 
 by the absence of navigable rivers. Moreover, those who were 
 
426 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 willing to leave Europe were more attracted toward the conti- 
 nents of Australia and America. Why? 
 
 By far the most successful settlement in the newly dis- 
 covered parts of Africa was that made by the Dutch 
 
 at Cape Colony, a 
 little later than their 
 settlement of New 
 York. As in the 
 case of New York, 
 the British seized 
 their territory ; but, 
 by migrating north- 
 ward, the Dutch 
 people were able to 
 maintain an inde- 
 pendent hold upon 
 a part of South 
 Africa until, in 1900, their territory was once more 
 seized by the British. 
 
 During the nineteenth century Livingston, Stanley, and 
 others entered the " dark continent " ; and since their 
 efforts, exploration has been rapid. Many European 
 nations have taken part in the exploration, and as a 
 result have claimed territory. But the British have 
 been by far the most active. What other nations have 
 possessions there? (Fig. 297). 
 
 The British have done most toward the development of 
 Africa, partly because they control the most desirable portions, 
 — the fertile valley of the Nile in the north, and the southern 
 part with its favorable climate and wonderful mineral resources. 
 They iioav propose to build a railway from Cape Town to Cairo, 
 and a part of it is already completed (Fig. 297). 
 
 Fig. 307. 
 Bedouin nomads on the desert of Sahara. 
 
THE SAHARA 
 
 427 
 
 Northern Africa 
 
 Political Divisions. — Much of northern Africa is such 
 a desert that its inhabitants are few and scattered. It is, 
 however, under the control of various nations. The greater 
 part of the Sahara is claimed by the French, though the 
 Spanish hold a small section on the western coast, and the 
 British control both the Libyan desert and the Egyptian 
 Sudan in the east. Along the Mediterranean coast are 
 several well-settled sections, 
 the best known being Egypt. 
 The four countries west of 
 Egypt — Tripoli, Tunis, Al- 
 geria, and Morocco — are often 
 called the Barbary States (the 
 home of the Berbers). 
 
 The Sahara. — From the At- 
 lantic to the Red Sea, and 
 from near the Mediterranean 
 to the grass lands of the 
 Sudan, there is almost un- 
 broken desert — the famous 
 Sahara. Its area is estimated 
 to be from three to four mill- 
 ion square miles, or about equal 
 to that of the entire United 
 States. It is a plateau of un- 
 even surface, with mountain 
 ranges here and there, and bor- 
 dered on the north by the Atlas Mountains. The wind- 
 swept highlands are bare and stony, while the lowlands 
 have extensive areas of sand dunes. 
 
 Fig. 308. 
 
 Biskra, in Algeria, on the northern 
 
 edge of the Sahara. 
 
428 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 Much of the soil is fertile, and with rainfall would yield 
 abundant crops. But nature has forbidden rain, and its 
 surface is therefore barren in the extreme. Only on the 
 oases, of which there are some four hundred in the Sahara, 
 is there the necessary drinking water which renders hu- 
 man life possible in the desert. 
 
 Fig. 309. 
 A negro hut in Zululand. 
 
 Caravans cross this desert, one of the important routes being 
 from Tafilet in Morocco, southward to Timbukto. There may 
 be from a thousand to fifteen hundred camels in one caravan, 
 and a full year may be required to equip it. Each camel is 
 carefully selected by the chief of the caravan, and many extra 
 camels are taken along to replace those that give out on the 
 journey. There is one driver for every dozen camels. 
 
 Upon starting, the loads are carefully packed on the camels' 
 backs, each animal bearing about three hundred pounds. A 
 
THE 8 AH ABA 
 
 429 
 
 clay's march lasts sixteen hours, the camels travelling some thirty 
 abreast at the rate of about two miles an hour. Ordinary camels 
 cannot travel more than three days without drinking ; but the 
 better grades are able to go for six or seven days without water 
 and with almost no food. The trip across the Sahara, from 
 north to south, requires fully three months. Estimate the dis- 
 tance. At best nearly a third of the animals perish in the round 
 trip ; and before the return journey is undertaken it is neces- 
 sary for those surviving to have a rest of several weeks. 
 
 Fig. 310. 
 A nomad camp on the northern edge of the Sahara. 
 
 An advance party precedes the caravan to make arrange- 
 ments for camping and for water. Many roundabout journeys 
 are necessary to pass deep valleys and plateaus, for caravans 
 go around rather than over obstacles. The daytime is hot ; but 
 as soon as the sun sets, the temperature rapidly falls and the 
 nights become cold even in midsummer. 
 
 There are dangers in the journey aside from that of thirst. 
 Sometimes sand storms arise ; and although such a storm may 
 not last a half-hour, it may destroy a whole caravan. The 
 wind blows violently, and sand fills the air and drifts about in 
 such quantities that animals and men alike are suffocated in 
 the drifts. Also small caravans may be attacked by wander- 
 
430 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 ing tribes of warlike natives ; and near the southern edge of 
 the desert the danger from attack by the lion is added. It 
 evidently requires courage and great powers of endurance to 
 
 engage in the car- 
 avan trade. 
 
 Caravans 
 which cross the 
 desert carry the 
 products of cen- 
 tral Africa to 
 the coast. These 
 include ivory, 
 skins, and os- 
 trich feathers 
 obtained by 
 bartering with 
 the negroes. 
 
 Egypt and the 
 Neighboring 
 British Terri- 
 tory.— Egypt 
 proper and the 
 Libyan desert are parts of the broad Sahara and have 
 all the features of the desert just described. Even at 
 Cairo the average yearly rainfall is but an inch and a 
 half. In climate, both for summer and winter, northern 
 Egypt closely resembles the desert portion of western 
 Arizona and southeastern California. 
 
 The Nile. — The Egyptian Sudan and the country south 
 of it, on the other hand, have a tropical climate, arid in 
 the north, but warm and humid in the south, where the 
 influence of the tropical rains is felt. The headwaters 
 
 Fig. 311. 
 
 Sudanese people from the Egyptian Sudan. 
 
EGYPT 
 
 431 
 
 of the Nile, near the equator, are fed by such heavy rains 
 that the river is able to flow across the desert in spite of 
 the fact that no tributaries enter the lower half of its 
 course. How great a distance is that ? 
 
 Without the Nile the whole of northern Egypt would 
 be a sparsely inhabited desert ; but the precious river 
 waters transform the section near the Mediterranean 
 (Fig. 313) to a great oasis which has become the seat of 
 
 Fig. 312. 
 
 Sailboats on the lower Nile. 
 
 an important agricultural industry, and is densely popu- 
 lated. 
 
 After leaving the region of equatorial rains and the savan- 
 nas, the Nile crosses the desert through a valley — in places 
 a thousand feet in depth — which it has cut in the plateau. 
 In this part of its course there are several cataracts (see Fig. 
 297). The Nile resembles the Colorado River of the United 
 States, which, after leaving the Rocky Mountains, flows in a 
 deep canyon across the arid plateau of Arizona ; but the can- 
 yon of the Colorado is much deeper than that of the Nile. 
 Below Cairo the river leaves its narrow valley, divides into 
 several channels, and flows across a plain (Fig. 313). This 
 plain is the delta which the Nile has built in the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea during the ages that the river has been bringing 
 
432 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 sediment from its upper course. It is from the Nile that we 
 have obtained the word delta, now applied to similar deposits 
 
 Sea, 
 
 Mediterranean 
 
 Fig. 313. 
 The lower Nile. The shaded area between the two deserts is farming land 
 which is reached by water from the river. The numerous crossed lines 
 are railways. Find the Pyramids. Why is the location at the head of a 
 fertile delta, and at the outlet of a narrow river valley bounded by desert, 
 a favorable one for a large city ? 
 
EGYPT 433 
 
 at the mouths of rivers in various parts of the world. The 
 word comes from the Greek letter delta (A), which has the form 
 of a triangle. Notice that shape in Figure 313. 
 
 When the rainy season comes to the Nile tributaries 
 among the Abyssinian mountains, the river rises so high 
 that it overflows large tracts of the broad delta below 
 Cairo. The rise begins in June and reaches its height in 
 
 Fig. 314. 
 The great Pyramid of Cheops. 
 
 October. By this overflow not only is the land irrigated, 
 but a thin layer of fine mud is spread over the fields. 
 This serves so to fertilize the soil that, year after year, 
 heavy crops may be raised without making the soil sterile. 
 Agriculture. — In consequence of these remarkably 
 favorable conditions, the Nile delta has been occupied 
 by an agricultural people from the very earliest times. 
 It is still the seat of a great grain industry, producing 
 2f 
 
434 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 wheat, corn, millet, and barley. Much rice and sugar cane 
 are also raised, and cotton which is of especial value 
 because of its long fibre. There are many vineyards, 
 and orange, lemon, and fig groves ; and both along the 
 Nile and on the oases of the desert there are groves of 
 
 Fig. 315. 
 The Sphinx and two of the Pyramids. 
 
 date palms (Fig. 806). Grazing is of importance in the 
 Nile Valley, and on the neighboring plateau. The animals 
 raised include the buffalo and camel in addition to sheep, 
 goats, cattle, horses, and donkeys. 
 
 The People. — The known history of Egypt reaches 
 back several thousand years before the time of Christ. 
 The fertile soil and favorable climate, added to the pro- 
 tection from frequent wars which the surrounding desert 
 
EGYPT 
 
 435 
 
 and sea afforded, encouraged the 
 development of industry and thrift. 
 By the mixture of agricultural and 
 pastoral races there arose a civiliza- 
 tion in advance of that of the neigh- 
 boring section's of Europe and Asia. 
 In fact, at the time when Europe 
 was inhabited by barbarians, and 
 the peoples of western Asia were 
 unorganized, Egypt had made long 
 advances in civilization. 
 
 We read in the Bible of the Pha- 
 raohs who ruled over Egypt. Can you 
 recall any of the Bible stories which 
 relate to these rulers ; for example, the 
 story of Joseph ? During those times 
 the Egyptians built the obelisks (Eig. 
 
 Fig. 317. 
 An Arab woman in Cairo. 
 
 316), the sphinx (Fig. 
 315), and those marvel- 
 lous structures, the pyra- 
 mids (Figs. 306 and 314), 
 which are really the tombs 
 of kings. By a peculiar 
 process they preserved the 
 bodies of their dead, and 
 these mummies may be 
 seen in the museums of 
 many large cities. Among 
 the mummies are the re- 
 mains of the Pharaohs 
 themselves. 
 
 In the movement 
 westward of the people 
 
436 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 who dwelt along the 
 eastern shores of the 
 Mediterranean and far- 
 ther east in Asia, Egypt 
 became one of the high- 
 ways of the world, and 
 against its people many 
 destructive wars were 
 waged. As other nations 
 have advanced, the 
 Egyptians have steadily 
 lost ground. The fa- 
 mous conqueror, Alex- 
 
 Fig. 318. 
 An Egyptian sheik, a descendant of Mo- 
 hammed. 
 
 ander the Great, overcame them and 
 founded the city of Alexandria ; later 
 the Romans made conquest of the 
 territory ; and repeatedly since then 
 the country has been invaded, for it has 
 continued to be a highway of trade for 
 three continents. At present Egypt is 
 required to pay annual tribute to Tur- 
 key, but she is otherwise practically 
 independent of Turkey ; and the ruler, 
 or Khedive, is a hereditary monarch. 
 The government of Egypt was so bad 
 that the French and British finally 
 stepped in and took control of the 
 finances of the nation. When the 
 French declined to aid in subduing a 
 
 Fig. 319. 
 
 A Fellah woman and 
 child. 
 
EGYPT 
 
 437 
 
 rebellion in Egypt, the British alone assumed a large share 
 in the control of Egyptian affairs. 
 
 The great majority of the Egyptians are Mohammedans 
 (Fig. 318), but they are divided into several classes. The 
 most numerous class is that of the fellahs (Fig. 319), or 
 peasants, who live along the Nile and are apparently descend- 
 ants of the ancient Egyptian farmers. In the towns most of 
 the business is in the hands of the Copts, who are the rem- 
 
 Fig. 320. 
 The Suez Canal at Port Said. 
 
 nants of the ruling classes of ancient Egypt. They are still 
 Christians in spite of centuries of oppression by the Moham- 
 medans. A third class is that of the Arabs, among whom are 
 the nomadic Bedouins (Fig. 307) who dwell in the desert. 
 
 As a result of British direction there has recently been 
 marked progress in Egypt. Extensive irrigation works 
 have been undertaken, and the land area for cotton and 
 sugar cane. has thereby been greatly increased. By means 
 of reservoirs and canals it is further proposed to reclaim 
 
438 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 thousands of square miles of the desert. A number of 
 railway lines has also been built (Fig. 313), including 
 
 a part of the proposed 
 
 line from Cairo to Cape 
 Town (p. 426). Out- 
 side of the Nile Valley, 
 however, travel still 
 depends largely upon 
 the use of camels (Fig. 
 306). 
 
 Suez Canal. — 
 Northeastern Egypt 
 includes the Isthmus 
 of Suez, which connects 
 Africa with Asia. This narrow neck of land has for cen- 
 turies stood as a barrier to water travel from Europe to 
 southeastern Asia, compelling Euro- 
 pean vessels to pass all the way 
 around Africa in order to reach 
 southern Asia. Little wonder is it, 
 therefore, that a ship canal has been 
 built there. 
 
 Fig. 321. 
 A view of a part of Cairo. 
 
 The Suez Canal, begun in 1859, was 
 completed in 1869. It extends from 
 Suez to Port Said (Fig. 297), and is 
 eighty-seven miles long, with a depth 
 of twenty-six feet and a width at the 
 surface varying from sixty-five to one 
 hundred and twenty yards. Its length 
 is much greater than that of the pro- 
 posed Panama Canal, but the difficul- 
 ties of construction were less. The country is very level, and, 
 as in the case of the proposed Nicaraguan Canal, a part of the 
 
 Fig. 322. 
 One of the mosques in Cairo. 
 
EGYPT 
 
 439 
 
 course (about twenty-one miles) is through a lake. Ten vessels 
 
 on the average pass through the Suez Canal each day. Estimate 
 
 the distance 
 
 saved by this 
 
 canal in going 
 
 from London to 
 
 Calcutta. By 
 
 agreement among 
 
 nations it cannot 
 
 be captured and 
 
 closed in time of 
 
 Fig. 323. 
 
 An Arab school in the streets of Cairo. 
 
 Cities. — At 
 the head of the 
 delta, just 
 above the point 
 where the Nile 
 branches (Fig. 
 313), is Cairo, 
 the capital and 
 largest city of Egypt and, in fact, of all Africa. It is 
 about the size of St. Louis, having a population of 570,000. 
 This interesting place is visited each year by a stream of 
 tourists, some seeking a winter health resort, others at- 
 tracted by the strange life of the country and the remark- 
 able ruins of the old civilization (Figs. 314-316). 
 
 Cairo itself contains the palace of the Khedive, several in- 
 teresting mosques (Fig. 322), and a museum in which are pre- 
 served many Egyptian antiquities and works of art. The 
 inhabitants also attract attention, for in the streets may be 
 seen many people with different languages and peculiar cus- 
 toms. The differences among the people may be illustrated 
 by the following fact : there are three Sabbaths each week, 
 
440 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 Friday, the Sabbath of the Mohammedans, Saturday, observed 
 by the Jews, and Sunday, by the Christians. 
 
 Alexandria, connected with Cairo by rail (Fig. 313), 
 is the seaport of Egypt and the second city in size in the 
 country. The harbor, which is a very busy place, is pro- 
 tected by a sea wall nearly two miles in length. The chief 
 
 business is the export of 
 cotton, sugar, grain, and 
 other Egyptian prod- 
 ucts, and the importa- 
 tion of manufactured 
 goods. More than half 
 the trade is with Great 
 Britain. 
 
 The Barbary States. 
 — Find the position of 
 each of these four coun- 
 tries. Each borders the 
 Mediterranean, but extends southward into the desert 
 (p. 427). 
 
 The Atlas Mountains skirt the Mediterranean coast from 
 the Atlantic to Tunis, where their projection into the 
 Mediterranean forms the most northerly point in Africa. 
 These mountains contain many valuable mineral products, 
 including precious metals in Morocco and Algeria, and 
 marble and alabaster in the latter country. These mineral 
 resources, however, have been but slightly developed. 
 
 Since the Atlas Mountains cause vapor to be condensed 
 when winds blow from the ocean or from the Mediter- 
 ranean, many of the valleys are well watered. Forests 
 cover some of the mountain slopes, and one of the valuable 
 trees is the cork oak, the bark of which is removed for 
 
 Fig. 324. 
 The costume of women in Algeria. 
 
BARB ART STATES 
 
 441 
 
 shipment from Algeria to Spain and Portugal. Camels, 
 sheep, goats, and cattle are raised among the mountains 
 and upon the plateaus. In the season of rainfall — our 
 winter — they are driven to the plains on the borders of 
 the desert. 
 
 Agriculture is carried on here and there, often by means 
 of irrigation, with water supplied by the mountain snows 
 and rains, as in 
 southern Cali- 
 fornia. T h e 
 villages are 
 therefore situ- 
 ated where val- 
 leys open to the 
 plains. Among 
 the crops pro- 
 duced, besides 
 dates and grains, 
 are figs, grapes, 
 and olives. 
 Wine from the 
 grapes of Al- 
 
 Fig. 325. 
 A scene in Morocco, on the edge of the Sahara. 
 
 geria is shipped in large quantities to France ; and the 
 best olive oil and the best dates in the world come from 
 Tunis. 
 
 The original occupants of this region, the Berbers, still 
 dwell on the desert and among the mountains, having been 
 driven there long ago by invading Arabs. Most of the 
 inhabitants are Mohammedans. Tripoli is still a Turkish 
 province, but Tunis and Algeria are held by France. 
 However, the native ruler, or Bey, of Tunis is permitted 
 to direct affairs in his country under the supervision of 
 
442 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 France. Morocco is the only one of the Barbary States 
 that maintains independence, being ruled by an absolute 
 monarch, or Sultan. Can you suggest why the conflicting 
 interests of Spain, France, and England should prevent 
 conquest by any one ? 
 
 Many of the inhabitants of Morocco are still barbarians, and 
 some of the tribes among the mountains even refuse to recognize 
 
 the rule of the Sultan. On the 
 whole the people are cruel and 
 treacherous, and if a vessel is 
 wrecked upon their coast, it is sure 
 to be plundered by them. Only 
 within the last hundred years have 
 they been obliged to abandon their 
 custom of seizing Christians and 
 holding them for ransom. 
 
 Conditions of life in Morocco 
 are shown by the following : The 
 writer once visited a school in 
 Tangier consisting of a dozen boys 
 from nine to ten years of age. The 
 room where they studied received 
 its only light from the open door, 
 and it contained no seats, desks, 
 or furniture of any kind. The 
 children sat on the floor in a semi- 
 circle around a long-bearded old 
 man, who likewise sat on the floor, 
 and the only object they had before them was a page from the 
 Koran, or Mohammedan Bible. What does such a condition of 
 education indicate in regard to progress ? If this is the case 
 on the coast, almost within the shadow of Europe, what must 
 be the condition farther inland ? 
 
 Almost the only manufacturing in these states is hand work. 
 Beautiful silk and woollen goods are made, and also articles of 
 
 Fig. 326. 
 
 A street in the " Old Town " of 
 Algiers. 
 
BABBARY STATES 
 
 443 
 
 leather. Most of these articles are intended for their own use; 
 but because of the beauty of the work some are exported. 
 
 These countries are only partially developed. Caravan trade, 
 herding, and agriculture are the chief occupations. Excepting 
 in northern Algeria and Tunis, there are no railways and few 
 roads. In fact, in 
 many parts the 
 only way to travel 
 is on horseback or 
 on camels, along 
 paths worn by the 
 sheep and goats. 
 Even agriculture is 
 carried on in the 
 most primitive 
 fashion, some of 
 the methods em- 
 ployed being those 
 of two thousand 
 years ago. 
 
 The houses are 
 made of stone and 
 sun-dried brick 
 (Fig. 325), with 
 thick walls to keep 
 out the heat of 
 
 summer. They are commonly low and one storied, although 
 some of the larger buildings are interesting and even beautiful 
 (Fig. 327). Much the same style of architecture was intro- 
 duced into the New World by the early Spaniards, who were 
 taught it by the Moors when they invaded Spain from northern 
 Africa. 
 
 The capitals are the principal cities among the Barbary 
 States. Fez, one of the capitals of Morocco, is in the in- 
 terior ; but the Sultan and his court do not reside there 
 all the } r ear. Name the other capital. Tangier, on the 
 
 Fig. 327. 
 Church of Notre Dame- in Ah 
 
444 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 coast, is better known. Why should it be ? In Algeria 
 the seaport Algiers is the capital and largest city. It is 
 an interesting place, combining many features of ancient 
 and modern times. Under the French it has become an 
 important trading centre. The same is true of Tunis, 
 
 Fig. 328. 
 A view of the plateau of South Africa. A Zulu village in the foreground." 
 
 the capital of the country by that name. Locate the capi- 
 tal of Tripoli. 
 
 Southern Africa 
 
 Comparison with Northern Africa. — In some important 
 respects there is a resemblance between northern and 
 southern Africa, although they lie in different hemispheres. 
 What similarities are there in climate (p. 419) and physi- 
 
SOUTHERN AFRICA 445 
 
 ography (p. 415) ? There is a resemblance, too, in the 
 fact that both sections have long been settled by white 
 men. What difference is there in the length of occupation 
 by white men ? 
 
 The People. — It is to the Dutch that we owe the first 
 important development of South Africa. Settling at 
 Cape Town, and then spreading over the neighboring 
 
 S'^VV^'i^i 
 
 '.? I '"5 >,'. ' ',. »■¥ 
 
 §jL 
 
 
 ^/', .'* . 
 
 ■■", 
 
 '"™" "' ~ . . 
 
 £m 
 
 bmi 
 
 ^i^S 
 
 » ■ 
 
 ■■■: * ■;> - ^ 
 
 .,,. 
 
 j£,r&m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '^"fflRS 
 
 
 5H 
 
 ^*^rss^jjl 
 
 Cssilfefr 
 
 Fig. 329. 
 A Zulu woman making a straw mat. 
 
 region, they took possession of the country occupied by 
 the negroes and introduced the European industries of 
 farming and ranching. 
 
 When Cape Colony came into possession of the British 
 (p. 426), many of the Dutch remained; but others emi- 
 grated, or "treked," northward and found new homes in 
 the interior. There they established two republics, the 
 Transvaal and the Orange Free State, in which they de- 
 sired to continue the customs of their forefathers and live 
 in the pursuit of agriculture and herding. 
 
446 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 Doubtless the Boers, as these people are called, would 
 have been left to themselves but for the discovery of won- 
 derfully rich deposits of gold. The mines were developed 
 by British capital, and friction arose between the mine 
 owners and the Boers. War followed, as a result of which 
 
 the Transvaal and 
 the Orange Free 
 State were de- 
 clared British 
 colonies in 1900. 
 
 At present, there- 
 fore, the British 
 control a broad 
 strip from the 
 southern tip of 
 Africa northward 
 to the southern end 
 of Lake Tangan- 
 yika. What are 
 the names of the 
 British colonies in 
 South Africa (Fig. 
 297) ? What nations control the land to the east and west 
 of the British possessions? Besides the Boers there are 
 many British in South Africa, especially in Cape Colony 
 and at the gold mines of the Transvaal. There are also large 
 numbers of negroes in -this region, particularly in the tropical 
 section and in Zululand in northern Natal (Fig. 303). Some 
 of them, like the Zulus, have fiercely opposed the encroach- 
 ment of the whites and still maintain semi-independent states. 
 They are, however, making progress toward civilization. 
 
 Agriculture and Grazing. — Along the east coast, and 
 in some of the interior valleys, agriculture is an impor- 
 tant industry. Sugar, bananas, pineapples, tea, coffee, 
 
 Fig. 330. 
 A pineapple field in South Africa. 
 
SOUTHERN AFRICA 
 
 447 
 
 and rice are raised near the coast, where the climate is 
 warm and damp. But wheat, tobacco, vegetables, and 
 grapes are produced in the cooler south, and upon the 
 uplands wherever the rainfall is sufficient or irrigation 
 possible. 
 
 By far the greater part of South Africa is an arid 
 plateau (Fig. 828), whose elevation causes cold winters 
 
 Fig. 331. 
 
 Cattle in the Transvaal. 
 
 in spite of the latitude. Forests are absent, and little 
 wood is found excepting that which comes from the 
 thorny acacia bushes of the plains and the willows and 
 other trees that grow along the streams. Excepting in 
 the real desert, the grass springs into life after the sum- 
 mer rains (November and December), and the country 
 becomes green and beautiful. Then follows a long 
 drought, when the vegetation withers. But, as in the 
 
448 AFRICA 
 
 arid part of western United States, the dried grass is 
 a sort of natural hay upon which cattle and sheep thrive. 
 
 Upon this plateau, therefore, immense numbers of cattle, 
 sheep, and goats are raised, and also many ostriches. It is 
 estimated that in Cape Colony alone there are over eigh- 
 teen million sheep and goats, one million cattle, and two 
 hundred and fifty thousand ostriches. In consequence, the 
 production of wool, hides, meat, and ostrich feathers is of 
 great importance. Of what value are these products to 
 Great Britain ? 
 
 Mineral Wealth. — The discovery of gold in South 
 Africa has brought great changes, as among the moun- 
 tains in the arid section of western United States. This 
 metal is found scattered through a conglomerate rock in 
 the Transvaal, near the city of Johannesburg, which 
 on that account has become the largest city of South 
 Africa. This district has become the most important in 
 gold production in the world; in 1898 more gold was 
 mined here than in the entire United States. 
 
 Other valuable minerals, including copper, iron, and 
 coal, also occur ; but as yet they have been little de- 
 veloped. At Kimberley in Cape Colony, however, are 
 diamond mines, which now supply ninety-eight per cent 
 of all diamonds. 
 
 The diamonds occur as rounded crystals in a decomposed 
 volcanic rock, and are obtained by digging out the soft rock 
 (Fig. 332) and carefully removing the crystals. After this 
 the crystals must be cut into the proper shape and polished. 
 There are various grades, some clear and beautiful, others 
 impure and dull. So productive is this deposit of precious 
 stones that $160,000,000 worth have been removed in eleven 
 years. There is only a limited demand for diamonds ; but the 
 
SOUTHERN AFRICA 
 
 449 
 
 company in control is careful not to mine enough of them to 
 reduce the price greatly. This is possible since the Kimberley 
 mine owners have a practical monopoly of the diamond pro- 
 duction of the world. 
 
 Commerce and Cities. — The two chief rivers of South 
 Africa are of little use as trade routes. The Orange River 
 
 Fig. 332. 
 A diamond mine at Kimberley. 
 
 is not navigable, because of lack of water and the presence 
 of rapids at the edge of the plateau. The other, the 
 Zambesi, is navigable by small boats for a distance of 
 three hundred miles from its mouth ; but the climate 
 near the coast, especially on the delta, is warm and un- 
 healthful. Rapid water checks further navigation, and 
 2g 
 
450 AFRICA 
 
 at one point there is a cataract, the Victoria Falls (see 
 map, Fig. 297), which rivals even Niagara in grandeur. 
 This cataract has a width of over a mile and a height of 
 four hundred and fifty feet. It is therefore both wider 
 and higher than Niagara ; but the volume of water is less. 
 Nor is the coast especially favorable to commerce. For 
 long distances there are no good harbors, while the river 
 
 Fig. 333. 
 Cape Town with Table Mountain (3500 feet high) in the distance. 
 
 mouths are choked with sand bars which render entrance 
 difficult. A breakwater has made Table Bay a good port, 
 and around its shores, beautifully situated at the base of 
 Table Mountain (Fig. 333), is Cape Town, the capital 
 and largest city of Cape Colony. It is connected with 
 the interior by a railway line, the southern end of the 
 proposed railway from Cape Town to Cairo. 
 
CENTRAL AFRICA 
 
 451 
 
 A second important harbor is that of Delagoa Bay, upon 
 which is situated LouRENgo Marquez, the capital of Portu- 
 guese East Africa. Being connected by rail with the interior, 
 this port has been much used for the shipment of Transvaal 
 products. Notice how much nearer it is to Johannesburg 
 from this point than from Cape Town. Durban, the seaport 
 of Natal, is a small city also connected with the Transvaal 
 by rail. The two principal interior cities are Kimberley 
 and Johannesburg (p. 448). There is no important town in 
 
 Fig. 334. 
 
 A scene at the market in Kimberley. Oxen are extensively used by the Boers 
 as draught-animals. 
 
 German South Africa, which is for the most part an arid 
 plateau. To what nation does Walfisch Bay belong ? 
 
 Central Africa 
 
 This vast area is in large part a great unknown. Much 
 of it is tropical forest ; but on the northern and southern 
 sides are open savannas (p. 418). 
 
 The Rivers. — Owing to the heavy rainfall of the forest 
 belt, the rivers are large. The Nile and Zambesi, already 
 
452 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 described, and the Niger and Kongo, all receive water 
 from the equatorial rains. The Niger is navigable in 
 sections ; but there are rapids in some parts, and in its 
 northern portion the river dwindles in size because of the 
 dry climate. Its large tributary, the Benue, is navigable. 
 It is the immense Kongo, which empties into the sea 
 a few degrees south of the equator, that offers the best 
 
 Fig. 335. 
 A steamer on the Kongo. 
 
 means of entrance to Central Africa. Although it is 
 interrupted by a series of falls a short distance from the 
 coast, above Stanley Pool there are thousands of miles of 
 navigable waters in the main river and its tributaries. 
 
 It was Stanley who first explored the Kongo, in 1876 ; and 
 since that time this part of Africa has been rapidly developing. 
 Formerly it was necessary to carry goods around the rapids, 
 each native porter carrying about sixty pounds. Only in this 
 way was Stanley able to carry his boats to the navigable por- 
 tion farther up stream. Now, however, a railway two hundred 
 and fifty miles in length connects the lower Kongo with Leo- 
 
CENTRAL AFRICA 453 
 
 poldville on Stanley Pool above the falls. From there, at all 
 seasons of the year, steamers may go a thousand miles up the 
 river and also into many tributaries. 
 
 Resources. — Half a century ago the most important 
 industry in tropical Africa was trade in negro slaves, 
 obtained by means of war, by raids, or by purchase from 
 the chiefs, and sold to slave dealers to be shipped abroad. 
 Now the shipment of plant and animal products takes the 
 place of the slave trade. But there is still much slave- 
 trading among Africans themselves. 
 
 On the forest edge and in the savannas elephants are 
 still hunted for the valuable ivory of their tusks. The 
 forests yield rubber ; the dried meat of the cocoanut is ex- 
 ported as copra; and there are valuable gums, spices, and 
 tropical woods. Agriculture and grazing are also carried 
 on, though few of the products are exported. So little is 
 known about this region that no one can tell what valuable 
 minerals may exist there. 
 
 The People. — Very few Europeans have settled in Cen- 
 tral Africa, and the native blacks live almost as their an- 
 cestors did. Contact with civilization, however, has caused 
 some changes, as the introduction of firearms and some 
 slight improvements in the methods of farming. Most of 
 the inhabitants live in ingeniously built huts clustered in 
 villages. They have a kind of tribal government, each 
 tribe having a leader whose power is absolute, and under 
 whom are minor chiefs. Some of the tribes are cannibals. 
 In religion they vary greatly, though all are intensely 
 superstitious (p. 91). 
 
 Among the blacks none are more remarkable than the pyg- 
 mies whom Stanley discovered in the equatorial forest, where 
 large numbers live in an area of about thirty thousand square 
 
454 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 miles. The adults are only three or four feet in height. They 
 live exclusively by hunting, by gathering the vegetable prod- 
 ucts of the forest, and by theft from the neighboring agricul- 
 tural tribes. Their villages are usually built in the forest 
 where two paths cross, and the huts are shaped like a turtle's 
 back, being about four and a half feet high, ten feet long, and 
 
 
 Fig. 336. 
 A scene in tropical Africa, on the bank of the Kongo. 
 
 five or six feet wide. In that hot climate they find need for 
 but little clothing. 
 
 With a small spear, a short bow with poisoned arrows, and 
 a knife, they hunt with wonderful skill, and by means of pit- 
 falls they capture even the elephant. They know the forest 
 intimately, and neither bird nor beast can escape them. Ac- 
 cording to Stanley they offer one of the greatest obstacles 
 to exploration ; for they appear stealthily, attack a party with 
 great courage, and then disappear in the trackless woods. 
 
CENTRAL AFRICA 455 
 
 Divisions of Central Africa. — European nations have 
 been active in claiming the greater part of Central Africa; 
 but their control over the native inhabitants is merely 
 nominal, and the boundaries of the different sections are 
 not well defined. We shall study briefly some of the 
 more important divisions. 
 
 The Sudan includes the vast area between the Sahara 
 and the tropical forest. What can you tell about its 
 climate? (p. 418). More than half of the Sudan is claimed 
 by the French, and most of the remainder, including the 
 Niger Territories and the Egyptian Sudan (p. 430), is held 
 by the British. The inhabitants are nomadic in the north, 
 and agricultural in the south, though they raise little more 
 than is needed for their own use. There is some gold in 
 the west ; but the principal products are ivory, ostrich 
 feathers, and gums. 
 
 The Sudan is difficult of access, being bordered by the 
 Sahara on the north, the tropical forest on the south, and the 
 plateau edge on the east, west, and southwest. Water routes 
 are of little service, since some of the drainage is into interior 
 basins, like Lake Chad, and some into the Nile and Niger, which 
 are interrupted by rapids. The difficulty of reaching Tim- 
 bukto, for example, is shown by the fact that there is still an 
 important caravan route from that place across the wide Sahara 
 to the Mediterranean (p. 428). A railway from Timbukto to 
 the sea is now under consideration. What influence would it 
 probably have on this caravan route ? Why ? 
 
 East of the Sudan is Abyssinia, which is for the most part a 
 rocky plateau crossed by mountains and difficult of access. Its 
 condition is indicated by the fact that the capital is periodically 
 changed when the supply of firewood is exhausted. It is evident, 
 therefore, that there are not many fine government buildings. 
 The inhabitants are mainly whites belonging to very different 
 tribes which are often hostile to one another. Many of the people 
 
456 AFRICA 
 
 still hold to Christianity notwithstanding the invasion by Mo- 
 hammedans nearly four centuries ago. In 1889 Italy laid claim 
 to the whole of Abyssinia ; but in 1896 King Menelik destroyed 
 the Italian army, and the Italian claim was withdrawn. Italy 
 still holds Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. What other nations 
 occupy a part of the coast on the border of Abyssinia ? 
 
 The map shows several small countries on the west coast of 
 Africa in the part marked Upper Guinea. Find Loiver Guinea. 
 The divisions colored pink belong to the British; those marked 
 green to the Germans. Find a section belonging to Spain. 
 
 One of the divisions of Upper Guinea is Liberia, which 
 is of special interest to Americans. It is a negro republic 
 established by Americans as a home for freed slaves, and 
 its capital, Monrovia, is named after President Monroe. 
 No white man is permitted to become a citizen. Besides 
 uncivilized negroes in the interior, the republic includes 
 fully twenty thousand negroes with some knowledge of 
 civilization, all living near the coast. The coastal strip is 
 damp and unhealthful ; but back of it is the forest-covered 
 plateau slope. The products are chiefly coffee, palm oil, 
 and sugar. It was the example set by the British in 
 founding Sierra Leone as a home for liberated slaves, that 
 led to the establishment of the republic of Liberia. 
 
 Kongo State, crossed by the equator and drained by the 
 Kongo and its tributaries, was founded by the king of 
 Belgium, who supported Stanley in his explorations of 
 this region. It is in large part a forest-covered plateau ; 
 but there are sections of grass land. Hordes of savages, 
 including the pj^gmies, inhabit the forests and savannas ; 
 the buffalo, elephant, and leopard live in the rivers ; and 
 the roar of the lion is frequently heard. 
 
 Through the building of the railway around the cataract 
 of the Kongo, and by the aid of steamers above and below 
 
CENTRAL AFRICA 
 
 457 
 
 the falls, the resources of this great area are beginning to 
 be drawn upon. From it are obtained large quantities of 
 ivory, rubber, palm-oil, gum, and pepper, as well as tropi- 
 cal woods. 
 
 East of the Kongo State are British and German territories. 
 What are they called ? What is their climate ? What prod- 
 
 Fig. 337. 
 A scene in tropical Africa. 
 
 ucts would you expect ? Observe to what extent the British 
 claim Africa. What break is there in the British territory 
 between the Cape of G-ood Hope and the Mediterranean? 
 What variety of climate does the British territory include ? 
 
 Need of Railways. — One of the great needs of Central 
 Africa is railways for transportation to and from the sea. 
 The three large lakes, Nyassa, Tanganyika, and Victoria 
 Nyanza, are of great service in the transportation of goods, 
 and already there are steamers upon them. Elsewhere 
 
458 AFRICA 
 
 caravans of native porters bear the products on their backs, 
 travelling along narrow paths through the forest. The 
 difficulties and expense of such transport are great. 
 
 With British and German energy we may expect that 
 railways will soon reach to various parts of the interior of 
 Africa ; in fact, a railway to Victoria Nyanza is already 
 well under way (Fig. 297). With such railways even 
 tropical Africa, during the present century, promises to 
 be opened up to development and settlement. 
 
 Islands near Africa 
 
 The large island of Madagascar is two hundred and 
 thirty miles from the mainland. It has an area of about 
 two hundred and twenty-eight thousand square miles, and 
 is, therefore, much larger than any of our states except- 
 ing Texas. There is much highland in the country, 
 especially on the eastern side ; but the coastal region is 
 lowland. The island is controlled by the French, and 
 produces cattle, hides, valuable tropical woods, rubber, 
 and coffee. While there are some Arabs, and tribes of 
 negro origin in the west, the natives are for the most 
 part Malays, called Hovas, who came by water from the 
 northeast. 
 
 Of the many small islands near the coast of Africa the 
 northernmost are the Madeira Islands on the west side. These, 
 together with the Cape Verde Islands farther southwest, have 
 belonged to Portugal since the early Portuguese voyages of dis- 
 covery. The Spanish Canary Islands lie between these two 
 groups. Find other islands along the west coast (Fig. 297) 
 which belong to Spain and Portugal. 
 
REVIEW QUESTIONS 459 
 
 Ascension Island and St. Helena, south of the equator, are, 
 like the above-named groups, volcanic. They belong to Great 
 Britain, and St. Helena attained notoriety as the prison home 
 of Napoleon Bonaparte. The principal small islands on the 
 eastern side of Africa are Zanzibar (British) near the coast, 
 and Reunion (French) and Mauritius (British) east of Mada- 
 gascar. Locate each of these (Fig. 297). Find other French 
 and British islands. These islands are of value as naval 
 stations. Their inhabitants are engaged in fishing and in 
 agriculture, raising sugar cane and other tropical products. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) What is the shape of Africa ? (2) Com- 
 pare the coast of Africa with that of other continents. (3) Tell 
 about the highlands ; the rivers and lakes. (4) Describe the belts of 
 climate, and compare them witli those of South America. (5) De- 
 scribe the plant and animal life and compare it with such life in 
 Asia. (6) Tell about : («) the negroes ; (b) the nomads ; (c) the 
 whites in the north. (7) Tell about explorations and settlements by 
 («) Portuguese ; (b) Dutch ; (c) British. (8) What have been some 
 of the principal obstacles to such explorations and settlements ? 
 (9) Name and locate the Barbary States. (10) What portions of 
 northern Africa are under the control of European countries ? 
 (11) Describe the Sahara. (12) Describe the caravan trip. (13) Tell 
 about Egypt : the climate ; the Nile River ; agriculture ; people and 
 government; Suez Canal; principal cities. (14) Describe the Barbary 
 States: their raw products; manufactures; commerce; inhabitants; 
 government. (15) State resemblances between northern and southern 
 Africa. (16) Tell about South Africa: the people; agriculture and 
 grazing; mining. (17) What about the value of the Orange and 
 Zambesi rivers for commerce? (18) Locate and tell about each of 
 the cities : (a) Cape Town; (b) Lourenco Marquez; (c) Durban; 
 ((/) Kimberley ; (e) Johannesburg. (19) Tell about Central Africa : 
 the climate and rivers ; the resources ; the people and their customs. 
 
 (20) Name and locate the principal divisions of Central Africa. 
 
 (21) Tell about: (a) the Sudan; (b) Abyssinia; (c) Somaliland; 
 (d) Liberia ; (e) Sierra Leone ; (/) Kongo State. (22) What about 
 the need of railways ? (23) Name the principal islands near Africa 
 and give some facts in regard to them. (24) Name the principal 
 possessions of the British in Africa (Fig. 297). (25) Name the pos- 
 sessions of other European countries. 
 
400 AFRICA 
 
 Review and Comparison. — (1) Give several l'easons why Africa 
 has been explored and settled so much later than either North or 
 South America. (2) What rivers of North America resemble those 
 of Africa in having rapids and falls that interfere with commerce? 
 
 (3) Contrast the Mississippi River with the Nile. Make a drawing 
 of each, showing the principal tributaries and towns. (4) Compare 
 the Kongo with the Missouri in length; with the Amazon (Appendix 
 II.). (5) Compare the area of Lake Victoria Nyanza with that of 
 Lake Superior (Appendix II.). (6) Is Africa on the whole as well 
 adapted to agriculture as is South America? Give your reasons. 
 (7) Make a sketch map of the Atlantic and compare the position of 
 Africa with that of South America. What part of America is in the 
 same latitude as the Sahara? (S) Cape Horn is how much farther 
 south than Cape of Good Hope? (9) Why is not a large part of 
 northern South America a desert, like northern Africa? (10) Com- 
 pare southern Africa with southern South America in products and 
 importance. Why the difference? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) What per cent of the present population of 
 the United States belongs to the negro race? (2) How T do the negroes 
 compare with the Indians in their willingness and ability to adopt 
 civilized customs? (3) Read the Bible story of Joseph in Egypt. 
 
 (4) Read the story of Moses. (5) Find out some facts about the Pyra- 
 mids. (6) Why is England especially benefited by the Suez Canal? 
 (7) What obstacles are in the way of building railways across the 
 Sahara to take the place of caravans? (S) Read about our short war 
 with Tripoli in 1804. (9) Why was the southern point of Africa 
 called the Cape of Good Hope? (10) Examine a diamond to see 
 how it has been cut. (11) Find out something about missionary 
 work in Africa. (12) What reasons can you give for sending mis- 
 sionaries there? (13) Find out about the peculiar animal life upon 
 the island of Madagascar. (14) Compare Madagascar with Cuba in 
 regard to latitude, area, products, and people. (15) Find some facts 
 about Livingston, Mungo Park, Stanley, and other African explorers. 
 (16) Read one of the books of these explorers. You will find Du 
 Chaillu's books on Africa very interesting. (17) Who were Bartholo- 
 mew Diaz and Vasco Da Gama, and what part did they take in the 
 discovery of the water route to India? (18) Find out about Kriiger 
 and the British war with the Boers in 1900. 
 
Fig 
 
XXIII. AUSTRALIA AND ISLAND GROUPS 
 
 Map Questions (Fig. 338). — (1) Judging from the railways and 
 cities, which is the best-settled part of Australia? (2) Which part 
 is least settled? (3) What reasons can you suggest for these facts ? 
 (4) From the lakes and rivers what do you infer concerning the 
 climate of the interior? (5) How does Tasmania compare in area 
 with Pennsylvania? (Appendix II.). With your own state? (6) Make 
 the same comparison for New Zealand. (7) Make a sketch of Aus- 
 tralia to show the location of the several divisions. 
 
 (8) Make a list of the island groups belonging to the United 
 States ; to Great Britain ; Germany ; the Netherlands ; France. 
 (9) Which country owns the greatest number? (10) What nations 
 claim parts of Borneo? New Guinea? (11) Find the area of each 
 of these islands (Appendix II.) and compare it with the area of your 
 own state. (12) What must be the temperature and rainfall condi- 
 tions in these islands? (13) What, then, about their products? 
 
 Australia 
 
 Physiography. — Australia lies apart from the rest of 
 the world, an island continent in the water hemisphere 
 and the only continent wholly in the southern hemisphere. 
 Isolated for ages, its plants and animals differ (Fig. 34-t) 
 from those in other parts of the earth (p. Q6~). With its 
 area of nearly three million square miles, it approaches 
 the United States or Europe in size. But it has been 
 settled by Europeans so recently, and so much of its sur- 
 face is desert (Fig. 338), that it is much less densely 
 populated than the other continents. Much of the in- 
 terior is practically unexplored, partly because of the 
 desert and partly because of the absence of interior navi- 
 gable waters. 
 
 461 
 
462 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 The surface, like that of Ireland, suggests a plate in 
 form, since the low interior rises gradually to plateaus 
 
PHYSIOGRAPHY 463 
 
 and mountains which often descend steeply toward the 
 sea. While there are some low, short ranges in the in- 
 terior, the highest land is in the east, where the mountains 
 run parallel to the coast. In the southeast some of the 
 peaks reach a height of over a mile. 
 
 The mountains of eastern Australia, like the Appalachians 
 of North America, are the worn-down remains of an ancient 
 mountain system. Still further like the Appalachians, they 
 served to check the extension of early settlements inland. 
 Tasmania is really a continuation of the eastern highland, as 
 Newfoundland is a continuation of the mountains of eastern 
 North America. 
 
 The streams which flow eastward to the Pacific, cascade 
 down the mountains in short courses. Of the others in 
 eastern Australia some end in the lakes of interior basins, 
 and some evaporate in the dry climate; but many unite 
 with the Darling and Murray rivers, which are at times 
 navigable for long distances. During the dry summer 
 season, however, all excepting the Murray may dwindle 
 to mere chains of water holes. A wave-built bar at the 
 mouth of the Murray closes it to ocean steamers, so that, 
 unlike the Mississippi, no large cities have grown up along 
 its banks. 
 
 The coast line of Australia is so regular that for long dis- 
 tances there are no good harbors ; but the sinking of the 
 land in the southeastern part has caused some excellent 
 ports. 
 
 Off the northeastern coast is the Great Barrier Beef, the 
 longest coral reef in the world. This has been built by coral 
 animals, which still thrive there in great numbers. A few 
 openings allow ships to enter the quiet channel between the 
 reef and the land ; but navigation is not easy, and only an 
 experienced pilot can avoid the dangerous shoals. Small sail- 
 
464 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 Fig. 340. 
 
 January isotherms for southeastern Australia - 
 summer for that hemisphere. 
 
 the e a st e r n 
 highland has an 
 abundant rain- 
 fall on its sea- 
 ward side and is 
 clothed with 
 dense forests. 
 After crossing 
 the mountains, 
 however, the 
 winds are so dry 
 that the forest 
 gradually disap- 
 pears, changing 
 first to open, 
 park-like wood- 
 
 mid- 
 
 boats carrying 
 divers and their 
 assistants, usu- 
 ally Malays, are 
 engaged on this 
 reef and the 
 northern shores 
 of Australia in 
 fishing for pearls, 
 pearl shell, and 
 other products of 
 tropical waters. 
 
 Climate. — 
 
 Since Australia 
 lies within the 
 belt of the south- 
 east trade winds, 
 
 Fig. 341. 
 July isotherms for southeastern Australia — mid-win- 
 ter for that hemisphere. 
 
CLIMATE 
 
 465 
 
 lands, then to grass-covered uplands, and finally to desert 
 lowlands, still partly unexplored. The low interior moun- 
 tain ranges cause only a slight rainfall which supplies the 
 salt lakes of the interior. 
 
 During the southern winter the interior becomes cold, 
 and the heavy air presses outward toward the coast as 
 cold land winds ; 
 but during the 
 summer the dry 
 interior is so in- 
 tensely heated 
 that monsoon 
 winds blow from 
 the northeast and 
 bring equatorial 
 rain to the north- 
 ern coasts. In 
 this section are 
 found areas of 
 tropical forest. 
 Southwestern 
 Australia and 
 Tasmania are 
 reached by the 
 prevailing west- 
 erlies, with their cyclonic storms, which bring variable 
 weather and rainfall, as in eastern United States. These 
 rainy sections are also clothed with forests. 
 
 It is therefore only along portions of the coast that 
 
 there is enough rainfall for agriculture, while the interior, 
 
 and much the greater part of the continent, is either arid 
 
 or actual desert. Much of the interior is adapted to ranch- 
 
 2h. 
 
 Fig. 342. 
 Eucalyptus forest in Australia. 
 
466 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 ing, though some parts are even too arid for that ; but the 
 southeastern coast, whose equable climate reminds us of 
 the Mediterranean, will support a dense population. 
 
 Plants and Animals. — Australian vegetation is not only 
 peculiar, but also strikingly adapted to the climate of the 
 
 country. In the interior, as in 
 other desert regions, grass and 
 flowering plants have gained the 
 power to make rapid growth and 
 to mature their seeds quickly, so 
 that a few days after a rain the 
 barren sands become carpeted with 
 green as if by magic. 
 
 Among the desert grasses, one of 
 
 the most remarkable is the porcupine 
 
 grass which grows on the sandy plains 
 
 of the northwest interior, and is so 
 
 hard, wiry, and spiny as to prevent 
 
 passage through it. Plants with 
 
 leaves which taste of salt also thrive 
 
 here, being fitted for growth on plains 
 
 that are too arid and alkaline for 
 
 grass. These " salt bushes " are so valuable as forage for sheep 
 
 and cattle that they are now introduced into the arid section of 
 
 southwestern United States. 
 
 The scrub trees that flourish in the arid interior have devel- 
 oped a foliage able to resist evaporation. For example, the 
 gum trees (Eucalyptus) hold their narrow leaf blades verti- 
 cally with only the edges toward the sun's rays ; the leaves of 
 wattles (Acacia) and other plants have shrunk to thorns ; and 
 some trees secrete odorous oils which check evaporation. The 
 leaves are too tough and leathery to wilt, and their dull greens 
 give a sombre tone to the scattered woods. In these interior 
 forests, which the settlers call " scrub," the thorny acacia and 
 
 Fig. 343. 
 
 Undergrowth in the Austral- 
 ian forest. 
 
RABBIT 
 
 PLATYPUS 
 
 T«e M,N.Co, Buffalo. 
 
 KANGAROO 
 
 Fig. 344. 
 
 Some Australian animals. The platypus lays eggs like a bird or reptile. The kanga- 
 roo, like other marsupials, carries its unprotected young in a pouch. Where else 
 have we found large running birds like the emu? 
 
468 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 the close-set stems of the gum — rising to a height of a dozen 
 feet — form a thicket through which a lost traveller may wan- 
 der until death relieves his thirst. 
 
 On the equable rainy slopes near the coast some of the gum 
 trees are giants, in some cases four hundred feet in height. They 
 rival the " Big Trees " of California, which also thrive where 
 damp winds blow from the ocean. The undergrowth of the 
 forest, which is almost tropical in character, includes tree ferns, 
 palms, and orchids. These dense woods are called the " bush." 
 
 We have already seen (p. 66) that the Australian animals 
 are peculiar (Fig. 344). Describe some of them. State 
 
 the reasons for their difference 
 from animals of other continents. 
 History. — When discovered, 
 Australia was sparsely settled by 
 blacks allied to the negroes of 
 Africa, but differing from them in 
 many respects. Of these savages 
 it is estimated that about seventy 
 thousand remain, of whom about 
 a third still wander in the wild 
 interior, scantily clad (Fig. 345), 
 building the rudest of shelters, 
 and gaining their living by hunt- 
 ing. They still use that peculiar 
 weapon, the boomerang (Fig. 346), 
 which, when properly thrown, 
 will fly in curves and even return 
 to the thrower. 
 Although for a long time it had been known that there 
 was an Australian continent, settlements were not made 
 there until 1778. Neither the country nor the products 
 
 Fig. 345. 
 
 An Australian savage. 
 
 (See also Fig. 55.) 
 
PEOPLE AND GOVERNMENT 
 
 469 
 
 were tempting to the early Spanish and Dutch explorers, 
 and those nations colonized other lands of greater promise. 
 It was not until the famous 
 English navigator, Captain 
 Cook, led an expedition 
 to this southern continent 
 that the fertile southeast- 
 ern coast was discovered. 
 
 For a while the distant 
 land was used as a regular 
 penal station to relieve the 
 crowded condition of Eng- 
 lish jails, and naturally free 
 settlers came to the country 
 slowly. But their number 
 gradually increased, and, 
 after long agitation, the 
 transportation of criminals 
 was stopped. 
 
 Almost at the same time 
 that gold was discovered 
 in California it was also 
 found in southeastern Aus- 
 tralia, and tens of thousands 
 of people rushed there to 
 wash the sands for the 
 precious metal. Since the 
 miners needed supplies, 
 many of the settlers turned their attention to other indus- 
 tries, especially agriculture and grazing. Therefore in 
 Australia, as in California, the gold mines led quickly 
 to the development of the country's resources. 
 
 Fig. 346. 
 Australian boomerangs. 
 
470 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 ., J? PHILIPPINE 
 
 mla\A 
 
 «V.$3a ISLANDS 
 
 o y.( \\ : PACIFIC 
 
 ^■S-ffC-Z, 5 "V--.«vN£W GUINEA 
 
 OCEA N" 
 
 ^•' 
 
 New South Wales, as the first colony was called, finally 
 grew so large, and the settlements were so scattered, that 
 it became difficult to control it under a single government. 
 
 Consequently 
 Tasmania, Vic- 
 t o r i a , and 
 Queensland 
 were succes- 
 sively set off as 
 separate colo- 
 nies. South Aus- 
 tralia and West 
 Australia, how- 
 ever, were set- 
 tled as distinct 
 colonies. The 
 several divisions 
 Fig. 347. were at first COll- 
 
 Density of population in Australia and neighboring trolled t>V mili- 
 islands. 
 
 tary governors 
 
 sent from England ; but as the country became better 
 developed, the colonies were granted more freedom, 
 although still receiving governors from England. 
 
 The colonies prospered under such popular government, 
 each with its own laws, some having free trade, some 
 imposing tariffs on goods imported from other colonies. 
 Common interests, however, early awakened a desire for 
 union ; and finally, on January 1, 1901, they were united 
 to form the Commonwealth of Australia. This new com- 
 monwealth has a government similar to that of Canada, 
 and is independent of England in all matters excepting 
 those which affect the British Empire as a whole. The 
 
 ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC 
 Density of 
 Population 
 
 . . Less than 
 
 □ 1 per Square Mile 
 E3 1-25 per Sq. Mile. 
 K^ 25-125 rer Sq. Mil 
 ^ 125-500 per Sq. Mile, 
 
 11X1,00 
 Inhabitants are shown. 
 
 INDIAN 
 
 OCEAN 
 
 TASMANI 
 
SHEEP 
 
 471 
 
 population, which equals that of the United States when 
 her Constitution was adopted, is rapidly growing. 
 
 Nearly all the Australian settlers have come from the British 
 Isles, and the unity of the race has led to a peaceful growth. 
 As in England, education has been encouraged, church schools 
 now being replaced by practically free, compulsory education 
 in public schools. There are colleges at the capitals, and two 
 important universities. The English love of outdoor sports is 
 fully maintained, and great skill is naturally developed in a 
 climate where it is possible to practise cricket, football, tennis, 
 and rowing all the year round. 
 
 Sheep Raising. — Although it was gold that brought 
 population to Australia, her greatest wealth lies in her 
 flocks of Merino sheep. 
 Australian wool is the finest 
 in the world. Sheep were 
 first known in Asia, where 
 doubtless they were origi- 
 nally wild animals ; and the 
 ancestors of the Merino 
 were such as those tended 
 by Jacob. From Asia the 
 breed spread along the Med- 
 iterranean and found in 
 Spain a favorable, dry cli- 
 mate. From this point flocks 
 were taken to the early Dutch 
 colony of South Africa and 
 
 thence to Australia. The The last Tasmanian, a race now entirely 
 
 Merino sheep had for cen- 
 turies been carefully tended in Europe and separated 
 from coarse-wooled varieties; and when it was found that 
 
 Fig. 348. 
 
472 AUSTRALIA 
 
 the climate and natural herbage of Australia really im- 
 proved the quality of their wool, the English demand for 
 that product led to a rapid development of the sheep- 
 raising industry. It has now spread to the newly dis- 
 covered pastures west of the mountains. 
 
 In the early days of Australia the flocks were reared upon 
 the unfenced government land, as in western United States. 
 The sheep were driven to pasture and water, and cared for at 
 night by lonely shepherds, much as in the days of David. 
 But now the land is largely fenced with wire, each sheep 
 station having its own " run " or ranch. The largest ranches 
 contain fully a hundred thousand sheep, and employ men 
 enough to make a little village, with a store, a church, and a 
 school. As in Argentina, each run is divided into sections, or 
 " paddocks" by wire fencing, so that the sheep of- different ages 
 and conditions may be separated. The mildness of the cli- 
 mate makes it unnecessary to provide winter protection for the 
 animals, and now that the wild dogs have been exterminated, 
 the sheep no longer need much care from shepherds. 
 
 When warm weather begins, the sheep are gathered to the 
 shearing sheds. Bands of skilled shearers go through the 
 country, some starting in Queensland and following the season 
 southward from station to station. With cleft use of clippers, 
 they remove the fleece from a sheep in a few minutes. The 
 fleeces are then carried by boys to sorting tables, where the 
 wool is assorted according to quality and made ready for press- 
 ing into bales for shipment. Formerly lines of wagons, laden 
 with wool, toiled down to the seaports and brought back a 
 yearly supply of food and clothing; but now railways and 
 steamers aid in transportation, and small towns have developed 
 as trade centres. 
 
 During most of the year life at a sheep station is monotonous. 
 At times horsemen run down the emu (Fig. 344) for sport, or 
 hunt kangaroos with dogs. Since their introduction from 
 Europe rabbits have so increased as to be a great pest because 
 
ANIMAL PRODUCTS 
 
 473 
 
 of the grass that they eat, and thousands of miles of rabbit- 
 proof fence have been built to exclude them from good pasture 
 land. Their rapid increase is due to the absence of natural 
 enemies in this far-away continent. 
 
 Animal Products. — To-day grazing is the characteristic 
 and most important occupation in Australia. There are 
 
 Fig. 349. 
 
 A sheep run in Australia. The water in this artesian well rises from a layer 
 
 of porous rock over six hundred feet helow the surface. 
 
 over a hundred million sheep, and fully half the exports 
 consist of wool ; but frozen or canned mutton and beef, 
 together with tallow and hides, are also sent to England. 
 Horses are bred for export, and cattle and swine are raised 
 in large numbers. While the sheep graze in the arid 
 interior, cattle are more numerous in the districts where 
 there is heavier rain. Many cattle, especially near the 
 coast, are raised for their dairy products, and butter is 
 exported to England. At the season when the cows of 
 
474 AUSTRALIA 
 
 Belgium and Denmark are stalled because of the cold, the 
 dairy herds of New South Wales are feeding on fresh 
 pastures. Explain the causes of the difference. 
 
 Farming. — Since agriculture secures a larger return 
 from the soil than grazing, sheep have been driven from 
 the damp lowlands and from those portions of the plateaus 
 where the rainfall is sufficient for crops. Even in the 
 interior there is farming where irrigation is found possible. 
 In some cases water is supplied from streams ; in others, 
 from artesian wells (Fig. 349). Such wells are possible 
 in a number of places where water exists in layers of 
 porous rock beneath the parched plains. Upon boring to 
 these layers, the water gushes forth for use. 
 
 Wheat is the most important crop aside from hay, and 
 enough is raised to place Australia twelfth among lands 
 raising this grain. 
 
 The farm products are distributed according to climate. 
 For example, while oats and other hardy grains increase 
 southward to Tasmania — since cold increases in that direc- 
 tion — corn is important only from New South Wales north- 
 ward. There are large sugar plantations on the warm coast 
 of Queensland ; and in western Australia, where there are 
 gold mines in the arid interior, much hay is raised for the 
 animals employed at the mines. 
 
 As in our Pacific states, fruits are an important product. 
 They range from tropical varieties on the northern coast to 
 oranges and other warm temperate fruits southward, and 
 finally, in the highlands and in Tasmania, to the orchard and 
 small fruits of the cool temperate lands. In Victoria and 
 South Australia, vineyards for the production of wine are of 
 importance. Some of this fruit raising is carried on by the 
 aid of irrigation, as for instance in the Murray River Valley, 
 where the water is supplied by the melting snows of the moun- 
 tains. In what months would the snows melt there ? 
 
MINING AND MANUFACTURING 
 
 475 
 
 Mining. — The gold of Australia, like that of Cali- 
 fornia, was first obtained from the gravels, and mines 
 were later opened along 
 the veins in the mountain 
 rocks. Unlike the condi- 
 tion in western United 
 States, however, absence 
 of water has prevented 
 hydraulic mining on a 
 large scale. Gold mining 
 is still of great importance, 
 Australia ranking second 
 among gold -producing 
 nations (Fig. 418). New 
 deposits are discovered as 
 the country is explored, 
 the recent development 
 of western Australia be- 
 ing largely due to such 
 discoveries. 
 
 Copper mining greatly 
 aided in the early develop- 
 ment of South Australia, 
 and rich copper mines are now worked in Tasmania. Silver 
 and tin are other important mineral products. Coal is well 
 distributed and of good quality. The best-developed field is 
 near the coast of New South Wales, and some coal is exported. 
 Eich iron ores, together with limestone, are found associated 
 with these coal fields, and the mining and working of iron will 
 follow with the growth of the country. 
 
 Manufacturing. — Some wool is manufactured into cloth; 
 some leather is tanned and made into shoes ; and much 
 flour is made from the wheat. There are sawmills and 
 
 Fig. 350. 
 A gold mine in Australia. 
 
476 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 planing mills; and other forms of simple manufacturing are 
 carried on. But for the most part the raw products of Aus- 
 tralia are shipped abroad to be manufactured. Most of these 
 products go to England, and the commonwealth depends upon 
 the mother country for most of its manufactured articles. 
 Australia is passing from the pastoral to the agricultural 
 
 Fig. 351. 
 Sydney harbor. 
 
 stage of her development, and the stage of extensive manufac- 
 tures is yet to come. 
 
 Cities. — Australian cities have grown very rapidly, 
 and one-third of the people live in the capitals of the 
 six colonies. Favored as the seats of government and. 
 as seaports, and connected with the interior by govern- 
 ment 'railways, these capitals have become the leading 
 commercial centres. They are characterized by fine gov- 
 ernment buildings, and by abundant provision of parks 
 and gardens for the people. Their large suburbs afford 
 homes for the workingmen and save them from the 
 crowded life in tenement houses. 
 
 Melbourne, the largest city in Australia and the capi- 
 
CITIES 477 
 
 tal of Victoria, is beautifully situated at the head of a 
 broad harbor. Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, 
 founded in 1788, and, therefore, the oldest city of Aus- 
 tralia, is noted for its fine harbor (Figs. 351 and 352). 
 At this point the coast faces deep water for a hundred 
 miles; it consists of coves alternating with headlands 
 
 Fig. 352. 
 A view of a part of Sydney. 
 
 and is dotted with fine residences set in park-like grounds. 
 Both of these cities rank among the great seaports of the 
 British Empire. Adelaide is a third large city. Of 
 which division is it the capital ? Name the other capitals. 
 
 Since nine-tenths of the Australians live on the coast lands, 
 much of the commerce is carried on by means of steamboats, 
 and most of the cities are seaports connected by rail with 
 the interior farms, mines, and sheep country. A few mining- 
 centres, like Ballarat and Be^digo in Victoria, have become 
 large towns. Ballarat owes its growth partly to its trade as 
 the centre of a fine farming and grazing country. 
 
ISLAND GROUPS 
 
 Island Groups 
 
 New Zealand. — More than a thousand miles southeast 
 of Australia are the two large, mountainous islands of New 
 Zealand. In the South Island there are great glaciers 
 among the mountains, while in the North Island there 
 are active volcanoes, and also hot springs and geysers, like 
 those of the Yellowstone National Park. 
 
 Since these islands lie in the course of the stormy 
 westerlies, there is heavy rainfall on the western slopes. 
 Therefore the mountains are clothed with forests of pine 
 and other trees, with many kinds of ferns and tree-ferns 
 beneath. On the lee or eastern slopes the rainfall is less, 
 and the land is covered with wiry grasses. 
 
 In the south the crops are those of the cool temperate 
 belt ; but in the north the climate is mild enough for 
 oranges. Can you. suggest how ocean currents may influ- 
 ence the temperature of the north and south? (Fig. 38). 
 What effect must the presence of water on all sides have 
 upon the temperature ? 
 
 New Zealand is so distant from other lands that few of the 
 larger animals, excepting birds, have ever reached the islands. 
 The native people, or Maoris, who must have come to the islands 
 in boats, were a hardy, warlike race, living in protected villages, 
 amidst cultivated fields. Their opposition to newcomers de- 
 layed settlement by the English until a half -century after the 
 founding of Sydney. They are now overpowered, and those 
 that survive live mostly in the interior of the North Island. 
 Many have so fully adopted civilized ways that they are allowed 
 representatives in the legislature. 
 
 As in Australia, pastoral industries take the lead. 
 There are twenty million sheep, and frozen mutton and 
 
NEW ZEALAND 
 
 479 
 
 wool are exported to England. Cattle are likewise kept, 
 and butter is exported. Agriculture is important, espe- 
 cially in the districts of fertile volcanic soils on the North 
 Island ; but much land that is suited to farming has never 
 been cleared of forest. There are both gold and coal 
 mines among the mountains ; and from their slopes are 
 obtained valuable timber and a gum used for varnishes. 
 
 Fig. 353. 
 A view in New Zealand. 
 
 Manufacturing is only slightly developed, and is chiefly 
 for home use. 
 
 Although the industries and life of this English colony 
 resemble those in Australia, its interests are so different 
 that they have prevented its joining the Australian fed- 
 eration — just as the island colony of Newfoundland has 
 declined to join the Dominion of Canada. The situation 
 of these islands in the temperate zone is favorable to rapid 
 progress ; and the vigorous immigrants from the British 
 Isles have developed the resources wonderfully, and have 
 established one of the best governments in the world, 
 
480 ISLAND GROUPS 
 
 Many short lines of railway connect the settled interior 
 with the seaports ; roads and stage lines extend to the 
 more distant districts ; and steamers ply around the coasts 
 and to distant countries. There are four prominent cities 
 of nearly the same size, the smallest of which is Welling- 
 ton, the capital, and the largest, Auckland, about as 
 large as Duluth in Minnesota. 
 
 The East Indies. — Between Asia and Australia are 
 hundreds of islands, some very large, others so small 
 that they find no place on our map. Of these the great 
 majority have animals, plants, and people of Asiatic 
 origin. New Guinea, however, which is nearest to Aus- 
 tralia, bears a resemblance not to Asia but to Australia. 
 It is, therefore, usually considered a part of Australasia, 
 while the islands to the west and northwest are classed 
 with Asia. 
 
 New Gruinea, north of Australia, is one of the largest 
 islands in the world, having an area equal to Texas and 
 Pennsylvania combined. Although three times the size 
 of New Zealand, it contains a smaller population, com- 
 posed mainly of savages. This difference is due to its 
 position in the torrid zone. The heavy tropical rainfall 
 has clothed most of its surface with dense forests, so that 
 the high mountain ranges and the unhealthful lowlands 
 (Figs. 66 and 67) of the interior are almost unknown. 
 
 While the islands farther west are overrun with Malays 
 from Asia, the natives of New Guinea are Papuans (Fig. 60), 
 resembling the native Australians. The animal life also 
 resembles that of Australia, indicating that this island, like 
 Australia, has long been separated from Asia. Former con- 
 nection with Australia is further indicated by the fact that 
 the two are now separated only by a shallow sea. 
 
THE EAST INDIES 481 
 
 The three nations that claim New Guinea maintain only 
 trading stations on the coast ; and the tropical forests, the 
 fertile soils, and the minerals remain to be utilized in the 
 future. 
 
 The other islands have also a tropical climate, and are 
 clothed with dense forests in which the elephant and 
 rhinoceros, as well as other Asiatic animals, are still 
 found. Most of the natives are Mohammedan Malays 
 from Asia, but some of them are pagans. 
 
 The Philippine Islands, which belong to the United 
 States, are really a northern extension of the East Indies. 
 What can you tell about them ? (p. 51G). 
 
 Most of the other islands of this region, including 
 Sumatra, Java, the Celebes, and a large part of Borneo 
 and New Guinea, are Dutch colonies. What nation con- 
 trols the island of Timor ? To which nation does north- 
 ern Borneo belong ? Borneo, with a greater area than all 
 the New England and Middle Atlantic states together, 
 is one of the largest islands in the world. The immense 
 size of these islands is indicated by the fact that Sumatra 
 is larger than California, while Java has a greater area 
 than New York State. 
 
 All of the larger islands are mountainous ; in fact, they 
 are parts of mountain ranges rising out of the sea, and 
 among them are many active volcanoes, some of which 
 have had terribly destructive eruptions. There are low- 
 lands near the coasts, and many coral reefs skirting them. 
 Indeed, a large number of the smaller islands are merely 
 coral reefs slightly elevated above the ocean. 
 
 Since they are so near the equator, and therefore have a 
 heavy rainfall, these islands have tropical products. The 
 forests supply valuable woods and gums, including gutta- 
 2i 
 
482 
 
 ISLAND GROUPS 
 
 percha and camphor. Large areas, especially in Java, are 
 highly cultivated and produce quantities of rice, sugar 
 cane, and coffee. In the production of the last two 
 articles Java is one of the leading regions of the world 
 (Figs. 427 and 428). Among the noted products of the 
 
 East Indies are spices, 
 such as pepper, cloves, 
 and nutmegs ; in fact, 
 one of the island groups 
 is known as the Spice 
 Islands. What is the 
 other name ? There 
 are also valuable min- 
 erals, including tin, 
 gold, and precious 
 stones ; and from the 
 sea are obtained beau- 
 tiful pearls and pearl' 
 shells. 
 The Dutch have been remarkably successful in manag- 
 ing their East Indian colonies, which are a source of great 
 wealth ; yet the larger islands are so mountainous, and 
 the forests so dense, that great areas are scarcely known. 
 The Dutch East Indies are fifty times as large as the 
 Netherlands and have seven times as many inhabitants, 
 or nearly half as many as in the United States. 
 
 The largest city among these islands is Manila, in the 
 Philippines ; and next in size is Batavia, the centre of 
 the Dutch colonial government. 
 
 Islands of the Pacific. — The map (Fig. 338) shows the west- 
 ern Pacific dotted with island groups ; but these islands are so 
 small that, although there are many hundreds of them, their 
 
 Fig. 3'A. 
 
 A native house in the Friendly (Tonga) 
 Islands. 
 
ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC 
 
 483 
 
 combined areas are little more than half that of New Zealand. 
 They are the higher peaks of great mountain folds rising from 
 the ocean floor. Many of them are volcanoes, others sub- 
 merged peaks upon which corals have grown and formed coral 
 islands. 
 
 What names among them have you heard before ? To what 
 nations do the groups belong ? Although under the control 
 of these foreign 
 nations, the local 
 government is 
 usually adminis- 
 tered by native 
 chiefs. 
 
 Together these 
 islands have a 
 population of less 
 than a million ; 
 but the natives 
 have been de- 
 creasing in num- 
 bers, partly be- 
 cause of drunken- 
 ness and disease 
 following contact 
 with Europeans. 
 Although mis- 
 sionaries have 
 converted many to Christianity, others remain savages, and 
 some even practise cannibalism. They are the best sailors of 
 all the natural races, and in past centuries reached the islands 
 in boats from Asia, going from group to group. 
 
 There is a marked difference between life on the " low," or 
 coral, and that on the " high," or volcanic, islands. Volcanic 
 islands, like Fiji, whose peaks rise several thousand feet, are 
 heavily forested on their rainy, windward slopes ; and their 
 fertile soil encourages agriculture. Thus the coffee plantations 
 of New Caledonia and the sugar plantations of Fiji recall the 
 
 
 
 
 y& 
 
 
 
 
 ■ji | ^^ 
 
 
 
 ; 
 
 
 : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W$J0rJ>ffi 
 
 
 . ■■■ - 
 
 
 
 
 '.'.-. 
 
 
 
 V - 
 
 
 
 ••^ErL^rL^r - :," 
 
 ¥ 
 
 
 
 <-:■ 
 
 Fig. 
 
 A native village in the Fiji Islands. 
 
484 REVIEW QUESTIONS 
 
 products of the volcanic Hawaiian Islands. As in Hawaii, 
 also, bananas and pineapples are raised for home consumption 
 and for export. 
 
 On the low coral islands, on the other hand, the cocoa palm 
 is the mainstay of human life, supplying food, clothing, shelter, 
 boats, many utensils, and the means of trade as well. Copra, 
 the main export from Samoa and from many of the Pacific 
 islands, is the dried meat of the cocoanut, of value for its oil 
 and as food. There is, of course, little mineral wealth in the 
 volcanic and coral islands ; but in some of the islands, where 
 mountain folds reach the surface, there are mineral deposits, 
 such as the nickel found in New Caledonia. Among the coral 
 reefs beautiful pearls are found. 
 
 Review Questions. — Australia. (1) What about its position, area, 
 and population? (2) Where are the mountains ? (3) What resem- 
 blance is there to North America? (4) How do the streams vary in 
 the several sections ? (5) What is the nature of the coast? (6) Tell 
 about the Great Barrier Reef. (7) How does the rainfall vary in the 
 different parts of Australia? Give the reasons. (8) What differences 
 in plant life are thus caused? (9) What is the influence on indus- 
 tries ? (10) Mention some of the ways in which the plants are adapted 
 to their surroundings. (11) Tell about the forests. (12) What 
 about Australian animals? (13) Tell about the natives. (14) Give 
 reasons why Australia was not settled earlier. (15) AVhat finally led 
 to rapid settlement and development? (16) Tell about the govern- 
 ment: early condition; union of colonies; present condition. (17) 
 Tell about sheep raising : the Merino sheep ; introduction to Aus- 
 tralia; development of industry; care of the sheep ; shearing; trans- 
 portation of wool; life on a sheep run. (18) W'hat are the animal 
 products? (19) Tell about farming : water for irrigation ; principal 
 products ; variation in crops according to climate. (20) What min- 
 eral products are found? (21) What is the condition of manufactur- 
 ing? (22) Why are the capitals so important? (23) Name and 
 locate the three largest cities ; what can you tell about each ? (24) 
 What about other towns? 
 
 Island Groups. (25) Tell about New Zealand : its surface features ; 
 climate ; native animals and people ; leading industries ; develop- 
 ment; cities. (26) Tell about New Guinea: size; position; climate; 
 people; animals; resemblance to Australia; resources. (27) What 
 
COMPARISONS AND SUGGESTIONS 485 
 
 about the animals, plants, and people of the East Indies? (28) To 
 what nations do the islands belong? (29) What about their size? 
 (30) Tell about their physiography, climate, and products. (31) What 
 about the success of the Dutch in the East Indies and the extent of 
 their possessions there ? (32) Tell about the small island groups : 
 their names; position; origin; government; people; products. 
 
 Comparisons. — (1) Australia resembles South Africa in its sur- 
 face, climate, occupations, and products. State how this is true. (2) 
 Australia also resembles western United States in climate, in occupa- 
 tion and products, and in the order of development of her resources. 
 Describe these points of resemblance. (3) In what respects does 
 southern South America (Chile and Argentina) resemble Australia? 
 (4) What differences are there in climate due to difference in form 
 of the two land masses? (5) What differences in the present condi- 
 tion of development due to the history and the races of each ? (6) 
 What part of Australia has the same latitude, in the southern hemi- 
 sphere, that southern Florida has in the northern ? (7) Which of 
 our states most nearly equals New Zealand in area ? (8) What pen- 
 insula of Europe resembles New Zealand in shape ? How do the two 
 countries compare in area? In population? (9) What advantages 
 over Australia has the United States enjoyed in that it has attracted 
 settlers from so many different nations? (10) What part of South 
 America most resembles the East Indies in climate and products? 
 Make the same comparison for North America. 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) If it were within your power, how would you 
 arrange the highlands of Australia so as to secure the most even dis- 
 tribution of rain ? (2) Estimate the greatest length of New Zealand. 
 (3) Estimate the distance from Batavia to Manila. (4) Write your 
 impression of the climate of Melbourne in January ; in July. (5) 
 Through some fruit dealer obtain a cocoanut in its husk and examine 
 it. (6) Read Whittier's poem on the Palm Tree. (7) Learn some- 
 thing about the work of missionaries in the small Pacific islands. 
 
 (8) Collect pictures for the school, showing the islands and their life. 
 
 (9) By what routes can one go from New York City to Australia? 
 Through what waters? Which would be the shortest? About how 
 many miles? (10) Answer the same questions for a voyage from 
 New York to Manila. (11) Read in Tarr's "Elementary Geology" 
 (pp. 251-256) about the origin of atolls. (12) Read about the erup- 
 tion of Krakatoa (same book, p. 343) in the Sunda Strait, near Batavia. 
 
Fig. 363. 
 Relief map of North America. 
 
 ( Modelled by E. E. Howell.) 
 
Fig. 356. 
 
West TO frou 
 
 Greenwich 68^ 
 
 Fig. 358. 
 
MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES. 
 
 Scale of Miles. 
 
 75 loo 
 
 Capitals of Countries: @ 
 Capitals of States: ® 
 Other Cities : • 
 Canals 
 
 
D A 
 
 8 V F E It x 
 
 CENTRAL STATES 
 
 Scale of Miles. 
 
 25 50 75 100 
 
 200 
 
 -*' 
 
 Cities with over 1,000,000: ... ClllCilSJO 
 
 Cities with 500,000 to 1, 000,000:.. St.IiOUlS 
 
 Cities with 200,000 to 500,000: Buffalo 
 
 Cities with 50,000 to 200,000: Toledo 
 
 Cities with 25,000 to 50,000: Lexington 
 
 Smaller Places: Alpena 
 
 Capitals with less than 25,000: . Charleston 
 Capitals of States: ® Other Cities: • 
 
 Sault Ste. p« ie S^- „ „^ ( 
 
 ■> /I ^hfelroysau 
 
 /.Manistee 
 
 &< 
 
 West |V 
 Bay Cityi^ ay CUy 
 
 GreenSBay 
 
 App etouV' ) O 
 
 OshKoslwo Mpiitowoc 
 
 'Lake Wiytffigo\J g u L ^ ; 
 S Fond .F t^ 
 
 dujLac I R) V ^* 
 
 «VatLW Milwaukee Y«i ' ^a?" 1 HuI ° n 
 idiso "\i/ Kacine l S to#^ si V4, 
 
 Janesville\4 P ""i i Battle Creek I Detroit^/-* 
 
 kford \ S ■" Kalamazoo " jacfsoii* Ann Arbor 
 
 ...Jio 
 
 -0 I ^f Erie 
 
 
 Hnd a r^HSSSv. JL>^Fort Wayn^gf ?E^ r4S^4 lu \Vs vUeW eny /x/ 
 
 2 — LJ^SSSSr-k— — — — - _ i lima _ „... East %V-H ( X„ 4t t*llttrg / 
 
 iLoganspovt^ l! «»} Mansfl eld' »> K I \\ ^ltt**" 
 
 ia 1 y-^^ManoiNH c£_jH 1 Stei> beuv f UL 7V 
 
 'Bloomingtoi >Wett. I | Ti ^~^^J^{\^$>\ 
 
 O I S 1/^ ^Js^f! < Columttu* •^•, lUe I / t 
 
 DWiUe.;:! Anderso^ .^, gp A„ field j| 
 
 •BecLr f * D J %»H'I, /» ayt0n LniSnf'y. palW sh U r S 
 
 4e.-re!iSute ( U/VfllBClBBat^o ^yj L(SJ^_ S V , 
 
 jfidison-li N^TSlKioW-XjChileston /^ 
 'U'East S/! Lo'uis ^/ — UJ (r . r . mlT iHe/' T) ^Vi.' SilSs> 'V"^A 1 -fV 
 
 K^anifr . fc a V CvSa /§ 
 
 illc/VyLOUlSVl)le i^xingto^ % ° ^ C , 
 
 esburg 
 
 I N 
 
 Springfield 
 
 5 . ® 
 
 ! Jacksonville 
 
 . Alton 
 
 BelTTeville 
 
 t?/Evansvi 
 
 !&' 
 
 IkmL/ersoa ) •Q weus boro 
 
 T^ammat/TJCgue 
 
 pUucahVT'% Bow ling Green ^, 
 
 West 89 fro n 
 
 _^„ ;:,77 " ' ' . .>»' / r" 
 
 
 il. 
 
Fig. 362. 
 
XXIV. REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
 Growth of the Continent. — Show the shape of North 
 America by a drawing, and state its relative size (p. 548) 
 among- the continents. The history of this continent 
 covers millions of years, and only a few stages of its 
 
 
 
 i__ 
 
 / 
 
 Fig. 364. 
 
 Model showing the distance which the Great Ice Sheet reached in the United 
 States. (Model made hy E. E. Howell, Washington, D.C.) 
 
 growth have received our attention. The period when 
 coal was formed was one of the most important. Describe 
 the process (p. 153). 
 
 During that time, and afterward, the earth's crust was 
 being folded in various places. The resulting mountain 
 
 487 
 
488 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
 ranges have already been mentioned (pp. 96 and 99), 
 and are indicated on Figure 363. State their arrange- 
 ment (see also p. 96). 
 
 At a later period the Great Ice Sheet spread over much 
 of the surface (Fig. 364). Make a list of the states that 
 it partly or wholly covered. Tell about the glaciers in 
 Europe at this time and some of their principal effects 
 (pp. 154-156). Mention similar effects in the New Eng- 
 land and other states. 
 
 Many changes have taken place in the coast line also. 
 The sinking of the land in the northern part of the conti- 
 nent, on both the eastern and western sides, has allowed 
 the sea to enter the valleys and to form many bays and 
 fine harbors. Between the valleys, where the land was 
 higher, capes, peninsulas, and islands now rise above the 
 sea. Give examples of such bays, capes, etc. (Fig. 356). 
 The rising of the land, on the other hand, has elevated 
 the level sea bottom and added coastal plains in the 
 South. Thus a very regular coast line has been caused 
 in that section. Even the whole of Florida is elevated 
 sea bottom. What has been the effect of this rising 
 upon harbors in the Southern States and in Mexico? 
 
 The United States 
 
 Physiography. — Find the Green Mountains in New Eng- 
 land (Fig. 358). Find the White Mountains. Name the 
 principal rivers in this group of states, and estimate the 
 length of the longest. What is their general direction? 
 The rivers of Neiv England flow through deep valleys cut 
 in the plateau which they cross, and their courses are fre- 
 quently interrupted by rapids and falls caused by the 
 
THE UNITED STATES 
 
 489 
 
 s\iVuS 
 
 glacier. New England is, therefore, a region of excellent 
 water power. 
 
 The New England mountains are continued on the south- 
 west by the Appalachians. In what states are portions 
 of these mountains included ? 
 (Fig. 357). In what state are 
 the Adirondacks and the Cats- 
 kills? (Fig. 359). 
 
 On the eastern side of the 
 Appalachians is the low Pied- 
 mont Plateau (Fig. 366), where, 
 as in New England, ancient 
 mountains have been worn down 
 to a hilly upland. It is bordered 
 on the east by the level Coastal 
 Plains (Fig. 366), whose loose 
 sands and clays are so 
 softer than the rocks of the 
 plateau that the streams, in de- 
 scending from the plateau, are 
 marked by numerous rapids and falls. This greatly influ- 
 ences the location of cities. Why ? Name the principal 
 cities on this fall line (Fig. 365). 
 
 Name the chief rivers that enter the Atlantic between 
 New England and Florida. Which of them cross the 
 entire mountain system ? What influence has the fact of 
 their crossing the mountains had upon westward migra- 
 tion? Why are there such large bays at the mouths of 
 these rivers? (p. 488). Why not at the mouths of those 
 farther south ? 
 
 On the western side of the Appalachian Mountains is 
 the Appalachian Plateau (Fig. 366), which slopes gently 
 
 Fig. 365. 
 
 much The fall line. Coastal plains 
 dotted, Piedmont and other sec- 
 tions left white. Cities printed 
 in heavy type are located along 
 the fall line. 
 
490 
 
 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
 toward the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. Like the plateau 
 of New England, it has been very deeply cut by rivers. 
 Name several of them. Since the nearly horizontal strata 
 of sandstone, shale, etc., contain beds of coal, these deep 
 river valleys have been of great value in bringing the coal 
 to light, especially in Pennsylvania and West Virginia. 
 
 Fig. 366. 
 
 Physiographic map of the United States, giving the names of the principal 
 
 mountains, plateaus, and plains. 
 
 Which of the Middle Atlantic States has a large number 
 of lakes and waterfalls? Why? (p. 488). 
 
 Most of the vast area between the Appalachian plateau 
 and the Rocky Mountains is level land sloping gently 
 from both sides toward the Mississippi. The prairies 
 (Fig. 366) of this section rise gradually west of the 
 Mississippi until they merge into the Great Plains, 
 which continue to the very base of the Rockies. At this 
 point the Great Plains reach an elevation of over a mile, 
 
THE UNITED STATES 491 
 
 and are therefore much higher than most parts of the 
 eastern mountains. What interruption of this great area 
 of plains is found in Missouri? (Fig. 366). Near Lake 
 Superior? (Fig. 366). In South Dakota? (Fig. 361). 
 
 Through or bordering what states does the Missouri 
 River flow ? The Ohio ? The Mississipin ? Draw the 
 Mississippi system, inserting the names of the principal 
 tributaries (Fig. 357). Which of the Central States 
 (Fig. 361) do not belong entirely to the Mississippi 
 basin ? Make a drawing of the Grreat Lakes showing the 
 states that border them. 
 
 Estimate the width of the land area west of the Rocky 
 Mountains. A large part of this space is occupied by a 
 plateau, having the Rocky Mountains on the east and the 
 Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains on the west (Fig. 
 366). Point out these mountains on Figure 362. What 
 river is in the northern part of this plateau? In its 
 southern part? What lake is there in its middle portion ? 
 Find the Great Basin (Fig. 366). What about the rivers 
 of this basin? (Fig. 362). 
 
 West of the Sierra Nevada-Cascade system are nar- 
 row lowlands including the fertile valley of California 
 and that occupied by Puget Sound in Washington (Fig. 
 362). Still west of these valleys, and rising abruptly 
 from the sea, is a third system of mountains called the 
 Coast Ranges. Make a cross-section drawing of the 
 United States, showing the greater elevations of land. 
 
 Some of the loftiest peaks in the Far West are not due to the 
 folding of the earth's crust, but to volcanic action. Mt. Shasta 
 in northern California is an example. Can you name others ? 
 The soil in hundreds of thousands of square miles has been 
 formed by the decay of volcanic rock ; and much of the seen- 
 
492 
 
 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
 ery of the Far West, including the hot springs and geysers of 
 the Yellowstone National Park, bears evidence to the former 
 existence of volcanoes. What can you tell about geysers ? 
 
 Climate. — The factors determining the temperature of 
 any country were enumerated on page 41. What are they? 
 How must the temperature of the Central Plains differ from 
 
 Fig. 367. 
 A map to show the rainfall of the United States in inches. 
 
 that of the Rocky Mountains, as a result of the influence of 
 altitude ? How must the temperature of the coast differ 
 from that of the interior ? Why ? 
 
 A general statement of the great wind belts which influ- 
 ence North America is given on pages 26-28, and they are 
 shown graphically in Figure 25. Name these belts. Fig- 
 ures 38 and 39, together with the accompanying text, 
 explain the ocean currents that approach our shores. 
 Describe them. The effects of these winds and ocean 
 
 
TEE UNITED STATES 
 
 493 
 
 currents upon our western coast and interior are stated on 
 pages 160 and 161 (see also Fig. 29). The nature and in- 
 fluence of cyclonic storms are discussed on pages 38 and 39. 
 Recalling these various facts, explain the isotherms for 
 North America in Figures 36 and 37. Figure 367 shows 
 
 Ef \y\'m IIsT u5 ili iff 
 
 Fig. 368. 
 Map showing the regions from which much timber is now being obtained. 
 
 the rainfall for the United States. Give the reasons for 
 the differences in rainfall. 
 
 Industries 
 
 Lumbering. — Figure 368 shows the main parts of the 
 United States in which lumbering is now carried on. 
 Name the sections ; also the kinds of trees and some of 
 the principal animals (see also p. 68). Why do the larg- 
 est trees grow on the western coast? (p. 468). Besides 
 lumber, tannic acid for tanning leather is obtained from 
 these forests; also turpentine ; and wood pulp for the manu- 
 
491 
 
 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
 facture of paper. How is maple sugar obtained ? Recall 
 some of the facts about lumbering in different sections. 
 
 Most of the cities of Maine are engaged in handling 
 lumber. Bangor is the most important port for its ship- 
 ment ; Portland has 
 lumber mills, etc. ; and 
 Bath is noted for its 
 shipbuilding. There is 
 also manufacturing of 
 doors, blinds, and other 
 articles of wood in many 
 New England cities, as 
 Burlington, Vt. Paper 
 mills are found along 
 the rivers of Maine, 
 New York, Pennsyl- 
 vania, Wisconsin, Min- 
 nesota, and other states. 
 Holyoke, Mass., is a 
 centre for making paper 
 from rags. 
 
 , In the South, Georgia 
 pine is shipped from 
 Charleston, Savan- 
 nah, Jacksonville, 
 Mobile, and smaller 
 ports. Memphis is a centre for hard wood ; and the 
 manufacture of doors, blinds, furniture, etc., is exten- 
 sively carried on in Atlanta, Montgomery, Mobile, 
 Chattanooga, Nashville, Little Rock, and many 
 smaller places. 
 
 The lumber business is also important in many of the 
 
 Fig. 369. 
 Sections where ocean fish are found. 
 
THE UNITED STATES 
 
 495 
 
 Central States. The water power at Minneapolis has 
 long been used for sawmills; and the excellent position of 
 Duluth and Superior for shipping lumber by lake, has 
 given rise to an important lumber industry at these points 
 also. Many cities within easy reach of the northern for- 
 ests are engaged in the manufacture of furniture and other 
 articles of wood. This is true, for example, of Chicago, 
 of Lacrosse and Oshkosh, Wis., and of Saginaw, Bay 
 City, and Grand Rapids, Mich. 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Missouri. 
 
 Texas 
 
 
 $•58,649,966 
 Z54999.850 
 
 
 $49989,951, 
 199.9 J 9,8 10 
 
 
 $41,777501 
 151,73 1,486 
 
 $35,^14,478 
 105,336, 700 
 
 $34,926,02 7 
 158,754,666 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 370. 
 
 Corn production, in dollars and in bushels, in the five leading corn-prod uciug 
 
 states. 
 
 Tacoma and Seattle owe much of their importance 
 to their great sawmills and planing mills ; and Portland, 
 Oregon, also has extensive lumber industries. Locate these 
 various places on the maps (Figs. 358—362). 
 
 Fishing. — Figure 369 represents the products obtained by 
 fishing on our eastern coast. Make a list of the different kinds 
 and state the general distribution of each. Gloucester, Bos- 
 ton, and Portland are important in this industry, and Bal- 
 timore and Norfolk are centres for the oyster trade. Immense 
 numbers of salmon are canned along the Columbia River near 
 Portland, Oregon, and in western Canada and Alaska. 
 
 Agriculture and Related Manufacturing. — Among agri- 
 cultural products by far the most valuable is com. Figure 
 
496 
 
 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
 legend: 
 I Considerable Corn Raised 
 I Greatest Corn Raising Section 
 
 Fig. 371. 
 On these maps the spaces left hlank indicate either little or no production. 
 
 Fig. 372. 
 
THE UNITED STATES 
 
 497 
 
 371 represents the corn districts. Note that the Southern 
 States produce a large amount. Why is there so little in 
 
 New York. 
 
 $49.^8 1,667 
 6fi09,B99 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 lenva. 
 
 California. 
 
 
 $33,767,SI7 
 3.890.439 
 
 $Z8/rZ3,063 
 6,711,309 
 
 $Z4.-M-4,89t 
 2.716.099 
 
 Ohio 
 
 $16,3 7H861 
 Xfi/Q97a 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 373. 
 Hay production, in dollars and tons, in the five principal hay-producing states. 
 
 the Far West ? What is the rank of the five leading states 
 in this cereal? (Fig. 370). Enumerate the uses to which 
 
 legend: 
 I Considerable Wheat Raised 
 I Greatest Wheat Raising District 
 
 Fig. 374. 
 
 corn is put. How does the area for oats (Fig. 372) com- 
 pare with that for corn ? Note the leading states for hay 
 (Fig. 373). Does Figure 374 show wheat to be more, or 
 
498 
 
 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
 less widely distributed than corn ? Why should it be ? 
 Which of the Western States must rely upon irrigation 
 
 't-Z.34S.67Z 
 73.4! 79/ Z 
 
 Kansas 
 
 $320-68.706 
 64939.41Z 
 
 North Dakota. 
 
 $Z8,383,767 ] 
 
 S3,QS4jtjr 
 
 Indiaria. 
 
 $2.7.7&60SS. $Z4Z08398 
 4ZJ03LI73 | 36,426.029 
 
 Fir. 375. 
 
 Wheat production, in dollars and bushels, in the rive leading wheat-producing 
 
 states. 
 
 for raising wheat ? Name the five leading wheat states in 
 the order of their rank (Fig. 375). How does the value 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 Fig. 376. 
 Number of sheep aud their value in the five leading sheep-producing states. 
 
 of hay in the five states that lead in its production compare 
 with that of wheat in the five principal wheat states ? 
 
 IUinois 
 
 Iowa 
 
 New York. 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 
 $40,437,934 
 IP03.2.99 
 
 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 
 
 ^W 
 
 $3 7.686 366 
 
 $34,634,083 
 
 $Z9.7 97,0 46 
 
 $2.9,390,338 
 
 "^^f^Xfe: 
 
 981,33'Z 
 
 3-96.738 
 
 633.499 
 
 348.747 
 
 r^Pli 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 377. 
 Number of horses and their value in the five principal horse-producing states. 
 
THE UNITED STATES 
 
 499 
 
 Excepting in the northwest, — that is, north of central 
 California near the Pacific coast, — most of the country west 
 of the 100th meridian is too arid for agriculture without 
 irrigation. This, therefore, is our great grazing region. 
 
 Iowa. 
 
 1 Tf.Y/7.% 
 
 Kansas 
 
 3,4-1 4,3S9 
 
 •r>i^ii 
 
 $93,309,98S 
 
 3234699 
 
 f 77,4 08,3 i 3 
 2,736,9 46 
 
 Illinois 
 
 $70,7J9,6Z6 
 
 2,266,278 
 
 NewYortc. 
 
 $64,12.8,379 
 Z.0/9,328 
 
 Fig. 378. 
 Number of cattle and their value in the five principal cattle-producing states. 
 
 Which of our states produce most sheep? (Fig- 376). 
 Which eastern state surpasses all others in number of 
 sheep ? Large numbers of horses are raised in the ranch 
 country ; but Figure 377 shows that the five leading 
 
 New York 
 
 Pennryhantet 
 
 Iowa. 
 
 \366,906,4e0 
 
 Fig. '379. 
 Five principal milk-producing states. 
 
 states in the production of horses are farther east. Do 
 Figures 372 and 373 suggest a reason for this? Name 
 the five leading states for cattle (Fig. 378). No one of 
 these states is altogether in the ranch country, although 
 the second and third are semi-arid in their western part. 
 Note the principal m7&-producing states (Fig. 379). To 
 what extent are these states the same as those in Fig- 
 ure 373 ? What resemblance do you find between the five 
 
500 
 
 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
 states producing most corn (Fig. 370) and the five produc- 
 ing the largest number of hogs? (Fig. 380). Why? 
 
 Iowa. 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Winois 
 
 
 $l9,S90.aOO 
 3,408, Z8I 
 
 2?> . .. <*r. " =/S "~.. 
 
 Texas. 
 
 
 $lt,5J2J6t 
 K307.0&J 
 
 JU077J89 
 
 *J>08.26J 
 
 $$376306 
 2,634.987 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 380. 
 Number of hogs and their value in the five principal hog-produciug states. 
 
 These various agricultural products are of immense 
 importance in the great shipping and manufacturing 
 centres. Name the five chief shipping points along the 
 Great Lakes (Fig. 357-). Make a list of the five largest 
 cities on the Mississippi River and its tributaries ; the 
 five largest on the eastern coast ; the three largest on the 
 western coast. Arrange these in the order of their popu- 
 lation (see table, p. 552). Which are included among the 
 twelve largest cities in the country? (see table, p. 551). 
 
 Omaha, Kansas City, St. Louis, and Chicago are 
 noted markets for live stock and grain. Why these in par- 
 ticular ? Besides sending these products eastward, they 
 pack a great amount of meat and mill much flour. In the 
 southwest the shipping points for western cattle are 
 Dallas and Fort Worth in Texas. 
 
 Minneapolis, Milwaukee, Toledo, Evansville, 
 and Nashville are noted for flour. Both brewing and 
 distilling, which require grain, are important industries in 
 a number of the cities of the Central States, the former 
 especially at Milwaukee, St. Louis, and Cincinnati, 
 the latter at Louisville and Peoria. 
 
 Nearly all the cities in the fertile Central States are 
 
THE UNITED STATES 
 
 501 
 
 engaged in industries connected with the products of the 
 region. For example, Columbus and Indianapolis 
 handle grain and manufacture farming implements ; and 
 Dayton is noted for its manufacture of farm machinery. 
 These and other cities of this section are trade centres, 
 supplying the towns, villages, and farms with needed 
 implements and other articles. Notice, for example, the 
 number of large towns along the Mississippi and Missouri 
 rivers and their larger tributaries. Besides those already 
 mentioned some of the largest are St. Paul, St. Joseph, 
 and Des Moines. Find others. 
 
 Many of the products of the Central States are sent 
 east for consumption or for manufacture. For ex- 
 ample, hides are 
 shipped to tan- 
 neries in the 
 central and east- 
 ern states ; and 
 the leather then 
 goes to the fac- 
 tories at Lynn 
 and Brockton, 
 Mass., Roches- 
 ter, N.Y., and 
 elsewhere, to be 
 made into boots and shoes. Leather goods are also made in 
 the cities of the middle west, as, for example, in St. Louis. 
 
 Observe the extent of the cotton belt (Fig. 381) and the 
 rank of the principal cotton-producing states (Fig. 382). 
 New Orleans, Memphis, Atlanta, and numerous other 
 southern cities are important cotton markets. What sea- 
 ports must ship a large amount of cotton ? Of late cotton 
 
 Fig. 381. 
 
502 
 
 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
 manufacturing has been rapidly increasing in the South ; 
 and among the cities which are extensively engaged in 
 manufacturing cotton goods and cotton-seed oil are 
 
 Texas. 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Alabama 
 
 
 2,3 22,408 
 
 Bale* 
 
 S.Carvlma 
 
 IJM.77/ 
 
 t,3S0J8l 
 
 1J1260I 
 
 1030,083 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 382. 
 Five principal cotton-producing states. 
 
 Columbia and Greenville, S.C., Charlotte, N.C, and 
 Augusta, Columbus, and Atlanta, Ga. Texas manu- 
 factures little, although nearly every Texan city is impor- 
 tant for cotton. Name and locate several of the largest. 
 
 Cuba 
 
 1664,862,000 
 Pounds 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 ffawaiian. 
 Islands 
 
 435,000,000 
 
 PRica 
 
 
 
 PortoRico. 10,000,000 
 
 Fig. 381 
 
 Principal sugar-producing districts in the United States and its dependencies; 
 also including Cuba. 
 
 Of the southern cotton much is sent to New England, 
 which is even more busily engaged in cotton manufactur- 
 ing than the South. Many of the cities of southern Maine 
 and New Hampshire, as well as many in Massachusetts, 
 Rhode Island, New York, and other states, are engaged in 
 the manufacture of cotton or woollen p-oods or both. 
 
THE UNITED STATES 
 
 503 
 
 Among these 
 are Philadel- 
 phia Pa., Fall 
 River, Low- 
 ell, La w- 
 rence, New 
 Bedford, and 
 Taunton, 
 Mass. ; Provi- 
 deice and 
 Pawtucket, 
 Pv. I. ; Man- 
 chester, N.H.; 
 Lew t iston, Me.; 
 and U t i c A, 
 N.Y. 
 
 Fig. 384. 
 
 Note the rank 
 of Louisiana in the production of sugar and sugar cane (Fig. 
 383). Naturally there are many sugar refineries in New Or- 
 leans. In what 
 
 section is rice cul- 
 tivated? (Fig. 
 432). Name the 
 chief tobacco 
 states (Fig. 384). 
 Richmond, Lou- 
 isville, and St. 
 Louis are our 
 principal tobacco 
 markets, while 
 Lynchburg and 
 Danville, Va., 
 
 and Raleigh and Durham, N.C., are extensively engaged in 
 
 tobacco manufacture. 
 
 Fig. 385. 
 
504 
 
 REVIEW OF NORTH- AMERICA 
 
 What are our chief kinds of fruits, and in what sections are 
 they raised ? (Fig. 385). Much of the prosperity of Los 
 Angeles, Cal., is dependent upon the fruit raised in its vicinity 
 by the aid of irrigation. To the use of irrigation is also due 
 the fruit and other agricultural industries near Salt Lake 
 City, Utah. Near the shores of the Great Lakes immense 
 quantities of grapes, apples, pears, and other fruits are raised. 
 Why near the Great Lakes ? Kochester, JST.Y., is a noted 
 
 Fig. 386. 
 
 centre for the nursery business, which is important in the fruit 
 country. Canning is another great industry connected with 
 fruit, as, for example, at Baltimore and Wilmington. Why 
 there ? 
 
 Mining and Manufacturing Dependent upon Mining. — 
 Coal and iron are the most important minerals for manu- 
 facturing. Tell about their distribution (Figs. 386 and 
 389). What is the rank of the leading states in each 
 product ? (Figs. 387 and 388). In regard to coal in Penn- 
 
THE UNITED STATES 
 
 505 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 $116,763,473 
 
 W7,029,6J4^ 
 
 , ,_ Tora. , W, 
 
 £.1 p ri pn r'CKi 
 
 nl <$W7ZJZ9 \$SIS3SA09 
 { Ze.0 7i.TJS a (l2,tS6,94Z 
 
 ^0,93 7.3 93 
 t+,2.t&lJ9 ' 
 
 \$S,SLI9,J03 
 
 sylvania, see page 183. The neighboring states of Mary- 
 land, West Virginia, and Ohio have extensive deposits of 
 bituminous coal. What 
 about the coal in the 
 states farther west ? 
 (Fig. 386). 
 
 Owing to special ad- 
 vantages mentioned on 
 pages 183-184, Pennsyl- 
 vania is distinguished 
 for the manufacture of 
 iron and steel goods. 
 Philadelphia manufactures cars, steel ships, and many 
 other articles of iron. Pittsburg and Allegheny make 
 iron and steel goods of nearly every description ; and in 
 Scranton, Reading, Harrisburg, Erie, and a score of 
 
 other cities there are 
 
 Fig. 387. 
 
 Coal production, in dollars and tons, in the 
 five leading coal-producing states. 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 $B,34 761S 
 
 Minn. 
 
 Ala 
 
 VaPa. 
 
 CD 
 
 - *• 5L,09a,Qi.1 
 
 $974,031 
 
 ut.iza 
 
 $8 <77,079 
 7Z3,74Z 
 
 Va 
 Fa 
 
 Fig. 388. 
 
 furnaces, foundries, and 
 machine shops for iron 
 manufacturing. 
 
 Neighboring states 
 also enjoy the benefit 
 of the abundant coal of 
 this region. . In New 
 
 Iron ore production , in dollars and tons, in the Jersey, NEWARK, JER- 
 five leading iron ore-producing states. ,-, ^ i 
 
 b f & sey City, Camden, and 
 
 Hoboken manufacture iron goods. New York City does 
 the same, and there is iron manufacturing at Buffalo, 
 Rochester, Syracuse, Albany, Troy, and many other 
 New York cities. Wilmington, Del., like Philadelphia, 
 is noted for its cars and steel ships ; and Baltimore, 
 Wheeling, W.Va., and Roanoke, Va., carry on iron and 
 
506 
 
 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
 steel manufacturing. What is the rank of Virginia among 
 iron-producing states ? (Fig. 388). 
 
 For reasons stated on page 184, the iron ore of the Lake 
 Superior region is transported to distant cities, even as far 
 as the cities of Pennsylvania, for manufacture. Boats with 
 ore leave the lake ports of Duluth, Superior, Ashland, 
 and Marquette for cities all along the Great Lakes, 
 
 Fig. 389. 
 Leading iron, copper, oil, and gas producing regions. 
 
 especially those which can easily secure coal. Some of 
 these cities draw upon the Pennsylvania coal fields; others 
 obtain coal from Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Among the 
 lake cities which receive Lake Superior iron are Chicago, 
 Cleveland, Buffalo, Detroit, Milwaukee, and To- 
 ledo. But many others, both on the lakes and at a dis- 
 tance from them, are partly or wholly supplied with iron 
 for manufacture from the Lake Superior region, the most 
 productive iron field in the world. 
 
THE UNITED STATES 507 
 
 New England also consumes much iron, manufacturing 
 especially such articles as are light and require much 
 skill. Why ? Many of the smaller places are engaged 
 in such work, and among the larger cities Boston, 
 Worcester, Springfield, Hartford, New Haven, 
 and Bridgeport make many kinds of articles of metal, 
 including wire, machinery, hardware, firearms, cartridges, 
 bicycles, sewing machines, etc. 
 
 In Alabama, as in Pennsylvania, both coal and iron are 
 found ; and at Birmingham, which has both minerals 
 near at hand, the iron and steel industry is extensive 
 (p. 184). Atlanta, Knoxville, and Chattanooga also 
 have iron industries. We have already seen that many 
 cities in the Central States are engaged in iron manufac- 
 turing, since they make farming implements ; and many 
 other forms of iron goods receive their attention. In the 
 Far West there is less manufacturing ; but Pueblo, 
 Colo., has large iron works. 
 
 In some sections natural gas is used as a fuel in place 
 of coal ; for example, in the neighborhood of Pittsburg 
 in the manufacture of glass. On Figure 389, point out 
 the leading oil and gas districts. Name other products 
 than kerosene that are obtained from petroleum. 
 
 What states produce copper? (Fig. 389). Michigan, in 
 the neighborhood of Calumet, has very large copper 
 mines; and at Butte, Mont., more copper is mined than 
 in any other district in the world. Name the cities in 
 southern Arizona (Fig. 362) near the copper-producing 
 region (Fig. 389). 
 
 Lead and zinc are other important metals. Many of the 
 silver ores of the Far West yield lead, as, for example, at 
 Leadville, Colo. Both lead and zinc are found in several of 
 
508 
 
 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
 the Central States, one of the leading districts being at Jop- 
 lin", Mo. Much zinc is used for mixing with copper to form 
 the alloy brass. Waterbury, Conn., is an important centre for 
 the manufacture of brass goods. 
 
 How widely distributed are the gold and silver mines ? 
 (Fig. 390). Name the principal states for each metal in 
 the order of their rank (Figs. 391 and 392). Denver 
 
 Fig. 390. 
 Gold and silver producing regions indicated by crosses. 
 
 owes much of its importance to the numerous mining 
 towns in its vicinity. Why ? One of the best known is 
 Cripple Creek ; Leadville is another. Some of this 
 metal is sent to eastern cities, such as Providence, to 
 be used in the manufacture of jewellery, etc. ; but large 
 quantities go to the government mints to be coined for 
 use as money. 
 
 Compare the value of the precious metals (Figs. 391 and 
 392) with that of hay (Fig 373). With that of cattle 
 
THE UNITED STATES 
 
 509 
 
 (Fig. 378). Which of the products shown in these various 
 diagrams has the greatest total value ? 
 
 Besides the mineral products mentioned, there are others of 
 great importance. For example, salt is found in New York, Michi- 
 
 Colorada 
 
 $79,7 04,2.0a 
 
 PANNI^C J _GQLD — 
 
 California. 
 
 ■$74,6 78,300 
 70 7,7 60 
 
 SDaJcota Mnntonn 
 
 13.69^,900 
 2.73,497 
 
 $1,373,400 
 277363 
 
 $2,S76,100 
 W 3,983 
 
 Fig. 391. 
 Gold production, in dollars and ounces, in the five leading gold-producing 
 
 states. 
 
 gan, Kansas, and other states. Phosphates are obtained at 
 Charleston, S.C., and in Florida. Clays for bricks and tiles 
 occur in many sections, one of the most noted being the Hud- 
 son Valley above New York ; but the finer pottery clays are 
 
 Colorado. 
 
 $ 17,97 4-.33S 
 27,636,4*00 
 
 Mo/liana. 
 
 $10,257,487 
 7 3,66 7,9 00 
 
 Utah. 
 
 $8JOO,9 78 
 6,263600 
 
 Idaho 
 
 $6,336,903 
 H9 07.2.00 
 
 j 2.,Z39flOO 
 
 Fig. 392. 
 
 Silver production, in dollars and ounces, in the five leading silver-producing 
 
 states. 
 
 less common, one of the most important centres being Tren- 
 tox, N. J. Building stones of one kind or another are quar- 
 ried in every state ; but Ohio, Indiana, and other Central States 
 produce sandstone and limestone especially; the New England 
 States granite; the neighborhood of Py,utland, Vt., marble; 
 and Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania, and Maine slate. 
 
510 
 
 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
 Manufacturing. — The great industries supplying raw 
 products are seen to be lumbering, fishing, agriculture, graz- 
 ing, and mining, of which agriculture is the most impor- 
 tant. Manufacturing, a sixth great industry, is seen to 
 be directly related to these products. Our cities are 
 largely engaged in manufacturing, and have so many 
 
 Distribution of Principal Cities 
 
 and Towns of the 
 i United States. 
 
 SCALE OF MILES, 
 
 0, 100 200 200 100 
 
 Fig. 393. 
 The star shows the centre of population of the United States. 
 
 kinds that a mere list of them would occupy many pages. 
 A number of the cities are noted especially for one kind 
 of manufacture, as Paterson, N.J., for silk; Troy, 
 N.Y., for shirts, collars, and cuffs ; Syracuse, N.Y., for 
 the works in which soda is made from salt ; Brockton, 
 Mass., for shoes ; Fall River, Mass., for cotton goods, 
 etc. But some of these cities have other important manu- 
 factures ; and the larger commercial cities make scores of 
 very different classes of articles. For example, Boston 
 
so^iij-,/ " /s ATLANTIC 
 
 OCEAN 
 
 Transcontinental 
 Railroads in 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 and adjacent portions of 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 \MEX 
 
 J^^^^ ? \^--o 
 
 Transcontinental Railroads thus : , r ■ 
 
 Other Railroads thus ; 
 
 Standard Time Divisions thus : + ■*■ + + + +■ 
 Connecting Steamship Lines thus: 
 
 Scale of Miles. 
 100 300 300 400 600 
 
 J4. 
 
THE UNITED STATES 511 
 
 and its suburbs, which include the large cities of Cam- 
 bridge and Somerville, manufacture almost every kind 
 of article that can be named. 
 
 Commerce. — In connection with the production of raw 
 materials and with manufacturing there must be much 
 trade and transportation of goods, or commerce. More 
 than half of our people are occupied in providing raw 
 products and hence live in country districts, while the 
 cities are mainly concerned with manufacturing and com- 
 merce. Give several examples showing the interdepend- 
 ence of country and city districts. According to Figure 
 393, in what quarter of the United States are most of our 
 cities found? Our railways? (Fig. 394). 
 
 In the table (p. 551) you will find a list of the twenty-five 
 largest cities. Locate each and tell what you know about it. 
 Which of these cities is nearest your home ? In what section 
 of the country is the greatest number ? Why ? Which are on 
 the sea-shore ? Which are on the Great Lakes ? Which are on 
 navigable rivers ? (Fig. 396). Which are not on navigable waters ? 
 
 Name and locate our great cities along the Atlantic seaboard. 
 They are not only manufacturing centres, but also eastern gate- 
 ways to and from the interior, as Seattle, Tacoma, Portland, 
 and San Francisco are gateways on the western side. 
 
 Some of the reasons why New York is the largest city 
 of all are stated on page 123. What are they ? Trace 
 the route of the New York Central Railway (Fig. 395) 
 and the Erie Canal to Lake Erie (Fig. 359). Name the 
 principal cities on this route. There are other railways 
 from New York to Buffalo (Fig. 395), and these con- 
 nect with lines that extend to Chicago and the West. 
 The importance of Buffalo as a shipping point is further 
 increased by the fact that Niagara Falls have made it the 
 
512 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
 eastern terminus of much of the lake traffic. Since the 
 Welland Ship Canal (Fig. 359) now permits lake boats to 
 pass from the Great Lakes clown the St. Lawrence, why 
 does not Montreal rival New York in importance ? Bos- 
 ton has excellent railway connections with Albany and 
 the West, but it is much smaller than New York. Why ? 
 
 Name the chief cities along the Great Lakes between 
 Buffalo and Duluth. Considering the raw materials at 
 hand, what shipping and manufacturing industries must 
 be prominent in these cities ? Taking Cleveland, for 
 example, state clearly the advantages of its location for 
 securing raw products needed in manufacturing, and 
 for shipping manufactured articles. In what respects 
 are Detroit, Chicago, and Milwaukee favorably 
 located ? 
 
 In Figure 394 note that from Duluth, Minneapolis, 
 and St. Paul two trunk lines of railway, the Great 
 Northern and the Northern Pacific, extend to the Pacific 
 coast. In what cities do they terminate ? What states do 
 they cross ; and what cities have you studied that are 
 situated on or near them ? 
 
 Philadelphia and Baltimore, like Boston and New 
 York, also have excellent connection with the West, by 
 lines running through Pittsburg, Columbus, Indian- 
 apolis, and Cincinnati to Chicago and St. Louis (Fig. 
 395). From the two last cities two other trunk lines, — 
 the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe, and the Union 
 Pacific, which connects with the Southern Pacific and the 
 Oregon Short Line, — -have been built to the Pacific coast 
 (Fig. 394). Through what states and large cities do they 
 pass ? Note the number of trunk lines extending to Den- 
 ver and other Colorado cities ; several of these connect 
 
THE M.-N.CO 
 
 Fi 
 
TUE UNITED STATES 
 
 513 
 
 with the Denver and Rio Grande, which also has connec- 
 tions to the Pacific. 
 
 The principal railways running south from New York, 
 Philadelphia, and Baltimore necessarily extend parallel to 
 the Appalachians (Fig. 395). But several of them wind 
 about the southern end of these ranges to the west and 
 
 Fig. 396. 
 
 Navigable rivers represented by heavy lines. 
 
 northwest, making the " Gate City," Atlanta, an impor- 
 tant railway centre. Chattanooga and Nashville are 
 other important railway centres in the South. Notice 
 (Fig. 395) that Chicago, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Louis- 
 ville, and other large cities in the interior are connected 
 by trunk lines with New Orleans and other southern cities. 
 At New Orleans the southern roads connect with another 
 transcontinental line, the Southern Pacific, which extends 
 from New Orleans to Los Angeles, San Francisco, and 
 
 2 L 
 
514 
 
 BEVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
 Portland. Name the states and chief towns along that 
 route. Find Oakland (Fig. 362) which is the terminus 
 of railways leading to San Francisco, much as Jersey 
 
 City and Ho- 
 boken are of 
 railways leading 
 to New York. 
 
 It is evident 
 that the main 
 railways of the 
 United States 
 extend east and 
 west. On the 
 other hand, Fig- 
 ure 396 shows 
 that the princi- 
 pal navigable 
 rivers flow 
 southward. 
 Name them. 
 Why should not 
 our principal 
 railways like- 
 wise run north 
 and south ? 
 Government. — All together there are forty-five states in 
 our Union, besides four territories (Arizona, Indian Ter- 
 ritory, New Mexico, and Oklahama), the District of Co- 
 lumbia, and several outlying territories and dependencies. 
 These are all firmly united under a free, popular govern- 
 ment, or Republic, with the capital at Washington in the 
 District of Columbia. This city, unlike our other large 
 
DEPENDENCIES OF THE UNITED STATES 515 
 
 cities, is almost entirely occupied with the affairs of govern- 
 ment, instead of with manufacturing and commerce. 
 
 Outlying Territories and Dependencies of the 
 United States 
 
 Alaska. — Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867. 
 Give its latitude. Describe the surface (Fig. 363). How 
 must the Japan Current (p. 46) and the prevailing west- 
 erlies (Fig. 30) affect its climate ? In the shallow waters 
 near the coast, cod and halibut abound, and salmon are 
 caught in the rivers. Seals, valuable for their fur, are 
 captured on the Pribilof Islands. Locate these islands 
 (Fig. 356) : also the Aleutian Islands (Fig. 241). Re- 
 cently gold mining has become important at various places, 
 especially in the Klondike region of Canada on the upper 
 Yukon (Fig. 398). There are very large gold mines at 
 Juneau near Sitka, the capital. 
 
 Cuba and Porto Rico. — As a result of the war of 1898, 
 Porto Rico was ceded by Spain to the United States, and 
 Cuba was given its independence under the general guid- 
 ance, of the United States. Since these islands have a 
 mountainous surface, and are in the trade-wind belt, how 
 must their rainfall be distributed? (p. 33). While there 
 are valuable forests, farming is the chief industry. Sugar 
 (Fig. 383) and tobacco are the leading crops, and coffee 
 (Fig. 425), cocoa, tea, and tropical fruits are other prod- 
 ucts. By far the largest city is Havana, the capital of 
 Cuba (Fig. 400) ; San Juan is the capital and largest 
 city of Porto Rico (Fig. 400). 
 
 Hawaiian Islands. — Locate these islands (Fig. 338), 
 which are volcanic in origin. What can you tell about 
 
516 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
 their climate ? Sugar is their principal crop (Fig. 388), 
 and coffee, rice, and tropical fruits are other products. 
 The Pacific coast cities are their chief markets, and 
 San Francisco refines much of their sugar. Name the 
 chief city (Fig. 338). The islands constitute a territory 
 of the United States similar to Alaska. 
 
 Guam and Samoa. — -These islands (Fig. 338) are of 
 value to us mainly as coaling stations. What does that 
 mean ? Only Tutuila among the Samoan Islands (p. 484) 
 belongs to us. 
 
 Philippine Islands. — In what latitude do these islands 
 lie? (Figs. 241 and 338). They form a portion of the 
 great girdle of mountain chains and volcanoes shown in 
 Figure 5. The winter season is dry, but the summer mon- 
 soon (p. 36) brings heavy rains. What must the tempera- 
 ture be ? The extensive forests and mineral deposits are 
 little utilized, but hemp, tobacco, sugar, coffee, and cocoa 
 are raised for export. 
 
 Countries North of the United States 
 
 Canada and Newfoundland. — The Dominion of Canada 
 was formed in 1867. It now consists of seven provinces. 
 Name the seven provinces and the sparsely settled terri- 
 tories (Fig. 398). Canada is a dependency of Great 
 Britain, and has a popular government of its own, with 
 Ottawa as the capital. Newfoundland never joined this 
 union, and hence forms a separate British colony. 
 
 Southern Canada is very similar to northern United 
 States in physiography, climate, and products. Farther 
 north there is a forest belt inhabited mainly by Indians 
 and trappers ; and beyond that are extensive tundras, or 
 
COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 517 
 
 barrens, having almost no inhabitants with the exception 
 of a few Eskimos along the coast. Locate the four largest 
 rivers and the three largest lakes. 
 
 The forests are one of the greatest sources of wealth, 
 and many of the cities have sawmills, furniture factories, 
 pulp mills, etc. ; for example, Fredericton and St. 
 John in New Brunswick, and Montreal, Ottawa, and 
 Toronto farther west. 
 
 Fishing is an important industry, especially along the 
 eastern coast (Fig. 369). Some of the best-known ports 
 are Yarmouth and Halifax in Nova Scotia, and St. 
 John's in Newfoundland. Vessels from the latter port are 
 engaged in sealing and whaling. The seals on the eastern 
 side of Canada are of value for their fat, or blubber, and 
 not for their fur. 
 
 Wheat and hardy fruits are raised in British Columbia, 
 as in the state of Washington, which has a similar climate. 
 Farther east cattle and sheep raising are the main indus- 
 tries, as in Montana. Manitoba is noted for wheat, and 
 Winnipeg is a wheat centre, like Minneapolis. The best 
 agricultural section is in Ontario. In this province, which 
 contains nearly one-half of the inhabitants of Canada, the 
 best farming land and the most people are found in 
 the peninsula which extends southward between Lake 
 Huron and Lakes Erie and Ontario. Name the large 
 cities in this peninsula. The lakes so temper the climate 
 that grapes and peaches flourish as in New York. Also 
 quantities of grain are produced, and many cattle, sheep, 
 horses, and hogs are raised. There is other good farm 
 land along the St. Lawrence and in New Brunswick, Prince 
 Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. 
 
 The Klondike region of Canada, noted for gold, has 
 
518 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
 already been mentioned (p. 515), and there are many other 
 mineral deposits, including iron ore, copper, and coal. The 
 most important coal mines are found on Cape Breton Island, 
 a part of northern Nova Scotia, where there is also iron 
 manufacturing. 
 
 The main water outlet for Canada is by the way of the 
 Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River, with large ship 
 canals around the rapids. Name the chief cities along 
 this route. What is the corresponding outlet in the 
 United States ? Why is the population along one route 
 much greater than that along the other ? Montreal is 
 at the head of navigation to ocean vessels, since there are 
 rapids in the river just above it. Its commerce is there- 
 fore greater than that of Quebec ; and because so many 
 raw products can be brought cheaply by water, it is a 
 manufacturing centre as well. Among the articles made 
 there are sugar, boots and shoes, cotton and woollen goods, 
 and iron and steel goods. Ottawa, the capital of Can- 
 ada, is situated where there are falls in the Ottawa River. 
 The situation of Toronto is especially favorable to manu- 
 facturing. How ? 
 
 The greatest railway in Canada is the Canadian Pacific (Fig. 
 394), which extends from St. John, New Brunswick, where there 
 is a good harbor, to Vancouver on the Pacific coast. Name the 
 principal towns along the route. Locate Victoria on Vancouver 
 Island. The Canadian Pacific railway offers the shortest route 
 from England to China and Japan, and much freight is sent 
 that way. 
 
 Islands north of North America. — These islands have very 
 few inhabitants, and those mainly Eskimos. Tell how they 
 live. Note the country to which Greenland belongs (Fig. 356). 
 Tell about the icebergs that break off from the Greenland 
 glaciers. 
 
COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 519 
 
 Counteies South of the United States 
 
 Mexico. — The physiography of Mexico recalls that of 
 Spain, since the interior is a table-land crossed by moun- 
 tains with low land along the coast. The rivers have 
 rapids and falls, and most of them are quite short. Why ? 
 Name the two principal peninsulas. In what wind belts 
 does Mexico lie? (Fig. 25). What follows about the dis- 
 tribution and quantity of rain? (Fig. 26; also pp. 31-34). 
 What can you say about the temperature, remembering the 
 different elevations of land ? 
 
 Mexico is a republic composed of several states, with 
 Mexico City as the capital. Spanish is the language of 
 the country, which formerly belonged to Spain. Since 
 the Spanish settlers freely intermarried with the Indians, 
 many of the citizens are half-breeds ; there are also pure- 
 blooded Spaniards, semi-civilized Aztecs, and, in remote 
 districts, tribes of savage Indians. 
 
 On the arid plateau, wherever the mountain streams 
 make irrigation possible, wheat, corn, beans, and the fruits 
 of the temperate zone are raised. The maguey, or agave, 
 a plant of the arid regions, is extensively cultivated for 
 its juice — which is made into the common drink called 
 pulque — and for its fibre. Grazing is an important in- 
 dustry, as in western Texas. 
 
 On the damp coastal plains, sugar cane, cotton, and tropi- 
 cal fruits are grown ; and upon the slopes between these 
 plains and the table-land, tobacco and coffee (Fig. 425 ; 
 also p. 116) are raised. In southern Mexico there are 
 dense tropical forests containing valuable woods, such as 
 mahogany and roseioood. Other products are pepper, 
 sarsaparilla, and vanilla. 
 
520 
 
 HE VIE IV OF NORTH AMEBIC A 
 
 It was the mines that attracted the Spaniards to Mexico, 
 and that country still produces such an amount of silver 
 that it ranks second among silver-producing regions 
 
 (Fig. 416). 
 Large areas 
 have never been 
 carefully ex- 
 plored for ore, 
 and in many of 
 the mines, oper- 
 ated by Mexi- 
 cans, very primi- 
 tive methods are 
 employed. 
 
 Mexico City 
 is the largest 
 
 city, having a 
 population of 
 350,000. Since 
 good harbors are 
 wanting, owing 
 to the rising land (p. 488), Vera Cruz is the only im- 
 portant port. There is almost no manufacturing in Mexican 
 cities. Why ? 
 
 Central America. — This mountainous region has several 
 active volcanoes and is often disturbed by earthquakes. 
 In fact, because of the frequent shocks it has been neces- 
 sary to change the sites of some of the large cities. 
 Name the five republics (Fig. 399). Their population is 
 similar in origin to that of Mexico, and there are frequent 
 revolutions, as in South America. Point out the British 
 colony of British Honduras, or Belize. 
 
 Fig. 399. 
 A map of Central America. 
 
COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 521 
 
 What about the temperature and rainfall (Fig. 26) of 
 Central America ? A large portion of the land is cov- 
 ered with tropical forests containing valuable woods and 
 the rubber tree (p. 115). As in Mexico, coffee is raised on 
 the hill slopes in the shade of the forest trees, one of the 
 most important sections for this industry being Guatemala 
 (Fig. 426). Bananas, sugar, tobacco, indigo, and cocoa are 
 other products. The largest city is Guatemala with 
 seventy thousand inhabitants. 
 
 Nicaragua is of special interest to us on account of the 
 proposed Nicaragua Canal, favored in our country in pref- 
 erence to the Panama Canal (p. 132). The Nicaragua 
 route is longer than the Panama route, but a part of the 
 distance is occupied by a lake, and the elevation necessary 
 to be passed over is only half as great as that for the 
 Panama Canal. 
 
 Islands. — From Yucatan to Florida a chain of islands, 
 called the West Indies pr Antilles, extends to the mouth 
 of the Orinoco River, thus enclosing the Caribbean Sea 
 (Fig. 400). Why the name West Indies? To what 
 extent do they lie within the tropics ? What about their 
 winds and rainfall ? Two of the larger ones have already 
 been treated (p. 515). Jamaica, the third in size, is a 
 British colony. Name its capital. The inhabitants are 
 mainly negroes engaged in raising sugar cane, early vegeta- 
 bles, and tropical fruits. 
 
 Haiti, next to Cuba in size, is composed of two inde- 
 pendent negro republics. Name their capitals. Much of 
 the land is forest covered, and agriculture is the principal 
 occupation. The products are similar to those of the 
 other islands. How does Haiti rank in the production of 
 coffee? (Fig. 426). 
 
522 
 
 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
 Note the names of some of the Lesser Antilles, and also the 
 countries to which they belong. What effect must the growing 
 beet sugar industry of Europe (p. 288) have upon these islands, 
 in which sugar-cane is the most important product ? 
 
 The Bahamas are numerous small islands built of coral. 
 Many sponges are obtained on the reefs, and early vegetables 
 
 .Tampa v^ ^Longitude West 74 from Greenwich 66 
 
 Ko 7 VVe^V?"* ,8^ V f* ^ " 
 ■5 H ,„„ i-i' r Iut>«° 5 ' 'e • » .5AN < ^A-^- 
 
 V* aVa !L«Vi4>"'>»L. "fcfcSALVAOOR 
 
 "ji^C. Catoche' 
 
 •9 Santiago ttelg|^ 
 
 
 .^.glV^wijtloi I C A R IB B E 
 
 S~K-- 3 »S™f CENTRAL 
 
 JAMAJCA 
 
 fl% J> aiFPrinee """"> ,'f^ 
 
 f T [ L L E S suac 
 
 x jv s.e.4 
 
 Ojv. 
 
 Fig. 400. 
 A map of the West Indies. 
 
 pineapples, oranges, and cocoanuts come from the islands. They 
 are also a winter resort. Find the Bermudas (Fig. 356) a tiny 
 island group in the open ocean. They form a British colony. 
 The Bermudas are also a winter resort, and the inhabitants are 
 engaged in raising Easter lilies and early vegetables, especially 
 potatoes and onions, for the American market. 
 
XXV. THE UNITED STATES COMPARED 
 WITH OTHER COUNTRIES 
 
 Area and Population. — In spite of the vast extent of 
 the United States, there are three empires in the Old 
 
 British Empire 
 
 flussUrtErrwtre Chinese United 
 Errvplre states 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Fig. 401. 
 Area of the five largest nations. 
 
 World with a greater area. Which are they? (Fig. 401). 
 Which country is fifth in size ? Compare the United 
 States with each of these in area. 
 
 The United States also ranks fourth in population (Eig. 
 402). Name the five most populous countries in the 
 
 Chinese Empire jBrittjirv Empire 
 
 %^iari Untte€l 
 
 Gerrrva rvy 
 
 Fig. 402. 
 The five most populous nations, 1900. 
 
 order of their rank. What facts do you discover by 
 comparing Figures 40 L and 402? Figure 403 shows the 
 
52-1 
 
 COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 
 
 density of population, or the number of people per square 
 mile, in some of the countries in the world. From this it 
 
 will be seen that 
 the United States 
 is very thinly 
 settled compared 
 with many coun- 
 tries. Compare 
 the United States 
 in this regard 
 with Belgium, 
 England, Cuba, 
 Mexico, and Can- 
 ada. 
 
 Leading Raw 
 Products. — 
 Nevertheless, the 
 United States 
 leads the world 
 in many very important respects and approaches leadership 
 in several others. Figure 404 shows that no nation is a 
 
 111 
 
 '.'-.:■ '■;■'■ ""I 
 
 
 
 
 Belgium Jos 
 
 England mo 
 
 Japan SS4 
 
 Italy 280 
 
 China 210 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Germany 250 
 
 France 1S6 
 
 India iSi 
 
 Spain S'J 
 
 Phil. Is 'ds 72 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Russia J.! 
 
 Cuba :i<: 
 
 U. Stales w 
 
 Mexico "'• 
 
 Hawaii /'•' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C.Colony s 
 
 Brazil 4.5 
 
 Argentina 8 
 
 (anuria ? 
 
 Australia/. ?S 
 
 Fig. 403. 
 Density of population of some of the countries. 
 
 Fig. 404. 
 Sketch map to show the approximate distribution of corn. 
 
COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 
 
 525 
 
 close rival to us in the production of corn. What coun- 
 tries, however, raise large quantities of it ? Why is no 
 
 Fig. 405. 
 Approximate distribution of wheat. 
 
 corn raised in the British Isles? (p. 181). Wheat is more 
 widely cultivated than corn (Fig. 405). Yet we are far 
 
 United States 
 
 67^/49,000 
 
 fiussiart 
 Empire 
 
 498,836000 
 
 Finance 
 
 British, 
 
 Austria 
 
 37(881,000 
 
 India u unffary 
 
 Z4 292/000 
 
 170938000 
 
 Fig. 406. 
 The five leading wheat-producing countries, 1898. 
 
 in the lead in that grain (Fig. 406). Point out (Fig. 405) 
 the leading wheat fields of the world. Which sections are 
 important for both wheat and corn ? On which side of 
 the Atlantic is wheat raised farthest north ? Why ? 
 
 Cotton is limited to warm climates (Fig. 407), so that 
 comparatively few countries raise it. Name the five that 
 lead in its production (Fig. 408). To what extent does the 
 
526 
 
 COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 
 
 HZ34383 
 
 J3alestfJ00lbs 
 
 Fig. 407. 
 Approximate distribution of cotton. 
 
 output of the United States surpass that of the four other 
 
 countries t o- 
 Urvlted States India Z,Z7J,ZO0 o-ether ? Ill what 
 
 China 1320,000 £ ,-, TT ., , 
 
 , _, parts 01 the U nitecl 
 
 India- r**, in „r- + 
 
 Chuuf4ypt tf br(ia States is most cot- 
 ton manufacturing 
 carried on ? What 
 other countries 
 have important 
 c otto n -man ufac- 
 
 Effypt 1,240,000 
 Korea WOftOO 
 
 Fig. 408. 
 The five leading cotton-producing countries, 1898. 
 
 turing industries ? 
 
 Fig. 409. 
 Approximate distribution of sheep. 
 
COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 
 
 527 
 
 Note the distribution of sheep and cattle (Fig. 409). 
 What is our rank in the production of wool? (Fig. 410). 
 
 Australasia 
 
 Russia 
 
 United Sts. United 
 Kingdom 
 
 Fig. 410. 
 
 The five leading wool-producing countries, 1899. 
 
 Yet we consume much more than we raise. Recall some 
 facts concerning sheep raising in Australia, Argentina, 
 and the United States. What nations have important 
 woollen manufacturing ? 
 
 The extreme importance of coal and iron for manufac- 
 turing purposes has often been emphasized. But Figure 
 
 Fig. 411. 
 Approximate distribution of coal. 
 
 411 represents the coal fields as very limited. What coun- 
 tries have little or none ? Name the leading coal-produc- 
 ing sections, and state the rank of the United States in 
 this mineral (Fig. 412). 
 
528 COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 
 
 UnUectStaws creat Britain, 
 
 2S2J1J,3Q7 
 Tons 
 
 £16,195,200 
 
 Germany 
 
 Austria 
 Hu/vgaryrrance 
 
 m£83/96 
 
 ALust.Hung. 39,315,3/6 
 rrartce 35,716,611 
 
 Fig. 412. 
 The five leading coal-producing countries, 1899. 
 
 Is iron ore more or less widely distributed than coal? 
 (Fig. 413). How does the United States rank in the 
 
 Fig.. 413. 
 Approximate distribution of iron mines. 
 
 output of this mineral (Fig. 413) ; also in the production 
 of pig iron (Fig. 414), which demands coal as well as 
 
 Un-ltedSttates 
 
 Ut'el. Jttnsqdom Germany 
 
 RussKv 
 
 TES 
 
 ,11,77 3.93H 
 
 nris ' '[ i" 1 - 11 " 1 * 
 
 
 
 8,63/,/5/ 
 
 7,2 32,9 8 &■ 
 
 Frarxce 
 
 ZS31HZ7. 
 
 (868,6 7/ 
 
 Fig. 414. 
 The five leading countries in the production of pig iron, 1898. 
 
COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 
 
 529 
 
 iron ore ? How does the output of coal and iron cor- 
 respond to the importance of countries as manufacturing 
 nations? (Fig. 421). 
 
 Where are the principal silver-mining sections ? 
 (Fig. 415). And how do we compare with other countries 
 
 Fig. 415. 
 Approximate distribution of silver mining. 
 
 in this product? (Fig. 416). Notice to what extent the 
 world is indebted to the New World for silver. Tell 
 
 United States 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Bolivia $621jr,78H 
 Australasia Boltvia 
 
 $34,036,168 
 
 $3Z,788JG& 
 
 $9131688 
 
 
 CHile 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chit* 
 
 $3?39?i30 
 
 Fiu. 41G. 
 The rive leading silver-producing countries, 1899. 
 
 about the distribution of gold (Fig. 417) and give our 
 rank in the production of that metal (Fig. 418). How 
 does the value of the total gold production compare with 
 that of silver in the five leading regions for each ? 
 2 m 
 
530 
 
 COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 
 
 Figure 419 suggests that the United States leads the 
 world in the production of petroleum, or mineral oil, which 
 
 Fig. 417. 
 Approximate distribution of gold mining 
 
 is true. The second most important district for petroleum 
 is in Russia near the Caspian Sea. Other districts pro- 
 
 So. African Rep. 
 
 Australia 
 
 United States 
 
 
 $ 72.961J01 
 
 r/,306,/30 
 
 70.096.02/ 
 
 Russia Canada. 
 
 23,963.017 
 
 21.049,730 
 
 
 
 Fig. 418. 
 The five leading gold-producing countries, 1899. 
 
 duce little petroleum. On the same map with petroleum 
 is shown the distribution of rubber. To what countries 
 and climates is rubber confined ? (Fig. 419). 
 
 Manufacturing and Commerce. — According to Figure 420 
 on what two continents is there the greatest development 
 of manufacturing? What other smaller sections are active 
 
COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 
 
 531 
 
 in this industry ? Considering the abundance of our raw 
 materials and the energy and intelligence of our people, 
 
 Fig. 419. 
 Approximate distribution of petroleum ; also of rubber. 
 
 Fig. 420. 
 Approximate distribution of manufacturing 
 
 United States 
 
 France Russia 
 
 Fig. 421. 
 The five leading manufacturing countries, 1888. 
 
532 
 
 COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 
 
 it is not surprising that we surpass all other countries in 
 such work (Fig. 421). State the rank of other leading 
 nations in this occupation. 
 
 In provision for transportation by rail the United States 
 also takes the leading place. It has by far the greatest 
 number of miles of railway of any nation (Fig. 422), 
 
 United States 
 
 nussucermanyn^^^i^anpffcm 
 
 02351 
 
 31,/JO 
 
 23,576 
 
 21/639 
 
 Fig. 422. 
 The five countries having the greatest length of railways, 1898. 
 
 though several small European countries have a greater 
 development of railways in proportion to their area. 
 The United States ranks second in provision for trans- 
 portation by water (Fig. 423). State the rank of the five 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 d 001 860 Tons 
 
 UnitedStates upthpr. 
 
 lands penny. NorwAV 
 
 4 861238 
 
 /665 370 
 
 1639 552 
 
 Fig. 423. 
 The five countries having the largest merchant marine, 1898. 
 
 chief countries in total length of railways, and in merchant 
 marine. Give reasons why the United Kingdom should 
 lead in merchant marine (p. 201). Why should Norway 
 be of importance in this respect? (p. 255). 
 
COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 
 
 533 
 
 All these facts prepare us for Figure 424, which shows 
 that the United States is the wealthiest nation on the 
 
 United States 
 
 64000mUlion 
 
 J3ollar.\ 
 
 Gt. Britain 
 
 47000 
 
 France 
 
 42 000 
 
 Germany Russia 
 
 32000 
 
 2SOOO 
 
 Fig. 424. 
 The five wealthiest nations, 1888. 
 
 face of the earth. Compare our wealth with that of other 
 leading countries. In how many and what respects have 
 our products and industries been shown to lead all nations 
 of the world ? 
 
 Dependence upon Other Nations. — All together the United 
 States ma} r be considered a wonderfully favored and inde- 
 pendent nation, since it has such a wealth of raw products, 
 and such an extensive development of manufacturing. 
 We could, probably, better than any other nation, depend 
 upon ourselves alone for all that we need, if occasion 
 should arise. Yet so closely related are the nations of the 
 world that if war arises between two of them, our indus- 
 tries and markets are affected. This is due largely to 
 the fact that we produce far more than we need of certain 
 commodities, as wheat, cotton, meat, and iron, for which a 
 market must be found abroad. These we export. But it 
 is also due to the fact that we are partly, or wholly, 
 dependent upon foreign countries for certain other arti- 
 cles. These we import. 
 
 For example, Figure 425 shows that coffee is not grown 
 within our states, although it is daily consumed in almost 
 
534 
 
 COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 
 
 fig. 425. 
 Approximate distribution of coffee. 
 
 every household. Notice, however, that it is produced in 
 Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands (Fig. 425). 
 
 To what climate and 
 Venezuela &.800 countries is it confined ? 
 Java v^<?/-e State the rank of the 
 y^y^ua^tu p r i nc ipal coffee-produc- 
 ing sections and com- 
 
 Bra zll 
 
 705,390 
 
 Ciuuemato33,330 pare their output (Fig. 
 
 Ham zsjo&o 426). 
 
 Fig. 42(3. Note the beet sugar 
 
 The five leading coffee-producing sections, and cane Sugar areas 
 
 im - (Fig. 427). Also the 
 
 Fig. 427. 
 Distribution of sugar cane and beet sugar. 
 
COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 
 
 535 
 
 rank of the leading countries which manufacture cane 
 sugar (Fig. 428). Our own states produce far less sugar 
 
 Cuba 
 
 !- 832, 431 
 Jfct , Tons Mi 
 
 Java, 
 
 546, 750 
 
 Un " ed Jts Hawaii phiL/Si 
 
 Fig. 428. 
 The five countries producing most cane sugar, 1898. 
 
 each year than we consume. Of what importance, there- 
 fore, in this respect is our newly established relation to 
 Cuba and the Hawaiian and Philippine Islands ? 
 
 Figure 429 represents us as depending wholly on foreign 
 nations for raw silk. Name the chief silk-producing coun- 
 
 Fig. 429. 
 Approximate distribution of raw silk production. 
 
 tries; also compare their output (Fig. 430). Our tea also 
 comes almost entirety from abroad (Fig. 431). From what 
 region mainly ? And while much rice is produced in our 
 Southern States (Fig. 432), a large amount has to be 
 
536 
 
 COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 
 
 imported. From what sources must it be obtained ? We 
 have, therefore, a very extensive trade in imports as well 
 as in exports. 
 
 Cfxttxci 
 
 France 
 
 ItxeUa-eei&OO 
 
 Fig. 430. 
 The five leading raw silk-producing countries, 1899. 
 
 Fig. 431. 
 Approximate distribution of tea. 
 
 Fig. 432. 
 Approximate distribution of rice. 
 
COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 
 
 537 
 
 Exports and Imports. — Our ten leading exports, named 
 in order of value, together with the principal countries to 
 which the goods are sent, are as follows : — 
 
 Articles 
 
 1. Cotton (mainly unmanu- 
 
 factured) 
 
 2. Breadstuff's (wheat, corn, 
 
 flour, etc.) 
 
 3. Meat and dairy products 
 
 Value in 1900 
 
 Iron and steel, and manu- 
 factures of 
 
 Mineral oils 
 
 0. Copper (mainly manufac- 
 tures of) 
 
 7. Wood, and manufactures 
 
 of 
 
 8. Animals (mainly cattle) 
 
 9. Tobacco 
 
 10. Leather, and manufac- 
 tures of 
 Total value of exports 
 
 Principal Countries to which they 
 are sent 
 
 Gt. Britain, Germany, France, 
 $265,836,000 Japan. 
 
 Gt. Britain, Germany, Nether- 
 262,744,000 lands, Belgium. 
 184,453,000 Gt. Britain, Germany, France, 
 Belgium. 
 Gt. Britain, Canada, Germany, 
 121,914,000 Mexico. 
 75,612,000 Gt. Britain, Germany, Nether- 
 lands, Belgium. 
 Gt. Britain, Netherlands, 
 57,853,000 France, Germany. 
 
 Gt. Britain, Canada, Germany, 
 50,598,000 W. Indies. 
 43,585,000 Gt, Britain. 
 35,433,000 Gt. Britain, Germany, Italy, 
 France. 
 Gt, Britain, Australasia, Can- 
 27,293,000 ada. 
 11,394,484,000 
 
 The ten leading imports, on the other hand, are as 
 follows : — 
 
 Value in 1900 
 
 Principal Countries from which 
 they come 
 
 .$101,141,000 E. Ind., Hawaiian Isds., Cuba, 
 Germany (beet sugar). 
 76,224,000 Japan, France, China, Italy. 
 57,936,000 E. Indies, S. America, Gt. 
 Britain, France. 
 
 Articles 
 
 1. Sugar and molasses 
 
 2. Silk, and manufactures of 
 
 3. Hides and skins 
 
 4. Fibre, and manufactures 
 
 of 
 
 5. Chemicals, drugs, etc. 
 
 6. Coffee 
 
 7. Cotton (mainly manufac- 
 
 tures of) 
 
 8. Wool, and manufactures 
 
 of 
 
 9. Rubber and rubber goods 
 10. Fruits and nuts 
 
 Total value of imports $849,941,000 
 
 In Figure 433 trace the main steamship lines of the world 
 by which these goods are carried. Compare the value 
 
 57,933,000 Mexico, Philippines, E. Indies. 
 53,705,000 Germany, E. Indies, Gt. Brit- 
 ain. 
 
 Brazil, Cent. America, E. In- 
 dies, Mexico. 
 
 Gt. Britain, Germany, Switzer- 
 land, France. 
 
 Gt. Britain, Germany, France, 
 S. America. 
 
 Brazil, Gt. Britain. 
 
 Italy, Cent, America, W. In- 
 dies. 
 
 52,468,000 
 
 49,502,000 
 
 36,425,000 
 33,860,000 
 19,264,000 
 
538 
 
 COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 
 
 and nature of our' exports and imports. How is the result 
 encouraging ? 
 
 More than one-third of all our foreign trade is with the 
 British Isles, the ten leading countries ranking as follows : — 
 The Leading Ten Nations with which the U.S. Trades 
 
 Countries 
 
 1. British Isles 
 
 2. Germany 
 
 3. Fiance 
 
 4. Canada 
 
 i 
 I 
 
 5. Netherlands 
 
 6. West Indies 
 
 7. East Indies 
 
 8. Brazil 
 
 9. Mexico 
 
 Value in 1900 
 
 Exp. $ 533,820,000 
 
 Imp. 159,582,000 
 
 Total 693,402,000 
 
 Exp. 187,348,000 
 
 Imp. 97,375,000 
 
 Total 284,723,000 
 
 Exp. 83,335,000 
 
 Imp. 73,012,000 
 
 Total 156,347,000 
 
 Exp. 97,337,000 
 
 Imp. 
 
 Total 
 
 Exp. 
 
 Imp. 
 
 Total 
 
 Exp. 
 
 Imp. 
 
 Total 
 
 Exp. 
 
 Imp. 
 
 Total 
 
 Exp. 
 
 Imp. 
 
 Total 
 
 Exp. 
 
 Imp. 
 
 Total 
 
 f Exp. 
 
 Imp. 
 Total 
 
 39,932,000 
 
 137,269,000 
 
 89,387,000 
 
 15,853,000 
 105,240,000 
 48,561,000 
 52,562,000 
 101,123,000 
 6,634,000 
 73,243,000 
 79,877,000 
 11,578,000 
 58,073,000 
 69,651,000 
 34,975,000 
 28,646,000 
 63,621,000 
 29,087,000 
 
 32,749,000 
 61,836,000 
 
 Kinds of Goods 
 
 Provisions, breadstuffs, raw cotton. 
 
 Cotton goods, raw wool, tin, jewellery, 
 rubber goods. 
 
 Raw cotton, breadstuffs, provisions. 
 
 Beet sugar, chemicals and drugs, cot- 
 ton goods, silk goods. 
 
 Raw cotton, copper, mineral oil. 
 
 Silk goods, hides, jewellery, cotton 
 goods. 
 
 Coal, breadstuffs, cotton and manu- 
 factures of. 
 
 Lumber, coal, hides. 
 
 Breadstuffs, provisions, copper, min- 
 eral oil. 
 Jewellery, tin. 
 
 Provisions, breadstuffs, animals. 
 Sugar, fruits, cocoa. 
 
 Mineral oil, cotton goods. 
 Sugar, hides, tin. 
 
 Breadstuffs, mineral oil, provisions. 
 Coffee, rubber, sugar. 
 
 Coal, cotton goods, iron and steel 
 
 manufactures. 
 Sisal grass, coffee, lead, hides. 
 Manufactured cotton, mineral oil, iron 
 
 and steel manufactures. 
 Silk, tea. 
 
 10. Japan •{ 
 
 I 
 
 Name some of the countries which probably have the same 
 exports as the United States, and which are, therefore, likely 
 to be active rivals to us in supplying foreign markets. 
 
 Owing to our trade relations with the United Kingdom, 
 what hardships would probably be brought upon the British 
 if they entered upon a war with n<? ? How might the Germans 
 
540 COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 
 
 suffer if they were at war with us ? How might the French 
 suffer ? On the other hand, what hardships would come to us 
 in each case ? Are we more or less independent than these 
 countries in case of such war ? Why ? 
 
 Reasons for the Rank of the United States. — The pre- 
 ceding - figures and diagrams show that several European 
 countries are the chief competitors with the United 
 States in the world's trade. Give examples. But so far 
 as the future is concerned, several important facts 
 are in our favor. In the first place, we are still in our 
 youth as a people, while some of the leading nations 
 of Europe have perhaps already reached the zenith of 
 their power. In the second place, the territory of most 
 of those countries is densely populated, as shown in Fig- 
 ure 403. Note the number of inhabitants per square mile 
 in Belgium, Germany, and France. When we contrast with 
 these figures our average of only twenty persons per square 
 mile, the possibility of our future growth seems almost 
 without limit. Immense tracts of land, which in Europe 
 would be carefully tilled, are in our country not even 
 cleared for pasture ; and in no large section of the United 
 States do we even approach the careful hand tillage of 
 Belgium and some other European countries. 
 
 Another point in our favor is the varied climate and 
 physiography of our vast country, encouraging varied prod- 
 ucts. Almost all farm products can be raised with little 
 care in our rich soil and favorable climate. Add to this 
 the wonderful mineral resources, which are apparently not 
 equalled on any continent, and it will be seen that our 
 natural resources, which have made present development 
 possible, promise equally for the future. 
 
 Our people are another element to be considered in 
 
COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 541 
 
 reckoning past success and future promise. They have 
 consisted, in large part, of those who had energy and 
 ambition enough to migrate to a new land in the hope 
 of bettering their condition. In their new home the 
 possibilities have been so great that they have been en- 
 couraged to work and to improve themselves. As the 
 environment of the desert has given rise to the nomad, 
 and the ease of life in the tropical forest to the degenerate 
 savage, so the environment in the United States has 
 given rise to a race noted for its energy and enterprise. 
 This race has been possible, however, largely by reason of 
 the fact that it comes from a mixture of peoples already 
 gifted. That resources alone will not make an energetic 
 people and a great nation is well illustrated in China, 
 where nature favors, but racial characteristics and customs 
 are opposed to development. 
 
 Nor would the statement of reasons for the present 
 position of the United States and her future prospects 
 be complete if left here. There are two other elements 
 of high importance ; namely, education and government. 
 Where people are hampered by ignorance, petty restric- 
 tions, and heavy taxes, unnecessarily imposed upon them 
 by their rulers, they have little opportunity for progress. 
 It is those European countries in which there are the best 
 opportunities for education and the greatest freedom, that 
 have made the greatest progress. And no nation in the 
 world pays more attention to education, or guarantees its 
 people a more active part in their entire government, than 
 the United States. 
 
APPENDIX I 
 
 REFERENCES TO BOOKS, ARTICLES, ETC. 
 
 Publishing Houses. American Book Co., New York (A. B. C.) ; D. Apple- 
 ton & Co., New York (App.) ; The Century Co., New York (Cent.) ; Educa- 
 tional Publishing Co., Boston (E. P. C.) ; Harper & Bros., New York (H. B.) ; 
 Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston (H. M. C.) ; The Macmillan Co., New York 
 (McM.) ; G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York (Put.) ; Charles Scribner's Sons, 
 New York (Scrib.) ; Silver, Burdett & Co., Boston (S. B. C). 
 
 Magazines. Century Magazine ($0.35 each number), New York {Cent. 
 Mag.); Cosmopolitan ($0.10 each), Irvington, N.Y. (Cos.); Chautauquan 
 ($0.25 each), Meadville, Pa. (Chaut.) ; Harper's Magazine ($0.35 each), 
 New York (H. M.) ; Journal of School Geography ($0.15 a number, $1.00 a 
 year), Lancaster, Pa. (J. S. G.) ; National Geographic Magazine ($0.25 a 
 number, $2.00 a year. Includes membership to Society), Washington, D.C. 
 (N. G. M.) ; Scribner's Magazine ($0.25 each), New York {S. M.). 
 
 In referring to magazines, the volume is given first, the page last; thus, 
 May, 1891, Volume 6, page 75 = May, '91, 6: 75. 
 
 General. Many of the references in the First Book and some of 
 those in the Second Book — for example, references to books on Physi- 
 ography and the Philippines — would serve for this volume also. It 
 is not, of course, expected that schools will find it possible to obtain 
 all or even a large proportion of those mentioned. These lists, which 
 could easily be multiplied to many times their present size, are offered 
 merely as suggestions to aid those teachers who wish to have a good 
 working library. Many good books are omitted from them, either 
 because of their cost or for other reasons. At the end of each section 
 of Mill's "International Geography" are references to good standard 
 books. See also Mill, " Hints to Teachers, etc., on the Choice of Geo- 
 graphical Books" (Longmans, Green & Co., New York, $1.25). 
 
 542 
 

APPENDIX I 543 
 
 Among the many valuable but expensive books of reference mention may 
 be made of Re'clus' "The Earth and its Inhabitants" (App., l'J vols., $5.00 
 each) ; Stanford's " Compendiums of Geography " (Scrib., 8 vols, at $4.50 and 
 2 vols, at $8.40) ; and Baedeker's Guide Books (Scrib.), price variable. The 
 latter may be found in the libraries of friends who have travelled abroad. 
 
 There are a number of series for young people which contain good material : 
 For example, Butterworth, " Zigzag Journey Series " (Dana Estes & Co., 
 Boston, 18 vols., $1.50 each) ; Hale, "Family Flight Series" (Lothrop Pub- 
 lishing Co., Boston, 5 vols., $1.50 each) ; Champney, "Three Vassar Girls" 
 series (Dana Estes & Co., Boston, 11 vols., $0.75 each). 
 
 Every teacher of geography would find Mill's " International Ge- 
 ography, " (App., $3.50) and " The Statesman's Year Book " (McM., 
 $ 3.00) of inestimable value. For physiography and climate some help 
 may be gained from Tarr, " First Book of Physical Geography " 
 (McM., $1.10). For reference to magazines, see First Book of this 
 series, pp. 256 and 257. Every teacher ought to have access to at least 
 one of these magazines, and the subscription price is so low that they 
 are accessible to all. Notice how frequently the National Geographic 
 Magazine and the Journal of School Geography are referred to in the 
 following lists ; yet only a very few have been selected from the great 
 number of really valuable articles. The Bulletin, American Bureau of 
 Geography, also contains many valuable articles in each issue. 
 
 South America. There is a Handbook for each of the republics, 
 issued by the Bureau of American Republics, Washington, D.C., price 
 from $0.30 to $0.50 each. Ballon, " Equatorial America" (H.M.C., 
 $1.50); Carpenter, Geographical Reader, " South America " (A. B.C., 
 $0.60) ; Childs, " South American Republics " (H. B., $3.50) ; Curtis, 
 " Capitals of Spanish America " (H. B., $3.50) ; Coe, " Our American 
 Neighbors " (S. B. C, $0.60) ; President Hubbard's Annual Address, 
 " South America " (N. G.M., March, '91, 3:1); " Climatic Notes made 
 during a Voyage around South America " (,/. S. G., Sept. and Oct., '98, 
 2 : 241 and 297) ; " A Winter Voyage through the Straits of Magellan " 
 (V. G. M., May, '97, 8: 129) ; " The First Landing on the Antarctic 
 Continent " (Cent. Mag., Jan., '96, 51 :432) ; " Magellan and the Pa- 
 cific " (H. M., Aug., '90, 81 : 357) ; Bates, " A Naturalist on the River 
 Amazon " (Humboldt Library, New York, $1.00) ; Andrews, " Brazil, 
 Its Conditions and Prospects" (App., $1.50); Ford, "Tropical America" 
 (Scrib., $2.00) ; " The Valley of the Amazon and its Development " 
 (/. S. G., Sept., '97, 1:193); "The Argentine Capital" (H. M., 
 
544 APPENDIX I 
 
 March, '91, 82:491); "Argentine Provincial Sketches" (H. M., Apr., 
 '91, 82:781); "The Argentine People," etc. (H. M., May, '91, 82: 
 863) ; " Patagonia " (A r . G. M., Nov., '97, 8 : 305) ; " The Republic of 
 Uruguay " (H. M., May, '91, 82:906) ; " The Republic of Paraguay" 
 (H.M., July, '91, 83:222); Rodway, "In the Guiana Wilds" (L. C. 
 Page & Co., Boston, -fl.25); Curtis, "Venezuela" (H. B., $1.25); 
 "Venezuela: her government," etc. ( N. G. M., Feb., '90, 7:49); 
 "Glimpses of Venezuela and Guiana" (Cent. Mag., July '96, 52: 
 358) ; Whymper, "Travels amongst the Great Andes of the Equator " 
 (Scrib., $2.50); "Across the Andes" (H.M., Sept., '90, 81:489); 
 " The Ascent of Illimani " and " Climbing Mount Sorata " (//. M., 
 Oct. and Nov., '99, 99 : 657 and 863) ; " The Road to Bolivia "(N. G. M., 
 June and July, 1900, 11:209 and 264); "A Journey in Ecuador " 
 (N. G. M., July, '96, 7 : 23S) ; Pratt, " Pizarro : Conquest of Peru " 
 E. P. C, $0.30) ; " Impressions of Peru " (H. M., Jan., '91, 82 : 253) ; 
 Smith, "Temperate Chile " (McM., $3.50) ; " The Climatic Control of 
 Occupation in Chile " (./. S. G., Dec, '97, 1 : 289) ; Articles on Chile 
 (H. M., Oct. and Nov., '90, 81:764 and 901); "A Day in the Falk- 
 land Islands " (./. S. G., Feb., '98, 2 : 49). 
 
 Europe. Lyde, " A Geography of Europe " (McM., $0.50) ; Coe, 
 "Modern Europe" (S. B. C, $0.60); Emerson, "European Glimpses 
 and Glances" (Cassell & Co., New York, $1.00); King, "Northern 
 Europe " (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.60) ; Davis, " The Rulers of the 
 Mediterranean " (H. B., $1.25) ; " From the Black Forest to the Black 
 Sea " (H. M., Feb. to Aug., '92, Vols. 84 and 85) ; Lyde, " A Geogra- 
 phy of the British Isles " (McM., $0.60) ; Green, " A Short Geography 
 of the British Islands " (McM., $0.90) ; Davis, "Our English Cousins " 
 (H. B., $1.25) ; Pratt, " Stories of England " (E. P. C, $0.40) ; Geikie, 
 "The Scenery in Scotland " (McM., $3.50) ; Corbin, "Schoolboy Life 
 in England " (H. B., $1.25) ; " The Temperature of the British Isles " 
 (J. S. G., Dec, '98, 2:361); "The House of Commons," etc. (H. M., 
 Dec, '93, 88 : 34) ; " A General Election in England " (H. M., Sept., '93, 
 87 : 489) ; " London as seen by C. D. Gibson " (S. M., Feb.-June, '97, 
 Vol. 21) ; " The Geography of Greater London " (J. S. G., Feb., '01, 
 5:41); "The Best-governed City in the World" (H. M., June, '90, 
 81 : 99) ; " Notes on the Geography of Scotland " (J. S. G., May, '98, 
 2 : 161); "From Home to Throne in Belgium" (H. M., Apr., '97, 94: 722); 
 "Principal Cities of Holland" (Chaut., June, '98, 27:227); "Land 
 
APPENDIX I 545 
 
 Wrested from the Sea" (Chaut., Aug. '95, 21 : 597); " The Picturesque 
 Quality of Holland "(S.M., 2: 160; 5:162; 10:621); Macdonald, "Paris 
 of the Parisians" (Lippincott, Philadelphia, $1.50); Davis, "About 
 Paris" (H. B., $1.25) ; " Present Condition of France" (Chaut., Dec, 
 '98, 28 : 280) ; "Commerce and Manufactures of France" (Chaut., Aug., 
 '97, 25 : 480) ; " The French Army " (H. M., Apr., '91, 82 : 653) ; Finck, 
 " Spain and Morocco " (Scrib., $1.25) ; Stoddard, " Spanish Cities " 
 (Scrib., $1.50); Stephens, "Portugal" (Put., $1.50); Loring, "A 
 Year in Portugal" (Put., $1.50); " Up Gibraltar ; to Tangier; into 
 Spain" (Chaut., Aug., '93, 17:515); Articles on Spanish Cities (Cos., 
 May-Sept., '96, Vol. 21) ; Thomas, " Sweden and the Swedes" (Rand, 
 McNally & Co., Chicago, $3.75) ; Pratt, " Legends of Norseland " (E. 
 P. C, $0.40); "A Glacier Excursion in Norway" (Cos., Oct., '97, 
 23 : 625) ; Stepniak, "The Russian Peasantry" (H. B., $1.25); Stepniak, 
 "Russia under the Tzars" (Scrib., $1.50); Greene, "Army Life in 
 Russia" (Scrib., $1.25); "Baltic Russia" (H. M., July, '90, 81:295); 
 " The Czar's People " (H. M., June, '98, 97 : 3) ; " Awakened Russia " 
 (H. M., May, '98, 96 : 817) ; " Finland " etc. (H. M., Feb., '91, 82 : 330 ; 
 "The People of the Reindeer" (Laplanders) (Cent. Mag., Aug., '99, 
 58 : 582) ; Pratt, " Stories from Old Germany " (E. P. C, $0.40) ; 
 "The Government of German Cities" (Cent. Mag., June, '94,48: 
 296); "Some Impressions of Berlin" (Cos., Jan., 1900, 28:315); 
 "Impressions of Berlin " (H. M., Aug., '90, 81:340); "Stuttgart" 
 (H. M., Jan. and Feb., '98, 96:269 and 382); "The German Army 
 of To-day" (H. M., May, '92, 84:869); "German Universities" 
 (Chaut., Aug., '96, 23:560); "The German Royal Family" (Chaut., 
 Sept., '96, 23:668) ; Articles on Germany (Chaut., Oct., '94-Nov., '95, 
 Vols. 20-22) ; Lubbock, " The Scenery of Switzerland" (McM., $1.50) ; 
 " A Thousand Miles through the Alps " (S. M., June, '96, 20 : 28) ; 
 "Venice in Easter" (H. M., Apr., '95, 90 : 738) ; "Italian Gardens" 
 (H. M., June and Aug., '93, 87 : 165 and 393) ; " The Corso of Rome " 
 (S. M., Oct., '91, 10:399); "St. Peter's" (Cent. Mag., July, '96, 52: 
 323); "The Italian Army" (H. M., Aug., '92, 85:419); Whitman, 
 "Austria" (Put,, $1.50); "Vienna as a Type City" (/. S. G., May, 
 '99, 4 : 175) ; " The Tyroleans " (Cos., Sept., '98, 25 : 487) ; " The Ban- 
 derium of Hungary" (S. M., Mar., '97, 21:267); "The Austro- 
 Hungarian Army" (H. M., June, '92, 85:50); "Austria" (J. S. G., 
 Dec, '98, 2:394); "Wheeling in Tyrolean Valleys" (Cent. Mag., 
 2n 
 
546 APPENDIX I 
 
 Apr., '97, 53:866); "Constantinople" (5. M., Dec, '93-Jan., '94, 
 Vols. 14 and 15); "A Visit to Athens" (H. M., June, '96,93:3); 
 "In the Wake of a War" (Greece) (11. M., Mar., '98, 96:548). 
 
 Asia. Lyde, "A Geography of Asia" (McM., $0.50); Carpenter, 
 "Asia" (A. B. C, |0.00) ; Smith, "Life in Asia" (S. B. C, $0.60) ; 
 "Across Asia on a Bicycle" (Cent. Mag., May-Oct., '94, Vol. 48) ; 
 Series of articles on Southwest Asia and India (//. M., '90, '93-'95, 
 Vols. 81, 87-91); Mathews, "New Testament Times in Palestine" 
 (McM., $0.75); Douglas, "The Land where Jesus Christ lived" 
 (Thomas Nelson & Sons, New York, $1.00) ; Curtis, " Howadji in 
 Syria" (H. B., $1.50); "The Holy Places of Islam" (H. M., Nov., 
 '92, 85 : 813) ; " The Russo-Siberian Plain " (/. S. G., March, '00, 4 : 81) ; 
 "A "Winter Journey through Siberia" (Cent. Mag., Sept., '91, 42: 
 643); Articles on Siberia (H. M., July and Aug., '98, 97:240 and 
 327); Lyall, " The Rise of the British Dominion in India" (Scrib., 
 $1.50); Pratt, " Stories of India" (E. P. C, $0.40); Kipling, " The 
 Jungle Books" (Cent., $1.50); Elephant and Tiger Hunting in India 
 (H. M., July and Oct., '92, 85:290 and 706); "An American in 
 Tibet" (Cent. Mag., Nov., '90-March, '91, Vol. 41); "Among the 
 Farthest People" (Tibet) (Cos., Feb., 1900, 28:443); "Life in 
 the Malay Peninsula" (Cent. Mag., Feb., '93, 45:577); Colquhoun, 
 "Overland to China" (H. B., $3.00); Colquhoun, "China in Trans- 
 formation" (H. B., $3.00); "The Crisis in China" (H. B.; $1.00) ; 
 Little, " Through the Yangtse Gorges " (Scrib., $2.50) ; Ralph, " Alone 
 in China" (H. B., $2.00) ; Pratt, "Stories of China" (E. P. C, $0.40); 
 " In the City of Canton " (Cent. Mag., Nov., '94, 49 : 59) ; " The Great 
 Wall of China" (Cent. Mag., Jan., '93, 45:327 and 332); Series of 
 Articles on China (Cent. Mag., Aug.-Oct., '99, Vol. 58); also (H. M., 
 June-Aug., '95, A'ol. 91); Griffis, " Corea : The Hermit Nation 1 '' 
 (Scrib., $2.50); "Korea and the Koreans" (N. G. M., '90, 2:231); 
 Norman, "The Real Japan" (Scrib., $1.50); Scidmore, "Jinrikisha 
 Days in Japan" (H. B., $2.00); Bramhall, "Wee Ones of Japan" 
 (H. B., $1.00) ; Series of Articles on Japan (H. M., '94 and '95, 
 Vols. 89 and 90) ; also (S. M., Apr.-June, '93, Vol. 13) ; also (5. M., '90 
 and '91, Vols. 8 and 9) ; "Japanese Women " (H. M., Dec, '90, 82 : 119); 
 " An American Artist in Japan " (Cent. Mag., Sept., '89, 38 : 670). 
 
 Africa. Lyde, "A Geography of Africa" (McM., $0.50) ; Stanley 
 and others, " Africa : Its Partition and Its Future " (Dodd, Mead & 
 
APPENDIX I 547 
 
 Co., New York, $1.25); Badlam, "Views in Africa" (S. B. C, 
 $0.72) ; Annual Address of President Hubbard, " Africa, Its Past and 
 Future " (N. G. M., '89, 1 : 99) ; " Africa since 1888" (N. G. M., May, 
 '96, 7 :157); Curtis, "Nile Notes of a Howadji " (II. B., $1.50); 
 Edwards, "A Thousand Miles up the Nile" (G. Routledge & Sons, 
 New York, $2.50) ; Rawlinson, " The Story of Ancient Egypt " (Put., 
 $1.50) ; " The Egyptian Sudan and Its History " (/. S. G ., Feb. '99, 
 3:41); "In Fascinating Cairo" (Cent. Mag., Oct., '99, 58:811); 
 " Climatic Control in the Desert " (J. 5. G., Sept., '99, 4 : 255) ; " A 
 Sahara Caravan " (S. M., March, '93, 13 : 315) ; " Cairo in 1890 " (H. 
 M., Oct., Nov., '91, 83 : 651 and 828) ; " Peeps into Barbary " (H. M., 
 Aug., '96, 93:387); "Tripoli of Barbary" (S. M., Jan., '90, 7:37); 
 "An Arab Fete in the Desert" (Cos., Apr., '97, 22:665); Bryce, 
 " Impressions of South Africa " (Cent., $3.50) ; Stanley, " Through 
 South Africa " (Scrib., $1.00) ; Hillegas, " Oom Paul's People " (App., 
 $1.50); Bigelow, " White Man's Africa " (H. B., $2.50) ; Younghus- 
 band, " South Africa of To-day " (McM., $2.00) ; " Phirpire-building 
 in South Africa" (Cos., March, '96, 20:472); Drummond, "Tropi- 
 cal Africa" (Scrib., $1.00); Stanley, "My Kalulu " (Scrib., $1.50); 
 Stanley, " My Dark Companions " (Scrib., $2.00) ; " The Pygmies 
 of the Great African Forest" (S. M., Jan., '91, 9 : 3); "Abyssinia" 
 (N. G. M., March, '01, 12:89); "The Gold Coast, Ashanti and 
 Kumassi " (N. G. M., Jan., '97, 8:1); " Life among the Congo Sav- 
 ages " (S. M., Feb., '90, 7 : 135). 
 
 Australia, etc. Davitt, "Life and Progress in Australasia" (New 
 Amsterdam Book Co., New York, $2.50) ; Pratt, " Stories of Aus- 
 tralasia " (E. P. C, $0.40) ; Kellogg, " Australia and the Islands of 
 the Sea " (S. B. C, $0.68) ; Ballou, " Under the Southern Cross " 
 (H. M. C, $1.50); "The Australian Horseman" (H. M., July, '99, 
 99:257); "Convicts and Bushrangers in Australia" (Cos., May and 
 June, '96, 21 : 91 and 173) ; " New Zealand " (H. M., Aug., '91, 83 : 
 327); Chalmers, "Pioneer Life and Work in New Guinea" (F. H. 
 Revell & Co., New York, $1.50) ; Reeves, "Brown Men and Women " 
 (McM., $3.50) ; " A Little Journey in Java " (H. M., May, '94, 88 : 
 918) ; " Down to Java " (Cent. Mag., Aug., '97, 54 : 527) ; " The Cli- 
 mate of the Philippine Islands" (/. S. G., Dec, '99, 3:361); "The 
 Samoan Islands " (N. G. M., Nov., 1900, 11 ; 417) ; " Samoa" (N. G. 
 M., June, 1900, 10 : 207). 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 TABLES OF AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 
 
 SIZE OF THE EARTH 
 
 Length of the Earth's Diameter 
 
 at the Equator (miles), 7,926 
 
 Length of Equator (miles), 24,902 
 
 The Earth's Surface (square 
 
 miles), 196,940,000 
 
 Total area of oceans (square 
 
 miles), 141,486,000 
 
 Pacific 
 
 SJT,660,000 
 Square Miles 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 33,72 0,000 
 
 Antarctic 
 
 30,60J,000 
 
 In-dlan 
 
 16720,000 
 
 Arctic 
 
 Arctic 9,781.000 
 
 Fig. 436. 
 
 Relative areas of oceans. The Antarctic includes the great southern sea sur- 
 rounding the south pole. 
 
 CONTINENTS AND PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES, COLONIES, ETC. 
 
 Area in 
 Square Miles 
 
 North America, '00, 8,025,591 
 
 Alaska, '00 577,390 
 
 Bahama Islands. '91 5,450 
 
 Bermuda Islands, '91 20 
 
 British Honduras, '97 7,562 
 
 Canada, '91 3,315,647 
 
 Central America, '97 175,696 
 
 Costa Rica, '97 22,996 
 
 Cuba, '99 41,655 
 
 Guatemala. '97 49,000 
 
 Greenland, '90 500,000 
 
 Popula- 
 tion 
 
 100,000,000 
 
 63,441 
 47,565 
 15,123 
 34,277 
 4,829,411 
 
 3,271,426 
 
 294,940 
 
 1,572,797 
 
 1,535,632 
 
 10,516 
 
 Area in Popula- 
 Square Miles tion 
 
 Haiti (island), '97 2S,250 1,380,000 
 
 Honduras, '93 46,400 380,000 
 
 Jamaica, '97 4,200 706.394 
 
 Mexico, '95 767,005 12.636.SS7 
 
 Newfoundland, '92 42,200 203,500 
 
 Nicaragua, '95 49,000 360,000 
 
 St. Croix, '90 84 19.7S3 
 
 St. John, '90 21 984 
 
 St. Thomas, '90 32 12,019 
 
 Salvador, '94 8,300 803,534 
 
 United States. See p. 550. 
 
 548 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 549 
 
 Area in Popula- 
 Square Miles tion 
 
 South America. - »7 6,837,000 40,000,000 
 
 Argentina, '95 1,778,195 3,954,911 
 
 Bolivia, '93 567,480 2,019.549 
 
 Brazil, '92 3,209,878 18,000,000 
 
 Chile, '95 290,829 2,527,320 
 
 Colombia, 'SI 513,938 3,878,600 
 
 Ecuador, -.89 120,000 1,271,S61 
 
 Falkland Isds., '97 6,500 2,050 
 
 Galapagos Isds., '89 2,400 200 
 
 Guiana, British, '96 109,000 283,315 
 
 Guiana, Dutch, '96 46,060 64,372 
 
 Guiana, French, '91 46,850 22,710 
 
 Juan Fernandez 36 
 
 Paraguay, '97 98,000 730.00(1 
 
 Peru, '97 449,000 5,000,000 
 
 South Georgia Isds 1,000 uninhabited 
 
 Tobago, '97 114 20,785 
 
 Trinidad Isd., '97 1,754 254,51S 
 
 Uruguay, '98 72,110 840.725 
 
 Venezuela, '91 593,943 2,323,527 
 
 Europe, '97 3,850,000 374,000,000 
 
 Andorra, '97 175 6,000 
 
 Austria, '90 115,903 23,S95.413 
 
 Austria-Hungary, '91 .. .240,942 41,359,204 
 
 Balearic Isles, '87 1,860 312.593 
 
 Belgium, '97 11,373 6,586,593 
 
 British Empire, '98. . . .11,370,000 383.900,000 
 
 British Isles, '96 120,979 3S.ln4.9T5 
 
 Bulgaria, '90 38,0SO 3,310,713 
 
 Corsica, '96 3.377 290.168 
 
 Crete, '85 3,326 294,190 
 
 Denmark, '90 15,289 2,1S5,335 
 
 England. '91 50,S67 27,483.490 
 
 Faroe Isds., '90 514 12,955 
 
 France, '96 204,092 38,517,975 
 
 German Empire, '00 ... . 208,880 56,345,014 
 
 Great Britain. '91 SS.094 33,028,172 
 
 Greece, '96 25,014 2,433.806 
 
 Hebrides Isds., '97 3,000 100.000 
 
 Hungary, '90 125,039 17.463.791 
 
 Iceland,' '97 39,756 ' 70,927 
 
 Ireland, '91 -. 32.5S3 4,704,750 
 
 Italy, "'98 110.646 31,667.946 
 
 Liechtenstein, '91 65 9,434 
 
 Luxemburg, '95 998 217.583 
 
 Malta, '97 95 177,745 
 
 Monaco, '90 8 13,304 
 
 Montenegro, '97 3.630 228.000 
 
 Netherlands, '97 12.648 5,0(14,204 
 
 Norway, '91 124,445 2,000,917 
 
 Orkney Isds., '91 376 30,453 
 
 Area in Popula- 
 Square Miles tion 
 
 Portugal, '90 36,038 5,049,729 
 
 Prussia, '95 134.603 31,855,123 
 
 Roumania. '93 4S,307 5,800,000 
 
 Russia, '97 2,095,616 106,191,795 
 
 Russian Empire, '96.. .8,660,282 129,000,000 
 
 San Marino, '96 32 8,500 
 
 Sardinia, '98 9.294 766,094 
 
 Scotland, '91 29,785 4.025,647 
 
 Servia, '95 19,050 2,312,484 
 
 Shetland Isds., '91 551 2S,711 
 
 Sicily, '98 9,936 3,603,310 
 
 Spain, '87 197,670 17,565,632 
 
 Sweden, '97 172,S76 5.009,632 
 
 Switzerland, '97 1 5,976 3,082,989 
 
 Turkey, '98 62,744 5,711,000 
 
 Turkish Empire. '97.. .1,576,677 38,790,736 
 
 Wales, '91 7,442 1,519,035 
 
 Asia, with Islands, '97 ... . 17,255,890 831,000,000 
 
 Aden, '91 80 44,079 
 
 Afghanistan, '97 215,400 4,000,000 
 
 Arabia, '97 S45.000 6,000,000 
 
 Baluchistan, '97 145,417 500,000 
 
 Bhutan, '97 16,800 200,000 
 
 Bokhara, '97 92,000 2,500,000 
 
 Burma, '91 171,430 7,605.560 
 
 Cevlon, '91 25,333 3,009,461 
 
 China (proper), '97 ....1,336,841 386,000,000 
 
 Chinese Empire, '97.. .4,218,401 402,680,000 
 
 Chinese Turkestan, '97.. 431, 800 580,000 
 
 Cyprus. '91 3,584 209,286 
 
 Formosa, '96 13,541 1,996,989 
 
 French India, '97 197 286,913 
 
 French Indo-China, '97.-294,782 16,000,000 
 
 India, '91 1.559,603 287,123,850 
 
 Japan, '96 161.196 43,705,253 
 
 Khiva, '97 22,320 750,000 
 
 Korea, '97 82,000 10,500,000 
 
 Manchuria, '97 362,310 7,500,000 
 
 Mongolia, '97 1,288,000 2.000,000 
 
 Nepal, '97 54,000 2-5,000,000 
 
 Oman, '97 82,000 1,500,000 
 
 Palestine. '97 10,000 400,000 
 
 Persia, '97 628,000 9,000,000 
 
 Portuguese Indies, '87 ... .1,390 494,836 
 
 Russia in Asia, '97 . . . .6,564,778 22.697,469 
 
 Russian Turkestan, '97.. 257,134 3,898,106 
 
 Siam, '96 300,000 5,000,000 
 
 Siberia, '97 4,S33,496 5,727,000 
 
 Straits Settlements, '91 . . . .1.255 512,342 
 
 Sungaria, '96 147,950 600,000 
 
 Tibet, '97 651 ,500 6,000,000 
 
 Turkey in Asia, '98 650,097 16,823,500 
 
550 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 Area in Popu la- 
 Square Miles tion 
 
 Africa, - 97 11,508,793 170,000,000 
 
 Abyssinia, "97 462,000 5,000,000 
 
 Algeria (Fr.), '90 134,474 4,430,000 
 
 Ashanti (Br. ), '91 15,000 1,473,882 
 
 British Central and 
 
 South Africa, '97 500,000 3,000,000 
 
 British East Africa 1,000,000 unknown 
 
 British Somaliland, '91 . . . .6S,000 240,000 
 
 Canary Isds. (Sp.), '87 2,808 291,025 
 
 Cape Colony (Br.), '91 .. .270,925 1,766,040 
 
 Cape Verde Isds., '90 1,4S0 114,130 
 
 Egypt, '97 400,000 9,734,405 
 
 Egyptian Sudan, '82 950,000 10,000,000 
 
 Eritrea (Italy), '93 88,500 450.000 
 
 French Sudan, '97 3.54.000 2,860,000 
 
 French Kongo, '97 496,920 8,950.000 
 
 French Somaliland, '97 8,640 30,000 
 
 French Territory, '9T.. 3,288,034 30,358,890 
 
 Gambia (Br.), '97 2,700 50,000 
 
 German East Afr., '97.. .384,000 4,000,000 
 German Southwest Africa, 
 
 '97 322,450 202,628 
 
 German Territory, '98.. .930,760 10,200,000 
 
 Gold Coast (Br.), '97 46,600 1,473,8S2 
 
 Italian Somaliland, '98.. .100,000 400,000 
 
 Kamerun (Ger.), '93 191,130 3,500,000 
 
 Kongo State, '93 900,000 30,000,000 
 
 Liberia, '97 14,360 1,063,0110 
 
 Madagascar (Fr.), '97. .. .227,750 3,500,000 
 
 Madeira Islands, "90 505 134.000 
 
 Mauritius (Br.), '91 705 371,655 
 
 Morocco, '89 - 219.000 5,0,10,000 
 
 Natal (Br.), '98 35,000 829,005 
 
 Niger Territories (Br.), 
 
 '99 500.000 20-35,000,000 
 
 Orange River Col., '90. .. .48,326 207,503 
 
 Portuguese East Afr., '97. 301, 000 3,120,000 
 
 Area in Popula- 
 Square Miles tion 
 
 Portuguese Guinea, "97 4,440 820,000 
 
 Portuguese West Afr., "97, 190,000 5,000,000 
 
 Reunion Island (Fr.), '97 970 171 720 
 
 St. Helena (Br.), '91 47 4^116 
 
 Sierra Leone ( Br, ), "97 30.000 250,000 
 
 Spanish Africa, '9^ 24:i,s77 l:-!0.ooo 
 
 Togo, '98 33,000 2,500,000 
 
 Transvaal Colony, '98 119,139 1,094,156 
 
 Tripoli (Turk.). ''97 398.900 1,300.000 
 
 Tunis (Fr.), '97 50,840 1,500,000 
 
 Zanzibar (Br.), '97 640 150,000 
 
 Australia, "9; 2,910,691 3,030,570 
 
 New South Wales, '98. . .310,700 1,335,800 
 
 Northern Territory, '97.. - 4,820 
 
 Queensland, '97. .' 668,497 484.700 
 
 South Australia, "97 903,090 358,224 
 
 Tasmania, '91 26,385 146,667 
 
 Victoria, '98 87,884 1,169.434 
 
 Western Australia, '97. ..975,920 161,924 
 
 East Indies and Larger Islands 
 of Pacific. 
 
 Borneo, '97 243,843 1,575,000 
 
 Celebes, '97 71,470 1,997,S60 
 
 Fiji Islands, '97 S,045 121, 79S 
 
 Hawaiian Islands, '00 6,640 154,001 
 
 Java, '97 50,554 25,697,701 
 
 Molucca Isds., '97 43.S64 399,208 
 
 New Caledonia. '97 7,630 51,000 
 
 New Guinea, '97 312,329 800,000 
 
 New Zealand, '96 104,471 743,214 
 
 Philippine Islands, '97. . ..14,326 7,000,000 
 
 Samoa Islands, '97 1,701 34.000 
 
 Solomon Islands 16,300 175,000 
 
 Sumatra, '97 161,612 3,209,037 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Area in Popula- 
 
 Square Miles tion, 1900 
 
 Alabama 52,250 1,828,697 
 
 Alaska 577.390 63,441 
 
 Arizona 113,020 122.931 
 
 Arkansas 53,850 1,311,564 
 
 California 15S,360 1,485,053 
 
 Colorado 103,925 539.700 
 
 Connecticut 4,990 903,355 
 
 Delaware 2,050 184,735 
 
 District of Columbia 70 278,718 
 
 Florida 5S,680 528.542 
 
 Area in Popula- 
 
 Square Miles tion, 1900 
 
 Georgia 59.475 2,216,331 
 
 Guam, '87 ISO 8,561 
 
 Hawaiian Islands 6,640 154,001 
 
 Idaho 84,800 161,772 
 
 Illinois 56,650 4,821,550 
 
 Indiana 36,350 2,516,462 
 
 Indian Territory 31,400 391,960 
 
 Iowa 56,025 2,231,853 
 
 Kansas 82,080 1,470,495 
 
 Kentucky 40,400 2,147,174 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 551 
 
 Area in Popula- 
 
 Square Miles tion, 1900 
 
 Louisiana 43,720 1,381,625 
 
 Maine 33.040 694.466 
 
 Maryland 12,210 1,190,050 
 
 Massachusetts S,315 2,805,346 
 
 Michigan 58,915 2,420,982 
 
 Minnesota 83,365 1,751,394 
 
 Mississippi 46,810 1,551,270 
 
 Missouri 69,415 3,106.665 
 
 Montana 146,080 243.329 
 
 Nebraska 77,510 1,068,539 
 
 Nevada 110,700 42,335 
 
 New Hampshire 9,305 411.588 
 
 New Jersey 7,815 1,833.609 
 
 New Mexico 122,530 195,310 
 
 New York 49,170 7,268,012 
 
 North Carolina 52,250 1,893,810 
 
 North Dakota 70,795 319,146 
 
 Ohio.... 41,060 4,157,545 
 
 Oklahoma 39,030 398,245 
 
 Oregon 96,030 413,536 
 
 Area in Popula- 
 
 Square Miles tion, 1900 
 
 Pennsylvania 45,215 6,302,115 
 
 Philippine Islands, '97. . .114,326 7,000,000 
 
 Porto Rico, '99 3,550 953,243 
 
 Rhode Island 1,250 42S,556 
 
 South Carolina 30,570 1,340,316 
 
 South Dakota 77,650 401,570 
 
 Tennessee 42,050 2,020,616 
 
 Texas 265,780 3,04S,710 
 
 Tutuila 55 3,800 
 
 Utah 84,970 276,749 
 
 Vermont 9,565 343,641 
 
 Virginia 42,450 1,854,184 
 
 Washington 69,180 518,103 
 
 West Virginia 24.7S0 958,S00 
 
 Wisconsin 56,040 2,069,042 
 
 Wyoming 97,890 92,531 
 
 United States, total 3,7>S,000 81,266,603 
 
 United States (without Alaska, 
 
 Philippine Isds., etc.) ...S,025,60O 76,0S7,350 
 
 TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES IN THE WORLD 
 
 Population 
 
 1. London, England, '9S 4,504,766 
 
 Greater London. '9S 0,408,321 
 
 2. New York, U.S.. '00 3,437,202 
 
 3. Paris, France, '96 2,536,834 
 
 4. Canton, China, '97. ... 2.500,000 
 
 5. Berlin, Germany, '00 1,884,345 
 
 6. Chicago, U.S., '00 1,698,575 
 
 7. Vienna, Austria-Hungary, '90. .1,364,548 
 
 8. Tokio, Japan, '96 : 1,299,941 
 
 9. Philadelphia, U.S., '00 1,293.697 
 
 10. St. Petersburg, Russia, '97 1,267,023 
 
 11. Moscow, Russia, '97 9S8,614 
 
 12. Tientsin, China, '97 950,000 
 
 Population 
 
 13. Peking, China, '98 900,000 
 
 14. Constantinople, Turkey, '85 373,565 
 
 15. Calcutta, India, '91 861,764 
 
 16. Bombay, India, '91 821,764 
 
 17. Hankau, China, '97 800.000 
 
 IS. Buenos Aires, Argentina, '98 . . . .753,000 
 
 19. Glasgow, Scotland, '98 724,349 
 
 20. Hamburg, Germany, '00 704,069 
 
 21. Hangchau, China, '97 700,000 
 
 22. Fuohau, China, '97 650,000 
 
 23. Warsaw, Russia, '97 638,209 
 
 24. Liverpool, England, '98 633,645 
 
 25. St. Louis, U.S., '00 575,238 
 
 TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1900 
 
 Population 
 
 1. New York, N. Y 3,437.202 
 
 2. Chicago, 111 1 ,698.575 
 
 3. Philadelphia, Pa 1,293.697 
 
 4. St. Louis, Mo 575,23S 
 
 5. Boston, Mass 560,892 
 
 6. Baltimore, Md 508,957 
 
 7. Cleveland, Ohio 381,768 
 
 8. Buffalo, N.Y 352.387 
 
 9. San Francisco. Cal 342.782 
 
 10. Cincinnati, Ohio 325,902 
 
 11. Pittsburg, Pa 321,616 
 
 12. New Orleans. La 287,104 
 
 13. Detroit, Mich 285,704 
 
 Population 
 
 14. Milwaukee, Wis 285,315 
 
 15. Washington, D.C 278,718 
 
 16. Newark, N.J 246,070 
 
 17. Jersey City, N.J 206,433 
 
 18. Louisville, "Ky 204,731 
 
 19. Minneapolis, Minn 202,718 
 
 20. Providence, R.I 175,597 
 
 21. Indianapolis, Ind 169.164 
 
 22. Kansas City, Mo 163,752 
 
 23. St. Paul, Minn 163,065 
 
 24. Rochester, N.Y 162,608 
 
 25. Denver, Colo 133,859 
 
552 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES WITH 25,000 OR MORE INHABITANTS 
 IN 1900; AND A FEW OTHERS, MOSTLY MENTIONED IN THE BOOK 
 
 (Cuban cities listed here) 
 
 Population 
 
 Akron, Ohio 42,728 
 
 Albany, N.Y 94,151 
 
 Albuquerque, N.M 0,238 
 
 Allegheny, Pa 129, si)6 
 
 AJlentown, Pa 85,416 
 
 Altoona, Pa 88,973 
 
 Annapolis, Md. 8,402 
 
 Ashland, Wis. 13,074 
 
 Atchison, Kan 15,722 
 
 Atlanta, Ga S9,872 
 
 Atlantic City, N.J 27,838 
 
 Auburn, N.Y 30,345 
 
 Augusta, Ga 89,441 
 
 Augusta, Me 1 1,683 
 
 Austin, Tex 22,258 
 
 Baltimore, Md 50S.957 
 
 Bangor, Me. 21,850 
 
 Bath, Me 10,477 
 
 Baton Rouge, La 11,269 
 
 Bay City, Mich 27,628 
 
 Bayonne, N.J. 32,722 
 
 Binghaniton, N.Y. , 39,647 
 
 Birmingham. Ala .88,415 
 
 Bismarck, N.D 3,319 
 
 Boise, Idaho 5,957 
 
 Boston, Mass 560,892 
 
 Bridgeport, Conn 70,996 
 
 Brockton, Mass 40,063 
 
 Buffalo, N.Y 352,387 
 
 Burlington, Vt ..18,640 
 
 Butte, Mont 30,470 
 
 Cambridge, Mass 91,SS6 
 
 Camden, N.J 75,935 
 
 Canton, Ohio 30,667 
 
 Carson City, Nev 2,100 
 
 Cedar Rapids, Iowa. . '. 25.656 
 
 Charleston, S.C 55,S07 
 
 Charleston, W.Va 11,099 
 
 Charlotte, N.C 18,091 
 
 Chattanooga, Tenn 32,490 
 
 Chelsea, Mass. 84,072 
 
 Chester, Pa 33,988 
 
 Cheyenne, Wyo 14,087 
 
 Chicago, 111 1,698,575 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio .325,902 
 
 Cleveland, Ohio 381, 76S 
 
 Colorado Springs, Colo 21,085 
 
 Columbia, S.C 21,108 
 
 Columbus, Ga. 17,614 
 
 Columbus, Ohio 125,500 
 
 Population 
 
 Concord, N.H 19,632 
 
 Council Bluffs, Iowa 25,802 
 
 Covington, Ky 42,938 
 
 Cripple Creek, Colo 10,147 
 
 Dallas, Tex 42,638 
 
 Danville, Va 16,520 
 
 Davenport, Iowa 35,254 
 
 Dayton, Ohio 85,333 
 
 Denver, Colo 133,859 
 
 Des Moines, Iowa 62,139 
 
 Detroit, Mich 285,704 
 
 Dover, Del 3,329 
 
 Dubuque, Iowa 36,297 
 
 Duluth, Minn. 52,909 
 
 Durham, N.C 6,679 
 
 Easton, Pa 25,288 
 
 East St. Louis, 111 29,655 
 
 Elizabeth, N J 52,130 
 
 Elmira, N.Y 35,072 
 
 El Paso, Tex 15,906 
 
 Erie, Pa 52,733 
 
 Evansville, Ind 59,007 
 
 Fall River, Mass. 104,663 
 
 Fitchburg, Mass 31,531 
 
 Fort Wayne, Ind 45,115 
 
 Fort Worth, Tex 26,688 
 
 Frankfort, Ky 9,487 
 
 Galveston, Tex 37,789 
 
 Gloucester, Mass 26.121 
 
 Grand Rapids, Mich 87,565 
 
 Greenville, S.C 11,860 
 
 Guthrie, Ok 10,006 
 
 Harrisburg, Pa 50,167 
 
 Hartford, Conn 79,850 
 
 Havana, Cuba, '99 235,981 
 
 Haverhill, Mass 37,175 
 
 Helena, Mont 10,770 
 
 Hoboken, N.J 59.304 
 
 Ilolyoke, Mass 45.712 
 
 Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands 89,306 
 
 Houston, Tex 44,633 
 
 Indianapolis, Ind 109,164 
 
 Jackson, Mich 25.180 
 
 Jackson, Miss 7,S16 
 
 Jacksonville, Fla 28,429 
 
 Jefferson City, Mo 9,664 
 
 Jersey City, N.J 206,433 
 
 Johnstown, Pa 35.980 
 
 Joliet, 111. 29.858 
 
 Joplin, Mo 26,023 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 553 
 
 Population 
 
 Juneau, Alaska 1 ,S64 
 
 Kansas City, Kan 51,418 
 
 Kansas City, Mo 103,752 
 
 Key West, Fla IT, 114 
 
 Knoxville, Tenn 32,637 
 
 Lacrosse, Wis 28,895 
 
 Lancaster, Pa. 41,459 
 
 Lansing, Mich 16,485 
 
 Lawrence, Mass (52,559 
 
 Leadville, Colo 12,455 
 
 Lewiston, Me 23,761 
 
 Lexington, Ky 26,309 
 
 Lincoln, Neb. 40,169 
 
 Little Rock, Ark 38,307 
 
 Los Angeles, Cal 102,479 
 
 Louisville, Ky 204,731 
 
 Lowell, Mass 94,969 
 
 Lynchburg, Va 18.S91 
 
 Lynn, Mass 68,513 
 
 Madison, Wis 19,164 
 
 Maiden, Mass 33,664 
 
 Manchester. N.H 56,987 
 
 Manila, Philippines, 'S7 154,062 
 
 Marquette, Mich 10,058 
 
 Matanzas, Cuba, '99 45,282 
 
 McKeesport, Pa 34,227 
 
 Memphis, Tenn 102,320 
 
 Milwaukee, Wis 285,315 
 
 Minneapolis, Minn 202,718 
 
 Mobile, Ala -. 38,469 
 
 Montgomery, Ala 30,346 
 
 Montpelier, Vt 6,266 
 
 Nashville, Tenn Su.865 
 
 Newark, N.J 246,070 
 
 New Bedford, Mass 62,442 
 
 New Britain, Conn 25,998 
 
 Newcastle, Pa 28,339 
 
 New Haven, Conn 108,027 
 
 New Orleans, La 2S7,104 
 
 Newport, Ky 2S,301 
 
 Newton, Mass 33,587 
 
 New York, N.Y 3,437,202 
 
 Norfolk, Va 46,624 
 
 Oakland, Cal 66,960 
 
 Ogden, Utah : 16,313 
 
 Oklahoma, Ok 10,037 
 
 Olympia. Wash 4,082 
 
 Omaha, Neb 102,555 
 
 Oshkosh, Wis 28,284 
 
 Passaic, N.J 27,777 
 
 Paterson, N.J 105,171 
 
 Pawtucket, E.I 39.231 
 
 Peoria, 111 56,100 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa 1 ,293,697 
 
 Phcenix, Ariz 5,544 
 
 Population 
 
 Pierre, S.D 2,306 
 
 Pittsburg, Pa 321.616 
 
 Plymouth, Mass 9,562 
 
 Portland, Me 50,145 
 
 Portland, Ore 90,426 
 
 Ponce, Porto Rico, '99 27,952 
 
 Providence, R. 1 175,597 
 
 Pueblo, Colo 2s,157 
 
 Quincy, 111. 36,252 
 
 Racine, Wis 29,102 
 
 Ealeigb, N.C 13,643 
 
 Reading, Pa 78,961 
 
 Richmond, Va 85,050 
 
 Roanoke, Va 21,445 
 
 Rochester, N.Y 162,608 
 
 Rockford, 111 31,051 
 
 Rutland, Vt 11,499 
 
 Sacramento, Cal 29,282 
 
 Saginaw, Mich 42,345 
 
 St. Joseph, Mo 102,979 
 
 St. Louis, Mo 575,238 
 
 St. Paul, Minn 163,065 
 
 Salem, Mass 35,956 
 
 Salem, Ore 4,258 
 
 Salt Lake City, Utah 53,531 
 
 San Antonio, Tex 53,321 
 
 San Francisco, Cal 342,782 
 
 San J uan, Porto Rico, '99 32,048 
 
 Santa Fe, N.M 5,603 
 
 Santiago, Cuba, '99 45,47S 
 
 Savannah, Ga 54,244 
 
 Schenectady, N.Y 31,682 
 
 Scranton, Pa 102,026 
 
 Seattle, Wash S0.671 
 
 Sioux City, Iowa 33,111 
 
 Sioux Falls, S.D 10,266 
 
 Sitka, Alaska 1,396 
 
 Somerville, Mass 61 ,643 
 
 South Bend, Ind 35,999 
 
 South Omaha, Neb 26,001 
 
 Spokane, Wash 36,848 
 
 Springfield, 111 34,159 
 
 Springfield, Mass 62,059 
 
 Springfield, Ohio 38,253 
 
 Superior, Wis 31,091 
 
 Syracuse. N.Y 10S,374 
 
 Tacoma, Wash 37,714 
 
 Tallahassee, Fla 2,981 
 
 Taunton, Mass 31,036 
 
 Terre Haute, Ind 36,673 
 
 Toledo, Ohio 131, S22 
 
 Topeka, Kan 33,608 
 
 Trenton, N.J 73,307 
 
 Troy, N.Y 60,651 
 
 Tucson, Ariz 7,531 
 
554 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 Population 
 
 Utica, N. Y 50,383 
 
 "Virginia City, Nev 2,695 
 
 Washing-ton', D.C. 278,718 
 
 Waterbury, Conn 45,859 
 
 Wheeling, W.Va 3S,S78 
 
 Wichita, Kan 24,671 
 
 Wilkes Bane, Pa 51,721 
 
 Population 
 
 Williamsport, Pa 28,757 
 
 Wilmington, Del 76,508 
 
 Woonsocket, Li.1 28,204 
 
 Worcester, Mass 118,421 
 
 Yonkers, N. Y 47,931 
 
 York, Pa 33,703 
 
 Youngstown, Ohio 44,885 
 
 FOREIGN CITIES MENTIONED IN THE TEXT 
 
 Population 
 
 Aachen, Germany, '95 110,551 
 
 Abbeokuta, Niger Terr., '97 150,000 
 
 Aberdeen, Scotland. '98 140,381 
 
 Adelaide, Australia, '97 146,125 
 
 Aden, Aden, '91 41,910 
 
 Adiz Abeba, Abyssinia, '97 3,000 
 
 Alexandria, Egypt, '97 319.766 
 
 Algiers, Algeria, '91 v_',r>s5 
 
 Amsterdam, Netherlands, '97 503, 2n> 
 
 Antwerp, Belgium, '97 271,284 
 
 Archangel, Russia, '97 17,802 
 
 Arequipa, Peru, '97 30,000 
 
 Asuncion, Paraguay, '95 45,000 
 
 Athens, Greece, '96 11 1,480 
 
 Auckland, New Zealand, '96 31,424 
 
 Bagdad, Turkey in Asia, '85 145,000 
 
 Bahia, Brazil, '90 174,412 
 
 Baku, Russia, '97 1 12,253 
 
 Ballarat, Australia, '97 46,137 
 
 Bangkok, Siani, '96 250,000 
 
 Barcelona, Spain, '87 272,481 
 
 Barmen, Germany, '95 126.992 
 
 Basel, Switzerland, '97 S9.687 
 
 Batavia, Java, '91 104.590 
 
 Belfast, Ireland, '91 255,950 
 
 Belgrade, Servia, '95 59,115 
 
 Benares, India, '91 219.407 
 
 Bendigo, Australia, '97 43,075 
 
 Berbera, Br. Somaliland, '97 30,000 
 
 Bergen, Norway, '91 53,684 
 
 Berlin, Germany, '00 1,884,345 
 
 Berne, Switzerland, '97 49,030 
 
 Bethany, Holy Land, '90 1,105 
 
 Bethlehem, Holy Land, '97 5,000 
 
 Bilbao, Spain, '87 50,772 
 
 Birmingham, England, '98 510,343 
 
 Bloemfontein, South Africa, '90 3,379 
 
 Bogota, Colombia, '86 120.000 
 
 Bologna, Italy, '97 153.206 
 
 Bombay, India, '91 821,764 
 
 Population 
 
 Bordeaux, France, '96 256,906 
 
 Bradford, England, '98 233,737 
 
 Bremen, Germany, '95 141,894 
 
 Breslau, Germany, '00 422,415 
 
 Brindisi, Italy, '97 14,000 
 
 Brisbane, Australia, '97 ^ . .25.889 
 
 Bristol. England, '98 316,900 
 
 Brussels, Belgium, '97 551,011 
 
 Bucharest, Roumania, '94 . - 232,000 
 
 Budapest, Austria-Hungary, '90 505,763 
 
 Buenos Aires, Argentina, '9S 753,000 
 
 Cadiz, Spain, '87 62,531 
 
 Cairo, Egypt, '97 570,062 
 
 Calcutta, India, '91 861,764 
 
 Callao, Peru, '90 35,492 
 
 Cambridge, England, '91 36,983 
 
 Canton, China, '97 2,500,000 
 
 Cape Town, Cape Colony, '91 51,251 
 
 Caracas, Venezuela, '91 72,429 
 
 Cardiff, Wales, '98 177,770 
 
 Cartagena, Colombia, '86 20,000 
 
 Cartagena, Spain, '87 84,171 
 
 Catania, Italy, '97 129,651 
 
 Cayenne, French Guiana, '97 12,351 
 
 Cettinge, Montenegro, '97 2,920 
 
 Chemnitz, Germany, '00 206,584 
 
 Chengtu, China, '96 250,000 
 
 Christchurch, '96 16.964 
 
 Christiania, Norway, '98 200.000 
 
 Ciudad Bolivar, Venezuela, '91 11,6S6 
 
 Cologne, Germany, '00 376,085 
 
 Colon, Colombia, ''97 3,000 
 
 Constantinople, Turkey, 'S5 873,505 
 
 Copenhagen, Denmark, '90 312,859 
 
 Cordoba, Argentina, '95 47,609 
 
 Cordoba, Spain, '87 55,614 
 
 Cork, Ireland, '91 75,345 
 
 Cuzco, Peru, 'S9 22,000 
 
 Damascus, Turkey in Asia, '85 150,000 
 
 Danzig, German}', '95 125,005 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 555 
 
 Population 
 
 Dawson, Canada, '97 ' 10,000 
 
 Delhi, India, '91 192,579 
 
 Dover, England, '91 33,418 
 
 Dresden, Germany, '95 336,-140 
 
 Dublin, Ireland, '91 245,001 
 
 Dundee, Scotland, '98 104,575 
 
 Dunedin, New Zealand, '96 22,815 
 
 Durban, Natal, '98 39,245 
 
 Edinburgh, Scotland, '98 295,02s 
 
 Elberfeld, Germany, '95 139,337 
 
 Essen, Germany, '95 96,128 
 
 Fachau, China, ''98 400,ooo 
 
 Fiume, Austria-Hungary, '90 29,494 
 
 Fez, Morocco, 'S9 " 140,000 
 
 Florence, Italy, '97 209,540 
 
 Frankfort, Germany, "00 287,813 
 
 Fredericton, Canada, '91 6,502 
 
 Freetown, Sierra Leone, '91 30,1)33 
 
 Fuchau, China, '97 650,000 
 
 Geneva, Switzerland, '97 86,535 
 
 Genoa, Italy, '97 228,862 
 
 Georgetown, British Guiana, '91 53,176 
 
 Ghent, Belgium, '97 161,125 
 
 Gibraltar, Spanish Pen., '97 26,203 
 
 Glasgow, Scotland, '98 724,349 
 
 Gothenburg, Sweden, '97 120,552 
 
 Grenada, Spain, '87 73.006 
 
 Grimsby, England, '91 51.934 
 
 Guatemala, Guatemala, '93 72.102 
 
 Guayaquil, Ecuador, '98 50,000 
 
 Hyderabad, India, '91 415,039 
 
 Hague, Netherlands, '97 196,325 
 
 Halifax, Canada, '91 38,556 
 
 Halle, Germany, '00 156,503 
 
 Hamburg, Germany, '00 704,069 
 
 Hamilton, Canada, '91 4S,9S0 
 
 Hammerfest, Norway, '91 2,239 
 
 Hangchau, China, '97 700,000 
 
 Hankau, China, '97 800,000 
 
 Hanover, Germany, '95 209,535 
 
 Havre, France, '96 119,470 
 
 Hebron, Holy Land, '97 10,000 
 
 Helsingfors, Russia, '96 77,4S4 
 
 Hobart, Tasmania, '91 24,905 
 
 Hongkong, China, '99 259,312 
 
 Hue, French Ind. China, '97 30,000 
 
 Hull, England, '98 229. 8S7 
 
 Iquique, Chile, '95 33.031 
 
 Irkutsk, Siberia, '96 51,434 
 
 Jerusalem, Holy Land, '85 41,000 
 
 Johannesburg, Transvaal, '96 102,078 
 
 Joppa, Holy Land, '97 23,000 
 
 Kabul, Afghanistan, '97 70,000 
 
 Khartum, Egyptian Sudan, '98 25,000 
 
 Khelat, Baluchistan, '97 14,000 
 
 Population 
 
 Kiev, Russia, '97 247,432 
 
 Kimberley, Cape Colony, '91 28,718 
 
 Kingston, Jamaica, '91 46,542 
 
 Kioto, Japan, '96 341,101 
 
 Krefeld, Germany, '95 107,245 
 
 Kumassi, Ashanti, '97 18,000 
 
 La Guaira, Venezuela, '97 8,000 
 
 La Paz, Bolivia, '93 65,000 
 
 La Plata, Argentina, '95 45,410 
 
 Lassa, Tibet, '97 25,000 
 
 Leeds, England, '98 416,618 
 
 Leghorn, 1 taly, '97 104,536 
 
 Leicester, England. '98 208,002 
 
 Leipzig, Germany, '00 455,120 
 
 Leith, Scotland, '98 76,277 
 
 Libreville, French Kongo, '97 3,000 
 
 Liege, Belgium, '97 167,305 
 
 Lille, France, '96 216,276 
 
 Lima, Peru, '91 103,956 
 
 Limoges, France, '96 77,703 
 
 Lisbon, Portugal, '91 301,206 
 
 Liverpool, England, '98 038,045 
 
 Loanda, Port. W. Africa, '97 14,000 
 
 Lodz, Russia, '97 315.209 
 
 London, Canada, '91 31,977 
 
 London, England, '91 4,504,766 
 
 London, Greater, '98 6,408,321 
 
 Lourenco Marquez, Port. E. Af. '97... 8,000 
 
 Lucerne, Switzerland, '99 23,700 
 
 Lucknow, India, '91 273,028 
 
 Lyon, France, '96 466,028 
 
 Madras, India, '91 452.518 
 
 Madrid, Spain, '87 470/2S3 
 
 Magdeburg, Germany, '95 214,424 
 
 Malaga, Spain, '87 134,016 
 
 Manaos, Brazil, '93 20,000 
 
 Manchester, England, '98 539,079 
 
 Mandalay, Burma, '91 188,815 
 
 Marseille, France, '96 442,239 
 
 Maskat, Oman, '97 40,000 
 
 Mecca, Turkey, '85 60,000 
 
 Melbourne, Australia, '97 458,610 
 
 Messina, Italy, '97 152,648 
 
 Metz, Germany, '95 59,794 
 
 Mexico City, Mexico, '95 344,377 
 
 Milan, Italy, '97 470,558 
 
 Mocha, Turkey in Asia, '97 5,000 
 
 Mombasa, Br.'E. Africa, '97 30,000 
 
 Monrovia, Liberia, '97 5.000 
 
 Montevideo, Uruguay, '97 249,251 
 
 Montreal, Canada, '91 216,650 
 
 Morocco, Morocco. '97 50,000 
 
 Moscow, Russia, '97 98S,614 
 
 Munich. Germany, '00 49S.503 
 
 Nagoya, Japan, '96 242,085 
 
556 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 Population 
 
 Naples, Italy, '97 586,073 
 
 Nazareth, Holy Land, '97 7,500 
 
 Newcastle, England, '98 '223.021 
 
 Nice, France, '9(5 93,766 
 
 Nijni Novgorod, Russia, '97 95,12-1 
 
 Nottingham, England, '9;l 239,384 
 
 Nuremberg, Germany. '00 260.743 
 
 Odessa, Russia, '97 405.041 
 
 Oporto, Portugal, '90 138,860 
 
 Osaka, Japan, '96 503,690 
 
 Ottawa, Canada, '91 44,154 
 
 Oxford, England, '91 45,742 
 
 Palermo, Italy, '97 2S7.972 
 
 Panama, Colombia, '86 SO.OoO 
 
 Para, Brazil, '92 65,000 
 
 Paramaribo, Dutch Guiana, '96 30,000 
 
 Paris, France, '96 2,536,834 
 
 Peking, China, '98 900.000 
 
 Pernambuco, Brazil, '90 111.556 
 
 Perth, West Australia, '97 37,929 
 
 Pieterniaritzburg, Natal, '98 24.595 
 
 Piraeus, Greece, '96 42,169 
 
 Pisa, Italy, '97 65,516 
 
 Port Arthur, Russia in Asia, 
 
 Port au Prince, Haiti, '97 60,000 
 
 Port Said, Egypt, '97 42,095 
 
 Portsmouth, England. '9S 186,618 
 
 Posen, Germany, '00 1 16,151 
 
 Potsdam, Germany. '95 58.455 
 
 Prague, Austria-Hungary. '90 184,109 
 
 Pretoria. Transvaal, '96 10,000 
 
 Pueblo, Mexico, '95 91,917 
 
 Quebec, Canada, '91 63,090 
 
 Queenstown, Ireland, '91 9,082 
 
 Quito, Ecuador, '97.'. 80,000 
 
 Rangoon. Burma. '91 180.324 
 
 Reims, France. '96 107,963 
 
 Riga, Russia, '97 282.943 
 
 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. '90 522.651 
 
 Rome, Italy, '97 487,066 
 
 Rosario. Argentina, '95 94,025 
 
 Rotterdam, Netherlands, '97 298.433 
 
 Roubaix, France. '96 124,661 
 
 Rouen, France. '96 113,219 
 
 St. Etienne, France, '96 136,030 
 
 St. John, Canada, '91 39.179 
 
 St. John's. Newfoundland, '92 31,142 
 
 St. Petersburg, Russia, '97 1,267.023 
 
 Samarkand, Russian Turkestan, '97. ..54.900 
 San Luis Potosi, Mexico, '95 69,676 
 
 San Salvador, Salvador, '94 25.000 
 
 Santiago, Chile, '97 302.131 
 
 Santos. Brazil, '97 15,000 
 
 Sao Paulo. Brazil, '92 1 00,000 
 
 Seoul, Korea, '97 250.000 
 
 Population 
 
 Seville, Spain, '87 143,182 
 
 Sevres, France, '91 6,902 
 
 Shanghai, China, '97 457,000 
 
 Sheffield, England, '98 356.478 
 
 Siangtan, China, '98 1,000,000 
 
 Singanfu, China, '98 600,000 
 
 Singapore, Straits Settlements, '91 .. .160,000 
 
 Smyrna, Turkey, 'S5 200,000 
 
 Sofia, Bulgaria, "'93 46,593 
 
 Southampton, England, "91 65.K25 
 
 Stettin, Germany, '00 20C.988 
 
 Stockholm, Sweden, '97 288,602 
 
 Strassburg. Germany, '95 135,688 
 
 Stuttgart, Germany," '95 158,321 
 
 Suchau, China, '97" 500,000 
 
 Sucre, Bolivia, '97 19,000 
 
 Suez, Egypt, '82 10.919 
 
 Swansea, Wales, '99 103,722 
 
 Sydney, Australia, '97 417,250 
 
 Tananarivo, Madagascar, '97 90,000 
 
 Tangier, Morocco, '89 80,000 
 
 Tashkend, Russian Turkestan. '97.. .150.414 
 
 Teheran, Persia, '97 210.000 
 
 Tiberias, Holy Land, '97 3,000 
 
 Tientsin, China, '97 950,000 
 
 Tiflis, Russia, '97 160,645 
 
 Timbukto, Sudan, '97 20,000 
 
 Tokio, Japan. '96 1.299.941 
 
 Toronto, Canada, '91 1 si. 220 
 
 Trebizond, Turkey in A sia, '97 35,000 
 
 Trieste, Austria-Hungary, '90 158,344 
 
 Tripoli, Tripoli. '85 .... ." 30,000 
 
 Trondhjem, Norway. '91 29,162 
 
 Tunis, Tunis, '96 . ." 153.000 
 
 Turin, Italy, '97 351,855 
 
 Upernivik, Greenland, '70 700 
 
 Valencia, Spain, 'S7 170,763 
 
 Valparaiso, Chile, '97 139.038 
 
 Vancouver, Canada. '91 13.685 
 
 Venice, Italy, '97 155,S99 
 
 Vera Cruz, Mexico, '95 88,993 
 
 Verseilles, France, '96 54,874 
 
 Victoria, Canada, '91 16,841 
 
 Vienna, Austria-Hungary. '90 1.364.548 
 
 Vladivostok, Siberia, '96' .' 43^843 
 
 Warsaw. Russia. '97 63S.209 
 
 Wellington, New Zealand. '96 37,441 
 
 West Ham, England. '98 280.654 
 
 Winnipeg, Canada, '95 38,100 
 
 Wuchang, China, '9S 300,000 
 
 Yarmouth, Canada. '91 6,0S9 
 
 Yokoba, Niger Terr.. '97 50,000 
 
 Yokohama, Japan. '96 179,502 
 
 Zanzibar (British), '97 30.000 
 
 Zurich. Switzerland, '97 151,994 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 557 
 
 ELEVATION OF SOME PLATEAUS AND MOUNTAIN PEAKS 
 
 Feet 
 
 Ab3"ssinian Plateau 5-7,000 
 
 Aconcagua, Andes, Argentina (high- 
 est in South America) 22,860 
 
 Ararat, Turkey in Asia 17,325 
 
 Mt. Blanc, Alps, France {highest in 
 
 Alps) 15,781 
 
 Bolivian Plateau 10-13,000 
 
 Brazilian Plateau . . : 2-2,500 
 
 Chimborazo, Andes, Ecuador 20,49? 
 
 Cotopaxi, Andes, Ecuador 19,613 
 
 Elbruz, Caucasus, Russia IS, 200 
 
 Etna, Sicily 10,835 
 
 Everest, Himalayas, Nepal {highest 
 
 known in world) 29.002 
 
 Fremont Peak, Rocky Mts., Wy. . . 13,790 
 
 Fujiyama' Japan 12,305 
 
 He'cfa, Iceland 5,110 
 
 Kenia, Africa 19,000 
 
 Kilimanjaro, Africa (highest known 
 
 in Africa) 19,780 
 
 Kosciusko. Australia (highest in 
 
 Australia) 7,336 
 
 Feet 
 
 Logan, Coast Ranges, Canada (high- 
 est known in Canada) 19,500 
 
 McKinley, Alaska (highest knoicn 
 
 in North America) 20,464 
 
 Mauna Kea, Hawaiian Islands 13,805 
 
 Mauna Loa, Hawaiian Islands 13,675 
 
 Mexican Plateau 5-6,000 
 
 Mitchell, Appalachian Mts., N.C., 
 
 (highest in East'n U.S.) 6,711 
 
 Orizaba, Mexico (highest in Mexico) 18,314 
 
 Pikes Peak, Rocky Mts., Colorado, 14,108 
 
 Popocatapetl, Mexico 17,798 
 
 Rainier, Cascade Mts., Washington, 14,526 
 
 St. Elias, Alaska 18,100 
 
 Shasta, Cascade Mts., California. .. 14,380 
 
 Tibet Plateau 10-15,000 
 
 United States, Western Plateau .... 5-6,000 
 
 Vesuvius, Italv 4,200 
 
 Washington, "White Mts, N.H. 
 
 (highest in Northeastern U.S.). 6,293 
 Whitney, Sierra Nevada, California 
 
 (highest in Western U.S.) 14,898 
 
 SOME OF THE LARGEST RIVERS OF THE WORLD 
 
 Xortli America 
 
 Basin 
 Length Area 
 in Miles Sq. Miles 
 
 Colorado 2,000 
 
 Columbia 1,400 
 
 Mackenzie 2,000 
 
 Missouri 3,000 
 
 Missouri-Missis- 
 sippi 4,300 
 
 225.049 
 216.537 
 590,000 
 527,155 
 
 Nelson 1,732 432, 000 
 
 Rio Grande 1,S00 240.000 
 
 St. Lawrence . . .2,200 530,000 
 
 Vukon 2,000 440,000 
 
 South America 
 
 Amazon 3.300 2,500,000 
 
 Orinoco 1.350 366,000 
 
 Plata 2,580 1,200,000 
 
 Sao Francisco ..1.S00 200,000 
 
 Europe 
 
 Danube 1.770 
 
 Dnieper 1.200 
 
 Dwina 1,000 
 
 Elbe 725 
 
 Po 400 
 
 300.000 
 
 242,000 
 
 140,000 
 
 55,000 
 
 27,000 
 
 Rhine 800 75.000 
 
 Rhone 500 38.000 
 
 Ocean 
 
 Pacific 
 Pacific 
 Arctic 
 Atlantic 
 
 1,257,000 Atlantic 
 
 Atlantic 
 Atlantic 
 Atlantic 
 Pacific 
 
 Atlantic 
 Atlantic 
 Atlantic 
 Atlantic 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 Arctic 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 Atlantic 
 Atlantic 
 
 Basin 
 
 Length Area 
 
 in Miles Sq. Miles 
 Europe 
 
 Seine 482 30,300 
 
 Thames 22S 6.100 
 
 Volga 2,400 563,300 
 
 Amur 2,S00 
 
 Brahmaputra.. .1,S00 
 
 Ganges 1,500 
 
 Hoang-ho 2.700 
 
 Indus 1.800 
 
 520,000 
 425,000 
 440,000 
 570,000 
 372,700 
 
 Irawadi 1.500 158,000 
 
 Lena 2,800 950,000 
 
 Mekong 2.800 2S0,000 
 
 Ob 3,200 1,000.000 
 
 Yangtse-kiang. . 3,200 548.000 
 
 Yenisei 3,000 1,500,000 Arctic 
 
 Africa 
 
 Kongo 2,900 
 
 Niger 2,600 
 
 Nile 3,400 
 
 Zambesi 1,500 
 
 1.200.000 
 563.300 
 
 1.273.000 
 600,000 
 
 Australia 
 
 Darling 1,100 
 
 Murray 1,000 270.000 
 
 Ocean 
 
 Atlantic 
 Atlantic 
 Caspian 
 
 Pacific 
 Indian 
 Indian 
 Pacific 
 Indian 
 
 Indian 
 Arctic 
 Pacific 
 Arctic 
 Pacific 
 
 Atlantic 
 Atlantic 
 Atlantic 
 Indian 
 
 Indian 
 Indiau 
 
558 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 SOME OP THE LARGE LAKES OF THE WORLD 
 
 Area in Elevation Greatest 
 
 Square in Depth in 
 
 Miles Feet Feet 
 
 Aral Sea 26,900 160 225 
 
 Baikal 12,500 1,312 4,550 
 
 Balkash 7,800 780 70 
 
 Caspian 169,000 -85 1 2,400 
 
 Chad, variable with 
 
 season 10,000 
 
 and often more 800-900 12 
 
 Dead Sea 370 -1,310 » 1,330 
 
 Erie 9,990 573 210 
 
 Great Bear Lake . . 11,200 200 
 
 Great Salt Lake... 2,000 4,218 80-50 
 
 Great Slave Lake.. 10,100 - over 650 
 1 Below sea level 
 
 Area in Elevation Greatest 
 
 Square in Depth in 
 
 Miles Feet Feet 
 
 II uron 22,322 5S2 750 
 
 Ladoga 7,000 00 730 
 
 Michigan 21,729 5S2 870 
 
 Nicaragua 3,600 110 83 
 
 Nyassa 14,000 1,500 600+ 
 
 Ontario 7,104 247 738 
 
 Superior 30,829- 602 1,008 
 
 Tangan vika 12,650 2,800 2,100 
 
 Titieaca 3,300 12,875 700 
 
 Victoria Nyanza — 30,000 4,000 590+ 
 
 Winnipeg 9,400 710 70 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF MANKIND 
 
 Mongolians 540,000,000 
 
 China 380,000,000 
 
 Japan and Korea 55,000,000 
 
 Indo-China 35,000.00(1 
 
 Malaysia 30,000.000 
 
 Other Mongolians 40,000,000 
 
 Caucasians 770,000,000 
 
 Europe 355,000,000 
 
 Asia 280,000,000 
 
 America 115,000,000 
 
 Africa , 15,000,000 
 
 Australasia 5,000,000 
 
 Ethiopians 173,000,000 
 
 Africa and Madagascar 153,000,000 
 
 North and South America 20,000,000 
 
 American Indians 22,170,000 
 
 Mexico 8,765,000 
 
 Brazil 4,200,000 
 
 Colombia 3, 150,000 
 
 Peru 2,700,000 
 
 Bolivia, Guatemala, and 
 
 Venezuela 4,225,000 
 
 United States 250,000 
 
 Canada 100,000 
 
 RELIGIONS OF MANKIND 
 
 Buddhists and Brahmins 650,000,000 I Mohammedans 180.000,000 
 
 Christians 440,000,000 Pagans and others 250,000,000 
 
 Jews 8,000,000 I 
 
INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 KEY TO PRONUNCIATION 
 
 a, as in fat; a, as in fate; a, as in far; «, as in fall; e, as in pen; 
 e, as in mete; e, as in her; i, as in- pin; i, as in pine; o, as in not; o, as 
 in note; o, as in move; u, as in tub ; u, as in mute; ii, as in pull; g, as 
 in gre£; </, as in gem; c, as in cat; 5, as in ceui. 
 
 A double dot under a, e, or o (a, e, o) indicates that its sound is short- 
 ened to that of u in but. 
 
 Italicized letters are silent. The sign ' tells upon which syllable the 
 accent is placed. The numbers refer to pages in the book excepting where 
 Fig. is before them, when they refer to figures in the book. 
 
 Aa'-chen, 286, 298. 
 Ab-er-de>n', 183, 199, 256. 
 Ab-ys-sin'-i-a, 116, 416, 455. 
 Abyssinian Mountains, 433. 
 A-con-ca'-gua (gwa), 98. 
 A-crop'-5-lis, 347, 349. 
 Ad'-e-laide, 477. 
 A '-den, 374. 
 Ad-i-ron'-dacks, 489. 
 Ad-ri-at'-ic, 323, 328, 338, 339. 
 iEgean (e-je'-an) Sea, 338. 
 Af-g/jan-is-tan', 376. 
 Af'-ri-ca, 415-460. 
 Agriculture, 79, 498-504. 
 Aix-la-Chapelle (as-la-sha-pel'), 
 Al-a-ba'-ma, 369, 502, 505, 507. 
 Alapaca, 109, 141. 
 A-las'-ka, 44, 46, 515. 
 Al'-ba-ny (ni), 298, 505, 512. 
 Al-ca'-zar, 247. 
 Al'-der-ney (ni), 181. 
 A-lru'-tian (shun) Islands, 
 
 515. 
 Al-ex-an'-dri-a, 435, 438. 
 
 Al-ge'-ri-a, 59, 236, 427, 439-443. 
 Al-giers' (jerz), 443. 
 Al-ham'-bra, 239, 247. 
 Allegheny (al'-e-ga-ni), 505. 
 Alps, 151, 152, 155, 223-225, 282, 
 
 301, 302, 311-313, 322, 356, 382. 
 Al-sace' (zas) Lor-rame', 280. 
 Am'-a-zon, 104, 112, 113, 118, 129, 
 
 136, 142. 
 A-mir' (mer), 377. 
 Am'-ster-dam, 214, 215. 
 An'-des(dez),96, 102, 129, 133. 136, 
 
 139, 143. 
 An-dor'-ra, 223, 240, 324. 
 . Angles (ang'-glz), 173. 
 
 Anglo Saxon (ang'-glo sak'-son), 
 
 173. 
 Animals, 52. 
 
 Antarctic (an-tark'-tik), 145, 548. 
 An-til'-les (lez), 522. 
 Anti-trade Winds, 26. 
 6, Ant'-werp, 219, 220, 229. 
 
 Ap-jja-lach'-i-an Mts., 463, 489. 
 Appalachian Plateau, 489. 
 559 
 
560 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 Ap'-pen-nines (ninz), 311, 312, 316, 
 
 319, 323. 
 Ap'-pi-an Way, 316. 
 A-ra'-bi-a, 361, 372-374. 
 Ar'-al Sea, 265, 359. 
 Ar'-a-rat, 366. 
 Arc/i-an'-gel, 264. 
 Ar-c/ti-pel'-a-go, 350. 
 Arc'-tic Ocean, 199, 255, 548. 
 A-re-qui'-pa (ra-ke), 139, 140. 
 Ar-gen-ti'-na (te), 60, 105, 111, 118- 
 
 123, 127, 229, 524, 525, 526, 527. 
 Ar-i-zo'-na, 430, 431, 507, 509, 514. 
 Ar'-kan-sas (saw), Fig. 360. 
 Ar-me'-ni-ans, 368, 369. 
 Ar'-yans, 387. 
 
 As-cen'-sion (shon) Island, 458. 
 Ash'-land, 506. 
 Asia (a'-shi'a), 353, 414. 
 Asia Minor, 367, 383, 387. 
 Asphaltum, 146. 
 Asuncion (a-son-the-on'), 125. 
 A-ta-ca'-ma Desert, 104, 143. 
 Ath'-ens (enz), 349. 
 At-lan'-ta, 493, 501, 502, 507, 513. 
 At-lan'-tic Ocean, 48, 548. 
 At'-las Mountains, 415, 427, 439. 
 Awck'-land, 480. 
 A?i-gus'-ta, Ga., 502. 
 Atts-tra-la'-sia (sha), 480, 525, 527, 
 
 529, 537, 538. 
 A7<s-tra'-li-a, 66, 201, 206, 229, 461- 
 
 477, 479, 480, 524, 526, 530. 
 Aws'-tri-a, 279, 326-337, 525. 
 A?«s'-tri-a Hun'-ga-ry (ray), 326- 
 
 337, 527, 528. 
 Auvergue (o-varny'), 223, 226. 
 Axis, Inclination of, 11. 
 A-zores' (zorz) Islands, 250. 
 Az'-tecs (teks), 108, 519. 
 
 Babylon (bab'-i-lon), 372. 
 Bag-dad', 372. 
 Ba-ha'-mas, 315, 522. 
 
 Bahia (ba-e'-a), 118. 
 
 Baikal (bl'-kal), 379. 
 
 Ba-ku' (ko), 271. 
 
 Bal-kan' Mountains, 342. 
 
 Balkan Peninsula, 338-352. 
 
 Bal'-kash, Fig. 241. 
 
 BaWa-rat', 477. 
 
 Bal'-tic Sea, 152, 156, 252, 262, 284. 
 
 Bal'-ti-more, 245, 495, 504, 505, 512. 
 
 Bal-u-chis-tan' (6), 382, 390. 
 
 Bang-kok', 394, 395. 
 
 Ban'-gor, 494. 
 
 Bar'-ba-ry (ri) States, 427, 439- 
 
 443. 
 Bar-ce-lo'-na, 248. 
 Bar'-men, 298. 
 Ba'-sel (zel), 306. 
 Ba-ta'-vi-a, 482. 
 Bath, 494. 
 Ba-va'-ri-a, 299. 
 Bay City, 495. 
 Bed'-o-ins (inz), 426, 436. 
 Beet Sugar, 286, 288, 534. 
 Bel '-fast (or fast), 191, 200. 
 Bel'-gi-um, 150, 152, 212, 216-221, 
 
 227, 261, 282, 286, 456, 524, 537. 
 Bel-grade', 342. 
 Belize (be-lez'), 520. 
 Belt of Calms, 26, 30, 31, 102, 358. 
 Be-na'-res (rez), 392. 
 Ben'-di-go, 477. 
 Ben-gal', Bay of, Fig. 241. 
 Ben Nev'-is, 177. 
 Ben'-ue (we) River, 452. 
 Ber-bers (berz), 427, 440. 
 Ber'-gen, 255, 256, 257. 
 Be'-ring Straits, 353. 
 Ber-lin', 292-295, 335. 
 Ber-mu'-das, 66, 522. 
 Berne, 307. 
 Beth'-a-ny (ni), 368. 
 Beth'-ie-^em, 370, 372. 
 Bey (ba), 440. 
 Bhutan (bho-tan'), 390. 
 
INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 561 
 
 Bil-ba'-o, 245. 
 
 Bing'-en, 285. 
 
 Bir'-ining-ham (ber), Ala., 184, 507. 
 
 Bir'-ming-ham (um), Eng., 184, 188, 
 
 192. 
 Bis'-kra, 427. 
 Black Race, 71, 422. 
 Black Sea, 264, 338, 344, 345, 366. 
 Bloem'-fon-tein, Fig. 297. 
 Boers (bors), 444. 
 Bo-go-ta', 133. 
 Boise (boi'-ze), 362. 
 Bo-k/ia'-ra, 378, 379. 
 BO-liv'-i-a, 102, 108, 124, 129, 140- 
 
 142, 529. 
 Bom-bay', 385, 391, 393. 
 Boo'-me-rang, 468, 469. 
 Bordeaux' (bor-do'), 234, 250. 
 Bor'-ne-o, 481. 
 Bosnia (boz'-ni-a), 337. 
 Bos'-po-rus, 339, 345. 
 Bos'-tpn, 117, 225, 292, 316, 495, 
 
 510, 512. 
 Brad'-ford, 186, 192. 
 Bra/i'-man-ism (izm), 93, 387. 
 Bra/i-ma-pu'-tra (poo), 382. 
 Brah'-mins (minz), 365, 558. 
 Bra-zil', 55, 102, 105, 110, 111, 112- 
 
 118, 234, 523, 524, 534, 537, 538. 
 Brazilian Highland, 99. 
 Brem'en, 277, 279, 296. 
 Bres'-lau (lou), 287, 292, 296. 
 Bridge'-port, 507. 
 Brindisi (bren'-de-se), 309. 
 Bris'-bane, Fig. 338. 
 Bris'-tol, 194, 197, 201. 
 Brit'-ish Af'-ri-ca, 457. 
 Brit'-ish Co-lum'-bi-a (be-a), 517. 
 Brit'-ish Empire, 196, 202, 389, 470, 
 
 477, 523. 
 Brit'-ish Guiana (ge-a'-na), 126. 
 Brit'-ish Hon-du'-ras (do), 520. 
 Brit'-ish Isles, 154, 156, 162, 167, 
 
 173-207, 225, 226, 236, 252, 253, 
 2o 
 
 255, 257, 347, 389, 406, 409, 471, 
 
 479, 525. 
 Brock'-ton, 501, 510. 
 Brus'-sels, 219. 
 Bucharest (bo-ka-resf), 343. 
 Bu'-da-pest (boo), 334, 336. 
 Buddhism (bo'-dizm), 92, 365, 387, 
 
 394, 395, 409, 558. 
 Buenos Aires (bwa'-nos i'-res), 123. 
 Buf'-fa-lo, 262, 505, 506, 511, 512. 
 Bul-ga'-ri-a, 338, 340, 342, 343. 
 Bun'-des-rat/i (bon), 280. 
 Bur'-ling-ton (ber), 494. 
 Burma (ber'-ma), 81, 362, 390, 394. 
 Butte (but), 244, 507. 
 By-zan'-tium (bi), 344. 
 
 Ca'-diz, 247. 
 
 Cairo (ki'-r5), 426, 430, 433, 437, 
 438. 
 
 Cal-cut'-£a, 384, 391, 393. 
 
 Cal-i-for'-ni-a, 44, 137, 161, 242, 248, 
 406, 430, 440, 468, 469, 475, 481, 
 491, 497, 498, 509. 
 
 Cal-la'-o, 138, 139, 145. 
 
 Cal'-u-met, 507. 
 
 Cam'-bridge, England, 197. 
 
 Cam'-bridge, 511. 
 
 Cam'-den, 505. 
 
 Cam'-pos, 55, 105. 
 
 Can'-a-da, 28, 38, 39, 44, 46, 105, 
 151, 157, 160, 162, 166, 201, 206, 
 236, 357, 390, 470, 479, 495, 515, 
 516-518, 524, 525, 530, 537, 538. 
 
 Ca-na'-ry (ri) Islands, 249, 458. 
 
 Can'-cer, Tropic of, 13. 
 
 Can-ta'-bri-an Mountains, 241, 244. 
 
 Can-ton', 397, 404. 
 
 Caoutchouc (ko'-chuk), 115. 
 
 Cape Breton (brit'-on) Island, 518. 
 
 Cape Colony, 426, 444-451, 524. 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, 425. 
 
 Cape Town, 426, 437, 444, 450, 451. 
 
 Cape Verde Islands, 250, 458. 
 
562 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 Cap'-ri-corn, Tropic of, 12. 
 
 Ca-ra'-cas, 128. 
 
 Caravan, 428-430. 
 
 Car'-dif/, 197. 
 
 Car-ib-be'-an Sea, 99, 522. 
 
 Car-pa'-thi-an Mountains, 326. 
 
 Cascade' Ranges, 359, 491. 
 
 Cash-mere', 381. 
 
 Cas'-pi-an Sea, 264, 265, 267, 359, 
 
 375, 530. 
 Cattle, Ar-gen-ti'-na (te), 119. 
 Cattle Ranching, 499, 517. 
 Caw-ca'-sus, 150, 151, 265. 
 Caw-ca'-sian Race,. 74, 165. 
 Cayenne (ka-yen'), 127. 
 Celebes (sel'-e-bez), 481. 
 Qelts, 278. 
 
 Qen'-tral Amer'-i-ca, 520, 521, 537. 
 Central" States, 491, 495, 500, 501, 
 
 507, 509. 
 Cettinge (chet-ten'-ya), Fig. 200. 
 Ceylon (se-lon'), 357, 363, 382, 393. 
 Chad, Lake, 418, 455. 
 Channel Islands, 181. 
 Charles'-ton (charlz), 494, 509. 
 Charlotte (shar'-lot), 502. 
 Chat-£a-noo'-ga, 494, 507, 513. 
 Chem'-nitz (nits), 287, 296. 
 Chi-ca'-go (she), 195, 292, 404, 495, 
 
 500, 506, 511, 512, 513. 
 Chile (chil'-a), 103, 104, 130, 132, 
 
 140, 142-145, 529. 
 Chim-bo-ra'-z5, 134. 
 Chl-na, 230, 355, 362, 364, 396-405, 
 
 410, 524, 526, 535, 536, 537. 
 Chin-cho'-na, 138. 
 Chl-nese' (nez) Empire, 523, 396-405. 
 Chris-ti-a'-ni-a (ne-a), 256, 257. 
 Christian Religion, 93, 166, 370, 558. 
 Qin-cm-na'-ti, 185, 500, 513. 
 Cities, 85. 
 Ciudad Bolivar (se-o-dad' bo'-le- 
 
 var), 127. 
 Cleve'-land, 506, 512. 
 
 Climate, 41. 
 
 Clothing, 86. 
 
 Clyde (klld), 188, 189, 198. 
 
 Coal, 153, 183, 487, 504, 505, 506, 
 
 518, 527, 528. 
 Coastal Plains, 489. 
 Coast Ranges, 491. 
 Co'-ca, 137. 
 Co'-came, 137. 
 Co'-co«, 134. 
 
 Coffee, 516, 519, 521, 533, 534. 
 Coffee, Bra-zil', 116. 
 Cohoes (ko-hoz'), 298. 
 Cold Pole, 359. 
 Co-%ne', 281, 287, 297, 298. 
 Co-lom'-bi-a (be), 55, 129, 132-133. 
 Col-o-ra'-do, 175, 277, 509. 
 Col-o-ra'-do Can'-yon, 242, 431. 
 Col-os-se'-um, 320, 321. 
 Co-lum'-bi-a (be-a), District of, 514. 
 Co-lum'-bi-a (be-a) River, 495. 
 Co-lum'-bi-a (be-a), S.C., 502. 
 Co-luin'-bus, Ga., 502. 
 C6-lum'-bus, Ohio, 501, 512. 
 Commerce, 511-514, 530-539. 
 Commons, House of, 205. 
 Con-nect'-i-cut, 508. 
 Con-stan-ti-no'-ple, 275, 335, 339, 
 
 343, 344, 345, 346. 
 Continental climate, 358. 
 Continents, 3. 
 C5-pen-ha'-gen, 261, 262. 
 Copper, 506, 507, 518. 
 Copts, 436. 
 
 Coral Reefs, 65, 481, 482, 483, 463. 
 Cor'-do-ba, 123. 
 Cor-fu' (fo), 350. 
 Cork, Fig. 122. 
 
 Corn, 109, 495, 497, 500, 519, 524. 
 Cor'-si-ca, Fig. 200. 
 Cos'-sacks, 270, 362. 
 Costa Rica (kos'-ta ri'-ka), Fig. 399. 
 Cotopaxi (co-to-pax'-i), 133. 
 Cotton, 109, 501, 519, 525, 526. 
 
INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 563 
 
 Cotton Manufacturing, 502. 
 Crete, 350. 
 Crip'-ple Creek, 508. 
 Cu'-ba, 502, 515, 524, 534, 535. 
 Cuzco (coz-cd'), 109, 140. 
 Cyclonic Storms, 38, 161, 493. 
 Cy'-prus, Fig. 241. 
 Czar, 269. 
 
 Dal'-Zas, 500. 
 
 Da-mas'-cus, 370, 371. 
 
 Dan'-ube, 299, 327, 332, 333, 334, 
 
 336, 338, 339, 341, 342. 
 Dan'-vh7e, 503. 
 Dar-da-nelles' (nelz), 339. 
 Dar'-ling Eiver, 463. 
 Day-ton, 501. 
 Dead Sea, 369, 371. 
 Deflection, right and left hand, 28. 
 Degrees, 15. 
 Del-a-go'-a Bay, 451. 
 Del'-a-ware, 505. 
 Del'-hl, 387. 
 Delta, 431, 432. 
 
 Den'-mark, 173, 251-254, 261-262. 
 Den'-ver, 508, 512. 
 Deserts, 30-33, 57, 358, 427, 465. 
 Des Moines (de-moin'), 501. 
 De-troit , 321, 506, 512. 
 Di'-a-monds, 448. 
 Dikes, 211, 313. 
 Dnieper (ne'-per), Fig. 172. 
 Dow'-ro, 250. 
 Downs, 55. 
 
 Dres'-den (drez), 287, 293, 294. 
 Dub'-lin, 200. 
 
 Dubuque (do-buk'), Fig. 361. 
 Duluth (do-looth'), 480, 495, 506, 512. 
 Dun-dee', 199. 
 Durban (der'-ban), 451. 
 Durft'-am, 503. 
 Dutch, 209, 481, 482. 
 Dutch Guiana (ge-a'-na), 126, 214. 
 Dwina (dwe-na), Fig. 172. 
 
 Earthquakes, 128, 139, 249, 355. 
 
 Earth's Orbit, 11. 
 
 East In'-dies (diz), 6, 214, 397, 403, 
 
 480-482, 537, 538. 
 Ebro (a'-bro), 241. 
 Ecuador (ek'-wa-dor), 100, 104, 107, 
 
 108, 129, 133-135. 
 Eddies in ocean, 46-50. 
 Edinburgh (ed'-n-bur-o), 178, 194, 
 _ 199, 266. 
 
 E'-gypt, 80, 164, 187, 369, 370, 424, 
 _ 427, 430-439. 526. 
 E-gyp'-tian (shan) Su-dan' (so) , 427, 
 
 430, 455. 
 El'-be, 292, 296, 337. 
 El'-ber-feld, 298. 
 El-bruz' (broz), 265. 
 England (ing'-land), 152, 161, 173- 
 
 187, 212, 216, 217, 226, 227, 278, 
 
 470, 471, 473, 476, 479, 524, 528. 
 English (ing'-glish), 173. 
 English Channel, 156. 
 Equator, 18. 
 
 E'-qui-nox (kwi), 12, 13. 
 E'-rie Canal, 511. 
 E'-rie, Pa., 505. 
 Eritrea (a-re-tra'-a), 456. 
 Erzgebirge (erts'-ge-ber-ge), 282. 
 Es-co'-ri-al, 246. 
 Es'-ki-mos (moz), 266, 378, 518. 
 Es'-sen, 298. 
 E-thi-o'-pi-ans, 71, 558. 
 E-thi-o'-pi-an Zone, 422. 
 Et'-na, Fig. 200. 
 
 Euphrates (u-fra'-tez), 363, 368, 372. 
 Eurasia ( u-ra'-she-a) , 149. 
 Europe (u'-rop), 149, 352. 
 Ev-aus-vil?e (anz), 500. 
 Ev'-er-est, Mt., 355. 
 Exports, 533-539. 
 
 FaZk'-land Islands, 145. 
 FalZ Line, 489. 
 FalJ River, 503, 510. 
 
564 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 Fa'-roe Islands, 262. 
 
 Fel'-Wi, 436, 438. 
 
 Fe'-tish, 91. 
 
 Fez, 443. 
 
 Fiji (fe'-je), 483, 484. 
 
 Fin'-land, 150, 270, 275. 
 
 Fishing, 82, 495, 517. 
 
 Fiuine (fe-o'-me), 337. 
 
 Fjords (fyords), 156, 253, 257. 
 
 Flan'-ders (derz), 218. 
 
 Flax, 191. 
 
 Flor'-ence (ens), 322. 
 
 Flor'-i-da, 163, 489, 509. 
 
 Food, 78. 
 
 Forest, temperate, 61. 
 
 Forest, tropical, 52, 104, 113. 
 
 For-mo'-sa, 405, 406. 
 
 Fort Worth, 500. 
 
 Fo'-rum, 321. 
 
 France (frans), 164, 167, 222-237, 
 277, 279, 282, 288,289, 301, 303, 
 315, 331, 332, 391, 440, 441, 524, 
 525, 527, 528, 531-533, 535-539. 
 
 Frankfort (frangk'-fprt), 299. 
 
 Fred-er-ic-ton, 517. 
 
 French Guiana (ge-a'-na), 127, 236. 
 
 French In'-do Chl'-na, 394, 395. 
 
 Fruits, 503, 504, 517, 519, 522. 
 
 Fuchau (fo-chou'), 402. 
 
 Fu-ji-ya'-ma (foo), 354. 
 
 Gal-a-pa'-gos Islands, 145. 
 
 Gal'-i-lee, Sea of, 369, 371. 
 
 Gal'-ves-ton, Fig. 360. 
 
 Gam'-bi-a," Fig. 297. 
 
 Ganges (gan'-jez), 382, 388, 391, 392. 
 
 Ga-ron'-?ie, 234. 
 
 Ge-ne'-va, 306. 
 
 Ge-ne'-va Lake, 151, 235, 306. 
 
 Gen'-o-a, 305, 316, 323. 
 
 George-town, 126. 
 
 Geor'-gi-a, 494, 502. 
 
 Ger'-man Af'-ri-ca, 457. 
 
 Ger'-man'-ic Race, 278. 
 
 Ger'-ma-ny (na), 150, 152, 154, 167, 
 209, 212, 213, 227, 235, 252, 260, 
 277-300, 303, 306, 314, 327, 331, 
 332, 333, 523. 524, 525, 527, 528, 
 531, 532, 533, 537, 538. 
 
 Gey'-sers (gi), 262, 492. 
 
 Ghent, 220. 
 
 Gi-bral'-tar, 247, 248, 324. 
 
 Glacial Period, 154, 178, 186, 282, 
 284, 302, 487, 488. 
 
 Gla'-cier (shier), 302. 
 
 Glas'-goio, 178, 188, 189, 192, 194, 
 196, 198. 
 
 Glonces'-ter 183, 250, 256, 495. 
 
 Gobi (go'-be), 396. 
 
 Gold, 131, 508, 509, 515, 517, 530. 
 
 Goth'- en-burg (borg), 259, 260. 
 
 Government, 514. 
 
 Granada (gren-a'-da), 239, 246. 
 
 Grand Canal, 401. 
 
 Grand Rap'-ids, 495. 
 
 Grazing, 497, 519 ; development of, 
 80. 
 
 Great Barrier Reef, 463. 
 
 Great Basin, 491. 
 
 Great Britain (brit'-n), 145, 173- 
 207, 218, 227, 229, 240, 251, 252, 
 258, 260, 261, 271. 277, 281, 286, 
 316, 324, 332, 377, 439, 447, 527, 
 528, 531, 533, 537, 538. 
 
 Great Lakes, 491, 500, 504, 511, 512, 
 518. 
 
 Great Plains, 60, 490. 
 
 Great Wall, China, 398, 399. 
 
 Greece (gres), 161, 164, 165, 333, 
 339, 340, 346-350. 
 
 Greeks, 164, 340, 368. 
 
 Green'-land, 251, 262, 518. 
 
 Green Mountains, 488. 
 
 Green'-vilZe, 502. 
 
 Green'-toich, 20, 197. 
 
 Grimsby (grimz'-bi), 183. 
 
 Guadalquiver (ga-dal-kwiv'-er), 241, 
 242, 244. 
 
INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 565 
 
 Guam (gwam), 516. 
 G?«a-te-ma'-la, 521, 534. 
 Guayaquil (gwl-a-kel'), 135. 
 G?«ern'-sey (zi) Islands, 181. 
 Gm'ana (ge-a'-na). 125. 
 Guiana (ge-a'-na) Highland, 99, 127. 
 Guinea (gin'-i), 456. 
 Gulf Stream, 49. 
 Guth-rie, Fig. 360. 
 
 Hag?<c, 215. 
 
 Hal'-der-ra-bad" (da), Fig. 241. 
 
 Haiti (ha'-ti), 521, 534. 
 
 Hal'-i-fax, 517. 
 
 Hal'-le, 296. 
 
 Ham'-burg (berg), 277, 292, 296. 
 
 Ham'-mer-fest, 257, 258. 
 
 Han-kau' (kou), 404. 
 
 Har'-ris-burg (berg), 505. 
 
 Hart'-ford, 507. 
 
 Ha-van'-a, 515. 
 
 Havre (a'-vr), 229, 234. 
 
 Hawaiian (ha-wa'-yan) Islands, 288, 
 
 484, 502, 515, 524, 534, 535, 537. 
 Hay, 497. 
 
 Heat Equator, 26, 35. 
 Heathens (hea-thens), 92, 558. 
 He'-bron, 369. 
 Hec'-la, Mt., 262. 
 Hel'-Zas, 347. 
 Hel'-sing-fors, 275. 
 Her-cu-la'-ne-uin, 317. 
 Herzegovina (hert-se-go-ve'-na) , 
 
 337. 
 Him-a-la'-ya, 355, 382, 385, 390. 
 Hin'-dus (dos), 385, 389, 391, 392. 
 Ho-ang-ho', 397, 398. 
 Ho'-bart, Fig. 338. 
 Ho'-bo-ken, 505, 514. 
 Hogs, 500, 517. 
 Hol'-Zand, 152, 154, 208-215, 216, 
 
 219, 265, 282, 313, 426, 481. 
 Holy Land, 368, 369-371. 
 Hol'-yoke, 494. 
 
 Hon-du'-ras (do), Fig. 399. 
 
 Hong'-kong, 404. 
 
 H5-no-lu'-lu (loo'-loo), Fig. 338. 
 
 Horse Latitudes, 28, 102, 160, 242. 
 
 Horses, 498, 499, 517. 
 
 Houses, Sites for, 84. 
 
 Hous'-ton, Fig. 360. 
 
 Ho'-vas, 458. 
 
 Hud'-son, 214, 297, 298. 
 
 HulZ, 183, 194, 197. 
 
 Human Race, 71. 
 
 Hun'-ga-ry (ray), 326-337, 341. 
 
 Hu'-ron, Fig. 357. 
 
 Hur'-j'i-cane, 397. 
 
 Ice'-land, 251, 262. 
 
 I'-da-ho, 509. 
 
 Il-Zi-nois', 252, 496, 498, 500, 505, 506. 
 
 Iloilo (e-lo-e'-lo), Fig. 338. 
 
 Imports, 533-539. 
 
 Incas (ing'-kaz), 73, 108, 109, 132, 
 136, 137, 140. 
 
 In'-di-a, 36, 37, 187, 201, 236, 309, 
 359, 362, 364, 372, 373, 377, SSI- 
 SOS, 524, 525, 526, -535, 536. 
 
 In'-di-an Ocean, 548. 
 
 In-di-an'-a, 498, 506, 509. 
 
 In-di-an-ap'-o-lis, 380, 501, 512. 
 
 In'-di-ans, American, 72, 104, 107, 
 108, 114, 558. 
 
 Indian Territory, 514. 
 
 In'-do Chl'-na, 236, 393. 
 
 In'-dus, 382, 392. 
 
 Inventions, 88. 
 
 F-o-toa, 497, 498, 499, 500, 505. 
 
 Iquique (e-ke'-ka), 144. 
 
 Iron Ore, 184, 504-506, 518. 528. 
 
 Iron Manufacturing, 188, 504, 518. 
 528. 
 
 Ir-a-wadi'^ 390. 
 
 Ireland (I'-er-land), 162, 174, 186, 
 189-191, 194, 199, 200, 261, 462. 
 
 Ir-kutsk' (kotsk), 381. 
 
 I'-so-therms, 41-44. 
 
566 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 It'-a-ly (la), 161, 164, 165, 167, 236, 
 238, 300; 309-325, 331, 346, 347, 
 348, 524, 525, 535, 536, 537. 
 
 Jamaica, (Ja-ma'-ka), 521. 
 Ja-pan', 6, 354, 364, 366, 405-412, 
 
 518, 524, 535, 536, 537, 538. 
 Jap-a-nese' Current, 46, 406, 515. 
 Ja'-va, 214, 288, 481, 482, 534, 535. 
 Jersey (jer'-zi) City, 505, 514. 
 Jersey (jer'-zi) Islands, 181. 
 Je-ru'-sa-lem (ro), 371, 373. 
 Jews, 93, 369, 558. 
 Jin-rik'-i-sha, 411. 
 Johannesburg (yo-han'-es-berg) , 
 
 447, 451. 
 Jop'-lin, 508. 
 Jop'-pa, 371. 
 Jor'-dan River, 369. 
 Juan' (hb-an) Fer-nan'-dez (deth), 
 
 146. 
 Juneau (jo-no'), 515. 
 Jungles (jung'-gls), 385. 
 Jura (jo'-ra) Mountains, 301. 
 Jut'-land, 254. 
 
 Ka-bul' (bol), 377. 
 Kam-chat'-ka, Fig. 241. 
 Ka-rne-run' (ron) , Fig. 297. 
 Kan'-sas (zas), 498, 499, 509. 
 Kan'-sas (zas) City, 500. 
 Kenia (ka'-ne-a), Mt., Fig. 297. 
 Ken-tuck'-y, Fig. 361. 
 Khedive (ke-deV), 436, 438. 
 Khiva (che'-va), 378. 
 Kil-i-man-ja'-ro (e), 416. 
 KiMar'-ney (ni) Lakes, 190, 200. 
 Kim'-ber-ley (li), 448, 449, 451. 
 Ki-o'-to (ke), 412. 
 Kir-g/az' Steppes, 379. 
 Klon'-dike, 515, 517. 
 A"nox'-vilZe, 507. 
 
 Kon'-go River, 237, 417, 418, 452, 
 453." 
 
 Kon'-go State, 219, 456. 
 Konigsburg (ke'-nigs-berg), 281. 
 Ko-re'-a, 405, 526. 
 Kre-feid (kra), 298. 
 Ku'-rile Islands (ko) 6, 406. 
 
 Lab-ra-dor' (door), 157, 175. 
 
 Labrador Current, 50. 
 
 La Crosse, 495. 
 
 La'-do-ga, Fig. 172. 
 
 Language, development of, 87. 
 
 La Paz (path), 142. 
 
 Lap'-land, 252. 
 
 Lap'-land-ers, 266. 
 
 La Pla'-ta, 123. 
 
 Las'-sa, 397. 
 
 Lat'-i-tude, 18. 
 
 Lawrence (la'-rens), 503. 
 
 Lead'-viUe, 507, 508. 
 
 Leeds (ledz), 186, 192. 
 
 Leices'-ter, 187. 
 
 Leipzig (lip'-tsig), 292, 294, 296. 
 
 Leith, 199. 
 
 Le'-na, Fig. 241. 
 
 Le'-o-pold-viUe, 417. 
 
 Lew'-is-ton (lu), 503. 
 
 Li-be'-ri-a, 456. 
 
 Lib'-y-an (i) Desert, 427, 430. 
 
 Liech-ten-stein, 337. 
 
 Liege (lyazh), 220. 
 
 Life, Zones of, 52. 
 
 Lille (lei), 228. 
 
 Li'-ma (le), 138, 139. 
 
 Limoges (le-mozh'), 234. 
 
 Linen, 191. 
 
 Lis'-bon (liz), 249. 
 
 Little Rock, 494. 
 
 Liv'-er-pool, 194, 196, 197. 
 
 Llama (la'-ina), 109, 141. 
 
 Llanos (la'-no), 55, 105, 127, 12f 
 
 LocA Lo-mond, 179. 
 
 Lodz, 275. 
 
 Lof-6'-den Islands, 255. 
 
 Loire (lwar), 226, 231. 
 
INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 567 
 
 Lon'-don, 174, 181, 183, 192-197. 
 Longitude (lon'-gi-tud),- 19. 
 Lords, House of, 205. 
 Los An'-ge-les, 504, 513. 
 Louisiana (lo-e-zi-an'-a), 502, 503. 
 Louisville (lo'-is-vil), 500, 503, 513. 
 Louren§o Marquez (lo-ran'-so mar'- 
 
 kes), 451. 
 Lowvfe, 233. 
 Low Countries, 152. 
 Loio'-eU, 503. 
 Low Pressure Areas, 38. 
 Lu-cerne', Lake, 304, 307, 308. 
 Luck'-now (nou), 392. 
 Lumbering, 493, 494, 517. 
 Luxemburg (luk'-sem-berg), 220. 
 Lu-zon' (lo), Fig. 338. 
 Lynchburg (linch'-berg), 503. 
 Lynn (lin), 501. 
 Lyon (li'-on), 229, 235. 
 
 Mac-ken'-zie, Fig. 398. 
 
 Mad-a-gas'-ear, 237, 458. 
 
 Ma-det'-ra Islands, 250, 458. 
 
 Ma-dras', 393. 
 
 Ma-drid', 132, 242, 245, 24G, 272. 
 
 Mag-da-le'-na (la) River, 133. 
 
 Magdeburg (mag'-de-borg), 29G. 
 
 Ma-gel'-Zan Strait, 122, 144. 
 
 Mag-yars, 329. 
 
 Main River, 299. 
 
 Maine, 254, 494, 502. 
 
 Mal'-a-ga, 248. 
 
 Ma-lay' Peninsula, 393. 
 
 Ma-lays', 394, 395, 464, 481. 
 
 Mal'-ta, 324. 
 
 Ma-na'-bs, 113. 
 
 Man'-ches-ter, Eng., 187, 192, 198. 
 
 Man'-ches-ter, N.H., 502. 
 
 Man-chu'-ri-a, Fig. 241. 
 
 Man'-da-la?/, 390. 
 
 Man-di-o'-ca, 115. 
 
 Ma-nil'-a, 482. 
 
 Man-i-to-ba', 517. 
 
 Mankind, 71. 
 
 Manufacturing, 500-511, 518, 530, 
 
 531. (Also many of the countries). 
 Ma'-o'-ris (riz), 478. 
 Maps, 22. 
 
 Ma-ra-cai'-bo, 127. 
 Marquette (mar-kef), 506. 
 Marseille (mar-sal'), 234, 235. 
 Maryland (mer'-i-land), 505. 
 Mas-kat, 374. 
 Mas-sa-chu' -setis, 502. 
 Mat-ter-horn, 305. 
 Mauritius (ma-rish-ius), 459. 
 Mec'-ca, 374. 
 Med'-i-ter-ra'-ne-an, 157, 163, 225, 
 
 235, 243, 247, 309, 311, 314, 319, 
 
 338, 346, 348, 366, 367, 419, 435. 
 Me-kong' (ma), 395. 
 Mel'-bourne (bern), 476. 
 Me-los, 233. 
 
 Mem'-phis (lis), 494, 501. 
 Mer-ca-tor maps, 23. 
 Merchant Marine, 532. 
 Mer'-i-den, 19. 
 Mes-o-po-ta'-mi-a, 368, 372. 
 Metz (mets), 280, 281.' 
 Mex'-i-co, 238, 488, 519, 520, 521, 
 
 524, 529, 537, 538. 
 Mex'-i-co City, 519, 520. 
 Mich'-i-gan (mish), 244, 507, 509. 
 Mi-ka'-do, 407, 408, 411. 
 Mi-lan', 305, 311, 322, 323. 
 Milk, 499. 
 
 Mil-wart'-kee, 500, 506, 512. 
 Min-da-na'-o (men), Fig. 338. 
 Min-do'-ro (men), Fig. 338. 
 Mining, 504-509. 
 Ministers, British, 206. 
 Min-»e-ap'-o-lis, 275, 495, 500, 512, 
 
 517. 
 Min-ne-so'-ta, 122, 252, 358, 493, 
 
 498. 
 Mir (mer), 269. 
 Mis-sis-sip'-pi, River, 417, 463, 491. 
 
568 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 Mis-sis-sip'-pi, State, 502. 
 
 Mis-soV-ri, 495, 500. 
 
 Mo-bile' (bel), 494. 
 
 Mo'-c/ia, 374. 
 
 Mo-ham'-me-dans, 93, 239, 343, 365, 
 
 374, 387, 558. 
 Mo-luc'-ca Isds., Fig. 338. 
 Mon'-a-co, 223. 
 Mongol (mong'-gol), 387. 
 Mon-go'-li-a, 396. 
 
 Mon-go'-li-ans, 73, 390, 398. 407, 558. 
 Mpn-ro'-vi-a, 456. 
 
 Mon-soon', 34-37, 359, 382, 397, 465. 
 Mon-ta'-na, 498, 509, 517. 
 Mont Blanc. 224, 382. 
 Mon-te-ne'-gro (na), 340, 341. 
 Mon-te-vid'-e-o, 124. 
 Mont-gora'-ery, 494. 
 Mont-re-al',"311, 512, 517, 518. 
 Moors (morz), 238, 239, 246. 
 Mo-roc'co, 249, 427, 428, 439-443. 
 Mos'-coic, 266, 271, 272. 
 Mountains, 5. 
 Mu'-nic/i, 299, 300. 
 Mur'-riiy River, 463, 474. 
 
 Na-go'-ya, 412. 
 
 Na'-ples (plz), 311, 313, 316, 317. 
 
 Nash'-vilZe, 494, 500, 513. 
 
 Na-tal', 445. 
 
 Natural Gas, 506. 507. 
 
 Naz'-a-reth, 371. 
 
 Ne-bras'-ka, 495. 
 
 Negroes, 7i, 422, 423, 454. 
 
 Ne-pal', 390. 
 
 Neth'-er-lands, 208-215, 216, 217, 
 
 219, 290, 482, 532, 537, 538. 
 Ne-va'-da, 509. 
 New'-ark, 505. 
 New Bed'-ford, 503. 
 New Bruns'-wick, 517. 
 New Cal-e-do'-ni-a, 484. 
 New Eng'-land (ing ) States, 50, 
 
 51, 99," 151, 175,^177, 179, 180, 
 
 182, 183, 186, 187, 188, 258, 281, 
 304, 380, 481, 488, 489, 502, 507, 
 509. 
 
 New'-found-land, 236, 479, 516, 517. 
 
 New Guinea (gin'-i), 84, 85, 291, 
 
 480, 481. 
 
 New Hamp'-shire, 502. 
 
 New Ha'-ven, 507. 
 
 New Jersey (jer'-zi), 505. 
 
 New Mex'-i-co, 243, 498, 514. 
 
 New Or'-le-ans, 288, 501, 503, 513. 
 
 New South Wales (Walz), 470, 474, 
 
 475, 477. 
 New York City, 123, 174, 195, 196, 
 
 220, 292, 298, 426, 505, 511, 512. 
 New York State, 209, 216, 284, 301, 
 
 481, 494, 497-499. 502, 509, 517. 
 New Zea'-land, 478-480. 
 Nl-ag'-a-ra Falls, 450. 51 1 . 
 Nic-a-ra'-gua Canal, 437, 521. 
 Nice (nes), 224. 
 
 Nl'-ger, 237, 417, 452, 455. 
 
 Nl'-ger Territories, 455. 
 
 Nijni Novgorod (nezh'-ni nov'-go- 
 
 . rod), 272. 
 
 Nile, 56, 67, 417, 418, 424, 426, 430- 
 
 434, 437, 438, 451, 455. 
 Nip-on', 406. 
 Nitrate of soda, 143. 
 Nom'-ads, 59, 81, 376, 377, 426. 
 Nor'-foZk, 495. 
 Nor'-mans, 174. 
 North A-mer'-i-ca. 487-522. 
 North Atlantic Eddy, 48, 49. 
 North Cape. 256, 258. 
 North Car-o-li'-na, 502. 
 North Da-ko'-ta, 122, 358, 498. 
 Northmen, 251. 
 North Sea, 156, 255, 284. 
 Nor'-way, 150, 156, 236, 251-258, 
 
 260, 261, 331, 532. 
 Not'-£ing-/iam, Fig. 122. 
 No'-va Sc5'-tia (sco'-sha), 517, 518. 
 Nu'-bians, 424. 
 
INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 569 
 
 Nu'-rem-berg, 300. 
 Nyas'-sa, Lake, 457. . 
 
 Oak'-land, 514. 
 
 O-a'-ses (sez), 58, 421,428. 
 
 Oats, 495, 496. 
 
 Ob, Fig. 241. 
 
 Ob'-e-lisk, 435. 
 
 Ocean Basins, 3. 
 
 Ocean Currents, 45, 143, 145, 161, 
 
 492. 
 Ocean life, 64. 
 O'-der, 292. 
 O-des'-sa, 274, 336. 
 O-hl'-o, 187, 271, 497, 498, 499, 500, 
 
 505, 506, 509. 
 O-hl'-o River, 490, 491. 
 Ok-la-ho'-ma, 514. 
 O'-ma-ha, 500. 
 O-man', 374. 
 On-ta'-ri-o, Lake, 517. 
 O-por'-to, 249. 
 Orange Free State, 444, 445. 
 Orange River, 449. 
 Orbit of Earth, 11. 
 Or'-e-gon, 160, 496, 498. 
 O-ri-no'-co, 99, 105, 127, 129. 
 O-sa'-ka, 412. 
 Osh'-kosh, 495. 
 Ot'-£a-\va, -516, 517, 518. 
 Ot'-£o-man Empire, 340, 343-346. 
 
 365-372. 
 Ox'-ford, 197. 
 
 Pa-cjf'-ic Currents, 46. 
 Pa-§if(-ic 3 Islands of, 482. 
 Pa-cjif'-ic Ocean, 548. 
 Pa-go'-da, 388, 402, 410. 
 Pa-la-wan', Fig. 338. 
 Pa-ler'-mo, 321. 
 Pal'-es-tine, 367, 369-371. 
 Pa-los', 243. 
 Pam'-pas, 60, 105, 119. 
 Pan-a-ma' Canal, 132, 437, 521. 
 Pan-a-ma', IsMmus, 132. 
 
 Panay (pa-ni'), Fig. 338. 
 Papuans (pap'-o-ans), 480. 
 Pa-ra', 116, 118. 
 Par'-a-guay (gwi) Tea, 125. 
 Parallels of Latitude, 18. 
 Par-a-mar'-i-bo, 127. 
 Pa-ra-na', 112, 122, 124. 
 Par'-is, 229, 231-234, 246, 279, 335. 
 Park Lands, 55. 
 Par'-li-a-ment, 205. 
 Pat-a-go'-ni-a, 103, 122. 
 Pat'-er-son, 510. 
 Paro-tuck'-et, 503. 
 Peat, 153, 190. 
 Pe-king', 358, 397, 405. 
 Penn-syl-va'-ni-a, 183, 184, 271, 303, 
 
 480, 490, 494, 498, 499, 504, 505, 
 
 506, 507, 509. 
 Pe-o'-ri-a, 500. 
 Per-nam-bu'-co (bo), 118. 
 Per'-sia (sha), 60, 80, 358, 374-376. 
 Perth, Fig, 338. 
 Pe-ru' (ro), 67, 108, 109, 129, 130, 
 
 132, 136-140, 238. 
 Peruvian Bark, 138. 
 Petroleum, 506, 507, 531. 
 Phil-a-del'-phi-a, 195, 335, 397, 503, 
 
 505, 512, 513. 
 Phil'-ip-pine Islands, 6, 288, 481, 
 
 482, 502, 516, 524, 534, 535, 537. 
 Pfed'-mont Plateau, 489. 
 P^e-ter-mar'-itz-burg, (its-borg), Fig. 
 
 297. 
 Pig Iron, 528. 
 Pig'-mies (miz), 454. 
 Pilgrims, 209. 
 Pi-r«e'-us, 349. 
 Pisa (pe-za), 315. 
 PitZs-burg (berg), 183, 505, 507, 
 
 512. 
 Planets, 1. 
 Plants, 52. 
 Pla'-ta, 122. 
 Po, 311, 312, 313, 319, 322, 382. 
 
570 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 Po'-land, 275, 297, 326. 
 Pom-pe'-ii (pa-ye), 817. 
 Port' au (o) Fringe, Fig. 400. 
 Port Ar'-thur, 46. 
 Port'-land, Me., 494, 495. 
 Port'-land, Ore., 495, 511, 514. 
 Por'-to Ri'-co (re'-ko), 502, 515, 
 
 534. 
 Port Said (sa-ed'), 437, 439. 
 Ports'-mouth, 194, 197. 
 Por'-tu-gal, 110, 111, 238-250, 391, 
 
 425, 440, 458. 
 Po'-sen fzen), 281. 
 Potato, 109. 
 Pots'-dam, 293. 
 Prae-to'-ri-a, Fig. 297. 
 Pragwe, 332, 337, 
 Prai'-ries, 61, 490. 
 Prevailing Westerlies, 28, 31, 33, 
 
 102, 160, 161. 
 Pribilof (pre'-bel-of) Islands, 515. 
 Prime Minister, 206. 
 Prince Edward Island, 517. 
 Prov'-i-dence, 337, 503, 508. 
 Prussia (prush'-a), 279, 283, 293, 326. 
 Pueblo (pweb'-lo), 507. 
 Pueblo Indians, 108. 
 Pu'-get Sound, 491. 
 Pyramids, 425, 432-485. 
 Pyrenees (pir'-e-nez), 151, 222, 241. 
 
 Quebec (kwe-bek'), 236, 518. 
 Queens'-land, 470, 472, 474. 
 Queens'-town (toun), 200. 
 Quinine (kwl'-nln), 138. 
 Quito (ke'-to), 135. 
 
 Railways, 511-514, 532. 
 
 Rain, 28, 32. 
 
 Rain Belts, 31. 
 
 Raleigh (ra'-li), 503. 
 
 Ran-goon', 390. 
 
 Reral'-ing, 505. 
 
 Reclaimed Land (Holland), 210. 
 
 Red Men, See Indians. 
 
 Red Sea, 354. 
 
 Reichstag (rlQhs'-tag), 280. 
 
 Reims (remz), 228. 
 
 Religion, development of, 91. 
 
 Reunion (ra-o-nyon'), 459. 
 
 Revolution of Earth, 8, 11. 
 
 R/une, 153, 208, 213, 283, 285, 287, 
 
 296, 297, 298, 299, 334. 
 Rhode Is'-land, 502. 
 Rhone, 151, 225, 229, 231, 235, 302. 
 Rice, 535, 536. 
 Rich'-mond, 503. 
 Riga (re'-ga), 274. 
 Rigi (re'-gi), Mt., 308. 
 Rio de Janeiro (re'-o da zha-ne'-ro), 
 
 117. 
 Ro-a-n5ke', 505. 
 Roc'h'-es-ter, 337, 501, 503, 505. 
 Rock'-y Mountains, 490, 491. 
 R5'-man Empire, 165, 166, 167, 310, 
 
 348, "368. 
 Ro'-mans, 165, 166, 173, 195, 222, 
 
 238, 340, 348, 368, 435. 
 Rome, 165, 166, 309, 310, 318, 319- 
 
 321, 335. 
 Ro-sa'-ri-o (re), 123. 
 Rotation of Earth, 8. 
 Rot'-£er-dain, 215, 298. 
 RoM-baix', 228. 
 R6-uen' (on), 229, 234. 
 Rou-ma'-ni-a, 338, 340, 342, 343. 
 Rubber, 115, 135, 521, 530, 531. 
 Russia (rush'-a), 50, 61, 62, 153, 154, 
 
 161, 162, 225, 236, 252, 264-276, 
 
 282, 327, 328, 378-381, 523-528, 
 
 530, 531, 532, 533. 
 Rut'-land, 509. 
 
 Sac-ra-men'-to, 374. 
 
 Sag"-i-naw, 495. 
 
 Sa-ha'-ra Desert, 30, 33, 58, 237, 
 
 249, 419, 427-430. 
 St. Etienne (san-ta-tyen'), 227, 229. 
 
INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY CM 
 
 St. Goth'-ard Tunnel, 305, 306. 
 
 St. He-le'-na, 458. 
 
 St. Hel'-ens (enz), Mt., 5. 
 
 St. John, 517, 518. 
 
 St. John's, 517. 
 
 St. Joseph, 501. 
 
 St. Laio'-renQe, 512, 517, 518. 
 
 St. Louis (lo'-is), 123, 296, 346, 438, 
 
 500, 501, 503, 512, 513. 
 St. Paul, 501, 512. 
 St. Pe'-ter's, 3 19, -321. 
 St. Pe'-ters-burg (berg), 157, 273, 
 
 274, 335. 
 Salt Lake City. 504. 
 Sa-mar', Fig. 338. 
 Sa-mo'-a, 484, 516. 
 San An-to'-ni-o (ne), Fig. 360. 
 San Fran-cis'-co, 160, 511, 513, 514, 
 
 516. 
 San Juan (hwan), 515. 
 San Ma-ri'-no (re), 324. 
 San'ta Y6 (fa), Fig. 362. 
 San Sal'va-dor, Fig. 399. 
 San-ti-a'-go (te), 145. 
 San'-tos, 117, 118. 
 Saone, 231. 
 Sao (san) Fran-cis'-co (kes), Fig. 
 
 75. 
 Sao Paulo (san pou'-lo), 118. 
 Sar-din'-i-a, 309. 
 Sar'-sa-pa-ril'-la, 135. 
 Sa-van'-?ia/i, 494. 
 Sa-van'-nas, 55, 103, 418, 419. 
 Saxons (sak'-snz), 173. 
 Saxony (sak'-sn-i), 294. 
 Scan-di-na'-vi-a, 150, 167, 252, 347. 
 Scot'-land, 150, 174, 187, 198, 199. 
 Scran'-ton, 183, 505. 
 Se-at'-rte, 495, 511. 
 Seeland (ze'-land) Island, 262. 
 Seine (san), 153, 228, 229, 230, 234. 
 Seoul (sol), Fig. 241. 
 Ser'-vi-a, 328, 340, 341. 
 Seville (sa-vel'-ya), 242, 244, 247. 
 
 Sevres (savr), 234. 
 
 Sha/t, 376. 
 
 Shang-hai' (hi), 400, 401, 405. 
 
 Shas'-ta, Mt., 491. 
 
 Sheep, Ar-gen-ti'-na (te), 120. 
 
 Sheep, AiiS-tra'-li-a, 471. 
 
 Sheep Raising. 498, 517, 526. 
 
 Shef'-J?eld, 188, 192. 
 
 Shelter, 82. 
 
 Shet'-land Islands, 181. 
 
 Si-am', 394, 395. 
 
 Si-be'-ri-a, 264, 265, 357, 358, 359, 
 
 378-381, 396. 
 Sicily (sis'-i-li), 157, 309, 314, 321. 
 Si-er'-ra (se) Le-o'-ne, 456. 
 Si-er'-?-a (se) Ne-va'-da Mts., 491. 
 Si-er'-ra (se) Ne-va'-da (Spain), 241. 
 Silk, 226, 229, 535. 
 Silver, 131, 508, 509, 520, 529. 
 Simplon (san-plan') Tunnel, 306. 
 Sin-ga-pore', 395. 
 Sit'-ka, 515. 
 
 Slavs, 268, 278, 329, 340. 
 Smyrna (smer'-na), 367. 
 Snake River, 382. 
 So-fi'-a (fe), Fig. 200. 
 Solar System, 2. 
 So-ma'-li-land (le), 456. 
 Som'-er-vil/e, 511. 
 South Af -ri-ca, 426, 444, 471, 530. 
 South A-mer'-i-ca, 96-148. 
 South Aws-tra'-li-a, 470, 474, 475. 
 South Car-o-ll'-na, 502. 
 South Da-ko'-ta, 122, 358, 491, 509. 
 Southern States, 187, 386, 494, 535. 
 South Geor'-gi-a, 145. 
 South-amp'-ton, 194, 197. 
 Spam, 108, 109, 110, 111. 131, 136, 
 
 161, 164, 167, 209, 223, 238-250. 
 
 311, 312, 347, 440, 443, 456, 458, 
 
 471, 519, 524. 525, 528. 
 Spice Islands, 482. 
 Spring'-field, Mass., 507. 
 Standard Time, 21, 22., 
 
572 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 Stan'-ley (li) Pool, 452, 453. 
 
 Stars, 1. 
 
 Stass -furt (fort), 286. 
 
 State, development of, 89. 
 
 Steppes (steps), 60, 379. 
 
 Stet-tin' (ten), 292, 297. 
 
 Stock'-holm, 257, 259, 260. 
 
 Storms, Cyclonic, 38. 
 
 Straits Set'-Jle-ments, 394, 395. 
 
 Strass'-burg (borg), 280, 281. 
 
 Strat'-ford-on-A'-von, 200. 
 
 Stuttgart (stot'-gart), 282. 
 
 Sucre ( soo'-kra), Fig. 75. 
 
 Sudan (so-dan'), 237, 455. 
 
 Su-ez' (so), 438. 
 
 Su-ez' (so) Canal, 438, 439. 
 
 Su-ez' (so) Isthmus, 354, 438. 
 
 Sugar, 503, 515, 516, 519, 521, 522, 
 
 534, 535. 
 Sugar Beets, 286, 288, 534. 
 Sultan, 343. 
 
 Sulu (so-lo') Islands, Fig. 338. 
 Su-ma'-tra (so), 481. 
 Su-pe'-ri-pr (so), 495, 506. 
 Su-pe'-ri-pr (so), Lake, 491. 
 Surinam (so-re-nam'), 126. 
 Swansea (swon'-se), 245. 
 Swe'-d'en, 150, 245, 251-254, 258- 
 
 260, 261, 331. 
 Swit'-zer-land, 153, 235, 301-308. 
 
 315, 537. 
 Syd'-ney, 476, 477. 
 Syr'-a-cuse, 505, 510. 
 Syrian (sir'-i-an) Desert, 370. 
 
 Ta-co'-ma, 495, 511. 
 Ta-fi-let' (fe), 428. 
 Ta'-gus River, 249. 
 Tan-gan-yi'-ka (ye), 446, 457, 
 Tan-gier' (jer), 443. 
 Tap-i-o'-ca, 115. 
 Tar'-tars (tarz), 368. 
 Tash-kend', 380. 381. 
 
 Tas-ma'-ni-a (taz), 463, 465, 470, 
 
 474, 475. 
 Tami'-tpn, 503. 
 
 Tea, 383, 384, 390, 515, 535, 536. 
 Te-heran', 376, 378. 
 Temperate Forest, 61. 
 Temperate Zone, 37. 
 Ten-?ies-see, Fig. 360. 
 Teu'-tons, 268. 
 
 Tex'-as, 480, 495, 499, 500, 502, 519. 
 Thames (temz), 192, 194. 
 Tl'-ber, 319, 320. 
 Tl-be'-ri-as, 371. 
 Tib'-et, 356, 396, 397. 
 Tientsin?(te-en'-tsen'), 405. 
 Ti-er'-radel Fue-go (fua), Fig. 75. 
 Tif-lis' (les), 380. 
 Ti'-gris, 368, 372. 
 Tim-buk'-tu (to), 428, 455. 
 Ti-mor' (te), 481. 
 Ti-ti-ca'-ca (te-te), 139, 140. 
 Tobacco, 503, 515, 516, 519, 521. 
 T5-ba'-go, 146. 
 To'-ki-o (ke), 409, 410, 411. 
 To-le'-do, 500, 506. 
 Tonga (tong'-ga) Islands, 482. 
 To-ron'-to, 517, 518. 
 Towns, 85. 
 Trade Winds, 26, 30, 31, 33,' 100, 
 
 102, 130, 160, 161, 464. 
 Trans-vaal', 445, 446, 447, 448, 451. 
 Treb'-i-zond, 367. 
 Tren'-ton, 185, 509. 
 Trieste (tre-esf), 337. 
 Trin-i-dad', 146. 
 Trip'-o-li, 427, 440-444. 
 Trondhjem (trond'-yem), 258. 
 Trop'-ic, 12. 
 
 Tropical Forest, 52, 104, 113. 
 Troy, 298, 505, 510. 
 Tun'-dras, 63, 157, 266, 359, 378. 
 TCx'-nis, 236. 427, 440-444. 
 Tfi'-rin, 322, 323. 
 Tur-kes-tan' (ter), 378, 379, 380. 
 
INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 573 
 
 Tur-kes-tan' (ter), Chinese, 396. 
 Turkey (ter'-ki), 340, 343-346. 365- 
 
 372, 374, 376, 436. 
 Tutuila (to-to-il'-a), 516. 
 Typhoons (tl-fons'), 397. 
 
 United Kingdom, 173-207, 236, 287 : 
 309, 526, 527, 528, 532, 538. 
 
 U-ni'-ted States, 21, 28, 38, 39, 44 
 46, 61, 83, 100, 103, 105, 111, 112 
 116, 117, 119, 120, 121, 132, 141 
 144, 157, 160, 162, 166, 175, 176 
 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185, 187 
 189, 191, 196, 203, 205, 218, 224 
 225, 228, 234, 244, 252, 258, 264 
 267, 269,. 270, 271, 283, 284, 292 
 296, 317, 330, 354, 358, 359, 378 
 379, 382, 383, 402, 407, 408, 427 
 448, 461, 465, 466, 471, 475, 482 
 489-516, 518, 523-541. 
 
 Upernivik (6-per'-ni-vik), 257. 
 
 U'-ral Mountains, 152, 270. 
 
 Uruguay (6-ro-gwI'), 123. 
 
 U'-ta/i, 504, 509. 
 
 U'-ti-ca, 503. 
 
 Va-len'-cia (shia), 248. 
 Val-pa-rai'-so, 145. 
 Van-cou'-ver (ko), 518. 
 Vat'-i-can, 318, 321. 
 Ven-e-zue'-la (zwe), 55, 127, 534. 
 Ven'-ice, 311, 322, 323, 324. 
 Ve'-ra Cruz (kroz) , 520. 
 Ver-mont', 509. 
 Versailles (ver-salz'), 234. 
 Ve-su'-vi-us (so), 316, 317, 318. 
 Viceroy, 390, 392. 
 Vic-to'-ri-a (Australia), 470, 477. 
 Vic-to'-ri-a, 518. 
 Vic-to'-ri-a Falls, 417, 450. 
 Vic-to'-ri-a Ny-an'-za, 457, 458. 
 Vi-en'-rea, 327, 330, 334, 335, 336. 
 Vir-gin'd-a (ver), 157, 506. 
 Vla-di-vos-tok' (de), 46, 381. 
 
 Vol-ca'-noes, 5, 133, 481. 
 Vol'-ga, 272. 
 
 Wales (walz), 175, 184. 
 
 Wal'-fisch Bay, 451. 
 
 War'-sau>, 275. 
 
 Wash'-ing-ton, 514. 
 
 Wash'-ing-ton, State, 160, 491, 517. 
 
 Wa'-ter-bury (ber-i), 508. 
 
 Wa-terdoo', 216. 
 
 Wealth, 533. 
 
 Wei' -Zand Canal, 512. 
 
 Wel'-Zing-ton, 480. 
 
 West Aws-tra/di-a, 470. 
 
 West Ham, Fig. 122. 
 
 West Indies (in'-diz), 262, 288, 397, 
 
 521, 537, 538. 
 West Vir-gin'-i-a (ver), 271, 490, 
 
 505. 
 West Wind Drift, 48. 
 Wheat, 497, 498, 517, 519, 525. 
 Wheat, Ar-gen-ti'-na, 121. 
 Wheel'-ing, 505. 
 White Mountains, 488. 
 White Race, 74. 
 
 Wilkes Barre (wilks'-bar-a) , 183. 
 Wil'-ming-ton, 504, 505. 
 Winds, 25. 
 
 Winds, influence on climate, 44. 
 WincZ-sor (zor) Castle, 195, 197. 
 Win'-ni-peg, 517. 
 Wis-con'-sin, 252, 494, 495. 
 Wool, 527. 
 
 Worcester (wus'-ter), 507. 
 Wu'-chang, 404. 
 Wy-6'-ming (wi), 498. 
 
 Ya-kowt', 379. 
 
 Yang'-tse-ki-ang' (ke), 355, 397. 
 Yar'-mouth, 517. 
 Yellow Race, 73. 
 
 Yel'-Zoro-st5ne Park, 262, 478, 492. 
 Yenisei (yen-e-sa'-e), Fig. 241. 
 I Yer'-ba Ma'-te, 125. 
 
574 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 Yo-ko-ha'-ma, 407, 409, 411. 
 Yonkers (yongk'-erz), 298. 
 Yu-ca-tan', 521. 
 Yu-kon, 515. 
 
 Zam-be'-si (ze), 417, 449, 451. 
 Zan-zi-bar', 459. 
 
 Zones, 15. 
 
 Zones of Life, 52. 
 
 Zuider Zee (zi-der ze), 211, 213. 
 
 Zulu (zo'-16), 422, 428, 445, 446. 
 
 Zululand (zo'-16-land), 446. 
 
 Zu-rich (zo'-rik), 305. 
 
 Zu-rich (zo'-rik), Lake, 305. 
 
 
TARR AND McMURRY GEOGRAPHIES 
 
 A Three=Volume Series of Text=Books for Class Use 
 
 BY 
 
 RALPH S. TARR, B.S., F.G.S.A. 
 
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 AND 
 
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 Teachers' College, Columbia University 
 
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 — Latitude, Longitude, and Standard Time — The Continent of North 
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 — Southern States — Central States — The Western States — Territories 
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 — Chapter XII. Agents at Work in the Ocean — Chapter XIII. Deposi- 
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