Qass Book p=l oq ijllir''' '""'111 HISTORY UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, FROM THE PERIOD OF THE DISCOVERY TO THE PRESENT TIME: ARRANGED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, WITH QUESTIONS. FOR THE EXAlVtINATION OF STUDENTS. BY ♦ro'^ If^USSELL, A.M. Author of thaJIistory of France, and the History of England. FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS. PHILADELPHIA : PUBLISHED BY HOGA.N & THOMPSON, No. 30, NORTH FOURTH STREET. 1837t 14^ Entered according to the act of congress, in the year 1837, by Hogan &. Thompson, in the clerk's office of the district court for the eastern district of Pennsylvania. J 2.^^ STEREOTYPED BY J. PAGAN PHILADELPHIA. PRINTED BY C. SHERMAN & CO. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Battle of Bridgewater (Frontispiece) Page 2 Landing of Columbus 23 Amidas and Barlow trading with Indians at Roanoke 35 Retaliation of the Great Massacre 43 The Landing at Pemaquid 49 The Landing of the Pilgrims 53 Roger Williams visiting the Narraganset Chief 59 Eliot presenting his translation of the Bible to the Indian Chiefs 65 Burning of Schenectady 70 Arrival of the Swedes and Fins at Cape Henlopen 75 Defeat of General Braddock 103 Death of General Wolfe 112 Destruction of the Tea at Boston 125 March of the Americans, under Arnold, through the wilderness of Maine 136 Murder of Miss Macrea 157 Battle of Monmouth 162 Massacre of Wyoming 165 Battle of King's Mountain 184 Battle of Eutaw Springs 194 Arnold burning and plundering New London 197 Siege of Yorktown ". 201 Washington taking leave of his Officers 205 General Wayne defeating the Indians 212 Capture of Derne 222 Wasp and Frolic 229 Siege of Fort Meigs 232 Defence of Fort Stephenson 235 Hornet and Peacock 239 Battle of Plattsburg and Lake Champlain 243 Defence of Fort M'llenry .246 1* 5 PREFACE. The following history, intended expressly for the use of schools, differs somewhat in the arrangement from most of those which the author has seen. Having noticed the confusion and obscurity occasioned by the attempt to carry forward the history of all the colonies in connexion from beginning to end, he thought proper to consider the early history of the several colonies or communities separately, so long as they continued completely separate, and to regard them as one people only when their unity of design and concert of action should entitle them to be so considered. Accordingly the history of each of the little communities which formed the basis of this great na- tion, is treated distinctly up to the year 1688 — the year of many revolutions ; and thenceforward they are considered essentially as one people, and the story of their national progress as one great epic, embellished indeed with its episodes, but preserving its unity and identity up to the period in which we live. The author has found it no easy task to condense the abund- ant materials which presented themselves, into a form sufficiently comprehensive for school use, without subjecting himself to the charge of dryness in the narrative and too extensive generali- zation in the remarks which from time to time occur. He trusts, however, that he has so far succeeded as to keep up the interest Viii TREFACE. of the reader; and that he has rendered the narrative sufficiently perspicuous to enable him to comprehend and retain it distinctly in the memory, without any very great effort. As the author considers it essential to the progress of the young student of history, that he should take delight in his text- book, he has endeavoured, by means of graphic embellishments, anecdotes, and striking illustrations, to render the volume as at- tractive as possible. He trusts that each of these means and appliances may have its effect, in impressing upon the plastic mind of the young pupil some leading event in the history, of all others most deserving the attention of American youth,— the history of liberty in their own country. CONTENTS. Introduction Page 11 CHAPTER I. Claims to the discovery of America, anterior to the Voyage of Colum- bus '^ CHAPTER II. Discovery of America 1^ CHAPTER III. Early discoveries of the English and Portuguese in America 25 CHAPTER IV. Settlement of Florida by the Spaniards 26 CHAPTER V. French settlements in North America 31 CHAPTER VI. Settlement and early history of Virginia 33 CHAPTER VII. Settlement and early history of New England 47 CHAPTER VIII. Settlement and early history of New York • 67 CHAPTER IX. Settlement and early history of New Jersey 72 CHAPTER X. Settlement and early history of Delaware 74 CHAPTER XI. Settlement and early history of Pennsylvania 77 CHAPTER XII. Settlement and early history of Maryland 79 CHAPTER XIII. Settlement and early history of North Carolina 85 CHAPTER XIV. Settlement and arly history of South Carolina 90 CHAPTER XV. Settlement and early history of Georgia 94 CHAPTER XVI. Commencement of the wars between the British and the French in America 95 9 X CONTENTS. CHAPTER XVII. Conquest of Canada 107 CHAPTER XVIII. The Revolution 116 CHAPTER XIX. Commencement of the Revolutionary War 131 CHAPTER XX. Campaign of 1776 138 CHAPTER XXI. Campaign of 1777 153 CHAPTER XXII. Campaign of 1778 159 CHAPTER XXIII. Campaign of 1779 167 CHAPTER XXIV. Campaign of 1780 173 CHAPTER XXV. Campaign of 1781, and close of the Revolutionary War 184 CHAPTER XXVI. Formation and adoption of the Federal Constitution 207 CHAPTER XXVII. Administration of George Washington 210 CHAPTER XXVIII. Administration of John Adams 21 7 CHAPTER XXIX. Administration of Thomas Jefferson 219 CHAPTER XXX. Administration of James Madison 225 CHAPTER XXXI. Administration of James Monroe 251 CHAPTER XXXII. Administration of John Quincy Adams 253 CHAPTER XXXIII. Administration of Andrew Jackson 255 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. INTRODUCTION. In order to present a complete account of the discovery of the New World, it is necessary to return to ancient times, &c. to show in a few words the successive enterprises which concurred in a direct manner to cause this event. From the earliest ages, enterprising men, urged by a desire of knowledge, or the pursuits of commerce, undertook long journeys into different countries, whilst the ablest navigators surveyed the coasts. From thence resulted their knowledge of the shape of the earth, and the position of different countries. The Egyptians seem to have been the first who paid any attention to navigation. A short time after the establishment of tiieir monarchy, they trafficked on the Arabian Gulf, and the western coast of India. But their religious institutions, and the fertility of their soil, concentrating their industry in their own country, caused them soon to abandon distant expeditions. The Phoenicians, on the contrary, whose country could only acquire importance by commerce, promptly extended their relations in every sea, and became more celebrated for their commercial enterprise, than any other nation. They even dared to cross the straits of Gibraltar, and visited the western coast of Spain. The prosperity of the Phcenicians roused the attention of their neighbours, the Jews; but the peculiar institutions which their inspired legislator established, retarded their advancement in commerce. They made few expeditions of any consequence. The Carthaginians, instructed in their turn by the Phoenicians their founders, devoted themselves with assiduity to navigation : whilst the mother country extended its commerce towards the East, they directed their expeditions towards the North and West. They passed the straits of Gibraltar, and surveyed the west coast of Spain. They also sailed along the coast of Africa to the tropic of Cancer ; and discovered the Canary islands, which during many centuries formed the limits of navigation in the Western Ocean. How ua.s t!ie knowlpdge of geography pronioled in ancient tiines ? — What is Eaid of the Egyptians ? — Tlie Phocniiians ?— The Jews? — The Carthaginians? 11 12 INTRODUCTION. The narratives of the sailors awoke curiosity, and a spirit of observa- tion ; and the discoveries thus begun were pursued with the sole inten- tion of better determining the form of the earth. The first voyages of this kind, of which history has preserved a remembrance, are those of Hanno and Himlico. The Periplus of Hanno informs us that he sailed along the western coast of Africa, discovered the island of Cerne, at present Goree, and that he travelled as far as the Cape of the Three Points, on the coast of Guinea. Herodotus relates that a fleet equipped by Necho, king of Egypt, sailed from the Red Sea about 604 years before the Christian era, sailed round Africa, and returned by the straits of Gibraltar. Pliny pretends, that Eudoxus of Cyzicus also performed this perilous voyage. The Greeks, in their turn, devoted themselves to navigation. Their expeditions were all directed towards the East ; and had military enter- prises for their object. Alexander considered the voyage of Nearchus to India, as one of the most important events of his reign. The Romans, were the first who in their navigation abandoned the coasts and gave themselves up to the regular course of the winds. Their commerce in India taught them to follow the monsoon, and to navigate in the open sea, in its periodical movement. This was the most considerable step which was made during the existence of the Roman pov.'er. In the meanwhile, such was the imperfection of the art of navigation, and the degraded state of human knowledge, that the ancients thought the earth was divided into zones, of which the only habitable ones were the temperate ; the frozen and torrid zones being alike uninhabitable. This opinion retarded the discoveries of the boldest sailors, till the end of the middle ages. The ancients were only acquainted, in respect to Europe, with the countries situated to the west of Germany, and the south of England » in Africa, with those which border on the Mediterranean and the gulf of Arabia ; and in Asia, with those countries lying between Europe, Tartary, and the Ganges. Nevertheless they pursued the study of geography, and about the second century of the Christian era, Ptolemy published a description of the terrestrial globe, which has served for a Of Hanno's voyage ? — Of Eudoxus ? — Of the Greeks ? — Of Alexander ? — What advancement in geographical knowledge was made by the Romans ? — What absurd opinions were held by the ancients ? — What was their effect ? — What countries of Europe were the ancients acquainted with ? — Of Africa? — Of Asia? — What is said of Ptolemy's work ? INTRODUCTION. 13 guide to all modern travellers, and which the Arabians were the first to translate and use. The love of the Arabians for the sciences, and particularly geography, occasioned a great number of curious observations, on the form and dimensions of the earth. But their labours and researches did not penetrate into Europe. In Spain even, the vanquished nations did not profit by the knowledge of their conquerors, and it was not till the time of the Crusades, that the Venetians revived by their commerce with the Saracens the geographical information of the ancient world. The voyages of the Spanish Jew Benjamin, in the east, of the Vene- tian Marco Polo, and of the Englishman John Mandeville, revived the spirit of research and the love of foreign expeditions, in the commence- ment of the 14th century. It was about this time (1302) that Flavio Gioia, a burgess of Amalfi, in the kingdom of Naples, immortalized his name by the invention of the compass : notwithstanding this, the navigators did not dare to enter seas which had never been frequented, till about fifty years after. Then, the mariner displayed a more intrepid character. In this same century, the spirit of piracy, which animated the Normans, developed still more forcibly the desire for discoveries. Nevertheless at the commencement of the fifteenth century, the art of navigation was but little more advanced, than before the fall of the Roman empire. Then the Portuguese, whose continual wars with the Mahometans had exalted their adventurous courage, and developed their enterprising genius, began to undertake great naval expeditions. John I. had just made peace with the king of Castile. To exercise his troops (1411) he equipped a fleet against the Moors, from which he detached several vessels, with orders to navigate on the western coast of Afirica. They doubled Cape Non, which was regarded as the boundary of all possible navigation, and advanced sixty leagues beyond this, to Cape Bojador, which they did not think themselves able to double. It is from this unimportant enterprise, that we date the era, in which a spirit of discovery broke the barriers of the other hemisphere. It re- animated the love for geographical studies, and a remembrance of actions performed by the ancients. Henry, Duke of Viseo, son of king John of Portugal, declared him- self the zealous protector of these enterprises. He fitted out succes- Of the Arabians? — What travellers made researches in the beginning of the 14th century ? — When was the mariner's compass invented ? — By whom ? — What nation began to make discoveries in the beginning of the 15th century? — What was done by John 1. ?— By his fleet ?— How far did the fleet go ? 14 INTRODUCTION. sively many squadrons, that discovered, in 1418, Porto Santo, and in the following- year Madeira. Here he planted sugar-canes brought from Sicily, and some vines from Cyprus. In a few years the sugar, and Madeira wine, became objects of considerable commerce. The Portu- guese navigators soon after reached the river Senegal, and even passed it. These discoveries gave an extraordinary reputation to the Portu- guese navy, and adventurers from all parts of Europe sued for the honour of serving in it. The following reigns were as remarkable for the enterprises of the Portuguese. We must remark here, that most of the voyages of discovery, made on the western boundary of the known world, had for their object, the discovery of a passage to India, by passing round Africa. Every one was endeavouring to accomplish this end, when all at once, a report was spread, that a navigator had discovered a new continent, by following a route directly opposite to that generally pursued, and by sailing towards the west. This man, whose powerful genius had caused him to pursue a course different from the common one, with such absolute confidence and unusual boldness, was Christopher Columbus. The continent which he discovered was not India, but America, which re- ceived its name fiom a more fortunate adventurer. What discoveries were made by the fleet of Henry, Duke of Viseo ? — By the Portuguese navigators soon after ? — What was the object of most of the voyages of discovery at this time ? — What report was spread ? — Who was the great discoverer ? ( 15 ) CHAPTER I. CLAIMS TO THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA, ANTERIOR TO THE VOYAGE OF COLUMBUS. The discovery of America, prior to the expedition of Columbus, has been claimed by several nations. The Welsh historians and antiquaries have affirmed, that Madoc, a prince of their country, quitted his native land in the year 1170, and sailing- westward, arrived at those regions to which the name of America was afterwards given. But the traditions on which the authority of this account must ultimately rest, are con- fused and discordant, as well as remote; and the report of a tribe of Indians, who are said to have been found in North America, and to speak a language which bears some resemblance to the Welsh, is equally unworthy of credit. The pretensions of the Norwegians, to the discovery of the New World, appear to be better founded. There is unquestioned evidence that they settled in Iceland A. D. 874, and in the year 982 they landed upon Greenland, and established themselves in that country. From Greenland they sailed towards the west : and if we give credit to Snorro Sturlosons, in his Chronicle of Olaus, pp. 104, 110, 326, they reached a country more pleasant and inviting than the inhospitable regions which ihey had left. Here they remained for some time, and planted a colony. The account of Snorro, however, is liable to many objections. The tale of the discoveries of Lief and Biorn, the Norwegian adven- turers, is utterly confused. It is not easy to gather from it, on what part of America they settled, though, from the length of the days and nights at the time of the year when they arrived, it would appear to have been some part of Labrador, and as far north as the 58th degree ; yet as they gave to the region, wherever it was, the name of Vinland, from the grapes which they found there, it seems to be evident, that it must have approached much nearer to the south. But notwithstanding, this difficulty and others which could be men- tioned, it is generally allowed, that the Norwegians landed on the American shore, and that a colony planted by adventurers from that nation existed for some time in the New World. The settlers, however, torn by divisions among themselves, and forgotten or neglected by their countrymen, speedily perished. The claim of the Germans is more questionable than that of the Norwegians. From the archives of the city of Nuremberg, it appears, that Martin Behaim, or Behenira, a native of that city, and the pupil of Regiomontanus, had made such advances in cosmographical know- What nations have claimed the honour of discovering America? — What is said of the Welsh ?— Of the Norwegians ?— Of Greenland ?— Of Snorro's account ?— -Of Lief and Biorn ? — What is generally allowed ? — What is said of the German claim ? — Of Martin Behaim ? 16 DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. ledge, as led him to visit those parts of the world, the situation and physical properties of which he had been accustomed to describe, but which had not as yet been sufficiently explored. With this view, he entered the service of the Portuguese, and was employed, A. D. 1483, as the commander of a squadron, fitted out for the purposes of discovery. After having established himself at Fayal, one of the islands called the Azores, he is reported to have sailed far towards the east and south, and to have reached the coast of Guinea, nearly eight years before the expedition of Columbus. He was the intimate friend and a frequent associate of the Genoese navigator ; and, upon his visit to Nuremberg, in the year 1492, he constructed a terrestrial globe, from the inspection of which, Magellan is said to have formed the design of pursuing the course which he afterwards followed. But as Behaim was the friend and associate of Columbus, it is as probable that he derived his ideas of the unexplored regions, from the conjectures which the latter had for many years been revolving in his mind, as it is, that Columbus was in- debted to Behaim for his first thoughts of the western continent. Nor is it at all certain that Behaim ever visited any part of America. A copy of the map, which was drawn with his own hand, and left with his family at Nuremberg, has been published by Dopplemayers, in his account of the mathematicians and artists of that place : but it is remarkable for little else than the imperfection of the cosmographical knowledge of the times. It is true, Behaim delineates an island to which he gives the name of St. Brandon, and which he places con- siderably to the west of Africa. This, however, appears to be nothing more than one of those imaginary islands, which were often introduced at that period, to occupy an empty space in the charts of geographers; and the existence of which rested on authority equally questionable with that which is given for the legend of St. Brandon himself. Of the pretensions of the Welsh, or the attempts of the Scandina- vians, we have no reason to believe that Columbus had any knowledge ; and since the claim of Behaim is extremely doubtful, we may still con- sider the Genoese navigator, as entitled to his full share of honour in the discovery of America. CHAPTER II. DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. At a time when darkness, had long settled upon Europe, when science was only beginning to lift its head, and the guides to knowledge were few, and often ignorant themselves, Christopher Columbus, of Genoa, formed the design of crossing the Atlantic, in search of new countries towards the west. This extraordinary man was led to the belief that these countries existed, by a number of concurring circumstances. In what service did he sail ? — Whither ? — What is said of him and Columbus ? — Of his map ? — Of St. Brandon ? — Wliat is the conchision with respect to Cohunbus's claim to originality ? — When did Columbus form his design of crossing the Atlantic? GROUNDS OF COLUMBUs's THEORY. 17 Though, in the fifteenth century, the information of such as applied themselves to geographical inquiries, was incorrect, as well as narrow ; though philosophers had at this time made but little progress in the search after truth ; yet certain steps had been taken, and certain ob- servations recorded, which, if not highly useful in themselves, were very beneficial in the consequences to which they gave rise. Even in that age, those who were accustomed to read and to reflect had formed pretty accurate ideas, with regard to the magnitude of the earth. From the shadow which is thrown upon the moon in an eclipse of that satellite, they had inferred, that the globe on which we live was round. It was perceived, that Europe, Asia, and Africa, occupied but a small portion of our planet ; and it seemed to be altogether un- likely, that the remaining part was covered with a vast and joyless ocean, unsupplied with continents or islands intended for the residence of man. Marco Polo, a Venetian of good family, and others, who had travelled by land into India, and penetrated into the regions beyond the Ganges, had related, that the Asiatic countries stretched far towards the east, and thus, the rotundity of the earth being known, it was obvious that they might be reached by holding a course directly west, sooner and more certainly than by any other way. The efficacy of these reason- ings was confirmed by other circumstances, of an inferior but perhaps of a more striking nature. Several pieces of wood, nicely carved, and apparently from a distant country, had been thrown upon the western coast of the Madeiras. A tree, likewise, of a species with which Europeans were unacquainted, had been taken up near the Azores; and, what was still more decisive, the bodies of two men, of a strange colour and an unusual appearance, had been found upon the coast. From all these circumstances, Columbus inferred, that the lands which he afterwards visited, really existed ; and that they might unquestion- ably be reached by following the course which he pointed out. Still, however, the existence of these lands was nothing more than a plausible conjecture; and it might have remained as such in the thoughts or the books of the ingenious, if Columbus had not been prompted by con- siderations of a more efl^ectual nature, to ascertain whether they could actually be visited. To discover a passage to the East Indies by sea, was at this time the great object of investigation. The Venetians had long engrossed the profitable trade of that country, and their wealth, arising chiefly from this source, had excited the envy and the hatred of all the European kingdoms. From the beginning of the fifteenth century, as we have already stated, the Portuguese navigators had been stretching towards the south of Africa; and had found, in opposition to the ancient geogra- phers, that the torrid zone was habitable. It was the period of bold What was known respecting the form of the earth ? — Its magnitude ? — What in- formation was brought by Marco Polo ? — What was inferred from this ? — What had been found at the Madeiras and Azores? — What did Columbus infer from all these circumstances? — What was the grand object of discovery in Columbus's time? 2* 18 Columbus's applications for pategnage. and hazardous adventure. The human mind was stimulated to it? ut- most activity. Whatever appeared to be true, or even remotely pro- bable, was instantly ascertained by direct and fearless experiment. New islands were discovered ; unknown regions were traversed and explored. Partly by design, and partly by the violence of the winds, the Portuguese had nearly doubled the Cape of Good Hope ; and the riches of eastern commerce were soon to be poured into their native country. To find, therefore, a shorter and more definite route to India, v/as the immediate object of Columbus, in proposing to undertake a voyage of discovery. The riches of the East were the bribe which he held out to the sovereign, or the state, that should enable him to execute his purpose ; and it is not to be denied, that the prospect of wealth had a similar effect upon himself. But, none of the monarchs or rulers of Europe had either sufficient reach of thought to comprehend the schemes of Columbus, or sufficient generosity to encourage an adventurous speculation, even with the probability of the fullest return from the success of the undertaking. He was considered by many as a dreamer. He was rejected by the dignified and the great, because he was a man of low condition ; and he was repelled by the learned, because they were mortified to hear that an obscure pilot had found what had escaped the discernment of more cultivated minds. He applied first to the Genoese, his countrymen, who were satisfied with the productions of India, as they were brought to their hands; then to the Portuguese, whose bishops and physicians objected to his design, with every argument which their ignorance or ingenuity could supply ; and among whom he was almost deprived by treachery of the honour which would attacli to the discoverer of the New World ; then to Spain ; and then, by means of Bartholomew, his brother, to Henry VII. of Eng- land. All these applications, iiowever, were unsuccesstul ; objections were everywhere raised, and difficulties exhibited ; the refusal of one monarch was urged as a reason for a similar conduct on the part of another ; and had not the perseverance of Columbus been equal to his genius, the American continent might yet have been unknown to the inhabitants of Europe. But the time was not far distant, when more encouraging prospects were about to open. The Moors had been driven from Spain, and Fer- dinand and Isabella, the sovereigns of that country, had leisure for attending to objects wliich pressed less immediately upon their notice. The chivalrous spirit of the age had been sufficiently employed in tlie contest with the African intruders; but now it wanted some other ob- ject, and required to be guided into a different channel. Columbus, disappointed, but not moved from his purpose, was at this time about to quit the Spanish territories for England, whither his brother Bartholo- mew had already been sent. By the orders of Isabella, he was desired What was Columbus's immediale object? — What inducemenfs did ho offer to the sovereigns? — How was he treated ? — To whom did he first ajjply I — To wliom next ? — ^To whom next? — Who apphed to Henry Vf I. ? — How wore these appHcations treated ? — Whither was Columbus about to proceed ? COLUMBUS ENGAGES IN THE SERVICE OF ISABELLA. 19 to relinquish his intention of soliciting the patronasfe of foreign courts; and invited into her presence, with every mark of condescension and respect. At his interview with the queen, he made known the conditions on which he would undertake the discovery ; which were, that he should be appointed admiral of all the seas which he might explore, and go- vernor of all the continents and islands which he might visit; that these offices should be hereditary in his family, and " that the tenth of every thing bought, bartered, found or got, within the bounds of his admiral- ship, abating only the charge of conquest, should be settled on him, and should descend to his heirs in case of his death." It was his desire, that a small fleet should be equipped and put under his command, in order that he might attempt the discovery ; and to de- monstrate his integrity as well as his firm hope of success, he offered to advance an eighth part of the money which would be necessary for building the ships, provided he were allowed a corresponding share of the advantage resulting from the enterprise. John Perez, guardian of the monastery of Rabida. near the town of Palos, and the friend and confidant of Columbus, was the person to whom he was indebted for this interview with Isabella. He was con- fessor to the queen, and an ecclesiastic of great respectability and influ- ence. By his representations, and by those of Alonzo de Quintanilla, and Luis de Santangel, both officers in high place under the Spanish crown, a favourable ear was lent to the propositions of the Genoese adventurer. They stated to Isabella, that he was a person of a sound and collected mind, of acknowledged integrity, well informed in geography and his- tory, and practised in the art of navigation ; they spoke to her of the glory which would result from the success of the enterprise, and which would for ever attach to her reign ; and of the extension of the Christian faith, which would be promulgated in the regions tliat might be dis- covered. The time was propitious. Granada had surrendered to the arms of Spain ; and the Moors were expelled from the provinces which ' they had long occupied in the heart of the kingdom. And such were the exertions of Quintanilla and of Santangel, that Isabella resolved to patronize Columbus, and engage him in her service, on his own terms. Orders were issued, that a squadron should be fitted out from the harbour of Palos. It consisted of three vessels: but as the art of building ships was then rude, and in its infancy, and as distant voyages were comparatively unknown, the largest of these vessels was of incon- siderable dimensions, and the others were not much above the size of ordinary boats. They were victualled for twelve months, and had on board ninety men. The expense of building and equipping the whole was not more than 20,000 dollars ; yet the greatness of this expense was What prevenleJ him?— What were the terms he offered the queen ?— What was . P. __ .„ . ^ . „.. .... Is ?_ What *= — -'='■ loured Col Columbus. his desire ?—His further offer ?~Who were his friends ?— What representations did they make to the queen ? — What circumstances favoured Cohmibus's design? — Whaf did the queen resolve?— Describe the ships of 20 VARIATION or THE COMPASS. the cause of much serious alarm to the Spanish rulers, and contributed not a little to prevent them from acceding to the proposals of Columbus. All things being ready, Columbus, influenced by devotional feelings, went, witlT those under his authority, in solemn procession to the mon- astery of Rabida ; and there, confessing his sins, and partaking of the sacrament, he implored the blessing of heaven throughout the voyage which he designed to undertake. Early next morning, (on the 3d of August, A. D. 1492,) he set sail from the harbour of Palos, in the Santa Maria, the largest of the ves- sels, which had been fitted out at his desire. The others were called the Pinta, and the Nina ; the former of which was commanded by Mar- tin Alonzo Pinzon, and the latter by Vincent Yanez Pinzon, his brother. In six days the admiral reached the Canaries, without any occurrence deserving of particular notice, except only that the rudder of the Pinta broke loose ; an accident which the superstition of his associates inter- preted as an omen, at once unfavourable and alarming. After refitting at the Canaries, Columbus proceeded (Sept. 6,) on his voyage. He passed into seas which no vessel had yet entered, without a chart to direct him, and without any knowledge of the tides and cur- rents which might interrupt his progress. And many of the sailors, reflecting on the hazardous nature of the enterprise, began already to beat their breasts in dejection and dismay, and relinquished all hope of visiting again their country and their friends. Columbus was admirably qualified for the expedition which he had undertaken. He was patient and persevering, master of himself, and skilful in the government of other men. In naval science, as well as experience, he was far superior to any of his associates. He conducted every thing by his presence and authority, allowing himself only a very few hours for the necessary refreshment of his body. At all other times he was upon deck, noting the flight of birds, the depth of the ocean, and the appearance of the weeds which floated upon its sur- face. He advanced rapidly before the trade wind, which blows inva- riably from the east within the tropics, judiciously concealing from his men the number of leagues which he had sailed ; an artifice which he employed during the rest of the voyage. Nor did any bad consequence result from this imposition ; for so great was the ignorance of his cona- panions, that none of them was able to detect it. About the 14th of September, Columbus was distant nearly 200 leagues from the most westerly of the Canaries ; and here the magnetic needle was observed to vary from its direction to the polar star, and incline toward the west ; an appearance which is now familiar, but for which philosophy has in vain attempted to account. It was the occa- sion of serious alarm in the breast of Columbus; and it filled his asso- ciates with a terror by no means unreasonable. They were far from the land, and from the track of other navigators : all around them was What religious ceremony preceded the embarcation ? — When did he sail? — In what vessel? — Who commanded the other two? — What incident is mentioned? — When did Columbus leave the Canaries ? — What is said of the sailoi-s ? — Of Co- lumbus ? — Where was the fleet on September 14th ? — What alarmed the sailors ? DISCONTENT OP THE SAILORS. 21 uncertain, all before them was unknown ; nature seemed to be departing from her steadiness, and the guide on which they had formerly relied appeared to be no iong-er entitled to their confidence. With astonishing presence of mind, Columbus declared that the needle did not point directly to the pole, but that in particular circumstances it described a compass round it; a solution which, though it was wholly unsatisfactory to himself, had the effect of silencing the murmurs of his crew. The alarm, however, to which the variation of the needle gave rise, was not the only difficulty which Columbus had to surmount. In a short time after that phenomenon had been observed, the murmurs of his sailors broke out with greater violence; first among the ignorant and wavering; but the disaffection, spreading gradually, reached at length those who were more adventurous and better informed, and extended with unpropitious influence through the whole fleet. The men blamed their sovereign for listening inconsiderately to the schemes of a dream- ing adventurer, and for sporting with the lives of his subjects, in order to carry them into execution. The indications of land had all proved fallacious : they would be amused and deceived no longer. They re- solved that Columbus should be forced to relinquish an undertaking which seemed to issue in nothing but unavoidable destruction; and some of the more daring talked of throwing him into the sea, as a visionary projector, whose death would never excite attention, or, if inquired into, would be considered as merited by his rashness and folly. In the midst of this disaffection, the admiral appeared with a steady and cheerful countenance, as if pleased with what he had done, and a stranger to despondency. He soothed his companions, and expos- tulated with them ; he endeavoured at one time to influence their desire of riches, and at another their love of fame ; he assumed a tone of authority, and threatened them with the vengeance of their sovereign, and with everlasting infamy, if they should abandon him in the prose- cution of this undertaking. These encouragements and expostulations were not without their effect. But the apprehensions of the crew at length prevailed over the remonstrances of the admiral ; they assem- bled tumultuously upon deck, and officers and men all insisted upon returning immediately to Spain. In these alarming circumstances, Columbus perceived that opposition would be dangerous : he therefore yielded to their importunity so far as to propose that they should continue the voyage for three days more, and that if, at the end of that period, no land were discovered, he should immediately return. Notwithstanding the mutinous disposition of the. sailors, and their ardent desire to revisit their native country, this pro- posal did not appear to them extravagant or unfair; and the admiral, in making it, did not hazard a great deal by restricting liimsolf to so short a time. The notices of land were almost indubitable. The water had gradually become more shallow ; flocks of strange birds were seen ; a staff, curiously wrought and adorned, had been taken up by the Pinta ; How did Columbus explain it ? — What new difficulty arose ? — What is said of Columbus's conduct ?— What did the men at last do?— How did Columbus calm the mutiny? — What tokens ol" land appeared ? 22 LANDING OF COLnVIBUS. and weeds were observed, of a kind different from any which they had hitherto observed. A cane which seemed to have been lately cut, and a thorn with red fruit upon it, were found and examined. A light was perceived at a distance, and appeared to move from place to place, as if carried by some fisherman or traveller. These tokens were decisive and joyous ; and Columbus did not fail to make use of them, in elevating the hopes and diminishing the appre- hensions of his associates. He gave orders that the ships should lie-to ; and at length, on the morning of the 12th of October, an island ap- peared about six miles to the north, with extensive, flat, and verdant fields, furnished with woods, and diversified with rivulets. The crew of the Pinta began the Te Deum, and they were instantly joined by the rest of their companions. This expression of gratitude to the Almighty was followed by acknowledgments of tlieir rashness and disobedience towards their commander ; and, like those who are sud- denly and greatly moved by the vicissitudes of fortune, they passed from one extreme to another, and looked up to the man whom a few days before they had reviled and insulted, as one whom the Deity had en- dowed with penetration and perseverance above the common lot of mortals. When the sun arose, Columbus landed in a gorgeous dress ; and, with a drawn sword in his hand and the royal standard displayed, took possession of the island for the crown of Castile and Leon ; all his fol- lowers kneeling on the shore, and kissing the ground with tears of joy. The natives, who had assembled in great numbers, on the first appear- ance of the ships, stood around the Spaniards, and gazed in speechless astonishment ; utterly ignorant of what the Europeans were doing, and unable to foresee the dreadful consequences which were to result from this visit of the formidable strangers. They considered their new guests as beings of a higher order, who had the thunder and the lightning at their command ; they regarded them as the children of the sun, who had descended from heaven to abide for a little among the inhabitants of the earth. The island on which Columbus landed was called by the natives Guanahani, but by the admiral, San Salvador. It is one of that group of islands which are named the Bahamas, and is situated above 3000 miles from Gomera, the most westerly of the Canaries, and only four degrees to the south of it. Columbus also discovered and touched at many of the islands which are situated in the neighbourhood of the Bahamas, and, conformably to the theory which he had adopted, he be- lieved them to be at no great distance from India. They were con- sidered as attached to that unexplored country ; and, as they had been reached by a western passage, they were called the West Indies. Even when increasing knowledge had detected the error, the appella- tion was continued ; and it is still given to these islands. When was land discovered ? — What was now done by the sailors? — Describe the landing of Columbus. — The natives. — What was the island called? — Where is it? — What other discoveries were made ? — What general name was given to these countries ? — Why ? ( 23 ) Landing of Columbus. ENGLISH AND PORTUGUESE VOYAGES. 25 Columbus undertook several voyag'(3s to the New World, planted a colony, and built a city, in the island of Hispaniola or St. Domingo. To this city he gave the name of Isabella, in honour of the queen, under whose patronage he had sailed. At length, in his third expedition, he discovered the continent of America, landing at different places on the coasts of Paria and Cumana, and surveying, their beauty and fertility with great admiration. But Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine gentleman, who visited that con- tinent some years after Columbus, and transmitted to his friend in Europe a history of his adventures, written with considerable elegance, and with much vanity, had the address so to frame his narrative as to pass for the discoverer of the main land in the New World, and to rob Columbus of the honour which he so justly deserved. The consent of all nations has bestowed the name of America on the western continent; and at this distance of time, we can only regret an act of injustice which custom has forced us to sanction. At what period this appella- tion was given, we have not the means of ascertaining with accuracy. CHAPTER III. EARLY DISCOVERIES OF THE ENGLISH AND PORTUGUESE IN AMERICA. The impulse to discovery which was caused by the successful termi- nation of Columbus's noble enterprise was soon felt in other nations of Europe besides Spain. Portugal, which had led the way in Oriental research, had soon her ships in the western seas, and her colony in the western world. France followed her example; and England, never backward in scientific and commercial activity, was fortunate enough to send forth the expedition which first reached the shores of the continent. This expedition, which sailed under a commission from Henry VII., was conducted by John Cabot and his son Sebastian, and reached the coast of Labrador on the 14th of June, 1497, fourteen months before Columbus touched the continent near the mouth of the Orinoco. During this voyage they explored the coast from the 56th degree of North lati- tude to the shore of Florida. In a subsequent voyage, these enterprising seamen explored the coast of the northern and middle states ; and still later attempted a Northwest passage to India by the way of Hudson's Strait. Their discoveries and explorations formed the foundation of all the subsequent British claims to North America. The Portuguese owe their possessions in the Western world to a for- tunate accident. Emanuel, king of Portugal, equipped a squadron for a voyage to the East Indies, under the command of Pedro Alvarez Cabral. What discoveries did Cohimbus make in his subsequent voyages ? — What is said of Vespucci? — What other nations hesides Spain made discoveries and planted col- onies m America ? — Who discovered the continent? — When? — How far did they explore the coast ? — What is founded on their discoveries ? 3 26 SETTLEMENT OF FLOEIDA BY THE SPANIARDS. The admiral, quitting Lisbon, March 9th, 1500, fell in accidentally, April 24, with the continent of South America, which he at first sup- posed to be a large island on the coast of Africa. In this conjecture he was soon undeceived, when the natives came in sio-ht. He landed, took possession of the country in the name of his sovereig"n, and called it Santa Cruz ; but the name vi^as afterwards altered by king- Emanuel to that of Brazil, from the red wood which the country produces. During the same year in which Brazil was discovered, Gaspar do Cortereal, a Portuguese of respectable family, sailed from Lisbon, with tw^o ships fitted out at his own cost, for the purpose of discovering new^ countries, and a new route to Lidia. Arriving at Newfoundland, he discovered and named Conception Bay ; explored the whole eastern coast of the island, and visited the mouth of the river St. Lawrence. He afterwards discovered a region which was subsequently called Terra de Cortereal. The part of it south of the 50th degree of north latitude, he judged fit for cultivation, and named it Terra de Labrador. He re- turned, carrying a number of the natives ; made known his discoveries, and went on a second voyage, from which he never returned. It is supposed that he was either murdered by the Esquimaux, or perished among the icebergs. In 1501 the king of Portugal, having received intelligence of Ca- bral's discovery, fitted out three ships to explore the country, and gave the command to Amerigo Vespucci, whom he invited, for that purpose, from Seville. They sailed in May, and, after a voyage of three months, made land in 5 degrees south latitude. Having coasted on northward till they advanced as far as 82 degrees, they left the coast, and struck out to sea. They proceeded southward till they reached 52 degrees, and then returned to Lisbon, after a voyage of sixteen months. These discoveries of the Portuguese were never permitted to inter- fere with the claims of the English to North America. Henry VII. and liis successors would recognise no pretensions, either of Spain or Portu- gal, to the soil of tliis country, which were not strengthened by actual possession; and the right of discovery, which was founded on the expe- ditions of the Cabots, although sullered to lie dormant for a century, was then revived and perpetuated by colonization. CHAPTER IV. SETTLEMENT CF FLOIIIDA BY THE SrANIARDS. The earliest permanent settlement on the soil of the United States was effected by the Spaniards in Florida. They made several attempts, however, before they succeeded in gaining a foothold in the country. It has already been mentioned that the Cabots visited the coast of What discovery was made by Cabral? — When ? — By Cortereal ? — What \vas his fate ? — By Vespucci ' — Did the claims founded on these discoveries interfere with those of England to North America? — Who first settled permanently on the soil of the United Slates ? EXPEDITIONS OF NARVAEZ AND DE SOTO. 27 Florida; but it appears, by the confession of Sebastian himself, that they (lid not land. Juan Ponce de Leon, a Spanish officer who had ac- companied Columbus in his second voyage, appears to have been the first European who landed on these fertile shores. He was sailing in search of the island of Bimlni, on which the Indians had told him he would find a miraculous fountain, whose waters would restore the aged to youth ; and, on the 27th of March, 1512, he discovered the peninsula situated north of Cuba, to which he gave the name of Florida, either in honour of Easter Sunday, called Pascua Florida by the Spaniards ; or, according to Ilerrera, in consequence of the beautiful and verdant appearance of the shores. He was made governor of the country by the king of Spain, and undertook its conquest in 1521 ; but the natives resisted his attacks so resolutely, that he was compelled to relinquish his design, and return to Cuba, where he died of his wounds, Cordova, who landed on the coast in 1517, had suffered the same fate ; being wounded by the natives, and returning to Cuba to die. In 1520, Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon made a slave-trading expedition to Florida with very little profit, as he lost one of his ships; and the kid- napped Indians, whom he brought away, chose to starve themselves to death, rather than labour in the mines of Saint Domingo. His subse- quent attempts to conquer the country were as disastrous as that of Ponce de Leon. These repeated disappointments did not prevent the court of Spain from sending a new expedition to Florida, under the conduct of Panfilo do Nar- vaez. He sailed from Cuba in March, 1528, with five vessels, bearing tour hundred soldiers and eighty horse. After touching on the bar of Camarico by the imprudence of his pilot, and being driven by a tempest towards Guaniguanigo, he landed near Appalachee bay, and pushed into the interior in search of the country of Appalachee, which, the Indians assured him, abounded in gold. After a laborious march he arrived, on the 27th of June, at the city of Appalachee, which consisted of forty wigwams. He remained there twenty-five days ; and, finding no gold, he determined to return to the sea-coast, which, after a painiul march, and several contests with the Indians, he regained. As the ships had been ordered to coast in search of the river of Palms, the Spaniards were now compelled to construct and embark in boats, which were wrecked in a storm ; and, after six years of travels and sufferings, which proved fatal to their commander, a miserable remnant of the army finally found their way to their countrymen in Mexico. Tiiese disasters discouraged adventure for several years. At length, Hernando de Soto, one of the conquerors of Peru, turned all his ambi- tion towards this country, which he imagined was another Peru. Having Who first visited the coast of Florida ? — Who first landed there ? — When? — Why was the roiintry called Florida? — When did Ponce de Leon undertake the conquest of Florida ?— VVhat was the result ?— What is said of Cordova ?— Of De Ayllon ?— Of Narvaez ? — When did he sad iioin Cuba? — What was his force? — Where did he land I — Where did he arrive June 27lh ? — How long did he remain there? — Whither did he tlieji marcli ? — I low did he atlempt to regain Cuba? — Wlsat was the result of his expedition ? — Who ne\t attempted tiie conquest of Florida? 28 EXPEDITION OF RIBAUT. obtained permission from tlie emperor Charles V. to conquer Florida, he fitted out a grand armament from Spain, consistinof of seven large and three smaller vessels, and nine hundred men, the flower of the Spanish infantry, so redoubtable in that age. He embarked at San Lu- car de Barrameda, April 6th, 1538. After remaining some time in Cuba to complete his arrangements, he sailed from Havana JVIay 12th 1539; his force then consisting of nine hundred infantry, and three hundred mounted cavaliers. He came in sight of the coast of Florida on the 25th ; and, some days after, debarked at a bay, which he called Espiritu Santo. It would far exceed our limits to follow the gallant De Soto through all his marches and battles, in what has been termed his Conquest of Florida: although it terminated in the death of the Con- queror, and the reduction of his force to three hundred and eleven, who finally abandoned the country, and arrived in Mexico in 1543. These expeditions had cost the Spaniards fourteen hundred lives. But in 1449 another was undertaken, commanded by some priests and Luis Cancel Balbastro, destined to conquer and convert the Floridians, by making thera understand the word of God, and by presenting to them great crosses, before which the Spaniards supposed they would prostrate themselves. But the natives attacked their invaders the mo- ment they landed, and killed three priests and three sailors with their war-clubs. The others escaped on board the vessels, bringing with them a servant of De Soto, who had remained there since the death of his master. They brought intelligence that the Indians had flayed and eaten the Spaniards who had fallen, and had hung their skins and scalps as trophies on the walls of their temple. Thus terminated this attempt to Christianize this indomitable race. One more expedition of two thousand Castilians, and six hundred Indians, fitted out by order of Philip II. in 1559, and commanded by Tristan de Luna y Arellano, was lost on the coast, and that conducted by Angel de Villafana against the Chichimechas, was not more for- tunate. The attempts of the Spaniards to colonize Florida were now inter- mitted for some time ; during which, the French eftected a settlement on the coast. Gaspard de Coligny, Count of Chatillon and admiral of France, wishing to procure an asylum for Protestants in some foreign country, obtained from his sovereign, Charles IX., permission to send a colony to this country. He entrusted the command to Captain John Ribaut of Dieppe, a zealous Protestant, who left France on the 18th of February, 1562, with two ships, and a good number of old French soldiers, of whom the most part were gentlemen. In April he reached the coast, at about the 30th degree of north latitude, near a point which he called Cape Francais in honour of his country. He then coasted northward, visiting the river St. Augustine, which he named When did he leave Spain? — When did he leave Cuba? — With what force? When did he reach the coast? — Where did he land? — What was the result of his expedition ? — What had these expeditions cost the Spaniards ? — Describe Balbastro 's expedition. — What was the late of De Luna's expedition? — Of Villafana's ? — Who sent an expedition from France to Florida? — When? — Under whose com- mand ?— When did he reach the coast ?— At what point ? EXPEDITION OF LAUDONNIERE. 29 Dauphin, and the river St. Johns, the San Matheo of the Spaniards, which he called the river May. He then explored the coast of Georj^ia, and gave French names to the Santee, the Altamaha, the Ogechee, and the Savannah. He at last reached a broad opening, which he supposed to be the river named Jordan by the Spaniards, but which is now believed to have been Port Royal entrance. Here the fertility of the soil, the abundance of fish and game, and the friendly disposition of the natives, induced him to form his establishment, to which he gave the name of Port Royal. He raised a stone pillar, and placed upon it the arms of France, and built a fort which he called Saint Charles ; and leaving there tv/enty-five men with four pieces of artillery under the command of Captain Albert, one of his principal officers, he saded for France, promising soon to return with a reinforcement. He arrived at Dieppe on the 20th of July, after a voyage of five months and ten days. The colonists soon became discontented; revolted, killed their com- mander; and, having constructed a vessel, abandoned the country and sailed for France. After suffering all the horrors of famine on their voyage, tliey were picked up by a British vessel and taken to Eng- land. Here, being presented to Queen Elizabeth, they gave a flattering account of the country which they had left. The civil war having prevented Ribaut from sending the reinforce- ment which he had promised, Coligny fitted out a new expedition, at a great expense, and entrusted it to the command of Captain Laudon- niere, a good seaman, who had accompanied the previous expedition. They sailed April 22d, 1564, and arrived, June 22d, at the river called Dauphin by Rabaut, where they learned, fi-om the savages, the departure of the first colony. Laudonniere then proceeded to the mouth of the river May, and landing his men, sent back most of the ships and built a fort, which he called Carolina in honour of king Charles. The Indians were very friendly, and assisted him in building his fort. The want of provisions, which soon after ensued, occasioned a part of his men to revolt, seize the keys of the magazines, put their command- er in irons, conduct him on board a vessel, and finally compel him to sign a commission for them to go to Mexico. They left the place on the 8th of December, in two large vessels, and commenced a course of piracy against the Spaniards. On their departure, Laudonniere reco- vered his liberty. The French struggled on till the next summer, when the fort was on the point of being abandoned by the remnant of the colony with Sir John Hawkins, who, returning from his second voyage to America, touched at the fort, and, after supplying their immediate wants, offered to take them home. This was only prevented by the arrival of seven sail of French vessels under Ribaut, whom the govern- ment had sent to supersede Laudonniere, The expedition had left Havre What rivers did he discover ? — Where did he found a colony? — Describe his ope- rations. — When did he return to Europe ? — What was the fate of the colony? — Who was next sent by Coligny ? — When did he sail ? — When did he arrive on the coast? — Where did he build a fort? — Who aided him? — What was done by some of his men? — How did Laudonniere recover his liberty? — When did Sir John Hawkins come to his relief? — What did he offer ? — What prevented Laudonniere from ac- cepting his otier? 3* 30 LOSS OF rOET CAKOLINA. three monllis before, and arrived in the river May on the 27th of August. It brought a son of Ribaut, and 'eighty persons of both sexes, designed to form a permanent colony. Laudonniere, having made his preparations for departure, came with tliree small vessels to the fort, while the four others remained at the mouth of the river under the command of Ribaut. Such was the posture of affairs, when all their arrangements were disturbed by the sudden arrival of a large Spanish squadron on the coast. It seems that the Spanish court had received information of Coligny's Protestant colony being peaceably settled on the shores which they had so vainly attempted to colonize, and had determined to dislodge them. They had sent out Pedro Melendez de Aviles, with five vessels and a military force, for this purpose ; and this fleet made its appearance off the river May on the 3d of September. The French, in the four ships at the mouth of the river, perceiving so considerable a fleet, cut their cables and put out to sea. The Spanish commander, not being able to follow them, retired to the mouth of the river Dauphin, about eight leagues distant, and fortified himself there while the French ships returned to their port. Laudonniere and his officers proposed to put the fort in a state of defence ; but Ribaut chose rather to proceed straight to the enemy. He embarked his best troops, and put to sea on the 10th of September. The next day a storm arose which lasted till the end of the month, and the ships were dashed upon the rocks, fifly leagues to the southward of Fort Carolina. Laudonniere, who had remained at the fort with eighty persons, men, women, and children, the greater part of whom were sick, was occupied in strengthening the ramparts ; when Melendez and his troops, conduct- ed by a Frenchman across the woods, arrived on the 19th of September, at break of day, and after a feeble resistance succeeded in capturing it, The Spaniards massacred all who fell into their hands. Laudonniere and a few of his men escaped to the woods, and gained the river May, where they took refuge on board a vessel, which was lying there under the orders of the nephew of Ribaut. The other ves- sels had been lost on the coast. Captain Ribaut, having escaped from the shipv^recked vessels with most of his men, and being ignorant of what had befallen his countrymen, took his way towards the fort, and on learning that it had fallen into the hands of the Spaniards, he, in the utmost distress, trusted to their promises of safety, and surrendered ; but as soon as he and his companions were in their power, they were all mercilessly put to death. The Spaniards placed on the backs of those whom they hung on the neighbouring trees, this inscription — " Humr, not as Freiichmen, but as Lutherans, and enemies of the faith r Who came out with Ribaut? — Where were the vessels stationed ? — -Who sent out Melendez to Florida? — For what purpose? — When did ho arrive ofF tiie river May? — What was done by the French commander of the fleet? — By the Span- ish commander? — What was proposed by Laudonniere? — By Ribaut? — When did he sail ? — What befel him. ?— W^hat was done by Laudonniere? — By Melendez? — How did Laudonniere escape? — What is said of Ribaut? — Wliat v^.as his fate? — What inscrii)tion was placed upon the murdered Frenchmen ? EXPEDITION OF DE GOURGUES. 31 Melendez was now master of Florida. He gave the name of St. Augustine to the river Dauphin, because he had arrived at its mouth on that Saint's day ; and Fort Carolina he called San Mateo, because he had captured it on St. Matthev/'s day. The foundations of the town of St. Augustine were laid by Melendez on the 8th of September, 1665, more than forty years before the settlement of Jamestown in Virginia. It is, therefore, the oldest town in the United States. Laudonniere, who had sailed from the mouth of the river May on the 11th of September, arrived safely in England and passed over to France. Charles IX., importuned by the widows and orphans of those who had perished, sought redress from the king of Spain, who contented himself with simply disavowing the act of Melendez. A private individual, Dominic de Gourgues, a gentleman of Gascony, finding that his own government submitted quietly to this outrage, re- solved that it should not go unrevenged. He sold his property, sought contributions from his friends, and was thus enabled to fit out an expe- dition of three ships, in which with one hundred and fifty men, (August 22d, 1567,) he embarked for Florida. Having arrived on the coast and formed an alliance with some Indian tribes, he succeeded in surprising the forts in possession of the Spaniards ; but, not being strong enough to establish a permanent colony, he sailed for Europe immediately after- wards, having first hanged his prisoners upon the trees, and placed over them the inscription — " We do not hang them as Spaniards nor as mariners^ hut as traitors, robbers, and murderers /" The retaliation was completed by the French court disavowing the act of De Gourgues, as Philip had that of his own agent. Florida re- mained in possession of Spain ; and thus constituted the earliest perma- nent colony within the present limits of the United States. CHAPTER V. FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN NORTH AMERICA. Next in point of time to those of the Spaniards, were the French settlements in North America. Their territory, which was called at different periods New France and Acadie, comprised the present British provinces of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. This extensive country appears to have been discovered in 1497, by John Cabot, when sailing under a commission from Henry VII. of En- gland ; but he was not permitted by that cautious prince to attempt any Who was now master of Florida?— What names did he chancre ?— What town did he found ?— When ?— What is said of it ?— Of Lavidonniere ?— Of Charles IX. ?— Of the king of Spain? — Wlio determined to revenge the massacre of the French ? — How did he raise money for the expedition? — When did he embark? — Who were his allies? — What washis success? — How were his prisoners treated ? — What is said of the French court?— Of Florida?— Who settled on the coast of North America next after the Spaniards ?— What was their territory called ?— Who discovered this country ? 32 THE FRENCH IN CANADA. regular settlement on the coast. In the beginning of the IGlh century, it was visited by some French mariners, who were fishing on the banks of Newfoundland; and, in 1523, Francis I. sent four ships, under the command of Verrazani, a Florentine, to make discoveries in North America ; but, after two unsuccessful attempts, having sailed on a third expedition, he was never heard of more. In 1531, Jaques Cartier, a native of St. Malo, sailing under a commission from the French king, landed at several places on the coast of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and took possession of the country, in the name of his sovereign. In the following year, he made a second voyage, with a more formal commission, and with a much larger force; sailed up the St. Lawrence, as far as the island of Orleans; experienced the most hospitable treat- ment from the natives ; and, after wintering at St. Croix, returned to France, where he gave a very flattering account of the fertility of the soil and the value of the productions ; but he had no specimens of the precious metals to produce. His failure in the discovery of these last mentioned commodities, brought him into some degree of disgrace; and, in 1540, he was sent out in the comparatively humble capacity of pilot to M. de Robcrval, who was appointed viceroy of Canada ; made various attempts to discover a north-west passage to the East Indies; frequently returned to France for men and provisions, and finally was lost, with a numerous train of adventurers, in 1549, without any tidings ever being received of his fate. By this calamitous event, the government of France was so much discouraged, that, for nearly fifty years afterwards, no measures were employed to support the few French settlers who still remained in North America. At length, Henry IV. appointed the Marquis de la Roche lieutenant-general of Canada ; but that nobleman, sailing from France in 1598, having injudiciously attempted a settlement on the isle of Sable, and cruised for some time on the coast of Nova Scotia, without success, returned home in disappointment, and died of chagrin. Other governors, however, were more successful in their expeditions ; and, by the increasing gains of the fur trade, were enabled to collect great numbers of settlers, and to form a permanent establishment in Canada, or New France, as it was then denominated. One of the most active of these adventurers was a naval officer called Champlain, a man of considerable enterprise and ability, who completely explored the banks of the St. Lawrence, discovered the lake which bears his name, and founded the city of Quebec in the year 1608. At this period, two Indian nations, the Algonquins and Hurons, who occu- pied the district in which the new colony was planted, happened to be very hard pressed by their inveterate enemies the Iroquois ; and, in the hope of procuring important assistance to their cause, readily welcomed and befriended the new settlers. Champlain, instead of endeavouring to unite the natives in general in When did Verrazani make his attempts at discovery? — What was done by Car- tier? — When'/ — Wlial was done by him next year? — By Roberval ? — How long an interval of inaction followed his loss ? — W^hat is said of the Marquis de la Roche? — What was done by the succeeding governors? — By Champlain? — Wliat city did he found ? — When? — How did he incur the hostility of the Indians? SETTLEMENT OF NOVA SCOTIA. 33 an attachment to France, inconsiderately took a side in their contests ; and thus raised up an enemy, of whose power and ferocity he was little aware, and whose rooted hostility presented perpetual obstructions to the future prosperity of the colony. The Iroquois never forgave this interference on the part of the French ; and kept them in such a state of almost unceasing warfare, that, during a whole century at least, the European residents were never altogether free from alarms ; were sel- dom permitted to reap and sow in safety ; and were frequently in haz- ard of total extermination. The inflint colony was, for a long time, very much neglected by the mother country; and its support was chiefly entrusted to private indi- viduals, who fitted out expeditions at their own expense and risk. As the persons, however, who conducted these enterprises, were generally men of rank and fortune ; and as they received from government the exclusive right to trade with the Indians in furs, they found no difficulty in procuring as many individuals to accompany them, as they were able to support; but still, their strength and numbers were never sufficient to ensure protection against the barbarous incursions of the savages. The settlement of Nova Scotia, originally included in a much larger territory, to which the name of Acadia was given, took place earlier than that of Quebec. A charter was granted to De Monts for the whole of Acadia ; and under its authority he fitted out an expedition which left France in 1604, in two ships, and formed settlements at Port Royal and on the island of St. Croix. The latter place was abandoned, and the earliest permanent settlement made by the French in North America was at Port Royal, now called Annapolis, in 1605. The colonies of Canada and^ Nova Scotia had a much less rapid increase than those of the British in North America, as their entire .population did not exceed fifty-two thousand, at the commencement of the French war of 1754, which terminated in their entire conquest by the English, at which period the population of the Anglo- American colo- nies exceeded a million. The intimate connexion of their history with that of the colonial history of the United States, entitles the French settlements in North America to special notice in a work like the present. CHAPTER VI. SETTLEMENT AND EARLY HISTORY OF VIRGINIA. Although the efforts of the English to form settlements in North America appear to have been intermitted for some time subsequent to the voyages of the Cabots, that nation had by no means abandoned the design of taking possession of the country. An expedition for the pur- What was the consequence? — How was the colony now supported? — What lucra- tive trade invited private adventurers?^ — What is said of Nova Scotia ? — When and where was the earliest permanent French settlement in North America made ? — What was the population of the French colonies in America in 1754? — Of the English colonics at the same time? — What is said of the English? 84 RALEIGH S EXPEDITIONS. pose of discovering a north-west passage to India having been sent out by Dudley, Earl of Warwick, under the command of Martin Frobisher (1576), and brought home some minerals from Labrador which were supposed to contain gold, Queen Elizabeth sent out two mining expe- ditions, which of course produced nothing but disappointment. In the year 1578 Sir Humphrey Gilbert of Devonshire obtained a commission from Elizabeth to establish a colony in North America ; but approaching the land too far to the north, he was deterred from the ex- ecution of his purpose by the unfavourable appearance of the country. A patent, similar to that of Gilbert, was granted to Sir Walter Raleigh in the year 1584. He despatched two small vessels, commanded by Amidas and Barlow, who approached the American shore by the gulf of Florida; and sailing northward landed on the island of Wococken, the southernmost of the islands forming Ocracock inlet. They afterwards proceeded to Roanoke island in Albemarle Sound, and carried on a profit- able trade with the natives. The ships then returned to England, and the country they had visited was called by the queen, Virginia. Raleigh soon afterwards sent out another expedition under the com- mand of Ralph Lane, who sent home the ships and remained with a colony, and after enduring the usual hardships of colonists in a new country, for some months, they embraced the opportunity afforded by a visit from Sir Francis Drake, with his fleet, returning from the West Indies (158G), and all embarked for England. Sir Richard Grenville arrived at Roanoke, a few days afterwards, with a reinforcement. He left fifteen men on the island, who were subsequently murdered by the Indians. Another expedition was sent out by Raleigh in 1587, which left another colony, that perished without leaving any traces by which its fate could be ascertained ; although another expedition was sent out in 1590 for the purpose of seeking and relieving it. These attempts were made to settle in the island of Roanoke, in consequence of Raleigh's exertions ; and his fortune was spent in the enterprise ; but no colony was yet established. At length (1606), James I. having divided that portion of America, which extends from 34° to 45° north latitude, into two great portions ; the one called the first or south colony of Virginia ; and the other the second, or north colony, authorized Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George Somers, and their associates in London, to settle any part of the former which they might choose : and sundry knights, gentlemen and merchants of Bristol and Plymouth, commonly called the Plymouth company ; to occupy the latter. As James derived no little consequence, in his own opinion, from his skill in the science of government, the supreme administration of the colonies was vested in a council residing in England, and nominated by himself; and the subordinate jurisdiction in a council resident in Amer- Of Frobisher's expedition, and its result? — Of Gilbert's? — 01' Raleigh's? — Who conducted it? — Where did they land ? — Where did they trade? — Whom did Raleigh next send out? — What was the history of this colony? — Of that of 1587? — What was done in 160G? — Who formed the Virginia company? — What was the form of gov- ernment established by their charter ? ( 35 ) Amidas and Barlow trading with Indians at Roanoke. SETTLE3IENT OF JAMESTOWN. 37 ica, which was likewise appointed by the royal authority. It will be at once perceived that this charter deprived the colonists of the most valuable rig'ht of freemen, that of electing- their own legislature. When this charter was issued, neither the king who granted it, nor the people who received it, had any idea that they were about to lay the foundation of great and opulent states, which were one day to rise in successful opposition to the power by which they were first established. On procuring their charter, the patentees of the south colony fitted out an expedition consisting of three ships, under the command of Cap- tain Newport, who sailed from England December 19th, 1606, with 105 men, who were destined to remain in the country which they were about to visit. Among these were some gentlemen of distinguished families, particularly Mr, Percy, brother to the earl of Northumberland, and several officers of reputation, who had carried arms during the reign of Elizabeth. Though they followed the old course, and sailed towards the West Indies, yet when they had reached the American shore, they were driven to the north of Roanoke by a storm, and accidentally dis- covered Cape Henry. This is the southern boundary of Chesapeake bay. They stretched at once into that noble harbour, which receives the waters of the Powhatan, the Potomac, the Susquehanna, and all the rivers which give fertility to this portion of America, and adapt it so wonderfully to the purposes of inland navigation. Newport sailed up the Powhatan, to which he gave the name of James River, in honour of the sovereign under whose authority he acted : and here he chose a place of residence for the adventurers who were to settle in the country. They raised a few huts to protect them from the inclemency of the weather : and the council, who were nominated by the king, and were to reside in America, opened their commissions, and entered upon their office. The infant settlement was called Jamestown ; an appellation which it still retains : and, though it never rose to great wealth or distinction, it was the first of the English establishments in the New World, and has all the honour among the American states that antiquity can confer. The date of its settlement is May 13th, 1607. The Indians, among whom the European adventurers had settled, were divided into small and independent tribes, and separated from one another by hereditary and unabating resentment. They were able, however, to disturb the colony by their petty hostilities ; though they could not, at this time, muster a force sufficient to destroy it. But this was not the only calamity which the Europeans were doomed to sufliir. The stock of provisions which they had brought with them from England was nearly exhausted ; and what remained was of a quality so bad, that it was unfit to be eaten. This scanty allowance to which they were reduced, as well as the influence of a climate to which they were not yet habituated, gave rise to diseases, and quickened their virulence ; so that the number of the colonists gradually diminished. Who commanded their first expedition? — Describe the outfit. — When did New- port sail ? — What drove them north of Roanoke? — What bay did they enter? — What river did they enter ? — What town did they found ? — When ? — Describe the Indians. — The famine. 4 39 CAPTAIN S3IITII S ADVENTURES. In this exigenc}', they were relieved by the talents and activity of Captain Smith. Immediately after the arrival of the settlers, and in consequence of the disagreements which had taken place during- the voyage, he had been expelled from the council, though chosen by the king as one of its members: but such were his abilities and enterprising temper, that he was now unanimously called to his seat, and invited to take a chief part in the administration. He was not unworthy of the charge, or unequal to the duties which his situation required. He for- tified Jamestown, so as to protect the colonists from the injuries of the savages. He marched in quest of those tribes who had given most dis- turbance to the Europeans ; and partly by force of arms, and partly by address and good treatment, he put an end to their hostilities, and pro- cured from them a supply of provisions, of which the colony was so much in need. By the exertions of Smith, contentment v^'as speedily restored: and this he considered as a sufficient recompense for all his toils and dangers. But, unfortunately, in one of his excursions, he was surprised by a numerous party of Indians, and compelled to retreat; and the savages pressing hard upon him, he sunk to the neck in a morass, and was taken prisoner. He was carried to Powhatan, the most considerable sachem, or chief, of Virginia, and would have suffered a cruel death, if Pocahontas, the daughter of Powhatan, animated by that concern for the English which the adventurers from the west never failed to experience, had not rushed between him and the executioner, and begged her father to spare his life. Her request was granted ; and she afterwards procured him his liberty ; and from time to time sent provisions to the colony. When Smith returned to Jamestown, he found no more than 38 per- sons within the walls which he had lately raised. The spirits of the colony were completely broken. Every individual was filled with de- spondency, and anxious to leave a country which was so inhospitable. He prevailed upon them, however, to remain for some time : and pro- visions arriving from England, abundance and satisfaction were happily restored. Smith had formed a determination of visiting and examining the country in the neighbourhood of the place where the English had set- tled ; and, in order to prosecute his design, he embarked with a handful of adventurers (A. D. 1609), in an open vessel, ill adapted to the purpose for whicii it was intended. He advanced towards the north, as far as the river Susquehanna, and visited the country both on the east and the west; and trading with some of the natives, and fighting with others, he taught them to respect the English for their superiority in knowledge and in arts, and to dread the operation of the weapons wliich they used. He afterwards made a second excursion ; and at length drew out a map of the creeks and inlets which he had entered, as well as the adjacent country, with such accuracy, that his delineation has served as a basis and a model for all those who have since attempted to exhibit the geo- graphy of the United States. What is said of Captain Smith? — Relate the circumstances of his captivity.— What was the condition of (he colony on his retiirn? — What did he prevent ? — How was the colony relieved I — Describe Smith's discoveries and explorations. SECOND CHARTER OF VIRGINIA. 39 In the same year (1609), a remarkable chang-e took place in the con- stitution of the colony. A new charter was issued, of a more enlarg-ed and liberal nature than the former. The boundaries of the settlement were extended ; the council resident in America was abolished, and the administration of affairs vested in a council, resident in London. A numerous body of respectable merchants and others were joined to the former adventurers, and they were all incorporated under the name of "The Treasurer and Company of Adventurers of the city of London for the first colony in Viririnia." The proprietors of this company were allowed to choose the persons of whom the council was to be composed; and powers were granted them to elect a g-overnor, who was to manage tlieir affairs in the colony, and to execute the orders which should bo issued from England. Tiiey were farther authorised to enact such laws, and introduce such regulations, as they should judge most advantag-eous for the settluTs in America. These ample privileges were conferred in an age, when privileges of a similar nature were not often granted : but it is probable that James, with all his sagacity, did not perceive the consequences in which they were likely to terminate. As soon as the company had got the manag-ement of their affiirs into their own hands, the proprietors daily increased both in numbers and respectability. The first governor who was sent out to America under the new charter, was lord Delaware. Not being- able to leave England imme- diately, this nobleman despatched Sir Thomas Gates, and iSir George Somers, with nine ships, and five hundred settlers. Eight of these ves- sels arrived at Jamestown; but the ship in which Gates and Somers were embarked, was separated from the rest, and cast ashore upon Ber- muda ; and as these gentlemen alone had been commissioned to act in the room of the governor, none of those who had reached America could produce any authority for undertaking the administration of the colony. At this time, Smith was unable to exert himself with his usual vigour. He lay, burned and mangled by an explosion of gunpowder; and at length became so ill, that his friends judged it necessary to re- move him ta England. After his departure, all subordination and indus- try ceased among the colonists. Anarchy prevailed throughout the settlement. The Indians, ever on the watch, saw the misconduct which had now become general ; and learning that the man who had taught them to reverence the English name was at a distance, they withlield the cus- tomary supplies of provisions, and harassed the planters with uninter- rupted hostilities. The stores which were brought from England were spoedily consumed ; the domestic animals which had been sent to breed in the country, were taken and devoured ; t!)c scarcity increased ; and, When was the socon8ir George Carteret divided the province into East and West New Jersey, Sir George taking the for- mer and the trustees the latter portion. Penn and his associates then proceeded to divide West New Jersey into one hundred shares which were separately sold ; and the colony, being placed under a liberal constitution of government, began ra- pidly to increase in population and wealth. The only disturbance which the people experienced, arose from the arbitrary and violent pro- ceedings of Andros, who still persisted in his claim of jurisdiction over the province, destroyed its commerce, and finally arrested the governor, Carteret, and carried him prisoner to New York, where he remained until he was released by order of the Duke of York. These vexatious proceedings w^ere finally terminated, in 1680, by a decision of the British government recognizing the existence of New Jersey as a dis- tinct colony. The claim of Sir George Carteret to East New Jersey was extin- guished in 1682 by Penn and eleven others, who purchased his right, and, uniting twelve other persons with them, received a new grant from the Duke of York, and organized a proprietary government for the whole province. Their first governor w^as Robert Barclay. The proprietary government lasted till 1702, when it was terminated by a formal surrender of the right of government to the crown. What took place in 1670? — In 1672? — When did the Dutch recover New York and New Jersey ? — How were they restored ? — What is said of Andros ? — To whom did Lord Berkeley sell his share of New Jersey? — To whom did Byl- Ihige convey it ? — What took place in 1671? — What was done by Penn and his associates? — By Andros? — By the British government? — What took place in 1682?— In 1702? 7 74 SETTLEMEIST OF DELAWARE, CHAPTER X. SETTLEMENT AND EARLY HISTORY OF DELAWARE. Delaware was first settled by a colony of Swedes and Finns, under the direction of William Usselin, who obtained permission for the set- tlement from Gustavus Adolphus, kinfr of Sweden. The colonists landed in 1027, at Cape Henlopen, which they called ParadiL^e Point. To the country they gave the name of New Swedeland ; and, having purchased lands from the Indians on both sides of the river and bay, they formed their principal settlement at the mouth of Christiana Creek, near Wilmington. Their towns were soon scattered along the river as high up as Tinicnm island, not far from the present site of Philadelphia. On this island, which was the seat of government, their governor, John Printz, erected an elegant house, which he called Printz's Hall. Their tranquillity was disturbed by the Dutch from New Netherlands, who intruded on their possessions, and erected a fort at New Castle. The governor, Printz, protested against this encroachment in vain ; but his successor, Risingh, under pretence of paying a friendly visit to the Dutch at the fort, contrived to surprise it and make the garrison prisoners. Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor of New York, exasperated at this insult, fitted out an armament, and, in 1655, returned the friendly visit of Risingh, and made conquest of all New Swedeland. TJiose of the original settlers, who chose to take the oath of allegiance to Holland, were permitted to remain in their homes, and mingle with the conquer- ors ; the remainder were sent to Europe. When the New Netherlands were conquered by the English, Dela- ware, being considered a part of that territory, was included in the grant to the Duke of York, who sold the town of New Castle, and the country twelve miles round it, to William Penn. Penn subsequently obtained from the duke a grant of the whole territory lying upon the Delaware, between New Castle and Cape Henlopen. This tract, which constitutes the present state of Delaware, was called the "Ter- ritories," and subsequently the " Lower Counties of the Delaware." It formed a part of Penn's colony, and was represented in its general assembly, until 1703, when the delegates, being dissatisfied with Penn's last charter, seceded from the assembly, and formed a distinct legisla- ture. The Lower Counties were never reunited to Pennsylvania, although they acknowledged the same governor for many years after the separation. When was Delaware first settled ? — By whom? — Where did they land ? — De- scribe their proceedings. — Where was the seat of government? — What look place in 1651 ? — What was done by Risingh ? — By Stuyvesant ? — What was done at the lime of the conquest of New Netherlands? — By Penn subsequently? — What was the tract called? — What happened in 1703? — How was Delaware governed after this secession f ( '5 ) Arrival of the Swedes and Finns at Cajte Henlopen. -FTTr.F.MF.XT OF rFN^SYLVANTA. 77 CHAPTER XI. SETTLEMENT AND EARLY HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA. A SMALL part of Pennsylvania, as well as New Jersey and Delaware, was originally colonized by the Swedes and Dutch. Atler thosie people were expelled by the Enoljsh, the country came under the notice of the celebrated William Penn, the real founder of the state. His trus- teeship for Edward Bylling-o's creditors, and the interest which it led him to take in the colonization of New Jersey, had directed his atten- tion to the possibility of foundirtQ' a great political community, in which his brethren, of the society of Friends, as well as all other denomina- tions of Christians, mii^ht enjoy perfect roli.o-ious and civil freedom. Finding that there was a larg-c ungranted tr;tct lying between the pos- sessions of the Duke of York and those of Lord Baltimore, he availed himself of certain claims of his deceased father,- Admiral Penn, against the crown for services rendered ; and, without much difficulty, obtained from Charles I[. a charter for a very extensive territory, to which the king gave the name which it still retains, Pennsylvania (16H1). Penn soon after published a description «f the province, proposing easy terms of settlement to such as might bo disposed to go thithpr. He also wrote to the Indian natives, informhig them of his desire to hold his possessions with their consent and goodwill.. He then drew up " The Fundamental Constitution of Pennsylvania," and the follow- ing year he puhlished "The Frame of Government." One of the laws of his code held out a greater degree of religious liberty than had beon hitherto enjoyed in the world. It was thus expressed: "All persons living in this province, v/ho confess and acknowledge the one Almighty and Eternal (iod to be the creator, upholder, and ruler of the world, and that hold themselves obliged, in conscience, to live peaceably and justly in civil society, shall in no wise be molested or prejudiced for their religious persuasion or practice in matters of laith and worship." Upon the publication of these proposals, many respectable families determined to remove to the new province; and, in the autumn of IfiSl, three ships, carrying settlers, sailed from England, who estab- lished themselves above the confluence of the Delaware and Schuylkill. In August, 1G82, Penn, having obtained from the Duke of York a relinquishment of- the Lower (counties of the Delaware, set sail for America, accompanied by about two thousand emigrants. He landed at New Castle (Oct. 24th), and received from the mixed population of tiie Lower Counties, consisting of about tliree thousand Duteh^ Swedes, and Who were the earhest European seUlors in Pennsylvania? — Who was the real fonnder of the state? — What had diroctod his attention Ixj American colonization ' --—What was his desijrn ? — ^ How did he obtain a grant of the territory ? — Who gave it the name of Pennsylvania ? — What did Penn publish ? — WhaCdid he signify to the Indians in his letter? — What did he th«^n draw up? — What is remarkable in one of his laws ? — Who oarne over in 1681 ' — In 1G82 ?— Where did he land ? —When ? - What was :<|one af New Castle? 7 -f; ' • 78 DKATTI OF PENN. Finns, an acknowletlsfement of his authority and jurisdiction. He then proceeded to Chester, and made some further progress in organizing the government, with the aid of a general assembly which met on the 4th of December. Penn now proceeded to lay out his plan for the city of Philadelphia, and to conclude his celebrated treaty of purchase with the Indians, by which the peace of the province, with these generally turbulent bor- derers, was preserved for a period of seventy years. The proprietary remained about two years in the province, adjusting his concerns, leasing lands to the settlers, and establishing a friendly intercourse with his colonial neighbours; during which period, no less than fifty sail arrived, bringing emigrants from England, Ireland, Wales, Holland, and Germany ; and, within four years from the date of his grant, the province contained twenty settlements, and Philadelphia two thousand inhabitants. Soon after Penn returned to England, Charles II. died, and was suc- ceeded by James II. Penn had many powerful reasons for personal attachment to the Stuart family ; and accordingly he not only adhered to this unfortunate monarch while he retained his power ; but for two years after he was deposed, the government of the province was admin- istered in his name. , Such a proceeding could not fail to attract the attention, and excite the displeasure, of king William. He caused the founder of Pennsyl- vania to be imprisoned, and gave the administration of the province to governor Fletcher, of New York. Being, at length, after many perse- cutions, permitted to make his own defence before the king and coun- cil, Penn easily succeeded in removing every unfavourable impression against himself, and was speedily reinstated in his rights as proprietary and governor. William Markham was soon after sent out as deputy governor. In 1699, Penn again visited his colony, and found the people discon- tented. As they complained of some of the provisions of the exist- ing charter, he prepared a new one, which was submitted to the assem- bly and accepted in 1701. It gave to the assembly the power of originating, amending, and rejecting bills ; and reserved to the govern- or a negative on bills, and the executive power, so that it was essentially the same as the state constitutions of the present day. This charter, the Lower Counties thought proper to reject ; and were, ac- cordingly, separated from Pennsylvania, and allowed a distinct assembly under the same governor. Immediately after granting his third and last charter, Penn returned to Ensrland. He never visited the colony again. His death took place in 1717. At Chester? — What were Penn's next proceedings ?-t- Flow long did Penn re- main in America? — How many ships carae oyer iu that time?-^What was tho increase of population in four years ? — What part did Penn take on the dethrone- ment of James II. ? — Why? — What was the consequence? — How did he acquit himself? — When did Penn again visit Pennsylvania? — What took place in 1701 ? — What was the character of Penn's last charter ? — Who rejected it? — What fol- lowed ? — When did Penn return to England? — When did he die? settlemi:nt of Maryland. 79 Penn is justly considered one of the purest and most elevated cha- racters connected with the early histary of our country. He was, in a true and noble sense, the Father of the state which he founded. It was to his justice, wisdom, and ability, that the colonists were indebted for that charter of privileges, which placed the colony on so respectable a footing-. Civil and religious liberty, in the utmost latitude, was laid down by this great man, as the chief and only foundation of all his in- stitutions. Christians of all denominations might not only live unmo- lested, but have a share in the government of the colony. No laws could be made but by consent of the inhabitants. Even matters of be- nevolence, to which the laws of few nations have extended, were by Penn subjected to regulations. The affairs of w^idows and orphans were to be inquired into by a court, constituted for that purpose. Disputes between individuals were not to be subjected to the delay and chicanery of the law, but decided by wise and honest arbitrators. His benevo- lence extended also to the Indian nations; instead of taking immediate advantage of his patent, he purchased of these people the lands he had obtained by his grant, judging that the original property, and oldest right, was vested in them ; and by adhering to the same just principles of conduct, the society of Friends preserved a lasting peace with the natives. William Penn, in short, had he been a native of Greece in her best days, would have had his statue placed by the side of those of Solon and Lycurgus. The subsequent progress of Pennsylvania presents little to the notice of history. The colony prospered without interruption. During the revolutionary war the people adopted a new constitution, excluding the heirs of Penn from all share in the government; and the quit-rents due from the inhabitants, were finally discharged by paying to the repre- sentatives of his family the sum of 570,000 dollars. CHAPTER XII. SETTLEMENT AND EARLY HISTORY OF MARYLAND. The colony of Maryland owes its foundation to George Calvert, Lord Baltimore. This nobleman had directed his attention to coloniza- tion as early as lf)22, when he had obtained a grant from the crown of a district in Newfoundland, named Avalon, where, at a considerable expense, he formed the settlement of Ferryland : but, finding his ex- pectations disappointed by the soil and climate of this inhospitable re- gion, he paid a visit to Virginia, for the purpose of ascertaining if some p:irt of its richer territory might not serve his purpose better. What was his character? — What were some of the benevolent provisions of his laws? — When did the people of Pennsylvania adopt a new constitution ? — Flow were the quit-rents discharged? — Who was the founder of Maryland? — Where had Calvert attempted a colony in 1022? — With what success? — What country did he next visit ? 80 LANDING or TALVEirr. ( )l)scrvinrr ihal llie Virjrinians had not yet formed any Rctllenionis to tlio northward of the river Potomac, lie determined to ohtain a g-rant of ter- ritory in that quarter; and easily prevailed with Charles I. to bestow on him the investiture he desired. His principal design appears to have been the founding of a new state as an asylum tor the persecuted mem- bers of the Catholic communion, of whom he was one. His project, w^hich was interrupted by his death, just when all was prepared for carrying- it into effect, was resumed by his son and successor, Cecil, the second Lord Baltimore, in whose favour the king completed the charter for the new colony, to which the name of Maryland was given in honour of Henrietta Maria, the queen consort of Charles I. The country thus granted, being within the limits of the cliarter of Virginia, tlio planters of that province remonstrated against the grant; but their remonstrances being disregarded by the king, Lord Baltimore proceeded to commence his settlement. He appointed his brother, Leonard Calvert, to be governor. The first body of emigrants, consist- ing of about two hundred gentlemen of considerable rank and fortune, chiefly of the Roman Catholic persuasion, with a number of inferior adherents, sailed from England under command of Leonard Calvert, in November, 1682; and, after a prosperous voyng-e, landed in Mary- land, near the mouth of the river Potomac, in the beginning of the fol- lowing year. The governor, as soon as he landed, erected a cross on the shore, and took possession of the country, '"'for our Saviour^ and for our sovereicrn Lord, the kiug of England^ Aw^are that the settlers of Virginia had given umbrage to the Indians by occupying their territory v/ithout their permission, he determined to pursue a diiTercnt course, and to unite the new W'ith the ancient race of inhabitants, by the reciprocal tics of equity and good-will. The Intlian chief, to whom he submitted his proposition of occupying a portion of the country, answered, at first, with sullen indi.fterence, the result most probably of aversion to the measure, and of conscious inability to resist it, that he would not bid the English go, neither would he bid them stay, but that he left them to their own dis- cretion. The liberality and courtesy, however, of the governor's demeanour succeeded at length in conciliating his regard so powerfully, that he not only formed a friendly league between the colonists and his own people, but persuaded the other neighbouring tribes to accede to the treaty, and warmly declared, " I love the English so well, that if they slioukl go about to kill me, if I had so much breath as to speak, I would command the people not to revenge my death ; for I know they would not do such a thing, except it were through my own fault !" Having purchased the rights of the aborigines at a price which satis- fied them, the colonists obtained possession of a considerable , district, Where did he determine to settle? — Who gave him a charier? — What inter- rupted his project? — Who was his successor ? — What was the new colony called i — Why? — Wlio opjiosed the sctllement? — With what sucre.^s?.— Wlso wst.- the first governor? — Wticn did the first colonists leave England ?— Where did ihcy land? — What reception did the Indian king give them ? — Jiow was lie ^^iiincd over to the Ent^lish interest? '. " SETTLEMENT OF ST. MARy's. 81 including the Indian town of Yoamaco, which they immediately pro- ceeded to occupy, and to which they gave the name of St. Mary's. The lands were planted with facility, having been already tilled by the In- dians; and this circumstance, as well as the proximity of Virg-inia, which now afforded an abundant supply of the necessaries of life, enabled the colonists of Maryland to escape the ravages of that calami- ty which had afflicted the infancy, and nearly proved fatal to the ex- istence, of every one of the previous settlements of the English in America. A considerable number of new emigrants soon followed the original settlers ; and no efforts of wisdom or generosity were spared by Lord Baltimore, to facilitate the population, and promote the happiness of the colony. The transportation of people, and of necessary stores and pro- visions, during the first two years, cost him upwards of forty thousand pounds. To every emigrant he assigned fifty acres of land in absolute fee ; and, with a liberality unparalleled in that age, he extended free- dom of conscience to all denominations of Christians. His wise ad- ministration ensured prosperity to the colony, and a very few years after the first occupation of the province, the people granted their pro- prietary a considerable subsidy of tobacco, as a grateful acknowledge- ment of his liberality. Similar tributes continued, from time to time, to attest the merit of the proprietary, and the attachment of the people. The government was originally purely democratic, so far as the peo- ple were concerned, every freeman having a voice in the legislative acts; and the laws were not subject to a veto from the crown. When the increase of inhabitants rendered this mode of legislation inconve- nient, an act was passed constituting "a house of assembly," to be composed of such as should be chosen by the people, and of such as should be appointed by the proprietary, and of the governor and sec- retary (1639). This representative form of government was further modified in 1650, by a division of the assembly into two branches, the upper houfO being composed of the persons summoned by the proprie- tary, and the lower house consisting of the delegates chosen by the people. Full religious freedom was proclaimed fiom the earliest period of the settlement, and was subsequently established by law. Although the opposition of the Virginians to the colonization of Ma- ryland by Lord Baltimore had been easily overcome, the province was destined to experience great disturbance from pretensions much less entitled to respect. These were raised by one William Clayborne, a member of governor Harvey's council, and secretary of the province of Virginia. About a year preceding the date of Lord Baltimore's char- ter, the king had granted to Clayborne a license to traffic in those parts of America not comprehended in any prior patent of exclusive trade ; which had been confirmed by a conunission from governor Harvey. Where was the first settlement made? — What circumstances favoured the set- tlers? — What is said of Lord Baltimore? — His expenditures? — His terms to the settlers ? — Their acknowledgement ? — What was the diaracter of the government ? — When was a representative government established? — What took place in 1650? — Who wUiS William Clayborne? — What had he obtained from the king? 82 CIVIL WAR. The object of Claybornc and his associates was, to monopolize the trade of the Chesapeake; and with this view they had cstablislied a trading settlement on the isle of Kent, which is situated in the very centre of Maryland, and which Clay borne now persisted in claiming as his own, and refused obedience to the newly-erected jurisdiction. The injustice of a plea which construed a license to traffic into a grant of territory did not prevent the government of Virginia from countenancing Clayborne's opposition ; and encouraged by their approbation, he proceed- ed to enforce his claims by intrigue and violence. He infused his own spirit into the inhabitants of the isle of Kent, and scattered jealousies among the Indian tribes, some of whom he was able to persuade that the new settlers were Spaniards and enemies to the Virginians. These measures soon brought on an Indian war which was productive of serious annoyance to the colony, Clayborne was formally indicted, tried, and convicted of murder, piracy, and sedition. Finding that those who had encouraged his pre- t-ensions left him unaided to defend his crimes, he fled from justice, and his estate was confiscated. Against these proceedings he appealed to the king ; but, after a long controversy, his claim was dismissed. He appears then to have exchanged his hopes of victory for schemes of revenge, which he was afterwards but too successful in executing. When the civil war between Charles I. and the parliament broke out, Clayborne attached himself to the republican interest ; and, return- ing to Maryland, succeeded in raising a rebellion against the proprie- tary government, which was naturally attached to the royal cause, Calvert was compelled to seek a temporary shelter in Virginia, while the insurgents seized the government, and exercised it without mercy towards their political opponents. The next year (1646) brought a return of peace, and the restoration of the proprietary to his rights of government. When the parliament had gained the complete ascendant in England, commissioners were appointed for "reducing and governing the colo- nies within the bay of Chesapeake." Among these, Clayborne succeeded in obtaining a place ; and, although the proprietary gave in his submis- sion to the parliament, and was permitted to retain his authority, he was unable to preserve the peace of the colony. The distractions in England, which preceded the elevation of Crom- well to the protectorate, and the dissension which began to prevail in Maryland, from the pretensions of the Protestant exiles who Iiad re- cently united themselves to its population, favoured the vindictive designs of Clayborne. Ever the ally of the strongest party, he hast- ened to espouse the fortunes of Cromwell, whose triumph he easily foresaw ; and inflamed the dissensions of the province by encouraging the Protestants to unite the pursuit of their own ascendancy with the establishment of the protectoral government. What was his object? — Where did he njake a seuleraent? — What did ho claim? — Wht* siipixirled lum? — Whom did he corrupt? — What was the conse- (]nenco? — ll(iw was Giayborne punished ? — What did lie do on tiie l)reaking out of the civil war? — What vvas the cousequence of the rebelhon? — What look place in I6I0? — What appjinlmcnl (hd Chayborno receive from Iht; parliainunt? — Uow did he omjiluy hb iiower? — Who joined him? RELIGIOUS INTOLERANCE. 83 The contentions of the two parties brought on a civil war : and after various skirmishes which were foug-ht with alternate success, the Ca- tholics and the other partisans of the proprietary g-overnment were defeated in a decisive engagement, tiie governor deposed, and the ad- ministration usurped by Clayborne and his associates. The victorious party hastened to abolish the institutions of Lord Baltimore, not sparing tlie noblest, which was the guarantee of religious freedom. Having convoked a house of assembly in which some of the persons elected refused to act, on account of their respect to the rights of the proprie- tary, Clayborne and his allies caused a law to be passed, declaring that none who professed tlie doctrines of the Romish Churcli, could be protected in the province, and refusing liberty in the exercise of their religion to the adherents of popery and prelacy, as well as to such as under the profession of Christianity should practise licentiousness. Thus, the Roman Catholics were deprived of the protection of the law, in the community which their own industry and virtue had collected, and by those Protestants to whom their humanity had granted a country and a homo. But the Catliolics were not the only parties who experienced the severity of the government. The Protestant Episcopalians were equally excluded from the protection of law ; and a number of Quakers, liaving resorted soon after to the province, and begun to preach against judicial oaths and military pursuits, were denounced by the govern- ment as heretics, and subjected to the punishment of flogging and im- prisonment. When required by the commissioners to assent to their proceedings, Lord Baltimore firmly refused to sanction either the depo- sition of his governor, or any of their recent acts; and declared, in par- ticular, that he never would assent to the repeal of his law of tolera- tion, which protected the most sacred rights of mankind. The distracted state of the colony, occasioned by the tyrannical measures of the dominant party, and the discontent of the people, was finally terminated by the restoration of Charles II., in 1660; and Philip Calvert, producing a commission to himself from the proprietary, confirmed by a letter from the king, commanding obedience to his authority, was gladly received, and peaceably submitted to by the in- habitants. Cecil Lord Baltimore died in 1676. He was, empliatically, the father of the province ; and he had lived to reap the hnppy and honourable fruits of the plantation which he had founded and reared with so much wisdom and virtue. His administration as proprietary had lasted forty- three years, during which period he had invariably consulted the best happiness of the colonists, who were not backward in acknowledging his exalted merit. It was his constant maxim, which he often recom- mended to the legislative assembly, " that by concord, a small colony What was the effect of the contentions of the two parties? — What was the result of tlie decisive engagement ? — What was done by the victorious party ? — How were the Catholics treated? — The Quakers? — What is said of Lord Baltimore? — When was order restored? — What was done on Philip C-alvert's producing his commission ? — When did Lord Balluuorc die ? — What was his character ? 84 BRITISH REVOLUTION OF 1688. may grow into a great and renowned nation ; but that by dissension, mighty and glorious kingdoms have declined and fallen into nothing." He was succeeded by his son Charles, Lord Baltimore, who had go- verned the province for fourteen years, with a high reputation for virtue and ability. One of his earliest acts, as governor, had been the con- firmation of the famous law of 1649, which established an absolute political equality among all denominations of Christians. The province remained comparatively tranquil until 1689, the period of the Revolution in England ; when a rumour was raised of a popish plot of the deputy governors and the Catholics, who were absurdly re- presented to have united in a league with the Indians for the purpose of exterminating all the Protestants in the province. Some delay having taken place in acknowledging the new government, a Protestant association was formed by one John Coode, and, being soon strengthen- ed by the accession of numerous adherents, the associators took arms under this leader, for the defence of the Protestant faith, and the as- sertion of the royal title of William and Mary. The deputies of Lord Baltimore endeavoured at first to oppose by force the designs of the associators; but as the Catholics were afraid to justify the prevalent rumours against themselves by taking arms, and as the well-affected Protestants showed no eagerness to support a falling authority, they were compelled to deliver up the fort, and sur- render the powers of government by capitulation. The king, apprised of these proceedings, hastened to express his approbation of them, and authorised the leaders of the insurgents to exer- cise in his name the power they had acquired, until he should have lei- sure to effect a permanent settlement of the administration. Armed with this commission, the associators continued, for three years atler, to administer the government of Maryland, with a tyrannical insolence that exemplifies the grievances they had falsely imputed to the proprie- tary, and produced loud complaints from both the Catholic and Protest- ant inhabitants of the province. King William, meanwhile, proceeded to summon Lord Baltimore to answer before the privy council, the complaints expressed in tiie de- claration of the associators. After a tedious investigation, which in- volved this nobleman in a heavy expense, it was found impossible to convict him of any other charge than that of holding a difl'erent faith from the men by whom he had been so ungratefully persecuted, and so calumniously traduced. He was accordingly suifered to retain the patrimonial interest, attached by his charter to the otfice of proprietary, but deprived, by an act of council, of the political administration of the province, of which Sir Edmund Andros was at the same time appointed governor by the king (1092). The unmerited elevation of this worth- less man was no less disgraceful than the unjust deposition of the pro- Who was his successor? — What took place in 1689? — What is said of the Pro- testant Association? — Of the deputies of I-ord Baltimore? — Their surrender? — The king? — How did the associators administer the government? — How did king Wilhara proceed? — VVliat was the resuh of the investigation ?— What was Lord Baltimore suffered to retain? — Of what was he deprived? — Who was made go- vernor? — When? SETTLEMENT OF NORTH CAROLINA. 85 prietary. Thus fell the proprietary government of Maryland, after an endurance of fifty-six years, during which it had been administered with unexampled mildness, and with a regard to the liberty and welfare of the people, which deserved a very different requital. In 1716, after having- been for twenty-seven years deprived of his rights, the proprietary was restored to them, and he and his descendants continued in their exercise, till the commencement of the revolutionary war, when the people assumed the government, and adopted a consti- tution which deprived Lord Baltimore and his heirs of further jurisdic- tion. CHAPTER XIII. SETTLEMENT AND EARLY HISTORY OF NORTH CAROLINA. The temporary settlements effected by Sir Walter Raleigh's colony on Roanoke island, have already been noticed in our account of the early history of Virginia, But tor the abandonment of that island by the colonists. North Carolina would have been able to claim the earliest permanent settlement made by the English in North America. The subsequent colonial efibrts of England did not extend to this ter- ritory, till the year 1622, when several English families, flying from the massacres of the Indians in Virginia and New England, sought refuge within its limits, and are said to have acted the part of Christian mis- sionaries with such success, that one of the Indian prhices was con- verted from idolatry to the religion of the gospel. They suffered extreme hardship from scarcity of provisions, and were preserved from perishing, by the generous contribution they received from the govern- ment of Massachusetts, whose assistance they had implored. An attempt was made to assume a jurisdiction over them by Sir Robert Heath, attorney-general to Charles I., who obtained from his master a patent of the whole of this region by the name of Carolana. But as he made no attempt to execute the powers conferred on him, the patent was afterwards declared to have become void, because the conditions on which it had been granted had not been fultilled. Much collision and dispute between claimants and occupiers of colonial terri- tory would have been prevented, if the principle of this adjudication had been more generally extended and more steadily applied. The country was indebted for its final settlement to a project formed by certain courtiers of Charles II., who received from him as the reward of their loyalty, a grant of the extensive region situated on the Atlantic ocean, between the 36th degree of north latitude and the river Saint John's in Florida. This territory was accordingly erected into a pro- vince, by the name of Carolina, and conferred on the Lord Chancellor What is said of the proprietary (government? — What took place in 1716? — What was done at the commencement of the revokitionary war? — Who first set- tled at Roanoke? — Who formed llic first permanent settlement in Carolina? — Where ? — What is said of iheye settlers? — Of Heath and his patent? — Who ob- tamcd a patent in 1GG3 ? 86 SETTLEMENT OP ALBEMARLE. Clarendon, Monk, Duke of Albemarle, Lord Craven, Lord Berkeley, Lord Ashley, (afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury,) Sir George Carteret, Sir John Colleton, and Sir Wiiliam Berkeley, the governor of Virginia, (1663). The territory was bestowed on those personages, and their heirs and assigns, as absolute lords proprietaries for ever, saving the sovereign allegiance due to the crown ; and they were invested with ample rights and jurisdictions. This charter seems to have been copied from the prior charter of Maryland, the most liberal in the communication of privileges and powers that had ever yet been granted. A joint stock was formed for transporting emigrants and defraying other expenses. At the desire of the New England settlers, who already inhabited the province, and had stationed themselves in the vi- cinity of Cape Fear, the proprietaries published a document, entitled, " Proposals to all that will plant in Carolina.^'' The terms which they proposed to all persons settling on Charles River, south of Cape Fear, were liberal ; guarantying to them the choice of a governor, council and assembly, freedom of conscience, and a hundred acres of land to each settler, with fifty more for a servant, on a quit-rent of a half-penny an acre. Besides" the settlers at Cape Fear, there was another small body of inhabitants who had emigrated from Virginia, in consequence of reli- gious persecution, and settled in that portion of North Carolina, north of Albemarle Sound, be ween 1640 and 1650, without charter or autho- rity from any source. In September, 1663, Sir William Berkeley was empowered by the other proprietaries to nominate a governor, and a council of six, who were authorised to rule this little community accord- ing to the powers granted by the royal charter; to confirm former pos- sessions, and grant lands to every one, allowing them three years to pay the quit-rents; to make laws, witli the consent of tlie delegates of the freemen, transmitting them for approbation to the proprietaries. Berkeley was requested to visit the colony, and to employ skilful persons to explore its bays, rivers, and shores ; a duty which he per- formed in the following year. Having confirmed and granted lands to the settlers, in conformity with his instructions, he appointed Drummond, a man of sufficient prudence and abilities, their first governor, and then returned to Virginia, leaving them all to follow their various pursuits in peace. In 1666, they constituted an assembly, probably the first that was ever held in Carolina, and from this body a petition was transmitted to the proprietaries, desiring that the people of Albemarle might hold their possessions on the same terms that were enjoyed by the people of Virginia ; a request which was readily granted. In 1665, the proprietaries, desirous to establish settlements in the Of what tract? — With what powers? — What terms were offered to emigrants? — What other settlers be^^ides those at Cape Fear had estabUshed thcms^elves in North Carolina ? — In w hat district ? — When ? — Wliat arrangements were made with respect to them in 1663? — Who was their first governor? — When did their first assembly meet ? — What business was done by it? — Who was sent out in 1665? THE FUNDAMENTAL CONSTITUTION. 87 southern portion of their territory, bestowed on Sir John Yeamans the appointment of commander-in-chief of Clarendon county, stretching from Cape Fear to the river San Matheo, with similar powers and rights to those which were enjoyed by the inhabitants of Albemarle ; and a settlement was forthwith effected, under this grant, on the north- ern bank of Cape Fear river. In June, 1665, a second royal charter, similar to the first, was grant- ed to the same patentees, Lord Clarendon and his associates, for a tract extending north-eastward to Carahtuke inlet, and thence in a straight line to Wyonoke, which lies under the 36th degree and 30th minute of north latitude, south-westward to the 29th degree ; and from the ocean to the South Sea. The patentees were exempted, for seven years, from the payment of customs on certain commodities, allowed to make their own laws, with the consent of the freemen of the pro- vince, or their delegates, and to create an order of nobility, by confer- ing titles of honour, differing, however, in style, from the titles conferred in England, The proprietaries, in Order to realize the full benefit of this charter, now proceeded to subscribe the famous instrument which bears the name of the Fundaynental Constitutions of Carolina, the preamble of which assigns as the reason for its adoption, " that the government of this province may be made most agreeable to the monarchy under which we live ; and that we may avoid erecting a numerous democra- cy." The task of composing this political frame was devolved upon Lord Shaftesbury, who is understood to have employed for that pur- pose, the celebrated John Locke, one of his lordship's intimate friends. The instrument, therefore, whatever may be its merits, must always be regarded with interest as the link that connects the genius of Locke witli the history of America. By these constitutions it was declared that the eldest of the eight proprietaries should be palatine of the province during his life, and that his successor should always be the eldest of the survivors. Seven other of the chief offices of state, namely, the offices of admiral, cham- berlain, chancellor, constable, chief-justice, high steward, and treasurer, were appropriated exclusively to the other seven proprietaries; and these, as well as the office of palatine, might bo executed by deputies within the province. Corresponding to these offices there were to be (besides the ordinary courts of every county) eight supreme courts, to each of which was annexed a college of twelve assistants. The pala- tine was to preside in the palatine's court, of which he and three others of the proprietaries made a quorum ; and this court represented the king, ratified or negatived the enactments of the legislature, and, in general, was vested with the administration of all the powers conferred by the royal charter, except in so far as limited by these fundamental constitutions. By a complicated frame-work of counties, seigniories, baronies, precincts, and colonies, the whole land of the province was Where did he seUle? — When was Clarendon's second charter granted ? — For what tract? — With what terms? — Wliat fenious constitution was iirejcired ? — By whom' — What were its chief" provisions? 88 SAYLE S EXPEDITION. divided into five equal portions, one of which was apsif^ned to the pro- prietaries, another to the nohility, and the remaining- throe were left to the people. Two classes of hereditary nobility, with possessions pro- portioned to their respective dif^nities, and for ever unalienable and in- divisible, were to be created by the proprietaries, under the titles of landgraves and caciques ; and these, together with the deputies of the proprietaries, and representatives chosen by the freemen, constituted the parliament of the province, which was appointed to bo biennially convoked, and when assembled, to form one deliberative body, and oc- cupy the same chamber. No matter or measure could be proposed to the parliament that had not been previously prepared and approved by the grand council of the province, a body resembling the lords of the articles in the ancient constitution of Scotland, and consisting almost entirely of the proprietaries' officers and the nobility. No man was eligible to any office unless he possessed a certain definite extent of land, larger or smaller according to the dignity or meanness of the office. Trial by jury was established in each of the courts throughout the v.'hole of the lengthened ramification of jurisdiction : but the office of hired or professional pleaders was denounced as a base and sordid occupation; and no man was allowed to plead the cause of another without previously deposing on oatii that he neither had received, nor would accept, the slightest remuneration for his services. To avoid the confusion arising from a multiplicity of laws, all acts of the parlia- ment were appointed to endure only one hundred years, after which they ceased and determined of themselves without the formality of an express repeal ; and, to avoid the perplexity created by a multiplicity of commentators, all comments whatever on the fundamental constitu- tions, or on any part of the common or statute law of Carolina, were absolutely prohibited. Every freeholder was required to pay a yearly rent of a penny for each acre of his land to the proprietaries ; and all the inhabitants, above seventeen and under sixty years of age, were obliged to bear arms, and serve as soldiers, whenever they should re- ceive a summons to that efi:ect from the grand council. Such were the leading features of this memorable constitution. They are given thus minutely because they show clearly the character of this remarkable attempt to introduce institutions of the most aris- tocratic character into this country. The people, however, were thoroughly dissatisfied with them from the first, and soon organized an insurrection conducted by Culpepper, in the course of which the pala- tine and his deputies wore seized and imprisoned; and it was not until application had been made to Virginia for assistance, that the insurgents were induced to submit to the chartered authorities. In January, 1670, an expedition was fitted out under the direction of Colonel William Sayle, an experienced officer, who received the appointment of governor of that part of the coast lying south-westward of Cape Carteret. He was accompanied by Joseph West, who for up- wards of twenty years bore the chief sway in Carolina ; and who was How were the people affected by this attempt to introdnce aristocracy? — What was the consequence of their discontent ? — When did Sayle's expedition take place ? TYRANNY OF SOTIIEL. 89 now intrusted with the management of tlie commercial aflliir? of the proprietaries. They formed a settlement at Port Royal, within the present limits of South Carolina. But being disssatisfied with the situ- ation of this place, they removed next year to a spot at the confluence of the Cooper and Ashley rivers, and laid out the town of old Charles- .ton. On the decease of Sayle, which took place soon after his arrival, West had succeeded temporarily to the office of governor ; and until the jurisdiction of Sir John Yeamans was extended by the proprietaries to the southern colony. The new settlement soon attracted so many emi- grants from Clarendon as nearly to exhaust it. The remoteness of Charleston from the other settled portion of Carolina, siibsequently led to its erection into a separate province under the name of South Caro- lina. The subsiding of Culpepper's insurrection had by no means restored order in the district of Albemarle. The discontent of the people was encouraged by the temporising policy of the palatine and the proprie- taries. In order to allay the dissensions which had arisen, the proprie- taries sent out Seth Sothel, who had purchased Lord Clarendon's share of the province, and whose interest and authority, they hoped, would powerfully conduce to the restoration of good order and tranquillity (1G33). This measure, however, produced a totally ditierent result. By his office of chief magistrate, lie was enabled to become a complete scourge to the province. His rapacity and oppression were almost un- bounded. He plundered the people with an unsparing hand, and is said to have even received bribes from felons. His administration, after afflicting the province for a period of five years, at length exhausted the patience of all parties, and produced one good effect, in uniting the divided people by a sense of common suffer- ing and danger. Driven almost to despair, the inhabitants universally took arms against his government in 1683 (which seems to have been the year of revolutions), and, having deposed and imprisoned iiim, tliey were preparing to send him to England for trial, when, descending to the most abject supplications, he entreated to be judged rather by the provincial assembly, whose sentence he declared himself willing to abide. He was, accordingly, tried by the assembly, and being found guilty of all the crimes laid to his charge, he was required to abjure the country for twelve months, and the government for ever. When the proprietaries received intelligence of these proceedings, they deemed it proper to signify that they did not altogether approve tile irregular justice of the colonists, but they expressed the deepest regret for their sufferings, and the utmost astonishment and indignation at the conduct of the governor. They summoned him to answer for his crimes before tiie palatine's court in England ; and they protested to the people, that, if they would render a dutiful obedience to legal authority, no governor should, in future, be suffered to enrich himself Where did he settle? — To what place did the settlers soon ro»-!iove? — Wlio suc- ceeded Sayle? — What was the disposition of the people of Albemarle ? — V/i>o was sent but to govern them ? — What was the conseijuence? — How was his ad- ministration ended? — How was he disposed of? — What is said of the proprieta- ries? 8* 90 SETTLEMENT OF SOUTH CAROLINA. with their spoils. Such was the condition of North Carolina at the epoch of the British Revolution. It may be proper, in concluding- this sketch of the early history of North Carolina, to state that the Constitutions of Locke, which applied to both North and South Carolina, were abrogated in 1693, by the pro- prietaries, and that each colony was afterwards ruled by a governor, council and house of representatives. This state of affairs continued till 1729 ; when the charter, granted to Lord Clarendon and his asso- ciates, was annulled by the king, and separate governments under royal charters for each colony were established, which continued in force till the American revolution. CHAPTER XIV. SETTLEMENT AND EARLY HISTORY OF SOUTH CAROLINA, The first temporary settlement made within the territory of the United States, our readers are already aware, was effected at Port Royal inlet, by Coligny's colony, under the direction of Ribaut, in 1562. After the abandonment of this post, no new attempt was made to settle on the shores of South Carolina till the expedition of governor Sayle, which took place in 1670. His authority was of course derived from the Clarendon charter, which also embraced North Carolina ; the whole territory being then known by the general name of Carolina. Sayle's expedition was sent out immediately after the adoption of the Constitutions of Locke, and his settlers were destined to make the first experiment of this new system of government. Sayle's first settlement was made at Port Royal. On the arrival of the settlers at this place, they prepared to realise the political system to whicB they were required to conform ; but, to their great surprise, the first glance at their actual situation convinced them that this design was utterly impracticable. A wide scene of rough labour lay before them, and it was obvious that for many years a pressing demand for labourers must be experienced ; a state of things totally incompatible with the avocations of official dignitaries, and the pompous idleness of an order of nobility. Neither landgraves nor caciques had been appointed by the proprie- taries; and to have peopled even the subordinate institutions, would have been to employ all tlie inhabitants of the colony in performing a political drama instead of providing the means of subsistence. Finding it impossible to carry out the original design in all its parts, they resolved to adliere as closely to it as possible. A council and par- liament were accordingly chosen to aid the governor in his administra- tion. So great were the difliculties attending the first occupation of # What took place in 1693? — In 1729? — \Vlien was the first settlement made in South Carolina? — When was Sayle's expiedition sent out? — Where did the settlers land ? — What difficulty did they encounter in the beginning oi' their enterprise ? — What did they resolve to do? CHARLESTON FOUNDED, 91 the settlement, tliat, only a few months after their arrival, the colonists were relieved from extreme distress by a supply of provisions sent to them by the proprietaries. Along with this supply, were transmitted certain laws relative to the distribution of lands, and the plan of a magnificent town, which the go- vernor was desired to build with all convenient despatch, and to denomi- nate Charles-town in honour of the king. Liberal terms were offered to new settlers, and the good-will of the neighbouring Indians was pur- chased by considerable presents to the native caciques, who performed the only service which that description of dignitaries was destined ever to render to the colony. While tho colonists were toiling to lay the foundation of civil society in the province, the proprietaries were proceeding, very unseasonably, to erect the superstructure of those aristocratical institutions which they designed to establish. The Duke of Albemarle, the first palatine, having died, was succeeded by Lord Craven; and shortly afterwards John Locke was created a landgrave in recompense of his services. The same elevation was bestowed on Sir John Yeamans, and on James Carteret, a relative of one of the proprietaries. Sayle had scarcely established the people in their new settlements, when he fell a victim to the unwholesomeness of the climate. On his death. Sir John Yeamans claimed his office, as due to the rank of land- grave, which no other inhabitant of the province, except himself, en- joyed. But the council, who were empowered to elect, a governor in such circumstances, preferred to appoint Joseph West, a popular man, much esteemed among the colonists for his activity, courage, and pru- dence, until a special commission should arrive from England. West's administration was but short-lived ; for the proprietaries, de- sirous of promoting the respectability of their nobles, and highly satis- fied with the prudence and propriety which had characterized Yeamans's government of the plantation round Cape Fear, extended his command over the new settlement, south-westward of Cape Carteret. The shores, the streams, and the interior of the country, being now perfectly well known, in consequence of the accurate surveys they had undergone, the planters from Clarendon on the north, and from Port Royal on the south, began about this period (1671) to resort to the con- venient banks of Ashley river; and here was laid, during the same year, the foundation of Old Charleston, which became for some time the capital of the southern settlements. Emigrants from New York, whose Dutch inhabitants were willing to leave it after the English conquest, added to the numbers of the new colony, and other reinforcements were received from Engbnd. Subsequently (1G86), certain French Huguenots, driven from their country by the revocation of the edict of Nantz, sought shelter in the new colony. In 1674, West was again What officers were chosen ? — What distress did they experience? — IIow were they relieved? — What did they receive witla the provisions? — Of whom did they purchase lands ? — What is said of the proprietaries? — Who succeeded Sayle? — Who succeeded West? — How was the number of settlers increased? — When was Old Charleston founded? — Where? — When was West appointed a second time? — When was Charleston founded ? 92 STANDING LAWS OF CAROLINA. appointed governor by the council with the assent of the proprieta- ries. In 1680, the situation of old Charleston being- found inconvenient, the inhabitants removed to Oyster Point, at the confluence of the Cooper and Ashley rivers, and founded the city which still bears the name of Charleston. During the same year the colony had to sustain a war with the Westoe Indians, whom they at length succeeded in re- ducing to submission. In 1682, Governor West held a parliament at Charleston, when laws were enacted for settling a militia, which the late war had shown to be necessary, for establishing public roads, and for suppressing immo- rality. Shortly after this. West, who had incurred the displeasure of the proprietaries, by allowing the kidnapping of Indians, and by curb- ing the excesses of the cavaliers, who were accounted the proprietary party, was removed from his command : and Joseph Moreton, who had been recently created a landgrave of Carolina, was appointed in his place. This was the commencement of a course of rapid succession of governors, and all the other public officers in the colony ; a system arising partly from unexpected casualties, and partly from defective policy ; and which did not fail to produce the consequences with which it has been invariably attended, in the degradation of government, and the promotion of party spirit and cabals. In 1686, the Spaniards from St. Augustine, after threatening hostili- ties for some time, invaded the southern frontiers of the province, and laid waste the settlements of Port Royal. The Carolinians determined to revenge this attack by a descent on St. Augustine, which was only prevented by the interference of the proprietaries. Moreton's adminis- tration terminated in 1686; and he was succeeded by James Colleton. A parliament having been summoned by Colleton, the majority of the members openly expressed their disapprobation of the fundamental con- stitutions of Locke, which had hitherto formed the basis of the govern- ment ; and having appointed a committee to revise and amend them, this body proceeded, without delay, to frame a new and very different scheme of government, which they distinguished by the name of the standing laios of Carolina, and transmitted to England for the approbation of the pro- prietaries. They were, of course, disapproved, and positive orders re- turned to observe the fundamental constitutions which had been so irre- verently handled. The majority of the assembly maintaining their ground, were expelled from the house by the governor ; and protesting against any laws that might be enacted by a minority of the commons, they retired into the country and actively instilled their own principles and discontents into the minds of the people. The consequence was a course of resistance to the authority of the governor and bis supporters, during which the popular party imprisoned the secretary of the province, Where? — Willi whom was a war sustained ? — What was done in 1682? — Wlio succeeded West ? — Why was West removed from office? — What followed his re- moval ? — What happened in 1686 ? — Who succeeded Moreton ? — What was done by the parhamont? — By ihe proprietaries? — By the majority of the parliament? — By the governor ? — What was the conseiineucc ? sothel's usurpation. 93 took forcible possession of tlie public records, and finally efiected a com- plete subversion of the jrovernment (1688). Colleton, as a last resort, declared martial law, and durino- the fer- ment occasioned by this rash proceeding (1690), Seth Sothel, whom we have seen banished from Albemarle, suddenly presented himself at Charleston, and in the double capacity of a proprietary of the province, and a champion of the popular rights against proprietary pretensions, laid claim to the possession of supreme authority. Hailed at once with the acclaim of a numerous faction, he succeeded without difficulty in prevailing over the opposition of the governor and the more respectable inhabitants, and in possessing himself of the reins of government, which had long awaited and invited the grasp of some vigorous hand. With a gracious semblance of respect to petitions which had been sug- gested by himself, he consented to convene a parliament; and, during the distractions of the times, it was easy to procure the return of mem- bers who were ready to sanction, by their votes, whatever measures he might dictate to them. Colleton was, by this assembly, impeached of high crimes and misdemeanours, and not only disabled from holding any office in the government, but banished from the province. Others who were accused of having abetted his misgovernment, were subjected to fine, imprisonment, and exile. Having now obtained possession of the supreme authority, and under pretence of gratifying the resentments of the people, enriched himself by forfeitures, and disencumbered him- self of rival candidates for office, Sothel proceeded to exercise his power with a tyranny that effijctually rebuked and punished the folly of those who had permitted him to obtain it, and soon united the south- ern colony against him in the same unanimous hatred which he had excited amon'g their brethren in North Carolina. He is said to have trampled under foot every restraint of justice and equity, and ruled the colonists with a rod of iron. The replenishment of his coffers was the sole object of his government, and his financial operations were varied only by varieties of rapine. The fair traders from Barbadoes and Ber- muda were seized by his orders, under the pretended charge of piracy, and compelled to purchase their ransom from imprisonment by enormous fines ; bribes were accepted from real felons to favour their escape from justice ; and the property of individuals was seized and confiscated on the most unjust and frivolous pretences. The proprietaries hearing with astonishment of these outrageous proceedings, transmitted letters of recal to Sothel, and threatened, in case of his disobedience, to pro- cure a mandamus from the king to compel his appearance in England ; and their orders being now seconded by the hearty concurrence of the people, the usurper w^as constrained to vacate his functions, and abandon the province. He retired, however, no farther than to North Carolina, where he died in the year 1694. Subsequent to this period the peace of the province was disturbed by various causes. An attempt to disfranchise the French Protestants What was done by Colleton as a last resort? — Who now appeared and usurped the government? — Describe his character and administration. — Wiien was he re- moved ? — What next disturbed the province ? 94 SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA. produced a disturbance which lasted several years. In 1702, an ill-con- certed expedition ngainst St. Augustine met with defeat. It was reta- liated by an attack on Charleston in 1706, which also failed. The year 1715 was distinguished by a distressing war with an extensive combnia- tion of the Indian tribes of the South, who were finally defeated. In 1719 the proprietary government was terminated, and thenceforth, till the American revolution, the colony was under the direction of govern- ors deriving their authority immediately from the king. CHAPTER XV. SETTLEMENT AND EARLY HISTORY OF GEORGIA. Although Georgia was not settled till more than forty years subse- quent to the period to which we have brought up the history of the other colonies, yet as it was one of tlie thirteen by whose exertions the independence of the country was achieved, we introduce in tiiis con- nexion a brief sketch of its early history. Georgia was originally included in Heath's patent, and subsequently in that of Clarendon and his associates, for Carolina. But no settlement having taken place within its boundaries under that grant, a new patent was granted, in 1732, to a company of benevolent individuals, whose object was to establish a retreat for indigent subjects of Great Britain, as well as for the persecuted Protestants of all nations. The necessary expenses of the undertaking were defrayed by private contributions. The patentees entrusted the care of the colony to James Oglethorpe, who with 118 emigrants embarked from England in November, 1732, and landed at Charleston in the month of January tbllowing. Having met with a cordial reception from the Carolinians, who willingly lent their aid in the enterprise, the settlers proceeded to a place above the mouth of the Savannah river, called Yamaeraw Bluff, and there laid the foundations of their capital city. Savannah. After exploring the surrounding country, Oglethorpe proceeded to call a council of the neighbouring Indian chiefs, the Upper and Lower Creeks and Yamacraws, and easily prevailed upon them to grant him a portion of their lands. On his return to England, he took home several of the Indians, among whom was the chief Tomochichi, and by the atten- tions which he procured for them there, he still further conciliated the good-will of the neighbouring tribes of natives. The next year brought an accession of five or six hundred paupers from England without adding much to the efficient force of the colony, as but few of them were able to bear the labours and fatigues incident What took place in 1702?— In 170G?— In 1715? — In 1719? — In what patents was Georgia originally included? — When was it fii-st settled? — By whom? — For what purpose? — Who was governor? — When did the settlers land in Charles- ton? — Wliillier did they proceed? — What city did they found? — Of whom did Oglethorpe buy lauds? — IIow did he conciliate the Indians? — What took place next year ? EXPEDITION AGAINST ST. AUGUSTINE. 95 to the settling of a new and wild country. The trustees, on being- made acquainted with this circumstance, freely offered jrrants of land to all settlers, each being- allowed fifty acres to himself. This offer soon brought over more than four hundred emigrants from Germany, Scot- land, and Switzerland, who arrived in 1785. The Germans settled at Ebenezer, and the Scotch took up their residence at a place which they called New Inverness, but which has since received thr^ name of Darien. In 1736 the celebrated Methodist preacher, John Wesley, visited the colony for the purpose of diffusing religious instruction among the peo- ple, but he soon after returned to England, without having apparently effected much by his mission. His example was followed in 1738 by George Whitefield, another equally celebrated preacher, of the same persuasion, whose principal object w^as the establishment of an asylum for orphans, in which he was to a certain extent successful. The report of the trustees published in 1740, showed that 2498 emi- grants had arrived in the colony, of whom 1521 were indigent English- men or persecuted Protestants; that 500,000 dollars had been expended on the colony by government and individuals ; and that it was still de- pendent on charitable contributions for support. During the same year, England being at war with Spain, Oglethorpe received the appointment of General in the British army ; and, at the liead of two thousand men, a part of whom were raised in Virginia and Carolina, undertook an expedition to Florida, He captured two Spanish forts, and laid siege to St. Augustine. But he was unable to reduce the place ; and, raising the siege, returned to Georgia. This invasion was retaliated by the Spaniards in 1742, when Ogle- thorpe, left to his own resources and the aid of his own colonists, was enabled, by a well-concerted stratagem, to baflie the enemy and send him back in disgrace to St. Augustine. For ten years afler this period the colony remained in a languishing condition under the management of the trustees, who appear not to have understood the proper methods for promoting its prosperity. They finally surrendered their charter to the crown ; and, in 1754, a govern- ment under a charter derived directly from the king vyas established. From this period the colony advanced rapidly in population and wealth. CHAPTER XVI. COMMENCEMENT OF THE WARS BETWEEN THE BRITISH AND THE FRENCH IN AMERICA, Besides the Indians, the French in Canada and Acadia were destined, for a while, to check the pretensions, and mar the prosperity of the English Colonies, The rival nations, as we have already related. How were neu settlers brought in? — When? — Where did they settle? — Who arrived in 1736?— In 1738? — What is said of Whitefield? — What facts were re- ported by the tnisters in 1710? — What expedition was undertaken this year? — With what success? — What took place in 1742? — When was a royal charter granted ? — What followed ? — What natitins had colonics north of the 13ritish settle- menls in America? — What were they called? 96 FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS. attempted to settle in America about the same time; and, in the year 1608, James I, of Eng'land had granted to the companies of Virginia a part of the territory which had been allotted, three years before, to M. do Monts by Henry IV. of France. This was an immediate cause of dispute and warfare. Under various commissions and different leaders, the French had possessed themselves of Canada and Acadia ; and at the period to which we have brought the history of the English colo- nies, they had gained over the Indians in their neighbourhood, and were preparing to attack the settlement of New York. The chief stations of the French in North America were, Quebec, Montreal, and Port- Royal. The fate of the colonies, like that of other dependants, was wholly regulated by the measures which the parent countries adopted. About this time, Louis XIV. was making rapid strides towards universal do- minion ; and William of Orange, now elevated to the English throne, was equally zealous and active in resisting his ambitious attempts. When hostilities commenced in Europe, the colonies in America began likewise to annoy each other in their several possessions. The French, in conjunction with their Indian allies, made predatory incursions into different parts of New England ; and a war of this kind, attended with much expense, and no little individual misery, was for some time carried on. It was frequently intended, by the ministry in Great Britain, to send an armament into North America for the protection of the colonies, and the invasion of Canada; but the affairs of Europe requiring all their attention, the settlers were obliged to arm in their own defence. At length, Colonel Nicholson was despatched to England, in order to re- present the state of the country to Queen Anne, and to petition for such assistance as would enable them to attack the French in their posses- sions, and to deliver themselves from an enemy who was both trouble- some and dangerous. Soon after, Nicholson returned with five frigates and a bomb-ketch ; but the colonies were to furnish the troops which might be requisite for the expedition. It was resolved to attack Port-Royal in Acadia. The whole arma- ment, consisting of one regiment of marines, and four regiments of provincials, sailed from Boston (1707,) and invested the place, which surrendered without opposition. Vetch was appointed governor ; and the name of the town was changed from Port-Royal to Annapolis, in honour of the queen. This, however, was a trifling and an ineffectual blow. More powerful aid was necessary : and Nicholson was again despatched to Europe, in order to solicit the prompt and decided interference of England. Con- trary to all expectation and belief, his mission was successful. He arrived at Boston in the year 1711, with instructions to the governors What were they preparing for? — Which were their chief stations? — Who was king of France? — Of England ? — Wlien was war commenced in Europe? — What sort of incursions were made into New England ? — With what effects? — What is said of Colonel Nicholson? — What fone did he bring? — What place was taken from the French ? — When ? — What followed ? — What was done by Nicholson in 1711? EXPEDITION AGAINST CANADA. 97 of the colonies to have their proportions of men in readiness, by tlie time tliat tiie fleet and army should reach them from Europe. The in- terval was exceeding-ly short ; but as the service was agreeable to the people, as well as the governors, they exerted themselves with unusual vif^our, and all difficulties were overcome. The general court of JNIassachu setts issued bills of credit to the value of 40,000Z. in order to supply the money which the English trea- sury could not advance : the whole settlers were enjoined to furnish the army with provisions ; each colony brought in the proportion which was assigned it; and all things being ready, the expedition set out from Boston on the 30th of July, and proceeded, without delay, to the river St, Lawrence. The number of troops which had arrived from Europe was considerable. They consisted of seven veteran regiments, which had fought under the illustrious duke of Marlborough, and'one regiment of marines ; and these, together with the provincials, amounted to 6500 men ; a force equal to that which afterwards, under the command of Wolfe, reduced Quebec, when it was fortified with more skill, and de- fended by an abler general. One fatal night, however, blasted the hopes of the colonists. As they sailed down the river, eight of the transports were wrecked on Egg-Island; and the weather was so unfavourable, that they were more than a week in reaching Quebec. The expedition was soon after abandoned ; and the treaty of Utrecht being signed in Europe, a termi- nation was put to the war. The Indians, in the service of the French, no longer prompted to hostilities, and no longer supported by their allies, sued for peace. During the peace, the republican spirit of the colonies in New England showed itself in disputes with their governors : and these disputes were increased by the arbitrary manner in which the go- vernors enforced the orders of the crown. In most instances, how- ever, the colonies had the advantage : knowing what was due to them as the subjects of England, they determined not to sacrifice any of their rights to the enjoyment of a temporary repose. They had the money of the country in their possession, and, as had been done in Europe, they might withhold the supplies of all kinds, till their object was gained. In the year 1703, Lord Cornbury was appointed governor of New York. Needy, profligate, and tyrannical, he scrupled not to convert to his private use the money which had been raised for the protection of the settlement; and refused to give an account of his disbursements. The legislature took the alarm. They nominated a treasurer of their own ; and put the money, destined for the service of the public, into his hands. This was far from being acceptable to the governor ; but he found himself obliged to comply, and at last declared, that the gene- ral assembly were permitted to name the officer who should manage By the general court of MassachuseUs ? — When did the armament leave Boston ? What caused the failure of the expedition? — What ended the war? — What is said of New England? — Of the colonists? — How did they gain the advantage against the crown? — Who was made governor of New York in 1703? — IIow did he proceed ? — What was done by the legislature ? — What was the consequence ? U 98 DISSENSIONS IN MASSACHUSETTS. the supplies raised for extraordinary uses, and forming no part of the standini^ revenue. Cornbury proceeded in his career of tyranny and extortion, till the queen, informed of his unpopular measures, con- sented to recal him (1709). Amidst the quarrels which took place during his administration, it was resolved by the assembly of New York, that " the imposing and levying of any moneys upon her majesty's subjects of that colony, under any pretence or colour whatsoever, without their consent, in general assembly, is a grievance and a violation of the people's property." But it is possible, that this resolution was meant to apply only to the go- vernor ; and that the legislature did not, at that time, question the right of the sovereign to impose taxes on the colonies without their approba- tion. It appears, however, to have been understood in the other set- tlements, that the crown Imd no such right: and this fundamental principle of liberty becoming gradually universal in its operation, at length dismembered the empire, and separated the colonies from the parent state. Disputes of a similar kind with those of New York prevailed at Massachusetts. The representatives of the people denied, that the go- vernor could refuse to acknowledge a speaker who was chosen by them ; and persisting in their election of Mr. Cooke, they were dis- solved, and new writs were issued. The same persons, however, were returned ; and, at the opening of the next session, they remonstrated with Shute, tlie governor, on the dissolution of the former assembly, and resolved, " that those who advised his excellency in that matter, did not consult his majesty's (George I.) interest, nor the public weal and quiet of the government." They refused to make a present to the Indians of the Penobscot tribe, according to the wishes of the executive; and when they were desired to reconsider their vote, they would give no more than ten pounds. Though adjourned to a certain day, they met before the inter- val had elapsed ; and passed a resolution against the eastern Indians, which was equal to a declaration of war, and which the governor justly considered as an invasion of his privileges. It was therefore negatived by the council. They hesitated about augmenting the salary of the governor, and refused to say what they would allow him in time to come. At the beginning of the next session, 1721, he expressed a wish, that they should take measures in order to prevent the depreciation of the currency; to punish the authors of factious and seditious papers; to provide a present for the Indians of the Five Nations ; to suppress a trade carried on with the French at Cape Breton, and to enlarge his salary ; but they neglected to comply with his inclinations in all these respects. They even appointed a committee of their number, " to vin- dicate the proceedings of the house from the insinuations made by. the When was Lord Cornbury recalled? — What remarkable resolution had been passed by the legislature during the dispute with Cornbury? — What remarks are made on it? — What is said of Massachusetts ? — Clive an account of the dispute between the governor and the general court. — What was done by the governor in 1721 ?— By the general court? NEW CHARTER OF MASSACHUSETTS. 99 n-overnor, of their want of duty and loyalty to his majesty," Nor did their procecdino's stop here. They attempted to direct the conduct of the militia in the Indian war. In the mean time, the governor left the settlement, and returned pri- vately to England. He reported, that the proceedings of the planters were violent, presumptuous, and inimical to the best interests of the country ; and the points in dispute being examined, with a reference to the charter by which their privileges were conferred, every question was decided against the liouse. It was determined, that the governor had a right to negative the election of a speaker ; and that the assem- bly had no power to meet in any interval of adjournment. A charter, explanatory of the original one, was prepared, and passed the seals ; and it was left to the option of the general court, either to accept or to refuse it ; but they were told, that if they refused it, the whole subject of difference between the governor and the house of re- presentatives would instantly be laid before the parliament. The result of a parliamentary investigation was dreaded by the colonists; as, from the temper of the ministry, no issue, favourable to their inte- rests, could be expected. They even feared, that their ancient charter, the foundation of all their immunities, and the bulwark of their pros- perity, would be withdrawn. The spirit of the assembly, too, was con- siderably changed. No longer irritated by the presence and opposition of the governor, the excitement had subsided, and the mnjority agreed to nccopt the explanatory charter. The next governor was Mr. Burnet. He was received with great pomp at Boston ; and on the meeting of the assembly, he told them, that he had it in command to insist upon an established allowance; and that he was, in this respect, resolved to adhere to his instructions. The general court voted the sum of 1700/. to defray the expenses of his journey, and to support him in the rank of governor and commander in chief; but they would not agree to any act fixing a salary, which their descendants should be obliged to pay. Memorials passed on both sides. The governor threatened them with an appeal to England, and the ab- rogation of their charter. But they persisted in adhering to their reso- lution, and declined to establish any allowance. The house prepared a statement of the controversy, which they transmitted to all their towns; and, at the end of the paper, they assign- ed the reasons of their conduct; reasons in themselves of such force, that it was difficult to see what could be opposed to them, unless it were a determination on the part of the governor to listen to no reason tliat could be offered. "We cannot agree to fix a salary, (they declare,) even for a limited time : First, Because it is an untrodden path, which neither we nor our predecessors have gone in; and we cannot certainly foresee the many dangers that may be in it ; nor can we depart from that way which has been found to be safe and comfortable. Secondly, Be- Wlio went to England ? — What did ho report? — What was the consequence? — What sort of cliarter was prepared ? — Why was it accepted ? — Who was the next governor? — What did he announce? — What was done by the general court? — What did they rel'use ? — What followed? — What reasons were assigned by the general court (or tlieir determination not to fix a salary for the govcrnijr? 100 CAPTURE OF LOIJISBOURG. cause it is the undoubted rig-ht of all Englishmen, by Magna Charta, to raise and dispose of money for the public service of their own {"ree ac- cord, without compulsion. Thirdly, Because it must necessarily lessen the dignity and freedom of the liouse of representatives, in making acts, and raising and applying taxes; and consequently cannot be thought a proper method to preserve that balance in the three branches of the legislature, which seems necessary to form, maintain, and sup- port the constitution. And, lastly. Because the cliarter fully empowers the general assembly to make such laws and orders, as they shall judge to be for the good and welfare of the inhabitants," &c. Notwithstanding these reasons, the governor still refused to accept of any grant in place of an established allowance. lie removed the court from Boston to Salem, on pretence that tiie members were con- trolled in their resolutions by the violence of the townsmen ; he de- prived the representatives of the money which they should have received to defray the expense of their attendance, by refusing to sign a warrant upon the treasurer for that purpose ; and animated by a wish to observe his instructions, he declared his resolution of adhering to them in their utmost extent. But in the midst of these contentions^ he was seized with a fever and died. The death of Mr. Burnet, however, did not put an end to the dispute in which he was engaged. It continued to distract the settlement aftnr his decease; and was finally terminated to the advantage of the people, by instructions from the crown that the governor should accept of the allow'ancc which was annually voted by the assembly. As a war was at this time raging between England and Spain, the connexion between the different families of the house of Bourbon, ren- dered it very unlikely that the French would continue at peace, while the Spaniards were at war with the British. An attempt was made by the French to destroy the English fishery at Canseau. Louisbourg, the capital of the island of Cape Breton, was besieged by the pro- vincials ; and the siege being pressed v/ith great activity, and the Vigilant man-of-w^ar, which had supplies of all kinds on board, being taken, Duchambon, the governor, surrendered the place. This expedition was planned by the people of New England, and chiefly effected by forces raised among themselves, Shirley, the go- vernor of Massachusetts, was very active in promoting the design und engaging the co-operation of the Britisli Admiralty: but the people justly prided themselves on the capture of Cape Breton as the result of their own courage and enterprise. In the same year, 1745, very important and extensive operations were planned by the rival nations. The French had in view, the re- covery of Cape Breton and Nova Scotia, together with the total devas- tation of the coast along the v.'hole of the British possessions; and England, on her side, looked forward to the reduction of Canada, and the expulsion of the French from the American continent. It will soon What was done by the governor? — What ended his adminrstration ? — ITow did the controversy end ? — What nations were at war? — What attempt was made by tlie French? — What place was taken by the New England troops? — When? — What else took place in 1745 ? — What were the designs of France? — Of Krigluud < CONDITION OF THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH COLONIES. 101 appear, that tlio hopes of the English were better founded tlian those of their antagonists. The resources of the French, however, were by no means inconsiderable. They were in possession of Canada, and had fortified Quebec; their towns were numerous, their stations well chosen; and, by their intrigues with the Indians, they had secured the assistance, or gained the neutrality, of many powerful tribes. Nor was this all : they had extended their discoveries along the banks of the Mississippi, and advanced towards the great lakes; they had occu- pied tlie country of Upper Louisiana, a fertile region, capable of sup- porting an immense population, and gratifying the most ample views of conquest. Tlie settlements of the French, stretching from north to south, inter- fered with those of the English, which extended from east to west. The former nation meditated the union of Louisiana with Canada, by which they could more readily act in concert, and annoy the English, whose encroachments on the aboriginal tribes they had proposed to check. They had acquired the command of Lake Champlain, by erect- ing a fort at Crown Point ; and their posts extended up the river St. Lawrence, and along the great lakes. It was now designed to connect these posts with the Mississippi. The white population of the French colonies amounted to 52,000 men. Their whole power was marshalled under one ruler. The tem- per of the people, as well as the genius of the government, was mili- tary. With the exception of the Six Nations, (formerly the Five Na- tions, a new tribe having entered the confederacy,) all the Indians were attached to France ; they were trained to war after the European man- ner ; the efficacy of their assistance had already been experienced, and their aid was the more important and valuable, as they were acquainted with the recesses of the country which was to become the theatre of war. In opposing the force, and defeating the plans of the French, the English colonies laboured under many disadvantages. Tiiey were se- parated into distinct governments and interests; excepting those of New England, they were altogether unaccustomed to union; they were not inured even to obedience, for they were jealous of the crown, and involved in frequent disputes with their immediate rulers. They were spread over a large territory, and in the central provinces the people had lived in such tranquillity, and for so long a time, that they were wholly unacquainted with military operations. Their population, however, exceeded that of the French greatly, and was equal to a mil- lion of souls. The execution of the plan for uniting Canada with Louisiana, was probably hastened by an act of the English legislature. The Ohio company was formed about this time ; and in the year 1750, they ob- tained a grant from the crown of 80,000 acres, in the country to which .What advantages had the French? — What posts had they? — What alUes? — What posts did they design to connect? — Wliat was the amount of the jiopiilatiou in the Frencii colonies? — What disadvantages had the English? — What was the population of their colonies ? — What is said of the Ohio company ? 102 DEFEAT OF GENERAL BRADDOCK. both nations pretended they had a rig-ht. Mcasnrop were instantly taken by tltc company, to secure all the advantages which tliey ex- pected from their new acquisitions; houses for carryinc^ on a trade with the Indians of those parts were estahlished, and surveyors were appoint- ed to ascertain and to fix the lands which had been allotted to them. Though the survey was made as secretly as possible, the intentions of the English in visiting the Ohio, became quickly and generally known. The English traders were seized. Major Washington, who after- wards, in a higher command, led the people of America to independence and to empire, was despatched by the governor of Virginia, with a let- ter, requiring the French general to quit tbe dominions of his Britannic majesty. The French general having declined to comply with the re- quisition, Washington, after the gallant defence of a small stockade, hastily erected at the Little Meadows, was obliged to capitulate (1754). Fort du Quesne was raised by the French on the disputed propeity. It was perceived that a great struggle w^ould ensue. Orders arrived from England, to cultivate the friendship of the Six Nations, and, if possible, to dislodge the French from the settlement on the Ohio. A convention of delegates from the colonies, for the purpose of treating Vvith the Five Nations, was held at Albany. A proposal was made by governor Shir- ley, that the colonies should unite for their mutual defence ; and that a grand council should be formed, in order to secure the ready co-ope- ration of all the English in America; but, notwithstanding the magni- tude and immediate pressure of the danger, the proposal v»^as objected to, hoth in tbe colonies and in England. The ministry were acquainted with the republican disposition of the Americans; and were afraid that the union might be detrimental to the interests of the parent state. The war continued with various success. The English possessed themselves of Nova Scotia, according to their own definition of its limits. General Braddock, the commander-in-chief, resolved to attack Fort du Quesne, but was surprised on his march, by a party of Indians, with whose mode of fighting he was entirely unacquainted ; the van, under the orders of lieutenant-colonel Gage, was thrown into confusion ; and the main body advancing, the enemy v/ere supposed to be dispersed ; but, in an instant, they rose from the ground where they had concealed themselves, and firing upon the English, completed their disorder. The defeat was total ; sixty-four officers out of eighty-five, and nearly the half of the privates, Vv/ere killed or wounded. The army fled pre- cipitately to the camp of Major Dunbar, where General Braddock ex- pired of his wounds. The remnant of the army owed its preservation on this occasion to the courage and ability of Washington, wlio acted as aid to Braddock, and had vainly endeavoured to prevail on him to take the necessary precautions against falling into an ambuscade of the enemy. What traders were seized by the French? — On what mission v>;as Washington sent? — What followed? — What fort was built? — What orders came frohi Eng- land? — Where was a eonver^tion held ? — What was proposed by governor Shirley ? — Why was not ibe proyiosition acceded to? — Who subdued Nova Scotia? — Against what fort did General Braddock march ? — What misfortune ensued ? — Who saved the army ' ( w^ ) Defeat of General Braddock. PREPARATIONS OF THE ENGLISH. 105 The Earl of Ijondon was llien appointed to the command of all tlie English forces in North America; and the Marquis de Montcalm, an able general, sncceeded Dieskau in the government of Canada and the French possessions, Oswego was taken and destroyed by the enemy. The small-pox having broken out in Albany, wasted the provincials. A military council of the different governors was held at Boston under the direction of the Earl of Loudon, Montcalm advanced against Fort William Henry, and urged his approaches with so much vigour and skill, that tlie garrison capitulated, delivering up to the French all the ammunition and stores; and agreeing not to serve against his most Christian Majesty or his allies, for the space of eighteen months. But the Indians in the French army, unacquainted with the maxims of honour which regulated the conduct of the Europeans, and disregarding the articles of capitulation, fell upon the troops, after they had evacu- ated the place, dragged them from the ranks, and put them to death with their tomahawks, Montcalm exerted himself to prevent these outrages; but much injury was done before his interposition was ef- fectual. The Earl of Loudon, unsuccessful in all his attempts, and disappoint- ed in the hope of gaining laurels by his victories in Canada, placed his army in winter quarters. This was followed by a controversy with the people of Massachusetts about the extent of the act of parliament for billeting soldiers. The people firmly maintained that it did not apply to his majesty's subjects in the plantations; and addressing the Earl, they offered such reasons for their opinion and their conduct, and made such explanations, as induced him to recal the orders which he had issued for the marching of troops, in order to force them to obedience. Instead of producing fear and repressing activity, the ill success of the British arms excited the indignation of the people, both in England and the colonies, and urged them to more vigorous preparations. Mr. Pitt, afterwards created Earl of Chatham, was raised to the head of the administration in Europe. Powerful in debate, and able in the cabinet, of a noble independence of spirit, capable of forming great schemes, and of executing them with unusual decision and unremitting perse- verance, this accomplished statesman had the complete direction of the strength and the riches of his country. In no part of the empire was his character more popular than in America, He assured the governors of the provinces, in a circular letter which he addressed to them, that an effectual force should be sent, to act against the French, both by sea and land; and he called upon them to raise as large bodies of men as the population of the colonies would allow. These were to be supplied with arms and ammunition by the crown. A vigorous activity diffused itself through all the plantations ; and the designs of the minister were seconded by the cheerful and unabating What is said of the Earl of Loudon ? — Of Montcalm? — Of Oswego — Of the military council ? — Of Fort William Henry ? — The Indians ? — What was now done hy the Earl of Loudon? — By the people of Massachusetts? — Who was made prime minister of England? — What was his character? — What assvirances did he give to the provincial governors?— What did he request? — What prepara- tions were made ? ' 106 LOIJISBOUEG TAKEN. exertions of the people. A powerful armament, equipped with extraor- dinary despatch, sailed from the harbours of England. The Earl of Loudon iiaving returned to Europe, the command of all the British forces in America devolved on General Abercrombie. This officer was at the head of 50,000 men; of which, 20,000 were troops raised in the provinces. Tliree expeditions were resolved on, (1758;) the first against Louis- bourff, which had fallen into the hands of the French ; the second against Ticonderoga and Crown Point; and the third against Fort du Quesne. The troops destined to act against Ivouisbonrg, consisting of 14,000 men, were commanded by Major General Andierst ; and Admiral Boscawen, with twenty sail of the line, and eighteen frigates, was or- dered to co-operate with him in reducing the place. The army embarked at Halifax on the 24tli of May, and arrived before Lnui'sbonrg on the 2d of June. The fleet intercepted the sup- plies which were designed by the enemy for the relief of their colonies. The approaches of the British were regular and decisive. General Wolfe was detached with 2000 men to seize a post at tbe Lighthouse Point, from which the enemy could be annoyed with greater hope of success; and that young and gallant officer executed the service with so much promptness and ability, that the French were driven from their position, and several batteries of heavy artillery were erected upon it. The cannonade began, and it was perceived that the town must ultimate- ly fall. One of the enemy's ships in the harbour was blown up ; the flame was speedily communicated to two others, which shared the same fate. Another large vessel which had run aground, was destroy- ed by a detachment of seamen under Captains Tjaf )rey and Balfour; and another being towed ofi'in triumph, the English took possession of the harbour. A general attempt was meditated by the enemy; but Dru- court, the governor, influenced by the wishes of the traders and inhabit- ants, agreed to capitulate; and resigned the place, with all its artillery and stores, to the British commander. The expedition against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, was led by General Abercrombie in person ; sixteen thousand effective men were under his orders, and he was provided with every thing necessary for the success of the enterprise. The troops embarked on Lake George, and landed without opposition, under the cover of some heavy pieces of artillery mounted upon rafts. They were divided into fl)ur columns, and marched in that order towards the vanguard of the enemy; but the French, not being in sufficient force to oppose them, deserted their camp, and made a hasty retreat. The English general then advanced towards the fortress of Ticonderoga, through almost impassable woods, and under the direction of unskilful guides; so that the columns Who was the new commander-in-chief? — What was his force? — IJow many men were raised in tlie provinces? — What three expeditions were resolved on? — When did the Brilisli arrive befijre I-oni.sbourg? — Wliat is said of the fleet? — Of General Wolfe? — Describe the subsequent p.roceedings. — The surrender. — Who led the expedition against Ticonderoga? — Describe his force. — His opera- tions. — What was done by the French ' — By the English general ? CONQUEST OF CANADA. 107 were driven upon eacli other, and thrown into unavoidable confusion. Lord Howe, at the head of the rifjht centre division, fell in a skirmish with a wandering- party of the French, and died, lamented by the whole army. The Britisli having taken possession of a post at the Saw-mills, about two miles from Ticonderoga, and Abercombie having le'drned that a reintbrcement of three thousand men was daily expected by the enemy, it was resolved to storm the place, before the reinforce- ment should arrive, and even without waiting- for the artillery which was necessary to reduce it. The attempt was unsuccessful, notwith- standing the extraordinary bravery of the soldiers; so that after a con- test of four hours, the general thought it prudent to order a retreat and relinquisli tlie expedition. Fort Frontignac was destroyed by Colonel Bradstreet ; and the demolition of that strong-hold facilitated the endeavours of the English against Fort du Quesne, which, after a short time, fell into their hands. Thus terminated the campaign of 1758; during which, tliough the success of the British was not equal to the expectations whicli were formed from the mighty force brought into action, their advances were both considerable and decisive. CHAPTER XVII. CONQUEST OF CANADA. After the disaster at Ticonderoga, the chief command was given to Major-General Amherst; and the bold design was formed, of expelling the enemy from Canada, during the next campaign. As tlie English were superior at sea, and had a numerous and powerful fleet on the American station, the reinforcements which were sent by the French to their colonies were generally intercepted. ^ The British army was divided into three parts, and distributed in the following order : The first division, under brigadier General Wolfe, who had distinguished himself at the siege of Louisbourg, was to make an attempt on Que- bec, the principal tbrtress of the enemy in Canada ; the second division, under Amherst, the commander-in-chief, was to be led against Ticonde- roga and Crown Point; and General Prideaux was to conduct the third, consisting of provincials and Indians, against the important strong- hold of Niagara; after the reduction of which, he was to embark on Lake Ontario, and, proceeding down the St. Lawrence, to attack Mon- treal. The second division was ultimately to unite with that under Wolfe, before Quebec. On the approach of Amherst, Ticonderoga and Crown Point were evacuated. Niagara was besieged in form, and the French made great eftbrts to relieve it ; but the Indians, in their alliance, deserted tlvem in What officer was killed ? — Why did the English resolve to storm the place? — Diesrnbc tlie storming. — What was the result? — What is said of Fort Frontignac? — Of Fort dii (Jiicsne ? — Of the campaign ol 1758 ? — To whom was the chief t'om- mand now given? — What design was formed? — How was the British army dis- tributed ?— What forts were abandoned by the French ?— What fort was besieged and taken by the British ? 108 GENERAL WOLFE BEFOKE aUEBEC. tlie heat of an engagement which followed, and victory declared in favour of the English. This battle determined the fate of tlie place. In these attempts, however, the loss of the British was considerable. General Prideaux was killed by the bursting of a cohorn at Niagara: and the season being far advanced, it was not judged advisable to attack Montreal ; where Vaudreuil, the governor of New I'rance, at the head of live thousand men, was posted to great advantage. The expedition under the young and valiant Wolfe, calls for more particular attention. As soon as the waters were sufliciently clear of ice, he sailed from Louisbourg with eight thousand men, and a formida- ble train of artillery ; and anchoring, after a prosperous voyage, near the island of Orleans, which lies below Quebec, and extends to the basin of that town, he effected a landing without much inconvenience. From this position, he took a view of the fortifications; and such ap- peared to be their strength, that adventurous as he was, and fearless of danger, he declared he had but little hope of success. Quebec stands on the north side of the river St. Lawrence, and on the west side of the St. Charles. It consists of two towns, the upper and the lower. The upper town is built on a lofty rock, which extends with a bold and steep front towards the west, and renders the city im- pregnable on that side ; and the lower town is raised on a strand at the base of the same rock. On the other side, the base is defended by the St. Charles. The channel of this river is broken ; and its borders are intersected with ravines. On its left or eastern bank, the French were encamped, strongly entrenched, and amounting, by some accounts, to 10,000 men. Their rear was covered by an impenetrable wood. At the head of this formidable army, was a general of tried skill and established character; the same Marquis de Montcalm, who, in the preceding year, had reduced, with astonishing celerity, the forts of Oswego and William Henry, and had driven the English, under Aber- crombie, from the walls of Ticonderoga. Such was the place before which Wolfe and the British army had taken their station; and such was the leader with whom they were to contend. But though the dif- ficulties which the English general had to surmount were great, his mind was too ardent, and too full of military enthusiasm, to harbour for a moment the idea of relinquishing the enterprise, while any human means for its accomplishment were unemployed. He took possession of Point Levi, on the south side of the St. Law- rence, and reduced many of the houses to ashes ; but the fortifications were too strong to be attacked, and his batteries at too great a distance to make any effectaal impression upon the city. He then resolved to pass the Montmorency, and to attack the enemy in their entrenchments. In consequence of this determination, thirteen companies of grenadiers, and a part of the second battalion of Royal Americans, were landed near the mouth of that river; while Generals Townshend and Murray prepared to cross it higher up. The first part What followed? — What force had General Wolfe ?— Where did he land? — What did he declare? — Why? — Describe Quebec. — What was the French force? — How disposed? — Who commanded them? — What was done by Wolfe at Point Levi? — What did he resolve? GENERAL WOLFE BEFORE aUEBEC. 109 of the design was, to attack a redoubt which could not easily be pro- tected by the enemy, in the hope that their ardour would lead them to a ireneral engagement. But the cautious Montcalm, knowing the ad- vantages of iiis situation, permitted the English to take possession of the redoubt, without making any attempt to support those who defended it ; Wolfe, therefore, on the appearance of some confusion in the ene- my's camp, led forward his grenadiers to the entrenchments ; but he was received with a fire so steady, and well maintained, that he was obliged to give orders for repassing- the Montmorency, and returned to the island of Orleans. His whole attention, therefore, was again directed to the St. Law- rence, lie attempted, in conjunction with the admiral, to destroy the French ships, but he failed in this also. He landed, however, at Chambaud, on the northern shore of the St. Lawrence, and burned a magazine filled with arms, ammunition, provisions, and clothes. Still, the chief object of the expedition, seemed, in no respect, more within his reach ; and, intelligence of the good fortune which had at- tended the British at Niagara, Ticonderoga and Crown Point, having reached tlie army, Wolfe could not help contrasting the embarrassments which he experienced, with the success of his confederates. While his mind was lofty, it was likewise susceptible; and the chagrin of dis- appointment preying upon his delicate constitution, his health began to decline. He expressed a resolution not to survive the disgrace which would attend the failure of the enterprise. His despatches, addressed at this time to Mr. Pitt, seem to have been written with a view to pre- pare the English nation for the ill success which was to follow. " We have," says he, "almost the whole force of Canada to oppose. In such a choice of difficulties, I own myself at a loss how to determine. The afiairs of Great Britain, I know, require the most vigorous measures; but the courage of a handful of brave men should be exercised only where there is liopc of a favourahle event." Amherst, the commander-in-chief, who had agreed to advance in order to assist him, after the reduction of Ticonderoga and Crown Point, had led his army into winter quarters ; but Wolfe, though severely disappointed at the failure on the part of that general, suftered nothing to escape which reflected on his conduct, and appeared to be convinced, tiiat every thing possible had been done ; for this distinguisbcd man, whose character history is proud to delineate, was as remarkable for his delicacy as for the other qualities of his noble mind. It is certain, at the same time, that the misfortunes and cruel embarrassments of the English, were wholly owing to the want of exertion in the commander- in-chief. It was next resolved to attempt a landing above the town. The camp at Orleans was therefore broken up ; and the whole army having embarked on board the fleet, one division of it was put on shore at Point Levi, and the other carried higher up the river. A plan, suited to the enterprising genius of the British commander, was then formed. It was proposed to scale a precipice on the north bank of the river, during How was he foiled ? — Whither did he retire ? — What followed ? — What is said of Wolfe ? — Of Amher&t ? — What was resolved ? 10 no WOLFE ON THE HEIGHTS OF ABRAHAM. the night, and in this way to reach the heights of Abraham, behind the city. The precipice was accessible only by a narrow path. The stream was rapid, the shore irregular, the landing place such as could not easily be found in the dark, and the steep above, very difficult to be ascended, even without opposition from an enemy. If the English general should succeed, he knew that he could bring the French to an engagement ; but he knew also, that if the attempt should fail, the de- struction of a great part of the troops would be tlie unavoidable conse- quence. Something, however, was to be done. A strong detachment was put on board the vessels destined for the service ; and falling silently down with the tide, the English arrived, an hour before day-break, at the place which had been fixed upon. Wolfe was the first man who leaped on shore ; he was followed by the Highlanders and the light infantry who composed the van ; as these were intended to secure a battery not far from the entrenched path by which the troops were to ascend, and to cover the landing of their associates. Though they had been forced by the violence of the stream to some distance from the place of debarkation, and were obliged to scramble up the rock by the assist- ance of its projections, and the branches of the trees which grew in the cliffs, such was the ardour of the general, and such the alacrity of the soldiers, that they reached the heights in a short time, and almost in- stantly dispersed the guard by which they were defended. The bat- tery was secured ; the whole army followed ; and, when the sun arose, the troops were ranged under their respective officers. The Marquis de Montcalm saw at once the advantage which the English general had gained, and perceived that a battle, which would decide the fate of Quebec, and of Canada, was unavoidable ; he there- fore prepared for it with a courage and activity worthy of his former exploits. He left his strong position on the Montmorency, and passed the St. Charles, to attack the army of the besiegers. As soon as the movement of the French was perceived, Wolfe eagerly formed his order of battle. His right wing was under the command of General Monc- ton, and covered by the Louisbourg grenadiers ; and his left under that of General Townshend, protected by the Higlilanders and the light in- fantry. The reserve consisted of Webb's regiment. The right and left wings of the enemy were composed of European and colonial troops; a body of French were in the centre, and they advanced against the English under the support of two field-pieces, and preceded by an irregular corps of militia and Indians, who kept up a galling fire. The movements of the French indicating a design to turn his left, Wolfe ordered the battalion of Amherst, and two battalions of royal Americans, to that part of his line ; and here they were formed under Ge- neral Townshend in battle array, presenting a double front to the enemy. The French marched up briskly, and began the attack; but the English reserved their fire till the enemy were almost at hand, when they gave it with decisive effect. The two generals were opposed to How were the heights of Abraham reached ? — What is said of Montcalm? — What movement was made by hmi ? — By Wole ? — Describe the order of battle. -How was it begun? — Describe the battle. ( 112 ) Death of General Wolfe. DEATH UI GENERAL WOLFE. 113 each other, Wolfe on t.ho right of the British, and Montcalm on the left of the French. The Enj^iish commnnder ordered the grenadiers to charge ; and, putting himself at their head, advanced with all the zeal and all the intrepidity of his character, when he unfortunately received a mortal wound, and was ohliged to be carried to the rear. He was succeeded in the chief command by General Moncton, and he by Gene- ral Townshend. The Marquis de Montcalm fell. His principal ofRcers experienced the same fate. The French gave way, the P^nglish press- ed forward with their bayonets fixed, and the Highlanders with their broadswords ; and, in a short time, victory declared m favour of Great Britain. The enemy made one attempt to rally, but were driven partly into Quebec, and partly into the river St, Charles. They failed completely in endeavouring to turn tlie left of the English. Meanwhile, Wolfe surveyed the field with the utmost anxiety; forget- ful of his snfierings, and alive only to glory. He had been shot through the wrist in the beginning of the action, but without manifesting the least uneasiness, he wrapt a handkerchief about his arm, and continued to animate his soldiers; another bullet pierced his groin, and, immedi- ately after, he received, as we have stated, a wound in the breast, which forced him to be removed from the heat of the conflict. Still his eye was fixed on the engagement. Faint through loss of blood, be reclined his head on the shoulder of an officer who was near him, eagerly inquiring about the fate of the day; and, though nature was almost exhausted, he roused himself at the words, "they fly, they fly," which reached his ears. "Who fly]" he exclaimed. He was told it was the enemy. "Then," said the hero, "I depart content;" and, having said this, he expired in the arms of victory. Thus fell the young and gallant Wolfe ; a man from whom his coun- try had formed the highest expectations, and whose conduct through the whole of his short life, demonstrated that these expectations were not formed of one who was either unable or unwilling to support them. Brave, enterprising, dignified, and humane, he possessed all the virtues of the military character. His actions are still held up to the imitation of every British soldier; and numerous songs and ballads proclaim his merits, and perpetuate his fame among the British people. While, however, we pronoiuice the eulogium of successful intrepidity, let us not forget that bravery may be displayed when it is not rewarded by fortune ; and that, if the victors in this memorable battle are celebrated for their courage and their conduct, the vanquished likewise are enti- tled to praise. The Marquis de Montcalm was an antagonist worthy of the gallant Wolfe ; their minds were of kindred vigour ; the same love of glory animated them both, and it led them both to the same fear- lessness of danger, and the same contempt of death. His troops being defeated, notwithstanding all his exertions, Montcalm expressed the highest satisfaction that his wound was declared to be mortal ; and wiien he was told that he could not survive more than a few hours, he Who fell? — What was the result? — Describe the death of Wolfe. — Describe the death of Montrjihn 10* 114 FALL OF MONTREAL. said, " it is so mucli the better ; I shall not then live to see the surren- der of Quebec." The battle of the heights of Abraham was followed by the reduction of the city, and ultimately by the subjugation of the Frcncli in Canada. They made, however, some attempts to recover the dominion and tlio places which they had lost; and Monsieur de Levi, after a successful encounter, opened his batteries before Quebec ; but a strong- fleet ar- riving from England, he was compelled to raise the siege, and retire witli precipitation to Montreal. Here Vaudreuil, the governor-general of Canada, fixed his head-quarters, and calling in his detachments, gathered around him the whole strength of the colony. In the mean time, Amherst, the British commander-in-chief, prepared to attack the French ; and to secure to his countrymen the possession of Canada, with the smallest loss, which might be possible, on his side. After making the necessary preparations, he set out in person at the head of 10,000 men, and was joined at Oswego by Sir William John- son and a strong body of Indians; whose fidelity to the English, that gentleman had exerted himself to preserve and to confirm. The army embarked on Lake Ontario; and the British general, having taken pos- session of the fort of Isle Royale, which commanded, in a great mea- sure, the entrance of the St. Lawrence, proceeded down the river, and notwithstanding the difficulty of the navigation at that time of the year, he arrived at Montreal. General Murray appearedbelow the town, with as many of the troops as could be spared from the garrison of Quebec, on the same day that Amherst approached it from above. Colonel Haviland joined the Eng- lish with a detachment from Crown Point. Against such a force as was now before the place, the French were utterly unable to contend. The governor offered to capitulate ; and, in the month of September, 1760, Montreal, together with Detroit, Michillimakinac, and all the possessions of France in Canada, were surrendered to his Britannic majesty. The troops of the enemy were to be transported to their own country in Europe ; and the Canadians were to be protected in the full enjoyment of their property and tlieir religion. Thus, after a long and arduous struggle, after much expense and much distress, the power of the French in America was overthrown ; and the safety of the British colonists was secured against the attacks of a rival, who had both the inclination and the means to annoy them. In the course of the war, the most atrocious cruelties were practised by the Indians : the cottage of the peasant, and the house of the more wealthy settler, were equally the objects of their resentment and their fury: and the tomahawk and the seal ping-knife, instruments the most dreadful to the reflection of man, were employed without discrimina- tion and without remorse. Nor could the one people be charged with encouraging this dishonourable warfare to the exclusion of the other. What followed the fall of Quebec ? — What is said of M. de Levi? — Of Vau- dreuil? — Of Amherst? — What was his force? — What is said of the Indians? — What two generals invested Montreal ? — When were all the French settlements in Canada surrendered to the British? — On what terms? — What is said ol tho Indians? INDIAN WAR. 115 ARer the taking of Montreal, however, it was helievod that tliese crncl- ties would cease ; and it was hoped that the Indians, no longer excited by a rival nation, and depending on the English alone, would leave the planters undisturbed to the prosecution of their commercial inte- rests, and the enjoyment of their domestic happiness. When the French were expelled from Fort du Quesne, they retired into Louisiana, and endeavoured to seduce the Cherokees from their alliance with Great Britain. A war between the English and the sav- ages of that nation ensued. The inhabitants of South Carolina were greatly distressed by their predatory hostilities ; and Colonel Montgo- mery was ordered to the assistance of the planters, with a body of regu- lar troops, which arrived in the spring of the year 17G0. The utmost exertions being made in the province, Montgomery entered the country of the Cherokees, where meeting with the savages, a fierce encounter took place : but, though the English claimed the victory, they thought it imprudent to advance farther, and the Indians, in reality, suffered no defeat. The war continued to rage. Amherst was again applied to for as- sistance. Early in June 1761, Colonel Grant attacked the savages near the town of Etchoc : the contest was severe : but the discipline and valour of the English at length prevailed over the fierce but artless courage of the Cherokees. Their houses were destroyed, and their whole country wasted: and such was the extremity to which they were reduced, that they earnestly sued for peace. A treaty being con- cluded in the course of the year, the southern provinces were delivered from the^ inroads of the savages. The expulsion of the French from their possessions in North Ameri- ca, was followed by a war with Spain, which was carried on with signal advantage to Great Britain. The princes of the house of Bour- bon having formed the alliance, called the Family Compact, in order to support and to heighten their own aggrandizement, the sovereign of France could not be idle while his Catholic majesty was in arms against England. Hostilities commenced both in Europe and America. Grenada, St. Lucia, Martinique, St. Vincent, and all the Caribbee islands, were taken from the French ; and Havannah, an important city, which commanded, in some degree, the Gulf of Mexico, was wrested from Spain. No force which the enemy could bring into action seemed able to stop the British in the career of victory and conquest : but, for reasons unnecessary to be mentioned in this place, preliminaries of peace were signed at Paris, and tranquillity was restored on both sides of the Atlantic. By the treaty which was afterwards concluded, " his Christian ma- jesty ceded to Great Britain, for ever, all the conquests made by that power on the continent of North America, together with the river and port of Mobile : and all the territory, to which France was entitled, on Of the French? — Of the Cherokees? — Of Colonel Montgomery ? — What was effected by him? — By Colonel Grant? — What was the result of the vvar? — After the conquest of Canada what nations were at war with Great Britain ? — What places were taken from the French? — The Spanish? — Where were the prelimi- naries of peace signed ? — What were the terms of tiie subsequent treaty? IIG THE REVOLUTION. the left bank of the Mississippi, reservincr only tlio island of Now Or- leans. And it was agreed, that for the future the confines hotweon the dominions of the two crowns in that quarter of the world, should he irrevocably fixed by a line drawn along the middle of the river Missis- sippi, from its source, as far as the river Tbervillc, and from thence by a line drawn along the middle of this river, and of the lakes Maurepas and Pont Chartrain, to the sea. The Havannah was exchanged with Spain for the Floridas : and by establishing these great natural bounda- ries to the British empire in North America, every cause for future con- test respecting that continent with any potentate of Europe, appeared to be removed for ever. CHAPTER XVIII. THE REVOLUTION. The love of liberty is natural to man. In the savage state, this principle is exercised with little restraint: every individual acts for himself, looks to his own courage and his own arm for defence ; and as he requires not the protection of a superior, he disdains to acknowledge his authority. When men are united in society, it is perceived that subordination is necessary to their happiness, and even to their exist- ence in that society : those who are accustomed to reflect, naturally take the lead in every thing where reflection is wanted ; and thf)se whose valour or address is most conspicuous, have the places assigned to them, where these qualities are most requisite either for attack or defence. Laws are framed to promote the good of the commimity ; and that laws may be executed, some one must be obeyed. Thus the authority of a chief being established, reason tells us that it ouglit to be maintained : for, if otherwise, subordination, which is necessary to the very existence of society, and to the enjoyment of the benefits which result from union, cannot be preserved. The love of licentious freedom is checked, and should be checked by the poAver of the ruler. But if the ruler shall attempt to enforce what is obviously prejudicial to the interests of the state ; if, regardless of the laws which reason has prescribed and expediency has required, he shall follow the dictates of his own will or caprice ; if liberty is not only subjected to whole- some restraint, but in danger of utter annihilation ; the voice of justice and of nature cries out, that resistance is necessary, and that bounds should be set to the uncontrolled extravagance of dominion. When Xerxes is meditating the invasion of Greece, Greece must unite in its own defence. It was the love of freedom which led Miltiades to the plain of Marathon, and Leonidas to the pass of Thermopylas ; and it was the same principle which glowed in the breast of Wallace, and animated the exertions of Tell in the service of his country. But be- fore this principle is called into action, it should be determined, whether the good which is expected from resistance will counterbalance the What is said of the love of liberty? — Of sulwrdinalion ? —Of laws? — Wlien should the ruler be resisted ? CHARACTER OF THE AMERICANS. 117 evils of insurrection, when order is destroyed, and liberty dej^enerates into licentiousness ; and it should not be forf^otten, that the evils of in- surrection are certain and imminent, while the good which is expected from resistance is probable and remote. Of the conduct of both parties in the war, the particulars of which we are about to relate, we leave our readers to judf^e for themselves : as it is our desire to maintain an impartiality suited to the nature and design of history. We are no longer to consider the colonies of America as feeble set- tlements, without numbers, and almost wholly depending on foreign aid, but as opulent and powerful states, abounding in men, and fertile in resources. Their population had increased to a very great degree, not- withstanding the wars in which they had been engaged : their trade was extensive ; and the character of the people adventurous and perse- vering, fond of bold undertakings, and not easily deterred from the exe- cution of their purposes. Fluslicd with the extraordinary success which had attended them in all their military operations, and feeling the benefits and the importance of their commerce, they justly regard- ed themselves as no inferior part of the British empire, and as contri- buting largely to its wealth and prosperity. Either with the permission or the connivance of England, their ships had visited every port in the western hemisphere. They had explored, and were continually ex- ploring, new sources of trade, and were to be met witii in every place where business of any kind was transacted. With this enlarged and vigorous commerce, they joined a remarkable attention to the agricul- ture of the provinces which they occupied. Whatever could be done by art, by labour, and by economy ; whatever judgment could plan, or ability could execute, for improving the advantages of their soil and climate, for remedying the evils of their situation, or extending the happiness of domestic life, had been undertaken and prosecuted with unusual success. To all this they added a firmness, a prudence, and a lenity in the concerns of government, which have rarely been equalled, and never exceeded, on the opposite side of the Atlantic. But in the midst of their prosperity, when every thing was fair to the eye, and no cloud interposed to diminish the brightness of the view, a storm was about to gather, which was to darken for a while their clearest pros- pects, and introduce war and desolation into all their settlements. The colonists were by no means unacquainted with resistance to the authority of Great Britain. They had been driven, at first, by the tyranny of absolute dominion, to take refuge in the Western World; they had long cherished the republican principles which had carried them thither: they had been involved in frequent disputes with their immediate governors, and in these they had often been successful ; and though they had derived- the most effectual assistance from England during their late contests with the French, yet they dreaded her influ- ence, and viewed her rather in the light of a sovereign than a parent. Since the time of their earliest migration, the settlers in America What 13 said of the American colonies? — Of the people ?r- Of their military operations? — Their commerce? — Of their character? — What was the origin of their republican principles? — How had they been displayed ? 118 RESTRICTIONS IMPOSED ON COMMERCE. had been accustomed to acknowledge the authority of the Britisli parlia- ment, in regulating the affairs of their commerce; nor had they always distinguished between such enactments as respected their internal cir- cumstances. But they were now disposed to question the right of England to interfere, whether in matters of commerce, or in those of civil institution ; as they were not present by their representatives in the legislative assembly of the nation, and therefore could neither give nor refuse their consent to any measure by which their prosperity might be affected. To do this, they considered as the chief and the unaliena- ble privilege of English subjects. They argued farther, that though they had submitted in former times to the duties which parliament had laid upon their commerce, the practice was wrong, and that when an evil was perceived and acknowledged, no precedent ought to sanction its continuance. These reasonings, however, were not the consequence of abstract and philosophical speculation. In the year 1764, a bill was introduced into parliament, by which the colonists were to pay certain duties on goods brought from such of the West India islands as did not belong to the crown of Great Britain ; and these duties were to be paid into the exchequer in specie. By another act of the same year, the paper cur- rency was subjected to certain limitations throughout the colonies. As soon as intelligence of these statutes had reached America, they appeared to all the settlers as odious in a great degree : the profitable commerce which they had long maintained with the French and Spaniards in different parts of the New World was to be instantly and rigorously suppressed by taxes, which were equal, in their judgment, to a prohibition of trade; and these taxes were to be gathered by the sudden conversion of all the naval officers on the American station into collectors of the revenue. Such men being unae(juninted with the proper duty of their new character, rendered the law, which was dis- agreeable in itself, still more hateful in its execution. And as the penalties and forfeitures under the act were recoverable in the vice-ad- miralty courts in America, to the exclusion of a lair trial by jury, this last circumstance gave an additional spur to the dissatisfaction of the people. The whole continent was thrown into fermentation ; vehement re- monstrances were made ; petitions were transmitted to the king, and memorials to botli houses of parliament; every argument which inge- nuity could furnish, or interest could enforce, was employed in order to procure the repeal of the obnoxious statutes; but all without effect, A committee was appointed in Massachusetts, to act during the recess of the general court : and those who composed it were instructed to commu- nicate with the other settlements, and to entreat their concurrence and aid. In the mean time, associations were formed in all the provinces, in order to diminish the use of British manufactures; a step wliich, besides its immediate effects, rendered the merchants of England a How did the colonists regard the authority of parliament? — What was done in 1704? — Wiiat was the oflJ^ft of those laws? — VVhat was done in MassaclnisetlH? — For what j^irpose were associations f()rmed ? STAMP ACT PASSED. 119 party against the ministry, and increased the opposition with which those in power were obliged to contend. But the ministry were determined not to stop at what they had already done. Under pretence of enabling the Americans to defend them- selves against any foreign enemy, and with a firmness worthy of a better cause, they proceeded to complete the plan which they had laid down for tiie taxation of the colonies. Mr. Grenville, therefore, brought into parliament, a bill for imposing stamp duties in America ; and after a struggle with the opposition, and many animated debates, it passed through both houses, and received his majesty's assent (1765). In an- swer to the reasoning which was employed in support of the bill, Colo- nel Barre distinguished himself by the vivacity of his eloquence : stating, with a manly freedom, that the same spirit which had actuated the people at first yet continued with them ; and insinuating, in a way that could not be mistaken, what would be the effects of the measure which England was about to adopt. He declared that he spoke from a particular acquaintance with the character of the Americans: and ex- pressing his belief, that while they were jealous of their rights, they were loyal to their king, he entreated the ministry to pause before they ordained that the privileges of Englishmen were to be invaded or de- stroyed. The reception of the stamp act among the colonies was such as might have been expected. Combinations were every where formed to prevent its execution. At Boston in particular, when the news arrived, and a copy of the act itself, the utmost alarm was excited : the bells were niuilicd, and a peal was rung, which the inhabitants considered as the knell of departing liberty. The violence of the populace arose, and could with difficulty be restrained. The act which was tlie object of their aversion, was liawked in the streets, with a death's-head attached to it : it was styled the Folly of England, and the Ruin of America : tiie stamps were destroyed wherever they could be found by the en- raged nuiititude; who, with all the intemperance of popular agitation, burnt and plundered the houses of such as adhered to the government. It is true, these outrages were committed by the lowest of the people ; but they were first tolerated, and then encouraged, by those of greater respectability and influence. The disaffection appeared to spread. A congress or meeting of de- puties from all the settlements was advised by the house of representa- tives in Massachusetts: and at tlio time appointed, connnissioners from that state, and tliose of Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, the three lower counties on the Delaware, Mary- land, and South Carolina, assembled at New York; and Timothy Rug- gles, Esq. of Massachusetts, being elected president, the following resolutions were passed : I. That his majesty's subjects in these colonies owe the same alle- giance to the crown of Great Britain, that is owing from the subjects What act was passed by the parliament in 1705 ? — What is said of Colonel Bane? — How was the news of the Stamp Act received in America? — What was done in Boston ?-— Where was a congreaa assembled ? — What colonics were repre- sented ? 120 orrosiTioN to the stamp act. bom within the realm; and all due subordination to that august body, the parliament of Great Britain. II. That his majesty's lie^e subjects in these colonies are entitled to all the inherent rights and liberties of his natural-born subjects within the kingdom of Great Britain. III. That it is inseparably essential to the freedom of a people, and the un- doubted right of Englishmen, that no taxes be imposed upon them, but with their own consent, given personally, or by their representatives. IV. That the people of these colonies are not, and, from their local cir- cumstances, cannot be, represented in the House of Commons in Great Britain. V. That tlie only representatives of these colonies are per- sons chosen therein by themselves; and that no taxes ever have been, or can be, constitutionally imposed upon them, but by their representa- tive legislatures. VI. That all supplies to the crown being free gifts from the people, it is unreasonable and inconsistent with the spirit of the British constitution, for the people of Great Britain to grant to his majesty the property of the colonists. VII. That trial by jury is the inherent and invaluable right of every British subject in these colonies. VIII. That the late act of parliament, entitled, " An Act for granting and supplying certain Stamp Duties, and other Duties in the British Colonies and Plantations in America," &c. by imposing taxes on the inhabitants of these colonies ; and that the said act, and several other acts, by extending the jurisdiction of the courts of admiralty beyond its ancient limits, have a manifest tendency to subvert the rights and liber- ties of the colonists. IX. That the duties imposed by several late acts of parliament, from the peculiar circumstances of these colonies will be extremely burthensome and grievous, and that from the scarcity of specie, the payment of them will be absolutely impracticable. X. That as the profits of the trade of these colonies ultimately centre in Great Britain, to pay for the manufactures which they are obliged to take from thence, they eventually contribute very largely to all sup- plies granted to the crown. XI. That the restrictions imposed by seve- ral late acts of parliament on the trade of these colonies, will render them unable to purchase the manufactures of Great Britain. XII. That the increase, prosperity, and happiness of these colonies, depend on the full and free enjoyment of their rights and liberties, and an in- tercourse with Great Britain, mutually affectionate and advantageous. XIII. That it is the right of the British subjects in these colonies to petition the king, or either house of parliament. Lastly, That it is the indispensable duty of these colonies to the best of sovereigns, to the mother country, and to themselves, to endeavour, by a loyal and dutiful address to his majesty, and humble applications to both houses of par- liament, to procure the repeal of the "Act for granting and applying certain Stamp Duties," and of all clauses of any other acts of parlia- ment, whereby the jurisdiction of the admiralty is extended as afore- said, and of the late other acts for the restriction of the American commerce. From a careful examination of these resolutions, it will appear that the colonists were desirous at this time to maintain their allegiance to What was the substance of the resolutions passed by the congrees? — What ap- pears from these resolutions ? REPEAL OF THE STAMP ACT. 121 their sovereign, while they stood forth in the defence of their rights ; and that they were even willing to acknowledge the authority of the British parliament in regulating tlieir commerce, while they contended that it was unjust and subversive of all liberty to tax them without their consent. It was now perceived by the ministry in Europe, that they must either repeal the obnoxious statutes, or oblige the Americans to submit to them by force of arms. The confederacy against them was general, systematic, and alarming : it was universally agreed that no articles of British manufacture should be imported, and that those which were prepared in the colonies, though both dearer and of worse quality, should be employed in all the settlements. Even the ladies, animated with a similar spirit, cheerfully relinquished every species of ornament, which was manufactured in England. The proceedings in the courts of justice were suspended, that no stamps might be used ; and the colo- nists were earnestly and frequently exhorted by those who took the lead on this occasion, to terminate their disputes by reference. In ad- dition to this, not a few of the people in England espoused the cause of the Americans, openly declaring, that the imposition of a tax upon them, without their consent, was nothing else than levying a contri- bution : and that, if the ministry persevered in doing so, they would persevere in violating the rights of every British subject. Mr. Pitt, whom we have already seen conducting the war against the French in America, with unexampled vigour and success, was now in opposition. He entered warmly into the views of the colonists on the present emergency : and maintained in his place, with all the elo- quence for which he was conspicuous, " that taxation is no part of the governing or legislative power ; but that taxes are a voluntary gift and grant of the commons alone ;" and he concluded his speech with a motion, that the stamp act be repealed absolutely, totally, and imme- diately. About this time the celebrated Dr. Franklin was examined before the house of commons, and gave it as his opinion, that the tax in question was impracticable and ruinous; asserting, that it had alienated the affections of the colonists from the mother country ; and that they re- garded the people of England as conspiring against tlieir liberties, and the parliament as willing to oppress, rather than to assist them. A petition was received from the congress at New York ; and some change having taken place in the cabinet, the existing administration agreed with Mr. Pitt, and the stamp act was repealed, to the universal joy of the Americans. In Virginia, in particular, it was resolved by the house of burgesses, that a statue should be erected to his majesty, as an acknowledgment of the high sense which they entertained of his attention to the rights and the petitions of his people. But though the ministry had consented to repeal the stamp act, they had not abandoned the purpose of drawing a revenue from the colonics What alternative had the ministry ? — What measures were taken by the colo- nists with respect to British manufactures? — Courts? — Stamps? — What opinion prevailed among the opposilion in England? — What is said of Mr, Pitt? — Of Dr. Franklin ? — - Of the petition ? — The stamp act ? 11 122 NEW TAXES IMPOSED. in America. They fancied likewise, that they had yielded too much by complying with the wishes of the settlers; the pride of dominion was wounded ; and, in order to support the dignity of the crown, and the credit of their administration, they published a bill, in which the superiority of Great Britain over her colonies was declared to extend to all cases whatever. The assertion of the right of England, in this instance, greatly diminished the joy which the repeal of the stamp act had occasioned. It was considered by the Americans as a founda- tion on which any future ministry might oppress them under the sanc- tion of parliamentary authority ; and it had no other effect, than that of rendering them more suspicious of arbitrary designs, and more soli- citous to mark, with a jealous eye, the first encroachments of power. An opportunity for the exercise of this spirit was not long wanting. An act had been passed by the Rockingham administration, for provid- ing the soldiers in the colonies with the necessaries and accommodations which their circumstances might require. But the assembly of New York explained this act according to their own views; and asserted, that it was meant to apply to the troops only when they were marching fiom place to place. The assembly at Boston followed the example of that in New York: they proceeded even farther; and resolved, that the conduct of the governor in issuing money from the treasury, in order to furnish the artillery with provisions, vv^as unconstitutional and unjust; and that it disabled them from granting cheerfully to the king the aids which his service demanded. These resolutions of the colo- nists, however, were not approved of in England by many of those who had espoused their interests on other occasions. Their disposition seemed to them now to be, not that of a rational defence of their rights and privileges, but that of a systematic opposition to the ruling powers. It is not easy to discover on what principle this change of sentiment was rested ; but it is acknowledged, that, in consequence of the change, the bill which was introduced by Mr. Townshend, the chancellor of the exchequer, imposing a duty on all tea, paper, colours, and glass, im- ported into the colonies, was passed (1763), with much less opposition than it would otherwise have experienced. And in order to punish the refractory spirit of the assemblies, the legislative pov/er was taken from that of New York, till it should comply with the requisitions of the parent fctate. The act for imposing the new taxes was received with greater aversion than the stamp act itself Letters were sent from Massachu- setts to all the other colonies, inveighing against the injustice and ty- ranny of the British legislature ; and affirming, that the proceedings of the parliament were subversive of liberty, and hostile to the rights of British subjects. They complained loudly of Bernard, their govern- or; charged him with misrepresenting their conduct; and wrote to the English ministry in their own defence: they declared that he was unfit The subsequent declaratory bill ? — What was its efTect? — What act had been passed by tlie administration of the Marquis of Rockins;ham? — How was it ex- plained in New York? — What was done in Boston? — What new bill was passed J — What was done with respect to New York? - - How were the new taxes regarded I — What was done by Mast;achuGetts? RIOTS IN BOSTON. 123 to continue in the station whicli he occupied, and petitioned, with g-reat eagerness, that he might instantly be removed. On the other liand, the governor was ordered to proceed with vigour; and, showing no inclination to yield to the people, to use his utmost endeavours to carry into effect the measures of the crown. A tumult took place at Boston, in consequence of the seizure of a vessel, the master of which had neglected to comply with the new statutes. The multitude laid violent hands on the officers, and beat them severely ; and having seized the collector's books, they burnt them in triumph, and patrolled the streets without opposition. They attacked the houses of the commissioners of excise, and broke their windows : and such was their violence that they obliged the officers of the revenue to take refuge, first on board the Romney, and afterwards in Castle- William, a fortress situated near the entrance of the harbour. The governor dissolved the assembly. This measure, the last re- source of inefficient power, was not followed by the consequences which were expected to result from it. Frequent meetings of the peo- ple were held at Boston, and in the different provinces: a remonstrance was made to the governor; and a petition was transmitted to him, in which he was desired to remove the ships of war from the neighbour- hood of the town ; a request with which he was neither able nor will- ing to comply. Every thing now appeared to indicate a rupture between the colonies and the parent state. The agent for the provinces was refused admis- sion to the presence of the king, A report was circulated, that troops had been ordered to march into Boston : a dreadful alarm took place ; and all ranks of men joined in beseeching the governor, that a general assembly might be convoked. The answer of the governor was, that, by his last instructions from England, he was prevented from complying with the wishes of the people. The inhabitants of Boston, therefore, determined to form a convention ; in which it was resolved, that they should defend their violated rights at the peril of their lives and for- tunes ; that as they dreaded a war with France, the people should fur- nish themselves with arms ; and that a committee of their number should meet in tlie town, in order to correspond with the delegates which might arrive from the other provinces. At the same time, they thought it proper to assure the governor of their pacific intentions, and requested again that a general assembly might be called ; but, after transmitting to England an account of their proceedings, and the rea- sons that had induced them to assemble, they were again refused, and stigmatized with the appellation of rebels. On the day before the convention rose, two regiments arrived from Great Britain. Their landing was protected by the fleet, which was drawn up with the broadsides of the vessels opposite the town, with springs on their cables, and every thing ready for action. In conse- quence of these formidable appearances, the troops marched into Bos- By the governoi-? — What took place in Boston? — What was then done by the governor? — What signs of war appeared ? — Where was a convention assembled ? — What was done by the convention? — When did the British soldiers arrive in Boston ? 124 BOSTON MASSACRE. ton without any resistance on the part of the inhabitants: and the council having refused to provide them with quarters, the state-house was opened for their reception, by the command of the governor ; a step which gave much offence, and exasperated the people to a high degree. The presence of the soldiers, however, had great influence in restraining the excesses of the populace. But the hatred of the colo- nists towards England was become fixed and unalterable : and the news having reached them, that both houses of parliament, in their address to liis majesty, had recommended vigorous measures, in order to force them to obedience, they united in closer association, and resolved to submit to all losses, rather than that of their rights as free men, and as British subjects. On the 5th of March, 1770, an affray took place at Boston, between the military and some of the inhabitants, in which four persons were killed. The bells were instantly rung; the people rushed from the country to the aid of the citizens ; the whole province rose in arms ; and the soldiers were obliged to retire to Castle-William, in order to avoid the fury of the enraged multitude. In the mean time, the parliament of Great Britain showed, that it had neither suflicicnt vigour to compel the Americans to submit, nor sufficient liberality to yield to their remonstrances, and grant what tliey petitioned so earnestly to obtain. The ministry agreed to take off all the duties which had lately been imposed, except that on tea: but it was predicted by the opposition, that their indulgence would have no good effect, if any duties whatever were imposed upon the Americans without their consent. What was predicted by the opposition was in the end found to bo true. It was resolved, that the tea should not be landed, but sent back to Europe in the same vessels which had brought it; for it was obvious to all, that it woukl be extremely difficult to hinder the sale, if the commodity should once be received on shore. Accordingly, the people assembled in great numbers at Boston ; forced those to whom it had been consigned to give up their appointments, and to swear that they would abandon them for ever: and public tests being agreed upon, those who refused to take them were denounced as the enemies of their country. This disposition was not confined to Massachusetts alone : the same spirit appeared in all the colonies ; and the same resolution to defend their rights, by checking the violence of arbitrary power. Such was the situation of affairs, when three ships, laden with tea, arrived at the port of Boston. The captains of these vessels, alarmed at the menaces of tlie people, offered to return with their cargoes to England, provided they could obtain the necessary discharges from the merchants to whom the teas had been consigned, and likewise from the governor and the officers of the custom-house. But, though afraid to issue orders for landing the tea, the merchants, and officers, in conjunc- tion with the governor, refused to grant the discharges, and the ships were obliged to remain in the harbour. The people, however, appre- Where were they qtiartered ? — What is said of the soldiers ? — The iwipulace ? — What of the massacre? — The parliament? — Tlie tea? ( I'-^S ) Destruction of the Tea at Boston. BOSTON PORT-BILL. 127 hensive that the obnoxious commodity would bo landed in small quanti- ties, if the vessels should continue in the neighbourhood of the town, resolved to destroy it at once. For this purpose, they disguised them- selves as Indians of the Mohawk nation ; and having boarded the sliips during the night, they threw their cargoes into the water, and retired without making any further disturbance. No fewer than three hun- dred and forty-two chests of tea were lost on this occasion. In other places, the aversion of the people was equally great, though their vio- lence was less conspicuous. At Philadelphia, the pilots were enjoined not to conduct the ships into the river : and at New York, though the governor ordered some of the tea to be landed under the protection of a man-of-war, he was obliged to deliver it into the custody of the people, who took all possible care that none of it should be sold. These troubles were introductory to a general rupture. The parlia- ment of England resolved to punish the town of Boston in an exem- plary manner, by imposing a fine upon the inhabitants equal to the value of the tea which had been destroyed ; and to shut up their port by an armed force, till their refractory spirit should be subdued : an event which they supposed would take place in a short time, as by the last of tliese measures. the trade would be completely stopped. A general infatuation appears to have seized tiie parliament ; and it was believed by men of every rank and degree, that the Americans would not persevere in resisting the authority of Great Britain ; or if they should do so, that tlieir resistance would be of no avail. In con- sequence of this belief, it was likewise determined, that if any person should be indicted for murder in the province of Massachusetts bay, and if it was clear, from evidence given upon oath, that the deed had been committed in the exercise or aid of magistracy, while attempting to suppress the riots; and it was further probable, that an equitable trial could not be obtained in the colonies ; the persons who v/ere accused might be sent to Europe, in order to be tried before an English jury. Nor was this all : such was the majority in flivour of the crown when these resolutions were adopted, that a fourth bill was passed ; by which it was provided, that the government of Canada should bo vested in a council, tlie members of which were to be appointed by the king, and removable at pleasure : and the council was to have the exercise of every legislative power, except that by which taxes are imposed. All these laws were liighly offensive to the Americans, and exasperated them beyond the possibility of reconciliation. In the midst of the tumults excited by the late acts of parliament, and especially by the stop which had been put to the trade of Boston, General Gage, the new governor, arrived from England. One of his first acts was to remove the assembly from Boston to Salem. When the pur- pose of the governor was communicated to the members, they made no other reply, than that of requesting him to appoint a day for humiliation and prayer, in order to avert the wrath of heaven, which seemed about How was the tea disposed of in Boston? — What act of parliament was jiassed to punish this proceeding? — What other acts? — What governor arrived in Boston? — What was done by him ? 128 PROCEEDINGS IN VIRGINIA. to inflict its most awful judgments on the American states. Their re- quest was not complied with; and their final resolutions appear to have been taken. The general court met, by the appointment of the governor, at Salem. They declared it necessary, tliat a congress of delegates, from all the provinces, should assemble, to take the affairs of the colonies into their most serious consideration : and they nominated five gentlemen, each of them remarkable for his opposition to England, as the representa- tives of the people in the division of Massachusetts, to which they belonged. They recommended it to the whole province to abandon the use of tea ; and urged the necessity of giving all the encouragement in their power to the manufactures of America. In the mean time, the governor, having learned what their proceed- ings were, sent an officer to dissolve the assembly in the king's name : but he, finding that the door was shut, and that he could not be admit- ted, was compelled to read the order of dissolution aloud on the stair- case. The inliabitants of Salem, which was now become the metropo- lis of the colony, appear to have adopted the same spiritwith the people of Boston. They publislied a declaration in favour of the latter; m which they asserted, that nature, in forming their harbour, had pre- vented them from becoming their rivals in trade ; and that even if it were otherwise, they would regard tliemselves as lost to every idea of justice, and all feelings of humanity, could they indulge one thought of seizing upon the wealth of their neighbours, or raising their fortunes on the distresses of their countrymen. The cause of Boston was espoused by the rest of the colonies, without exception. The 1st of June, the day on which that city was to be blockaded by t!ie king's ships, was observed in Virginia as a day of fasting and humiliation; and a public intercession in behalf of the American people, was enjoined throughout the province. The style of prayer on this occasion was, " that God would give them one heart and mind, firmly to oppose every invasion of American rights." The Virginians, likev/ise, recommended a general congress; they declared, that if any one of the colonies was taxed without its consent, the rights of the whole were violated ; and that, in the present case, they regarded the injury which was done to the inhabitants of Boston as done to themselves. The provinces of New York and Pennsylvania, thougli the most wavering, were at last fixed in decided opposition to Great Britain. An universal enthusiasm prevailed. A solemn covenant was formed at Boston, in order to suspend all commercial intercourse with England, or her agents, till the obnoxious statutes should be repealed, and the harbour opened: and though General Gage denounced this agreement as illegal, traitorous, and destructive of the peace and safety of the community, the inhabitants retorted the charge of illegality on his own proclamation ; and affirmed that they were by law permitted to assem- By the general court? — What acls were passed at Salem? — What attempt did the governor make? — What is said of the inhabitants of Salem? — Of the Vir- ginians ? — New York and Pennsyl vania ^ — Of the proceedings at Boston ? FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS. 129 ble, whenever their grievances required that a general meeting should take place. The time when the proclamations of governors were to have any effect had now passed away. At length, on the 4th of September, 1774, tlie first congress of the American states assembled at Philadelphia : and Peyton Randolph, Esq. late speaker of the house of burgesses in Virginia, was chosen presi- dent, by the unanimous suffrage of the delegates. To this august body of citizens, met for the highest purposes which can affect the temporal interests of man, the eyes of the people, in all ranks and conditions of life, were turned with anxious concern : nor were the officers and de- pendants of the crown without alarm, on hearing the news of this im- portant meeting; they dreaded the consequences of that spirit which prevailed among the members, and began to anticipate the result of their deliberations. Having resolved that each colony should have only one vote, and that their deliberations should take place without the admission of strangers, the members proceeded to the high duty which their coun- trymen had imposed upon them. They first expressed their approbation of what had been done by the inhabitants of Massachusetts-bay ; warmly exhorted them to persever- ance in the cause of freedom ; and voted, that contributions should be made for them in all the provinces, and continued so long, and in such a manner as their circumstances might require. Tliey next addressed a letter to General Gage ; in which they informed him of their unal- terable resolution, to oppose every attempt to carry the British acts of parliament into effect ; and entreated him to desist from his military operations, lest a difference altogether irreconcileable sliould take place between the colonies and the parent state. Their next step was a de- claration of their rights, in the shape of resolutions: these resolutions were nearly the same with those which the reader will find in a pre- ceding page. The assembly then proceeded to petition the king, stating the griev- ances under which they laboured; grievances which, they said, were the more intolerable, as the colonies were born the heirs of freedom, and had long enjoyed it under the auspices of former sovereigns : and stating also, that they wished for no diminution of the prerogative, and no privileges, or immunities, except those which were their right- ful inheritance as the subjects of Great Britain ; concluding the whole with an earnest prayer, that his mnjosty, as the father of his people, would not permit the ties of blood, of law, and of loyalty, to be broken, in expectation of consequences, which, even if they should take place, would never compensate for the sufferings to which they must give rise. The petition to the king was followed by an address to the people of England, conceived with great vigour, and expressed in the most ener- getic language. " Be not surprised," they say, " that we, who are de- scended from the same common ancestors, that we, whose forefathers When and where did tlie first continental congress meet? — Wlio was chosen speaker? — What is said of it? — Give an account of its proceedings. — Of the pe- tition to the king. — Of tlie address to the people of England. 130 PROCEEDINGS OF GENER-AL GAGE. participated in tlie rights, the liberties, and the constitution you so justly boast of, and who have carefully conveyed the same fair inherit- ance to us, guarantied by the plighted faith of government, and the most solemn compact with British sovereigns, should refuse to surren- der them to men who found their claim on no principles of reason, and who prosecute them with a design, that, by having our lives and pro- perty in their power, they may, with the greater facility, enslave you. Are not, they ask, " the proprietors of the soil of Great Britain lords of their own property ? Can it be taken from them without their con- sent] Will they yield it to the arbitrary disposal of any man, or num- ber of men, whatever'! You know they will not. Why, then, are the proprietors of America less lords of their property than you are of yours? or why should they submit it to the disposal of your parliament, or any other parliament or council in the world not of their own election ? Can the intervention of the sea that divides us cause disparity in rights] or, can any reason be given, why English subjects, who live three thousand miles from the royal palace, should enjoy less liberty than those who are three hundred miles distant from it? Reason looks with indignation on such distinctions, and freemen can never perceive tlieir propriety." This address was succeeded by a memorial to their constituents ; in which they applaud them for the spirit which they had shown in the defence of their rights; enjoin them to persevere in abstaining from the use of every thing manufactured or prepared in England ; and hint at the necessity of looking forward to melancholy events, and of being ready for every contingency which might take place. The inclinations of the people were in exact agreement with the decisions of the congress. The inhabitants of Boston were supplied by contributions from all quarters. Even those, who, by their situation, appeared the most likely to derive advantages from the cessation of their trade, were most forward to relieve them in their distress ; and the people of Marblehead, a town at no great distance, generously offered them the use of their harbour, and of their wharves and ware- houses, free of all expense. Every one who could procure arms was diligent in learning how to use them. The whole country seemed ready to rise. In the mean time, British troops assembled in greater numbers at Boston ; and General Gage thought it prudent to fortify the neck of land which joins that city to the continent. He also seized the maga- zines of gunpowder, ammunition, and military stores, at Cambridge and Charlestown ; and thus, by depriving the colonists for a time of the means of annoying him, he rendered them less able to carry their de- signs into execution. An assembly was called, and its sitting immediately countermanded ; but the representatives met, notwithstanding the proclamation of the governor ; and after waiting a day for his arrival, they voted themselves "a provincial congress." Winter approached; the people refused to supply the troops either with lodging or clothes ; the select men of What is said of tlie people? — Of the Bostonians — Of the people of Marble- bead ? — Of General Ciage? — Of the assembly? — Of the select men of Boston? BATTLE OF LEXINGTON. 131 Boston obliged the workmen employed in erecting- the barracks to desist; and the merchants of New York declared, that they would "never supply any article for the benefit of men who were sent as the enemies of their country." CHAPTER XIX. COMMENCEMENT OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. All hope of reconciliation with Britain was now at an end. The provincials took possession of the stores which belonged to the govern- ment wherever they were able to secure them; and at New^port in Rhode Island, the inhabitants carried off" no fewer than forty pieces of cannon, intended for the defence of the place ; alleging, that they seized them in order to prevent them from being used against their liberties and their lives. The assemblies in all the colonies, voted that ammunition should be procured at the general expense; and it required but little foresight to discover, that a civil war, with all its fearful con- sequences, was about to ensue. General Gage having received intelligence, that a number of field pieces were collected at Salem, despatched a party of soldiers to take possession of them in the name of the king. The people, however, assembling in great numbers, prevented the military from advancing to the town, by pulling up a drawbridge which it was necessary for them to pass ; and they returned to the governor without accomplishing their purpose. The next attempt was followed by more interesting consequences. The provincials had deposited a large quantity of ammunition and stores at Concord, about twenty miles from Boston; these General Gage resolved to seize or to destroy ; and with that view he sent a detach- ment of eight hundred men, under the command of Major Pitcairn and Colonel Smith, ordering them to proceed with the utmost expedi- tion, and with all possible secrecy. But notwithstanding his care, and the alacrity of the soldiers, the provincials had immediate notice of his design; and when the British troops arrived at Lexington, within five miles of Concord, the militia of the place were dravv-n up on the parade, and ready to receive them. A skirmish ensuing, several of the Ame- ricans were killed. The rest retreated without making any further resistance ; -and the detachment proceeding to Concord, destroyed, or took possession of the stores which were there. Having effected their purpose, the military now began to retire, but the colonists pressing upon them on all sides, they were driven from post to post, till they arrived at Lexington ; where, their ammunition being expended, they must infallibly have been cut oif, if Lord Percy had not been sent by the governor with a strong party to their assistance. In consequence Of the niercliaiits of New York? — What was done at Newport? — At Salem? — Where were stores deposited? — Who were sent to seize them? — W^hat took place at Lexiuglou ? — At Concord ? — What saved the British detachment? 132 BATTLE OF BUNKER's HILL. of this reinforcement, they quitted Lexinfrton, and continued their march towards Boston, which they reached the day after ; though not without frequent interruption and very great ditliculty. In the affair of Lexington, which has been justly regarded as the commencement of the American war, and in the retreat from that place, the British lost nearly two hundred and fifty men. :^ The colonists, elevated with their success in this engagement, be- came more and more fixed in their opposition, and even meditated the total expulsion of the English from Boston. An army of 20,000 men encamped in the neighbourhood of the city : and that force was soon increased by the arrival of the troops from Connecticut, under General Putnam, an officer of great bravery, and of tried skill in the military art ; but Gage had. fortified the town so strongly, that, numerous as they were, the provincials durst not attempt it by assault; while, on the other hand, the governor was too weak to contend with them in the field. It was not long, however, before he w^as able to act on the offensive. A powerful reinforcement arrived from England, under Generals Howe, Burgoyne, and Clinton : martial law w^as proclaimed, and pardon was oflered to such as would return to their allegiance. On the 16th of June, 1775, the Americans took possession of Bunker's Hill, an eminence which overlooks and commands the town of Boston ; and labouring with incredible diligence and secrecy, they threw up a redoubt, and protected it by means of an entrenchment, before the approach of day enabled the British to discover what they had done. From this position General Gage thought it necess0.ry to dislodge them. Accordingly, he directed a strong body of men, under the orders of Generals Howe and Pigot, to land at the foot of Bunker's Hill, and to proceed with a detachment of the artillery against the Americans. But the latter, having the advantage of the ground, poured upon tiiem such an incessant and deadly fire of musketry, that the British were thrown into confusion ; and so many of the officers were killed, that General How^e was left almost alone. Yet though twice repulsed, with great loss, in consequence of the well-directed fire of their opponents, the king's troops rallied and advanced again towards the fortifications which the provincials had erected. The redoubt was now attacked on three sides at once ; the ammunition of the colonists began to fail ; and the British pressing forw^ard, tiie Americans were constrained to abandon the post, and to retreat in the face of the enemy over Charlestown Neck ; where they were exposed to a galling fire from the ships in the harbour. In this battle the town of Charlestown, which is separated from Boston by a narrow sheet of water, was re- duced to ashes by the order of General Pigot, who was saved by that measure, as well as by the arrival of General Clinton, from the igno- miny of a defeat. Though the victory in the attack at Bunker's Hill was claimed by the royalists, it was not gained without considerable loss on their part. The flower of the English troops in America were engaged, and their How many rfien did they lose? — What force besieged Boston? — When did the battle of Blinker's Hill take place ? — Describe it. — What town was burnt? WASHINGTON APPOINTED COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. 133 killed and woi^nded amounted to 1054; while those of the provincials were not above half of that number. But while the colonists suffered a defeat in this encounter, they were elated, in no ordinary degree, at tne intrepidity which their forces had displayed ; and they entertained the hope that patriotism and an ardent love of freedom would enable them to withstand the assaults of the British, till experience should render them equal to them in discipline and military skill. i They erected fortifications on the heights in the neighbourhood of Charlestown, and reduced the king's troops in Boston to very great dis- tress, for want of provisions. Far from entertaining any thought of submission, they redoubled their exertions, and increased their vigi- lance. In the mean time, the congress, which had again been assembled, acted with all the decision which was expected from them : they drew up articles of perpetual union; they published a declaration, in which they justified the measures which had been adopted at Bunker's Hill ; they resolved to establish an army, and to issue a large quantity of paper money in order to support it. They held a solemn conference with the Indians, by whom they were surrounded ; telling them that the English had begun the v/ar with a view to enslave them, as well as their own countrymen in America; and by this, in conjunction with other arguments, they induced many of the savage tribes either to assist them, or to remain neuter during a great part of the contest which followed. The provincials now wanted nothing but a leader to enable them to take eflcctual measures against the British ; and they soon found, in the person of George Washington, a man qualified in every respect to oc- cupy that higii and important station. He was the third son of Augus- tine Washington, a settler in Virginia. His education was limited- to what could be obtained from books written in the English language ; but he derived from nature a mind of extraordinary capacity ; and was endowed Vv ith prudence, courage, and perseverance, far beyond the degree which is allotted to conmion men. At the age of nineteen, he held the rank of major in the provincial troops of Virginia. He afterwards dis- tinguished himself against the French, in their attempts to unite their possessions in Canada with those in Louisiana; and had the command of a regiment about the same time- At the conclusion of the war, which terminated in the surrender of Canada to the British, he retired to his estate, and devoted him- self to agricultural employments; till the trouliles in which the Americans were involved led him to take an active part in their de- fence against the attempts of the English cabinet to tax them with- out their consent. He was chosen a member of the first grand Con- gress at Philadelphia, where his example and influence produced very considerable effects; and now that the situation of the provincials called for a man of tried firmness, and approved judgment, he was unanimously elected, " general and commander-in-chief of the army of What was the British loss ? — What was now done by the Americans ? — By the Congress? — Who was appointed command er-in-chief? — Whose son was he? — Describe his education. — Talents. ~ Services. 12 134 SIEGE OF BOSTON. the United Colonies." When his appointment was intimated to hnn hy the president of the congress, he modestly observed, that he was not equal to the duties of the station to which their partiality had raised him ; but he declared at the same time, that he was ready to exert whatever talents he might have in the service of his country, and willing to enter immediately on the performance of his duty. On arriving at Cambridge, the head-quarters of the American army, General Washington inspected and reviewed the troops. He found them animated with great zeal, and prepared to follow him to the most desperate undertakings; but it was not long before he perceived that they were unacquainted with subordination, and strangers to military discipline. The spirit of liberty, which had brought them together, showed itself in all their actions. In the province of Massachusetts the officers had been chosen by the votes of the soldiers, and felt them- selves in no degree superior to them. The congressional and colonial authorities likewise interfered with one another. The troops were scantily supplied with arms and ammunition : and all their operations were retarded by the want of engineers. These difficulties, however, were overcome by the talents and perse- verance of Washington ; he formed the soldiers into brigades, and ac- customed them to obedience ; he requested the congress to nominate a commissary-general, a quarter-master-general, and a paymaster-general, all of which officers they had neglected to appoint ; a number of the most active men were constantly employed in learning to manage the artillery ; and such were the efforts of the commander-in-chief, that, in no very long time, the army was completely organized and fit for service. It was not in the temper of Washington to remain inactive. His troops were speedily encamped before the town of Boston, and occupied a space of ground nearly twelve miles in length. The English were strongly entrenched on Bunker's Hill and Roxbury Neck; and defend- ed by the floating batteries in the Mystic river, and a ship of war that lay between Boston and Charlestown, The American General deter- mined, after a long blockade, to force General Howe, who had succeed- ed General Gage in the chief command, either to meet the provincials in the field, or to evacuate Boston; and with this intention he opened his batteries on the east and west sides of the town, (March 2, 177G,) and continued the bombardment without interruption. Howe, finding that the place was no longer tenable, resolved, if pos- sible, to drive the colonial troops from their works. A vigorous attack was meditated on Dorchester Nock, which they had fortified with great care, and every thing was in readiness, when a dreadful storm prevent- ed the British from making the attempt ; and next day it was thought advisable to desist from it altogether. Nothing remained, therefore, but to evacuate the town. The Ameri- cans, however, did not annoy the English in their retreat, as they knew IIow did he receive the intelligence of his appointment? — Where were his head-quarters? — In what condition did lie find tlie army? — What difTiculties had he to overcome ? — How did he succeed ? — Describe the situation of the army be- sieging Boston. — What took place March 2d, 1770? — What was now attempted by the British ? — What was the result ? ( 136 ) March of the Americans under Arnold through the wilderuess of Maine. EXPEDITION AGAINST CANADA. 137 that it was in tlieir power to rodiico tlie place to ashes; a loss, which the lahour of many years, and the profits of the most successful trade, could not easily have repaired. For this reason, they allowed them to embark with great delihoration ; and to take with them whatever might bo thought necessary for their voyage, together with as many of the inhabitants as chose rather to leave their country than expose them- selves to the consequences of their attachment to the royal cause. After remaining for some time in Nantasket road, the whole fleet set yail ; and the army of the Americans proceeded in divisions to New York, which Washington supposed to be the place to which the Eng= lish were gone. During these transactions at Boston, events of considerable import- ance took place in other parts of America. The fortresses of Crown Point and Ticonderoga having been occupied by the provincials some time before, the reduction of Canada appeared to be more obvious and easy. Three hundred men, under the command of Generals Schuyler and Montgomery, were sent by the orders of the Congress into that country, where they were opposed by the English general, Carleton, an officer of much experience and activity. The provincials laid siege to St. John's, and the British commander made haste to relieve the place. But ho was attacked by the provincials with a superior force while yet on his march, and, being utterly defeated, was compelled to retire to Quebec. The garrison of St. John's surrendered themselves prisoners of war : Montreal was taken by General Montgomery ; Arnold penetrated into Canada with a strong body of Americans, passing through the woods of Maine, from the Kennebec to the Chaudiere, during all the severity of winter; and, after uniting his forces with those of Montgomery, he endeavoured to take Quebec by surprise (Dec. 31, 177(3). But, after a desperate engagement, in which Montgomery was killed, together with the best part of his officers, the provincials were overpowered, and forced to abandon the attempt. Arnold, having removed to some distance from Quebec, was enabled by the kindness of the people, to endure the hardships of an encamp- ment in the midst of winter, and under a climate, to the rigour of which his soldiers were but little accustomed. Notwithstanding his defeat, be was created a brigadier, by the unanimous voice of the Congress. General Sullivan then took the command of the provincial troops; the Americans were defeated with considerable loss at the Three Rivers, and were finally obliged to retire from Canada. Whither did Washington proceed after the evacuation of Boston ?— Who were sent to reduce Canada?— Who opposed thom? — What place was besieged? — What places were taken ? — What ceneral marched through the woods ol Maine and joined Montgomery befi^re Quebec ? — When did they aUempt to surprise iho garrison? — What was the result? — What is said of Arnold? — Of Sullivan? — What was the result of the expedition ? 12* 138 DFPLARATrON OF TNDEPENni^NrE. CHAPTER XX. CAMPAIGN OF 1776. After all attempts towards a reconciliation with Great Britain appeared to be fruitless, the Congress proceeded in full assembly to rctiounce their allegiance to the sovereign of that country, and to de- clare that the United Colonies were independent of all authority in Europe (July 4th, 1776). The following is the conclusion of the de- claration which was published on this occasion. It is at once firm, temperate, and solemn. " We, the representatives of the United States of America, in general congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the World for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the people in these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown ; that all political connexion between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to bo, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish com- merce, and do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And, for the support of this declaration, with a firm re- liance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honour." A few days before the declaration of Independence, a British fleet and army under Sir Peter Parker and Earl Cornwallis made an attack on Charleston. Tiie fort on Sullivan's island was bombarded for a whole day, but the fire was returned with such effect that the British were obliged to haul off and abandon their attempt on the capital of the Carolinas. This defeat of the enemy saved the Southern States from invasion for some time. But as the chief part of the colonial troops was assembled in the divi- sion of New York, under Washington, their commander, and as that province was most accessible by sea, the English resolved to make an attempt upon it with all their forces. Six ships of the line, and thirty frigates, with many smaller vessels, composed the fleet. It was under the orders of lord Howe, who had arrived from Europe some time before, and the land army was commanded by Sir William Howe, his brother. On his arrival, lord Howe, by a flag, sent ashore to Amboy a circular letter to several of the late royal governors, and a declaration mention- ing the powers with which he and his brother the general were invested, and desiring their publication. These papers general Washington transmitted to congress, who ordered them to be published in the news- papers, that the people, as they alleged, might be apprised of the nature and extent of the powers of these commissioners, with the expectation of whom it had been attempted to amuse and disarm them. General When was Independence declared ? — Give an account of tlic attack on CFiailes- ton. — What good effect had the defeat of the British on this occasion ? — What British force arrived ofT New York? — What is said of lord flovvc ?-~0f Wawii ington ? HOSTILITIES NEAR NEW YORK. 139 Howe wis'liod to open a correspondence with General Washington; but without acknowledging- liis official character as commander-in-chief of the American armies ; and for this purpose he sent a letter to New York, addressed to "George Washington, Esquire." That letter the general refused to receive, because it was not addressed to him in his official character. A second letter was sent, addressed to " George Washing- ton, &.C. &c. &c." That, also, the general declined to receive ; but acted in the most polite manner towards adjutant-general Paterson, the officer who bore it; who, on his part, behaved himself in a manner be- coming his character as a gentleman. Congress approved of the conduct of general Wasliington on this oc- casion ; and^ ordered that none of their officers should receive letters or messages from the British army unless addressed to them according to their respective ranks. But this dispute about a form was soon succeeded by the din of arms and the horrors of active warfare. The American army was not very formidable. In the month of July, indeed, it amounted to about 17,000 men, but a much greater number had been expected ; of 15,000 new levies, that had been ordered, only 5000 had arrived in camp. But the quality and equipment of the troops were more discouraging than their numbers : they were ill-disciplined, ill-armed, and little accustomed to that subordination and prompt obe- dience, which are essential to the efficiency of an army. They were as deficient in ammunition as in equipment ; and, instead of being cor- dially united in the common cause, they were distracted by provincial jealousies, prejudices, and animosities. Tliis raw and ill-armed multitude was opposed to 30,000 troops, many of them veterans, all of them excellently equipped, and provided with a line train of artillery. The Americans soon had the mortification to find that all their endeavours to obstruct the navigation of the rivers were ineffectual ; for several British ships of war passed up the North River, without receiving any considerable damage from a heavy can- nonade directed against them from the shore. The American army was posted partly at New York, and partly on Long Island. General Greene commanded in the latter place ; but that oPiicer being taken ill, general Sullivan was appointed in his room. Cieneral Howe, having collected his troops on Staten Island, and finding himself sufficiently strong to commence active operations, on the 22d of August crossed the Narrows without opposition, and landed on Long Island, between two small towns, Utrecht and Gravesend. The American division on the island, about 11,000 strong, occupied a fortified camp at Brooklyn, on a peninsula, opposite New York. Their right flank was covered by a marsh, which extended to i\\Q East River, near Mill Creek ; their left, by an elbow of the river named Wallabout Bay. Across the peninsula, from Mill Creek to Wallabout Bay, the Americans had thrown up intrenchments, secured by abatis, or felled trees with their tops turned outwards, and flanked by strong redoubts. Of their attempted correspondence ? — Of Congref?s ? — Of the American army ? — Their condition? — Of the British army? — Who commanded Ihe Americans on Lone; Island ? — When did Howe land on Long Island ?— Describe tlie posilion ol tlie Americans — What was done by Greene? 140 BATTLE OF BROOKLYN. In their rear was the East River, nbont 1000 yards wide, peparatir.o- them from New York. Jii front of the Ibrtitied camp, and at some di'- tance from it, a woody ridge obliquely intersected the island ; and through that ridge tiiere were passages by three diflereat defiles: one at the southern extremity near the Narrows; another about the middle, on the Flatbush road; and a third near the north-east extremity of the hills on the Bedford road. Those defiles general Greene had carefully ex- amined ; and as it was evident that the British army must debark on the further side of the ridge, he resolved to dispute the passage of the de- files. General iSullivan, who succeeded to the command on the illness of general Greene, was not etiually sensible of the importance of those passes. On the landing of the British, however, he sent strong de- tachments to guard the passes near the Narrows, and on the P^'latbush road ; but the more distant pass he did not duly attend to, merely sending an officer with a party to observe it, and give notice if tlie enemy should appear there, Tiiat was no adequate precaution for the security of the pass; and the officer appointed to watch it discharged his duty in the most slovenly manner. General Howe soon learned that there would be little difficulty in marching by the most distant defile, and turning the left of the Ameri- cans. Accordingly, early in the morning of the 27th of August, assisted by Sir Henry Clinton, who had joined him some time before with the troops that had been employed in the unsuccessful attack on Sullivan's kland, he marched with a strong column towards that defile. In order to divert the attention of the Americans from that movement, he ordered generals Grant and Heister, with their respective divisions, to attack the passes near the Narrows and on the Flatbush road. General Grant proceeded to the southernmost defile. The American advanced guard tied on his approach ; but the commander of the detachment appointed to guard that pass afterwards occupied an advantageous position, and bravely maintained his ground. General Heister, with the Hessians, skirmished on the Flatbush road. While the attention of the Americans was engaged by the operations of those two columns, the main body of the British army proceeded with- out interruption through the most remote pass; and the American officer appointed to observe that road performed his duty so ill, that general Howe's column had nearly gained the rear of the American detachment who defended the pass on the Flatbush road, before he gave the alarm. That division had hitherto steadily resisted the Hessians; but being ap- prised of the progress of the hostile column on their left, and being ap- prehensive of an attack on their rear, they began to retreat. That movement, however, was too late; for they were met by the British, who had now gained their rear, and who drove them back on the Hessians, wlio, in their turn, compelled them to retreat towards the British. Thus, they were driven backward and forward between two fires, till, by a ^desperate efiljrt, the greater part of them forced their way through the British line, and regained their camp. 'By Sullivan? — By the officer on guard at the pass? — By Howe? — Grant? — jfcieislcr? — How were the Americans surprised 1 — Wliat was the consequence' AMERICANS EVACUATE LONG ISLAND. 141 The division which opposnd general Grant fought hravely, and main- tained their ground till informed of tlic defeat of tlie left wing, when they retreated in confusion ; and, in order to avoid the enemy, vvho were far^idvanced on tlieir rear, the greater part of them attempted to escape along the dike of a mill-dam, and through a marsh, where many of them perished; hut a remnant regained the camp. This division suffered severely, and the loss was much regretted, because many young men of the most respectable families in Maryland belonged to it, and fell on the occasion. On tiiat day, the Americans lost 2000 men, in killed, wounded, and prisoners; among the latter were generals Sullivan, Woodhull, and lord Sterling. They also lost six pieces of artillery. The British and Hessians had between 300 and 400 men killed or wounded. To attempt the defence of the island against an enemy with a tri- umphant navy was an error in the American plan of the campaign ; but the loss of the battle, or at least the easy victory of the British, was. owing to the incapacity of general Sullivan. He was full of confidence, and paid no due attention to the more distant pass ; but the issue of the day showed him, that confidence is not always the harbinger of success. Had Greene commanded, the result probably would have been somewhat ditlerent. In the evening, the British army encamped in front of the Ameri- can works ; and, on the morning of the 28th, broke ground about 600 yards from the redoubt on the left. The Americans soon became sensi- ble tliat their position was untenable, and a retreat was resolved on ; but the execution of that measure presented great difxiculties. The East River, half a mile broad, and sufficiently deep to float vessels of war, was in tiieir rear ; the British had a strong fleet at hand ; and the victorious army was in front. Escape seemed impracticable ; but, in the face of all these difficulties, the Americans, to the number of 9000 men, with their ammunition, artillery, provisions, horses, and carriages, on the evening of the 29th and morning of the 30th of August, by incredi- ble exertions, passed over from Brooklyn, to New York, without the loss of a man. The retreat was accomplished in about thirteen hours, during the greater part of which time it rained incessantly; and, on the morning of the 30th, a thick fog hung over Long Island, and con- cealed from the British the operations of the Americans, while at New York the atmospliere was perfectly clear. The fog disappeared about half an hour after tlie American rear-guard had left the island. Thus, by great exertions and a fortunate combination of circumstances, the American army escaped from the perilous situation in which it had been placed. After the battle of Brooklyn, general Sullivan was despatched, at his ov/n request, to Philadelphia, with a verbal communication from lord Howe to Congress, expressing a wish to hold a conference with some of the members, as private gentlemen of influence in the country. Gen- Wliat befel the American division opposed to general Grant? — What was the American loss ? — What remarks are made on this butlle ? — What took jilarc in the evening? — What was the situation of the Americans? — How did they escajie? — NV^hat vvarf now afU^nijiled by lord Howe'' 142 THE BRITISH TAKE NEW YORK. eral Sullivan was instructed to inform lord Howe that Congress!, being- the representatives of the free and independent states of America, could not, with propriety, send any of their members to confer with him in their private characters; but that, ever desirous of establifehing peace upon reasonable terms, they would send a committee of their body to learn the authority with which he was invested, to hear what proposi- tions he had to make, and to report. On the Gth of September, they chose, as their committee, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Edward Rutledge. This committee met lord Howe on Staten Island, opposite Amboy, on the 14th of tiie same month. He received them politely, but the conference proved fruitless ; for the committee explicitly informed his lordship, that neither they, nor the congress which sent them, had authority to treat in any other capa- city than as independent states. On that subject lord Howe had no in- structions : the conference, of course, soon came to an end ; and the committee reported to Congress, that, in their opinion, lord Howe's com- mission contained no other powers than granting pardon, and receiving the colonies under the protection of the British government, on their submission. This conference, although ineffectual with respect to the object im- mediately in view, was of considerable service to the Americans. It arrested general Howe in the career of victory, and snspende^l, during its progress, the operations of the campaign. It afforded a pause to the dispirited Americans, and gave them time to rally their drooping spirits; a matter, in their circumstances, of no slight importance. When the hope of an amicable accommodation vanished, general Jlowe, who had already taken possession of the islands lying in the Sound between New York, Long Island, and the shore of (Connecticut, resumed his military operations. The British army was on Long Island, and the Americans about New York, separated from each other by the liast River, The city of New York stands on the south-east end of an island, anciently named Manhattan, but now called by the name of the city. The Hudson, or North River, bounds it on the south-west. It is aboTit fifteen miles long, and only two broad. After a brisk cannonade between the British batteries on Long Island and those of the Ameri- cans about New York, general Howe resolved to transport his army into the island of New York ; and accordingly, on the 15th of September, general Sir Henry Clinton, with 4()00 men, crossed the East River in flat-bottomed boats, landed at Kipp's Bay, under cover of the fire of some ships of war, and, without opposition, took post on some high ground, called the Inclenberg, about three miles above New York. The Ame- rican detachment appointed to defend tlie place, daunted by the cannon- ade of the ships, fled on the approach of the enemy, without firing a shot. General Washington met the fugitives on the road, drew his sword, threatened, and endeavoured to rally them : but his efforts were ineffectual ; and his attendants seized the reins of his horse, and turned him away from the enemy. The rest of the British army soon followed What was the answer of Congress ? — What committee was clioscn ? — What was the resuU of the conference? — What is said of Howe? — Of New York? — When did Howe cross the East River? — Describe the taking of New York. BATTLE OF WHITE PLAINS. ' 143 general Clinton's detachment, and, after some slight skirmishing, took possession of New York, the American parties retreating to their main body posted on Morris's Heights, about ten miles distant. Some miles in front of New York, the British army formed a camp quite across the island, having its flanks covered by ships of war, which the Americans attempted, in vain, to destroy by means of fire-ships. The American army, amounting to about 23,000 men, ill-provided, how- ever, and ill-disciplined, was posted on advantageous ground, opposite to it, but at some distance. On the morning of the 16th of September, general Washington sent a detachment into a wood, in front of the left of the British line. General Howe despatched three companies of light infantry to dislodge them. A sharp conflict ensued ; each party was reinforced ; a severe firing was, for some time, kept up ; and a num- ber of men fell on each side. The Americans maintained their ground ; and this trifling circumstance greatly raised their depressed spirits. This encounter demonstrated the value of brave and steady officers ; for on the preceding day, at the landing of the British, the officers had been the first who ran ; but, on the present occasion, the officers did their duty, and the troops steadily maintained their post. General Washington's first intention was to maintain his position on the island of New York; but general Lee, in whose military talents and experience the army had great confidence, on joining the army after the successful defence of Charleston, strongly remonstrated against that resolution, asserting that the British, by a chain of works, would com- pletely hem in the Americans, and compel them to surrender, even without a battle. His representations induced general Washington, witli the consent of the council of war, to alter his plan, and move his army from Kingsbridge to White Plains, on the left of his present posi- tion, maintaning a line parallel to that in which the British army was marching, and separated from it by the river Bronx. On the 26th of October," the main body of the American army, consisting of about 17,000 ill-disciplined men, took possession of a slightly fortified camp on the east side of the Bronx, which an advanced detachment had been employed in preparing. A bend in the river covered their right flank, and general Washington posted a body of about 1600 men, under gene- ral M'Dougall, on a hill in a line with his right wing, but separated from it by the Bronx. The British general having collected his troops, brought forward his artillery with considerable difficulty; and having got every thing ready for active operations, advanced in two columns towards the American camp. He accompanied the left column in person ; general Clinton led the right. A distant cannonade began, with little effect on either side. The detachment on the hill, under M'Dougall, attracted the notice of general Howe, and he resolved to dislodge it. He ordered general Leslie, with the second brigade of British troops, and colonel Donop, with the Hessian grenadiers, on that service ; and they promptly performed it. On their advance, the American militia fled with precipitation; but Describe the action of the 16th of September. — What was Washington's first intention? — Why was it abandoned? — Describe the action of October 2Gth. — What prevented an attack on Washington's camp ? 144 THE BEITISH CAPTURE FOETS WASHINGTON AND LEE. about 600 regulars, who were under M'Dougall, vigorously defended themselves for some time. They were compelled, however, to retreat, and the British took possession of the hill ; but they were at too great a distance to be able to annoy any part of the American line. Three days afterwards, general Howe, having received reinforcements from New York and other quarters, resolved to attack the American camp. But a heavy rain during the whole night rendered the ground so slippery, that in the morning it would have been very difficult to ascend the acclivity of the hills on which the Americans were posted ; and therefore it was deemed unadvisable to make the attempt. General Washington, apprehensive of an attack, and doubtful of the issue on the ground which he then occupied, early in the morning of the 1st of November left his camp, retired towards North Castle, and took a strong position beliind the river Croton. General Howe, perceiving that it was the purpose of his adversary to avoid a general engagement, and finding it out of his power to force a battle, in such a country, un- less in very disadvantageous circumstances, ceased to pursue the Ame- rican army. He well knew that soon it would be almost dissolved, on the expiration of the term for which many of the men had engaged to serve : and therefore he turned his attention to the reduction of Forts Wasliington and Lee; the first on the island of New York, not far from King's Bridge, and the other on the Jersey side of the North River, nearly opposite the former. The Americans had flattered themselves, that by means of those two forts they would bo able to command the navigation of the North River; but that had proved an illusion, as several British vessels had passed the forts without sustaining any injury from their fire. It had been debated in an American council of war whether, in the present posture of their affairs, those two places ought to be retained. General Lee was decidedly of opinion that they ought to be abandoned ; but general Greene urged the propriety of defending them, and his opinion prevailed. Fort Washington was garrisoned by about 3000 men, under the com- mand of colonel IMagaw, who thought he could defend the place till about the end of December. On the 15th of November, general Sir William Howe summoned the garrison to surrender, on pain of being put to the sword; but received for answer, that they would defend themselves to the last extremity. Early next morning, a vigorous at- tack was begun by the British and Hessian troops, in four divisions ; and, after a severe engagement, in which the assailants lost about 1000 men in killed and wounded, colonel Magaw was compelled to surrender him- self and his garrison prisoners of war : a clear proof that the colonel, who had been bred a lawyer, had but a very imperfect acquaintance with military science. The fall of Fort Washington was a heavy blow to the infant republic, and greatly discouraged the army. Fort Lee, on tlie Jersey side of the river, nearly opposite to Fort Washington, next engaged the attention of the British general. That fort stood on a slip of land, about ten miles long, lying between the To what position did Washington retire? — What is said of Howe? — His de- signs ? — Of the Americans ? — Of general Lee ? — Of general Greene ? — Of Fort Washington ? — Describe i(s capture. — Of Fort Lee. THE AMERICANS RETREAT THROUGH NEW JERSEY. 145 Hudson and the Hackensack, and English Neighbourhood, a branch of the Hackensack. Early on the morning of the 18th of November, earl Cornwallis, with a strong detaclnnent, in flat-bottomed boats, passed through the communication between the East and North Rivers, by Kingsbridge, v/ith the intention of cutting off the retreat of the troops in Eort Lee. General Greene, however, who commanded in those parts, being apprised of his movement, by a rapid march escaped with the main body of the garrison, but left behind some stragglers, and also liis heavy artillery and baggage, which fell into the hands of the British. Thus the Americans were driven, with considerable loss, from the island of New York, and from tlie Jersey bank of the Nortli River. On the 12th of November, general Washington had crossed the North River with part of his army, and taken a position not far from Fort Lee, having left upwards of 70(X) men at North Castle, under the command of general Lee. At that time, the American army was in a critical and alarming state. It was composed chiefly of militia and of men engaged for a short time only. The term of service of many of them was about to expire ; and the republican military force was on the point of dissolution, in the presence of a well-disciplined, well-appointed, and victorious enemy. In that threatening posture of public affairs, general Washington ap- plied to the state of Massachusetts for 4000 new militia; and general Lee besought the militia under his command to remain a few days after their term of service was expired. But the application of the com- mander-in-chief was not promptly answered; and the earnest entreaties of general Lee were almost utterly disregarded. On the fall of Forts Washmgton and Lee, general Washington, with his little army, of about 3000 effective men, ill-armed, worse clad, and almost without tents, blankets, or utensils for cooking their provisions, took a position behind the Hackensack. His army consisted chiefly of the garrison of Fort Lee, which had been obliged to evacuate that place with so much precipitation as to leave behind them the tents and most of the articles of comfort and accommodation in their possession. But although general Washington made a show of resistance by occupying the line of the Hackensack, yet he was sensible of his inability to dis- ptite the passage of that river; he therefore retreated to Newark. There he remained some days, making the most earnest applications in every quarter for reinforcements, and pressing general Lee to hasten his marcli to the southward and join him. On the advance of earl Cornwallis, general Washington abandoned Newark, and retreated to Brunswick, a small village on the Raritan. \V^hile there, the term of service of a number of his troops ex-pircd, and he had the mortification to see them abandon him. From Brunswick the Americans retreated to Trenton. There general Wasliington re- ceived a reinforcement of about 2000 men from Pennsylvania. He had taken the precaution of collecting and guarding all tiie boats on the Delaware from Philadelphia tor seventy miles higher up the river. He What did Cornwallis attempt? — How was he foiled ? — Was Fort Lee taken ? — What is said of Washington ? — Of his army ? — Whither did he retreat ? — Through what places ? — What reinfoicement did he receive ? 13 146 GENERAL LEE JIADE rRISONEK. sent his sick to Philadelphia, and his heavy artillery and baggage across the Delaware. Having taken these precautionary measures, and being somewhat encouraged by the reinforcements which he had received, he halted some time at Trenton, and even began to advance towards Prince- ton ; but being informed that earl Cornwallis, strongly reinforced, was marching against him, he was obliged to seek relbge behind the river Delaware. On the 8th of December he accomplished the passage at Trenton Ferry, the van of the British army making its appearance just as his rear guard had crossed. General Washington was careful to secure all the boats on the west side of the river, and to guard all those places where it was probable that the British array might attempt to pass ; so that his feeble army was secured from the danger of an immediate attack. The British troops made demonstrations of an intention to cross the river, and detachments were stationed to oppose them ; but the attempt was not seriously made. In this situation the American commander anxiously waited for rein- forcements, and sent some parties over the river to observe and annoy the enemy. While general Washington w^as retreating through the Jerseys, he earnestly desired general Lee, who had been left in command of the di- vision of the army at North Castle, to hasten his march to the Delaware and join the main army. But that officer, notwithstanding the critical nature of the case, and the pressing orders of his commander, was in no liaste to obey. Reluctant to give up his separate command, and subject himself to superior authority, he marched slowly to the southward, at the head of about 3000 men ; and his sluggish movements and unwary conduct proved fatal to his own personal liberty, and excited a lively sensation throughout America. He lay carelessly without a guard, and at some distance from his troops, at Baskingridge, in Morris county, where, on the 13th of December, colonel Harcourt, who, with a small detachment of light-horse, had been sent to observe the movements of that division of the American army, by a gallant act of partisan warfare, made him prisoner, and conveyed him rapidly to New York. For some time he v;as closely confined, and considered not as a prisoner of war, but as a deserter from the British army. The capture of general Lee was regarded as a great misfortune by the Americans ; for at that time he enjoyed, in a high degree, the esteem and confidence of the friends of congress: on the other hand, the British exulted in his captivity, as equal to a signal victory, declaring " that they had taken the American palladium." General Sullivan, who on the 4th of September had been exchanged for general Prescott, (when lord Stirling also had been exchanged for general M'Donald,) succeeded to the command of Lee's division, and soon conducted it across the Delaware to general Washington's army. At the same time general Gates, with part of the army of Canada, ar- rived in cam.p. But even after the junction of those troops, and a num- ber of militia of Pennsylvania, general Washington's force did not ex- When did he cross the Delaware ? — What was Washington's situation? — What is said of the capture of general Lee ? — Who reinforced Washington 1 — What was now his force ? CONGRESS RETIRE TO BALTIMORE 147 ceed 5000 men ; for though many had joined the army, yet not a few were daily leaving- it ; and of those who remained, the greater part were raw troops, ill-provided, and all of them dispirited by defeat. General Howe, witli an army of 27,000 men, completely armed and disciplined, well-provided, and tlushed with success, lay on the opposite side of the Delaware ; stretching from Brunswick to the vicinity of Philadelphia, and ready, it was believed, to pass over as soon as the severity of the winter was set in, and the river completely frozen. To the Americans this was the most gloomy period of the contest ; and tlieir affairs appeared in a very hopeless condition. To deepen the gloom of this period, so alarming to the Americans, and to confirm the confidence of the British army, general Clinton, with two brigades of British and two of Hessian troops, escorted by a squadron of men-of-war under Sir Peter Parker, was sent against Rhode Island. The American force, incapable of making any effectual resistance, abandoned the island on general Clinton's approach ; and on the day that general Washington crossed the Delaware, he took possession of it without op- position or loss. At the same time the British fleet blocked up commo- dore Hopkins's squadron, and a number of privateers at Providence. When the American army retreated through the Jerseys, dejection and fear took possession of the public mind. General Washington called on the militia of that state to take the field ; but his call was" not obeyed. Fear triumphed over patriotism ; and every one was more anxious to provide for his personal safety than to support the national cause. On the 30th of November, when the sun of American independence seemed fast setting, lord Howe and the general issued a proclama- tion, promising pardon to those who should return to their allegiance, and subscribe a suitable obligation. Many took advantage of the proclamation, and submitted to the British government; and among these were all the richer inhabitants of the province, with a few excep- tions. It was the middle class chiefly that remained steadfast in the day of trial and adversity. The consequence of this apathy, fear, and defection, was the retreat of general Washington across the Delaware, at the head of only 2000 men ; and in a day or two afterwards even that small number was considerably diminished. On the 12th of December, congress quitted Philadelphia and retired to Baltimore, Maryland. But under all the reverses which their cause had suflered, and in the most unpromising state of their affairs, they manifested an unshaken firmness. Their energy did not forsake them ; there was no humiliation in their attitude, no despondency in their lan- guage, and no inactivity in their operations. Their fortitude was well supported by their brave, sagacious, and persevering commander-in- chief Although the continental governments of Europe felt no good-will towards the progress of liberty, and took no interest in the happiness of mankind ; yet, from jealousy of the power and glory of Britain, they What was Howe's force ? — Who took possession of Rhode Island ? — What was the state of public feeling? — What was the effect of Howe's proclamation? — What is said ol' Concrress ? 148 DESIGN OF GENERAL WASHINGTON. looked on the cause of the Americans with no unfavourable eye. Some indirect communications appear to have taken place betvi'een the cabinet of Versailles and Congress ; and, towards the end of September, Con- gress elected Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee, their commissioners to the court of France, with powers to enter into a treaty with the French king : they sailed for France soon afterwards. When general Washington crossed the Delaware, winter was flist setting in ; and it was no part of general Howe's plan to carry on military operations during that inclement season of the year. Fearless of a feeble enemy, whom he had easily driven before him, and whom he confidently expected soon to annihilate, lie cantoned his troops rather with a view to the convenient resumption of their march, than with any regard to security against a fugitive foe. As he entertained not the slightest apprehension of an attack, he paid little attention to the ar- rangement of his several posts for the purpose of mutual support. He stationed a detachment of about 1500 Hessians at Trenton, under colonel Rawle, and about 2000 at Bordentown, farther down the river, under count Donop ; the rest of his army was quartered over the country, between the Hackensack and the Delaware. General Howe certainly had little apparent cause of apprehension ; for his antagonist had fled beyond the Delaware at the head of only about 2000 men, while he had an army of nearly 30,000 fine troops under his command. The congress had withdrawn from Philadelphia; and, by their retreat, had thrown that city into much confusion. Their presence had overawed the disaffected, and maintained the tranquillity of the place; but, on their removal, the friends of Great Britain began to bestir themselves ; and general Putnam, who commanded there, needed a considerable force to preserve the peace of the city. The country was dejected; the friends of congress were filled with the most gloomy apprehensions; and many of the inhabitants repaired to tiie British posts, expressed their allegiance to the British crown, and claimed protection ; so that in those circumstances general Howe seemed perfectly secure. But in that alarming state of affairs the American leaders still main- tained an erect posture, and their brave and persevering commander-in- chief did not despair. Congress actively employed all the means in their power for supporting their independence, and general Washington applied in every quarter for reinforcements. He perceived the security of the British commander-in-chief, and the advantages which the scat- tered cantonment of his troops presented to the American arms. " Now,'* exclaimed he, on being informed of the widely dispersed state of the British troops, " is the time to clip their wings, when they are so spread ;" and, accordingly, he resolved to make a bold effort to check the progress of the enemy. For that purpose he planned an attack on tlie Hessians at Trenton. General Putnam, who was stationed in Philadelphia, might have been useful in creating a diversion on that side ; but in that city the disaffection to congress was so great, and the friends of Britain so What commissioners were sent to France? — For what purpose? —How were general Howe's troops disposed? — What is said of Congress ? — Of the country? — Wliat remark was made by Washington ? — What attack did he plan? ATTACK UPON TP.ENTON. 149 strong, that it was deemed inexpedient to withdraw, even for a short time, the troops posted there. But a small party of militia, under colonel Griitin, passed the Delaware near Philadelphia, and advanced to Mount Holly. Count Donop marched against them, hut, on their retreat, he re- turned to Bordentown. General Washington formed his troops into three divisions, which were almost simultaneously to pass the Delaware, at three diiTerent places, on the evenmg of tlie 25th of December, hoping to surprise the enemy after the festivities of Christmas. One division, under general Cadwallader, was to pass the river in the vicinity of Bristol, but failed through inattention to the state of the tide and of the river, as they could not land on account of the heaps of ice accumulated on the Jersey bank. The second division, under general Irving, was to pass at Tren- ton ferry, but was unable to make its way through the ice. The third and mam division, under the command of general Washington in person, assisted by generals Sullivan and Greene, and colonel Knox of the artil- lery, accomplished the passage, with great difficulty, at M'Kenzie's ferry, about nine miles above Trenton. The general had expected to have his troops on the Jersey side about midnight, and to reach Trenton about five in the morning. But the difficulties, arising from the accumulation oi' ice in the river, were so great, that it was three o'clock in the morn- ing before the troops got across, and nearly four before they began to move forwards. They were formed into two divisions, one of which proceeded towards Trenton by the lower or river road, and the other by the upper or Pennington road. Colonel Rawle had received some intimation that an attack on his post was meditated, and probably would be made on the evening of the twenty-fifth. Captain Washington, afterwards much distinguished as an officer of cavalry, had for some days been on a scouting party in the Jerseys with about fifty foot-soldiers; and, ignorant of the meditated attack on the evening of the twenty-fifth, had approached Trenton, ex- changed a few shots with the advanced sentinels, and then retreated. The Hessians concluded that this was the threatened attack, and became quite secure. Captain Washington, in his retreat, met the general ad- vancing against Trenton by the upper road, and joined him. Although some apprehensions were entertained that the alarm excited by captain Washington's appearance might have put the Hessians on their guard ; yet, as there was now no room either for hesitation or delay, the Ame- ricans steadily continued, their march. The night was severe: it sleeted, snowed, and was intensely cold, and the road slippery. But general Washington advanced firmly, and at eight o'clock in the morn- ing reached the Hessian advanced posts, which he instantly drove in ; and, so equal had been the progress of the columns, that in three minutes afterwards the firing on The river road announced the arrival of the other division. Colonel Rawle, who was a courageous officer, soon had his men under arms, and prepared for a brave defence ; but, early in the engagement, When did Washington cross the Delaware ? — Where ? — What is said of colonel Rhalle? — Of captain Washington? — Describe the march of the Americans. — The altaclc — Wlio fell ? 13* 150 OPERATIONS IN NEW JERSEY, he received a mortal wound, and his men, being- severely g'alled by the American artillery, about 1090 of them threw down their arms and surrendered themselves prisoners of war; but a considerable body of them, chiefly light-horse, retreated towards Bordentown and made their escape. In this attack not many Hessians were killed, and the Americans lost only four or five men, some of whom were frozen to death by the in- tense cold of the night. Some of general Washington's officers wished him to follow up his success, and he was much inclined to pursue that course ; but a council of war was averse from the measure, and he did not think it advisable to act contrary to the prevailing opinion. On the evening of the twenty-sixth he repassed the Delaware, carrying his prisoners along with him, and their arms, colours, and artillery. This enterprise, although it failed in several of its parts, was com- pletely successful in so far as it was under the immediate direction of the commander-in-chief, and it had a happy effect on the affairs of Ame- rica. It was the first wave of the returning tide. It filled the British with astonishment ; and the Hessians, wJioso name had before inspired the people with fear, ceased to be terrible. The prisoners were paraded through the streets of Philadelphia to prove the reality of the victory, which the friends of the British government had denied. The hopes of the Americans were revived, and their spirits elevated : they had a clear proof that their enemies were not invincible ; and that union, courage, and perseverance, would ensure success. The British troops in the Jerseys behaved towards the inhabitants with all the insolence of victory, and plundered them with indiscriminate and unmerciful rapacity. Filled with indignation at such insults, injus- tice, and oppression, the people were everywhere ready to flee to arms ; and the success of their countrymen at Trenton encouraged their resent- ment and patriotic feelings. Although general Cadwallader had not been able to pass the Delaware at the appointed time, yet, believing that general Washington was still on the Jersey side, on the 27th he crossed the river with 1500 men, about two miles above Bristol ; and even after he was informed that general Washington had again passed into Pennsylvania, he proceeded to Burlington, and next day marched on Bordentown, the enemy hastily retiring as he advanced. The spirit of resistance and insurrection was again fully awakened in Pennsylvania, and considerable numbers of the militia repaired to the standard of the commander-in-chief, who again crossed the Delaware and marched to Trenton, where, at the beginning of January, he found himself at the head of 5000 men. The alarm was now spread throughout the British army. A strong detachment under general Grant marclied to Princeton ; and earl Corn- wallis, who was on the point of sailing for England, was ordered to leave Nev/ York, and resume his command in the Jerseys. On joining general Grant, lord Cornv/allis immediately marched The victory. — When did Washington recross the Delaware ?—- What was the effect of the battle of Trenton ? — What is said of the British troops? — What is said of general Cadwallader? — What was Washington's force increased to? BATTLE OF PRINCETON. 151 against Trenton. On his approacli, general Wasliington crossed a rivulet named the Asumpinck, and took post on some high ground, with the rivulet in his front. On the advance of the British army on the afternoon of the 2d of January, 1777, a smart cannonade ensued, and continued till night, lord Cornwallis intending to renew the attack next morning ; but soon after midnight general Washington silently decamped, leaving his fires burning, his sentinels advanced, and small parties to guard the fords of the rivulet, and, by a circuitous route through Allen- town, proceeded towards Princeton. It was the most inclement season of the year, but the weather favoured his movement. For two days before it had been warm, soft, and foggy, and great apprehensions were entertained lest, by the depth of tlie roads, it should be found impossible to transport tlie baggage and artillery with the requisite celerity ; but about the time the troops began to move, one of those sudden changes of weather which are not unfre- quont in America iiappened. The wind shifted to tiie north-west, while the council of war which was to decide on their ulterior operations was sitting. An intense frost set in ; and instead of being obliged to strug- gle through a miry road, the army marched as on solid pavement. The American soldiers considered the change of weather as an interposition of Heaven in their behalf, and proceeded on their way with alacrity. Earl Cornwallis, in his rapid march towards Trenton, had left three regiments, under lieutenant-colonel Mawhood, at Princeton, with orders to advance on the 3d of the month to a village about half-way between Princeton and Trenton. General Washington approached Princeton towards daybreak, and shortly before that time colonel Mawhood's de- tachment had begun to advance towards the village, by a road at a little distance from that on which the Americans were marching. The two armies unexpectedly met, and a smart engagement instantly ensued. At first the Americans were thrown into some confusion ; but general Washington, by great personal exertions, restored order, and renewed the battle. Colonel Mawhood, with a part of his force, broke through the American army, and continued his route to the village before men- tioned; the remainder of his detachment, being unable to advance, re- treated by different roads to Brunswick. In this rencounter a considerable number of men fell on each side. The Americans lost general Mercer, whose death was much lamented by his countrymen. Captain Leslie, son of the earl of Leven, was among the slain on the side of the British; and he was buried with military honours by th.e Americans, in testimony of respect not to him- self merely, but to his family also. Early in the morning earl Cornwallis discovered that general Wash- ington had decamped, and soon afterwards the report of artillery in the engagement with colonel Mawhood near Princeton, convinced him of the direction which the American army had taken. Alarmed for the safety of the British stores at Brunswick, he advanced rapidly towards Princeton. In the American army it had indeed been proposed to make Who marched against Trenton ? — What followed ? — Where was colonel Maw- tiood posted? — Describe the battle of Princelon. — What American general was killed ? — What is said of lord Cornwallis ? 152 THE WAR IN NEW JERSEY. a forced march to Brunswick, where all the baofgageof tlie British army was deposited ; but the complete exhaustion of tlie men, who had been without rest, and almost without food for two days and nights, prevented the adoption of the measure. General Washington proceeded towards Morristown, and lord Cornwallis pressed on his rear ; but the x\raericans, on crossing Millstone river, broke down the bridge at Kingston, to im- pede the progress of their enemies; and there the pursuit ended. Both armies were completely worn out, the one being as unable to pursue as the other was to retreat. General Washington took a position at Mor- ristown, and lord Cornwallis reached Brunswick, where no small alarm had been excited by the advance of the Americans, and where every exertion had been made for the removal of the baggage, and for defend- ing the place. General Washington fixed his head-quarters at Morristown, situated among hills of dilficult access, where he had a fine country in his rear, from which he could easily draw supplies, and was able to retreat across the Delaware, if needful. Giving his troops little repose, he overran both East and West Jersey, spread his army over the Raritan, and penetrated into the county of Essex, where he made himself master of the coast opposite Staten Island. With a greatly inferior army, by ju- dicious movements, he wrested from the British almost all their con- quests in the Jerseys. Brunswick and Araboy were the only posts which remained in their hands, and even in these they were not a little harassed and straitened. The American detachments were in a state of unwearied activity, frequently surprising and cutting off the British advanced guards, keeping them in perpetual alarm, and melting down their numbers by a desultory and indecisive warfare. General Howe had issued a proclamation, calling on the colonists to support his majesty's government, and promising them protection both in their persons and property. General Washington accompanied his successful operations with a counter-proclamation, absolving the inhabit- ants from their engagements to Britain, and promising them protection on their submission to congress. This was a seasonable proclamation, and produced much effect. Intimidated by the desperate aspect of American affairs when general Washington retreated into Pennsylvania, many of the inhabitants of the Jerseys had taken advantage of general Howe's proclamation, and submitted to the British authority ; but with respect to the promised protection, they had been entirely disappointed. Instead of protection and conciliation, they had been insulted by the rude insolence of a licentious soldiery, and plundered with indiscriminate and unsparing rapacity. Their passions were exasperated ; they thirsted for vengeance, and were prepared for the most vindictive hostility against the British troops. Hence the soldiers could not venture out to forage, except in large parties ; and they seldom returned without loss. General Lee was kept in confinement, till the capture of general To what place did Washington retreat? — Describe the operations of Washing- ton. — What places remained in the hands of the British? — What proclamations were issued ? — With what effect? — What is said of general Lee ? BATTLE OP BRANDYWINE. 153 Prescott put an officer of equal rank into the hands of the Americans, when an exchange was effected. At that time the British liad nearly 300 American officers prisoners ; while the Americans had not more than fifty officers belonging to the British service. CHAPTER XXI. CAMPAIGN OF 1777. The next campaign opened with considerable indications of vigour on the part of Sir \Villiani Howe. After a number of predatory excur- sions, in which ^-ome torts were reduced, and magazines destroyed, that general resolved to make an attempt on Philadelphia. It was at first thougbt that this could be done by marching tlirough the Jerseys; but Washington, now in possession of tlie open country, and strongly rein- forced, had taken his measures so effectually, that it was declared to be impracticable. It was therefore determined to approach Philadelphia by sea. The expedition, led by the British general in person, sailed on the 23d of July from Sandy Hook ; on the 29th, the troops arrived at the mouth of the Delaware ; but having received intelligence, that the navigation of that river was effectually obstructed, they proceeded to Chesapeake bay, in Maryland, from w^hich they could in a short time reach the capital of Pennsylvania. At length, sailing up the Elk as far as was practicable, the royal army, to the number of 18,000 effective men, landed witiiout opposition. On the news of their arrival in the Chesapeake, Washington gave im- mediate orders for all the colonial troops to join him without delay ; and advanced, by rapid marches, to check the progress of Howe. His ex- ertions, however, for that purpose, were not etfectual ; and it was per- ceived, tliat a battle, which would decide the fate of the American capi- tal, was unavoidable. The royal army had pushed forward towards the Brandywine, on the opposite side of which the provincials were sta- tioned ; the river was fordable, and could therefore present no effective obstacle to a general engagement. This was ardently sought by the English commander; and, in his present circumstances, it was not avoided by Washington. On the morning of the 11th of September, the king's troops advanced towards Chadd's Ford ; various manoeuvres and skirmishing there took place, and with varied success ; till about four in the evening, when the action began between the main strength of the contending forces. The right wing of the Americans was thrown into confusion at the very commencement of the attack ; and, before Washington could lead his battalions to its support, the whole line gave way ; the rout became general, and night alone saved the provincials from a total defeat. This victory, on the part of the British, opened their way to Phila- How did the campaign of 1777 open? — What place did general Howe resolve to attack ? — How did he approach it ? — Where was he met by Washington ? — What was the result of the battle of Brandywine ? 154 BURGOYNE S CAMPAIGN. delphia. Accordingly, a short time after it was gained, Sir William Howe took possession of that city ; hut the troops, during- their marcli, were incessantly annoyed by Washington; who hung upon their rear, cut off their detached parties, and showed them, that though he had been compelled to retreat, he was not overcome. In the whole conduct of this extraordinary man, we admire the prudence, perseverance, and activity which marked his character. He had been repulsed in almost every attack, where a large body of the provincials had been engaged with the enemy ; his troops had deserted him in great numbers, and on the most important occasions ; and he had frequently been distressed by the want of military stores; yet, notwithstanding these adverse circum- stances, he made head against an army of regular troops, commanded by a general of acknowledged ability, well-disciplined, and provided with all the means of successful warfare. No sooner had the English gene- ral taken possession of Pliiladelphia with part of his forces, and stationed the rest at Germantown, than Washington formed the resolution of at- tacking the division of the latter place. In this attempt, also, he was unfortunate ; the British had early notice of his approach ; and he was obliged to retire with very considerable loss. But such was his unconquerable spirit, and so firm his conviction, that the measures which he pursued would at length bring the war to a favourable issue, that, in his letters to the congress, he exhorted them to perseverance ; and rejected every offer of an acconiinouaitoo, but that which acknowledged the independence of the United States. The English general, now in possession of Philadelphia, employed himself for some time in taking or destroying the forts on the Delaware. The principal of these were Mud-island and Red-bank. Aided by three large ships of war, and well supported by the officers who executed his commands, he speedily reduced the forts : and many of the ships belong- ing to the provincials either fell into his hands, or were driven ashore and burnt by their possessors. In the northern provinces, the campaign wore an aspect less friendly to the royal interests. An expedition to New England had been pro- jected by the ministry in Europe, as the most effectual scheme for re- ducing the colonies to obedience. An army of 7000 chosen troops had been put under the orders of general Burgoyne : these were assisted by levies from Quebec; and means were used to engage the Indians of Canada in the service of Great Britain. The first attempts of Burgoyne were as successful as the condition of his army entitled him to expect. The Indians, gained by presents, or stimulated by the hope of plunder, joined him in considerable bodies; and to the honour of the British commander, we must add, that, in his first address to those new allies, he exhorted them to kill none but such as appeared in arms against them, and to spare the women and children, whom the fortune of vvar might put into tlieir hands. WTiat city was now occupied by the British? — Where did Washington now at- tack the British? — What was the result? — How did the British general employ his troops? — What was the state of the war in the north? — What force was put under the conmiand of general Burgoyne ?— What is said of his first attempts? — Of the Indians ? BATTLE OF STILLWATER. 155 On the 2(3 of July, the English army encamped on both sides of Lake Champlain, at a short distance from Ticonderoga. To this strong- fortress the Americans had retired at the end of the preceding year ; and now it was garrisoned with about 6000 men, and defended by the provincial general St. Clair. On the 5th tlie fort was nearly invested ; and St. Clair finding himself unable to defend the post, sent oft' his baggage and military stores by water towards Skeensborough, to which place he retreated with the garrison. The English ships, however, attacked the naval force of the Americans and destroyed it. They were not less successful on land. Reidesel defeated colonel Francis, and St. Clair being dislodged from Skeensborough, and prevented from reaching Fort Anne, was compelled to retire to Fort Edward on the Hudson. Burgoyne, elated with his success, and hitherto uninstructed by ad- verse fortune, proceeded with great Cotentation of zeal and activity to finish the campaign. After waiting at Skeensborough for the arrival of tents and provisions, and spending a long time in clearing the ground, in order to facilitate the passage of his troops, he reached Fort Edward, about the end of July. In the interval afforded by this delay, general Schuyler recruited the shattered battalions of the Americans, and, uniting tlie parties which were stationed in different quarters, convinced the British that much was still to be done. The royal army now suf- fered greatly from the want of provisions. They had attempted to seize magazines at Bennington ; but the detachments under colonels Baum and Breyman, who were employed for that purpose, were utterly de- feated by general Starke, who was advancing with a force from New Hampshire and Vermont to join general Schuyler. The expedition on the Mohawk river, undertaken by colonel St. Leger, had likewise failed. Notwithstanding these misfortunes, how- ever, Burgoyne, fatally for the cause in which he was engaged, con- tinued to advance ; and having collected with great care and indefatiga- ble exertion, provisions for thirty days, he encamped on the heights and plains of Saratoga; resolved to decide by one vigorous effort the fortune of the campaign. On the 17th of September, the English army was only four miles distant from that of the provincials, commanded by gen- eral Gates, who had superseded general Schuyler. This officer, leaving his camp in the islands, had been joined by all the troops destined for the northern provinces; and, marching towards Stillwater with the utmost despatch, showed no inclination to avoid an engagement. Ac- cordingly on the 19th, when the British appeared, without waiting for the assault, he attacked then* centre, while Arnold, who commanded on the left of the provincials, made head against the right of the enemy ; a fierce encounter then ensued; and had not the artillery arrived during the hottest of the action, and checked the Americans, the discipline of the British must have yielded to the valour and impetuosity of the What took place on the 2d of July ? — What flirtress was captured by the British ? — To what place did St. Clair retreat ? — What is said of Burgoyne ? — When did he reach Fort Edward ? — What is said of general Schuyler? — What was attempted at Bennington by the British ? — What was the result ? — What is said of St. Leger's expedition? — What of Burgoyne? — What was the state of affairs on the 17th of September? — What is said of general Gates. — Describe the battle of Stillwater. 156 DEFEAT OF THE BRITISH. colonial troops. In this battle the royalists lost 500 men, and 319 of their antag-onists were either killed or wounded. The English generals were astonished at the resolution which the Americans had displayed, and began to anticipate, with sorrow, the final issue of their exertions. The condition of the army under Burgoyne was now almost desperate. Their stock of provisions was nearly exhausted ; the Indians, their allies,* who had marked the service with bloodshed and cruelty, withdrew from them in great numbers, and, to complete the mortifications of the gene- ral, he had received no intelligence from Clinton, whose assistance or co-operation he had long expected. After some days, however, a letter from that officer arrived, informing Burgoyne, that he intended to make a diversion in his favour : but, as this aid was distant and dubious, the communication of the design had little effect in raising the spirits of the soldiers, or animating their general with confidence. In their present distressful circumstances, it was obvious, that nothing but a victory could save the royalists from the ignominy of surrendering at discretion. Accordingly, on the 7th of October, the English general moved with his whole strength towards the camp of the provincials. His design was quickly perceived by Gates, the American commander, who resolved to attack him without loss of time : the assault was im- petuous and bloody ; but the English, resisting for a while, at last gave way, and Eraser, one of their ablest generals, was killed on the spot. Arnold pressed hard on tlie right, where Burgoyne commanded in per- son ; and though the king's troops in that quarter displayed their wonted courage, the British were compelled to retreat, and with the utmost difficulty regained their camp. They were pursued to their en- trenchments by Arnold, and furiously assaulted ; but tliat officer having received a dangerous wound at the very moment when his division was entering the lines, the Americans were forced to retire. On the left, the provincials were still more successful ; the Germans were routed with great loss ; colonel Breyman fell ; and all the artillery and baggage remained in tlie hands of tlie colonial army. This was the most fiital disaster which the English had experienced since the attack at Bunker's Hill. The number of killed and wounded, both of the Germans and British, was very great ; but the chief misfor- tune was, that the Americans were now enabled so to arrange their posts, as to enclose the army, and effectually to prevent their escape. There was only one road by which it was possible for them to retreat. It was, therefore, resolved to repair the bridges on the way to Fort Ed- ward ; to decamp suddenly, and march towards that place in the night ; and, forcing the passages of the Hudson, to effect an union with Sir Henry Clinton, and the troops under his command. It was resolved also, * The murder of Miss Macrea, a young American lady engaged to an English officer, and intrusted to some Indian chiefs to be escorted to her lover, was among the most exasperating atrocities of this period ; and had a great efTect in stimulating the Americans to a spirited prosecution of the war. What is said of Burgoyne's condition? — When was the second battle of Still- water fought? — Describe the battle. — What British officer was killed? — What was the result?- What was Burgoyne's condition now ? —How did he- lesolve to escape ? ( 157 ) Murder of Miss Macrea. 14 SURKENDER OF EURGOYNE. 159 that the baggage should be left, and that the soldiers should carry their provisions attached to their knapsacks. All these resolutions indicate the extreme necessity to which the British were reduced. The design, however, was found to be impracti- cable. Intelligence was received, that the Americans had erected strong batteries at the fords ; that they had taken possession of an emi- nence between Fort Edward and Fort George, from which, it was said, they could annoy the army on their march ; that their numbers were daily increasing ; and that the fresh troops, as well as their associates, were animated with all the zeal of men, ardent in the cause of freedom, and their country. The state of the royal army, and of its general, was now truly deplo- rable. Burgoyne himself had projected the expedition ; an officer of tried abilities had been removed to make way for him ; and, at the be- ginning of the campaign, his endeavours had been followed with success. But a mournful reverse of circumstances had taken place ; he was de- serted by his allies; his provisions were exhausted; lie was inclosed by an enemy, rejoicing in his misfortunes, and anticipating his Ikll. "In these circumstances," says he, in a letter to lord George Germain, " I called a council of all the generals, field-othcers, and captains command- ing corps; and by their unanimous concurrence and advice, I was induced to open a treaty with major-general Gates." In consequence of this treaty, the British forces, to the number of 6000 men, laid down their arms; having pledged themselves not to serve in America during the war, and stipulated, that they should be permitted to return to their native country. Such was the agreement; but when the transports appeared in the harbour of Boston, and the troops were preparing to embark, the American rulers, suspecting that they might be employed against their interests in other parts of the continent, would not permit them to remove, till the treaty should be ratified by the English cabinet. The surrender of Burgoyne led to the immediate evacuation of Ticon- deroga and Mount Independence ; and the provincials saw themselves once more sole masters of the north. The campaign of 1777 was closed without affording Washington an opportunity of performing any splen- did achievement. His operations, alter the battle of Germantown, were confined to watching the enemy in possession of Philadelphia, and he retired to winter-quarters at Valley Forge, where his troops suffered greatly during the winter from the want of provisions and clothes. CHAPTER XXII. CAMPAIGN OF 1778. The congress, not satisfied with the exertions of the provinces in behalf of their rights, had recourse to the aid of foreign powers. In the beginning of the year 1778, they entered into an alliance with the How was he prevented? — On what terms did he surrender? — Were they observed strictly by Congress? — Wiiy not? — What forts were now evacuated by the British ? — What is said of Washington ? 160 AMERICAN ALLIANCE WITH FRANCE. French ; who, as the rivals of the British, and smarting with the loss of their possessions in Canada, eagerly embraced the proposals of the American States. On the 6th of February, the articles of agreement between the two nations were formally signed. It was declared in these articles, 1. That the principal end of the treaty was, to support, in an effectual manner, the independency of the United Colonies ; 2. That if Great Britain should, in consequence of the treaty, proceed to hostilities against France, the two nations would assist each other as circumstances might require; 3. That if those places in North America, still subject to the British crown, should be conquered by the United States, they should either be confederated with them, or subjected to tiieir jurisdiction ; 4. That if any of the islands in the West Indies should be taken by the French, they should be considered as the property of that nation ; 5. That no formal treaty with Great Britain should be concluded by the French or Ameri- cans, acting separately; and that both parties should continue in arms till the independence of the United States should be acknowledged ; 6. That such powers of Europe or America, as had received injuries from Great Britain, should be invited to engage in the common cause ; 7. That the United States guarantied to France all the possessions in the West Indies which she might be able to conquer ; and that France, in her turn, guarantied the unconditional independence of the United States, and their supreme authority over every country which they pos- sessed, or which they might acquire during the continuance of the war. When this treaty was notified to the court of London, it produced an immediate declaration of war against the French. The English parlia- ment, in their address to the king, expressed their resolution of adhering to him in all his endeavours to subdue the revolted colonies, and pro- mised to assist him with the whole strength of the empire. The ad- dress, however, was not voted without a considerable difference of opinion. The members in opposition loudly afRrmed, that the war was equally tyrannical and unjust; that the ministry by their ignorance and ill success, had forfeited the confidence of the JBritish nation; that tlie Americans were struggling for independence, and would at last attain it ; and that every attempt to compel them to obedience would assuredly be fruitless. Of tlie injustice of the war, from its commencement to the present time, the ministry, by their wavering and indecisive measures, appear to have been conscious. They now introduced into parliament, a bill for reconciling the differences between the Americans and Great Britain; and should the terms which they offered be rejected by the United States, they declared their fixed and unalterable purpose of re- ducing them to compliance by force of arms. Commissioners were therefore despatched to the congress, in order to communicate to them the proposals of the English administration; but as they arrived imme- diately after the surrender of Burgoyne, and the conclusion of the treaty What were the terms of the treaty between France and the United States ? — What did it produce in London ? — What was the state of parties in England ? — What was done by the ministry ? — For what purpose were commissioners sent to America? ( 162 ) Battle of Monmoutli, BATTLE or MONMOUTH. 1G3 with Franco, they were received with the utmost indifference, and, in many places, with the utmost contempt. The general answer was, that the day of reconciliation was past; and that Great Britain, by her tyranny and haughtiness, had extinguished all filial regard in the breasts of the American people. The congress resolved without delay, that, as a political body, they would not receive the commissioners till their independence was acknowledged ; that whoever made a separate agreement with Britain, was an enemy to his country ; and it was the duty of all the states to exert themselves to the utmost in recruiting tlie army, or adding to the number of its battalions. In the mean time, the season for action was approaciiing. While the congress were yet deliberating on the answer which they slioiild give to the proposals from England, Sir Henry Clinton, now raised to tlie chief command, evacuated Philadelphia, June 18th. On his march from that place, he was pursued by a detachment ordered for that service by Washington, who sent forward general Lee with reinforcements to sup- port it, and followed with his whole army. Clinton had halted at Mon- mouth to give battle, and when Washington came up with the main body, he met Lee on the retreat. Sharp words passed between the two generals ; Lee was ordered back, and obeyed, but was compelled again to retreat. When Washington brought the main body into action, the victory was speedily decided in favour of the Americans, and the enemy withdrew to Sandy Hook. This victory was celebrated throughout the country ; and Congress passed a vote of thanks to Wash- ington and the army. For his misconduct on this occasion, as well as his insolence towards the commander-in-chief, Lee was afterwards tried by a court-martial, and sentenced to a temporary suspension from his office, as a general in the army ; a punishment, which, though slight, operated with a powerful eiTect throughout tlie colonial forces. While the British sliips were employed in transporting the troops from Sandy Hook to New York, intelligence was received that a strong fleet, under the orders of count D'Estaing, had arrived from France, (July.) It consisted of 12 ships of the line, besides frigates, and had 6000 marines, or soldiors, on boird. To oppose this force, the British liad only six ships of the line, three of 50 guns, and a few vessels of smaller size ; yet they posted themselves so advantageously before the entrance into New York, that the French admiral thought it would be hazard- ous to attack them, and prudently declined an engagement. The arrival of foreign succours was the occasion of much joy to the inhabitants of the United States. The congress immediately wrote to Washington, instructing him to co-operate with D'Estaing, and author- izing him to employ the militia from New Hampshire to New Jersey, as well as the militia of these provinces, for whatever undertakings he might judge to be necessary. The success of the allied powers was not equal to the magnitude of their preparations. An expedition was agreed on, and Sullivan, the How were they received? — What did Congress resolve ? — What was done by Sir Henry Clinton ? — By Washington ? — By Lee ? — Wliat was the resiill of the battle of Monmouth? — How was Lee punished? — When did a fleet and army arrive from France ? — Under whom ? — What is said of Congress ? 164 MILITARY ERROR OF THE BRITISH. American general, landed on Rhode Island with 10,000 men, resolved to lay siege to Newport, the capital of that state. But Pigot, to whom Sir Henry Clinton had entrusted the defence of the place, had fortified himself so strongly, that the Americans found it impossible to succeed without the aid of the fleet. D'Estaing, however, shattered by a storm, and dreading the approach of the English admiral, withdrew from the harbour, and sailed for Boston in order to refit. In consequence of his departure, Sullivan was obliged to retire, and the garrison of New- port rushing forth, and pressing hard upon him, the provincial troopa were thrown into confusion, and, with no little difficulty, accomplished their retreat. The conduct of D'Estaing at Rhode Island gave the highest offenca to the people of New England, who did not hesitate to express their doubts of the admiral's courage ; it produced a quarrel between him and Sullivan, which Washington long attempted to heal ; and the resentment occasioned by these differences, in the minds of the French, contributed greatly to diminish their exertions in behalf of the colonies. During the summer of 1778, the western frontier of the United States was harassed by Indian hostilities; and the village of Wyoming, in Pennsylvania, was burnt, and its inhabitants mercilessly massacred by these savage enemies. Towards the latter end of this year, the British arms were signally successful in Georgia, the capital of which province was taken by lieutenant-colonel Campbell, who conducted himself with such prudence, and manifested so conciliatory a spirit, that he made no small advances in reconciling the Georgians to their ancient government. During the whole of the American war, there appears to have been one capital and fatal error on the part of the British generals. They never collected their forces, and advanced against tlie Americans with their whole strength; a mode of conduct which might have brought the war to a point, and enabled tlieir discipline and skill to operate with decisive and awfnl execution against the rude valour of the provincial troops. On the contrary, they divided their forces into small bodies; invaded the colonies in separate detachments ; gave the Americans every opportunity of harassing them and cutting oif their supplies; and were finally constrained to yield to the perseverance and boldness of men inferior to them in military knowledge, and almost destitute of those advantages which influence the success of military operations. This error of the British commanders was perceived by Washington, and he availed himself of it. " From your accounts," says he to Schuy- ler, in a letter written afler the fall of Ticonderoga, "general Burgoyne appears to be pursuing that line of conduct, which, of all others, is most favourable to us; I mean, acting in detachment. This conduct will certainly give room for enterprise on our side, and expose his parties to great hazard. Could we be so happy as to cut one of them off, though it should not exceed four, five, or six hundred men, it would inspirit the people, and do away much of their anxiety." The result of the campaign of 1778, although not so favourable to the Describe the expedition against Rhode Island. — Its result. — What is said of the Indian war?— What is said of Of-^r--' '"^ ' ' ' "^Wtisli? ( 165 ) Massacre of Wyoming. OPERATIONS IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. 167 Americans as they had anticipated on the arrival of the French fleet, was by no means satisfactory to the British ministry, since it had ter- minated with the loss of Burgoyne's army, and the exchange by general Howe of his narrow quarters in Philadelphia, for the not much more extended ones in New York island. CHAPTER XXni. CAMPAIGN OF 1779. The success of the British, in bringing the province of Georgia into subjection, seems to have indicated to them the expediency of rendering the southern portion of the Union the chief seat of their offensive ope- rations. With this view they determined to attempt the conquest of Carolina. In this attempt there was no small probability of success. The country contained a great number of friends to government, who now eagerly embraced the opportunity of declaring themselves ; many of the inhabitants of Georgia had joined the royal standard ; and there was not in the province any considerable body of provincial forces capa- ble of opposing the efforts of regular and well-disciplined troops. On the first news of General Provost's approach, the loyalists assembled in a body, imagining themselves able to stand their ground until their allies should arrive ; but in this they were disappointed. The Americans attacked and defeated them with the loss of half their number. Tiic remainder retreated into Georgia; and after undergoing many difficulties, at last effected a junction with the British forces. In the mean time, general Lincoln, with a considerable body of Ame- rican troops, had encamped within twenty miles of the town of Savan- nah ; and another strong party had posted themselves at a place called Briar's Creek, farther up the river of the same name. Thus the extent of the British government was likely to be circumscribed within very narrow bounds. General Prevost therefare determined to dislodge the party at Briar's Creek ; and the latter, trusting to their strong situation, and being remiss in their guard, suffered themselves to be surprised on the 30th of March, 1779 ; when they were utterly routed with the loss of 400 killed and taken, besides a great number drowned in the river or the swamps. The whole artillery, stores, baggage, and almost all the arms, of this unfortunate party were taken, so that they could no more make any stand. The victory at Briar's Creek proved of considerable service to the British cause. Great numbers of the loyalists joined the army, and considerably increased its force. Hence he was enabled to stretch his posts further up the river, and to guard all the principal passes : so that general Lincoln was reduced to a state of inaction ; and at last moved off towards Augusta, in order to protect the provincial assembly, which Of the result of the campaign ? — What now became the chief theatre of war ? — What state was invaded ? — What was done by the royahsts ? — What suffered ? — What took place at Briar's Creek ? — What follov\ ed ? — What is said of Lmcoln ? 168 SOUTH CAROLINA INVADED. was obliged to sit in that place, the capital being now in the hands of the British. Lincoln had no sooner quitted his post, than it was judged a proper time by the British general to put in execution the grand scheme which had been meditated against Carolina. Many difficulties indeed lay in his way. The river Savannah was so swelled by the excessive rains of the season, that it seemed impassable ; the opposite shore, for a great way, was so lull of swamps and marshes, that no army could march over it without the greatest difficulty ; and, to render the passage still more difficult, general Moultrie was left with a considerable body of troops in order to oppose the enemy's attempts. But in spite of every opposition, the constancy and perseverance of the British forces at last prevailed. General Moultrie was defeated, and obliged to retire towards Charleston ; and the victorious army, after having waded through the marshes for some time, at last arrived in an open country, through which they pur- sued tlieir march with great rapidity towards the capital ; while general Lincoln remained in a state of security at Augusta, vainly imagining that the obstacles he had left in the way could not be surmounted. Certain intelligence of the danger to whicli Charleston was exposed, at last aroused the American general. A chosen body of infantry, mounted on liorseback for the greater expedition, was despatched before him ; while Lincoln himself followed with all the forces he could col- lect. General Moultrie too, with the troops he had brought from ►Savannah, and some others he had collected since his retreat from thence, had taken possession of all tlie avenues leading to Charleston, and prepared for a vigorous defence. But all opposition proved in- eflcctual. The Americans were defeated in every encounter; and re- treating continually, allowed the British army to come within cannon- shot of Charleston on the 12th of May. The town was now summoned to surrender, and the inhabitants would gladly have agreed to observe a neutrality during the rest of the war, and would have engaged also for the rest of the province. But these terms not being accepted, they made preparations for a vigorous defence. It was not, however, in the power of the British commander at this time to make an attack with any prospect of success. His artillery was not of sufficient weight ; there were no ships to support his attack by land ; and general Lincoln, advancing rapidly with a superior army, threatened to inclose him between his own force and the town ; so that should he fail in his first attempt, certain destruction would be the consequence. For these reasons he withdrew his forces from before the town, and took possession of two islands, called St. James's and St. John's, lying to the southward ; where, having waited some time, his force was aug- mented by the arrival of two frigates. With these he determined to make himself master of Port Royal, another island possessed of an ex- cellent harbour and many other natural advantages, from its situation also commanding all the sea-coast from Charleston to Savannah River. The American general, however, did not allow this to be accomplished Of Moultrie? — What plare did they endeavour to relieve? — What prevented? — What took place at Charleston ?— Whither did Prcvout retire ?— Who opposed him? MOVEMENTS OF THE FRENCH FLEET. 169 witliout opposition. Perceiving that his opponent had occupied an ad- vantageous post on St. John's island preparatory to his enterprise against Port Royal, he attempted, on the twentieth of June, to dislodge him from it ; but after an obstinate attack, the provincials were, as usual, obliged to retire with considerable loss. On this occasion the success of the British arms was in a great measure owing to an armed float ; which galled the right flank of the enemy so effectually, that they could direct their efforts only against the strongest part of the lines, which proved impregnable to their attacks. This disappointment was instantly follov/ed by the loss of Port Royal, which general Prevost took possession of, and put his troops into proper stations, waiting for the arrival of such reinforcements as were neces- sary for the intended attack on Charleston. In the the mean time count D'Estaing, who had put into Boston har- bour to refit, had used his utmost efforts to ingratiate himself with the inhabitants of that city. Zealous also in the cause of his master, he had published a proclamation to be dispersed throughout Canada, inviting the people to return to their original friendship with France, and declar- ing that nil who renounced their allegiance to Great Britain should cer- tainly find a protector in the king of France, All his endeavours, how- ever, proved insufficient at this time to produce any revolution, or even to form a party of any consequence among the Canadians. As soon as the French admiral had refitted his ffeet, he took the op- portunity, while that of admiral Byron had been shattered by a storm, of sailing to the West Indies. During his operations there, the Ame- ricans having represented his conduct as totally unserviceable to them, he received orders from Europe to assist the colonies with all possible speed. In compliance with these orders, he directed his course towards Georgia, with a design to recover that province out of the hands of the enemy, and to put it, as well as South Carolina, in such a posture of defence as would effectually secure them from any future attack. This seemed to be an easy matter, from the little force with which he knew he should be opposed ; and the next object in contemplation was no less thau the destruction of the British fleet and army at New York, and their total expulsion from the continent of America. Full of these hopes, the French commander arrived off" the coast of Georgia with a fleet of twenty-two sail of the line and ten large frigates. His arrival was so little expected, that several vessels laden with provisions and military stores fell into his hands; the Experiment also, a vessel of fifty guns, commanded by Sir James Wallace, was taken after a stout resistance. On the continent, the British troops were divided. General Prevost, with a considerable part, remained at Savannah ; but the main force was under colonel Maitland at Port Royal. On the first appearance of the French fleet, an express was despatched to colonel Maitland : but it was intercepted, so that before he could set out in order to join the com- mander-in-chief, the Americans had secured most of the passes by land, What ensued ? — What is said of D'Esfaing ? — What was his present design ?- Where did he arri\ e ? — How was Savannah relieved ? 15 170 ATTACK UPON SAVANNAH. while the French fleet effectually blocked up the passage by sea. But, by taking- advantage of creeks and inlets, and marching over land, he arrived just in time to relieve Savannah. D'Estaing, after making a gasconade of what had happened at St. Vincent's and Grenada, had allowed general Prevost twenty-four hours to deliberate whether he should capitulate or not. This time the gene- ral employed in making the best preparations he could for a defence ; and during this time it was that colonel Maitland arrived. D'Estaing's summons was now rejected ; and, as on this occasion the superiority of the enemy was by no means so much out of proportion as it had been at Grenada, there was every probability of success on the part of the British. The garrison now consisted of 3000 men, all of approved valour and experience, while the united force of the French and Ame- ricans did not amount to 10,000. The event was answerable to the expectations of the British general. Having the advantage of a strong fortification and excellent engineers, the fire of the allies made so little impression, that D'Estaing resolved to bombard the town, and a battery of nine mortars was erected for the purpose. This produced a request from general Prevost, that the women and children might be allowed to retire to a place of safety. But the allied commanders refused compliance ; and they resolved to give a general assault. This was accordingly attempted on the 9th of Octo- ber : but tiie assailants were everywhere repulsed with such slaughter, that 1200 were killed and wounded ; among the fornjer was count Pulaski, and among the latter was D'Estaing himself This disaster entirely overthrew the hopes of the Americans and French ; and after waiting eight days longer, both parties prepared for a retreat ; the French to their shipping, and the Americans into Carolina. While the allies were thus unsuccessfully employed in the Southern colonies, their antagonists were no less assiduous in distressing them in the northern parts. Sir George Collier was sent with a fleet, carrying on board general Matthews, with a body of land forces, into the province of Virginia. Their flrst attempt was on the town of Portsmouth; where, though the enemy had destroyed some ships of great value, the British troops arrived in time to save a great number of others. On this occasion about one hundred and twenty vessels of different sizes were burnt, and twenty carried off; and an immense quantity of provisions designed for the use of general Washington's army was either destroyed or carried off, together with a great variety of naval and military stores. The fleet and army returned with little or no loss to New York. The success Vv'ith which this expedition was attended, soon gave en- couragement to attempt another. The Americans had for some time been employed in the erection of two strong forts on the river; the one at Verpiank's Neck on the east, and the other at Stony Point on the west side. These, when completed, would have been of the utmost service to the Americans, as commanding the principal pass, called the King's Ferry, between the northern and southern colonies. At present, however, they were not in a condition to make any effectual defence ; Give an account of the subsequent siege. — What was its result ? — Describe Sir George Collier's expedition. — The lalung of the Fort at Verpiank's Neck. OPERATIONS IN THE NORTH. 171 and it was therefore determined to attack them before the works should be completed. The force employed on this occasion was divided into two bodies; one of which directed its course against Verplank's, and the other against Stony Point. The former was commanded by general Vaughan, the latter by general Pattison, while the shipping was under the direction of Sir George Collier. General Vaughan met with no resistance, the Americans abandoning their works, and setting fire to every thing combustible that they could not carry off. At Stony Point, however, a vigorous defence was made, though the garrison was at last obliged to capitulate upon honourable conditions. To secure the possession of this last, which was the more important of the two, general Clinton removed from his former situation, and encamped in such a manner that Washington could not give any assistance. Tlie Americans, however, revenged themselves by distress- ing, with tiieir numerous privateers, the trade to New York, This occasioned a third expedition to Connecticut, where these pri- vateers were chiefly built and harboured. The command was given to governor Tryon and to general Garth, an officer of known valour and experience. Under convoy of a considerable number of armed vessels they landed at New Haven, where they demolished the batteries that liad been erected to oppose them, and destroyed the shipping and naval stores ; but they spared the town itself, as the inhabitants had abstained from firing out of their houses upon the troops. From New Haven they marched to Fairfield, where they proceeded as before, reducing the town also to ashes. Norwalk was next attacked, which in like manner was reduced to ashes; as was also Greenfield, a small sea-port in the neigh- bourhood. These successes proved very alarming as well as detrimental to the Americans ; so that general Washington determined, at all events, to drive the enemy from Stony Point. For this purpose he sent general Wayne with a detachment of chosen men, directing them to attempt the recovery of it by surprise. On this occasion the Americans showed a spirit and resolution exceeding any thing they had performed during the course of the war. Though after the capture of it by the British, the fortifications of this place had been completed, and were very strong, they attacked the enemy with bayonets, after passing through a heavy fire of musketry and grape shot ; and, in spite of all opposition, obliged the surviving part of the garrison, amounting to 500 men, to surrender themselves prisoners of war. Though the Americans did not at present attempt to retain possession of Stony Point, the success they had met with in the enterprise em- boldened them to make a similar attempt on Paulus Hook, a fortified post on the Jersey side opposite to New York ; but in this they were not attended with equal success, being obliged to retire with precipitation after they had made themselves masters of one or two posts. Another expedition of greater importance was now projected on the part of the Americans. This was against a post on the river Penobscot, The taking of Stony Point by the British. — Tryon 's expedition. — The taking of Stony Point by the Americans. — The attempt on Paulus Hook. — The expedition to Penobscot. 172 AMERICANS CHASTISE THE INDIANS. in the state of Maine, of which the British had lately taken posses- sion, and where they had begun to erect a fort which threatened to be a very great inconvenience to the colonists. Tlie armament destined against it was so soon got in readiness, that colonel Maclane, the com- manding officer at Penobscot, found himself obliged to drop the execu- tion of part of his scheme ; and instead of a regular fort, to content him- self with putting the works already constructed in as good a posture of defence as possible. The Americans could not effect a landing without a great deal of difficulty, and bringing the guns of their largest vessels to bear upon the shore. As soon as this was clone, however, they erected several batteries, and kept up a brisk fire for the space of a fortnight; after which they proposed to give a general assault : but before this could be effected, they perceived Sir George Collier with a British fleet sailing up the river to attack them. On this they instantly embarked their artillery and military stores, sailing up the river as far as possible in order to avoid him. They were so closely pursued, however, that not a single vessel could escape ; so that the whole fleet, consisting of nineteen armed vessels and twenty-four transports, was destroyed ; most of them, indeed, being blown up by themselves. The soldiers and sailors were obliged to wander through immense deserts, v.'here they suffered much for want of provisions. Thus the arms of America and France being almost everywhere unsuccessful, the independency of the former seemrd yet to be in dan- ger, notwithstandmg tlie assist mce of so powerful an ally, when further encouragement was given by the accession of Spain to the confederacy against Britain in the month of .Tune, 1779. The first effect of this appeared in an invasion of West Florida by the Spaniards in September, 1779. As the country was in no state of defence, the invaders easily made themselves masters of the whole almost without opposition. As no operations of any consequence took place this year in the pro- vince of New York, the congress made use of the opportunity to des- patch general Sullivan, with a considerable force, in order to take ven- geance on the Indians of the Six Nations for their ravages and depreda- tions: and the object of the expedition was, not merely the reduction of them, but if possible their utter extirpation. Of this the Indians were apprised ; and collecting all their strength, resolved to come to a decisive engagement. Accordingly they took a strong post at some distance above Chemung and a mile in front of Newtown, in the most woody and mountainous part of the country ; erecting a breast-work in their front of large logs of wood extending lialf a mile in length, while their right flank was covered by a river, and the left by a hill of difficult access. This advantageous position they had taken by the advice of the refugees who were among them, and of whom 2 K) or SOO were present in the battle. Thus posted, the Indians waited the approach of the American army: but the latter having brought some artillery W"itli them, played it against the breast-work of the enemy with such success, that in two hours it was almost destroyed ; and at the same time a party having reached the What was done by the Spaniards in Florida? — Who had the oondnct of the Indian war? — I low did ihe Indians prepare iov defenco? — Describe the baltle. EXPEDITION AGAINST CHARLESTON. 173 top of the hill, they became apprehensive of being surrounded, on which they instantly fled with precipitation, leaving a great number of killed and wounded behind them. The Americans after this battle met with no further resistance of any consequence. They were suffered to pro- ceed without interruption, and to execute in the most ample manner the vengeance they had projected. On entering the country of the Indians, it appeared that they had been acquainted with agriculture and the arts of peace far beyond what had been supposed. From general Sullivan's account it was learned, that the Indian houses were large, convenient, and even elegant ; their grounds were excellently cultivated, and their gardens abounded in fruit- trees and vegetables of all kinds fit for food. The whole of this fine country was now converted into a desert. Forty towns and settlements, besides scattered habitations, were demolished ; the fields of corn, the orchards, the plantations, were utterly laid waste ; all the fruit-trees were cut down; and so great had been the industry of the Indians, that in one orchard 1500 of these were destroyed. The quantity of corn wasted on this occasion was supposed to amount to 160,000 bushels. In short, such was the desolation, that on the American army's leaving the country, not a house, nor a field of corn, nor a fruit-tree, was left upon the ground, nor was an Indian to be seen throughout the whole tract. CHAPTER XXIV. CAMPAIGN OF 1780. We must now take a view of the transactions in the southern states ; to which the war was, in the year 1780, so effectually transferred, that the operations there became at last decisive. The success of general Prevost in advancing to the capital of South Carolina has been al- ready related, together with the obstacles which prevented him from becoming master of it at that time. Towards the end of the year 1779, Sir Henry Clinton set sail from New York with a considerable body of troops, intended for the attack of Charleston, South Carolina, in a fleet of ships of war and transports under the command of vice-admiral Arbuthnot. They had a very tedious voyage ; the weather was uncommonly bad ; several of the transports were lost, as were also the greater part of the horses which they car- ried with them, intended for cavalry or other public uses; and an ord- nance ship likewise foundered at sea. Having arrived at Savannah, where they endeavoured to repair the damages sustained on their voyage, they proceeded from thence on the 10th of February, 1780, to North Edisto, the place of debarkation which had been previously appointed. They had a favourable and speedy passage thither : and though it required time to have the bar explored and the channel marked, the transports all entered the harbour the next day ; and the army took possession of John's island without opposition. What followed ? — Describe the Indian country. — The desolation. — Where was the war then transferred ? — What is said of the naval operations? 15 * 174 SIEGE OF CHARLESTON. Preparations were then made for passing- the squadron over Charleston bar, where the high water spring-tides were only nineteen feet deep : but no opportunity offered of going into the harbour till the 20th of March, when it was effected without any accident, though the American galleys continually attempted to prevent the English boats from sounding the channel. The British troops had previously removed from John's to James's island ; and on the 29th of the same month they effected their landing on Charleston neck. On the 1st of April they broke ground within 800 yards of the American works ; and by the 8th the besiegers' guns were mounted in battery. As soon as the army began to erect their batteries against the town, admiral Arbuthnot embraced the first favourable opportunity of passing Sullivan's island, upon which there was a strong fort of batteries, the chief defence of the harbour. He weighed on the 9th, with the Roe- buck, Richmond, and Romulus, Blonde, Virginia, Raleigh, and Sand- wich armed ship, the Renown bringing up the rear; and, passing through a severe hre, anchored in about two hours under James's island, with the loss of twenty-seven sean:ien killed and wounded. The Rich- mond's fore-top-mast was shot away, and the ships in general sustained damage in their masts and rigging, though not niaterially in their hulls. But the Acetus transport, having on board some naval stores, grounded within gun-shot of Sullivan's isfand, and received so much damage that she was obliged to be abandoned and burnt. On the 10th, Sir Henry Clinton and admiral Arbuthnot summoned the town to surrender : but major-general Lincoln, who commanded in Charleston, returned them an answer, declaring it to be his intention to defend the place. The batteries were now opened against the town ; and from their effect the fire of the American advanced works consider- ably abated. It appears that the number of troops under the command of Lincoln were by far too few for defending works of such extent as those of Charleston ; and that many of these were men little accustomed to military service, and very ill provided with clothes and other ne- cessaries. Lhicoln had been for some time expecting reinforcements and supplies from Virginia and North Carolina : but they came in very slowly. Earl Cornwallis, and lieutenant-colonel Tarleton under him, were also ex- tremely active in intercepting such reinforcements and supplies as were sent to the American general. They totally defeated a considerable body of cavalry and militia which was proceeding to the relief of the town ; and also made themselves masters of some posts which gave them in a great degree the command of the country, by which means great supplies of provisions fell into their hands. Such was the state of things, and Fort Sullivan had also been taken by the king's troops, v^hen on the 18th of May, general Clinton again summoned the town to surrender; an offer being made, as had been done before, that if they surrendered, the lives and property of the inhabitants should be preserved to them. Articles of capitulation were then pro- of Clinton ? — Of general Lincoln ? — Of the troops ? — Of Cornwallis and Tarle- ton ? — Who took Fort Sullivan ? — What terms were proposed ? SEVERE WEATHER IN 1780. 175 posed by general Lincoln ; but the terms were not agreed to by general Clinton. At length, however, the town being closely invested on all sides, and the preparations to storm it in every part being in great forwardness, and the ships ready to move to the assault, general Lincoln, who had been applied to lor that purpose by the inhabitants, surrendered it on such articles of capitulation as general Clinton had belbre agreed to. This was on the 4th of May, wh.ch was one month and two days after the town had been first summoned to surrender. A large quantity of ordnance, arms, and ammunition, was found in Charleston ; and, according to Sir Henry Clinton's account, the number of prisoners taken in Charleston, amounted to 5018 men, exclusively of near a thousand sailors in arms; but according to general Lincoln's account transmitted to the congress, the whole number of continental troops taken prisoners amounted to no more than 2467. The remainder, therefore, included in general Clinton's account, must have consisted of militia and inhabitants of the town. Several American frigates were also taken or destroyed in the luirbour of Charleston. The loss of Charleston excited a considerable alarm in America : and the popular writers, particularly the author of the celebrated perform- ance entitled Common Sense, in some other pieces made use of it as a powerful argument to incite them to more vigorous exertions against Great Britain, that they might the more effectually and certainly secure their independence. While Sir Ilenry Clinton was employed in his voyage to Charleston, and in the siege of that place, the garrison at New York seem not to have been wholly free from apprehensions for their own safety. An intense frost, accompanied with great falls of snow, began about the middle of December, 1779, and shut up the navigation of the port of New York from the sea, within a few days after the departure of admi- ral Arbuthnot and general Clinton. The severity of the weather in- creased to so great a degree, that towards the middle of January all communications with New York over water were entirely cut off, and as many new ones opened by the ice. The inhabitants could scarcely be said to be in an insular state. Horses with heavy carriages could go over tlie ice into the Jerseys from one island to another. The passage in the North River, even in the widest part from New York to Paulus Hook, which was 2000 yards, was about the 19th of January practicable for the heaviest cannon: an event which had been unknown in the memory of man. Provisions were soon after transported upon sledges, and a detachment of cavalry marched upon the ice from New York to Staten Island, which was a distance of eleven miles. The city of New York, under tliese circumstances of easy access, was much exposed to the attacks from the continental troops : and it was strongly reported that general Washington was meditating a great stroke upon the town, with his whole force, by different attacks. No With what effect? — When did Charleston capitulate ? — After how long a eiege ? — What was the number of prisoners ? — What was the effect of the fall of Charleston? — What is said of the winter at New York? — When was Staten Island attacked ? 176 BRITISH PROCLAMATIONS. attempt, however, was made upon that city, whatever design might originally have been meditated ; but a descent v/as undertaken upon Staten Island, where there were about 1800 men, under the command of brigadier-general Stirling, who were well intrenched. General Washington, whose army was hutted at Morristown, sent a detachment of 2700 men, with six pieces of cannon, two mortars, and some horses, ■commanded by lord Stirling, who arrived at Staten Island early in the morning of the I5th of January. The advanced posts of the British troops retired upon the approach of the Americans, who formed the line, and made some movements in the course of the day ; but they withdrew in the night, and having burnt one house, pillaged some others, and carried off with them about 200 head of cattle. Immediately on the arrival of the Americans on Staten Island, lieutenant-general Knyp- hausen had embarked 600 men to attempt a passage, and to support general Stirling: but the floating ice compelled them to return. It is probable that the appearance of these transports, with the British troops on board, which the Americans could see towards the close of the day, induced the latter to retreat. After Charleston had surrendered to the king's troops, general Clinton issued two proclamations, and also circulated a hand-bill amongst the inhabitants of South Carolina, in order to induce them to return to their allegiance, and to be ready to join the king's troops. It was said, that the helping hand of every man was wanted to re-establish peace and good government : and that, as tlie commander-in-chief wished not to draw tlie king's friends into danger, while any doubt could remain of their success ; so now that this was certain, he trusted that one and all would heartily join, and by a general concurrence give effect to such necessary measures for that purpose as from time to time might be pointed out. Those who had families were to form a militia to remain at home, and occasionally to assemble in their own districts, when required, under officers of "their own choosing, for the maintenance of peace and good order. Those who had no families, and who could conveniently be spared for a time, it was presumed, would cheerfully assist his majesty's troops in driving their oppressors, acting under the authority of congress, and all the miseries of war, far from that colony. For this purpose it was said to be necessary that the young men should be ready to assemble when required, and to serve with the king's troops for any six months of the ensuing twelve that might be found requisite, under proper regulations. They might choose off.cers to each company to command them; and were to be allowed, when on set vice, pay, ammunition, and provisions, in the same manner as the king's troops. When they joined the army, each man was to be furnished with a certificate, declaring that he was only engaged to serve as a militia-man for the time specified ; that he was not to be marched beyond Nortli Carolina and Georgia; and that, when the time was out, he was freed from all claims whatever of military service, excepting the com- mon and usual militia duty where he lived. He would then, it was said, have paid his debt to his country, and be entitled to enjoy undis- What was the result ? — What is said of general Clinton's proclamations i PROCEEDINGS OF CONGRESS. 177 turbed tliat peace, liberty, and property, at home, which he had con- tributed to secure. The proclamations and publications of general Clinton appear to have produced some effect in South Carolina ; though they probably operated chiefly upon those who were before not much inclined to the cause of American independence. Two hundred and ten of the inhabitants of Charleston signed an address to general Clinton and admiral Arbuthnot, soliciting to be re-admitted to the character and condition of British subjects, the inhabitants of that city having been hitherto considered as prisoners on parole; declaring their disapprobation of the doctrine of American independence ; and expressing their regret, that after the repeal of those statutes which gave rise to the troubles in America, the overtures made by his majesty's commissioners had not been regarded by the congress. Sir Henry Clinton, in one of the proclamations issued at this time, declared, that if any person should thenceforward appear in arms in order to prevent the establishment of his majesty's government in that country, or should under any pretence or authority whatsoever attempt to compel any other person or persons to do so, or should hinder or in- timidate the king's faithful and loyal subjects from joining his forces or otherwise performing those duties their allegiance required, such per- sons should be treated with the utmost severity, and their estates be im- mediately seized in order to be confiscated. This requisition on the Carolinians to enter the king's service was undoubtedly a violation of the terms of capitulation of Charleston. Mean time the ravages of war did not prevent the Americans from paying some attention to the arts of peace. On the 4th of May an act was passed by the council and house of representatives of Massachusetts Bay, for incorporating and establishing a society for the cultivation and promotion of the arts and sciences. Some doubts having arisen in the congress, towards the close of the preceding year, about the propriety of their assembling in the city of Philadelphia, it was now resolved that they should continue to meet tliere : and a committee of three members was appointed, to report a proper place where buildings might be provided for the reception of the congress, together v/ith an estimate of the expense of providing such buildings and the necessary offices for the several boards. It was also resolved by the congress, that a monument should be erected to the memory of their late general, Richard Montgomery, vv'ho fell at Quebec, in testimony of his signal and important services to the United States of America, with an inscription expressive of his amiable character and heroic achievements ; and that the continental treasurers should be directed to advance a sum not exceeding £300 to Dr. Franklin to defray the expense ; that gentleman being desirous to cause the monument to be executed at Paris, or in some other part of France. It was likewise resolved by the congress, that a court should be established for the trial of all appeals from the court of admiralty of the United States of Ame- rica, in cases of capture; to consist of three judges, appointed and com- Whal was their effect ? — When was the American academy of arts and sciences uislituted^ — VVIiat \vu:^ dune by t'unuress? 178 AMEKICAN CURRENCY. missioned by congress, and who were to take an oath of office ; and that the trials in this court should be determined by the usage of nations. The dithculties of the congress and of the people of America had been greatly increased by the depreciation of their paper-currency. At the time when the colonies engaged in a war with Great Britain, they had no regular civil governments established among them of sufficient energy to entbrce the collection of taxes, or to provide funds for the re- demption of such bills of credit as their necessities obliged them to issue. In consequence of tiiis state of things, their bills increased in quantity tar beyond the sum necessary for the purpose of a circulating medium : and as they wanted at the same time specific funds to rest on for their redemption, they saw their paper-currency daily sink in value. The depreciation continued, by a kind of gradual progression, from the year 1777 to 1780 : so that, at the latter period, the continental dol- lars were passed, by common consent, in most parts of America, at the rate of at least f ^ths below their nominal value. The impossibility of keeping up the credit of the currency to any fixed standard, occasioned great and almost insurmountable embarrassments in ascertaining the value of property, or carrying on trade with any sufficient certainty. Those who sold, and those who bought, were lefl without a rule whereon to form a judgment of their profit or their loss ; and every species of commerce or exchange, whether foreign or domestic, was exposed to numberless and increasing dilliculties. The consequences of the depre- ciation of the paper-currency were also felt with peculiar severity by such of the Americans as were engaged in their military services, and greatly augmented their other hardships. The requisitions made by the congress to the several colonies for supplies, were also far from being always regularly complied with : and the troops were not unfirequently in want of the most common necessaries; which naturally occasioned complaints and discontent among them. Some of these difficulties, resulting from their circumstances and situation, perhaps no wisdom could have prevented : but they seem to have arisen in part from the congress not being sufficiently acquainted with the principles of finance, and from a defect of system in the de- partments of the government. The cause of the Americans suffered somewhat by their depending too much on temporary enlistments. But the congress endeavoured, towards the close of the year 1780, to put the army upon a more permanent footing, and to give all the satisfaction to the officers and soldiers which circumstances would permit. They appointed a committee for arranging the finances, and made some new regulations respecting the war-office and treasury-board, and other public departments. Notwitiistanding the disadvantages under which they laboured, the Americans seemed to entertain no doubts that they should be able to maintain their independence. The 4th of July was celebrated this year at Philadelphia with considerable pomp, as the anniversary of American independence. A commencement for conferring degrees in the arts was held the same day, in the hall of the university there; at which the What is said of the continental paper money ? — Of the army ? — Of Congress V — Of the celebration oi the 4th of July ? — Of the commencement^ AKRIVAL OF FRENCH FORCES. 179 president and members of congress attended, and other persons in public offices. The Chevalier de la Lauzun, minister plenipotentiary from the French king to the United States, was also present on the occasion. A charge was publicly addressed by the provost of the university to the students ; in which he said, that he could not but congratulate them " on that auspicious day, which, amidst the confusions and desolations of war, beheld learning beginning to revive ; and animated them with the pleasing prospect of seeing the sacred lamp of science burning with a still brighter flame, and scattering its invigorating rays over the unex- plored deserts of tliat extensive continent; until the whole world should be involved in the united blaze of knowledge, liberty, and religion. When he stretched his views forward (he said), and surveyed the rrsing glories of America, the enriching consequences of their determined struggle for liberty, the extensive fields of intellectual improvement and useful invention, in science and arts, in agriculture and commerce, in religion and government, through which the unfettered mind would range, with increasing delight, in quest of the undiscovered treasure which yet lay concealed in the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms of that new world, or in the other fertile sources of knowledge with which it abounded, his heart swelled with the pleasing prospect, that tlie sons of that institution would distinguish themselves, in the different walks of life, by their literary contributions to the embellishment and increase of human happiness." On the 10th of July, M. Ternay, with a fleet consisting of seven ships of the line, besides frigates, and a large body of French troops, commanded by the Count de Rochambeau, arrived at Rhode Island ; and the following day GOOO men were landed there. A committee from the general assembly of Rhode Island was appointed to congratulate the French general upon his arrival : whereupon he returned an answer, in which he informed them, that the king his master had sent him to the assistance of his good and faithful allies the United States of America. At present, he said, he only brought over the vanguard of a much greater force destined for their aid ; and the king had ordered him to assure them, that his whole power should be exerted for their support. He added, that the French troops were under the strictest discipline ; and, acting under the orders of general Washington, would live vviih the Americans as their brethren. A scheme was soon after formed, of making a combined attack with English ships and troops, under the command of Sir Henry Clinton and admiral Arbuthnot, against the French fleet and troops at Rhode Island. Accordingly a considerable part of the troops at New York were em- barked for that purpose. General Washington having received inform- ation of this, passed the North River, by a very rapid movement, and, with an army increased to 12,000 men, proceeded with celerity towards King's Bridge, in order to attack New York; but learning that the British general had changed his intentions, and disembarked his troops on the 81st of the month, general Washington recrossed the river, and returned to his former station. Sir Henry Clinton and the admiral had Where did the French fleet and troops arrive? — What followed? — What was done by Washington ? 180 BATTLE OF CAMDEN. agreed to relinquish their design of attacking the French and Ameri- cans at Rhode Island as impracticable for the present. An unsuccessful attempt was also made about this time in the Jerseys by general Knyphausen, with 7000 British troops under his command, to surprise the advanced posts of general Washington's army. They proceeded very rapidly towards Springfield, meeting little opposition till they came to the bridge there, which was very gallantly defended by 170 of the continental troops, for fifteen minutes, against the British army : but they were at length obliged to give up so unequal a contest, with the loss of 37 men. After securing this pass, the British troops marched into the place, and set fire to most of the houses. They also committed some other depredations in the Jerseys; but gained no laurels there, being obliged to return about the beginning of July without effecting anything material. But in South Carolina the royal arms were attended with more suc- cess. Earl Cornwallis, who commanded the British troops there, ob- tained a signal victory over general Gates at Camden, on the 16th of Au- gust. The action began at break of day, in a situation very advan- tageous for the British troops, but very unfavourable to the Americans. The latter were somewhat more numerous; but the ground on which both armies stood was narrowed by swamps on the right and left, so that the Americans could not properly avail themselves of their superior numbers. There seems to have been some want of generalship in Gates, in suffering himself to be surprised in so disadvantageous a posi- tion : but this circumstance was partly the effect of accident ; for both armies set out with a design of attacking each other precisely at the same time, at ten the preceding evening, and met together before day- light at the place where the action happened. The attack was made by the British troops with great vigour, and in a few minutes the action was general along the whole line. It was at this time a dead calm, with a little haziness in the air, which preventing the smoke from rising, occasioned so thick a darkness, that it was diffi- cult to see the effect of a very heavy and well-supported fire on both sides. The British troops either kept up a constant fire, or made use of bayonets, as opportunities ofTered ; and after an obstinate resistance during three quarters of an hour, threw the Americans into total con- fusion, and forced them to give way in all quarters. The continental troops behaved well, but the militia were soon bro- ken, and left the former to oppose the whole force of the British troops. General Gates did all in his power to rally the militia, but without effect : the continentals retreated in some order ; but the rout of the militia was so great, that the British cavalry are said to have continued the pursuit of them for the distance of twenty-two miles from the place where the action happened. The loss of the Americans was very considerable : about 1000 prison- ers were taken, and more are said to have been killed and wounded, but the number is not very accurately ascertained. Seven pieces of brass cannon, a number of colours, and all the ammunition-wagons of the By general Knyphausen ? — When did the battle of Camden take place?-— De- scribe it. — What was the resaU ? TREASON OF ARNOLD. 181 Americans, were also taken. Of the British troops, the killed and wounded amounted to 213. Among the prisoners taken was major-gen- eral Baron de Kalb, a Prussian officer in the American service, who was mortally wounded, having exhibited great gallantry in the course of the action, and received eleven wounds. The British troops numbered over 2000, while the American force was 4000, of which, however, the whole regular force was but 900 infantry and 70 cavalry. Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton, who had distinguished himself in this action, was detached the following day, with some cavalry and light infantry, to attack a corps of Americans under general Sumpter. He procured information of Sumpter's movements ; and by forced and con- cealed marches came up with and surprised him in the middle of the day on the 18th, near the Catawba fords, dispersed his detachment, and took two pieces of brass cannon, and some prisoners. Not long after these events, means were found to detach major-gene- ral Arnold, who had engaged so ardently in the cause of America, and who had exhibited so much bravery in the support of it, from the inter- ests of the congress. Major Andre, adjutant-general to the British army, was a principal agent in this transaction : or, if the overture of joining the king's troops came first from Arnold, which is most proba- ble, Andre was the person employed to concert the affair with him. More must have been originally comprehended in the scheme than the mere desertion of the American cause by Arnold : but whatever de- signs had been formed for promoting the views of the British govern- ment, they were frustrated by the apprehending of Major Andre. He was taken in disguise, after having assumed a false name, on the 23d of September, by three American soldiers ;* to whom he offered con- siderable rewards if they would suffer him to escape, but without effect. Several papers written by Arnold were found upon him ; and when Arnold had learnt that Major Andre was seized, he found means to get on board a barge, and to escape to one of the king's ships. General Washington referred the case of Major Andre to the exami- nation and decision of a board of general officers, consisting of major- general Greene, major-general lord Stirling, major-general the Marquis de la Fayette, major-general the Baron de Steuben, two other major- generals, and eight brigadier-generals. Major Andre was examined be- fore them, and the particulars of his case inquired into ; and they reported to the American commander-in-chief, that Mr. Andre came on shore from the Vulture sloop of war in the night, on an interview with general Arnold, in a private and secret manner ; that he changed his dress within the American lines ; and, under a feigned name, and in a disguised habit, passed the American works at Stony and Verplank's points, on the evening of the 22d of September ; that he was taken on the morning of the 2.3d at Tarrytovvn, he being then on his way for New York ; and that, when taken, he had in his possession several papers which con- tained intelligence for the enemy. They therefore determined, that he * Paulding, Williams, and Vanvert. What victory was obtained by colonel Tarleton ? — Give an account of Arnold's treason. — Of Andre's fate. 16 182 ANDRE EXECUTED. ought to be considered as a spy from the enemy ; and that, agreeably to the law and usage of nations, he should suffer death. Sir Henry Clinton, lieutenant-general Robertson, and Arnold, all wrote pressing letters to general Washington on the occasion, in order to prevent the decision of the board of general officers from being put in force : but their applications were ineffectual. Major Andre was hanged at Tappan, in the province of New York, on the 2d of October. He met his fate with great firmness; but appeared somewhat hurt that he was not allowed a more military death, for which he had solicited. He was a gentbman of very amiable qualities, had a taste for literature and the fine arts, and possessed many accomplishments. His death, therefore, was regretted even by his enemies ; and the severity of the determination concerning him was much exclaimed against in Great Britain. It was, however, generally acknowledged by impartial persons, that there was nothing in the execution of this unfortunate gentleman but what was perfectly consonant to the rules of war. To reward his treason, Arnold was made a brigadier-general in the king's service. He published an address to the inhabitants of America, dated from New York, October 7th, in which he endeavoured to justify his desertion of their cause. He said, that when he first engaged in it, he conceived the rights of his country to be in danger, and that duty and honour called him to her defence, A redress for grievances was his only aim and object; and therefore he acquiesced unwillingly in the declara- tion of independence, because he thought it precipitate. But what now induced him to desert their cause was the disgust he had conceived at the French alliance, and at the refusal of congress to comply with the last terms offered by Great Britain, which he thought equal to all their reasonable expectations and wishes. The Americans, however, accounted for the conduct of Arnold in a different manner. They alleged that he had so involved himself in debts and difHculties by his extravagant manner of living in America, that he had rendered it very inconvenient for him to continue there : that after the evacuation of Philadelphia by the British troops, Arnold, being invested with the command in that city, had made the house of Mr. Penn, which was the best in the city, his head-quarters. This he had furnished in an elegant and expensive manner, and lived in a style far beyond his income. It was manifest that he could at first have no great aversion to the French alliance, because that when M. Gerard, minister plenipotentiary from the court of France, arrived at Philadelphia in July, 1778, general Arnold early and earnestly solicited that minister, with his whole suite, to take apartments and Wed and board at his house, until a proper house could be provided by tlie order of the congress. This offer M. Gerard accepted, and continued v/ith him some weeks. Tiie French minister resided upwards of fourteen months in Phila- delphia; during which time general Arnold kept up the most friendly and intimate acquaintance with him, and there was a continued inter- change of dinners, balls, routes, and concerts : so that M. Gerard must What sort of apology did Arnold make ? — What was the true reason of Arnold's defection ? ( 184 ) Battle of King''s Mountain. OPERATIONS IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. 185 have believed, that in general Arnold he had found and left one of the warmest friends the court of France had in America. He was also one of the first in congratulating the Chevalier de Lauzun, the second French minister. About tliis time complaints and accusations were exhibited against him by the government of Philadelphia for divers mal-practices ; among which charges were, the appropriation of goods and merchandise to his own use, which he had seized as British property in Philadelphia, in July 1778. It was determined by a court-martial that his conduct was reprehensible ; but he was indulgently treated, and was therefore only reprimanded by the commander-in-chief, general Washington. It was in these circumstances, the Americans said, bankrupt in reputation and fortune, loaded with debts, and having a growing and expensive family, that general Arnold first turned his thoughts towards joining the royal arms. After the defeat of general Gates by earl Cornwallis, that nobleman exerted himself to the utmost in extending the progress of the British arms, and with considerable effect. But one enterprise, which was conducted by major Ferguson, proved unsuccessful. That officer had taken abundant pains to discipline some of the Tory militia, and with a party of these and some British troops, amounting in the whole to about 1400 men, made incursions into the country. But on the 7th of October he was attacked by a body of Americans at a place called King's Moun- tain, and totally defeated. One hundred and fifty were killed in the action, and 810 made prisoners, of which 150 were wounded. Fifteen hundred stand of arms also fell into the hands of the Americans, whose loss was inconsiderable. In the following month lieutenant-colonel Tarleton, who continued to exert his usual activity and bravery, with a party of 170, chiefly cavalry, attacked and defeated general Sumpter, who is said to have had 1000 men, at a place called Black Stocks. Sumpter was wounded, and about 120 of the Americans killed, wounded, or taken. Of the British troops about 50 were killed and wounded. On the 3d of September, the Mercury, an American packet, was taken by the Vestal, captain Keppel, near Newfoundland. On board this packet was Mr. Laurens, late president of the congress, who was bound on an embassy to Holland. He had thrown his papers overboard, but great part of them were recovered without having received much damage. He was brought to London, and examined before the privy- council ; in consequence of which he was committed close prisoner lo the Tower, on the 6th of Octooer, on a charge of high treason. His papers were delivered to the ministry, and contributed to facilitate a rupture between England and Holland, as among them was found tlie sketch of a treaty of amity and commerce between the republic of Hol- land and the United States of America. How is il proved? — What is said of Cornwallis? — Of major Ferguson ? — De- scribe his defeat — Tarleton 's victory. — What is related of Mr. Laurens? 10* 186 REVOLT OF THE PENNSYLVANIA LINE. CHAPTER XXV. CAMPAIGN OF 1781, AND CLOSE OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. At the beginning- of the year 1781, an affair happened in America, from which expectations were formed by Sir Henry Clinton, that some considerable advantage might be derived to the royal cause. The long continuance of the war, and the difficulties under which the congress laboured, had prevented their troops from being properly supplied with necessaries and conveniences. In consequence of this, on the first of January, the American troops that were hutted at Morristown, and who formed the Pennsylvania line, turned out, being in number about 1300, and declared, that they would serve no longer, unless their grievances were redressed, as they had not received their pay, or been furnished with the necessary supply of clothing or provisions. It is said they were somewhat inflamed with liquor, in consequence of rum having been distributed to them more liberally than usual, new-year's day being con- sidered as a kind of festival. A riot ensued, in which an officer was killed, and four wounded ; five or six of the insurgents were also wounded. They then collected the artillery, stores, provisions, and wagons, and marched out of the camp. They passed by the quarters of general Wayne, who sent a message to them, requesting them to desivst, or the consequences would prove fatal. They refused, and proceeded on their march till the evening, when they took post on an advantageous piece of ground, and elected officers from among themselves. On the second, they marched to Middlebrook, and on the third to Princeton, where they fixed their quarters. On that day a flag of truce was sent to them from the officers of the American camp, with a message, desiring to know what were their intentions. Some of them answered, that they had already served longer than the time for which they were enlisted, and would serve no longer ; and others, that they would not return, unless their grievances were redressed. But at the same time they repeatedly, and in the strongest terms, denied being influenced by the least disaffection to the American cause, or having any intentions of deserting to the enemy. Intelligence of this transaction was soon conveyed to New York. A large body of British troops were immediately ordered to hold themselves in readiness to move on the shortest notice, it being hoped that the American revolters might be induced to join the royal army. Messen- gers were also sent to them from general Clinton, acquainting them that they should directly be taken under the protection of the British govern- ment ; that they should have a free pardon for all former offences ; and that the pay due to them fi'om the congress should be faithfully paid them, without any expectation of military service, unless it should be voluntary, upon condition of their laying down their arms and returning to their allegiance. It was also reconmiended to them to move beyond the Raritan river ; and they were assured, that a body of British troops Describe the revolt of the Pennsylvania line. — In what manner did the British endeavour to take advantage of it ? BATTLK OP THE COWPENS. 187 should be ready to protect tliem whenever they desired it. These pro- positions were rejected with disdain ; and they even delivered up two of Sir Henry Clinton's messengers to the congress. Joseph Reed, Esq., president of the State of Pennsylvania, afterwards repaired to them at Princeton, and an accommodation took place : such of them as had served out their full terms were permitted to return to their own homes, and others again joined the American army, upon receiving satisfactory assurances that their grievances should be redressed. Lord Cornwallis now began to make very vigorous exertions, in order to penetrate into North Carolina. On the 11th of January his lordship's army was in motion, and advancing towards that province ; but was somewhat delayed by an attempt made by the Americans, under general Morgan, to make themselves masters of the valuable district of Ninety- six. In order to prevent this, lord Cornwallis detached lieutenant-colonel Tarleton, with 300 cavalry, 300 light infantry, the 7th regiment, the first battalion of the 71st regiment, and two three-pounders, to oppose the progress of Morgan, not doubting that he would be able to per- form this service eftectually. The British troops came up with the Americans, under general Morgan, on the 16th of January. The Americans were drawn up in an open wood, at a place near Pacolet river, called the Cowpens, and having been lately joined by some militia, were more numerous than the British troops under lieuten- ant-colonel Tarleton; but the latter were so much better disciplined, that they had the utmost confidence of obtaining a speedy victory. The attack was begun by the first line of infantry, consisting of the 7th regiment, and a corps of light infantry with a troop of cavalry placed on each flank. The first battalion of the 71st and the remainder of the cavalry formed the reserve. The American line soon gave way, and their militia quitted the field ; upon which the royal troops, supposing the victory already gained, engaged with ardour in the pursuit, and were thereby thrown into some disorder. General Morgan's corps, who were supposed to have been routed, then immediately faced about, and threw in a heavy fire upon the king's troops, which occasioned the utmost confusion amongst them ; and they were at length totally de- feated by the Americans. Four hundred of the British infantry were either killed, wounded, or taken prisoners : the loss of the cavalry was much less considerable ; but the two three-pounders fell into the hands of the Americans, together with the colours of the 7th regiment ; and all the detachment of royal artillery were either killed or wounded in defence of their colours. Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton, however, made another efix>rt ; having assembled about fifty of his cavalry, with which he charged and repulsed Colonel Washington's horse, retook his bag- gage, and killed the Americans who were appointed to guard it. He then retreated to Hamilton's ford, near the mouth of Bullock's Creek, carrying with him part of his baggage, and destroying the remainder. This defeat of the troops under Tarleton was a severe stroke to lord Cornwallis, as the loss of his light infantry was a great disadvantage to him. The day after that event, he employed in collecting the re- IIow were the troops recovered ? — What took place on the 16th of Januaiy ? — Describe the battle. — What was the result ? 188 OPERATIONS IN NOKTII CAROLIInA. mains of Tarleton's corps, and in endeavouring to form a junction with general Leslie, who had been ordered to march towards him with a body of British troops from Wynnesborough. Considerable exertions were then made by part of the army, without baggage, to retake the prisoners in the hands of the Americans, and to intercept general Morgan's corps on its retreat to the Catawba. Bat Morgan, after his defeat of Tarleton, had made forced marches up in the country, and crossed the Catawba the evening belbre a great rain, whicli swelled the river to such a degree, as to prevent the royal army from crossing for several days ; during which time the British prisoners were got over the Yadkin; whence they proceeded to Dan River, which they also passed, and on the 14th of February had reached the court-house in the province of Virginia. Lord Cornwallis employed a halt of two days in collecting some flour, and in destroying superfluous baggage and all his wagons, excepting tJiOse laden with hospital stores, salt, and ammunition, and four reserved empty in readiness for sick or wounded. Being thus freed from all un- necessary incumbrances, lie marched through North Carolina with great rapidity, and penetrated to the remotest extremities of that province on the banks of the Dan, His progress was sometimes impeded by parties of the militia, and some skirmishes ensued, but he met with no conside- rable opposition. On the first of February, the king's troops crossed the Catawba at M'Cowan's ford, where general Davidson, with a party of American militia, was posted, in order to oppose their passage ; but he falling by the first discharge, the royal troops made good their landing, and the militia retreated. When lord Cornwallis arrived at Hillsborough, he erected the king's standard, and invited, by proclamation, all loyal subjects to repair to it, and to stand forth and take an active part in assisting his lordship to restore order and government. He had been taught to believe that the king's friends were numerous in that part of the country : but the event did not confirm the truth of the representations that had been given. The royalists were but few in number, and some of them too timid to join the king's standard. There were, indeed, about 200 who were pro- ceeding to Hillsborough, under Colonel Pyle, in order to avow their attachment to the royal cause; but they were met accidentally, and sur- rounded by a detachment from the American army, by whom a number of them were killed. Meanwhile general Greene was marching with great expedition with the troops under his command, in order to form a junction with other corps of American troops, that he might thereby be enabled to put some elfoctual stop to the progress of lord Cornwallis. On the 4th of January, some ships of war with a number of transports, on board which was a large body of troops under the command of Arnold, arrived at Westover, about 140 miles from the capes of Virginia, where the troops immediately landed and marched to Richmond ; which they reached without opposition, the militia that was collected having re- What is said of Cornwallis? — Leslie? — Morgan? — Through what Slate did Cornwallis march ? — What happened February 1st? — What at Hillsborough ?~ What was the effect of his proclamation ? — What is said of genera! Greene ? BATTLE OF GUILDFOED COURT-HOUSE. 189 treated on their approach. Lieutenant-colonel Simcoe marched from hence with a detachment of the British troops to Westham, where they destroyed one of the finest founderies for cannon in America, and some stores and cannon. Arnold, on his arrival at Richmond, found a large quantity of salt, rum, sail-cloth, tobacco, and other merchandise, and that part of these commodities which were public property he de- stroyed. The British troops afterwards attacked and dispersed some small parties of the Americans, took some stores and a few pieces of cannon, and on the 20th of the same month marched into Portsmouth. On the 25th, captain Barclay, with several ships of war, and a body of troops under the command of major Craig-, arrived in Cape Fear river. The troops landed about nine miles from Wilmington, which they en- tered on the 28th. It was understood that their having possession of this place, and being masters at Cape Fear river, would be productive of very beneficial effects to lord Cornwallis's army. General Greene having effected a junction about the 10th of March with a continental regiment of what were called eighteen months men, and two large bodies of militia belonging to Virginia and North Carolina, formed a resolution to attack the British troops under the command of lord Cornwallis. The American army marched from the High Rock ford on the 12th of the month, and on the 14th arrived at Guilford. Lord Cornwallis, from the information he had received of the motions of the American general, concluded what were his designs. As they approached more nearly to each other, a few skirmishes ensued between some advanced parties, in which the king's troops had the advantage. On the morning of the 15th, lord Cornwallis marched with his troops at day-break in order to meet the Americans or to attack them in their en- campment. About four miles from Guildford, the advanced guard of the British army, commanded by lieutenant-colonel Tarleton, fell in with a corps of the Americans, consisting of lieutenant-colonel Lee's legion, some Back Mountain men and Virginian militia, with whom he had a severe skirmish, but whom he at length obliged to retreat. The greater part of the country in which the action happened is a wilderness, with a few clear fields interspersed. The American army was posted on a rising ground about a mile and a half from Guildford court-house. It was drawn up in three lines : the front line was com- posed of the North Carolinian militia, under the command of the gen- erals Butler and Eaton ; the second line of Virginian militia, commanded by the generals Stephens and Lawson, forming two brigades ; the third Ime, consisting of two brigades, one of Virginia and one of Maryland continental troops, commanded by general Huger and colonel Williams. Lieutenant-colonel Washington, with the dragoons of the first and third regiments, a detachment of light infantry composed of continental troops, and a regiment of riflemen under colonel Lynch, formed a corps of observation for the security of their right flank. Lieutenant-colonel Lee, with his legion, a detachment of light infantry, and a corps of riflemen under colonel Campbell, formed a corps of observation for the security of their left flank. The attack of the American army was Describe Arnold's marauding expedition. — What took place March 10th? — 12th? —14th?— 15th?— Describe the order of battle a't Guildford. 190 BATTLE OF GUILDFORD COURT-HOUSE. directed to be made by lord Cornwallis in the following order : On the right, the regiment of Bose, and the 71st regiment, led by major-general Leslie, and supported by the first battalion of guards ; on the left, the 23d and 33d regiments, led by lieutenant-colonel Webster, and supported by the grenadiers and second battalion of guards commanded by briga- dier-general O'Hara ; the Yagers and light infantry of the guards re- mained in a wood on the left of the guns, and the cavalry in the road, ready to act as circumstances might require. About half an hour after one in the afternoon, the action commenced by a cannonade, which lasted about twenty minutes; when the British advanced in three columns and attacked the North Carolinian brigades with great vigour, and soon obliged part of these troops to quit the field: but the Virginian militia gave them a warm reception, and kept up a heavy fire for a long time, till being beaten back the action became general. The American corps under the lieutenant-colonels Washing- ton and Lee were also warmly engaged, and did considerable execution. Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton had directions to keep his cavalry compact, and not to charge without positive orders, excepting to protect any of the corps from the most evident danger of being defeated. The excessive thickness of the woods rendered the British bayonets of little use, and enabled the broken corps of Americans to make frequent stands with an irregular fire. The second battalion of guards first gained the clear ground near Guildford court-house, and found a corps of continental infantry formed in an open field on the left of the road. Desirous of signalizing them- selves, tliey immediately attacked and soon defeated them, taking two six-pounders : but as they pursued the Americans into the wood with too much ardour, they were thrown into confusion by a heavy fire, and instantly charged and driven back into the field by lieutenant-colonel Washington's dragoons, with the loss of the six-pounders they had taken. But the American cavalry were afterwards repulsed, and the two six-pounders again fell into the hands of the enemy. The British troops having at length broken the second Maryland regiment, and turned the left flank of the Americans, got into the rear of the Vir- ginian brigade, and appeared to be gaining their right, which would have encircled the whole of the continental troops, when general Greene thought it prudent to order a retreat. Many of the American militia dispersed in the wooJs ; but the conti- nental troops retreated in good order to the Reedy Fork river, and crossed at the ford about three miles from the field of action, and there halted. When they had collected their stragglers, they retreated to the iron-works, ten miles distant from Guildford, where they encamped. They lost their artillery and two wagons laden with ammunition. It was a hard-fought action, and lasted an hour and a half Of the British troops, the loss, as stated by lord Cornwallis, was 532 killed, wounded, and missing. General Greene, in his account of the action transmitted to the congress, stated the loss of the continental troops to amount to 329 killed, wounded, and missing ; but he made no estimate of the loss of the militia. Lieutenant-colonel Stuart was The battle.— What was the result? — The loss on each siile? BATTLE OF CAMDEN. 191 killed in the action ; and lieutenant-colonel Webster, and the captains Schutz, Maynard, and Goodriche, died of the wounds that they received in it. Brigadier-general O'Hara, brigadier-general Howard, and lieu- tenant-colonel Tarleton, were also wounded. Of the x'\mericans, the principal officer killed was major Anderson of the Maryland line, and the generals Stephen and Huger were wounded. The British troops underwent great hardships in the course of this campaign ; in a letter of lord Cornwallis's to lord George Germain, dated March 17th, he observed, that " the soldiers had been two days without bread." His lordship quitted Guildford three days after the battle which was fought in that place ; and on the 7th of April arrived in the neighbourhood of Wilmington. Soon after, general Greene, not- withstanding his late defeat, endeavoured to make some vigorous attempts against the king's forces in South Carolina. Lord Rawdon had been appointed to defend the post of Camden, with about 800 British and provincials ; and on the 19th of April general Greene appeared before that place with a large body of continentals and militia. He found it, however, impossible to attempt to storm the town with any prospect of success ; and therefore endeavoured to take such a position as should induce the British troops to sally from their works. He posted the Americans about a mile from the town, on an eminence which was covered with woods, and flanked on the left by an impassable swamp. On the morning of the 25th, lord Rawdon marched out of Camden, and attacked general Greene in his camp. The Americans made a vigorous resistance, but were at last compelled to give way ; and the pursuit is said to have been continued three miles. For some time after the action commenced, general Greene entertained great hopes of de- feating the British troops ; in which, as the Americans were superior in point of numbers, he would probably have succeeded, had not some capital military errors been committed by one or two of the officers who served under him. On the American side colonel Washington had behaved extremely well in this action, having made upwards of 200 of the English prisoners, with ten or twelve officers, before he perceived that the Americans were abandoning the field of battle. The loss of the English was about 100 killed and wounded. Upwards of 100 Ame- ricans were taken prisoners ; and, according to the account published by general Greene, they had 126 killed and wounded. After this action, Greene retreated to Rugeley's mills, twelve miles from Camden, in order to collect his troops and wait for reinforcements. Notwithstanding the advantage which lord Rawdon had obtained over general Greene at Camden, that nobleman soon after found it necessary to quit that post; and the Americans made themselves masters of several other posts that were occupied by the king's troops, and the garrisons of which were obliged to surrender themselves prisoners of war. These troops were afterwards exchanged under a cartel which took place be- tween lord Cornwallis and general Greene for the release of all prisoners of war in the southern district. After these events, general Greene laid What happened on the 7th of April? — On the 19th ? — On the 25th ? — Describe the battle. — The result. —The loss on each side. — What followed ? — What place was besieged by general Greene? — What was the result? 192 NAVAL ACTION. close siege to Ninety-six, which was considered as the most commanding and important of all the posts in the back country ; and on the 19th of June he attempted to storm the garrison, but was repulsed. General Greene, learning the approach of a superior British force to relieve the garrison, then raised the siege, and retired with his army behind the Saluda, to a strong situation, within sixty miles of Ninety-six. On the 18th of April, a large body of British troops, under the command of major-general Philips and brigadier-general Arnold, embarked at Portsmouth in Virginia, in order to proceed on an expedition for the purpose of destroying some of the American stores. A party of light- infantry were sent ten or twelve miles up the Chickahominy ; v/here they destroyed several armed ships, and sundry warehouses. At Peters- burg, the English destroyed 4000 hogsheads of tobacco, one ship, and a number of small vessels on the stocks and in the river. At Chester- field court-house, they burnt a range of barracks for 2000 men, and 300 barrels of flour. At a place called Osborn's, they made themselves masters of several vessels loaded with cordage and flour, and destroyed about 2000 hogsheads of tobacco, and sundry vessels were sunk or burnt. At Warwick, they burnt a magazine of 500 barrels of flour, some fine mills belonging to colonel Carey, and a large range of rope- walks and store-houses, tan and bark-houses full of hides and bark, and great quantities of tobacco. A like destruction of stores and goods was made in other parts of Virginia. From the account already given of some of the principal military operations of the present year in America, it appears, that though con- siderable advantages had been gained by the royal troops, yet no event had taken place from which it could rationally be expected that the final termination of the war would be favourable to Great Britain. It was also a disadvantageous circumstance, that there was a misunderstanding between admiral Arbuthnot and Sir Henry Clinton, and a mutual disap- probation of each other's conduct. This was manifest from their dis- patches to government, and especially from those of general Clinton, whose expressions respecting the conduct of the admiral were by no means equivocal. On the 16th of March, 1781, a partial action happened off the capes of Virginia, between the fleet under admiral Arbuthnot, consisting of seven ships of the line and one fifty-gun ship, and a French squadron, consisting of the same number of ships of the line and one forty-gun ship. Some of the ships in both fleets received considerable damage in the action, and the loss of the English was 30 kdled and 73 wounded ; but no ship was taken on either side. The British fleet had, however, considerably the advantage ; as the French were about to retire, and were supposed to be prevented by this action from carrying troops upon the Chesapeake, in order to attack Arnold and impede the progress of lord Cornwallis. Some time before this engagement, the Romulus, a ship of 44 guns, was captured by the French off the capes of Virginia. Lord Cornwallis, after his victory over general Greene at Guildford, proceeded, as we have seen, to Wilmington, where he arrived on the Describe the ravages of the British in Virginia. — What naval action took place on the 16th of March? ( 194 ) Battle of Eutaw Springs. BATTLE OF EUTAW SPRINGS. 195 7th of April, But before he reached that place, he published a procla- mation, calling upon all loyal subjects to stand forth and take an active part in restoring good order and government ; and declaring to all per- sons who had engaged in the present rebellion against his majesty's authority, but who were now convinced of their error, and desirous of returning to their duty and allegiance, that if they would surrender themselves with their arms and ammunition at head-quarters, or to the officer commanding in the district contiguous to their respective places of residence, on or before the 20th of that month, they would be per- mitted to return to their homes upon giving a military parole; they would be protected in their persons and properties, from all sorts of vio- lence from the British troops ; and would be restored, as soon as possible, to all the privileges of legal and constitutional government. But it does not appear that any considerable number of the Americans were allured by these promises to give any evidence of their attachment to the royal cause. On the 20th of May, his lordship arrived at Petersburg, in Virginia, where he joined a body of British troops that had been under the com- mand of major-general Philips; but the command of which, in conse- quence of the death of that officer, had devolved upon Arnold. Before this junction he had encountered considerable inconveniences from the difficulty of procuring provisions and forage ; so that in a letter to Sir Henry Clinton, he mformed him, that his cavalry wanted every thing, and his infantry every thing but shoes. He added, that he had ex- perienced the distresses of marching hundreds of miles in a country chiefly hostile, without one active or useful friend, without intelligence, and without communication with any part of the country. On the 26th of June, about six miles from Williamsburg, lieutenant- colonel Simcoe, and 350 of the queen's rangers, with 80 mounted yagers, were attacked by a body of the Americans ; but whom they re- pulsed, making four officers and twenty private men prisoners. On the 6th of July an action happened near the Green Springs in Virginia, between a reconnoitring party of the Americans under general Wayne, amounting to about 800, and a large party of the British army under lord Cornwallis; in which the Americans had 127 killed and wounded, and the loss of the royal troops is supposed to have been con- siderably greater. It was an action in which no small degree of mili- tary skill and courage was exhibited by the Americans, In a variety •of skirmishes, the Marquis de La Fayette very much distinguished him- self, and displayed the utmost ardour in the American cause. In South Carolina, an action happened on the 9th of September near the Eutaw Springs, between a large body of British troops under the command of lieutenant-colonel Stuart and a body of Americans, said to amount to more than 4000, under the command of general Greene. It was an obstinate engagement, and lasted near two hours. The British were totally defeated. The loss of the royal troops was very conside- What is said of Cornwallis's proclamation? — Ita effect? — What is said of Arnold? — What took place June 26th ? — On the 6th of July ? — What is said of the battle of Eutaw Springs? 196 STRATEGY OF WASHINGTON. rable ; amounting to more than 400 killed and wounded, and upwards of 200 missing-. In the course of the same month, general Arnold was sent on an ex- pedition against New London, in Connecticut, where he destroyed a great part of the shipping, and an immense quantity of naval stores, European manufactures, and East and West India commodities. The town itself was also burnt. A fort, of which it was thought necessary to gain possession in this expedition, was uot taken without considerable loss. This was fort Griswold ; which was defended by the Americans with great gallantry, and the assault was made by the English with equal bravery. The British troops entered the works with fixed bayonets, and were opposed with great vigour by the garrison with long spears. After a most obstinate defence of near forty minutes, the assailants gained possession of the fort, and mercilessly murdered the garrison. Of the British troops major Montgomery was killed by a spear in entering the American works; and 192 men were also killed and wounded in this expedition. Notwithstanding the signal advantages that lord Cornwallis had ob- tained over the Americans, his situation in Virginia began by degrees to be very critical ; and the rather because he did not receive reinforce- ments and supplies from Sir Henry Clinton, of which he had formed expectations, and which he conceived to be necessary to the success of his operations. Indeed, the commander-in-chief was prevented from sending those reinforcements to lord Cornwallis which he otherwise might have done, by his fears respecting New York, against which he entertained great apprehensions that general Washington intended to make a very formidable attack. In fact, the American general appears to have taken much pains, in order to lead Sir Henry Clinton to en- tertain this imagination. Letters, expressive of this intention, fell into the hands of Sir Henry, which were manifestly written with a design that they should be intercepted, and only with a view to amuse and deceive the British general. The project was successful ; and by a variety of judicious military manoeuvres, in which he completely out-gen- eralled the British commander, he increased his apprehensions about New York, and prevented him from sending proper assistance to lord Cornwallis. Having for a considerable time kept Sir Henry Clinton in perpetual alarm in New York, though with an army much inferior to the garrison of that city, general Washington suddenly quitted his camp at White' Plains, crossed the Delaware, and marched towards Virginia, apparently with a design to attack lord Cornwallis. Sir Henry Clinton then received information, that the Count de Grasse, with a large French fleet, was expected every moment in the Chesapeake, in order to co-operate with general Washington. He im- mediately endeavoured, both by land and water, to communicate this information to lord Cornwallis ; and also sent him assurances, that he What is said of Arnold's expedition? — Of Cornwallis? — Of Clinton? — Of Washington ? — How did he deceive Clinton? — Whither did he march? — What was done by Clinton ? — By Cornwallis ? ( 197 ) Arnold burning and 'plundering Neiv London. 17* NAVAL ACTION. 199 would either reinforce him by every possible means in his power, or make the best diversion he could in his favour. In the mean time, lord Cornwall is had taken possession of the posts of Yorktown and Glouces- ter in Virginia, where he fortified himself in the best manner he was able. On the 28th of August, Sir Samuel Hood, with a squadron from the West Indies, joined the squadron under the command of admiral Graves before New York. It was then necessary, on account of the situation of lord Cornwallis, that they should immediately proceed to the Chesa- peake ; but some time appears to have been needlessly lost, though ad- miral Hood was extremely anxious that no delay might be made. They arrived, however, in the Chesapeake, on the 5th of September, with 19 ships of the line ; where they found the Count de Grasse, who had anchored in that bay on the 30th of August with 24 ships of the line. The French admiral had previously landed a large body of troops, which had been brought from Rhode Island, and who immediately marched to join the American army under general Washington. The British and French fleets came to an action on the same day in which the former arrived in the Chesapeake. On board the British fleet 90 were killed and 246 wounded : some of the ships were greatly damaged in the engagement ; and the Terrible, a 74-gun ship, was so much shattered, that it was afterwards found necessary to set fire to it. That this action had not been favourable to the English, was manifest from the event : the fleets continued in sight of each other for five days successively, and sometimes were very near ; but at length the French fleet all anchored within the cape, so as to block up the passage. Ad- miral Graves, who was the commander-in-chief, then called a council of war, in which it was resolved that the fleet should proceed to New York, that the ships might be there put into the best state for the service : and thus were the French left masters of the navigation of the Chesa- peake. Before the news of this action had reached New York, a council of war was held there, in which it was resolved, that 5000 men should be embarked on board the king's ships, in order to proceed to the assist- ance of lord Cornwallis. But when it was known that the French were absolute masters of the navigation of the Chesapeake, it was thought inexpedient to send off* that reinforcement immediately. In another council of war, it was resolved, that as lord Cornwallis had provisions to last him till the end of October, it was best to wait for more favour- able accounts from admirable Graves, or for the arrival of admiral Digby, who was expected with three ships of the line. It was not then known at New York, that admiral Graves had determined to return with the whole fleet to that port. In the mean time, the most effectual measures were adopted by gen- eral Washington for surrounding the British army under lord Corn- wallis. A large body of French troops under the command of lieuten- ant-general the Count de Rochambeau, with a very considerable train By admiral Hood ? -^ By De Grasse ? — By the fleets ? — By the council of war at New York ? — By another council of war ? — By Washington ? 200 CAPITULATION OF CORNWALLIS. of artillery, assisted in the enterprise. The Americans amounted to near 8000 continentals and 5000 militia. General Washington was in- vested with the authority of commander-in-chief of these combined forces of America and France. On the 29th of September, the investment of Yorktown was com- plete, and the British army quite blocked up. The day following. Sir Henry Clinton wrote a letter to lord Cornwallis, containing assurances that he would do everything in his power to relieve him, and some in- formation concerning the steps that would be taken for that purpose. A duplicate of this letter was sent to his lordship by major Cochrane on the 3d of October. That gentleman, who was a very gallant officer, went in a vessel to the Capes, and made his way to lord Cornwallis, through the whole French fleet, in an open boat. He got to Yorktown on the 1 0th of the month ; and soon after his arrival had his head car- ried off by a cannon-ball. After the return of admiral Graves to New York, a council of war was held, consisting of flag and general officers ; in which it was re- solved, that a large body of troops should be embarked on board the king's ships as soon as they were refitted, and that the exertions of both fleet and army should be made in order to form a junction with lord Cornwallis. Sir Henry Clinton himself embarked on board the fleet, with upwards of 7000 troops, on the 18th ; they arrived off Cape Charles, at the entrance of the Chesapeake, on the 24th, where they received intelligence that lord Cornwallis had been obliged to capitulate five days before. It was on the 19th of October that lord Cornwallis surrendered him- self and his whole army, by capitulation, prisoners to the combined armies of America and France, under the. command of general Wash- ington. He made a defence suitable to the character he had before ac- quired, for courage and military skill ; but was compelled to submit. It was agreed by the articles of capitulation, that the British troops were to be prisoners to the United States of America, and the seamen to the French king, to whose officers also the British vessels found at Yorktown and Gloucester were to be delivered up. The British prisoners amounted to more than 6000 ; but many of them, at the time of surrender, were incapable of duty. A considerable number of cannon, and a large quantity of military stores, fell into the hands of the Americans on this occasion. The joy diffused throughout the United States by the surrender of the army under lord Cornv/allis, was equal to the anxiety which it had occa- sioned. The people of America regarded the brilliant achievement of their commander, which put the allies in possession of Yorktown, as determining the issue of the contest; and from that moment they looked forward to the reward of all their toils, and a full compensation for all their sufferings. On the 29th of September ? — The day following? — What was done by Sir Henry Clinton on the 18f,h ? — By Cornwallis on the 19th ? — What were the terms of capitulation ? — How was the intelligence of lord Cornwallis'a defeat received by the American people ? ( 201 ) Siege of Yorktown. PEACE. 203 By the congress the intelligence was received with the highest satis- faction. They voted the thanks of the United States to Washington, to the Count de Rochambeau, and to the officers and men of the southern army; they resolved, that a marble column should be erected at York- town, in Virginia, with emblems commemorative of the alliance between the United States and his most Christian majesty ; they determined to go in full and solemn procession to the Dutch Lutheran Church, and give thanks to Almighty God for the success of their general and the forces under his command ; and they issued a proclamation, appointing the 13th of December as a day of thanksgiving and prayer on account of the signal interposition of Divine Providence which they had ex- perienced. But if the surrender of Cornwallis was the occasion of joy to the Americans, it was tlie occasion of much and serious concern to the British. The war, into which the English nation had at first entered with great alacrity, was now become universally unpopular. The Americans, having secured the alliance of the French, were more able than ever to resist the force of the British arms ; and the spirit which had given rise to the defection of the colonies, so far from being subdued, continued to influence them in all their determinations. It was per- ceived, that the reduction of the provinces could not be accomplished without a great waste of blood and treasure : and perhaps the injustice of forcing the Americans to contribute to the support of a government, which allowed them no place in its councils, had at length become evi- dent to the British people. From whatever cause it arose, it is certain, that a remarkable change had taken place in the sentiments of the English nation ; and that a de- sire for peace was everywhere prevalent. Accordingly, on the 4th of March, 1782, it was resolved by the House of Commons, notwithstanding a violent opposition from the ministry, "that the House will consider as enemies to his majesty and the country, all those who advise or attempt a further prosecution of the offensive war on the continent of North America." A change of administration took place. On the 5th of May, Sir Guy Carleton arrived at New York, and was joined with admiral Digby in a commission to treat of peace with the people of America : on the 30th of November, the articles were signed at Paris; and the colonies of New Hampshire, Massachusetts-bay, Rhode Island and Providence plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, were acknowledged to be " free, sovereign and independent states." In this acknowledgment the French had already agreed, and their example was speedily followed by the other nations of Europe. Thus ended the war with Great Britain and America : a war which began in an injudicious and tyrannical endeavour to procure a revenue from the colonies, and which terminated in their freedom and sovereign- By Congress ? — What was resolved ? — How was the event celebmted in Phila- delphia ? — What was the effect of Cornwall is's defeat in England ? — What was done March 4th, 1782 ?— What on May 5th ?— What on JNovember 30th?— What IS said of the war ? 204 RETIREMENT OF WASHINGTON. ty ; a war in wliich much blood was spilt, and many cruelties exercised ; and the issue of which will remain as a lesson to those who, unmindful of the rig-hts of the people, would lift against them the arm of power, and force them to a compliance with their unjust demands. But though the Americans had succeeded in procuring an acknow- ledgment of their independence, the peace of the colonies was not yet established. If they formerly dreaded the encroachments of an external power, the army at home seemed now to be an equal object of fear ; and apprehensions were entertained that the colonies might be forced to exchange the government of Britain, which was comparatively mild and equitable, for the iron rule of military despotism. But Washington, while he laboured to free his country from the terror of a foreign yoke, had no wish to make its liberties the prey of his ambition, or to raise himself by the depression of the American people. At this time, the virtues of that distinguished man shone forth with peculiar and unrivalled lustre. Not elevated to an undue degree by the success of liis arms, but enjoying the consciousness of having performed the duty to which the voice of his countrymen had called him, he assembled the officers of the different battalions and companies, (who had loudly expressed their dis- satisfaction at the ineffective proceedings of Congress with respect to their pay ;) exhorted them to moderation in demanding their arrears, promised to exert his whole influence in their favour; and conjured them, "as they valued their honour, as they respected the rights of hu- manity, and as they regarded the military and national character of the American states, to express their utmost detestation of the men who were attempting to open the flood-gates of civil discord, and to deluge their rising empire with blood," These words, as those of one whom they had been accustomed to reverence, were weighty and decisive. His speech was followed by a solemn pause ; after which it was proposed, and unanimously carried, that no circumstances of distress should induce the army of the United States to sully their honour, or to distrust the justice of their country. Washington did not confine himself to the exhortation of others ; he resolved to give to his countrymen, and to the whole world, a noble ex- ample of virtuous moderation, and, relinquishing the reins of power, to resign his commission as general into the hands of those by whom it had been coriferred. Having first assembled the officers at a hotel in New York, and taken an affectionate leave of them, he proceeded to Annapolis, where the congress was sitting, and on the 23d of December, A. D,, 1783, he declared himself no longer invested with any public char- acter. Afler this declaration he withdrew from the meeting, and, re- tiring to his estate at Mount Vernon, on the banks of the Potomac, in Virginia, he applied himself to the peaceful pursuits of agriculture. What danger had America still to encounter? — What is said of Washington? — What was the effect of his appeal to the officers? — When did he resign his office of commander-in-chief of the army of the United States ? — Whither did ho then retire ? ( 206 ) \r\ , |'""'ttiii i'j"i| Washington taking leave of his Officers. 18 DISTRESS OF THE COUNTRY. 207 CHAPTER XXVI. FORMATION AND ADOPTION OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. During the revolutionary war, congress had adopted certain articles of confederation, which were now found to be totally inefficient for the purposes of union and government. By these articles, the several states entered into a perpetual union, or confederation with each other, for their mutual defence and advantage ; they agreed, that delegates should be appointed by each state to meet in congress on the first Monday of every year; that no state should be represented by fewer delegates than two, or by more than seven; that each state should have a single vote ; and that the laws and decisions of the supreme assembly should be obligatory on all the provinces under its jurisdiction. Each state, however, was to be governed wholly by its own legislature; and with the enactments of that legislature the congress had no right to interfere. It was not difficult to perceive, that this constitution had not within itself sufficient energy to produce and ensure a vigorous administration of affairs. The congress had no authority over individuals ; it had an authority over the states only as political bodies ; it had no power to force even the states to a compliance with its injunctions ; and, in case of any quarrel, it could not prevent them from making war upon each other. Difficulties occurred, and distresses were multiplied on every side. The army, though disbanded, had received only four months' pay ; the debts contracted by the congress, as well as by many of the individual states, had not been discharged, and therefore were daily increasing ; and the government, possessing no revenue, could give no effectual value to its paper-currency. Taxes were imposed by some of the pro- vincial legislatures ; but as they were far beyond the means of the inha- bitants, and levied with the utmost rigour, they occasioned very general discontent. And though it had been fondly expected, that, after the termination of the war, the commerce of the United States would revive, it was still embarrassed and languid. In the midst of these distresses, it was proposed, that a general con- vention should be held, in order to frame a better plan of government, or so to alter the existing constitution, as to remedy the evils which pressed upon the community. Accordingly, in the year 1787, delegates from all the states, with the exception of Rhode Island, assembled at Philadelphia ; and, after choosing general Washington for their presi- dent, they proceeded to the arduous duty which they had undertaken to perform. Their sentiments were by no means as uniform as might have been expected. Some of the commissioners were zealous advocates for a purely republican constitution ; and others wished, by elevating and strengthening the executive, to give to the new system a more aristocra- When were the old articles of confederation framed and passed ? — What were their provisions ? — What were their delects ? — What w^as the state of the army at the close of the war? — What was the state of the country ? — When and where was the Federal convention assembled ? 208 DR. franklin's speech. tical tendency and character. Hence arose the two parties in the Ame- rican states, which have divided the councils of the nation, or obstructed its energy, from the sittings at Philadelphia to the present day. They have, in later times, been distinguished by the names of federalists and anti-federalists, and by a variety of other party names, according as they favoured a strong executive or a retention of power by the people. In the convention at Philadelphia, the opinion of such as wished to strengthen the executive part of the government seems to have pre- vailed ; for many articles of the nevv' constitution gave high offence to the anti-federalists. In the number of these we must reckon the cele- brated Dr. Franklin. But that eminent philosopher and statesman, re- linquishing his private opinion, yielded to the determination of the majority, and received the constitution with all its alleged defects. The speech which he made on this occasion is remarkable for the genuine spirit of patriotism which it breathes : " In the long career 1 have already run," said he " I have more than once been compelled to aban- don opinions which I had openly maintained, and which I thought well founded, from the deep consideration which I had given them. As I grow older, I am more and more disposed to question my own judgment, and to pay respect to that of others. There are some men, as well as some religious sects, who imagine that reason is entirely on their side ; and that their opponents plunge deeper into error in proportion as they depart from their opinions. Struck with these examples, which are but too common, I accept of this constitution with all its faults, even sup- posing that I am not mistaken in my opinion of its faults : for I am per- suaded that a general government is necessary to our safety ; and that no form of government, which is well administered, is incapable of pro- ducing the happiness of the people. I think, also, there is reason to believe, that this constitution will be well administered for many years ; and that it will not end, as many other governments have done, in des- potism ; unless the American people shall reach that degree of corrup- tion, in which, at once incapable of being directed by a free constitution, and unworthy of its blessings, despotism becomes necessary to their ex- istence. I therefore give my vote for this constitution, both because, in the present circumstances of the nation, I cannot hope to see one more perfect, and because I am not sure this is not as perfect as any it can have. I make a sacrifice of the opinion which I have expressed of its defects to the public happiness. I trust, that, both for our own safety, as members of the community, and for the sake of our posterity, we shall be of one mind, in recommending this constitution wherever our influence reaches; and that, afterwards, our whole thoughts will be bent to its happy administration. And I cannot forbear to form the wish, that such of us as still entertain objections to this constitution, will follow my example, and, doubting a little of their own infallibility, will sign this constitutional act, that no question may be left of our own unanimity." The effect of this speech was instantaneous and decisive ; the constitution was agreed to by all the members ; and the following What parties then took their rise? — To which did Dr. Franklin belong? — De- scribe his magnanimous conduct in relation to the constitution? — What was tho substance of his speech ? — What was the effect of tliis speech ? THE NEW CONSTITUTION. 209 general articles were transmitted, with many subordinate clauses, for the acceptance of the different states. 1. All legislative power shall be vested in a congress of the United States, which shall consist of a senate and a house of representatives. 2. The executive power shall be vested in a president of the United States of America ; who, as well as the vice-president, shall hold his office during the term of four years. 3. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during their good behaviour ; and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their con- tinuance in office. 4. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state: and the congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 5. The congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessar}'-, shall propose amendments to this constitution ; or, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and pin-poses as part of this constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof; as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the congress. G. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this constitution, shall be as valid against the United States, under this constitution, as under the confederation. 7. The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be sufficient i<)r the establishment of this constitution, be- tween the states so ratifying the same. Such is a very general outline of the system proposed by the commis- sioners at Philadelphia for the political administration of the United States. It was aftervv^ards rendered more complete by the addition of many other articles, tending cliiefly to srcnre the rights and liberties of the people ; and, with the improvements alluded to, it was finally adopted by all the states. No sooner had it begun to operate, than a new vigour seemed to be diffused through all the provinces. The finances were arranged; the public debt was gradually reduced; a national bank, with a capital of 10,000,000 dollars, was established ; the arrears due to the army were paid ; a small permanent force was organized ; the administration of justice was decisive, but equitable ; and though some disturbances arose on account of the taxes, or the way in which they were collected ; yet the peace and prosperity of the country were happily secured. In the year 1789, the first congress, elected according to the new con- stitution, met at New York. Before this great national assembly was convoked, it was the unanimous desire of the American States, that their late commander-in-chief, who had so illustriously conducted them Describe the leading provisions of the Federal constitution. — What were the efTeots of the new constitution ? — What financial measures were adopted ? — Wlien and where did the new congress meet ? 18* 210 WASHINGTON CHOSEN PRESIDENT. to independence, and had aided them in forming their political system, should allow himself to be chosen president. This desire was ex- pressed in various letters, and these were seconded by the earnest en- treaties of his friends. But Washington having retired to the bosom of his family, and devoted himself to the improvement of his estate, was unwilling to relinquish the tranquillity of private life for the bustle and anxiety of public affairs. Yielding, however, to the solicitations of those whose opinions he valued, he at last agreed to accept of the honour which the United States were anxious to confer upon him ; and accord- ingly, on the first Wednesday of February, A. D. 1789, by the unani- mous and unbiassed voice of the States, he was called to the chief magistracy of the American nation. And on the same day, Mr. John Adams, who had taken an active part in procuring the original declara- tion of independence, was chosen vice-president. CHAPTER XXVII. ADMINISTRATION OF GEORGE WASHINGTON. On the 14th of April, 1789, the unanimous election of George Wash- ington was officially announced at Mount Vernon. " I wish," said the president elect, with that innate modesty, which no triumph or homage could ever conquer, "that there may not be reason for regretting the choice ; for indeed all I can promise is to accomplish that which can be done by an honest zeal." In his private diary, the memorandum made is full of deep feeling. "About ten o'clock I bade adieu to Mount Vernon, to private life and to domestic felicity, with a mind oppressed with more anxious and painful sensations than I have words to express." His journey to New York, which was tlien the seat of government, was one constant triumphal march. It was everywhere delayed by deputations, addresses, civil processions, military parados, and all the various tributes that could be paid by gratitude to the illustrious Ameri- can benefactor. On the 30th of April, the ceremony of inauguration was performed, in the chamber of the senate, amid the acclamations of an immense multitude. The great and responsible work was now fairly begun of laying the foundation of a great republic, and of giving action to the government that stood without precedent for its guidance. Bitter political animosities existed, which deprived the Federal government of that general co-ope- ration so important to its commencement. The constitution itself was far from being secure against the attacks of its numerous enemies; and the whole western country teemed with discontent. In our foreign relations, the seeds of new wars against the Barbary powers, Spain, and England, were daily growing more visible. The territory of the Who was elected president ? — Who vice-president ? — When was Washington's election announced to him ? — How was the announcement received ? — Describe his journey to the capital. — What was the state of the country ? ( 212 ) General Wnijne drfcating the Indians. MEASURES OF THE NEW ADMINISTRATION. 213 United States was actually invaded in several points by large tribes of hostile Indians. The revenue of the union, embarrassed by conflicting- interests, and involved in disputed principles, was to be entirely regu- lated and raised. "It presents to the imagination," said Fisher Ames, "a deep, dark, and dreary chaos, impossible to be reduced to order, unless the mind of the architect be clear and capacious, and his power commensurate to the object." The executive departments, with the rules and system of their various operations, were all to be organized and digested. Undaunted by difficulties, Washington bent all his energies to the glorious task. The best abilities of the nation were called to his assistance. The de- partment of foreign affairs was entrusted to Thomas Jefferson, the treasury to Alexander Hamilton; general Knox was secretary of war, and Edmund Randolph attorney-general. The supreme court was com- posed of distinguished jurists, with John Jay as the chief justice. These were the first officers of Washington, who raised for themselves a monu- ment of fame inferior only to that of their incomparable chief, and who are still referred to in the grateful recollection of an admiring country. Among the first measures of the new government, were the regula- tion of the revenue by imposts and tonnage duties — the funding of the national debt, so as to lessen the public burthens consistently with the entire satisfaction of the creditors — and the selection of a future capital for the federal union. The foreign relations of the country, particularly with Spain and Great Britain, whose colonies rendered them immediate neighbours, were subjects of deep interest and attention. The president had soon reason to congratulate the country upon the productiveness of the revenue, the progress of public credit, and the favourable prospects of national affairs. Treaties were concluded with such of the Indian tribes as could reasonably be conciliated ; while active warfare was waged against those who persisted in hostilities. The inadequate means allowed by congress, delayed for a time that severe chastisement, of which general Wayne was at length the successful instrument.* For their permanent pacification, Washington constantly recommended the humane system of gradual improvement, by changing their pursuits to those of agri- culture, and by the introduction of a just and well-regulated commerce. A national bank was next established, as an institution important to the prosperous administration of the finances, and of the greatest utility in operations connected with the support of public credit : an excise duty was laid on distilled spirits to meet the increased demands upon * The Indians on the northern frontier having manifested considerable hostility, general Harmer was sent against them in 1790, and experienced a defeat. Two other expeditions sent out in the following year experienced the same fate ; and general St. Clair was most signally defeated by them. The war was finally termi- nated by general Wayne, who defeated the Indians in a general engagement on the banks of the Miami, August 20th, 1794, and having destroyed their forts and vil- lages, gave peace and security to the border country. What distinguished men formed the first cabinet of Washington ? — What were the first measures of the new government ? — What is said of foreign relations ? — • Of the revenue and pubHc credit? — With whom were treaties concluded? — What is said of the Indian war? — Of the national bank? 214 FRENCH AFFAIRS. the treasury : the regular military force was increased for the protection of the frontiers, and the militia system was placed on an uniform tooting'. The different opinions prevailing in the country, as to the power and form of the new government, naturally kept alive the conflicting politi- cal parties ; but — except in the darkest times and by the most acrimo- nious partisans — the character of the president was universally respected, and the purity of his motives was never questioned. The sentiments of both parties were represented in tlie cabinet by their respective chiefs, while Washington listened as an enlightened judge, far above the suspicion of undue partiality. (1793.) As the time approached for a second election of president, Washington was induced by anxious representations, to submit his pri- vate happiness once more to the wishes and the welfare of the union. The unanimous votes of the states re-invested him with the first dignity ; the vice-presidency was a subject of warm contention between the two great national parties, but John Adams was re-elected by a majority of suffrages. The troubles and wars of the French revolution, now added largely to the embarrassments of the administration. Sympathy for a gallant ally, who was supposed to be contending against the aggressions of monarchs, for the same freedom which she had aided to establish for ourselves, prevailed among the American people with a degree of ardour that can now be scarcely conceived. It was fortunate for the country, that at this crisis the president was not one to be dazzled by sudden lights or false brilliants. The right of every nation to self-government by insti- tutions of its own choice, to be changed again at pleasure, was our own acknowledged foundation, and therefore not to be denied to others; but there was nothing in this posture of affairs to call the United States from their position of neutrality as an independent nation ; and it was Washington's anxious struggle to overcome that colonial feeling, which connected the minds and affections of the American people with the differences of European belligerents. He felt and he knew, also, that a continuance of peace afforded the only chance of consolidating our infant institutions. A proclamation of neutrality was issued for the purpose of preventing all interference by citizens of the United States ; while on the other hand the French minister was received as the envoy of a government existing de facto. These measures commenced a system of foreign policy to which we have since inflexibly adhered ; at the time, they were not more remarkable for the wise foresight by which they were dictated, than for the noble resistance they opposed to temporary clamour. The intrigues of the republican minister Genet, a man of talent but of ardent temperament, increased the difficulties of the times. Deceived by the popularity of the French cause, and encouraged by the supposed Of the military force ? — Of the poUtical parties? — Of the president? — When was Washington re-elected ? — Of the French revolution and its effects on Ameri- can poHtics? — Of Washington? — Of his measures with relation to France? — Of Genet's intrigues ? Washington's foreign policy. 215 weakness of the country, he endeavoured to erect himself into an inde- pendent power, supported by clubs and numerous adherents ; and appeal- ing in case of difference from the government of the Union directly to the people. Constant irritations were produced by the equipment of armed vessels and the condemnation and sale of prizes by tiie Trench consuls, in the ports of the United States. Expeditions were boldly prepared in the south and west for the invasion of Florida and Louisiana, by enlisting American citizens. The president at length resorted to the decisive measure of requiring the recall of this turbulent minister. The French government also furnished subjects of grievous complaint to the citizens of the Union. Our commerce was harassed by privateers, at least as much as that of the acknowledged enemy. American vessels were detained by a French embargo: and the treaty was violated by their courts of admiralty, whose decrees were often marked by gross injustice and oppression. The other belligerents contributed their full share to the violation of American neutrality and the excitement of national feeling. Our mer- chantmen trading to the French colonies, were captured too frequently without any reasonable cause : the rights of search and impressment were everywhere exercised by British cruisers ; regulations were established by arbitrary orders in council that found no authority in the law of war ; and an attempt to add famine to the distress of France, materially im- peded the American commerce in bread stuffs. England still held a number of military posts belonging to the United States by the terms of the treaty of peace : Spain refused us the navi- gation of the Mississippi, and both nations were more than suspected of having excited the invasions of the Indians. Such were the difficulties of the American government, exposed to aggression from all abroad, and from temporary excitements, unfortified by the secure bulwark of popu- lar support at home. The numerous party friendly to France regarded any position short of actual warfare with her rival, as ungrateful and dishonourable. The mercantile community loudly complained of their embarrassed commerce ; and the insurrectionary resistance to the excise law in Pennsylvania was only subdued by military force. In these extremities, the position of the president was firm. The ne- cessity for additional warlike preparations was urged upon Congress : " If we desire to avoid insult, we must be able to repel it : if we desire to secure peace — one of the most powerful instruments of our prosper- ity — it must be known that we are at all times ready for war." The rule of his policy was " to cultivate peace with all the world — to observe treaties with pure and inviolate faith — to check every deviation from the line of impartiality — to explain what may have been misapprehended, and correct what may have been injurious to any nation ; having thus acquired the right, to lose no time in acquiring the ability, to insist upon justice being done to ourselves. The American navy was created by this crisis. An embargo was laid on our commerce, taxes were im- Who required his recall ? — Why? — How was American commerce embarrassed by the French ? — By the British ? — What is said of England and Spain ? — Of the American government? — Of the parties in the United States? — Of Washington? — What was his doctrine with relation to our foreign policy ? — Of the navy ? 216 WASHINGTON RESIGNS THE PRESIDENCY. posed, and all public measures were evidently directed to the approach of war, which, so far as regarded Great Britain, was certainly the popu- lar wish of America. At this critical period, (1795,) the president was deprived of the assistance of his ablest coadjutors. Mr. Jefferson was induced by ill health to resign the secretaryship of foreign affairs; and Hamilton and Knox left their several departments on account of the narrowness of their private fortunes. Edmund Randolph succeeded Jefferson ; William Bradford became attorney-general, Mr. Wolcott secretary of the trea- sury, and colonel Pickering secretary of war. Mr. Randolph con- tinued but a short time in ofhce : he was succeeded by Pickering, whose vacant department was given to Mr. M'llenry. Upon Mr. Bradford's death, Lee was appointed attorney-general. The treaty of amity negotiated with England by Jay, was received with the utmost acrimony of opposition by the strong party opposed to all accommodation with an obnoxious power, and by many wbo con- ceived it injurious to American interests. Time has now justified the ratification of the executive upon the principles of sound policy ; but it was then additionably desirable as an adjustment of ancient differences and a commencement of friendly intercourse. A treaty was also effected with Algiers ; and by another with Spain, the important points of boundary and the Mississippi were fully conceded. Thus was at- tained, in the language of Washington, " by prudence and moderation on every side, the extinguishment of all the causes of external discord, which had heretofore menaced our tranquillity, on terms compatible with our national faith and honour ;" and thus was laid " the firm and precious foundation for accelerating, maturing, and establishing the prosperity of our country." The attention of the government was then anxiously given to the settlement of a system, for the extinction of the national debt. (1796.) The time again approached for the choice of a president of the United States. The intention of Washington to decline a third election, which had been long known to his confidential friends, now began to be generally suspected. The public work was performed for which he alone had sacrificed the first wishes of his heart. The agri- culture and commerce of the nation were flourishing beyond the most sanguine anticipations. Ample revenues had been provided for the sup- port of the government : credit was restored, and the national debt was gradually decreasing. Peace was established with all the world, and, with the exception of France, all grounds of foreign rupture had been adjusted by treaty. In all parts of the union — even in those where acts of the administration had been most violently condemned — the warmest attachment and veneration were exhibited for the person and character of the president. It was generally agreed that another unanimous suffrage would again confer upon him the chief magistracy of the nation, when the cele- What changes took place in the cabinet in 1795 ? — What is said of Jay's treaty ? — What other treaties were effected ? — When did Washington signify his intention of retiring from office ? — What was then the state of piibhc affairs? — How was Washington's resignation received by the slate legislatures ? MISSION TO FRANCE. 217 brated valedictory address announced a firm resolution to return to the quiet of a domestic life. In nearly all the state legislatures, resolutions were immediately passed expressing the deep emotion excited in the people by the intended retirement of one whose services were so ex- alted and so appreciated. Washington was present at the inauguration of his successor John Adams, and after receiving new public testimonials of the respect of his fellow-citizens, he turned his steps towards Mount Vernon, "as a wearied traveller who sees a resting-place, and is bending his body to lean thereon." His journey was everywhere interrupted by the usual expressions of affectionate regard. CHAPTER XXVIII. ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN ADAMS. This was a short administration ; but it was distinguished by several remarkable events. The relations of the United States with France had been left in an unsettled state on the retirement of Washington. The American envoy, Mr. Pinkney, having been treated in a contume- lious manner by the French Directory, Mr. Adams adverted to this cir- cumstance in a highly spirited style in his speech to Congress, and received from that body a reply characterized by the same tone and views. A new mission, consisting of three envoys, Messrs. Pinkney, Marshall, and Gerry, were sent to France in 1797, for the purpose of effecting such a negotiation as might be consistent with the national dignity. The Directory insolently refused to receive them ; but they were de- sired to remain in Paris, and the agents of Talleyrand endeavoured to negotiate with them. This was a matter of some difficulty ; for the leaders of the Directory being in the receipt of large profits from the plunder of American commerce, were unwilling to relinquish them without an equivalent in money. A loan was insisted on to the republic of France, and a bribe of $250,000 for Talleyrand and his coadjutors. When these propositions were made known in the United States, the people were highly indignant, and called for the most vigorous measures. Their watch-word was — "Millions for defence, but not a cent for tribute !" The idea of becoming tributary in any way to a foreign power, was by no means acceptable to a nation which had just perilled their lives and fortunes on a question of the same nature, but of far less revolting character. The president and the congress gladly responded to the wishes of the people. New levies were ordered for the army, and Washington was summoned from his retirement to receive the office of commander-in- What was the conduct of the French Directory towards the United States? — What was done by the American government? — What was retjuired by Talley- rand and his coadjutors ? — What was the popular feeling in the United States ? — What measures of" armament and nrecautiun were adopted ? 19 218 MR. JEFFERSON ELECTED PRESIDENT. chief. The navy was increased — a land tax was passed — an alien law for ridding the country of French emigrants w^as enacted, with pro- visions which were subsequently considered dangerous to liberty ; and a sedition law, of a still more objectionable character, was carried, in the prevailing determination to strengthen the government amidst the sup- posed perils of a pressing emergency. These active measures, which were resorted to under the impression that an offensive war was intended by France, and that an immediate invasion of the United States was to be apprehended, were soon found to be unnecessary. The French rulers condescended to explain and retract and finally to recede from their arrogant pretensions ; and at last when the Directory was abrogated, and Napoleon came into power, a satisfactory arrangement of all difficulties took place, and a treaty of peace was signed, in the year 1800: Several naval encounters took place, during the continuance of hos- tilities; and commodore Truxtun, in the frigate Constellation, succes- sively captured two French frigates of superior force, after severe actions. The last of these, after striking her colours, succeeded in effecting her escape in the night. On the 14th of December, 1799, Washington, so justly denominated the Father of his Country, departed this life. The announcement of this event was followed by the most lively demonstrations of sincere mourning in every part of the country. The congress and the several state legislatures paid their several tributes of respect to his memory ; and in every city, town, and hamlet, of this widely extended country, public testimonials of the same character were exhibited. The new seat of government, in which Congress assembled for the first time, in November, 1800, was called by the name of the revered founder of the republic. The strong measures resorted to under Mr. Adam's auspices, in the prospect of a war with France, particularly the alien and sedition laws, furnished occasion to his political opponents for questioning his republi- can principles ; and when a new election took place, the anti-federal party prevailed. On counting the votes, it appeared that Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr had each the same number. As the constitution had assigned the office of president to the candidate who should receive the greatest number of votes, and that of vice-president to the one who should receive the next greatest number, this circumstance led to an active canvass in Congress, where the question was to be finally decided. After thirty-five ballotings Mr. Jefferson prevailed, and Burr received the office of vice-president. The constitution was subsequently amended so as to prevent the recurrence of a similar contingency. When were the French difficulties settled by treaty ? — What two naval actions had occurred between French ships and ihe American frigate Constellation? — When did Washington die ? — What honours wore paid to his memory? — What name was given to the new capital of the republic? — What party now became pre- iJominant ? — Who were elected to the offices of president and vice-president ? ACCESSION OF LOUISIANA. 219 CHAPTER XXIX. ADMINISTRATION OF THOMAS JEFFERSON. The accession of Mr. Jefferson afforded the first instance, since the adoption of the Federal constitution, of a new party coming- into power. It was followed by the usual consequences, of a change of measures, and to a certain extent of executive officers. The army and navy were re- duced to a very moderate peace establishment — the land tax was repealed, and the numerous offices to which it gave rise, were abolished. The alien and sedition laws were no longer subjects of dread to citizens or foreigners ; and the president, in his zeal for reform, even went so far as to abolish the levees^ which Washington had not considered anti-repub- lican, as well as the custom of opening congress with a speech from the president, which was now superseded by an executive message. Peace being now restored between the lately belligerent powers of Europe, the American commerce was beginning to recover its wonted activity, when the attention of the president was unexpectedly called to a now and very interesting question, relating to the free navigation of the Mississippi river. On the pacification of Europe, Spain ceded Louisiana to France ; and Napoleon now determined, after recovering the revolted colony of St. Domingo, to take possession of his newly acquired territory on our southern border with an army, and thus acquire the control of the Mis- sissippi, and in fact of the whole southern coast of the United States and its adjacent waters. On learning these intentions of the aspiring" First Consul, the presi- dent, through his envoy at Paris, Mr. Livingston, remonstrated against a measure which might cut off the natural outlet of the whole exports from the western country, and pointed out the probable contingency of an alliance between the United States and Great Britain, in case the territory in question should be actually occupied by French troops. Napoleon disregarded this demonstration, and through his influence the free navigation of the Mississippi was suspended by the Spanish authorities at New Orleans. This measure was strongly resented by the people of the western states, and a war was beginning" to be seriously anticipated. The course of events in Europe, however, averted this calamity. The French were unsuccessful in their attempts to recover St. Do- mingo; and a new war with England was becoming every day more probable. In this posture of affairs. Napoleon foreseeing that Louisiana would immediately fall into the hands of his most formidable enemy, What new measures characterized the accession to povver of the democratic party? — What difficulty now arose, respecting the free navigation of the river Mississippi? — What was contemplated by Buonaparte, in reference to Louisiana? — Did Mr. Jefferson remonstrate against this design ? — And with what result? — What offensive measure was procured by the French ruler, through his influence with the Spanish court ? — How was this received by the people of our western 3tates ? — What circumstances inclined France to sell Louisiana to the United States ? 220 WAR WITH TRIPOLI. England, made a virtue of necessity, and consented to sell the whole province which he had acquired from Spain to the United States. The negotiation was easily effected ; and for fifteen millions of dollars, the vast tract, including not only Louisiana, but the whole country from the Mississippi to the Pacific, was added to the national territory. This has been justly considered the most important measure of Mr. Jefferson's administration. The next subject which arrested the attention of the president, was the insolent demands of the Barbary powers for tribute, and their unpro- voked attacks on our commerce in the Mediterranean. The bashaw of Tripoli, in particular, distinguished himself by his audacity. In June, 1801, five American vessels were captured by his cruisers. One of the Tripolitan ships of war was captured by the United States schooner Enterprise, after a sanguinary action. During the same year, a squadron under commodore Dale, consisting of three frigates and a sloop of war, was sent to the Mediterranean, and the port of Tripoli was laid under strict blockade. In 1802, commodore Murray, in the Constellation, being becalmed off Tripoli, sustained an attack from a fleet of Tripolitan gun-boats, which he soon scattered and dispersed. In 1803, the government determined to put an end to this war, and accordingly sent out a large squadron under commodore Preble. One of the ships, the Philadelphia, v/hen reconnoitring to the eastward of Tripoli, ran on shore, and with her officers and crew was captured by a fleet of the enemy's gun-boats. Commodore Decatur, then a lieutenant, proposed to his commander to retake or destroy the frigate, and receiving permission, with a small prize schooner and seventy men, he accom- plished the brilliant exploit of burning the ship under the guns of the enemy's batteries, and making good his retreat with but four men wounded in the conflict. For his valour and skill in this affair, Decatur was promoted to the office of post-captain. During the months of August and September, repeated attacks were made on the fortifications and city of Tripoli by the American squadron, which did great injury to the Tripolitans, and evinced the skill and valour of the Americans, without producing any decisive result. It was now determined to unite a land expedition with the operations of the fleet, and the singular spectacle was exhibited of the invasion of an African state by an American force. The command of this enter- prise was entrusted to general William Eaton, who succeeded in form- ing an alliance with Hamet, the ex-bashaw of Tripoli, who had been unjustly deprived of the government and expelled by his brother, the reigning bashaw. Having met Hamet in Egypt, where he held com- mand of an army of Mamelukes at war with the Turkish government, Eaton united his handful of troops with those of his ally, and marched from Alexandria on the 6th of March, 1805. After accomplishing a route of more than 1000 miles, a parallel to which, in peril, fatigue, and For what sum were Louisiana and the country west of tiie Mississippi purchased ? —What is said of Tripoli?— Of the Enterprise ? — Of commodore Dale's squadron? —Of commodore Murray ? — Preble ? — Of Decatur's grand exploit ? — Of Eaton's expedition ? — Of Hamet ? — Of the march to Derne ? ' ( 222 ) Capture of Derne. AARON BURR. 223 suffering, can hardly be found but in romance ; he arrived before Derne on the 25th of April, and summoning the governor to surrender the city, and received the doughty reply, " My head or yours !" On the 27th, Derne was assaulted by the troops of Hamet and the Americans, under the command of Eaton, and after a contest of two hours and a half was carried at the point of the bayonet. The assault was supported by the American squadron, which had previously arrived in the bay as agreed upon. The governor and many of his adherents fled to the desert. The Americans suffered severely in the assault, and gen- eral Eaton himself was wounded in the wrist. The inhabitants of the city submitted to the authority of Hamet. Eaton's next exploit was the successful resistance of a- siege by the army of the reigning bashaw of Tripoli, who advanced to recapture Derne, and experienced a signal defeat, being compelled to yield to the superior skill and discipline of Eaton's forces. His career of victory, however, was cut short by the arrival of the Constitution frigate, in the harbour of Derne, with the news of a treaty of peace, on terms much less advantageous than Eaton might have dictated, if left to his own resources. By this arrangement, entered into by Mr. Lear on the part of the United States, with the reigning bashaw, the American prisoners were ransomed for 60,000 dollars, and the cause of Hamet was abandoned. This treaty was by no means acceptable to the American people, who have an insuperable aversion to purchasing peace with gold ; and honour the custom of ransoming prisoners with steel. Meantime, (1804,) a new election had given the office of president a second time to Mr. Jef!erson, with George Clinton, of New York, for vice-president. Colonel Burr, who now retired from the office of vice- president, was proposed for governor to the state of New York. The po- litical discussions to which his unsuccessful canvass gave rise, occasioned a misunderstanding between him and general Hamilton. A challenge passed ; the parties met, and Hamilton received a mortal wound. The activity of this great statesman in procuring the adoption of the Federal constitution, and his ability and success in managing the financial con- cerns of the nation, as secretary of the treasury, had given him un- bounded popularity among the intelligent classes of the community, and his untimely fate was universally regretted. Burr now abandoned the theatre of his former intrigues, and betaking himself to the western country, organized a plan for invading Mexico, with forces to be raised in the western and south-western states. His operations became known to the government: he was apprehended and tried on a charge of high treason ; but escaped conviction, and retired to Europe. The precise nature of his last enterprise has never been fully explained, some writers charging him with an attempt to sever the Union; and others limiting his views to the acquisition of Texas, which would probably noio be considered no inexpiable crime. The wars in Europe, which were occasioned by the French revolu- tion, had opened a vast field of enterprise to the American merchants, The summons ? — The reply ? — Of the assault ? — The siege ? — The treaty ? — The election of Jefferson a second time? — What is said of Burr ? — His duel ? — Of Hamilton ? — Of Burr's conspiracy ? — Trial ? — His views ? 224 PLUNDKR OF AMERICAN COMMERCE. whose ships under a neutral flag had acquired a considerable portion of the entire carrying- trade of the world. The commercial jealousy of the British led them to interdict and cripple this commerce, under pre- tence of distressing- Napoleon and his continental allies. This led to similar measures on the part of the French emperor, who was never backward in retaliation. The British orders in council purported to lay the whole continent of Europe under blockade, and the Berlin and Milan decrees of Napoleon advanced the same preposterous pretension with respect to every port under the control of (ireat Britain. To blockade a single port or a few miles of coast with a force suffi- cient to make the interdiction of neutral connnerce efficient, is the ad- mitted rig-ht of a belligerent power. But for any nation to IJlockade half the great sea-ports of the world by a single stroke of the pen, is a claim unrecog'nized by the law of nations. Under the authority of this paper blockade, the American ships were seized and confiscated with their cargoes, and both the great belligerent nations, with their dependent states, united in indiscriminate plunder of our unfortunate merchants. To add to the causes of complaint. Great Britain insisted on the right of searching American vessels in pursuit of British seamen, and, pretending to recognize many of them among those who were undoubtedly natives of the United States, thousands of our citizens were forcibly impressed into her service and compelled to undergo the iron despotism of British naval commanders. The insolence of these officers mounted so high, that not content with impressing Americans from merchant-ships, in June, 1607, the captain of the British man-of-war. Leopard, fired upon the Chesapeake, an American frigate of inferior force, and unprepared for action, and having compelled her to surrender, boarded her and took out four of her seamen; three of whom were subsequently proved to be Americans. This outrage roused the national spirit; and the people began to menace war. The government of the United States remonstrated with both of the hostile powers without the least effect. It seemed to be the purpose of each of them to drive the Americans from their neutral position. The seizures of ships, cargoes, and men, were still continued, till, in Decem- ber, 1807, Congress passed the famous embargo law, forbidding Ameri- can ships to leave their ports. As the industry and capital of the coun- try were, at that time, much more exclusively devoted to foreign com- merce than at any other period before or since, the effect of this measure was immediate and very extensive distress among the people. In New England, especially, the murmurs against this measure were loud and unceasing during the whole period of its continuance. Its purpose was undoubtedly the withdrawal of the American ships from abroad as a preparation for war. In this point of view, it was a wise and politic measure. How had American commerce become extended? — How was it attacked? — What is said of the orders in council ? — Of Napoleon's decrees ? — Of paper blockades, in general? — Of their effect on American commerce? — Of the im- pressment of seamen ? — Of the affair of the Chesapeake ? — Its effect ? — Of the American government? — Of the embargo law ? — Its effect ? — Its purpose ? NEGOTIATIONS WITH ENGLAND. 225 Previous to tlie period of the election in 1808, Mr. Jefferson having expressed an intention of retiring from office, James Madison was elected to succeed him, Mr. Clinton still retaining the office of vice- president by re-election. CHAPTER XXX. ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. As Mr. Madison was elected by the same political party which had supported Mr. Jefferson, his accession, of course, brought with it no change in the policy of the administration. The difficulties existing in our relations with France and England continued to occupy the attention of the government and completely to engross the minds of the people. In March, 1809, the embargo law was repealed ; and a law was passed prohibiting all intercourse with France and Great Britain ; but providing that if either nation should revoke her hostile edicts, on the president's proclaiming the fact, the non-intercourse law should become null and void with respect to that nation. The British envoy at V/ashington, Mr Erskine, engaged on behalf of his government that the orders in council should be revoked, and the president issued his proclamation as prescribed by the law. But the British ministry disavowed the act of Erskine — recalled him, and sent out Mr. Jackson. This envoy having insolently charged the American government with having negotiated with his predecessor on points over which they knew he had no control, he was informed that no other communications would be received from him ; and his government soon after recalled him. When the non-intercourse law expired in 1810, it was proposed by our government that if either of the belligerent powers would revoke its hostile edicts, that law sliould be revived with respect to the other. France complied, and the law was suffered to expire with relation to her, while it was revived with reference to Great Britain. Notwith- standing the British government had offered to repeal her orders as soon as France sliould set the example, the ministry now temporized and chicaned, pretending to doubt the sincerity of the French repeal. Her depredations on our commerce were continued quite as actively as at any former period, and the impressment of seamen was still per- sisted in. One of her ships, the Little Belt, of eighteen guns, made an unfor- tunate attack on the frigate President, one evening, on the coast of Virginia, and was very roughly handled, thirty-two of her men being killed and wounded, and the ship considerably damaged. Who was elected president, on the retirement of Mr. Jefferson ? — Who vice-presi- dent? — Did the accession of" Mr. Madison produce any change in the general policy of the administration ? — What subject now engrossed attention ? — What measures were adopted in relation to England and France ? — What was the conduct of Mr. Jackson, the British envoy? — Did Great Britain consent to repeal her orders in council ? — What naval rencontre now look place ? 226 WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. In the summer of 1811, Mr. Foster, the new British envoy, proposed terms of reparation for the attack on the Chesapeake, whicli were accepted. By this arrangement the British government disavowed the act of the commander of the Leopard, restored the impressed men, and pensioned the families of the men killed in the attack. Still, there was no prospect of a cessation of the British hostilities against our commerce. Nine hundred American merchantmen had been seized by the British cruisers since 1803 ; and seven thousand American seamen had been impressed into the service of the British navy. This state of things seemed to exceed the limits of further forbear- ance. On the meeting of Congress in 1811, preparations for war were seriously commenced. The regular army was ordered to be increased to 35,000 men ; the navy was augmented ; and the president was ern- powered to accept the services of volunteers, and call out the militia when occasion should require. A loan of eleven millions of dollars was authorized, to meet the expenditure consequent upon these measures. In the autumn of 1811, general Harrison was sent into the country of the Indians on the north-western frontier, whose hostilities, apparently excited by British interference, had become troublesome to the border settlers. On the 6th of November he arrived at Tippecanoe, their chief settlement, and being met by their deputies, consented to suspend hostilities till the next morning, when they promised to hold an amicable talk on the subjects of difference. Fortunately the soldiers slept on their arms; for, before daybreak, a furious assault was made on the American camp. A general engage- ment followed, in which, after much loss on both sides, the Indians were thoroughly routed, and their town destroyed. In February, 1812, the disclosure of John Henry's famous plot was made to Congress by the president. He was a British agent employed by the governor of Canada in 1809, to corrupt the opposition party in New England, and effect a dissolution of the Union. His mission, of course, had failed ; and he had betrayed his employers to the American government, because they had refused to pay him his wages. This dis- closure increased the irritation of the American people towards Great Britain. In May, the Hornet, sloop-of-war, arrived from London, bringing in- formation that no prospect existed of an adjustment of the difficulties with England. On the first of June, the president sent a message to congress, submitting the question of peace or war with Great Britain for its final action ; and on the 18th of June, 1812, war was finally de- clared against that formidable power. Unfortunately, this measure was considered as a party question, when it certainly should have been a national one. A cordial union of all parties in support of government would have speedily terminated the war ; but its unpopularity in certain sections of the country, and What reparation was made for the attack on the frigate Chesapeake? — What preparations for war were authorized by Congress ? — What American general de- feated the Indians? — Relate the circumstances of Henrj^'s plot. — When was war declared against England ? — What circumstance interfered with the vigovo:;* prosecution of hostilities, in the earlier part of the contest ? SURRENDER OF HULL. 227 especially in New England, was a cause of serious embarrassment in its earlier operations. Subsequently, when the national feeling- was fully roused, tlie military undertakings were attended with better success. At Boston, the capital of Massachusetts, — that town which, one may say, had commenced the war of independence, — the flags of the ship- ping were hoisted half-mast high, in token of mourning for the war of 1812. The southern states were as violent in support of the contrary opinion; and Baltimore was more especially signalized for its anti- English zeal. An opposition paper here dared to brave the prevalent opinion. A mob was excited to attack the establishment, which was defended against them ; and force arriving, the defenders of the house were taken to prison. But this did not secure them. The prison doors were broken open next day, and the opponents of the war shamefully maltreated. Several of them died of wounds received on this occasion. Except rencontres between single ships, the only theatre of war in the United States was the Canadian position ; and thither accordingly their efforts were turned. Attempts to call out the militia in Upper Canada had been productive of disturbances in which the troops and the inhabitants had mutually fired upon each other. This encouraged the Americans to an invasion, and an army was collected for that purpose in the north. The ruling party, indeed, seemed to have had the most sanguine hopes of success ; and Mr. Madison expected to illustrate his presidency by the acquisition of Canada, as his predecessor's had been by that of Louisiana. If, with a population of four millions, we had beaten Eng- land from the United States, surely, it was argued, with the present population of eight millions, it could not be difficult to expel them from America altogether. Offensive operations are, however, very different from defensive ones, especially when the latter are at home. In this case, the people, being the soldiers, suffice for themselves : in the former, there must not only be an army, but generals, and, what is per- haps still more difficult, an able secretary of war. In these respects we were unfortunately deficient. General Dearborne was created com- mander-in-chief; Pinkney, Wilkinson, Ham.pton. Hull, were the other names on the list of commanding officers. General Hull was governor of tlie Michigan territory. Not much more than a fortnight after the declaration of war, he collected a body of upwards of 2000 troops of the line and militia, and pushed over the frontier, as if he intended to attack Montreal, publishing, at the same time, an arrogant proclamation. His subsequent movements were marked with inertness and indecision ; and upon hearing that the Indians had invaded his province upon another point, and that the Eng- lish general Brock was at the head of a respectable force, Hull retreated. He was pursued by Brock, who besieged him in Fort Detroit, and was about to try the fortune of an assault, when Hull hoisted the white flag, and surrendered, with his fort and army, to the surprise and indignation of the Americans. What demonstrations were made, of opposition to the war ? — What was done by a mob at BaUimore ? — What British province was it now intended to invade ? — Who conducted the first attempt to invade Canada? — What was the result? 228 NAVAL VICTORIES. This signal defeat took place in August. As the blame was thrown upon the pusillanimity of the commanders, in little more than a month an American force was again collected upon the same position. On this occasion it was thought advisable not to risk an invasion, the aim being rather to master some neighbouring post, which might make amends for the loss of Detroit. Queenstown, on the Niagara, was fixed on as the object of attack. An American division, under colonel Van Rennselaer, crossed with the view of mastering it. They stormed it gallantly ; but general Brock arrived at the moment of success, and drove the Americans back. Whilst reinforcements arrived to the British, the American militia refused to cross the river to reinforce their party. The English, therefore, remained victors, capturing all who had crossed to the assault. It was, however, with the loss of general Brock, who was shot whilst cheering on his men, during the doubtful period of the conflict. Thus, upon land, the advantages of this first campaign rested alto- gether with the British. It was at sea, on the element where they felt most secure, that their superiority was seriously disputed. About the very time that general Hull surrendered in Detroit, captain Hull, com- manding the Constitution frigate, fell in with the British frigate the Guerriere. An engagement ensued ; when, in half an hour, the latter was so totally disabled, as not only to be obliged to surrender, but to be -burned by her captors. The news of this victory was hailed with triumph by all parties in the United States. A similar result came of a combat between the frigates, the United States, commanded by commodore Decatur, and the Macedonian. The latter, after having suffered dreadfully in men and vessel, was obliged to surrender. Another naval encounter took place, on the 17th of October, between the American sloop-of-war. Wasp, and the British brig-of-war Frolic, in which the latter was captured, afler suffering a heavy loss, (30 killed and 50 wounded,) and being reduced to a complete wreck. The loss of the Wasp was 5 killed and 5 wounded. One more naval battle occurred before the close of the year. On the 29th of December, the Constitution frigate, commanded by captain Bainbridge, captured the British frigate Java, after an engagement of three hours, in which the Java was reduced to a complete wreck, losing 161 of her crew in killed and wounded. The Constitution lost 34. The privateers of the Americans captured five hundred prizes, during the first seven months of the war. These encounters strongly sharpened the animosities on both sides, and cheered the Americans for the disap- pointments which they had experienced by land. In November, congress met ; and the president addressed it by mes- sage, in which he frankly stated the defeats experienced on the Cana- dian position, and complained much of the employment of the Indians by the British, thus bringing the horrors of savage warfare upon the Relate the circumstances attending the battle of Queenstown. — What was the first naval action ? — The second ? — The third ? — The fourth ? — Did these victo- ries inspirit the Americans ? — What subjects were touched upon, in the president's message to Congress ? ( 229 ) Wasj) and Frolic. 20 ( 232 ) Siege of Fort Meigs. PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 233 land. He also complained of the conduct of Massachusetts and Con- necticut in refusing their contingent of militia. The victories of Ame- rican ships were cited with just pride; and Congress was requested to extend somewhat their allowance to the army. So sparing had this been, that neither soldiers could be recruited nor general officers appointed, nor was there such a thing as a military staff. However considerable was the opposition to Mr. Madison's policy and administration in the eastern states, still the southern, increased by the number of the newly created states in the western territory, were enabled to out-vote their rivals on the grand presidential question. Mr. Madison was without difficulty re-elected to his second term of office ; whilst Mr. Gerry became vice-president in the room of Clinton. The same preponderance he was enabled to exercise in Congress ; where a majority passed resolutions approving of the president's refusal to make peace, except upon the removal of the possibility of the English impress- ing or searching for American seamen. The British government, on its side, placed the principal ports and rivers of America at once in a state of blockade. In order, however, to favour such states as displayed aver- sion to the war, a system of licenses was adopted, in order to enable ships from their ports to enjoy a trade with the West Indies. The pre- sident was indignant at this tenderness shown by foreign for domestic foes, and he denounced it in strong terms to the legislature. Winter had, in the mean time, brought no respite to war, even in this rigorouse climate. In January, 1813, the Americans, under general Winchester, marched to the recapture of Detroit. They were anticipated by colonel Proctor, the British officer commanding in the conquered district; who, with a body of regular troops and Indians, de- feated the Americans, taking their leader and the greater number prisoners. Of these, a great number fell sacrifices to the cruelty of the Indians. The American commander, general Harrison, was soon after besieged by the British in Fort Meigs, which he had erected on the Miami river. Disaster on this frontier, however, always brought the American side a reinforcement of spirited volunteers ; and the Ken- tucky men, under general Clay, marched to take their revenge upon colonel Proctor, and, in their first onset, dispossessed him of position and batteries. But the British returned to the charge, and, in their turn, obtained a victory. The British, however, were soon compelled to raise the siege and retreat. The events of the war had by this time taught the Americans to reverse an opinion previously formed. They knew themselves far superior in force to the British in Canada, where the Indians alone restored propor- tion to the respective numbers. On land, therefore, they had reckoned to be victors ; whilst at sea their numerical inferiority seemed to promise defeat: events had turned out directly contrary to this; their soldiers had been beaten, their sailors were everywhere victorious. The advantage was therefore seen, of converting, as far as it was possible, the military Was Mr- Madison elected for a second term ? — Did congress persevere in con- tinuing the war? — What measure of partiality was adopted by the British govern- ment? — What American general attempted to recapnire Detroit? — With what success? — What lesson was taught the Americans ' 20* 234 WARFAKE ON THE LAKES. operations on the side of Canada into naval ones. The nature of the position, passing- through the great lakes, — seas in depth and extent, — rendered this possible. Their first endeavours were directed to the fitting out of a squadron upon lake Ontario, which should master its waters, and be able to con- vey to the several points upon it, possessed by the British, such force as would be irresistible. Sackett's Harbour was the name of the chief American port upon the lake. Here a fleet was fitted out with great activity and zeal, and, by the end of April, was ready to transport a small army. Upwar^ds of 2000 men embarked, commanded by the American general Pike. These were wafted to the vicinity of York, tlie capital of Upper Canada, where the British had only a garrison of 600 strong. This small force offered every possible resistance. During the combat, general Pike was slain ; but his troops were ultimately vic- torious, and the British were obliged to surrender York. Other expedi- tions were undertaken by the Americans upon different points, always with success, unless when, not content with getting possession of the place or fort attacked, they thought fit to pursue the retreating British. On one of these occasions, the Americans had two of their generals captured. Upon another, a detachment of 800 men, commanded by colonel Boerstler, was surrounded and made prisoners. The British, in the mean time, exerted tiiemselves to rival their enemy upon the lakes. An attack made on Sackett's Harbour was re- pulsed ; but, in a little time, Sir James Yeo was enabled to take the command of a flotilla, equal or superior to the Americans, which turned the advantage upon Lake Ontario against them. On Lake Champlain, also, the British had taken the start of their foes, and destroyed the American establishment of Plattsburg, in revenge for the affair of York, which had been twice captured and plundered. While both nations were exerting themselves to gain the naval supe- riority on the lakes, another attempt was made by the British to capture Fort Meigs, on the Miami, In July, a considerable force appeared be- fore the fort, and endeavoured to provoke a pitched battle in the field. Not succeeding in this, they directed their attention to Fort Stephenson, on Sandusky river, near lake Erie. Tiiis small post was garrisoned by 160 men, under major Croghan, who gallantly withstood an attempt of the enemy, with .500 regulars and 800 Indians, to storm the fort. The British were completely defeated, and compelled to retreat, (August 3d). It was soon after this (Sept, 10th) that the famous naval battle on lake Erie took place ; and it ended completely in favour of the Ameri- cans. The vessels equipped on the American side were nine in num- ber, carrying fifty-four guns ; those of the British were six in number, carrying sixty-three guns. The naval battle fought by these squadrons tor the mastery of Lake Erie, was the most important which had yet occurred in the war. Perry, rushing eagerly with his vessel into action, was at first disabled, and obliged to shift his flag ; but, when all his What preparations were made upon the great interior lakes? — WhatCanadian town yielded to the American arms? — What events took place on I^ke Ontario? — On Champlain ? — Relate the circumstances of the attack on Fort Stephenson. — • What was the result of the naval battle on Lake Erie ? ( 235 ) Defence of Fort Stephenson. ATTEMPT UPON MONTREAL. 237 force came up, the British squadron was beaten in the fight, most of the officers killed, the ships disabled and obliged to surrender. This was a source of great exultation to the Americans, whom it compensated for all previous losses. Nor were its consequences less important ; as the British forces were compelled to abandon tlie advan- tages and position which they had previously won. Detroit, the first conquest of the war, was now given up ; and the retreat was not con- ducted with that skill and spirit which had marked previous operations. The Americans, under general Harrison, came up with Sir George Prevost near the Moravian villages on the Thames, and defeated him, (October 5tl],) with signal loss on the part of the British. Amongst the slain, was the famous Indian chief Tecumseh, brother of the Wabash prophet ; by which loss, as well as by the reverses of the v.-ar, these savage allies were much disheartened. The Am.ericans, rendered sanguine by success, now meditated the conquest of Montreal. They prepared two different armies, whose united force was to execute this task ; and each were of numbers hitherto un- paralleled in the war. There were 8000 regular troops under general Wilkinson, and 4000 men under general Hampton. A considerable part of these was to descend the St. Lawrence ; whilst another division, under general Hampton, was to cross the frontier, and, driving back the British, join the expedition down the river at St. Regis. General Wilkinson, with the main body, proceeded from Lake Ontario down the St. Lawrence, coasting his own side of the river. Sir George Prevost, at the head of the Canadian militia principally, watched and impeded his movements. But those under Hampton, instead of uniting with the main body, retreated to Plattsburg. General Wilkinson, being thus deprived of the expected co-operation, notwithstanding the successful issue of an encounter near Chrystler's Point, thouglit fit to retreat, and abandon altogetlier the enterprise against Montreal. Its failure created great disappointment both to the nation and to the president. The efforts of government had been great, and the hopps proportionate. General Hampton was deprived of his command, though much of the fault was attributed to general Armstrong, the secretary of war. In the south-west a furious war was, at the same time, carried on be- tween the Creek Indians and the Americans. The savages, never com- pletely pacified or reconciled to the Americans, had been roused by a visit from Tecumseh; who, in the name of that great prophet, told them to arise and whet their tomahawks. On the last day of August, they surprised a fort on the Georgian frontier, and massacred all within, women and children not excepted. General Jackson, of Tennessee, undertook to take vengeance for this sanguinary outrage; and marched with a large body of militia into the wilds tenanted by the Creeks. These were not slow to meet their enemies ; and a series of bloody en- counters ensued, in all of v/hich, the Indians, though outnumbered, fought v/ith their native desperation, and perished to a man. The want of provisions, and the difficulty of finding the Indians, were the only What important oonsequennes resulted from this great victory ? — What new at- tempt was now made upon Canada? — With what siircess ? — VVhat war was now propeculed on the south-wet?tern frontier? — Who defeated the Indians there? 238 NAVAL COMBATS. circumstances which baffled the whites ; whose numbers came and went, as the weary abandoned them, or fresh volunteers recruited their force. Jackson earned his renown by the martial spirit he displayed in these wars. The Indians had learned the art of entrenching themselves to advantage. Though beaten at Tallapoosa, they had caused the whites great loss. They made another stand at Tohopeka ; where a thousand warriors withstood the attack for some time, and perished valiantly. At last, when the bravest and best of them had been annihi- lated, they submitted. One of the remaining chiefs addressed Jack- son : — " Once I could animate my warriors ; but I cannot animate the dead. They can no longer hear my voice. Their bows are at Emuck- faw and Tohopeka. While a chance remained, I asked not for peace : but I now ask it for my nation and myself." At sea, the Americans this year had equal cause for triumph, and their newly obtained character for superiority over British skill and courage was well supported. In the month of February, the United States sloop of war Hornet, commanded by captain Lawrence, was attacked by the Peacock, of superior force. After twenty minutes' combat, the British crew were not only defeated, but their vessel sinking. There was not even time for saving the vanquished ; the sloop going down with twelve persons, of whom were three American sailors, engaged in rescuing their foes. For this feat, captain Lawrence, on his return to Boston, was pro- moted to the command of the frigate Chesapeake, the same vessel which had had the unfortunate rencontre with the Leopard. A British frigate, the Shannon, was soon off the harbour : its commander, captain Broke, was most desirous of wiping off some of the recent stains on the navy of his country ; and, with a view to effect this, he paid that severe at- tention to discipline and exercise which long superiority had taught the English to neglect. Tlie Shannon stood in to Boston light-house, to challenge the Chesapeake. Captain Lawrence, though he had a new and ill-trained crew, accepted the defiance, and, on the first of June, sailed out to meet the foe. The Chesapeake and Shannon joined ; when, after fifteen minutes' firing, the British boarded, and, after a desperate contest on the deck, carried the American ship. The gallant Lawrence, mortally wounded, refused to allow the colours to be struck, and died, protesting against the ship's being given up. There needs no stronger proof of the equal valour of two brave nations, sprung from a common stock, than these alternate triumphs of that side which happened to be superior in discipline. A less noble species of warfare was carried on along the coasts of the sea and the great gulfs, by frequent landings from British vessels, to molest and plunder the inhabitants and ravage the country. Sometimes an unoffending village was cannonaded. These exploits, intended to make the war unpopular in America, had the contrary effect. The British, in judging what their own feelings would be if similarly injured. What new naval victory was gained by the Americans? — Relate the circum- stances of the battle between the frigates Chesapeake and Shannon. — What is eaid of the ravages of the British on the coast ? — Of its impolicy ? ( 239 ) Hornet and Peacock. SANGUINARY BATTLES. 241 might have adopted other measures of hostility towards an enemy of which so large a minority was averse to the war. Congress still supported tlie policy of Mr. Madison, however onerous and unusual the expense. The summer session was almost exclusively consumed in voting additional taxes; which, now that commerce was paralyzed, were necessarily, some of them, internal. Duties were levied upon wine, spirits, sugar, salt ; and a loan of upwards of seven millions of dollars was authorized. A still further demand of supply was made in January, 1814: a loan, treble the former amount, was raised, besides other rhodes having been devised of procuring funds. During the course of the year, the emperor of Russia had offered his mediation between England and America. This latter country, always anxious to preserve amity with Russia, sent commissioners immediately to St. Petersburgh. Great Britain declined the mediation ; but professed herself willing to appoint on her side commissioners to treat, either in London, or in some neutral port. Gottenburg was selected for this purpose. At both extremities of the lake Ontario, the war was continued, by desultory expeditions of either army, during the commencement of 1814. The British stormed and took Fort Niagara, and afterwards that of Oswego. In July, an encounter took place at Chippewa, between an American invading force under general Brown, and the British and Canadians under general Riall. The latter attacked, but were repulsed, and, after a severe loss, were obliged to retreat. This gave confidence to the Americans. General Drummond soon after joined the Canadian army with reinforcements, and took the command. This rendering the contending forces more nearly equal, both parties marched to renew the contest. The battle* took place near the celebrated falls of Niagara ; the Americans commencing the attack about the hour of sunset. It lasted till late in tlie night; the work of slaughter being carried on by the light of the moon. Though bravely charging, the Americans could make little impression on the British; while they themselves suffered dreadfully from the Englis!i guns, which played from an eminence in the centre of the field. Their efforts were accordingly directed against this battery ; and colonel Miller led the troops several times to its assault, gaining and losing' possession alternately of the disputed point : he even brought up American cannon to support the attack, which presented the novel appearance of gun charging gun. On one occasion, cannons were actually exchanged in the confusion. As the night advanced, the con- flict ceased, both parties claiming the victory. The Americans, however, retained possession of the field ; but they subsequently retired, and were besieged in Fort Erie. General Riall, severely wounded, was made prisoner. The American generals Brown and Scott were also, from wounds, obliged to quit the field. The siege of Fort Erie was carried on for more than a month, * See Frontispiece. Of Congress ? — Its doings ? — The taxes ? — The Russian mediation ? — The com- missioners?— Of the operations on lake Ontario? — The battle of Chippewa ? — Descrilje it. — Its result ? — The siege of Fort Erie ? 21 242 ATTACK UPON WASHINGTON. marked by a daring attempt at taking it by storm on the part of the British, and an equally gallant sortie made by the Americans, which decided the fate of the contest. The besiegers drew off, and the Americans evacuated it; and finally retired to their own side of the Niagara ; the war in this quarter having given birth to many gallant achievements, but no permanent conquest. Eastward of the great lakes, the governor-general of Canada resolved on an expedition, which, if it succeeded, would counterbalance the equal issue of operations on the Niagara. With a flotilla on Lake Champlain, and an army along its brink, he advanced to the attack of Plattsburg, September 11th. The tbrtune of the enterprise was decided in a naval engagement on the lake, between commodore M'Donough and captain Downie. The latter was slain early in the fight, his vessel disabled, and the British flotilla was completely defeated and taken by the Americans. Sir George Prevost, conducting the land attack, was also decidedly re- pulsed by general Macomb, and obliged to retreat with precipitation ; having proved himself here, as in most instances where he personally commanded, to have been singularly unfortunate, if not utterly imbecile. As the war in Europe was now over, the British government seemed determined to make the Americans, especially the more inveterate ene- mies of the southern provinces, feel more fully, than they had yet done, the inconvenience of having incurred the hostility of England. A squadron under Sir Alexander Cochrane, having on board an army under general Ross, sailed up the Chesapeake in the month of August. From the open gulf it turned its course up the Patuxent, apparently in search of the American flotilla, which, under commodore Barney, had taken shelter there. As the ships of war could not follow the flotilla up the river, the army was disembarked at St. Benedict's, to pursue it by land. Its force was estimated at 6000. At first, no resistance was offered ; for it appears that the American secretary of war could not bring him- self to credit any serious intention of the English to land.* General Ross, therefore, reached Marlborough, where the flotilla was destroyed, to prevent its falling into his power. But here tlie ultimate point of attack became evident, when the British columns, instead of returning, continued their march in the direction of Washington. The American commander. Winder, prepared, in consequence, to make a stand against the invaders ; and, for this purpose, he chose a strong position at Bladensburg, covered by a branch of the Potomac. The chief approach to Bladensburg lay over a bridge, which was com- manded by the American artillery, and served by the seamen of the flotilla. These did their duty skilfully and bravely. The first com- * "The force designated by the president was the double of what was necessary; but failed, as is the general opinion, through the insubordination of Armstrong (who could never believe the attack nitended until it was actually made), and the slug- gishness of Winder before the occasion, and his indecision during it." — JeffersoiCs Correspondence, vol. iv. p. 25G. Describe the descent on Plattsburg. — The naval engagement. — Its result? — What enabled Britain to direct more of her force against the United States? — Describe the operations of admiral Cochrane. — His force. — Jefferson's remark. — Towards what city did the British march? — Where did general Winder take post ? — Who defended the bridge ? ( 243 ) Battle of Plattsburg and Lake Champlain. ( 246 ) Defence of Fort M Henry. ATTEMPT AGAINST EALTIMOKE. 247 pany of the British that advanced upon the bridge was swept away ; and it was not until the attacking army had crossed in force that the artil- lery could be mastered. The first regiments that crossed v.'ore rash in pushing the Americans who retired ; they were accordingly severely handled, and repulsed at first. But after three hours' fighting Bladens- burg was abandoned by its defenders, who dispersed among the woods. The battle, (August 24th,) though not creditable to regular troops, did honour to raw militia ; and the British were not victorious without a heavy loss. The victors soon after entered Washington. Their gene- ral wished to lay the city under contribution ; but his proposal not being liearkened to, orders were given to destroy all the public buildings. This barbarous order, which no plea can excuse, and which certainly was as impolitic for the future as unprofitable for the present, was exe- cuted with rigour: and even some private dwellings suffered; that of an obnoxious publisher, amongst others. The docks, the shipping, the magazines, were, of course, fired: these were lawful objects of devasta- tion. But the dooming of the senate-house, the president's house, the library, to the same fate, was a piece of Vandalism that covered the expedition with disgrace. The work of destruction achieved, the British retreated, without loss of time, to their ships, and, re-embarking, sailed to menace and ravage other points. Alexandria was captured, but ransomed all save its stores and shipping. Baltimore was the next town devoted by the British to their vengeance. It was the most important ; and was, consequently, considered a proper object of attack. General Ross landed about fifteen miles from the city, at the head of 6000 men, on the 12th of September. The disaster of Washington, however, had inspired more strenuous measures of defence ; and the Americans on this point were far better prepared. They occupied a strong position in advance of Baltimore. In the first skirmish that occurred, the British commander was shot by a rifleman ; which damped the hopes, as well as deranged the projects of the expedition. The English, however, marched to the attack, and repulsed tlie Americans. However, there was still a stronger position behind, capable of a better defence. The co-operation of the fleet had been determined on to facilitate the carrying of this, which was, in fact, the heights above Baltimore. An attack was accordingly made, on the morning of the 13th, by six- teen of the enemy's ships and five bomb-vessels, on Forts M'llenry and Covington, which commanded the entrance to the city by the Patapsco river. The bombardment lasted all that day and the succeeding night. During the night an attempt was made to land troops for the purpose of storming the forts ; but the British were repulsed with immense loss. At seven o'clock the next morning, the bombardment terminated, and the ships drew off. In the mean time the British army had awaited the result of this attack till night, when they commenced their retreat How long did the baule of Bladensburg last ? — What was the result? — What disgraceful act of the British commander followed ? — Whither did the British then retreat? — What town was captured and plundered ? — What city was threatened ? — Describe Ross's advance. — His fate. — The action. — Describe the attack on Fort M'Henry. — Its result. 248 NEGOTIATIONS AT GHENT. favoured by tlie darkness of the night and a heavy fall of rain. At day- break the invaders had all disappeared. The gallant defence of Fort M'Henry had saved the city. The British army had retreated, and again embarked. After some further cruises and menaces in the Chesapeake, the English fleet abandoned it for a more remote enterprise. On the distant north-eastern frontier of the United States, that which adjoined Canada, the English this year effected a conquest. They sent an expedition to Penobscot river, which, without opposition, took posses- sion of all the small sea-port towns upon its course, and on the seaboard east of it: the frigate, John Adams, which had retired up the river, made a gallant resistance, and cost much fighting before she was captured. One third of the state of Maine, being thinly peopled, was obliged to submit ; and Sir John Sherbrook took possession of it in the name of George III. Some islands in Passamaquoddy bay had also been acquired in a similar manner. The naval encounters, in the mean time, served to sustain the high character already acquired by the American sailors for courage, coolness, and discipline. The frigate Essex, commanded by captain Porter, after a series of brilliant exploits and a great number of captures in the Pacific, was, with her consort the Essex Junior, attacked by two British vessels of superior force as they were attempting to leave the harbour of Valparaiso, and atler maintaining the conflict on most unequal terms for several hours, was compelled to strike. Captain Porter gained not less reputation by this noble defence than by his previous exploits. The American sloop-of war, Peacock, encountered the Epervier of equal force, and, after a short action, captured her. The Wasp sloop-of- war, commanded by captain Blakely, captured the Reindeer and sunk the Avon during a single cruise. Each of the British ships was superior in force to the Wasp. The Wasp is supposed to have foundered at sea after these actions. The commissioners of both nations had, in the mean time, met, not, as had been first arranged, at Gottenburg, but at Ghent. The triumph of the British over Buonaparte had naturally increased the arrogance of their tone ; whilst the ravaging expeditions on the American coast, con- trasted with the state of the war in Canada, confirmed the Americans in their proud determination not to yield. The English demanded that no further acquisition of territory should be made at the expense of the Indians. To this and other demands the American commissioners ob- jected ; and the first attempt at an accommodation altogether failed. The unpopularity of the war in certain parts of New England, led during this year to the calling of a convention at Hartford, in which Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, were represented by delegates from their legislatures, and New Hampshire and Vermont by delegates from county meetings. The sittings were secret. The ad- dress to the people, published after their adjournment, complained of the measures adopted by the general government as partial in their opera- tion, injurious to New England interests and to commerce ; and pro- What favoured the retreat of the British? — What port of Maine was occupied by the British ? — What is said of captain Porter's operations ? — His capture ? — Of the Peacock ? — The Wasp? — Of the negotiations at Ghent ? — What im- peded them ? ATTEMPT UrON NEW ORLEANS. 249 posed amendments in the constitution for the purpose of preventing the adoption of similar measures. The course of events directs our attention next to the affairs of the southern district of the Union. General Jackson, after having reduced the Indians of the south, kept anxious watch over this district which had been intrusted to him. In August, a small British force had landed at Pensacola, the capital of Florida. This served but to put the Ameri- cans on the alert, and to enable their commander to organize means of ' defence. He marched to Pensacola, and expelled the British. It was soon at^er whispered that an expedition was preparing against New Orleans. This city was at once so important and so vulnerable, that any collection of forces in the West Indies might give rise to the sus- picion that it was menaced. The ultimate success of any attempt against New Orleans necessarily depended on its secrecy, since a timely concentration of force, together with the fortifications that the swampy nature of the country rendered it easy to form and defend, might defy whatever army Britain should think fit to send against the place. The Americans, however, had full warning of their foes coming, and thus were enabled to prepare for their reception. Before Christmas, 1814, an English fleet and army entered Lake Borgne, which is situated to the eastward of New Orleans. The com- manders hoped to run up to its extremity, land their force and take pos- session of the city by a coup de main. They found a flotilla upon the lake, ready to dispute it. The British, not disheartened at finding their enemies prepared, attacked the flotilla in boats, and captured it; but not without an obstinate struggle. Quitting the large vessels, the English embarked in flat boats, and rowed up to the extremity of the lake ; whero division after division disembarked in a reedy swamp some miles from the city. Here all was panic among the citizens, notwithstanding the pre- parations of the general. They talked of the folly of resisting the English; and the legislature of the state discussed already the terms of surrender. Jackson, like another Cromwell, but with warrantable rudeness, turned them forth, and locked up the hall of sitting, observing that the sound of English musketry had rendered them unfit to govern. He declared martial law to be in force, and then prepared for the imme- diate reception of the invader. Trained to Indian warfare, Jackson possessed all the indomitable tenacity, as well as the ingenuity of arti- fice and manoeuvre, requisite for, and inspired by, such service. The British, indeed, had no sooner landed, than they experienced the active enemy they had now to deal with. When night had set upon their first encampment, (December 23d,) a vessel came gliding on the river by their side, and in a little time opened a destructive fire of grape- shot upon them. Sounds of musketry, too, came in front. The Ameri- cans were making a night attack. A confused engagement took place in the midst of darkness, and without the possibility of order and manoeuvre. It terminated in the repulse of the Americans, but not Who commanded in the southern military district of the United States ? — De- scribe his operations at Pensacola. — What is said of New Orleans? — Of the ap- proach of the British ? — Of the state of things in the city ? — Jackson's proceed- ings? — Give an account of the night attack of December 23d. — Its result. 250 THE BRITISH DEFEATED. without accession to their own courage, as well as a severe loss to the British. General Jackson now took his stand some three or four miles in front of New Orleans, in a position which he had strongly intrenched, with a canal in his tront, all flanked by the fire of shipping from the river, as well as by the batteries on its opposite bank. The English marched upon it expecting to carry it, as they had done at Bladensburg and before Baltimore ; but, stopped by the canal, and exposed to a tremen- dous and most judiciously directed fire, their ranks w^ere thinned and disordered, their artillery dismounted, and the army compelled to retreat. They abandoned the project of carrying the position by assault, but had recourse to throwing up a rival line of intrenchments, and mounting them with cannon. One day's engagement followed ex- clusively between the batteries of both armies ; but the English were silenced by the American fire. There remained but to try once more tlie fortune of an assault; but, to render the chance of this successful, Sir Edward Packenham, the English commander, proposed to dislodge the Americans from the bat- tery beyond the river, which most galled him. For this purpose it was necessary to cut a canal across the neck of land occupied by the army, in order to allow boats to pass from the lake to the river. This was effected with herculean labour by the soldiers. When it was complete, Packenham gave orders for the boats to pass the river at midnight, in order that the batteries on the other side migiit be stormed and carried before dayliglit, and prepared to be turned upon the Americans at the mo- ment of the attack in front. The canal, however, had partly fallen in : the boats did not arrive : an efficient party did cross the river, but too late. Instead of being duly informed of these misadventures, and de- ferring his attack, general Packenham gave his orders ; and it was too late to recall them, when it was supposed that the batteries could not be carried, (January 8th.) With tlie desperation of a brave soldier, rather than with the cool prudence of a, leader, he pushed on to the now hope- less attack ; which some officers, observing the unequal risk, had not the hardihood to follow up, and retired. Few fascines or ladders v/ere at hand. Packenham, still in search of death rather than victory, led on his men, who were received with a destructive fire from the Ameri- can intrenchment. Many penetrated into it, but it was only to perish. The general himself received a mortal wound ; the two next in com- mand also fell ; and the British were obliged, after the bss of 2600 men, to make another and a final retreat. The American loss was 5 killed and 6 wounded. The force of the British was 15,000 ; that of the Americans, 6000. The capture of the President, an American frigate, by a British squadron, vv^hich took place about the same time, off New York, after a sharp contest, v/as no counterpoise to this disaster ; nor yet the taking of Fort Mobile by the army that had retreated from New Orleans. Jackson's fortifications — The attempt to storm them. — Its result. — The battery fight. — Its result. — What was resolved on ? — Describe the operations of the British. — How were they toiled? — The assauh of the 8th ?— Its result? — The loss and force on each side ? — What is said of the President ? — Of Fort Mobile ? PEACE. 251 The news of peace came to America amidst the rejoicings for the vic- tory of New Orleans ; — a treaty having been signed by the commission- ers at Ghent in December. It was doubly welcome, because the war was so gloriously terminated. In concluding the treaty, Great Britain made no demands ; and when the Americans desisted from theirs, — which, in- deed, the cessation of war left no room for, since impressment and the pretended right of search were applicable merely to war, — there seemed scarcely a stipulation necessary. All that England insisted on was the abolition of the slave trade, for which the Americans were quite as anxious as the British. The settlement of the boundary line on the side of Canada was left to commissioners of both nations. On the 17th of February, 181.5, the president and senate ratified the treaty of Ghent ; and North America breathed, with Europe, free from the horrors of war. A commercial treaty was concluded upon fair terms between the countries, which was ratified by the president in December. The Ame- ricans were permitted by England to trade with the East and West In- dies ; on the condition, however, of transferring the produce directly to their own ports. During the war with England, the Algerines had committed acts of depredation on American commerce, in consequence of which, war was declared against them in March, 1815. Squadrons were sent out under Decatur and Bainbridge, the former of whom ap- pears to have compelled the dey to sign a treaty by the mere terror of his name — the barbarians knew Decatur of old. Commodore Bain- bridge effected satisfactory treaties with Tunis and Tripoli. Among the last transactions of Mr. Madison's administration was the arrangement of treaties with the Chickasaws and other Indian tribes, wliich, as usual, brought large accessions to the national domain. In March, 1817, this gentleman terminated his eight years' tenure of the first office in the nation. Mr. Monroe, secretary of state, was chosen president, to succeed him. CHAPTER XXXI. ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MONROE. The change of the administration made no perceivable difference in the policy of government. Its attention was, at this time, chiefly called to the soutli. The acquisition of Louisiana had not satisfied our states- men. The Union was not considered complete till Florida was incorporated. Spain, against whom all her trans-atlantic possessions were in full revolt, kept but a feeble hold of Florida. The go- vernment of the United States endeavoured to obtain it in exchange for pecuniary claims ; and not to alarm the pride of Spain, it preserved a strict neutrality between the mother country and her revolted colonies. Of pence ? — What is said of the treaty ? — When was it ratified ? — When was a commercial treaty concludeil ^ — What is said of the Algerines ? — Of Decatur ? — Of Bainbridge ? — Of the Indian tribes? — Who be-jame president in 1817 ? — What is said of Florida ? — Of Spain ? 252 GENERAL JACKSON IN FLORIDA. Spain, however, still hesitated to render up what remained to her of Florida. Some adventurers, from the insurgent colonies, in the mean time took possession of Amelia Island off their western coast, and seemed determined to convert it into a strong-hold for buccaneering, for carrying on a commerce in slaves, and for tampering with the Indians. The American government drove out the occupants, and destroyed their establishment. In the following year, 1818, another cause was afforded for invading and taking possession of the main land of Florida. The Seminole In- dians, within the Spanish territory, had made incursions into the neigh- bouring American states ; and, latterly, they had grown bolder, being incited by fugitive Indians from other tribes, as well as by certain Euro-- pean agents. General Jackson, commanding the forces of the south, was ordered to reduce these Indians. He was told, indeed, not to enter Florida, except in pursuit of an enemy. The president in his message laid it down as a rule, that " where the authority of Spain ceases to exist, there the United States have a right to pursue their enemy, on a principle of self-defence ;" and as the authority of the Spaniards did not prevail beyond the limits of the two garrisons which they occupied, Pensacola and St. Augustine, general Jackson was authorized to make a formidable invasion into the Spanish territory. That commander, in- deed, determined to render it formidable : he raised an army of volun- teers, in addition to the regular force, and marched into Florida. In the places of which he took possession he found two Englishmen, — Arbuth- not and Ambrister, — whom he accused of being there to provoke the Indians to war. He caused them to be tried by a court-martial, com- posed of his own volunteer officers : they were found guilty, and con- demned to be hanged. In the course of his military operations, general Jackson, finding that the Spanish garrisons gave aid and protection to the Indians, marched to Pensacola, the capital, overcame and expelled the Spanish authorities, and made a conquest of the country. This conduct not only excited strong animadversion in Europe, but likewise called forth decided disapprobation in congress itself. A com- mittee appointed to examine the documents relative to the Seminole war, drew up a report strongly censuring Jackson ; declaring that he had not only disregarded the orders of the war department, but had committed gross breaches of the constitution and the laws. Jackson was defended, however, by the government party. The debates on the sub- ject were animated, and divisions upon the several questions were nearly equal. The friends of the general, however, succeeded in finally carrying his exculpation. The Spanish government was too much occupied in the contest with her revolted colonies, to dispute the claims of the United States to Florida. During the next year, the Spanish minister signed a treaty, in which the cession of this province was stipulated. But king Ferdi- Of Amelia Island ? — Of the Scminoles? — Of general Jackson? — His proceed- ings ? — What place v/as taken? — What was the consequence? — How did the affair terminate ? — What is said of the Spanish government? — Of the treaty ? — Of Ferdinand ? THE MISSOURI QUESTION. 253 nand refused to ratify it, and sent an envoy to make complaints on various points, particularly with respect to encroachments on the province of Texas. Mr. Monroe, however, had ultimately the satisfaction of illus- trating his administration by the acquisition of Florida, which was effected in 1821. During the next year, the independence of the South American republics was recognized by the United States. While our territory was thus extended to the South, new States were presenting themselves for admission to the Union on the West. Illinois had just been added ; and Missouri demanded also to become a state of the Union. This demand started one of those fierce subjects of conten- tion, which periodically came to agitate the United States, and to re- kindle the slumbering embers of party faction. It was objected to Mis- souri, that it refused to adopt the clause for the prohibition of the growth of slavery ; and upon this ground its demand of being admitted as one of the confederation was opposed and denied. The state of Missouri, after most animated debates, was finally ad- mitted to the Union upon a kind of compromise, in which, indeed, the anti-slavery party were obliged to abandon the condition upon which they had at first insisted. The Missouri question had scarcely subsided, when another subject of contention arose, similarly calculated to create a division. This was the tariff. Ere this question was finally disposed of, a presidential change took place. In the month of March, 1825, the period of Mr. Monroe's tenure of the chief office expired. He was succeeded by Mr. Adams. CHAPTER XXXII. ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. In the canvass which took place in the autumn of 1824, there were four candidates for the highest office in the state, viz., Messrs. Jackson, Adams, Calhoim, and Clay. Of these, general Jackson received the largest number of votes from the people, but in consequence of the large number of candidates, no choice was made by the popular voice. The election was, consequently, made by the house of representatives, and Mr. Adams was elected. He took the oaths of office on the 4th of March, 1825. In August, 1824, general Lafayette had arrived in the United States. He had expressed an intention of visiting the country in the preceding year, and on being apprised of this, congress passed a resolution ex- When was Florida ceded to the United States ? — What new state was admit- ted? — What territory requested admission? — What followed? — How was the Missouri question settled? — What new subject of dispute arose? — Who was Monroe's successor ? — How many candidates had there been for the office of president? — How was Mr. Adams chosen ? — What is said of general Lafayette's visit to the United States ? 22 254 THE TARIFF. pressing their grateful recollection of his services in the revolutionary war, and requesting the president to oifer him a public ship for his ac- commodation. He, however, preferred a private vessel, and took passage from Havre in the Cadmus. His reception was as brilliant as liis ser- vices had been. beneficial to the nation. From the moment of his land- ing in New York, till he had completed his tour of the country, his progress was a continual triumph. After visiting New England and the Southern and Western States, he passed the winter at Washington. The Congress being then in session, a vote was passed, granting him $200,000, and a township of land, as a partial compensation for his sacrifices and services on behalf of the nation. In the summer of 1825, he again visited New England ; and on the 17th of June, the fiftieth anniversary of the battle of Bunker Hill, he assisted at the laying of the corner-stone of a monument, commemo- rating that event. In September he took his departure from the coun- try, in the United States frigate, Brandywine, which had been ordered for that service by the government. In 1825, the public domain was considerably enlarged by treaties of peace with the Creeks, Kanzas, Osages, and other tribes of Indians ; and the state of Georgia acquired several millions of acres of land from the Creeks, through the intervention of the general government, in 1826. On the 4th of July, 1826, John Adams died at his seat in Quincy, Massachusetts, at the advanced age of 91 ; and the same day witnessed the decease of Thomas Jefferson, at Monticello, Virginia, in his 83d year. It was a remarkable circumstance that these eminent statesmen, the most prominent champions of the Declaration of Independence, should have expired on the fiftieth anniversary, from tlie signing of that im- portant document. The whole country united in expressions of mourn- ing on the occasion, and euloofies on the departed worthies were pro- nounced by some of the most distinguished orators in the country. The system of protecting American manufactures by a high tariff of duties on foreign imports, which had been urged upon Congress by the manufacturing interest, since the close of the war of 1812, was adopted by the bill of 1828. It was strongly censured by the representatives from those parts of the country which were not benefited by the pro- tective system, as sacrificing the interests of the whole community, that is to say, the consumers, to that of a part — the manufacturers. We shall see that under the next administration provision was made for the gradual reduction of the tariff, and the ultimate abandonment of the system. Mr. Adams, like his father, remained in office but four years, re- signing the chair to general Jackson in 1829. What was granted to him by Congress? — At what anniversary celebration did he assist ? — When did he return to France ? — What treaties were concluded in 1825 ?— What is said of Adams and Jefferson ? — Of the tariff of Mr. Adams? GENERAL JACKSON's ADMINISTRATION. 255 CHAPTER XXXIII. ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JACKSON. Since the termination of the Creek war in 1814, general Jackson had occupied a large share of public attention ; and his services as a military commander had rendered him so popular, that when he had but a single competitor, he was easily elected president. Mr. Calhoun was chosen vice-president a second time. This was a second instance, since the adoption of the federal consti- tution, in which an administration, politically opposed to the one imme^- diately preceding it, had come into power. As in the case of Mr. Jef- ferson, it was attended with a change of executive officers as well as measures. The extent to which this was carried, excited considerable animadversion on the part of the opposition. A treaty of commerce was concluded with Great Britain in 1830. Its chief provisions related to the commerce of this country with the British West Indies, which was opened under provisions, which have not prevented its diminishing in importance from that time to the present. The bank of the United States, which had been chartered in 1814 for twenty years, applied to Congress for a renewal of its charter in 1831. A bill for this purpose was passed by Congress, and the president having refused his signature, the question was again submitted ; but a constitu- tional majority not being obtained, the bill was lost. In 1832, the Indians on the north-western frontier commenced a war which was speedily terminated by sending a body of regular troops, commanded by general Scott, into their country. The chief, Black Hawk, was captured — taken to Washington, and then dismissed to re- turn to his countrymen. The tariff law was revised in 1832, so little to the satisfaction of the people of the Southern states, that serious consequences were appre- hended. South Carolina openly defied the general government, and but for a timely compromise, effected by a bill for the gradual reduction of the tariff, and the final abandonment of the protective system, there would apparently have been a civil war, as on a former occasion on a question of taxation. General Jackson was re-elected in 1832, with Mr. Van Buren for vice- president. The declared hostility of the president to the bank of the United States, led, in 1833, to the important measure of the removal of the public treasure from the care of that institution to that of several state banks. This measure met with much opposition from the mercan- tile and manufacturing classes, and led to consequences, of which it is What is said of general Jackson ? — Of the change of men and measures ? — Of the treaty with Great Britain? — Of the Bank? — Of the Indian war? — Of the tariff? — The opposition to it ? — How was the affair settled ? — Of the removal cf flie deposits from the national bank ? 256 CONCLUSION. hardly fair to write the history, inasmuch as we have not yet learned their full importance and extent. ''.^/'y In 1834, a cloud of war appeared in the horizon, in consequerat^of the manner in which the president animadverted on the coifdud; of France, in neglecting to execute a treaty of indemnity for spoliations committed on our commerce, under the decrees of Napoleon. The French discovered considerable irritation, but it was so manifestly against the interests of both nations to engage in a war, that a very slight salvo to the wounded pride of France in the next message of the president was readily accepted, and the indemnity was paid. The Seminole Indians commenced a war in 1835, which has now lasted for more than two years, has cost several millions of private pro- perty, and as much more of public treasure, with many valuable lives ; and it is not yet terminated. By referring back to the early part of this history, the reader will perceive that the Indians of Florida gave more trouble to the first white settlers of their soil than any other tribe in North America. In fact, they never have been conquered ; and it re- mains to be seen, whether any thing short of their extermination will restore peace to that part of the country. The pnblic debt was paid off, in full, during- the administration of general Jackson, and in 1836 a bill was passed for distributing the sur- plus revenue among the several states. In March, 1837, general Jackson's second term of office expired. On retiring from the chair, he framed a farevv^ell address to the people of the United States, as Washington had done on a similar occasion. His successor, Mr. Van Buren, was inaugurated March 4th, 1837. Of the threatened French war? — Of the Seminole war ? — Of the public debt? — Of general Jackson's retirement ? — Who was his successor ? THE END.