THE 
 
 AlEKICAI SHEPHERD 
 
 HISTORY OF THE SHEEP, 
 
 WITH THEIR 
 
 BREEDS, MANAGEMENT, AND DISEASES. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED WITH 
 
 PORTRAITS OF DIFFERENT BREEDS, 
 SHEEP BARNS, SHEDS, &c. 
 
 WITH AN APPENDIX, 
 
 EMBRACING UPWARDS OF TWENTY LETTERS FROM EMINENT WOOL- 
 GROWERS AND SHEEP-FATTENERS OF DIFFERENT STATES, DE- 
 TAILING THEIR RESPECTIVE MODES OF MANAGEMENT. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 HARPER & BROTHERS, 82 CLIFF STREET. 
 
 1845. 
 
 
 ^jfe;y^U^fee:^:^'C^>^^^e,s^-^ *^^ 
 
 - /^^ *_ 
 

 Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1845, 
 
 BY HARPER & BROTHERS, 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States 
 
 for the Southern District of New York. 
 
 
 V r\ \ V 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 That a work embracing perhaps all the topics of the 
 present treatise, has long been demanded by American 
 Wool-growers, cannot be denied. The English, and 
 other foreign works on the important subject of Sheep 
 Husbandry, notwithstanding the ability with which they 
 are written, are unadapted to our wants, chiefly because 
 the breeds of sheep and modes of management are, in the 
 main, so essentially different in our own country and 
 Great Britain. Something American, therefore, is need- 
 ed — a work which would tend to correct the many errors 
 and abuses of management, and enter into such minute 
 details connected therewith, as would teach the merest 
 novice his duties. 
 
 With many others, I have long been waiting with the 
 hope that some one having the necessary practical 
 knoivledge, and in other respects eminently qualified, 
 would undertake the difficult task of supplying us with 
 such a treatise ; but no one having come forward, after 
 due consultation with some friends, on whose judgment I 
 could safely rely, I determined to attempt what, under 
 other circumstances, I could not have summoned the res- 
 olution, and I may add, temerity, to do. It is, therefore, 
 with no ordinary degree of apprehension that I appear be- 
 fore the public in the character of an author, and the 
 more especially of a work of this kind, having been obli- 
 ged, in a measure, to carve out my own way, and act the 
 " lone pioneer." 
 
 It was my original intention to have limited the histor- 
 ical part to the prominent and most profitable breeds, but 
 so little is generally known of those peculiar to Asia and 
 Africa, as well as remote portions of Europe, it appeared 
 
 1= 
 
n PREFACE. 
 
 to me that a brief notice of these would be acceptable ; 
 and, in addition, I have introduced all that the Scriptures 
 afford us concerning the sheep, thereby bringing forward 
 everything of consequence to know from the most remote 
 antiquity to the present period. I have availed myself, 
 principally, of Mi'. Youatt's standard and able work to 
 aid me in this department; and also to him and Mr. 
 Blacklock, both distinguished Veterinary Surgeons, for 
 much of what is offered on the Diseases of Sheep ; and to 
 Mr. Spooner, the author of a recent English work, and 
 likewise a Veterinary Surgeon, for the interesting chapter 
 on the Structure, or Anatomy of the sheep. All this neces- 
 sity compelled me to do, owing to the paucity of works in 
 American libraries relative to the history of the species, 
 and the very little progress as yet made among us in 
 scientific classification and treatment of diseases. Mr. 
 Youatt is probably the first veterinary surgeon of the age, 
 and is at present the editor of a London periodical devo- 
 ted to that science; therefore, that part of this work con- 
 cerning Diseases is, undoubtedly, entitled to much confi- 
 dence ; in addition, my own observations and experience, 
 together with all that I could gather from others, have 
 been added. 
 
 It is many years that I have been a practical manager 
 of sheep, a vocation to which I am enthusiastically at- 
 tached. I acknowledge an affection for the sheep, para- 
 mount to that for any other domestic animal, and have 
 studied its instincts and habits at all seasons, and under 
 all circumstances ; and now and always have shared with 
 my laborers in every department connected with manage- 
 ment. What, therefore, is offered on this subject, is the 
 result almost solely of what my own eyes have seen, and 
 hands handled — indeed, is nearly a transcript of my sys- 
 tem of practice. Being aware, however, of the tenacity 
 with which farmers cling to their particular modes of 
 management, right or wrong, I entered into an extensive 
 correspondence with distinguished wool-growers, to aid me 
 in perfecting this department of the work, with a view to 
 confirm positions which are set forth, and strike a more 
 effectual blow at errors. To my brother wool-growers, as 
 well as all others, who have so kindly aided rae in my 
 
PREFACE. Vll 
 
 undertaking, I acknowledge myself xmder deep obliga- 
 tions, and doubtless this will be the response of every 
 reader. The Appendix cannot be otherwise regarded 
 than as a valuable portion of this work. 
 
 The portraits of the several breeds of sheep were sub- 
 mitted to a number of competent judges, and pronounced 
 faithful representations. In reference to that of the Span- 
 ish Merino, it, with one other, was forwarded to the Hon. 
 Wm. Jarvis, of Vermont, who pronounced it " a fair like- 
 ness of a Merino in high order, and with a long fleece." It 
 will be apparent to every one, that an American Merino 
 portrait would be inappropriate in treating of Spanish 
 Merinos. All the cuts were drawn from life, and mostly 
 by the celebrated animal painter, Harvey, of London. 
 
 In conclusion, I have chosen very frequently to give 
 the very language of my authorities, rather than my own, 
 except when condensation became necessary. For any 
 one individual to write an original work of this charac- 
 ter, embracing such a variety of topics, of course is im- 
 practicable ; therefore the course adopted I believed to be 
 best, because it would be likely to have more weight with 
 the reader. My object has been to bring before the pub- 
 lic a strong work — authentic, if possible, in every partic- 
 ular, and worthy to be trusted and appealed to upon any 
 question and point of importance ; and lastly, I have en- 
 deavored to convey everything in language simple and 
 unadorned, to suit the capacity of the humblest of my 
 brother wool-growers, for whose benefit chiefly this was 
 written. To these, and all others engaged in this honor- 
 able vocation, I appeal for a decision upon its merits, 
 which, if favorable, will afford me a degree of pleasure 
 not easily conceived, and terminating only with life. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The zoological character of the sheep — domesticated at a very early 
 period of the world — Abel the first recorded shepherd — the flesh of the 
 sheep not used for food before the flood — vegetables the only means of 
 sustenance permitted by the Divine law — after the flood this command 
 was abrogated — vegetable food only eaten by some of the pagan sects 
 of the East at the present day — the milk of the sheep used as an article 
 of sustenance — converted into cheese and butter — Homer's description 
 of milking the ewes — Mr. Burckhardt's description also — custom of 
 the ancients of removing their flocks from one locality to another — 
 Jabal lived 500 years before the flood, and was the first Nomadic 
 shepherd — Arabian and Tartarian shepherds at the present day con- 
 form to that primitive custom — D'Arviex description of the same — 
 Parson's description of the peregrinations of the Arabs — flocks in an- 
 cient Palestine very numerous — number which Job possessed, &,c. — 
 these numerous flocks accounted for — the ewes supposed to have 
 lambed twice in the year — flocks very numerous at the present day in 
 Palestine — Dr. Shaw's statement of this — first recorded improvement 
 was in the color of the fleece — originally tawny or dingy-black — 
 tendency of the sheep in modern times to return to the original hue — 
 instance the South Down, Norfolk, Black-faced sheep of Scotland, 
 and Asiatic and African breeds — Jacob the original improver of the 
 color — his scheme for accomplishing it — in process of time the fleece 
 became wholly white — the Scriptures silent as to the form of the an- 
 cient sheep, except that the ram was horned — the fat-rumped breed 
 abounding so numerously at the East induced Mr. Youatt to suppose 
 these to be the primitive breed instead of the Argali — his remarks 
 and those of Mr. Price on the subject — the question will always remain 
 unsettled — the horned ram more particularly mentioned — the polled 
 sheep an accidental variety — reasons for cultivating them — humanity 
 a prominent characteristic of the primitive shepherds — Arab shepherds 
 the same — Buckingham's remarks — quotation from Dyer's Fleece — 
 music of the ancient shepherds a means to control their flocks — re- 
 marks — Goldsmith's description of the Alpine shepherds — evidence 
 from the Bible that the primitive shepherds washed their flocks before 
 they were shorn — Solomon's comparison of the teeth of his mistress to 
 a flock just come up from the washing — in early times the fleece was 
 detached from the pelt by pulling — humanity dictated another course, 
 and accordingly the shears, in process of time, were invented and 
 extensively used — the shearing time an occasion for feasting and re- 
 joicing — quotations in corroboration of this — remarks of Burder on the 
 subject — the system of cotting practised by the Israelites — remarks of 
 
a writer on this point — custom alro in Greece and Tarentum — art of 
 weaving understood in the primitive ages — Scripture testimony — dyeing 
 also — quotation from Virgil — the Egyptians the probable inventors of 
 the weaving of flax — discussion of the subject by a writer — description 
 of the rude mode of weaving of the Arabs — conclusion ... 13 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 
 
 Introductory remarks — structure of the skin of the sheep — used for book- 
 binding, and for the inscription of valuable documents — anatomy of 
 woolly fibre — the weight of testimony in favor of the theory that it is 
 tubular in conformation — its vascularity — remarks of Dr. Good on the 
 vascularity of the hair — its structure by small filaments ranged side 
 by side — remarks of Bakewell — chemical composition of wool, horns, 
 hoofs, &c. — yolk or gum — its chemical properties — its value — promotes 
 the growth of the wool — mats it as a defence against cold and wet — 
 abounds much in the Merino fleece — temperature and condition of the 
 sheep influence its production — not found so much in the Saxon breed 
 — considerable quantity in some of the English sheep — its substitute 
 in Scotland by smearing the sheep in autumn — additional value im- 
 parted to cloth by yolk — description of the form of the fibre of wool by 
 Youatt — its semi-transparency, &c. — the wool of half-starved sheep 
 hrenchy, &c. — importance of good condition to counteract it — elas- 
 ticity of the fibre — pliability also — dependent on the spiral curves — 
 causes the beautiful pile or nap of cloths — spiral curve — conspicuous 
 in the Saxon and Merino varieties — not so much in the Leicester and 
 otiier breeds — the number of spiral curves in a given space in proportion 
 to the fineness of the fibre — German experiment to determine this 
 point — this principle should govern much in breeding — softness — im- 
 portance of this quality in wool — much dependent on the proper sup- 
 ply of yolk — experiment in cloth manufacture from harsh and soft 
 wool of the same fineness — superiority of that from the latter — fine- 
 ness a comparative term when applied to wool — varies much in dif- 
 ferent individuals of the same breed — diflTerence in the diameter of the 
 fibre between its extremes — diameter of the fibre — the Merino has 
 four qualities in its fleece — grade sheep many more — cut representing 
 where the different qualities of wool grow on the Merino — length of 
 the staple — preference given by the manufacturer to a long staple — 
 less dead end than short — long staple fine wool needed for fine worst- 
 ed fabrics — the question stated, whether a compact fleece with a long 
 staple can be produced on the same sheep— compact fleeces necessary 
 in a northern climate — color — first recorded improvement in sheep- 
 manufacturers prefer fleeces entirely white — reasons — flock-masters 
 should never breed from black or smutty sheep — trueness — constituted 
 by equality of the fibre from root to point — inequalities caused by un- 
 equal feeding and exposure of sheep — common in some degree to every 
 breed — Saxon and Merino ewes should be turned off when eight or 
 nine years old — influence of temperature — inequalities of temperature 
 cause an unequal growth of the fibre — necessity of sheltering sheep 
 during winter to counteract it — remarks of Mr. Hunter on the infla* 
 
COMTENTS. XI 
 
 ence of climate on hair and wool — Mr. Youatt's remarks — M. Las- 
 teyrie's statement — the cultivation of the Merino and Saxon breeds in 
 the Southern States alluded to — causes of the degeneracy of the Me- 
 rinos in South America — felting — this long remained a mystery — 
 speculations in former times on the subject — the cause of felting of 
 wool surmised by M. Monge — the true theory, but did not demon- 
 strate it — the first successful effort to demonstrate Monge's theory by 
 Mr. Youatt — his description of the scene and results — the number of 
 serrations within an inch of Merino wool — cuts representing micro- 
 scopic views of Merino and South Down fibres — conclusion of the 
 chapter with remarks by Mr. Youatt 27 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 HISTORY OF SHEEP. 
 
 ARGALI, MUSMON, ASIATIC, AND AFRICAN SHEEP. 
 
 History of the Argali — its comparative size and horns — color and tex- 
 ture of its coat — inhabits the mountains and elevated plains of Asia — 
 found in small flocks — rams fight furiously in the rutting season — 
 killed in autumn for their flesh and skins — difficult to domesticate un- 
 less taken young. American Argali. — Supposed to be a variety of 
 the Asiatic — remarks of Abb6 Lambert — Washington Irving's de- 
 scription of the animal on the Rocky Mountains — called ahsata or big 
 horn — is found nowhere else in America — dimensions of a male — 
 remarks of Major Smith. The Mouflon or Musmon — considered as 
 identical with the Argali by Buffbn and Wilson — inhabits the moun- 
 tains of Sardinia and Corsica — described by Wilson — from fifty to an 
 hundred herd together — difficult to domesticate. 
 
 Asiatic Breeds. Fat-rumped breed — abounds where the primitive 
 shepherds roamed — Dr. Anderson's description of the animal — often 
 weigh 200 lbs. — fat on the rump weighs from 20 to 40 lbs. Fat-tailed 
 breed — more numerous than the fat-rumped — is found extensively in 
 Africa — Dr. Russel's account of the breed — tails often weigh 15 lbs. 
 — whole live weight about 150 lbs. — supposed to be a variety only of 
 the fat-rumped. 
 
 Persian Sheep. Fat-tailed predominate — Eraser's account of a Persian 
 caravan — a variety of sheep in the province of Kerman produce very 
 fine wool — much of it manufactured into shawls. 
 
 Tibet Shefp. Are very numerous — a small variety of the fat-rumped 
 with black heads and necks — wool soft and long — converted into long 
 shawls. 
 
 East India Sheep. Consist of the fat-rumped and fat-tailed varieties. 
 
 Chinese Sheep. Breeds differ much from each other — a breed with 
 extraordinary long legs — a breed resembling some of the European 
 varieties — antiquity of Chinese manufactures alluded to. 
 
 African Breeds. Egyptian, Ethiopian, and Abyssinian — both varieties 
 of the fat-tailed found in Egypt — fat-tailed and fat-rumped prevail in 
 Ethiopia — also in Abyssinia — the many-horned sheep. 
 
 Madagascar Sheep. Dr. Anderson's description of the same. 
 
 Cape of Good Hope Sheep. Native sheep of the broad-tailed breed — 
 every variety of color— experiment with the Merinos by the Dutch — 
 
Xll CONTENTS. 
 
 its failure, and causes — renewed attempt by the English — is success- 
 ful — wool exported from the colony — number of its sheep. 
 
 Angola Sheep. Description of a very singular variety. 
 
 Guinea Sheep. Two varieties found on the slave coast — one resembling 
 some of the European breeds — sheep very hairy, and men very woolly. 
 
 Morocco Sheep. Breeds superior to other African — distinguished for 
 excellence in the time of Columella — ewe of this breed owned by 
 Chancellor Livingston — description of it 48 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 
 
 Italian Sheep. Were very superior in the time of the Romans — fleece 
 cultivated with extraordinary care — reasons for the same — celebrity of 
 the sheep of Apulia and Tarentum — generally supposed to be the pro- 
 genitors of the famed Merinos — description of the management of the 
 Tarentine sheep. 
 
 Spanish Sheep — Merinos, &c. Spain possessed of valuable breeds at 
 an early period — superiority of the fleece of Boetica — of the Tarentine 
 variety — introduced by Columella — also African rams to improve the 
 Chunah breed — origin of the name of Merino — the Tarentine sheep 
 amalgamated to some extent with the black sheep of Spain — evidence 
 of this — portion of Spain conquered by the Moors — they established 
 extensively woollen manufactures — Seville contained 16,000 looms — 
 Moors expelled by the Spaniards — manufactures ceased — fruitless at- 
 tempts of the Spanish to revive them — the excellence of the Merino 
 continued through centuries of political strife — Chunah sheep — abounds 
 throughout the kingdom — owned by the peasants — supposed to have 
 been improved by the English Costswold breed — Spanish Merinos 
 classed in t\#o grand divisions — Estantes and Transhumantes — the 
 latter composed of the Leonese and Sorians — their location in winter 
 — places where summered — cause of their peregrinations — the Trans- 
 humantes fell into the hands of the king, courtiers, and clergj' — tribu- 
 nal of Consejo de la Mesta — its tyrannical laws — incidents of these 
 journeys — under a Mayoral — numerous under-shepherds with dogs — 
 day's travel length of the journey — injury to the crops by the sheep 
 on the way — vigilance necessary on their arrival at their place of des- 
 tination — construction of pens for folding at night — large quantities of 
 salt given to the sheep — half the lambs destroyed after yeaning — Span- 
 ish notion on this point — exportation of the skins of the slaughtered 
 lambs — few male lambs castrated — marking of the lambs — number of 
 men employed as shepherds — a singular race of men — buildings for 
 shearing, called esquiios — sweating and shearing — number shorn in a 
 day — number of shearers employed — remarks of a writer concerning the 
 management of the Tarentum sheep — corresponded with Spanish man- 
 agement — Arthur Young's account of theCatalonian and Pyrenean Me- 
 rinos — Ms description of their fleeces, &lc. — number of the estantes or 
 stationary Merinos — ditto of the transhumantes or travelling — number 
 of the Chunah breed — superiority of the transhumantes — Mr. Youatt'a 
 description of the qualities of the Merino — weight of fleeces, &c. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE INTRODUCTION OF THE MERINOS INTO THE UNITED 
 STATES. 
 
 First ram imported by M. Delessert from the Rambouillet flock — Seth 
 Adams's importation — his account of the same — Hon. William Jar- 
 vis's importations — his account of the same — also Chancellor Living- 
 ston's — also Gen. Humphreys' — number of Merinos purchased by Mr. 
 Jarvis — the kinds — what ports of the United States they were landed, 
 and the number at each port — his description of the quahties of the 
 Paular variety of Merinos — the Nigrettis — the Aqueirres — the Es- 
 curials — the Montarcos — the Gaudaloupes — number of each he put 
 on his farm in Weathersfield, Vermont — manner of breeding them — 
 allusion to an importation of Rambouillet Merinos by a citizen of Con- 
 necticut — weight of American Merino fleeces — enterprising feeling for 
 wool improvement — public attention directed to the Merinos — com- 
 mended. 
 
 French Sheep. The breeds varied as the face of the country — remarks 
 — the most valuable wooled sheep in the south part of the kingdom — 
 sheep of Aries — number — migratory — summered on the Alps — sheep 
 led by goats — singular sagacity of these animals — M. Daubenton's ex- 
 periments with Merinos — his success induced the French government 
 to import nearly 300 from Spain — were placed at Rambouillet, near 
 Paris — not prosperous at first — the prices ewes and rams sold at from 
 time to time — also their fleeces — experiments in crossing with native 
 sheep — publication on their management by M. Gilbert — school es- 
 tablished for the education of shepherds — slow increase of Merinos in 
 France — reasons assigned — prices of Rambouillet Merinos in 1834 — 
 Mr. Trimmer's description of the flock — extract from M. Gilbert's 
 Report concerning them — importation from the flock by D. C. Collins 
 — number imported — his motives for so doing — description of his sheep 
 from the American Agriculturist. 
 
 Swiss Sheep. Consist of two kinds — valley and mountain — the former 
 conform to the English long-wooled breeds — the mountain the most 
 valuable — have been improved by the Merino cross .... 59 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Saxon Sheep. Introduction of Merinos into Saxony in 1765 — the late 
 Mr. H. D. Grove's account of the same — cause of the high prices of 
 Saxon sheep — prices of rams — breeding in and in a cause of the fine- 
 ness of their fleeces — remarks of Mr. Grove on German management 
 — remarks of Mr. Carr — also Dr. Bright — sheep driven into the yards 
 daily in winter — great care in selecting breeders — mode of examina- 
 tion — description of the native breeds of Saxony — remarks on the In- 
 fantado Merinos of Germany — mode of washing them — description of 
 the form of the Saxon Merino — average weight of their fleeces — great 
 care in washing and shearing — wool carried to Leipsic for a market — 
 manner of packing wool — large amount exported to England and 
 France — superiority of German woollen fabrics — history of the intro- 
 duction of the Saxons into the United States by H. D. Grove — many 
 miserable specimens of the breed imported — many American flocks 
 which rival the best German in fineness — American Saxons more 
 o 
 
XIT CONTENTS. 
 
 hardy than the German Saxons — obstacles in the way of American 
 breeders — will be cultivated with equal profit with Merinos — average 
 weight of American Saxon fleeces. 
 
 Prussian Sheep. Exertions of M. Fink to improve the fleece of Prus- 
 sia — his experiments with Merinos crowned with success — importation 
 of Merinos by the government in 1786 — failure to do well — second 
 attempt through M. Fink — resulted in success — agricultural school 
 established to teach the best modes of managing Merinos — M. 
 Fink's system in winter — Prussian fleeces now rival tlie best Saxon. 
 
 SiLEsiAN Sheep. Native sheep better than those of Prussia and Hun- 
 gary — the introduction of the Merinos eflected great improvement— 7 
 yilesian wools now equal to Saxon. 
 
 Hungarian Sheep. Native sheep of Hungary very inferior — Merinoa 
 introduced by the Empress Maria Theresa — agricultural school es- 
 tablished to instruct in their management — rapid progress of wool im- 
 provement in Hungary — fleeces compete successfully with Saxon — 
 number of sheep in the Territory — flock of Prince Esterhazy. 
 
 Swedish Sheep. The first Merinos carried from Spain taken to Sweden 
 in 1723 — introduced by Mr. Alstroemer — he triumphed over all difii- 
 culties — agricultural school established — premiums awarded for the 
 best wool — mode of management in Sweden — the native sheep very 
 inferior. 
 
 Danish Sheep. Native sheep conform to those of Sweden — Merinos 
 imported in 1797 under government patronage — crossed with native 
 breed — good effects — wool exported. 
 
 Iceland Sheep. The native breed very hardy — carry from two to six 
 horns — wool worthless for manufacturing. 
 
 Russian Sheep. More attention to breeding of sheep than cattle — 
 wandering tribes possess many — great variety of breeds — cloth man- 
 uiacture — extensive flocks owned by the rich Tartars — Merinos in- 
 troduced — great improvement followed — wool exported from Odessa — 
 description of the character of Russian Merino wool. 
 
 Australian Sheep. Character of the climate and herbage of Austra- 
 lia — subject to severe drought — no sheep indigenous to the country — 
 Bengal sheep introduced — their inferiority — South Downs and Leices- 
 ters exported from England — favorable cross with the Bengal sheep 
 — Merinos taken there — afterwards the Saxons by Captain McArthur 
 — description of Australian wool — its microscopic scrutiny by Mr. 
 Youatt — used much for the better combing purposes — quantity of 
 wool exported in 1843 — mode of management of sheep in the colony 
 — sheep subject to foot-rot — manner of washing — average weight of 
 the Austrahan fleeces 81 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 BRITISH BREEDS. 
 
 South Down. Classification of the British breeds — middle-wooled 
 breeds — superiority of the South Down — their location — Mr. John 
 Eliman — description of the old South Down — means of Mr. Ellman 
 to improve them — description of improved South Downs — a perfect 
 South Down described — endure short keep — their mutton — adapted 
 
CONTENTS, XV 
 
 for a low country — former weight of fleece — present weight of the 
 same — weight of quarters — serrations of the fibre — its diameter — wool 
 harsii — changed character — South Downs healthy — prices of Mr. 
 EUman's flock. 
 
 Ryeland Sheep. Origin of name — their locality — weight of quarters 
 — fine fleeces — weight of the same — diameter of fibre — form of the 
 Ryeland. 
 
 Dorset Sheep. Description of pure breed — fecundity of Dorset ewes 
 — failure of cross with Leicester — successful with South Downs — 
 their value near cities. 
 
 Black-faced Sheep. Their locality — origin in dispute — description of 
 the old, and improved — quality of mutton — weight of quarters — their 
 hardiness of constitution. 
 
 Cheviot Sheep. Remarks — locality of Cheviot breed — description of 
 pure breed — hardihood — when fit for the butcher — weight of quarters 
 — qualities of wool — its adaptation — Sir John Sinclair's description of 
 the ancient Cheviot — crossed with Leicester — result — extension of 
 the breed — Highland snow-storms. 
 
 Shetland Island Sheep. Their situation — origin of the breed — 
 weight of quarters — weight of fleece — quality of the wool — price for- 
 merly — remarks by Youatt. 
 
 Irish Sheep. Adaptation of Ireland for sheep — soil, climate, and her- 
 bage — character of native breeds — description of the same by Cully 
 — successful cross with New Leicesters — weight and character of 
 fleece — its uses 102 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 BRITISH BREEDS. 
 
 New Leicester or Bakewell. Origin of the long-wooled sheep in 
 doubt — remarks — Old Leicester sheep — description of an improved 
 Leicester — time when Bakewell commenced their improvement — 
 means employed — his selections — extensive spread of improved Leices- 
 ters — propensity to fatten — early maturity — weight of quarters — 
 quality of mutton — not a favorite with the butcher — faults of the New 
 Leicester — quality and weight of the fleece — extensive cross with 
 other breeds — cross with the Cheviot — Sir .Tohn Sinclair's opinion — in- 
 troduction of the breed into America. 
 
 Teeswater Sheep. Origin of the name — description of the Old Tees- 
 water — very prolific — instance by Mr. Cully — weight of the fleece — 
 great success in crossing with the improved Leicester. 
 
 RoMNEY Marsh Sheep. Locality of Romney Marsh — characteristics 
 of the old breed — weight of the fleece — the breed improved by cross 
 with Leicesters. 
 
 Lincoln Sheep. Character of the pure Lincolns — were bred for the 
 fleece — general remarks — contest between the Leicesters and Lin- 
 colns — cross with the Leicester — the result — weight of the quarters 
 — weight of the fleece — character of the wool, and uses — diameter 
 of the fibre. 
 
 Bampton Sheep. Where found and origin of name — description of the 
 
XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 breed — weight ot quarters — weight of fleece of a ram — cross with 
 Leicester — result. 
 
 CoTswoLD Sheep. Antiquity of the breed — origin of the name — dis- 
 pute among writers of the ancient Cotswolds — characteristics of the 
 Cotswold breed — cross with Leicester — result — weight of quarters — 
 cross with Hampshire Downs — its success — quality of mutton. 
 
 Welsh Sheep. Primitive breeds — their cliaracter by Ellis — weight of 
 the quarters — quality of the mutton — cross of the valley sheep with 
 Leicester and Cotswold — result. 
 
 Merino Sheep in England. Introduced by George IIL — a second im- 
 portation by that monarch — success which attended it — experiments 
 in crossing with English breeds — that of Mr. Coke and its result — 
 Sir Joseph Banks and Lord Somerville — prices of Merinos in Eng- 
 land — Merino Society instituted — the result thereof — downfall of the 
 Merinos — reasons by several therefor — remarks on the climate. 
 
 Table of Prices for Wools. Spanish Merino — Portuguese — German, 
 Saxon, and Silesian — Austrian, Bohemian, and Hungarian — Austra- 
 lian — Van Dieman's Land — British wools 115 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Woolly Sheep of Rocky Mountains. Captain Bonneville's descrip- 
 tion of them — general character of the native sheep. 
 
 Otter Breed. Their origin — description of the breed. 
 
 Arlington Long-wooled Sheep. Cultivated by Mr. Custis — descrip- 
 tion of the breed by Chancellor Livingston. 
 
 Smith's Island Sheep. Their locality and characteristics — general re- 
 marks on the progress of wool improvement in the United States — 
 character of the wool in several States — Prairie management by 
 George Flower — remarks on the same — sheep culture in the Southern 
 Slates 131 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 SUMMER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 Sudden Change from Dry to Green Food improper. Reasons there- 
 for — course recommended — separation of the weak from the strong — 
 manner of doing it. Tagging of sheep — slovenly mode of perform- 
 ing it by many farmers — reasons for doing it well— when it should be 
 done — mode of doing it with male and female — humanity recom- 
 mended — where the tag wool should be placed — its manufacture. 
 Cutting horns and hoofs — how it should be done — reasons for doing 
 it. Drafting sheep for sale — should be turned to good keep. Par- 
 turition OR lambing — period of gestation — proper period for lambing 
 — care of the ewes before the event — reasons for the same — smooth 
 fields recommended — danger of ewes being cast — consequences — ne- 
 cessity for watchfulness — duties of the shepherd during parturition — 
 means he should employ — ewes should not be interfered with too 
 soon after their labors commence — influence of the weather — mode 
 of assistmg the ewe to lamb — fright of the ewe after mechanical aid 
 
CONTENTS. Xvii 
 
 is employed — means to induce her to suckle — lambs of fine-wooled 
 sheep sensitive to cold and wet when they drop — storms should be an- 
 ticipated — ewes should be got under cover — course when the lambs 
 are brought to the fire to overcome numbness — means adopted with 
 twins — death of tlie lamb causing sometimes garget — pasture of the 
 ewes before and after parturition — number should herd together — af- 
 fection of the ewe for her offspring — an iiastance related by the Et- 
 trick Shepherd, James Hogg. Salting — no longer a mooted question 
 — philosophy of salting — an instance in France — care to be observed 
 in the spring — quantity necessary at a salting — salting in troughs not 
 recommended — time of day when the writer salts his flocks — benefit 
 of salting late in the fall — very essential in winter — salting of hay 
 recommended. 
 
 Washing. Careless mode of doing it by many — the most suitable time 
 depending on the weather — water and weatiier should always be com- 
 paratively warm — consequences of violating it — the day should be 
 one of sunshine — flock-master should be present — should be done on 
 temperance principles — running stream of pure water recommended 
 — use of vats — process described — the " clean thing" should be aimed 
 at and not missed — quotation from Samuel Lawrence on the subject 
 — soap for buck fleeces — necessity for turning the sheep on a green 
 sward after washing — driving the sheep along a dusty road should be 
 avoided — Spanish custom of washing — English and German also — 
 loss by scouring Spanish, German, Australian, and American Merino 
 and Saxon wools — also South American — reform called for in Ameri- 
 can mode of washing wool. 
 
 Castration and Docking. Time when it should be done — cool weather 
 recommended — reasons therefor — lambs should be brought from the 
 field without bustle and confined in a small pound — mode of castra- 
 tion — docking the tail — should be cut short — reasons assigned — 
 consequences of a long dock — ointment used — the ingredients and 
 preparation — application of it — means to employ after the process is 
 through wiih 159 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 SUMMER MANAGEMENT CONTINUED. 
 
 Shearing. Harvest of the shepherd — remarks of censure on American 
 shearing — fault lies more at the door of the flock-master than shearer 
 — bad policy of hiring men to shear by the job — consequences — the 
 practice should cease — number a good shearer can perform in a day 
 — what constitutes a good shearer — instructions for a novice in shear- 
 ing — whole process described — bad policy of fretting at a new beo-in- 
 ner — kindness recommended — good effects of so doing — mode of 
 taking off the fleece in England — recommended. 
 
 Interim between Washing and Shearing, &c. Length of time 
 should depend on the state of the weather — time stated — bad conse- 
 quences of shearing in cold weather — effects of storms on sheep just 
 shorn — their suffering very great if exposed — duty of the flock-mas- 
 ter under such circumstances — horns and hoofs should be cut if not 
 already done — indications of scab. 
 
XVm CONTENTS. 
 
 Sorting, &c. Duty of the master — quality of the fleece better judged 
 of than at any other time — good or bad points of form readily seen — 
 retaining the best for breeders — bad consequences of neglecting to sort 
 sheep at this time — classification of the flock — ewes and lambs only 
 should run together — those selected for sale should be turned to good 
 keep. 
 
 Marking, &c. Painting the initial letters of the owner's name on the 
 sides of the sheep — the ludicrous style it is usually done — an iron 
 formed to represent a triangle or diamond recommended — where the 
 mark should be put — materials for marking. 
 
 Rolling the Fleeces. Fleeces should be carefully taken from the 
 floor — indifferent locks put in a basket — the process of rolling and 
 tying described — consequences of slovenly rolling. 
 
 Arrangement of Wool for Sale. The flock-master should keep be- 
 fore him the motto of shopmen — applicable to everything the farmer 
 sells — rough and tumble style of arranging wool for sale — a good 
 light important — a bad light aggravates the appearance of wool if in- 
 differently washed — best mode of arranging vi'ool described — good con- 
 sequences — cheating practices of wool-growers exposed — reprobated 
 — size of twine stated. 
 
 Shearing-house and Appendages. Inconveniences without them — 
 the expense reimbursed in a few years — construction of pounds — wool 
 loft should be well lighted — a north light preferable — trap door. 
 
 Baleing Wool. Burlap used for sacks — the proper width, and quantity 
 required for each sack — truss hoop necessary — its adjustment — pro- 
 cess of packing described — too much haste generally ux packing 
 wool. 
 
 Sheep-tick. The class of sheep they most infest — consequences of per- 
 mitting them to live — modus operandi of eradicating them — quantity 
 of tobacco for 100 lambs — time when necessary to go through the 
 operation — good condition an immunity against ticks — tobacco decoc- 
 tion good for. cutaneous irruptions. 
 
 Maggot Fly. Several varieties — named and described — their habits — 
 means employed for destroying maggots on the sheep, and warding off 
 flies — great vigilance necessary on the part of the flock-master du- 
 ring the summer. 
 
 Noxious Weeds. Laurel, burdoc, and tory-weed — burs injurious to 
 wool — lessens its value — method of destroying burdocks . . 177 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 SUMMER MANAGEMENT CONTINUED. 
 
 Localities for Sheep. Fit localities of British breeds — commended. 
 
 Soil. The sheep an upland animal — loves the short herbage of moun- 
 tain-sides, if the soil is not poachy from an excess of moisture — its re- 
 pugnance to water — seeks dry situations for rest — its instincts in this 
 regard — chalky soil of England — its effect on the fleece of the Down 
 sheep — effects of hard water — calcareous soil — a sandy soil objec- 
 tionable — reasons for the same — a soil should have a due admixture 
 of clay — uniform supply of pasture very necessary. 
 
 Herbage. Important to the flock-master — influence of herbage on tha 
 
CONTENTS. XIX 
 
 carcase and fleece — ^remarks by Youatt — changed character of Eng- 
 lish wools since the introduction of the turnip system — Dr. Parry's 
 remarks — deductions from the premises — variety of herbage necessa- 
 ry to the welfare of sheep — experiments by Linnaeus in offering plants 
 to the horse, ox, and sheep — instinct of sheep on this point — philoso- 
 phy of variety of herbage — remarks in review — change from old to 
 new pastures recommended — reasons for changing the pasture often 
 — small fields recommended — incidental duties — remarks growing out 
 of localities of British sheep. 
 
 Grasses. Degree of nutriment they possess — Vernal — Meadow Foxtail 
 — Blue Meadow — Rough-stalked — Sheep's Fescue — Round-headed 
 Cock's Foot — Welsh Fescue — Narrow-leaved Meadow — Meadow 
 Fescue — Rye-grass — Fertile Meadow — Cat's-tail or Timothy — Tre- 
 foil Clover — White Clover — remarks. 
 
 Shade Trees. Not appreciated by the American husbandman as they 
 should be — grateful to sheep during the summer — will thrive better 
 if provided for them — kinds of trees for shade mentioned. 
 
 Water. Not so necessary for sheep as other animals — they need it 
 in August — breeding ewes should have access to it at all times. 
 
 Weaning Lambs. The time dependent on the breed and other circum- 
 stances — the usual time of suckling four months — when the ewes and 
 lambs are separated, they should be put far apart — reasons — lambs 
 should not be put on too high keep immediately — consequences of so 
 doing — salting them to avoid the danger from gorging themselves — 
 tame sheep put with the lambs — ewes for a week or more should be 
 put on low keep — danger of doing otherwise — after which their feed 
 must be good — reasons. 
 
 Ear-marking. Lambs should be marked when they are weaned — 
 cropping the ears should be avoided. 
 
 Wheat Stubbles. Danger of turning sheep upon them — reasons there- 
 for — swine should always precede sheep — other grain stubbles not 
 dangerous to sheep — young sheep should be turned on them. 
 
 Overstocking. Opinions of a foreigner — overstocking too common with 
 American farmers — consequences of overstocking — 35 acres required 
 for supporting 100 sheep of the Merino and Saxon varieties — example 
 cited of a New York flock-master. 
 
 Fall Pasturing. Sheep should not be kept on pasture exclusively, late 
 in the fall — reasons assigned. 
 
 Sorting for Winter. Necessity for claspifying sheep — particulars 
 mentioned — early preparation for winter important — reasons . . 192 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 WINTER MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Introductory Remarks — Observations on Climate. Sheep dispersed 
 over a large portion of the world — accounted for — the sheep, if long 
 accustomed to a temperate climate, it is diflicult to model at will — 
 circumstances which influence — geographical positions where the sheep 
 does not attain perfection — extremes of temperature unfavorable — if 
 left to its instincts will avoid extremes — remarks of Blacklock — favor- 
 able climate of Australia for sheep — the sheep does best in the coun- 
 
XX CONTENTS. 
 
 tries of the vine — southern hemisphere better suited to its habits than 
 the northern — western parts of continents also more congenial than 
 the eastern — southern and northern temperature of the Alps — de- 
 ductions. 
 
 Protection. Its importance — large losses accrue from its neglect- 
 practised in Germany and elsewhere — Mr. Youatt recommends pro- 
 tection, and every other sheep historian — quotation from the Mountain 
 Shepherd's Manual — false notions of many on the subject — the au- 
 thor's experience detailed — lost many sheep before he sheltered his 
 sheep — per centage of loss since they were protected — a prevention of 
 disease — improves the properties of wool and increases the weight of 
 the fleece — particulars stated on this point — protection a means of in- 
 creasing the number of lambs — accounted for — also a saving of prov- 
 ender — the cause why — also a means of making additional manure- 
 manure the farmer's mine or capital stock — protection urged by hu- 
 manity. 
 
 Production of Animal Heat. Principle of caloric — its free or sensible 
 form, and latent or uncombined form — evolved by the union of sulphu- 
 ric acid and water — how carbonic acid is produced — combustion pro- 
 duced by the union of carbon and oxygen — the former the fuel and 
 the latter the fire — carbon furnished by the food — in cold climates 
 fatty substances necessary, abounding more with carbon — reversed in 
 warm climates, the inhabitants preferring a vegetable diet — application 
 of these principles to the several positions under the head of pro- 
 tection 210 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 WINTER' MANAGEMENT CONTINUED. 
 
 Feeding. A knowledge of fundamental principles necessary to correct 
 practice — it is a law of nature that nothing is lost or annihilated — the 
 tree derives its nourishment from the atmosphere and the soil — animals 
 from the food taken into the body — food a two-fold purpose to per- 
 form, one to nourish the body, and the other to support animal heat 
 by means of respiration — in carnivorous animals the whole of their 
 food is converted to flesh — in the herbivorous species only a part- 
 analyses of flesh and fat — proportions of constituents nearly the same 
 — no food destitute of nitrogen can nourish the body — analysis of 
 mutton fat — sugar, starch, gum, oil, or butter, produce fat, but not 
 flesh — analysis of hay — nutritious portions of the blood are fibrine and 
 albumen — in proportion as albumen abounds iu food is its nutrient 
 properties — analysis of albumen — young animals not disposed to take 
 on fat like adults — cause stated — analyses of cow and asses' milk-* 
 cassein the only nitrogenized substance in milk — various tables show* 
 ing the relative proportions of nutriment of the different kinds of food 
 consumed by sheep — items connected therewith — Petri's table of va- 
 riations of fodder for sheep — relative proportions of a slaughtered sheep 
 — Thaer's remarks on food — Veit's table showing that sheep consume 
 of food in proportion to their live weight — Mr. Spooner's estimate—* 
 Veit's remarks on the different kinds of straw. 
 
 Fattei^ing. Introductory remarks by Spooner — quietude and warmth 
 
CONTENTS. Xxi 
 
 contribute greatly to the fattening process — cold robs the system of 
 animal heat — warmth a substitute for food — experiment of Lord Ducie 
 to prove this — experiment by the same to prove that quietude is neces- 
 sary' — regularity in measure of food and time of feeding important — 
 the stables should be well supplied with litter — water — times of day 
 for feeding — sheep when fattening should have a variety of food — the 
 shorter the process of fattening the more profit will result — ^kinds of 
 food best adapted for fattening — caution against waste . . . 220 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 WINTER MANAGEMENT CONTINUED. 
 
 Recapitulation of analyses of flesh, fat, &c. — what food will produce 
 the most wool — the question briefly considered — De Raumer's table 
 of experiments — conclusions. 
 
 Observations on German Management. Their practical and scientific 
 knowledge relative to agriculture — their economy in feeding — varia- 
 tions of fodder — effect of variety of food on the fleece — natural wool 
 — bad policy to over-feed for the sake of making heavy fleeces — prac- 
 tice of the Germans — fodder should be proportioned to the live weight 
 of the sheep — Petri, Thaer, and Veit on this point — the result of their 
 experiments — quantity of hay alone necessary for 100 sheep for 150 
 days — the quantity required according to English estimate — quality of 
 the hay should be considered — old meadows furnish the best hay for 
 sheep — top dressing them — an equal amount of food necessary to pro- 
 duce a pound of flesh or a pound of wool without regard to the breed 
 — example of the South Down and Leicester — quantity of food re- 
 quired by each — example of Saxon and Merino — quantity of food they 
 respectively consume — heavy fleeces produced at a proportional cost 
 — remarks. 
 
 Importance of Green Food. Feeding of green food an essential point 
 of good management — dry food produces the stretches — remarks — 
 green food improves the properties of wool. 
 
 Water. Should have water during the winter season — reasons fully 
 assigned. 
 
 Management of Lambs. Remarks on the importance of providing well 
 for young stock of all kinds — early graining very important — modus 
 operandi — quantity to begin with, &c. — meal should be sprinkled on 
 potatoes — quality of their hay — treatment of two-year olds — treatment 
 of breeding ewes — treatment of wethers — treatment of bucks — treat- 
 ment of hospital sheep — modes of foddering — racks — description of 
 several — troughs — their construction — fodder pens — regularity of fod- 
 dering — its necessity — barns and shelters — plans of sheep-barns, 238 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 BREEDING AND CROSSING. 
 
 Introductory remarks — qualities of a good mutton sheep— qualities of 
 pure British breeds — the Leicester — South Down — Cheviot — Lincoln 
 — Cotswold — remarks urging a more extensive cultivation of these 
 breeds — reasons assigned. 
 
XXU CONTENTS. 
 
 In-and-in Breeding. Quotations from Blacklock, Spooner, and other 
 writers for and against the system — the author's conclusions on the 
 question. 
 
 Crossing. Recommended — observations as to the course it is best to 
 practice. 
 
 Breeding Register. Mode of marking the ears in Germany — form of 
 a Breeding Register kept by the late H. D. Grove — interesting re- 
 marks of his own breeding. 
 
 Influence of Sex. Examples — good points of a Merino and Saxon — • 
 tupping season, and the duties devolving on the flock-master, . 262 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 General view of the structure of the sheep — skeleton — bones of the 
 head — bones of the body — bones of the fore extremities — the foot — 
 biflex canal — the hind extremities — muscles or flesh — brain and nerves 
 —organs of digestion — the urinary and generative organs — contents 
 of the chest — circulation of the blood — respiration and its effects. 292 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Introductory observations. Diseases of the brain are sturdy or dizzy — 
 hydrocephalus — trembling — apoplexy. Diseases of the air-passages — 
 vvorms in the head, caused by the cEstris ovis or gad-fly — coryza or 
 colds. Diseases of the stomach and intestines, are hoove — braxy^ 
 stretches — diarrhoea or scours — acute dropsy, or red water — dysentery 
 — poison. The lungs — anatomy of the liver — rot — inflammation of the 
 lungs — dropsy. Diseases of parturition, are abortion — inversion of 
 the uterus — garget. Integument or skin. Diseases of the skin, are 
 scab or itch — erysipelas — ^Johnswort — scab. Pelt-rot— sore mouth. 
 Maggots. Foot-rot — fouls 349 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 SURGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Wounds — to stop bleeding — removal of extraneous matter — closure of 
 the wound — bandaging — clean cuts — punctured wounds — bruises and 
 sprains — wounds of joints — fractures — blood-letting 382 
 
 APPENDIX 389 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The sheep, according to Cuvier, belongs to the Order 
 RuMiNANTiA ; having teeth in the lower jaw only, opposed 
 to a callous substance in the upper jaw ; six molar teeth on 
 either side, and the joint of the lower jaw adapted for a grind- 
 ing motion ; four stomachs, and these, with the oesophagus, 
 so constructed that the food is returned for the purpose of 
 rumination ; long intestines not cellated : — the Tribe Ca- 
 PRiD^ ; the horns, where they are found, being permanent; 
 placed on a vascular bony basis or process ; the horny sheath 
 receiving its increase by annual ringlets at the base, forming 
 deep sulci around the horn, with others as deep running 
 longitudinally, and dividing the surface of the horn into a 
 succession of irregularities or knots. The general structure 
 light, and adapted for springing or swiftness : the ears usually 
 erect and funnel-shaped ; the pupils of the eye oblong, and 
 there not being any canine teeth in the mouth : — the Genus 
 Ovis ; with or without horns, and these, where present, 
 taking more or less a spiral direction ; the forehead or out- 
 line of the face convex ; no lachrymal or respiratory open- 
 ing under the eye ; the nostrils lengthened, and terminating 
 without a muzzle ; no beard ; the body covered with short, 
 close hair, with a downy wool beneath, and, in a domestic 
 state, the wool prevailing over the hair, or quite superseding 
 it ; the legs slender, yet firm. 
 
 Of these there are three varieties : the Ovis Amnox, or 
 Argali ; the Ovis Musmon ; and the Ovis Aries, or Do- 
 mestic Sheep. The first two will be described in a future 
 chapter, and the last will form the subject of this work.* 
 
 From the earliest period of the world the sheep has been, 
 domesticated by man, and appropriated to his wants. " Cain 
 
 * Animal Kingdom — Svnopsis. 
 
 2 
 
14 rNTRODUCTION. 
 
 brought of tlie first fruit of the ground an offering to the Lord ; 
 and Abel, he also brought of the firstlings of his flock, and 
 of the fat thereof." 
 
 After the expulsion of the progenitors of the human race 
 from the garden of Eden, a division of labor was assigned to 
 Cain and Abel, the latter as a " keeper of sheep, and Cain a 
 tiller of the ground." 
 
 During the antediluvian age there is no authority for sup- 
 posing that the flesh of the sheep was used for food, vegeta- 
 bles and bread being the only materials of human sustenance. 
 The sentence of Adam is — " Cursed is the ground for thy 
 sake. In sorrow shalt thou eat of it all the days of thy life, 
 and thou shalt eat of the herb of the field ; in the sweat of 
 thy face shalt thou eat bread." 
 
 The language to Noah after the deluge is very different : 
 — " The fear of you and the dread of you shall be upon every 
 beast of the earth and upon every fowl of the air, upon all 
 that moveth upon the earth, and upon all the fishes ; into 
 your hand are they delivered; every moving thing that 
 liveth shall be meat for you. Even as the green herb (which 
 was formerly appointed to be your food) have I now given 
 you all things." 
 
 But many centuries elapsed, notwithstanding this Divine 
 permission, before the flesh of animals generally was used. 
 It was first partaken at the periodical sacrifices offered to 
 the Most High, subsequently as a luxury, and an indulgence 
 not to be justified except on some particular occasions. The 
 primitive custom of subsisting on vegetables alone is retained 
 by fragments of the population of the East, and is enjoined 
 in their code of religious obligations. This usage, however, 
 prevails only in a limited degree with some of the pagan 
 sects. 
 
 Although the flesh of the sheep was so long excluded as 
 an article of sustenance, the milk of the ewe was appropri- 
 ated to that purpose by the antediluvians, as it has since 
 been in various parts of the world, and especially even to 
 the present day by the wandering tribes of the East. A 
 learned author thus remarks on this subject: — " Ewe's milk 
 was used in the manufacture of cheese many centuries before 
 there is any record of this article of human sustenance being 
 derived from the milk of the cow. Ewe-milk cheese was 
 often made in the early times on a large scale, and was a very 
 material and valued article of food. Butter is frequently 
 
INTRODUCTION. 15 
 
 spoken of in the sacred Scriptures, but it is the opinion of 
 the best commentators that, during the first period of the 
 Jewish history, the word so translated means the caseous 
 and not the oleaginous product of milk. In one passage, 
 where the mechanism described is too plain to be mistaken, 
 the proper translation is given, and that in the most ancient 
 book in the world : — ' Hast thou not poured me out like 
 milk, and curdled me like cheese .<"* There is much reason 
 to believe that this was the product of the sheep, for such 
 was the cheese spoken of by other writers of a remote age ; 
 and the ' butter of kine,' mentioned in a later period of 
 Jewish record, would seem to be a delicacy of rare occur- 
 rence, promised as the ' reward of obedience." 
 
 Homer flourished about 900 years before the Christian era, 
 and in his Odyssey aUudes to the subject under consideration : 
 
 " He next betakes him to his evening cares, 
 And, sitting down, to milk his ewes prepares : 
 Of half their udders eases finst the dams, 
 Then to the mother's teats submits the Iambs. 
 Half the white stream to hardening cheese he pressed. 
 And high in wicker baskets heaped : the rest, 
 Reserved in bowls, supplied the mighty feast." t 
 
 Mr. Burckhardt gives the following account of the manu- 
 facture of butter from ewes' and goats' milk by the Syrian 
 Arabs : — " The sheep and goats are milked during the three 
 spring months, morning and evening. They are sent out to 
 pasture before sunrise, while the lambs or kids remain in or 
 near the camp. About ten o'clock the herd returns, and the 
 lambs are allowed to satiate themselves, after which the 
 ewes belonging to each tent are tied to a long cord, and 
 milked one after another. When a ewe is feeble in health 
 her milk is left wholly for the lamb. The same process oc- 
 curs at sunset. From a hundred ewes or goats (the milk 
 of which is always mixed together) the Arabs expect, in 
 common years, about eight lbs. of butter per day, or about 
 seven cwt. in the three spring months." 
 
 In the primitive ages, after the flocks became too numer- 
 ous to be supported permanently in one locality, it was the 
 custom to remove them to a contiguous one, which originated 
 the race of men called ivanderivg shepherds. Jabal was 
 " the father of such as dwell in tents and have cattle." He 
 
 * Job X. 10. t Pope's translation. 
 
16 INTilODUCTlON, 
 
 lived about 500 years before the flood, and was the first no- 
 madic shepherd. The example of the original shepherds af- 
 fords a correct picture of the present mode of life of the Ara- 
 bian alid Tartarian shepherds. Abraham and Lot lived in 
 tents. " These Arabs," says D'Arvieux, " have no other 
 lodging but their tents, which they call their houses ; they are 
 all black, of goat's-hair canvass, and are stretched out in such 
 a manner that the rain easily runs off without ever going 
 through them. Their whole families, and all that they have 
 in the world, even to the stables, are there, particularly in 
 the winter. The tent of the Emir is of the same stuff', and 
 differs only from those of his subjects in bigness." 
 
 Abram pitched his tent on a mountain. The same author 
 says that " the Arabs commonly encamp on the top of some 
 little hills, where there are no trees to hinder them from dis- 
 covering a great way off all that come and go, that they may 
 not be surprised, having nothing else to fear." 
 
 Abram, it is recorded, often changed his place of resi- 
 dence. D'Arvieux continues, " The Arabs set themselves 
 down wherever they find springs of water, or rivulets in the 
 valleys, and pasture for the subsistence of their cattle, and 
 then decamp, as soon as that is gone, and go and post them- 
 selves in another place every fortnight, or at most every 
 month. They live all the summer upon these hills, always 
 advancing towards the north : and when winter begins to 
 come in, they go by degrees towards the south, as far as 
 Caesarea of Palestine, and on the outside of the mountains of 
 Carmel." 
 
 Parsons, the traveller, refers to the peregrinations of the 
 Arabs. " It was entertaining enough to see the horde of 
 Arabs decamp. First went the sheep and goats in regular 
 divisions, then followed the camels and asses, loaded with 
 the tents, furniture, and kitchen utensils. These were fol- 
 lowed by the old men and the women, and the boys and girls 
 on foot. The children that could not walk were carried on 
 the backs of the young women, and the boys and girls : and 
 the smallest of the lambs and kids were carried under the 
 arms of the children. The procession was closed by the 
 chief of the tribe mounted on the very best horse." The 
 foregoing manifests the tenacity with which the Arabs ad- 
 here to the customs of their forefathers established thousands 
 of years ago. 
 
 On the authority of the Scriptures, the flocks which abound- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 17 
 
 ed in Palestine were very numerous. Job had 14,000 sheep, 
 besides oxen and camels. When the 12,000 Israelites 
 made an incursion into Midian, they brought away 675,000 
 sheep. When the tribes of Reuben and Gad made war 
 with the Hagarites, their spoils amounted to 250,000 sheep. 
 The King of Moab rendered a yearly tribute of 200,000 
 sheep ; and Solomon offered 120,000 at the dedication of 
 the Temple. 
 
 There are several circumstances which will readily ac- 
 count for these numerous flocks. They constituted almost 
 the only riches of the people ; comparatively few were 
 slaughtered, for, as has already been observed, their flesh 
 was rarely eaten, except on solemn sacrifices or occasions 
 of peculiar rejoicing, and there is reason for believing that 
 the ewes had lambs twice in the year. An author remarks 
 — " The Jewish writers frequently speak of the first and 
 second yeanings, referring the former to the month Nisan, 
 corresponding to the March of the modern calendar ; and 
 the other to the month Tissi, answering to September." It 
 appears, from the concurrent testimony of several travellers, 
 that these numerous flocks were not confined to ancient 
 times. Sir John Chardin saw flocks in the neighborhood of 
 Aleppo of immense numbers. Dr. Shaw states that " several 
 Arabian tribes who can bring no more than 300 or 400 
 horses into the field, are possessed of more than as many 
 thousand camels and oxen, and treble the number of sheep 
 and goats." 
 
 The first, and, indeed, only improvement in sheep breed- 
 ing which the Sacred Book informs us, is relative to the fleece, 
 the color of which, it is generally believed, was originally 
 tawny, or dingy-black. Although the fleece is now so gen- 
 erally white, yet instances are not uncommon in some of the 
 best-bred flocks, which indicates the tendency to return to 
 the original color. This is perceptible in the legs and fa- 
 ces of the distinguished South Down (but from, no inter- 
 mixture of blood has become a permanent characteristic of 
 that breed), more so in the Norfolks and black-faced sheep 
 of the Scottish Highlands, and especially so in the African 
 and Asiatic breeds. 
 
 The motive which prompted Jacob to attempt a change of 
 the color, originated in a bargain between himself and Laban, 
 that the former should have in future the speckled or ring- 
 streaked sheep and goats, as a compensation for his services. 
 
 2* 
 
18 INTKODUCTION. 
 
 These could hitherto have been very few — and were of 
 course accidentals — or the selfish and avaricious father-in- 
 law would not have consented to the proposal. It was clear- 
 ly Jacob's wish to increase the number which would fall to 
 his share, by art, and the principle upon which he acted was 
 drawn from the experience of the female of the human spe- 
 cies as exhibited in instances where the imagination of the 
 mother caused deformities, or peculiar external marks on her 
 offspring, before its birth. The ingenious device he adopted 
 is set forth in Genesis, 30th chapter, and 37 and 38 verses. 
 Jacob's scheme was crowned with success, which probably 
 induced others to follow his shrewd example ; and subse- 
 quently, by selections in breeding from male and female of 
 such as possessed the largest proportion of white in the fleece, 
 in process of time, it became wholly so. In David's time, 
 he likens it to snow ; and Solomon speaks of the teeth of his 
 mistress, as resembling a flock of sheep just come up from 
 the washing. 
 
 Jacob's policy inculcates a lesson to breeders of all kinds 
 of domestic animals which should not be neglected. It es- 
 tablishes the supremacy of art, and the ease with which both 
 the form and coat can be moulded to the will of man. 
 
 The Scriptures are silent relative to any peculiarities of the 
 form of the ancient sheep — saving that the ram was horned — 
 and we have no information of any attempts having been under- 
 taken for its improvement. From the fact — as will more 
 fully appear from the following pages — the fat-rumped and 
 fat-tailed sheep abounding in those countries which were oc- 
 cupied by the primitive shepherds, Mr. Yonatt arrived at the 
 conclusion, that the peculiar adipose substance collected on 
 the rumps and tails, was common to the sheep both before 
 and after the deluge, and sustains his opinion on the follow- 
 ing passage of Sacred writ : And Moses " took the fat, and the 
 rump, and all the fat that was upon the inwards," and " burnt 
 them on the altar upon the burnt-ofiering." Accordingly he 
 rejects the commonly received opinion that the Argali is 
 the original breed ; and the following observations of Mr. 
 Price, an English writer of distinction on sheep, will throw 
 a doubt over the subject, and leaves the question unsettled, 
 where, with man at least, it will probably forever remain. 
 
 The question M'hether the different varieties of the same 
 species of animal have been produced by accidental devia- 
 tions from one original parent breed, or whether there may 
 
INTRODUCTION. 19 
 
 not have been, from the beginning, several varieties of the 
 same species, endovred with different qualities, and instincts, 
 and propensities, adapting them to the situation in which 
 they are found, is one of considerable interest to the zoolo- 
 gist, but with which the breeder of any species of animal 
 has little to do. It is also a question difficult to solve — 
 it is one that does not admit of demonstrative proof either 
 the one way or the other, and on which it does not become 
 the candid inquirer to speak positively and with arrogance. 
 
 These observations are induced by the careless and pre- 
 sumptuous way in which almost every natural historian at 
 once settles the matter. He does not seem to admit of any 
 doubt respecting the affair, but at once assumes it as a cer- 
 tainty that every species of animal was derived from one 
 original parent, and sets himself to work to inquire which 
 was the parent breed, and, worse than all, derives many fan- 
 ciful, nay, even some practical conclusions from that which 
 rests at best only on probability. Thus there is scarcely a 
 writer on sheep who does not take the question at once for 
 granted, and describe the Argali, or the Musmon, or some 
 creature of his own imagination, as the common origin of all. 
 
 There is no doubt that one variety of domesticated ani- 
 mals, if prevented from mixing with any other, will in gene- 
 ral propagate the same kind without any material change. 
 It is also acknowledged that if, from some unknown or ac- 
 cidental cause, an individual is produced, possessing some un- 
 usual peculiarities, his progeny, to a certain degree, will 
 probably possess the same peculiarities ; and if a male and 
 a female are selected with these peculiarities, and care is af- 
 terwards taken to exclude all who have them not, a new and 
 permanent breed may be established. It is likewise suffi- 
 ciently clear, that climate, soil, and pasture will gradually 
 effect a considerable change in the form and the quality both 
 of the wool and the flesh of every breed. These changes, 
 however, have their limits ; they go no farther than producing 
 modifications of the former breed : the essential and distin- 
 guishing character may yet be recognised, or, if it should 
 be rendered somewhat obscure, it will burst forth again 
 when the animal regains his native soil and climate. 
 
 The question is, when there are varieties of a species es- 
 sentially and altogether different from each other ; when the 
 act of man has and could have little to do in effecting such a 
 difference ; when there was nothing to prevent that inter- 
 
20 INTRODUCTION, 
 
 course which would soon wear down and efface every acci- 
 dental variety, and restore the primitive character — the 
 question then is, whether these variations are not best ex- 
 plained on the supposition of an original adaptation of each 
 to the situation in which it was placed, and the functions it 
 was to perform. — See Price on Sheep, p. 14. 
 
 The fact has been incidentally stated that the rams, at 
 least, of the primitive sheep were horned. When Abraham, 
 in obedience to the Divine command, was about to sacrifice 
 his son Isaac, his arm was arrested by a voice from heaven, 
 " and he lifted up his eyes and looked, and behold, behind 
 him a ram caught in a thicket hy his horns." The trum- 
 pets used in war were made of rams' horns. 
 
 The polled sheep were probably an accidental variety ; 
 and when first occurring, cultivated partly for their singular- 
 ity, and more for their utility, whether with reference to the 
 additional closeness of folding of which they were capable, 
 or the fewer accidents that were likely to occur, or, most of 
 all, from the superior docility and quietness of those to whom 
 nature had not given these weapons of offence, and of the 
 use of which all animals soon become too conscious. 
 
 A prominent characteristic of the ancient shepherds, was 
 their humanity and extreme watchfulness of their flocks. 
 This was proverbial, which induced the prophet thus to 
 speak of the Messiah : " He shall feed his flock like a shep- 
 herd ; he shall gather the lambs with his arm, and shall car- 
 ry them in his bosom, and shall gently lead those that are 
 with young." So true are the Arabs to the customs of their 
 ancestors, that they evince a similar care and humanity, 
 which should put to the blush very many modern shepherds. 
 " Some beasts of burden, guided by the young men, bear lit- 
 tle ones just dropped, and not able to travel. The little 
 children, just able to toddle along themselves, are employed 
 in driving, at their own slow pace, the lambs a little older."* 
 
 " In flowery spring-time, when the new-dropped lamb, 
 Tottering with weakness by its mother's side, 
 Feels the fresh world about him, and each thorn, 
 Hillock, or furrow, trips his feeble feet, — 
 Oh, guard him carefully." — Dyer's Fleece. 
 
 Music, in olden times, was one of the means adopted to 
 control sheep. So universal was the practice, that the an- 
 
 * Buckingham's Palestine. 
 
IKTRODUCTION. 21 
 
 cient poets associated the music of the shepherds with their 
 chief amusement and pleasure. The pastures on which the 
 sheep fed, consisted of immense plains, or occasionally of 
 abrupt alternations of hill and vale, with many a tangled copse 
 and forest, so that the sheep, or a portion of them, were of- 
 ten out of the sight of the keeper, and occasionally beyond 
 the reach of his voice ; he therefore had a horn, or pipe, 
 by means of which he could be heard at a greater distance, 
 and the well-known sounds of which the leaders of the flock 
 would immediately obey. To while away the time, he would, 
 perhaps, occasionally endeavor to draw other and more 
 pleasing sounds from this instrument necessary to his vo- 
 cation, and thus he would naturally, or almost necessarily, 
 become, to a greater or less degree, a musician ; therefore the 
 interesting stories of the poets are not all fictions ; and it can 
 easily be imagined that the shepherd would often be found play- 
 ing on his pipe in the midst of his flock, and they apparently 
 attentive to, and pleased with, the strain, for they would 
 have sufficient intelligence to associate with it a sense of the 
 kindness and protection they experienced from the player. 
 
 Goldsmith, in his ' Animated Nature,' alludes to the 
 subject : — " Before I had seen them trained in this manner, 
 I had no conception of those descriptions in the old pastoral 
 poets, of the shepherd leading his flock from one country to 
 another. As I had been used to see these harmless crea- 
 tures driven before their keepers, I supposed that all the rest 
 was pure invention ; but in many parts of the Alps, and even 
 some provinces of France, the shepherd and his pipe are 
 still continued with true antique simplicity. The flock is 
 regularly penned every evening, to preserve them from the 
 wolf, and the shepherd returns homeward at sunset with his 
 sheep following him, and seemingly pleased with the sound 
 of his pipe, which is blown with a reed, and resembles the 
 chanter of a bagpipe." 
 
 The Bible affords undoubted evidence of the fact that it 
 was customary with the ancient shepherds to cleanse or 
 wash their sheep before they were shorn. 
 
 Solomon, as has been already observed, compared the 
 teeth of his mistress to a flock of sheep just come up from 
 the ivashing. These early records, however, do not speak 
 of the manner in which the operation was performed ; but 
 the inference is, that inasmuch as sheep constituted the 
 chief riches of the people, and were objects of so much 
 
22 INTllOBUCTiON. 
 
 care, suitable and convenient places were erected, by many, 
 for this purpose. Jehu " slew the brethren of Ahaziah at 
 the pit of the shearing-house." The ' pit' here spoken of, 
 it is rational to suppose, was the pool in which the sheep 
 were washed previous to the shearing. From the scarcity 
 of water in parts of the land which the patriarchal shep- 
 herds occupied, it is doubtful whether the practice of cleans- 
 ing the wool upon the back was very general. 
 
 In what particular period of the world the periodical sep- 
 aration of the wool from the pelt, by means of shearing, took 
 place, we have no accurate information. In earlier times it 
 was the practice to detach the fleece by pulling, which was 
 probably not a very difiicult task, as the wool, when ma- 
 tured, at each revolving year dropped from the sheep, as is 
 the case with the coarser-wooled varieties at the present 
 day. But the fleece would not separate over the whole an- 
 imal alike easy, and portions would not yield without inflict- 
 ing pain. Therefore, prompted by that humanity which so 
 distinguished the management of the primitive shepherds, 
 the shears, in process of time, were invented, and intro- 
 duced into general use. 
 
 In olden time, as now in many parts, the sheep-shearing 
 was the season for feasting and rejoicing. It was the har- 
 vest of the shepherd, and when he had gathered it, a gene- 
 rous feeling prompted him to make glad the hearts, for a few 
 hours at least, of those who had participated in the work. 
 Nabal asks of the servants of David, " Shall I take my 
 bread and my water, and my flesh that I have killed for my 
 shearers, and give it unto men whom I know not whence 
 they be ?" At a later period another, but not pleasing, 
 account is given of the festivities of that season : " And it 
 came to pass that Absalom had sheep-shearers in Baalha- 
 zor, and Absalom invited all the king's sons, and Absalom 
 commanded all his servants, saying. When Amnon's heart 
 is merry with wine, then kill him." Burder, in his work 
 on Oriental Literature, says — " The close of harvest Avas a 
 season of rejoicing in most of the ancient nations, and sheep- 
 shearing was the harvest of the nomadic shepherd. This 
 periodical festival was even enacted by law. Cecrops, the 
 founder of the kingdom of Athens, about the time of Moses, 
 ordained that " the master of every family should after har- 
 vest make a feast for his servants, and eat with those who 
 had taken pains together with him in tilling his ground." 
 
INTRODUCTION. 23 
 
 The system of cotting was known and adopted by the Is- 
 raelites. After repelling the invasion of Sennacherib, Hez- 
 ekiah applied a portion of the spoil to works of public utility ; 
 he built " storehouses, for the increase of corn, and wine, 
 and oil, and stalls for all manner of beasts, and cotes for 
 flocks^ But, a commentator remarks, — " This has refer- 
 ence more to the inhabitants of considerable towns or cit- 
 ies than to the wandering shepherds." 
 
 An intelligent writer in the English Annals of Agriculture 
 says, that " the ancients were so perfectly satisfied that a va- 
 riety of climate was absolutely necessary to the production 
 of fine wool, that those people whose situation admitted not 
 of any change, had recourse to art, — housing them from the 
 day to defend them from the too powerful rays of the sun, 
 and exposing them to the cold of night. This was prac- 
 tised by Hezekiah ; Columella informs us that the same 
 conveniences were adopted in Greece and Tarentum, and 
 there is a line in Milton's Lycidas confirming the custom 
 of their nocturnal exposure : — 
 
 ' Battening our flocks vi^ith the fresh dews of night.' " 
 
 For a long period it has been customary to cott or shelter 
 sheep during the night, instead of the day, to protect them 
 from the ravages of wild beasts, from cold, and to preserve 
 their dung for manure. 
 
 The Scriptures abound with passages which demonstrate 
 the art of weaving to have been well understood in the 
 primitive ages. Job says, " My days are swifter than the 
 weaver's shuttle." Moses alludes to those whom " God 
 had filled with wisdom of art to work all manner of work of 
 the engraver, and of the cunning workman, and of the em- 
 broiderer in blue and purple, in scarlet and in fine linen, 
 and of the loeaver, even of those that devise cunning work." 
 
 Some three hundred years before the escape of the Is- 
 raelites from Egypt, in the history of Joseph it is recorded 
 that he was decorated with a coat of many colors, being 
 not only proof that weaving was practised to a considerable 
 degree of perfection, but dyeing also. Solomon thus de- 
 scribes the good wife : — " She seeketh wool and flax, and 
 worketh willingly with her hands. Her household are 
 cloihed with scarlet." The foregoing, as well as following 
 passage, indicate also, that in every country where the 
 simplicity of manners and virtues of the female are uncon- 
 
24 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 laminated, spinning and weaving are the ordinary and chosen 
 employments. " She maketh herself coverings of tapestry ; 
 her candle goeth not out by night. She layeth her hands 
 to the spindle, and her hands hold the distaff." 
 
 " Night was now sliding in her middle course : 
 The first repose was finished ; when the dame 
 Who, by her distafT's slender art subsists, 
 Wakes the spread embers and the sleeping fire. 
 Night adding to her work, and calls her maids 
 To their long tasks by lighted tapers urged."* 
 
 A writer on ancient manufactures says — " Modern his- 
 torians have united in traci-ng the invention of weaving to 
 the Egyptians, — the weaving not of wool, however, but of 
 flax ; and the fabric of the linen cloths in which some of 
 the Egyptian mummies were wrapped has scarcely been 
 excelled at the present day. Yet it may be questioned 
 whether the claims of the nomadic shepherds have been 
 fairly considered. The cultivation of the sheep was coeval 
 with the expulsion from Paradise ; the cultivation of flax 
 must have been aa improvement in husbandry of far later 
 date. When the descendants of Noah were scattered, they 
 pursued their old avocation ; their flocks and their herds 
 accompanied them until they chanced to find some pecu- 
 liarly fertile and convenient tract, which they gradually made 
 their permanent abode ; and then, building cities for them- 
 selves, they by degrees changed their way of life, and ap- 
 plied the arts, which they already possessed, to other and 
 more extensive purposes. 
 
 The children of Mizraim, the offspring of Ham, found in 
 Egypt a soil not well fitted for the prosperous management 
 of the sheep. The Nile overflowed its banks twice in the 
 year ; and when its waters receded, a sin-face was left that 
 was soon covered with luxuriant vegetation, but which in- 
 fected and destroyed the sheep that fed upon it. Accident 
 or experiment, however, soon proved that it was favorable 
 to the cultivation of flax, and that from the fibres of the flax 
 fine linen might be woven. Did the discovery of the flax 
 lead to the invention of weaving, or was an art, known and 
 practised for many a century before, directed to the man- 
 ufacture of this new material ? The latter is the more prob- 
 able supposition, especially if it is recollected, that during 
 
 * V'irofil, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 25 
 
 the early period of the history of the Patriarchs, some as- 
 sociated tribes, that had previously inhabited the country to 
 the east of Egypt, invaded and conquered the districts bor- 
 dering on the Nile, and established a dynasty there under 
 the appellation of the Shepherd Kings. The Abimelech, with 
 whom Abraham had controversy, and who presented to him 
 sheep, oxen, and slaves, was one of those shepherd kings. 
 
 To Egypt, then, let the honor still be yielded of having 
 first woven the fibres of the flax into linen ; but the invention 
 of weaving, the conversion into cloth of the animal fibres that 
 grow on the back of the sheep, is a claim of yet more an- 
 cient date, and belongs either to those who wandered with 
 their flocks far from the plains of Ararat, or who carried the 
 customs and arts of their forefathers into the country which 
 they subjugated."* 
 
 Burckhardt thus describes the loom at present found among 
 the Arab shepherds : — 
 
 " The Arab women use a very simple loom ; it is called 
 nulon, and consists of two short sticks, which are stuck into 
 the ground at a certain distance according to the desired 
 breadth of the shauke, or piece to be worked. A third stick 
 is placed across over them, and over the two horizontal cross 
 sticks, the woof. To keep the upper and under woof at a 
 proper distance from each other, a flat stick is placed between 
 them. A piece of wood serves as the weaver's shuttle, and 
 a short gazelle's horn is used in beating back the thread of 
 the shuttle. The loom is placed before the maharrem, or 
 women's apartment, and worked by the mother and her 
 daughters. The distaff" is in general use among them. At 
 Palmyra I saw several men using the distaff": and among 
 the Kilby Arabs all the shepherds manufacture wool." 
 
 The foregoing details are important as aiding to confirm, 
 by collateral testimony, the authenticity of the Scriptures as 
 shown in the customs of the wandering hordes of the East 
 at the present day, which are the identical customs of the prim- 
 itive shepherds : also, the humanity and watchfulness of their 
 flocks which characterized the latter, examples which should 
 have their due weight with every shepherd now, and in all 
 time to come. 
 
 * Farmer's Series. 
 3 
 
THE AMERICAN SHEPHERD. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 
 
 As frequent allusions will be made in various parts of this 
 work to the structure of the fibre, the distinctive peculiari- 
 ties of the various kinds of wool, and the uses to vi^hich 
 these wools are respectively applied, it is apparent that here 
 will be the proper place for a discussion of the subject ; and 
 the reader is invited, for reasons which will appear obvious, 
 to give it his careful attention. 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN. 
 
 The skin of the sheep, and of animals generally, is com- 
 posed of three coats, or layers. The external one is called 
 the cuticle or scarf skin, which is exceedingly to' gh, devoid 
 of feeling, and pierced by innumerable small holes, for the 
 passage of the wool and insensible perspiration. 
 
 The next layer is termed the mucus coat, a soft structure, 
 its fibres having scarcely more consistence than mucilage, 
 and consequently separated with much difficulty from the 
 coat below it. From the fact that the pulpy substance of 
 this layer uniformly approximates the color of the hair, or 
 wool, it is supposed that here resides the coloring matter. 
 This is the seat also of sensation ; the nerves, or rather 
 their terminations, ramifying minutely in its substance. 
 
 The third or lowermost layer is the cutis or true skin, a 
 dense, firm, elastic substance, in order to fit closely to the 
 parts beneath, to yield to the various motions of the body, 
 and the resistance of external injury. The true skin is 
 
28 PROPERTrES OF WOOL. 
 
 composed almost entirely o^ gelatine, so that although it may 
 be dissolved by much boiling, it is insoluble in water at the 
 common temperature. 
 
 It is well known the skin of the sheep is seldom fully 
 tanned, but is prepared in a peculiar way, and used for the 
 common sort of binding for books, or is converted into parch- 
 ment, which, from its durable nature, is used for the inscrip- 
 tion of documents of more than ordinary value. Other uses 
 made of the pelts of lambs in foreign countries, mention will 
 be made hereafter. 
 
 ANATOMY OF WOOL. 
 
 Although the fibre of wool has been submitted to severe- 
 examinations of powerful microscopes, its internal structure 
 is not yet definitely settled — whether solid, or conisting of a 
 hard exterior tube with a pith within. The weight of testi- 
 mony, however, is much in favor of the supposition of the 
 latter. The fact may be adduced in support of this conclu- 
 sion, that the wool of the sheep, when in high condition, is 
 coarser than when in low flesh, the fibre being distended 
 apparently from no other cause than the superabundance of 
 the secretive matter designed for its growth. Could it be 
 otherwise were it not tubular in its conformation ? It may, 
 however, proceed from another cause, for it has been satis- 
 factorily ascertained that the fibre is vascular, being supplied 
 with vessels which convey nourishment from the pulp,, 
 which seem to accompany it to a considerable distance 
 from the root, if not through its whole extent. 
 
 The learned Dr. Good says : — " The Plica polonica, a 
 disease whose existence is doubted by some, but of the oc- 
 casional occurrence of which there is abundant testimony, 
 completely establishes the vascularity of the hair ; for it is 
 an enlargement of the individual hairs, so much so as, in 
 some cases, to permit the passage of red blood, for the hair 
 will bleed when divided by the scissors." Admitting it to 
 be true that the hair is vascular, it follows that the fibre of 
 wool is also ; and hence if a sheep is in more than ordinary 
 condition, the consequent repletion of the fluids would cause 
 an increased bulk of the fibre, without the necessity of a 
 tubular conformation. But leave is taken of the question, 
 with the repetition that the preponderance of testimony is 
 in favor of the theory that the fibre is hollow. 
 
 Each fibre of wool is composed of a number of filaments 
 
ITS CHEMICAL COMrOSITION. 29 
 
 ©r smaller hairs, ranged side by side, which can be perceived 
 without difficulty, from the tendency it sometimes has to un- 
 ravel at the point. Mr. Bakewell has remarked on this as 
 follows : " Hair is frequently observed to split at its points 
 into distinct fibres — a division has also been seen in the hair 
 of wool. This seems to prove that they are formed of dis- 
 tinct long filaments uniting in one thread or hair. In large 
 hairs I have discovered a number of divisions from the root 
 to the point. In one hair I distinctly perceived fifteen of 
 these divisions of fibres lying parallel to each other, and in 
 some of the fibres a further subdivision was distinguishable. 
 Probably these subdivisions were each composed of others 
 still smaller, which the limited power of our instruments 
 may prevent us from discovering. If such be the structure 
 of the hair of some animals, it is at least probable that the 
 hair of all others may have a similar conformation, although 
 the fibres of which they are composed may be too minute, 
 or adhere too firmly together to permit us to separate or dis- 
 tinguish them." 
 
 ITS CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. 
 
 The fact has long since been established that the chemi- 
 cal composition of nails, hoofs, horns, hair, wool, and even 
 feathers, is substantially the same. According to Henry, 
 they are made up of an animal substance resembling coagu- 
 lated albumen ; and sulphur, silica, carbonate and phosphate 
 of lime, and oxides of iron and manganese. The similarity 
 of the odor of hoofs, horns and hair, perceptible when burned, 
 is within the experience of all. It is also well known that 
 the horns of cattle are made up of elongated fibres or hair, 
 which will be obvious to any one who will take the trouble 
 to examine with the aid of a microscope. Indeed, without 
 this instrument, the fact can be established as exemplified 
 in the horns of the deer, at certain stages of the growth, and 
 also those of the giraffe, on the surface of which hairs can 
 be distinctly traced. Other testimony may be found in the 
 circumstance, uniformly the same, that the horns conform 
 in the degree of their twist or curve to the hair or wool of 
 the animals on which they respectively grow. Thus, in 
 the Angora goat and wild sheep of the Rocky Mountains, 
 the horns are, like the hair and avooI they produce, compara- 
 tively straight ; while the horns of the Saxon and Merino 
 resemble the beautiful spiral curve of their wool. 
 
 3* 
 
30 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 
 
 This peculiar substance is so called abroad, from its ad- 
 hesiveness and color ; but with us it is termed gum, an ap- 
 pellation derived from its glutinous properties, quite as 
 appropriate. It is apparent in the fleeces of fine-wool 
 sheep, especially the Merino, at all seasons of the year, but 
 very much so in the winter and spring ; and although diflfused 
 through the whole fleece, yet such is its profusion in the 
 Merino, that it is observable in detached concrete particles, 
 resembling ear wax. According to the chemical analysis 
 of Vauquelin, it consists principally of a soapy matter, with 
 a basis of potash; a small quantity of carbonate of potash; 
 a small quantity of acetate of potash ; lime in an unknown 
 state of Gomhination ; and an atom o{ muriate of potash. Its 
 peculiar odor, well known to those familiar with the fleeces 
 of Saxon and Merino, is derived from the infusion of a small 
 quantity of animal oil, and is in every respect a true soap, 
 which would permit of the fleece being thoroughly cleansed 
 by the ordinary mode of washing", were it not for the exist- 
 ence of this uncombined fatty or oily matter, which remains 
 attached to the wool, and rendering it glutinous, until sub- 
 jected to the process of scouring by the manufacturer. 
 
 There are some, from ignorance, who imagine the yolk or 
 gum to be, if not absolutely a detriment to wool, at least a use- 
 less concomitant. This, however, is a decided mistake. It is 
 a peculiar secretion from the glands of the skin, acting as 
 one of the agents in promoting the growth of the wool, and 
 by its adhesiveness, matting it, and thereby forming a de- 
 fence from the inclemency of the weather. From accurate 
 observation, it has been ascertained, that a deficiency of 
 yolk will cause the fibre to be dry, harsh and weak, and the 
 whole fleece becomes thin and hairy ; on the contrary, when 
 there is a natural supply, the wool is soft, plentiful and 
 strong. The quantity is depending on equability of tem- 
 perature, the health of the sheep, and the proportion of 
 nutritive food it receives. 
 
 Although it is found in greater or less quantities in the 
 fleeces of almost every variety of sheep, such is its excess 
 in the Merino breed, that it causes dirt to collect on the sur- 
 face to such a degree as to form an indurated crust, with a 
 hue resembling the thunder cloud. This excess, although, 
 as already remarked, no way injurious to the fibre, yet in 
 
YOLK. 31 
 
 one sense it is so to the manufacturer, from the uncertainty 
 as to the amount of loss sustained by cleansing. Hence it 
 is that the European manufacturer refuses to purchase 
 Spanish Merino wool, without being thoroughly washed 
 with soap, which is always performed after the fleece is 
 shorn, and even then the wool shrinks, by the manufacturer's 
 mode of cleansing, generally about 10 per cent. 
 
 It has been observed that temperature has an influence in 
 determining the quantity of yolk ; hence, the equable and 
 mild climate of Spain is favorable to its production; and 
 although the Escurial Merino is for the most part the parent 
 stock of the Saxony sheep, yet, from the opposite character 
 of the climate to that of Germany, it is found in a greatly 
 diminished quantity in Saxon fleeces. The Saxon Merino, 
 however, when kept in fair condition, has the requisite sup- 
 ply to give additional softness, pliability, and strength to the 
 fibre. 
 
 On the authority of an English writer, the wools of several 
 breeds of sheep in the more southern part of the kingdom 
 abound in yolk in great abundance, so that a fleece, un- 
 washed on the back, will lose one-half of its weight by thor- 
 ough scouring. A deficiency of this substance is percepti- 
 ble as progress is made northward ; and in Northumberland 
 and Scotland, it is common for the farmers to supply its loss 
 by means of smearing the sheep, in autumn, with a mixture 
 of tar and oil, or butter, which will be more particularly no- 
 ticed hereafter. To confirm the propriety of this, as well 
 as afford additional testimony of the virtues of yolk, the fol- 
 lowing fact is quoted, recorded by Mr. Bakewell, the emi- 
 nent sheep breeder : — 
 
 "An intelligent manufacturer in my neighborhood, who 
 kept a small flock of good wooled sheep, informed me he 
 had adopted the practice of rubbing the sheep with a mixture 
 of butter and tar. He could speak decidedly to the improve- 
 ment the wool had received by it, having superintended the 
 whole process of the manufacture. The cloth was superior 
 to what ungreased wool could have made, if equally fine ; it 
 was remarkably soft to the touch, and had a ' good hand and 
 feel,' the appearance of the threads being nearly lost in a 
 firm, even texture, covered with a soft, full nap." 
 
 The additional value, then, the yolk imparts to the wool, 
 afibrds a useful lesson to the wool-grower, to take such care 
 of his sheep as will best supply the needful quantity. Equa 
 
32 PilorERTIES OF WOOL. 
 
 bility of temperature being one requisite, lie should protect 
 his flocks during the winter season ; and good condition 
 being another, wholesome and nutritious food should not be 
 spared. 
 
 FORM OF THE FIBRE. 
 
 The fibre of wool is circular, differing materially in diam- 
 eter in the various breeds, and also in different parts of the 
 same fleece. It is generally larger towards the point and 
 also near the root, and in some instances very considerably 
 so. Mr. Youatt's description cannot be simplified or im- 
 proved. " The fibres of white wool, when cleansed from 
 grease, are semi-transparent ; their surface in some places 
 is beautifully polished, in others curiously encrusted, and 
 they reflect the rays of light in a very pleasing manner. 
 When viewed by the aid of a powerful achromatic micro- 
 scope, the central part of the fibre has a singularly glittering 
 appearance. Very irregularly placed minuter filaments are 
 sometimes seen branching from the main trunk like boughs 
 from the principal stem. This exterior polish varies much 
 in different wools, and in wools from the same breed of 
 sheep at different times. When the animal is in good 
 condition and the fleece healthy, the appearance of the fibre 
 is really brilliant ; but when the sheep has been half starved, 
 the wool seems to have sympathized with the state of the 
 constitution, and either a wan, pale light, or sometimes 
 scarcely any, is reflected." 
 
 His closing paragraph is especially true. The wool of 
 half-starved sheep can be detected without any difficulty by 
 the wool stapler and experienced buyer, and its consequent 
 deterioration affects the price. The fibre of such wool is 
 finer, it is true ; but the numberless breaches injure every 
 manufacture for which it is used. This is another illustra- 
 tion of the bad policy of farmers in neglecting to keep their 
 sheep in uniform good condition. Healthy sheep will pro- 
 duce healthy wool, both being always the most valuable, and 
 consequently paying the largest dividends. 
 
 ELASTICITY. 
 
 A writer observes — " There are two antagonistic princi- 
 ples continually at work in every part of the frame of every 
 animal ; and it is on the delicate adjustment and balance of 
 power between them, that all healthy and useful action de- 
 
SI^IRAL CURVE. 33 
 
 pends ; the disposition to give way, or submit to some alter- 
 ation of form when pressed upon, and an energy by means 
 of which the original form is resumed, as soon as the ex- 
 ternal force is removed." These two principles are beauti- 
 fully exemplified in the fibres of wool, obviously much 
 dependant on the numerous and minute spiral curves, so 
 manifest in the Saxon and Merino. Take, for instance, a 
 single fibre of wool of these varieties of sheep, if it be 
 stretched to its full length, and then suddenly set free at one 
 extremity, it will resume its ringlet form ; and hence upon 
 the union of pliability with the elastic principle chiefly de- 
 pends the usefulness, and consequently value of wool. 
 
 The play of these powers is differently adjusted in differ- 
 ent wools. In the Saxon, calculated for our finest fabrics, 
 the action of these opposing principles is beautifully bal- 
 anced. Hence it is the fabric is so easily shorn of its 
 superfluous nap, the facility with which it yields to pressure, 
 and covers the threads of the cloth with a dense, soft pile. 
 Notwithstanding the injury the elastic powers may receive 
 by the process of manufacture, yet by the aid of a micro- 
 scope, the nap presents innumerable minute curves closely 
 hugging the texture ; and to this much of the beauty of our 
 finest cloth is owing. To these opposing powers of the 
 fibre, the felting principle is not a little indebted, as will be 
 explained hereafter. 
 
 SPIRAL CURVE, 
 
 The spiral curve, or ringlet form of wool, has been referred 
 to. This is one of the distinguishing qualities between wool 
 and hair, the latter being comparatively straight. It is re- 
 markable in all short-wooled sheep, but in no other varieties 
 is it so conspicuous as the Saxon and Merino. It is ob- 
 servable in the Leicester and other long-wooled varieties, 
 but in a far less degree ; and with some species of the goat, 
 under the hair of which is found a perfect wool, having the 
 true felting property, and the fibre considerably curved. 
 
 There is an intimate connexion between the fineness of 
 the wool, and the number of the curves, or otherwise, in pro- 
 portion to the number of curves in a given spafi, is the diame- 
 ter of the fibre. It should be stated, however, that this is 
 more generally true of pure Saxon and Merino. It can be 
 easily demonstrated, if the experiment is fairly made with 
 ihe micrometer, care being taken not to destroy the curves 
 
34 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 
 
 by extension, but the fibre placed in the instrument as H 
 naturally grmvs vpon the sheep. From M. Lafoun's work 
 on German management of sheep, the following is extracted^ 
 bearing on this point : 
 
 " Those breeding piire Saxons, inspect their flocks three 
 times in the year ; before winter, when the selection of 
 lambs is made, in the spring, and at shearing time. Each 
 sheep is placed in its turn on a kind of table, and examined 
 carefully as to the growth, the elasticity, the pliability, the 
 brilliancy, and the fineness of the wool. The latter is as- 
 certained by means of a micrometer. It being found that 
 there was an evident connection between the fineness of the 
 fibre and the number of curves, this was more accurately 
 noted, and the following table was constructed. The fleece- 
 was sorted in the manner usual in France. The fineness 
 of the Superelecta, or picklock, is represented by a spait 
 corresponding with the number 7 on the instrument." 
 
 Sort. Name. 
 
 1. Superelecta, 
 
 2. Electa, 
 
 Curves In 
 an inch. 
 
 27 to 29 
 24 to 28 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 Diameter of fibre. 
 
 or 1 -840th of an inch, 
 or l-735th 
 
 3. Prima, 
 
 20 to 23 
 
 9 
 
 or l-660th 
 
 (f 
 
 4. Secunda Prima, 
 
 19 to 19 
 
 10 
 
 or 1 -588th 
 
 a 
 
 5. Secunda, 
 
 IG to 17 
 
 11 
 
 or l-534th 
 
 a 
 
 6. Tertia, 
 
 14 to 15 
 
 Uk 
 
 or 1-5 10th 
 
 (C 
 
 The above will show the necessity of more care with 
 wool-growers in breeding from such sheep only whose wooJ 
 approximates nearest to the principle laid down, as it is to 
 this curled form of wool its most valuable uses depend. It 
 is one agent, though not the principal, in producing the phe- 
 nomena of felting. " It materially contributes to that dispo- 
 sition of the fibres which enables them to attach and entwine 
 themselves together ; it multiplies the opportunities for this 
 interlacing, and it increases the difficulty of unravelling the 
 felt." 
 
 The numerous and minute curves being, as observed, emi- 
 nently characteristic of the pure Saxon and Merino, will 
 serve as a sure test, in all cases, of the purity of blood, and 
 therefore affords a certain and unerring guide in the selection 
 of breeding sheep. If it is rightly adhered to, the every day 
 attempts to dispose of grades for high-bred sheep will be 
 frustrated. 
 
FINENESS. 35 
 
 SOFTNESS FINENESS. 
 
 It is not as generally known as it should be, that softness 
 is a quality of wool of much consequence. When the wool 
 buyer and stapler proceed to an examination of a parcel, their 
 judgment will be materially affected as to its value, whether 
 " soft in handle," or otherwise. This, however, generally 
 speaking, is the result of comparative fineness ; but by no 
 means always so, for wool of the same quality of fineness 
 has not the same degree of softness. There are several 
 causes to account for it, and among them is soil ; as, for 
 instance, the chalky districts of England affect the wool to 
 such an extent as to make it invariably brittle and harsh. 
 This, however, is only local. The general cause of a de- 
 ficiency of softness in wools of the same breed, may be re- 
 ferred directly to the condition of the sheep. It has already 
 been stated that when the animal was kept in uniform good 
 condition, the necessary quantity of yolk was supplied. Now 
 if there is but little of this substance, which will follow an 
 abuse in management, the wool will be less pliable and 
 " kind to feel." Therefore it may be set down as a univer- 
 sal rule, that wool owes much of its softness to the presence 
 of a sufficiency of yolk. 
 
 As a testimony how much this quality of wool is appre- 
 ciated by the manufacturer, it is affirmed on the authority of 
 an English author, '• that two parcels of sorted wool being 
 taken, possessing the same degree of fineness, but the one 
 having the soft quality in an eminent degree, and the other 
 being harsh, the cloth prepared from the first, at the same 
 expense, will be worth more to the manufacturer than the 
 other, by full 20 per cent." 
 
 FINENESS. 
 
 This term, when applied to wool, is wholly comparative ; 
 various breeds of sheep producing wool essentially different 
 in quality, the same breeds varying much, and all breeds 
 exhibiting qualities of wool of unequal fineness in the same 
 fleece. It is also sometimes the fact that the extremity of 
 the fibre, as ascertained by the micrometer, is five times 
 greater in bulk than the centre and root. 
 
 The fibre may be considered coarse when it is more than 
 the five hundredth part of an inch in diameter, and very fine 
 when it does not exceed the nine hundredth part of an inch, 
 
36 
 
 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 
 
 as exhibited occasionally in choice samples of Saxon Merino 
 wool. It is said there are animals which have a wool un- 
 derneath a covering of hair, the fibre of which is less than 
 the twelve hundredth part of an inch.* 
 
 The following cut will show the points in the pure Merino 
 and Saxon where the different qualities of wool are to be 
 found. The divisions do not always accurately correspond, 
 but Lasteyrie and Chancellor Livingston, who were both 
 familiar with pure Spanish Merinos, agree as to their general 
 truth, and the observations of the writer confirm their decision. 
 
 It is, then, a matter to be studied by the wool-grower who 
 is desirous of propagating sheep of the fine-wooled varieties ; 
 for grades will often exhibit seven and eight qualities in the 
 same fleece, whereas it will be seen that unalloyed breeds 
 show but four qualities. Individuals have occasionally been 
 found in original Saxon flocks whose fleeces would divide 
 into only two sorts ; but this is very rare. 
 
 
 
LENGTH OF THE STAPLE — COLOR. 37 
 
 The rejina (fig. 1), or the picklock wool, begins at the 
 withers, and extends along the back to the setting on of 
 the tail. It reaches only a little way down at the quarters, 
 but, dipping down at the flanks, takes in all the superior part 
 of the chest, and the middle of the side of the neck to the 
 angle of the lower jaw. The fina (fig. 2), a valuable wool, 
 but not so deeply serrated, or possessing so many curves as 
 the refina, occupies the belly, and the quarters and thighs 
 down to the stifle joint. No. 3, or third quality, is found on 
 the head, the throat, the lower part of the neck, and the 
 shoulders, terminating at the elbow ; the wool yielded by 
 the legs, and reaching from the stifle to a little below the 
 hock, is procured from the tuft that grows on the forehead 
 and cheeks, from the tail, and from the legs below the hock.* 
 
 LENGTH OF THE STAPLE. 
 
 Formerly, wool of short staple only was thought by the 
 manufacturer indispensable to make a fine cloth with a close 
 pile or nap, but the improvements made in machinery within 
 a few years have superseded this consideration, and now 
 long-staple wool is most valued. This in part proceeds 
 from the fact that short wools have more " dead end," pro- 
 portionally, than long ; again, the new American enterprise 
 for manufacturing muslin de laines, calls for a long, tough, 
 fine staple. The Australian wools, which are of Merino 
 and Saxon blood, from the mildness of the climate of New 
 South Wales, are very much longer in staple than formerly, 
 and are much used for the above object. It is a query, 
 however, whether a fine and very compact fleece, possessing 
 a long fibre, can be produced on the same sheep. Very 
 close, fine fleeces, are always comparatively short in staple ; 
 and close fleeces are indispensable in our rigorous climate, to 
 protect the sheep from the effects of cold and wet ; on the con- 
 trary, open fleeces are usually long in staple, but a poor defence 
 against a low temperature. It is, therefore, a question for 
 the wool-grower of the North to consider whether, in obliging 
 the manufacturer, he will not adopt a policy injurious to the 
 constitution of his sheep. In a more southern latitude, this 
 consideration is not so important. 
 
 COLOR. 
 
 The alteration of the color was the first recorded im- 
 
 * Livingston. 
 4 
 
88 PROPERTIES OP WOOL. 
 
 provement of the sheep, and its purity, its perfect whiteness, 
 should never be lost sight of by the sheep-master of the 
 present day. It is, however, not so much considered as it 
 should be. Manufacturers desire none other fine wools 
 than those of the purest whiteness, for the reason that those 
 of a black or dun-colored hue, do not receive a perfect fancy 
 dye, and therefore can be converted only into black cloths ; 
 hence, they are valued accordingly. Flock-masters should 
 never breed from individuals that are otherwise than purely 
 white ; for, independent of the above consideration, black or 
 smutty sheep mar the appearance of a flock. 
 
 TRUENESS. 
 
 The quality of trueness of the staple especially enhances 
 the value of every grade of wool in which it is found. It 
 comprises an equality of the diameter of the fibre from the 
 root to the point, and uniformity of the fleece generally. 
 When the filament greatly lacks in this particular, it may be 
 ascribed to an irregular and unhealthy action of the secretion 
 of wool, which, in turn, must be attributed, in general, to abuses 
 in management of the sheep. For instance, if the animal has 
 fared kindly till the winter season, and then exposed to 
 storm, and cold, and withal ill fed, the growth of that part 
 of the fibre during this period will be considerably dimin- 
 ished in diameter, proportionally weak, and when examined 
 by the microscope, presents a withered appearance. On 
 being turned to pasture, the fare being better, and the secre- 
 tions again becoming healthy and abundant, an enlargement 
 of the fibre follows; but it is greatly destitute, from the 
 causes stated, of the quality of trueness, and therefore de- 
 bases the value of the whole fleece. The weak and with- 
 ered parts of the fibre are termed breaches, and injure mate- 
 rially every manufacture in which it is employed, the felting 
 property being deteriorated, and the cloth having less strength 
 and softness. The skilful stapler and wool-buyer will, on 
 critical examination, easily detect this serious fault, and prize 
 the wool accordingly. By pulling asunder a single fibre, 
 the break will uniformly be confined to the breachy or with- 
 ered point. This is termed unsound wool. 
 
 Although this description of wool is generally, as remarked, 
 the result of bad management of the flock, yet it is common 
 to all good sheep. With the Saxon and Merino, after the 
 ewes, particularly, pass the age of eight or nine years, the 
 
INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE. 39 
 
 yolk lessens in quantity, which is followed by compara- 
 tively a hard, inelastic, unyielding character of the wool, 
 with the strength and weight greatly diminished. There- 
 fore, notwithstanding the singular longevity of these breeds, 
 it is better to pass them over to the butcher, when arrived 
 at the age mentioned. 
 
 Intimately connected with producing a sound and true sta- 
 ple, is the 
 
 INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE. 
 
 It cannot be doubted that equability of temperature is an 
 important agent in perfecting the several properties of wool. 
 The Spanish custom, continued for centuries, of driving the 
 sheep in the spring to the northern and mountainous parts 
 of the kingdom, which are there kept until the approach of 
 winter, originated in part from the conviction that this theory 
 was sounder Indeed, it is founded in the natural instinct of 
 the sheep. Every one knows it is impatient of heat. In 
 the midst of summer, in all latitudes where it is found, it 
 will seek the most elevated points for the sake of the cool- 
 ing breeze, and retire to shades to guard itself against the 
 burning rays of the sun. In winter it will flee to a place of 
 refuge from storms and cold. All this testifies strongly in 
 favor of the correctness of the premises. But the question 
 may be asked, what has the bodily comfort of the animal to 
 do with perfecting the several properties of the fleece 1 The 
 answer is, every thing. If health and thrift are promoted 
 by equability of temperature, the cutaneous glands are alike 
 healthy, and a regular and even growth of the fibre naturally 
 follows. 
 
 But strictly speaking, equability of temperature is nowhere 
 to be found ; therefore, in our rigorous and changeable climate, 
 the fibre of wool must ever present a greater or less inequal- 
 ity of diameter between its extremes. It is remarkable that 
 the point has always the largest bulk. This is the product 
 of summer, after shearing time, when there is a repletion of 
 the secretions which produce the wool, and when the pores 
 of the skin are relaxed and open, and permit a larger fibre 
 to protrude . The portion near the root is the growth of the 
 spring, when the weather is getting warm ; and the inter- 
 mediate part is the offspring of winter, when, under the in- 
 fluence of the cold, the pores of the skin contract, and permit 
 only a finer fibe to escape. 
 
40 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 
 
 An author remarks, " The variations in the diameter of 
 the wool in the different parts of the fibre will also curiously 
 correspond with the degree of heat at the time the respective 
 portions were produced. The fibre of the wool, and the 
 record of the meteorologist, will singularly agree, if the va- 
 riations in temperature are sufficiently distant from each 
 other for any appreciable part of the fibre to grow." 
 
 In confirmation of the general fact as to the influence of 
 climate on wool and hair, the remarks of Mr. Hunter, an 
 English author of high authority, are quoted : " Sheep car- 
 ried from a cold to a warm climate soon undergo a remarka- 
 ble change in the appearance of their fleece. From being 
 very firm and thick, it becomes thin and coarse ; until at 
 length it degenerates into hair. Even if this change should 
 not take place to its full extent in the individual, it will in- 
 fallibly do so in the course of a greater or less number of 
 generations. The efiect of heat is nearly the same on the 
 hairs of other animals. The same species that in Russia, 
 Siberia, and North America, produce the most beautiful and 
 valuable furs, have nothing in the warmer climates but a 
 coarse and thin covering of hair." 
 
 The above must be received with some limitation. Mr. 
 Youatt makes the following remarks : " Temperature and 
 pasture have an influence on the fineness of the fibre, and 
 one which the farmer should never disregard ; but he may 
 in a great measure, counteract this influence by carefui 
 management and selection in breeding. The original ten- 
 dency to the production of a fleece of mixed materials exist- 
 ing, and the longer coarse hair covering and defending the 
 shorter and softer wool, nature may be gradually adapting 
 the animal to his new locality ; the hair may increase and 
 the wool may diminish, if man is idle all the while ; but a 
 little attention to breeding and management will limit the 
 extent of the evil, or prevent it altogether. A better illus- 
 tration of this cannot be found, than in the fact that the 
 Merino has been transplanted to every latitude on the tem- 
 perate zone, and to some beyond it — to Sweden in the 
 north, and Australia in the south, and has retained its ten- 
 dency to produce wool exclusively, and wool of nearly equal 
 fineness and value." 
 
 M. Lasteyrie, the unwearied advocate of the Merinos, 
 uses this remarkable language : — " The preservation of the 
 Merino race in its purity at the Cape of Good Hope, and 
 
PELTING. 41 
 
 under the rigorous climate of Sweden, furnish an additional 
 support of this, my unaherable opinion, jlne-wooled sheep 
 may be kept wherever industrious men and intelligent breeders 
 exist." 
 
 Notwithstanding the above is so consolatory, and withal 
 so very encouraging to our brethren of the Southern States to 
 embark in sheep husbandry, yet it is undeniable that in 
 northern latitudes the finest wools are produced ; but this 
 has arisen much from superior skill in breeding, and great 
 assiduity in management in every regard. If sheep are 
 properly selected from high-bred Merino and Saxon flocks, 
 and taken to a latitude not south of 28 deg., if rightly man- 
 aged, will suffer little deterioration for many years, and will 
 produce wools of a like description of the Australian, soft, 
 of even and long filament, fit for felting, and also admirably 
 adapted for the finest and most beautiful of worsted fabrics. 
 An instance is known by the writer,* of an imported flock 
 of Saxons having been taken to Tennessee some twenty 
 years since, and judging from the samples of wool from it 
 now in his possession, the conclusion is inevitable, that 
 little or no deterioration has been produced by the climate. 
 If sheep are provided with suitable retreats for shade during 
 the heat of the summer months, there are many districts in 
 the Southern States unsurpassed for wool cultivation. If 
 there is a tendency to coarseness, it will be retarded or 
 wholly prevented by an occasional recurrence to northern 
 stock getters. 
 
 Many imagine that the climate of the Southern States is 
 wholly unsuitable for the production of a fine fleece, because 
 of the inferiority of the wools of South America. The de- 
 generacy of the Merinos taken there, has not arisen so much 
 from the climate, as because " industrious men and intelli- 
 gent breeders" were not present to manage them ; further- 
 more, very many of the sheep transported there from Spain, 
 were of the Chunah breed, producing very coarse wool, and 
 these were promiscuously bred with the Merinos. The 
 conservative power over the fleece lies in good management 
 far more than climate. 
 
 The phenomena of felting long remained enshrouded in 
 
 * Mr. Mark H. Cockrill — see his letter in Appendix. 
 
 4* 
 
42 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 
 
 mystery. This gave rise to numerous speculations as to the 
 primary cause or causes, many of which, ahhough plausible 
 at the time of their publicity, now that the true cause has 
 been discovered, appear sufficiently ridiculous. But the 
 keen sagacity of man at length mastered the subject by sur- 
 mising the correct theory, without the means, however, to 
 demonstrate it, for want of microscopes of adequate power. 
 To M. Monge, the distinguished French chemist, are we 
 indebted for the first correct view of the structure of the 
 fibre, which, from its peculiarity, mainly depends the felting 
 principle. He asserted " that the surface of each fibre of 
 wool is formed of lamellae, or little plates which cover each 
 other from the root to the point, pretty much in the same 
 manner as the scales of a fish cover that animal from the 
 head to the tail, or like rows placed over one another, as is 
 observed in the structure of horns ;" and he accounts for the 
 felting process in the following way : 
 
 " In making a felt which is to constitute the body of a hat, 
 the workman presses the mass with his hands, moving them 
 backwards and forwards in various directions. This pres- 
 sure brings the hairs or fibres against each other, and multi- 
 plies their points of contact. The agitation gives to each 
 hair a progressive motion towards the root ; but the roots 
 are disposed in different directions — in every direction ; and 
 the lamellae of one hair will fix themselves on those of an- 
 other hair, which happens to be directed a contrary way, 
 and the hairs become twisted together, and the mass assumes 
 the compact form which it was the aim of the workman to 
 produce. If the wool is in cloth and subjected to the pro- 
 cess of fulling, the fibres which compose one of the threads, 
 whether of the warp or woof, assume a progressive move- 
 ment ; they introduce themselves among those of the threads 
 nearest to them, and thus by degrees all the threads become 
 felted together, the cloth is shortened in all its dimensions, 
 and partakes both of the nature of cloth and of felt." No 
 language can be employed which will convey a more cor- 
 rect and vivid impression of the process of felting, than the 
 foregoing. 
 
 Through the indomitable perseverance of Mr. Youatt, the 
 author of a valuable, though too diff'use, treatise on British 
 sheep-husbandry, Monge's theory was finally demonstrated, 
 although he was often frustrated, and almost yielded to de- 
 spair, from the imperfections of his instruments. The con- 
 
FELTING. 43 
 
 struction at last of a superior achromatic microscope by Mr. 
 Powell, of London, enabled him to realize his ardent wishes ; 
 and his own description of the scene, and the conclusioDs 
 to which he arrived, are of too much interest to admit of 
 any abbreviation. 
 
 " On the evening of the 7th of Feb. 1835, Mr. Thomas 
 Flint, woollen manufacturer, resident at Leeds ; Mr. Sy- 
 monds, clothing agent, of London, Mr. F. Millington, sur- 
 geon, of London, Mr. Edward Brady, veterinary surgeon, 
 Mr. Powell, the maker of the microscope, and the author 
 himself, were assembled in his parlor. The instrument was, 
 in Mr. Powell's opinion, the best he had constructed. A 
 fibre was taken from a Merino fleece of three years' growth; 
 the animal was bred by, and belonged to Lord Western. It 
 was taken without selection, and placed on the frame to be 
 examined as a transparent object. A power of 300 (linear) 
 was used, and the lamp was of the common flat-wicked kind. 
 The focus was readily found ; there was no trouble in the 
 adjustment of the microscope ; and after Mr. Powell, Mr. 
 Plint had the first perfect occular demonstration of the ir- 
 regularities in the surface of the wool, the palpable proof of 
 the cause of the most valuable of its properties — its disposi- 
 tion to felt. 
 
 " The fibre thus looked at, assumed a flattened riband- 
 like form. It was of a pearly grey color, darker towards 
 the centre, and with faint lines across it. The edges were 
 evidently hooked, or more properly serrated — they resembled 
 the teeth of a fine saw. These were somewhat irregular in 
 difi'erent parts of the field of view, both as to size and num- 
 ber. The area of the field was now ascertained ; it was 
 one-fortieth of an inch in diameter. By means of the mi- 
 crometer we divided this into four, and we then counted the 
 number of serrations in each division. Three of us counted 
 all four divisions, for there was a difference in some of them. 
 The number was set down privately, and it was found that 
 we had all estimated it at fifteen in each division. Having 
 multiplied this by four, to obtain the whole field, and that by 
 forty, the proportionate part of an inch of which the field 
 consisted, we obtained a result which could not be disputed, 
 that there were 2,400 serrations in the space of an inch, and 
 all of which projected in the same direction, viz. from the 
 root to the point. Then, before we quitted the exarainatior> 
 of the fibre as a transparent object, we endeavored to ascer- 
 
44 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 
 
 tain its actual character, and proved it to 1 -750th. of an 
 inch. 
 
 " We next endeavored to explore the cause of this ser- 
 rated appearance, and the nature of the irregularities on the 
 surface, which might possibly account for the production of 
 these tooth-like projections ; we therefore took another fibre,, 
 and mounted it as an opaque object. There was considera- 
 ble difficulty in throwing the light advantageously on the 
 fibre, so small a space only as l-30th of an inch intervening 
 between the lens and the object. At length Mr. Powell 
 perfectly succeeded ; and we were presented with a beauti- 
 ful glittering column, with lines of division across it, in num- 
 ber and distance seemingly corresponding with the serra- 
 tions that we had observed in the other fibre that had been 
 viewed as a transparent object. It was not at once that the 
 eye could adapt itself to the brilliancy of the object ; but by 
 degrees these divisions developed themselves, and could be 
 accurately traced. These were not so marked as the in- 
 verted cones which the bat's wool presented, but they were 
 distinct enough ; and the apex of the superior one, yet com- 
 paratively little diminished in bulk, was received into the 
 excavated base of the one immediately beneath, while the 
 edge of this base formed into a cup-like shape, projected, 
 snd had a serrated, or indented edge, bearing no indistinct 
 resemblance to the ancient crown. All these projecting in- 
 dented edges pointed in a direction from root to point. 
 
 " Whether these, like the cones of the bat, are joints, or 
 at least points of comparative weakness, and thus accounting 
 for the pliancy and softness of the fibre, or regulating the de- 
 gree in which these qualities exist, may perhaps be better 
 determined by and by ; one thing, however, is sufficiently 
 plain, that these serrated edges in the transparent object 
 produced (when the fibre was resolved into its true form as 
 an opaque one) by the projecting edges of the cups or hol- 
 lowed bases of the inverted cones, afford the most satisfac- 
 tory solution of the felting principle that can be given or 
 desired. The fibres can move readily in a direction from 
 root to point, the projections of the cups offering little or no 
 impediment, but when they have been once involved in a 
 mass, and a mass that has been pressed powerfully together, 
 as in some part of the manufactory of all felting wool, the 
 retraction of the fibre must be difficult, and in most cases 
 impossible." 
 
FELTING. 45 
 
 The annexed cuts exhibit microscopic views of the fibres 
 of wool from picklock samples of Merino and South Down 
 fleeces. The relative difl'erence of serrations cannot be 
 conveniently delineated in a plate : a marked difference, 
 however, will be observed in the construction of the lamellae. 
 ^ No. 1, a fibre of Merino wool as a transparent object; 
 No. 2, the same, as opaque. No. 3, a fibre of South Down 
 wool, transparent : No. 4, the same, opaque. 
 
 The following observations by Mr. Youatt, whose inde- 
 fatigable zeal and diligence in the investigation of many 
 particulars embraced in the present chapter, entitles him to 
 much honor, will conclude the subject : — 
 
 " There can no longer be a doubt with regard to the 
 general outline of the woolly fibre. It consists of a cen- 
 tral stem or stalk, probably hollow, or at least porous, and 
 possessing a semitransparency not found in the fibre of hair. 
 From this central stalk there springs at different distances, in 
 different breeds of sheep, a circlet of leave-shaped projec- 
 
46 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 
 
 tions. In the finer species of wool these circles seemed at 
 first to be composed of one indented, or serrated ring ; but 
 when the eye was accustomed to them, this ring was resolv- 
 able into leaves, or scales. In the larger kinds the ring was 
 at once resolvable into these scales, or leaves, varying in 
 number, shape, and size, and projecting at different angles 
 from the stalk, in the direction of the leaves of vegetables, 
 from the root to ihe point, or farther extremity. In the bat 
 there seemed to be a diminution in the bulk of the stalk, 
 immediately above the commencement of the sprouting of 
 the leaves, and presenting the appearance of the apex of an 
 inverted cone received in the hollowed cup-like base of an- 
 other immediately beneath. The diminution in the fibre of 
 the wool at these points could be only indistinctly perceived ; 
 but the projection of the leaves gave a somewhat similar 
 cone-like appearance. The extremities of the leaves in the 
 long Merino and the Saxon wool were evidently pointed, 
 with acute indentations or angles between them. They 
 were pointed likewise in the South Down, but not so much, 
 and the interposed vacuities were less deep and angular. 
 In the Leicester the leaves are round, with a diminutive 
 point or space. Of the actual substance and strength of 
 these leafy or scaly circles nothing can yet be affirmed ; but 
 they appear to be capable of different degrees of resistance, 
 or of entanglement with other fibres, in proportion as their 
 form is sharpened, and they project from the stalk, and in 
 proportion likewise as these circlets are multiplied. So far 
 as the examination has hitherto proceeded, they are sharper 
 and more numerous in the felting wools than in others, and 
 in proportion as the felting property exists. The conclusion 
 seems to be legitimate, and indeed inevitable, that they are 
 connected with, or, in fact, that they give to the wool the 
 power of felting, and regulate the degree in which that power 
 is possessed. 
 
 " If to this is added the curved form which the fibre of the 
 wool naturally assumes, and the well-known fact, that these 
 curves differ in the most striking degree in different breeds, 
 according to the fineness of the fibre, and, when multiplying 
 in a given space, increase both the means of entanglement 
 and the difficulty of disengagement, the whole mystery of 
 felting is unravelled. A cursory glance will discover the 
 proportionate number of curves, and the microscope has now 
 established a connexion between the closeness of the curves 
 
PELTING. 47 
 
 and the number of the serrations. The Saxon wool is re- 
 markable for the close packing of its little curves ; the num- 
 ber of serrations are 2720 in an inch. The South Down 
 wool has numerous curves, but evidently more distant than 
 in the former sample ; the serrations are 2080. In the Lei- 
 cester the wavy curls are so far removed from each other, 
 that a great part of the fibre would be dissipated under the 
 operation of the card, and the serrations are 1860; and in 
 some of the wools which warm the animal, but were not in- 
 tended to clothe the human body, the curves are more dis- 
 tant, and the serrations are not more than 480. The wool- 
 grower, the stapler, and the manufacturer, can scarcely wish 
 for better guides. 
 
 " Yet there is no organic connexion between the curve and 
 the serration ; the serrations are not the cause of the curve, 
 nor do the curves produce the serrations ; the connexion is 
 founded on the grand principle that the works of nature are 
 perfect, that no beneficial power is bestowed without full 
 scope for its exercise. The curves of the smooth fibre 
 might entangle to a considerable degree, but some of the 
 points would be continually unravelling and threatening the 
 dissolution of the whole felt. The straight fibre, however 
 deeply serrated, its root being introduced into the mass, 
 would often pass on, and pass through the felt and be lost. 
 It is by the curved form of the jagged fibre that the object 
 can be accomplished certainly and perfectly. 
 
 " Future observers may possibly detect in wool the apparent 
 coned and jointed structure of the hair of the bat, and then a 
 third and powerful principle would be called into action, the 
 pliability of the fibre, the ease with which it is bent in every 
 different direction, and in each becomes more inexplicably 
 entangled. A great point, however, is gained by the knowl- 
 edge that in proportion as the auxiliaries in the felting pro- 
 cess are multiplied, the direct agents are also increased." 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 HISTORY OF SHEEP. 
 
 ARGALI, MUSMON, ASIATIC, AND AFRICAN SHEEP. 
 
 ASIATIC ARGALI. 
 
 The following description of the Asiatic Argali is from 
 the pen of Professor Low : — 
 
 " The Argali possessing the generic characters of the 
 sheep, is somewhat less than the size of a stag. He has enor- 
 mous horns, measuring more than a foot in circumference at 
 the base, and from three to four feet in length, triangularly 
 rising from the summit of the head so as nearly to touch at 
 the root, ascending, stretching out laterally, and bending for- 
 ward at the point. He has a fur of short hair, covering a 
 coat of soft white wool. The color of the fur externally is 
 brown, becoming brownish grey in the winter ; there is a 
 buff-colored streak along the back, and a large spot of a 
 lighter buff-color on the haunch, surrounding and including 
 the tail. The female differs from the male in being smaller, 
 in having the horns more slender and straight, and in the 
 absence of the disc on the haunch. In both sexes the tail 
 is very short, the eyelashes are whitish, and the hair 
 beneath the throat is longer than on any other parts of the 
 body. 
 
 " These creatures inhabit the mountains and elevated plains 
 of Asia, from the Caucasus northward and eastward, to 
 Kamschatka and the Ocean. They are agile and strong, but 
 very timid, shunning the least appearance of danger ; their 
 motion is zigzag, and they stop in their course to gaze upon 
 their pursuer, after the manner of the domestic sheep. They 
 are usually found in very small flocks, and at rutting season 
 the males fight desperately, using their horns and forehead 
 in the manner of the common ram. They are hunted by 
 
THE AMERICAN ARGALI. 49 
 
 the people of the country for their flesh, which is esteemed 
 to be savory, and for their skins, which are made into 
 clothing. In autumn, after having pastured during the sum- 
 mer on the mountains and in the secluded valleys, they are 
 fat, and in high request ; but as winter advances, they are 
 forced to descend from the mountains in search of food ; they 
 then lose their pkmipness, and are sought after only for their 
 skins. When taken young they are easily tamed, but the 
 old ones never resign their natural wildness." 
 
 THE AMERICAN ARGALI. 
 
 This supposed variety of the Asiatic Argali is well 
 known as the " big-horn of the Rocky Mountains." 
 
 The Abbe Lambert gives the following account of it : — 
 " Besides several sorts of animals known among us, there 
 are two sorts of fallow beasts unknown in Europe. They 
 call them sheep, because they have the figure of our sheep. 
 The first species is as large as a calf one or two years old. 
 Their head has a great resemblance to that of a stag, and 
 their horns to those of a ram. Their tail and hair, which 
 are speckled, are shorter than those of a stag ; their flesh is 
 very good and delicate." 
 
 The following account was rendered by Capt. Bonneville, 
 and published by Washington Irving in his work entitled 
 the " Rocky Mountains." 
 
 " Amidst this wild and striking scenery. Captain Bonne- 
 ville, for the first time, beheld flocks of ahsata, or big-horn, 
 an animal which frequents these clifls in great numbers. 
 They accord with the nature of such scenery, and add 
 much to its romantic effect ; bounding like goats from crag 
 to crag, often trooping along the lofty shelves of the moun- 
 tains, under the guidance of some venerable patriarch, with 
 horns twisted lower than Iris muzzle, and sometimes peering 
 over the edge of the precipice, so high that they appear 
 scarce bigger than crows ; indeed, it seems a pleasure to 
 them to seek the most rugged and frightful situations, doubt- 
 less from a feeling of security. It has short hair like a deer, 
 and resembles it in shape, but it has the head and horns of 
 a sheep, and its flesh is said to be delicious mutton. It 
 abounds in the Rocky Mountains, from the fiftieth degree 
 of north latitude, quite down to California ; generally in the 
 highest regions capable of vegetation ; sometimes it ventures 
 into the valleys, but on the least alarm, regains its favorite 
 
 5 
 
50 HISTORY OF SHEEr. 
 
 cliffs and precipices, where it is perilous, if not impossible 
 for the hunter to follow. The dimensions of a male of this 
 species is, from the nose to the base of the tail, five feet ; 
 length of the tail, four inches ; girth of the body, four feet ; 
 height, three feet eight inches ; the horn, three feet six inches 
 long ; one foot three inches in circumference at the base." 
 
 In that valuable work entitled the " Animal Kingdom," 
 Major Hamilton Smith remarks : — " If the American spe- 
 cies be the same as the Asiatic, which appears very proba- 
 ble, it can have reached the New World only over the ice 
 by Behring's Straits ; and the passage may be conjectured 
 as comparatively of a recent date, since the Argali has not 
 spread eastward beyond the Rocky Mountains, nor to the 
 south farther than California." 
 
 THE MOUFLON OR MUSMON. 
 
 Buffon and Wilson have considered this sheep as identi- 
 cal with the Argali ; others regard it as a variety only. It 
 inhabits the mountains of Corsica and Sardinia, and has 
 been found in some of the islands of the Grecian Archipel- 
 ago. It is asserted by Pliny as having abounded, at an 
 early period, in Spain. 
 
 Wilson, the distinguished naturalist, describes it thus : — 
 " It is usually about two and a half feet in height, and three 
 feet and a half from the nose to the commencement of the 
 tail. The horns never exceed two feet in length ; they are 
 curved backwards, and the points turn inwards ; the roots 
 of the horns are very thick and wrinkled ; the ears are of a 
 middle size, straight and pointed ; the neck is thick ; the 
 body round ; the limbs muscular ; and the tail short. The 
 color is generally of a dull, or brownish-grey, with some 
 white on the fore part of the face and on the legs ; a tuft of 
 long hair beneath the throat ; a dark streak along the back ; 
 and the upper part of the face black, with black streaks 
 along the cheeks. The forehead of this sheep is particu- 
 larly arched. The females are generally without horns, 
 and where they do appear, they are considerably less than 
 those of the male." 
 
 The Musmons, like the Argali, love to roam on the high- 
 est mountain-tops, where they are seen congregated in herds 
 of from fifty to an hundred. It is covered by a fine hair of 
 no great length, having beneath it a thick, grey-colored wool, 
 
FAT-RUMPED SHEEP. 
 
 51 
 
 short, but full of spirals, and the edges thickly serrated. 
 Cuvier says the Musmon is difficult to domesticate, rarely 
 exhibiting intelligence, confidence, affection, or docility. 
 
 ASIATIC BREEDS. 
 
 FAT-RUMPED— FAT-TAILED— PERSIAN-TIBET— EAST INDIA— CHINESE. 
 
 IK 
 
 
 FAT-RUMPED SHEEP. 
 
 From the earliest times of which we have any authentic 
 accounts, the Fat-rumped sheep has inhabited the countries 
 over which the patriarchal shepherds roamed. It is but 
 little known in Africa, but prevails extensively in the north 
 and south of Asia ; is found in Palestine in greater numbers 
 than any other breed, and reaches far into the interior and 
 northern parts of Russia. It is purest in the deserts of 
 Great Tartary, no other variety being near to contaminate 
 its blood. 
 
52 HISTORY OF SHEEP. 
 
 Dr. Anderson, the traveller, gives the follovv^ing account 
 of this singularly-formed breed : " The flocks of all the Tar- 
 tar hordes resemble one another, by having a large yellow- 
 ish muzzle, the under jaw^ often projecting beyond the upper ; 
 by long hanging ears, and by the horns of the adult ram 
 being large, spiral, wrinkled, angular, or bent in a lunar 
 form. They have slender legs in proportion to their bodies, 
 a high chest, large hanging testicles, and tolerably fine wool 
 mixed with hair. The body of the ram, and sometimes of 
 the ewe, swells gradually with fat towards the posteriors, 
 where a solid mass of fat is formed on the rump, and falls 
 over the anus in place of a tail, divided into two hemispheres, 
 which take the form of the hips, with a little button of a 
 tail in the middle to be felt with the finger." 
 
 This breed often weigh 200 lbs., and may be considered 
 the largest of the unimproved sheep ; of which weight the 
 soft oily fat alone that forms on the rump amounts to from 
 20 to 40 lbs. In the neighborhood of Caucasus and Tauri- 
 da, the hind-quarters of the sheep are salted as hams, and 
 sent in great quantities to the northern provinces of Turkey. 
 In parts of Russia the fat-rumped sheep bears a somewhat 
 fine fleece, but generally speaking it is coarse, and is adapted 
 only for the purposes of inferior manufactures. 
 
 FAT-TAILED SHEEP. 
 
 This race of sheep is more extensively diffused than the 
 fat-rumped, since it is found throughout Asia, a great part 
 of Africa, as well as through the north-eastern parts of 
 Europe. 
 
 Dr. Russell, in his history of Aleppo, gives the follow- 
 ing account of it, as it appears in Syria : — " The dead weight 
 of one of these sheep will amount to 50 or 60 lbs., of which 
 the tail makes up 15 or 16 lbs. ; but some of the largest that 
 have been fattened with care weigh 150 lbs., the tail alone 
 composing one third of the whole weight. This broad, flat- 
 tish tail is mostly covered with long wool, and, becoming 
 very small at the extremity, turns up. It is entirely com- 
 posed of a substance between marrow and fat, serving very 
 often in the kitchen instead of butter, and cut into small 
 pieces, makes an ingredient in various dishes." 
 
 Dr. Russell further remarks — " Animals of this extraor- 
 dinary size (150 lbs.) are, however, very rare, and kept up 
 
PAT-TAILED SHEEP. 
 
 53 
 
 in yards, so as to be in little danger of hurting their tails 
 from the bushes. The shepherds in several places in Syria 
 fix a thin piece of board to the under part, which is not, 
 like the rest, covered with wool, and to this board are some- 
 times added small wheels ; whence, with a little exaggera- 
 tion, we have the story of the Oriental sheep being under 
 the necessity of carts to carry their tails. But the necessity 
 of carriages for the tails of the African sheep, mentioned by 
 Herodotus, Rudolphus, and others, is real. The tail of that 
 animal when fat actually trails, not being tucked up like 
 those of the Syrian sheep." 
 
 
 THE FAT-TAILED SHEEP. 
 
 A distinguished writer on sheep supposes the broad or 
 fat-tailed sheep merely a variety of the fat-rumped ; " the 
 strange collection of adipose matter having only shifted its 
 situation from the posterior part of the haunch — the very 
 rump — to the superior part of the tail. This may have been 
 at first accidental, and perpetuated by accident or design." 
 
 5* 
 
54 HISTORY OF SHEEP. 
 
 PERSIAN SHEEP. 
 
 In Persia the fat-tailed sheep predominate greatly over 
 the fat-rumped ; and although the chief sources of wealth to a 
 large class, no efforts are bestowed upon their improvement. 
 The shepherds still follow the wandering life of their ances- 
 tors. In Eraser's account of Persia, they are thus described : 
 
 " When the pastures are bare, they shift to some other 
 spot. The march of one of these parties is a striking specta- 
 cle. The main body is generally preceded by an advanced 
 guard of stout young men, well armed, as if to clear the 
 way ; then follow large flocks of all kinds of domestic ani- 
 mals, covering the country far and wide, and driven by the 
 lads of the community. The asses, which are numerous, 
 and the rough, stout yaboos (small horses), are loaded with 
 goods, tents, clothes, pots and boilers, and every sort of 
 utensil, bound confusedly together. On the top of some of 
 the burdens may be seen mounted the elder children, who 
 act the part of drivers, and the lesser urchins holding on 
 manfully with feet and hands. A third class of animals 
 bear the superannuated of the tribe, bent double with age, 
 and hardly distinguishable from the mass of rags that forms 
 their seats. The young men and women bustle about, pre- 
 venting, with the assistance of their huge dogs, the cattle 
 from straying too far. The mothers, carrying the younger 
 infants, patiently trudge on foot, watching the progress of 
 their domestic equipage. The men, with sober, thoughtful 
 demeanor, armed to the teeth, walk steadily on the flanks 
 and rear of the grotesque column, guarding and controlling 
 its slow and regular movement." 
 
 Much wool is grown in those districts of Persia, where 
 the majority of the inhabitants lead a pastoral life ; the most 
 valuable is found in the province of Kerman. This is a very 
 mountainous country, hot and dry in summer, and intensely 
 cold in winter. The wool of the sheep is fine in quality, 
 and that which grows at the roots of the hair of the goat is 
 nearly as fine. The latter is manufactured into various 
 fabrics, which almost equal the beautiful shawls of Cash- 
 mere. The fine felt carpets, for which Persia is so cele- 
 brated, are manufactured from the wool of the sheep, either 
 in Kerman or Koprasan. Although these districts are re- 
 motely situated from each other, the wool of the sheep near- 
 ly corresponds, and *' is remarkable for being spirally-curled, 
 
TIBET, EAST INDIA, AND CHINESE SHEEP. 55 
 
 and of a grey, or mixed black and white color. The sheep 
 are below the ordinary size, the horns of the ram curved 
 back and spiral at the tip, the ears pendulous, and the tail 
 not very broad. The fine furs are from the lambs slaugh- 
 tered with their dams a few days before yeaning."* 
 
 TIBET SHEEP. 
 
 The sheep of Tibet, which are very numerous, are chiefly 
 a small variety of the fat-rumped Persian and Abyssinian, 
 with black heads and necks. Some are hairy, with short wool 
 underneath, while others bear a long, soft, and fine wool. It 
 is from the latter that many of the costly Indian shawls are 
 made. Not a little of this peculiar wool finds its way to 
 British India, and is there manufactured. The mutton of 
 Tibet sheep is said to be peculiarly well flavored. 
 
 EAST INDIA SHEEP. 
 
 The sheep which aboimd in the provinces of British India» 
 consist for the most part of the fat-rumped and fat-tailed va- 
 rieties, and therefore no farther notice will be requisite. 
 
 CHINESE SHEEP. 
 
 In the immense Empire of China, as might naturally be 
 expected, breeds of sheep are found differing essentially from 
 each other. One of the most singular is the Long-legged 
 sheep, distinguished, as their name would imply, for the ex- 
 traordinary length of the legs. This breed have horns which 
 are of middle size, and curved ; the forehead is arched, the 
 neck short, with a collar of hair reaching from the nape of 
 it to the shoulders ; the head, legs, and mane are of a red- 
 brown color ; the tail is long, and the wool short and coarse. 
 
 The fat-rumped and fat-tailed extensively abound in the 
 more southern parts of China ; and in certain districts a 
 small breed is found resembling the form of the European 
 breeds, which produces a fine and very useful long wool. 
 
 The antiquity of Chinese manufactures is proverbial. 
 An old traveller says, that " when the Dutch presented the 
 Emperor of China with some scarlet and other cloths 
 made in Europe, he asked how, and what they were made 
 of? Being told, he replied that his subjects could make 
 ihem, and, therefore, there was no need to bring them so 
 far." 
 
 * Fraser's Travels. 
 
56 III.^TORV OF .SIIKEP. 
 
 AFRICAN BREEDS. 
 
 EGYPTIAN— ETHIOPIAN— ABYSSINIAN— MADAGASCAR— CAPE OF 
 GOOD HOPE— ANGOLA— GU[NEA—MOROCCO. 
 
 EGYPTIAN, ETHIOPIAN, AND ABYSSINIAN SHEEP. 
 
 According to Dr. Anderson, the fat-tailed slieep prevail 
 in Egypt, and both varieties of them are found ; but those 
 with long tails, nearly or quite reaching to the ground, are 
 more numerous than the broad-tailed kind. They are of a 
 large size, mostly with black heads and necks, an external 
 coat of hair, and their flesh well flavored. 
 
 In Nether Ethiopia the sheep begin to be more numer- 
 ous ; they are large — some of them with tails from 18 to 
 25 lbs. in weight — with black heads and necks, and the re- 
 mainder of their bodies white ; others are quite white, with 
 tails reaching nearly to the ground, and curved at the ex- 
 tremity.* Here also appear the fat-rumped sheep, with 
 black heads and necks, but of smaller size than the Persian 
 breed. 
 
 Proceeding farther south, says Bruce, they are taller and 
 all black ; their heads large, and with ears remarkably short 
 and small. They also, like all the native sheep within the 
 tropics, have an external covering of hair. It is in this re- 
 gion (Abyssinia) that the many-horned sheep is found, many 
 bearing four, and some writers have asserted that individuals 
 have been seen with six horns. 
 
 MADAGASCAR SHEEP. 
 
 The island of Madagascar is situated on the eastern coast 
 of Africa, and mostly within the tropic of Capricorn. 
 
 The sheep have broad tails like those of Africa. Dr. 
 Anderson states the following : " A Danish East Indiaman 
 put into Leith roads on her return home. I went on board 
 to see what curiosities she had, and I there found a sheep, 
 which was closely covered with a close coat of thick, short 
 hair, very smooth and sleek, like the coat of a well-dressed 
 horse, but the hairs rather stiffer, and thicker set on the 
 skin, and the color a line nut-brown. This sheep, I was 
 
 * Dapper's Africa. 
 
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE AND ANGOLA SHEEP. 57 
 
 told, was brought from the island of Madagascar, and that 
 all the sheep found on the island were of the same sort." 
 
 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE SHEEP. 
 
 The British colony of the Cape of Good Hope occupies 
 the extreme verge of Southern Africa, between the 30th and 
 35th degrees of south latitude. 
 
 The native sheep are of the broad-tailed breed. Barrow* 
 says " they are of every variety of color, black, brown, bay, 
 but mostly spotted ; their necks are small, their ears long 
 and pendulous. They are covered with strong frizzled 
 hair, of which little use is made, except for cushions and 
 mattrasses." 
 
 When the Cape was in possession of the Dutch, an ex- 
 periment was made with the Merinos, which, from the un- 
 favorable climate, prejudice and bad management, resulted 
 in utter failure. After its cession to the English, a more 
 extensive and fairer trial was made with Merinos, which 
 was attended with better success. Much good wool is now 
 sent over to the mother country, which amounted in 1833 
 to nearly 100,000 lbs. The number of sheep, of all kinds, 
 in the colony, exceeds two millions. 
 
 ANGOLA SHEEP. 
 
 Angola is situated on the south-western coast of Africa. 
 Here is to be found a very singular sheep, which is thus de- 
 scribed in the " Animal Kingdom." " It is called the Zcnu. 
 Its legs are long and slender, but the arms and shanks are 
 muscular and strong. There is a slight elevation at the 
 withers, the chest is narrow and flat, and falling in between 
 the arms ; the false ribs project, and give to the carcass a 
 strong resemblance to that of the Zebu. The fat is most 
 singularly disposed. It is taken from the tail or rump, and 
 is distributed over three parts of the animal. A small por- 
 tion of it is spread over the posterior part of the loin and the 
 commencement of the haunch. A more decided accumula- 
 tion is found on the poll, and precisely of the semi-fluid 
 character which the fat assumes in the tail, or the rump of 
 other Eastern sheep. This mass commences from the base 
 of the ears, and extends backwards, in the form of a rounded 
 projection, half way down the neck. Under the jaw, ex- 
 
 * Barrow's Southern Africa. 
 
68 HISTORY OF SHEEP. 
 
 tending downwards and covering the larynx, is a third col- 
 lection of soft fatty matter." This is certainly a very curious 
 variety of sheep, and is found in no other part of the world. 
 
 GUINEA SHEEP. 
 
 There are two kinds of sheep on the slave coast. One 
 is small, their forms resembling, in some particulars, the Eu- 
 ropean sheep. Says a Dutch traveller, — " They have no 
 wool, but the Avant is supplied with hair, so that here the 
 world seems inverted, for the sheep are hairy and the 
 men are woolly. The hair is like that of the goat, with a 
 sort of mane like a lion on the neck, and so on the rump, 
 and a bunch at the end of the tail." 
 
 The most numerous breed in Guinea is of a different 
 character. The male is horned, the horns generally form- 
 ing a semicircle, with the points forward ; the females are 
 hornless ; the ears are pendulous, and black spots are distrib- 
 uted on the sides of the head and neck, as well as body."* 
 A writer remarks, " The sheep in Guinea have so little re- 
 semblance, in general, to those in Europe, that a stranger, 
 unless he heard them bleat, could hardly tell what animals 
 they were, being covered with white and brown hairs like 
 a dog." 
 
 MOROCCO SHEEP. 
 
 Morocco is situated in the northern latitudes of Africa. 
 Its sheep are far superior to any other breeds of that region, 
 and the only ones worth cultivating. The form and fleece 
 were highly appreciated in the days of Columella, as was 
 proved by his selection of a ram to improve his Spanish 
 ewes, at the time of his residence near Cadiz. Chancellor 
 Livingston, in his " Essay on Sheep," says — " I have in my 
 flock a ewe that is descended from a Barbary ram. Her 
 fleece is long, straight, and fine." She was tupped by one 
 of his Merino rams, and the produce from the cross exhibited 
 a wool equal to seven-eighths Merino ! 
 
 * Animal Kingdom. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 
 
 ITALIAN— SPANISH, MERINOS, &c.— FRENCH- SWISS. 
 ITALIAN SHEEP. 
 
 When the Roman Empire was at its height of power, the 
 sheep of Italy surpassed all others in the fineness of their 
 fleeces. "The best wool, of all others," says Pliny, "is 
 that of Apulia, which is of a very short staple, and especial- 
 ly in request for cloaks and mantles." 
 
 Ancient authors represent the Italian sheep and wool as 
 being cultivated Avith a degree of care, which, if true, out- 
 strips every thing in modern times. The reason of this is 
 obvious. The sumptuous Roman was clothed at one period 
 in woollen fabrics, and ambitious to appear in none other 
 than the finest, induced the extreme assiduity in perfecting 
 the material for its manufacture. At length the silk and 
 cotton fabrics of the East were introduced, which, on being 
 found better adapted to the climate, caused the excessive 
 care of the sheep to relax, Avhich were soon after cultivated 
 more for the carcass than the fleece. The celebrated breeds 
 of Apulia and Tarentum ultimately disappeared, and were 
 succeeded by a larger, coarser, but, under the altered cir- 
 cumstances, more profitable race. 
 
 The remarks of Mr. Youatt concerning the old Tarentine 
 or Tarentum breed, the admitted probable progenitors of 
 THE FAMED Merino, will be read with interest. 
 
 " Although the old Tarentine sheep produced a wool un- 
 equalled in early times, they were not without their defects, 
 and very serious ones too. They were called by the agri- 
 culturists of those days pellite, from the skins and other 
 clothing with which they were covered ; and also molles, 
 not only from the softness of their fleece, but from the deli- 
 cacy of their constitution, and the constant care that was re- 
 
60 
 
 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 
 
 quired to preserve them from mjurious vicissitudes of heat 
 and cold. The care bestowed iipon the fleece was a work 
 of great labor. It was frequently uncovered, not only to as- 
 certain its condition, but for the refreshment of the animal ; 
 it was drawn out, and parted and combed, if it was begin- 
 ning to mat ; it was frequently moistened with the finest 
 oil, and even with wine ; it was well washed three or four 
 times in the year ; the sheep-houses were daily, and almost 
 hourly, washed, and cleaned, and fumigated." 
 
 MERINO RAM. 
 SPANISH SHEEP, MERINOS, ETC. 
 
 The history of the Spanish Merino sheep, the spread of 
 which in diflerent countries has eflected so complete a rev- 
 olution in the character of the fleece, cannot but be a mat- 
 ter of much interest to the American wool-grower ; therefore 
 the compiler has no apology to render for the extended no- 
 tice of this renowned breed, which is here presented. 
 
 At a very early period, it appears from the accounts of 
 several writers, Spain was possessed of several breeds, the 
 
SPANISH SHEEP, MEPUNOS, ETC. 61 
 
 fleeces of which varied in color and quaUty. One of these 
 was black, and noted for its fine texture ; but the " red 
 fleece," as it was called, of Boetica, Granada, and Andalusia, 
 was superior in fineness to all others. The breed which bore 
 the latter, it is now generally believed, were originally from 
 Italy, and of the Tarentine variety, already described. They 
 were crossed with the more inferior kinds, while others of the 
 race were kept distinct; and from the congeniality of the 
 climate and herbage, retained their original superiority of 
 fleece.* 
 
 In the reign of the Emperor Claudius (A. D. 41), Colu- 
 mella, a distinguished lover of agriculture, introduced many 
 of the Tarentine breed into Spain, of which he was then a 
 resident; and also improved the inferior breeds, by convey- 
 ing into the colony some African rams of singular beautj'-, 
 which had been exhibited at Rome, and which will account 
 for the probable origin of the Chunah breed, to be presently 
 noticed. 
 
 Although the Tarentine sheep undoubtedly laid the foun- 
 dation of the excellence of the Merino race, yet the breed 
 betray an amalgamation to have taken place to some extent 
 with the black sheep, referred to, as individuals occasionally, 
 at the present day, have a dun-colored ear, and also spots of 
 that hue on one or more of the legs. 
 
 In the eighth century the Saracens or Moors conquered a 
 portion of Spain, and which, in the language of a writer, 
 " they found fruitful in corn and pleasant fruit, and glutted 
 with herds and flocks." This warlike and enterprising race 
 were distinguished for their luxurious customs, and a fine 
 and expensive wardrobe was regarded an object of essen- 
 tial importance. Hence, in the 13th century, Spain became 
 renowned for her woollen manufactures, then scarcely known 
 in the rest of Europe, and Seville alone contained no less 
 than 16,000 looms. The manufacture therefore of the finest 
 fabrics was the source of much national wealth, as large 
 quantities were exported to every part of Europe, as well as 
 Africa. 
 
 But after the expulsion of the Moors, manufactures be- 
 came almost extinct. Nearly a million of these enterprising 
 
 * The evidence of the foreign origin of the Merino is implied in the 
 name, of which " the Spanish orthography is Mareno, which signifies 
 from or beyond sea." — William Jarvis. 
 
 6 
 
62 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 
 
 artisans were driven from the kingdom during the reigns of 
 Ferdinand V. and Philip III. ; and the consequence was 
 that "the 16,000 looms of Seville dwindled down to 60, 
 and the woollen manufacture almost ceased to have exist- 
 ence throughout Spain."* 
 
 The Spanish government saw too late its fatal error, as 
 the many fruitless attempts to restore the manufacture of the 
 beautiful fabrics of the Moors have fully proved. But during 
 all this while, however, the Merino, notwithstanding its 
 neglect, continued to produce its invaluable fleece, which, 
 instead of meeting with adequate skill at home for its man- 
 ufacture, was sent abroad to be worked by other more inge- 
 nious and industrious nations. "The perpetuation of the 
 Merino sheep in all its purity, amidst the convulsions which 
 changed the whole political existence of Spain, and destroyed 
 every other national improvement, is a fact which the philos- 
 opher may not be able fully to explain ; but which he will 
 contemplate with deep interest. In the mind of the agricul- 
 turist, it will beautifully illustrate the primary determining 
 power of blood or breeding, and also the agency of soil and 
 climate, a little too much underrated, perhaps, in modern 
 times." 
 
 Independent of the Merinos, there is another race, in 
 Spain, called Chunahs, which are larger and heavier than 
 the Merinos, and carry a fleece the staple of which is from 
 five to eight inches long, and coarse. This breed extends 
 throughout all Spain, and is the favorite of the peasant and 
 small proprietor. The Chunahs are supposed to have been 
 much improved by the English Cotswold breed, of which 
 there exists a record of the 15th century of a number having 
 been exported to Spain with a view to lengthen the staple 
 of the coarser and more inferior breeds of that country. The 
 sheep under consideration are stationary, or never move 
 from their homes for pasture ; and hence compose, in part, 
 one of the grand divisions of Spanish sheep denominated 
 Estantes or stationary. 
 
 The Merinos are of two classes, one of which, like the 
 Chunahs, are of the Estantes or stationary character, which, 
 as the name implies, are never moved beyond the districts 
 in which they are owned, for pasture ; the other class or 
 
 * Wansey. 
 
SPANISH SHEEP, MERINOS, ETC. 63 
 
 division is termed transhumantes* or migratory, which are 
 annually driven to the north of the kingdom for pasturage 
 during the summer months. 
 
 The latter are composed of the Leonese, and the Sorians. 
 The former pass the winter on the north bank of the Gaudi- 
 ana, in Estremadura, and begin their march about the 15th 
 of April, in divisions of from two to three thousands. They 
 pass the Tagus at Almares, and direct their course towards 
 Trecasas, Alfaro, and L'Epinar, where they are shorn. 
 This operation having been performed, they recommence 
 their travel towards the kingdom of Leon. Some halt on 
 the Sierra (ridge of mountains) which separates Old from 
 New Castile, but others pursue their route to the pastures 
 of Cevera, near Aquilar del Campo. Here they graze until 
 the latter part of September, or early in the following 
 month, when they commence their return to Estremadura. 
 
 The Soriau sheep having passed the winter on the con- 
 fines of Estremadura, Andalusia, and New Castile, begin 
 their route about the same time. They pass the Tagus at 
 Talavera, and approach Madrid ; thence they proceed to So- 
 ria, where a portion of them are distributed over the neigh- 
 boring mountains, while the others cross the Ebro in order 
 to proceed to Navarre and the Pyrenees. 
 
 These periodical journeys are made necessary by the 
 severity of the drouth in Spanish Estremadura, from the 
 close of April till near the 1st of October, which parches 
 the plains to such a degree as to destroy almost entirely the 
 growth of the pasture. The rains commence falling about 
 the autumnal equinox, and continue, with intermissions of a 
 few days only, until the latter part of March. In a few 
 weeks from their beginning the plains assume a beautiful 
 verdure, and so continue till the approach of the dry season; 
 and during this time the thermometer rarely falls below 40 
 deg.f The rains are of frequent occurrence in the summer 
 season on the sierras or mountains ; and thus these numer- 
 ous migratory flocks are supported the entire year on grass, 
 which the Spaniard at one time supposed was the cause of 
 some of the valuable properties of the Merino fleece. The 
 fallacy, however, of this has been fully proved. 
 
 * From trans and humus, expressive of their change of climate and 
 pasture. 
 
 t William Jarvis. 
 
64 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 
 
 " The greater part of these travelUng sheep, says Chan- 
 cellor Livingston, in process of time got into the hands of 
 the king, or into those of the principal courtiers and clergy ; 
 and from thence we must probably date the oppressive code 
 by which their march is regulated, and the origin of the 
 great Council of the Royal Troop (Consejo de la Mesta) by 
 whom those laws are administered." This tyrannical tribu- 
 nal was established as early as the 14th century. It estab- 
 lished a right to graze on all open and common land that 
 lay in the way ; it claimed also a path ninety yards wide 
 through all the enclosed and cultivated country ; and it pro- 
 hibited all persons, even foot passengers, from travelling on 
 these roads while the sheep were in motion ! 
 
 The following interesting narrative of incidents connected 
 with the annual peregrinations of these sheep is from Mr. 
 Youatt's work, by whom it vv^as compiled chiefly from the 
 writings of M. Lasteyrie. 
 
 " They are divided into flocks, each of which is placed 
 under the care of a mayoral, or chief shepherd, M^ho has a 
 sufficient number of others under his command, with their 
 dogs. He uniformly precedes the flock, and directs the 
 length and speed of the journey ; the others with the dogs 
 follow, and flank the cavalcade, collect the stragglers, and 
 keep off the wolves, who regularly follow at a distance and 
 migrate with the flock. A few asses or mules accompany 
 the procession, in order to carry the little clothing and other 
 necessaries of the shepherds, and the materials for the fold 
 at night. Several of the sheep, principally wethers, are 
 perfectly tamed, and taught to obey the signals of the shep- 
 herds. These follow the leading shepherd, having been 
 accustomed to be fed from his hand ; they lead the flock — 
 there is no driving — and the rest quietly follow. 
 
 " When passing through the enclosures, they sometimes 
 travel eighteen or twenty miles a day ; but when they reach 
 an open country, with good pasture, they proceed more 
 leisurely. Their whole journey is usually more than four 
 hundred miles, which they usually accomplish in six weeks, 
 and thus spend, in going and returning, nearly one quarter 
 of the year in this injurious manner. 
 
 " It may be readily supposed that much damage is done, 
 carelessly, or unintentionally, or wilfully, to the country over 
 Avhich these immense flocks are passing ; and particularly 
 as the migrations take place at the times of the year when 
 
SPANISH SHEEP, MEPJNOS, ETC. 65 
 
 the property of the agriculturist is most liable to injury. In 
 addition to this, the servants of the Mesta, like the servants 
 of Government elsewhere, have little common I'eeling with 
 the inhabitants of the country which they are traversing ; 
 they commit much serious and wanton injury, and they re- 
 fuse all redress. 
 
 " The shepherds and the sheep equally know when the 
 procession has arrived at the point of its destination. It is 
 necessary to exert great vigilance over the flock during the 
 last three or four days, for the animals are eager to start 
 away, and often great numbers of them make their escape. 
 If they are not destroyed by the wolves, there is no great 
 danger of losing them ; for they are found on their old pas- 
 ture, quietly Availing the arrival of their companions, and it 
 would be difficult to make any of them proceed a great way 
 beyond this spot. The shepherds are immediately employed 
 in constructing pens for the protection of the sheep during 
 the night, and which are composed of ropes made by twist- 
 ing certain rushes together, which grow plentifully there, 
 and attaching them to stakes driven into the ground. They 
 next build, with the branches of trees roughly hewn, rude 
 huts for themselves. 
 
 " When the sheep arrive at their summer pasture, which at 
 first is very luxuriant, the mayoral endeavors to guard against 
 the possible ill effects of the change from the uncertain and 
 scanty pasturage found on the journey, by giving the flocks 
 a considerable quantity of salt. He places a great many flat 
 stones five or six feet from each other, and strews salt upon 
 them, which is eagerly devoured. This is repeated on sev- 
 eral successive days ; and a case of general inflammation, or 
 hoove, seldom occurs. 
 
 " During the summer pasturage the labor is light of the 
 shepherd. The ewes are put to the rams early in August. 
 After their return at the close of autumn, and when yean- 
 ing time approaches, the barren ewes are separated from the 
 others and placed on the poorest pasture. The Merinos are 
 not good nurses, and nearly half of the lambs — or in bad 
 seasons, and when the pasture fails, full three-fourths — are 
 destroyed as soon as they are yeaned. The males are al- 
 ways sacrificed first; the others are usually suckled by two 
 ewes — for it is a common opinion in Spain that the mother 
 that fully suckles her lamb would yield less wool ; they are 
 afterwards placed on the best pasture, in order that they 
 
 6* 
 
66 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 
 
 may acquire sufficient strength for their approaching journey. 
 The skins of the slaughtered lambs are sent into Portugal, 
 and thence find their way to England, where they are used 
 for the manufacture of gloves. The wool is soft and silky, 
 and is formed into little rings or curls. 
 
 " Few of the male lambs are castrated, because it is be- 
 lieved that the weight of the fleece is much increased on the 
 ram, without acquiring proportional coarseness. The shep- 
 herd, however, early in March, has four operations to per- 
 form on the lambs : he cuts oft' their tails five inches below 
 the rump, for the sake of cleanliness : he marks them on the 
 nose with a hot iron : he cuts off" the tips of their horns that 
 they may not hurt each other in their frolicks, and he cas- 
 trates those which, from their superior strength, and superior 
 size, he has selected to become bell-wethers, and lead the 
 flock in their peregrinations. 
 
 " It is supposed that forty or fifty thousand men are em- 
 ployed in these peregrinations of the sheep. They are a 
 singular race of men, enthusiastically attached to their pro- 
 fession, rarely quitting it, even for a more lucrative one, and 
 rarely marrying. The number of dogs kept for the purpose 
 of guarding the sheep exceeds thirty thousand. 
 
 " The shearing does not delay the flock more than a day. 
 Buildings are erected at various places in the early portion 
 of their journey ; they are very simply constructed, and con- 
 sist only of two large rooms, each of which will contain 
 more than a thousand sheep : there is also a narrow, low, 
 long hut adjoining, termed the sweating house. The sheep 
 are all driven into one of these apartments, and in the even- 
 ing those intended to be shorn on the following day are 
 transferred into the low, long hut. As many are forced into 
 it as it will possibly hold, and there they are left during the 
 night. As some are liberated in the morning, the others 
 are urged towards the end of the hut, while more from the 
 apartment occupy their situation. In consequence of this 
 close confinement they are thrown into a state of great per- 
 .spi ration ; the yolk, which formed a somewhat hard crust on 
 the fleece, is melted, and thus the whole is rendered softer, 
 and is more easily cut. There is no previous washing, nor 
 any other preparation for the shearing. From 150 to 200 
 shearers are generally collected, and a flock of a thousand 
 sheep is disposed of in a day, although five rams or eight 
 ewes are reckoned a good day's work for a Spanish shearer ! 
 
SPANISH SHEEP, MERINOS, ETC. 67 
 
 The sheep are turned back as they are shorn into the second 
 apartment, and on the following day continue their journey: 
 thus in the space of six days, as many flocks, each consist- 
 ing of a thousand sheep, pass through the esquilo (shearing- 
 hut), and leave their fleeces behind them. The wool is 
 then cleansed with water and soap and sorted in the esquilo, 
 and is ready for sale." 
 
 A writer in the Encyclopedia Londonensis states the fol- 
 lowing : " The management of the Spanish flocks is pecu- 
 liarly Roman, and shows the Italian origin of these sheep. 
 The Merino mayoral corresponds exactly with the magister 
 pecoris of Varro and Columella. The practice of destroy- 
 ing half the sheep at their birth, and of suckling each of the 
 survivors on two ewes ; of sweating the sheep before they 
 were shorn, in order to increase the softness of the fleece, 
 and of conducting them from their high winter to their sum- 
 mer stations, by long journeys through public sheep walks, 
 have been derived from Roman institutions." 
 
 Mr. Youatt condensed Arthur Young's account of the 
 Catalonian or Pyrenean breed, as here presented : — 
 
 " The journeys of these sheep are smaller, and performed 
 in a different manner. On the northern side of the Spanish 
 portion of the Pyrenees are two mountains, the sides of which 
 are covered with short, but plentiful herbage, and from one 
 to the other of which the sheep are continually travelling 
 during the summer. In the winter they are sent into the 
 lower part of Catalonia, a journey of twelve or thirteen days, 
 and when the snow begins to melt in the spring they are 
 conducted back again to the mountains ; thus they are kept 
 the whole year in motion : they are. never housed or under 
 cover, and never taste of any food but what they find for 
 themselves. 
 
 " Mr. Young had the opportunity of examining a flock of 
 these Catalonian sheep, consisting of about 2000. They 
 were generally polled, but a few, both of the rams and ewes, 
 had horns. The legs were white or reddish — the faces, 
 some white, some red, and some speckled, and some with a 
 tuft of wool on their faces : the carcase was round, the back 
 straight : they were in good condition : would weigh, when 
 fat, from 15 to 18 pounds per quarter, and resembled, on the 
 whole, the South Down breeds. 
 
 " Mr. Young wished to examine them more closely, and in- 
 timated this to the shepherd, who immediately walked into 
 
68 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 
 
 the flock, and singled out a ram, and bid it to follow him, 
 holding out his hand as if to give him something. The ani- 
 mal immediately came with the shephei'd, and submitted it- 
 self to Mr. Young's inspection. He found that mellowness 
 of the skin which is the surest proof of a good fleece, and 
 of a good breed. The wool was beautifully soft and fine, 
 and weighed, as he imagined, about eight pounds : the 
 average weight of the fleece before washing was usually 
 about four or five pounds. Four shepherds, provided with 
 fire-arms, and four or five large Spanish dogs, had the care 
 of the flock. The sheep were collected together every 
 night on a particular spot, — the shepherd slept in a little hut 
 close by, and the dogs gave certain notice of the approach 
 of danger. During the day the head shepherd sat on the 
 mountain top, or on an elevated spot, whence he could see 
 everything around him, while the flock browsed on the de- 
 clivities." 
 
 The Estantes or stationary Merinos amounted at one time 
 to two millions, and the transhumantes to ten millions ; but 
 it is diflicult to estimate correctly the number of each at the 
 present time. The Chunah breed. Chancellor Livingston 
 states in his essay, numbered about six millions. 
 
 The Leonesa, which compose a very large proportion of 
 th'5 travelling sheep, are superior in fleece to all others in 
 the kingdom, and which will always sell for considerably 
 more per pound than that of any other Spanish sheep. But 
 on the other hand, says Mr. Youatt, on the authority of 
 Burgoyne, " there are stationary flocks both in Leon and 
 Estremadura, which produce wool as good as that of the 
 transhumantes." It will appear, therefore, that these migra- 
 tions are not the exclusive cause of the superior fleeces of 
 the transhumantes, as the Spaniards are wont to suppose. 
 
 For reasons not necessary for the compiler to assign, he 
 quotes from Mr. Youatt the following accurate description 
 of the prominent characteristics of the true Spanish Merinos, 
 in which, it will be seen, he justly extols their excellencies, 
 and notes impartially their defects, which, however, are tri- 
 fling compared with the returns which their invaluable fleeces 
 afford. 
 
 " The first impression made by the Merino sheep on one 
 unacquainted with its value would be unfavorable. The 
 wool lying closer and thicker over the body than in most 
 other breeds of sheep, and being abundant in yolk, is covered 
 
SPANISH SHEEP, MERINOS, ETC. 60 
 
 with a dirty crust, often full of crocks. The legs are rather 
 long, yet small in the bone ; the breast and the back are 
 narrow, and the sides somewhat flat ; the shoulders and 
 bosoms are heavy, and too much of their weight is carried 
 on the coarser parts. The horns of the male are compara- 
 tively large, curved, and with more or less of the spiral form ; 
 the head is large, but the forehead rather low. A few of 
 the females are hprned, but generally speaking they are 
 without horns. Both male and female have a peculiar 
 coarse and unsightly growth of hair on the forehead and 
 cheeks, which the careful sheep-master cuts away before 
 the shearing lime : the other part of the face has a pleasing 
 and characteristic velvet appearance. Under the throat 
 there is a singular looseness of skin, Avhich gives them a 
 remarkable appearance of throatiness, or hollowness in the 
 neck.* The pile, when pressed upon, is hard and unyield- 
 ing ; it is so from the thickness with which it grows on the 
 pelt, and the abundance of yolk, detaining all the dirt and 
 gravel which falls upon it ; but when examined, the fibre 
 exceeds in fineness, and in the number of serrations and 
 curves, that which any other sheep in the world produces. 
 The average weight of the fleece (unwashed) in Spain is 
 eight pounds from the ram, and five from the ewe. The 
 staple differs in length in different provinces. When fatted, 
 these sheep will weigh from 12 to 16 pounds per quarter. 
 
 " The excellency of the Merinos consists in the unexampled 
 fineness and felting property of their wool, and in the weight 
 of it yielded by each individual sheep : the closeness of that 
 wool, and the luxuriance of the yolk, which enables them 
 to support extremes of cold and wet as well as any other 
 breed ; the easiness with which they adapt themselves to 
 every change of climate, and yet thrive and retain, with 
 common care, their fineness of wool : an appetite which 
 renders them apparently satisfied with the coarsest food ; 
 a quietness and patience into whatever pasture they are 
 turned, and a gentleness and tractableness not excelled by 
 any other breed. 
 
 * Lord Somen'ille has some observations on this point : — " The second 
 property to be noted in this sheep is a tendency to throatiness, a pen- 
 dnlous skin under the throat, which is generally deemed a bad property 
 in this country, and the very reverse in Spain, wliere it is much esteemed, 
 because it is supposed to denote a tendency both to wool and a heavy 
 fleece." — Somcrvillc on Sheep. 
 
70" EUROPEAN SHEEP, 
 
 " Their defects, partly attributable to the breed, but more 
 to the improper mode of treatment to which they are 
 occasionally subjected, are, their unthrifty and unprofitable 
 form ; a voraciousness of appetite* which yields no adequate 
 return of condition ; a tendency to abortion and to barren- 
 ness ; a difficulty in yeaning ; a paucity of milk, and a too 
 frequent neglect of their young.f They are likewise said, 
 notwithstanding the fineness of their wool and the beautiful 
 red color of the skin when the fleece is parted, to be more 
 subject to cutaneous aflfections than most other breeds. 
 Man, however, has more to do with this than Nature." 
 
 HISTORY OF THE INTRODUCTION OF MERINOS INTO THE 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 The first individual of the breed introduced into this coun- 
 try, was by Mr. Delessert, a French banker. He purchased 
 two pairs, in 1801, selected from the celebrated Rambouillet 
 flock, near Paris, which were shipped early of the same 
 year to the United States, but three of them perished on the 
 passage, and the survivor, a ram, was placed on his farm 
 near Kingston, New York. 
 
 It had become a matter of history, that the next importation 
 of Merinos was by Gen. David Humphreys, of Connecticut; 
 bi;t very recently a competitor for that honor has appeared. 
 It is now of little moment, I'urther than as a chronological 
 fact, although the individual in question, Mr. Seth Adams, 
 of Zanesville, Ohio, is worthy of praise as one of the pio- 
 neers to improve the fleece of his native country. Mr. 
 Adams' statement| was addressed to the editor of the Alba- 
 
 * This is luimerited, because it is not true. A fat sheep is tlie glory 
 of an Englishman, and in forming an estimate of the Merino, he is apt to 
 lose sight of a great physiological point, namely, no sheep can bo the 
 bearer both of a su]ierioT fine fleece and much fat, because the assimila- 
 tion of food cannot act for both objects in an equal degree. We must bo 
 content with one great excellence, and not expect more from one animal. 
 — Co7nj}iler. 
 
 t Not so, after arriving at maturity, and properly provided for. — Com- 
 j)iler. 
 
 t " I imported in the brig Reward, Capt. Hooper, which left Diepe in 
 August, 1801, and arrived in Boston in October following, a Merino ram 
 and ewe. These, I believe, were the first pair- of Merinos imported to the 
 United States. The Agricultural Society of Massachusetts having of- 
 fered a premium of ."j^SO for the importation of a pair of sheep of supe- 
 rior breed, General D. Humphreys imported a flock of Mermos, and sent 
 some of them to Massachusetts, and he, or some one for hiin, applied to 
 
INTRODUCTION OF MERINOS INTO THE UNITED STATES. 71 
 
 ny Cultivator (which is appended to the present page), in 
 which the priority of his importation to Gen. Humphreys' is 
 clearly shown, and a reference to the archives of the Mas- 
 sachusetts Agricultural Society will confirm it. 
 
 For particulars relative to further importations of the 
 Merinos, the compiler is indebted to the Hon. William 
 Jarvis, of Vermont, whose name, with that of David 
 Humphreys, will ever be associated, in the minds of Ameri- 
 cans, with the Merino, and cherished with gratitude as the 
 great founders of wool improvement in the United States. 
 The account was originally addressed to L. D. Gregory, of 
 Vermont, and which is invaluable from its authenticity, and 
 graphic details ; and the compiler thus publicly expresses 
 his grateful obligations to Mr. Jarvis for his kind permission 
 to insert it in the present work, and its readers will doubtless 
 feel likewise. 
 
 After many interesting details concerning the manage- 
 ment of Merino sheep in Spain, Mr. Jarvis proceeds thus : 
 
 " I shall now call your attention to the first introduction 
 of them into the United States. Soon after the accession of 
 Mr. Jefferson to the Presidency, Chancellor Livingston was 
 appointed Minister to France, and in 1802, he obtained from 
 that government three or four Merinos of the Rambouillet 
 flock, which he sent to New York and put on one of his 
 farms. This flock was obtained by the King of France 
 from the King of Spain, and were undoubtedly pure-blooded 
 sheep. A little before Gen. Humphreys left Spain,* he was 
 enabled to get two hundred sheep from Spain into Portugal, 
 and they were sent to Figueira, at the mouth of the Monde- 
 go, and thence shipped to the United States. From what 
 flock he obtained them, I never could learn, though I in- 
 quired a number of times ; but as Spanish Estremadura and 
 Leon border on Portugal, from 38 deg. of latitude to the 
 northern boundary of Portugal, and as no other than the 
 
 the society for tlie premium. Knowing from report, that his sheep did 
 not arrive before the spring season after mine, I applied at the same time 
 for the premium, and after having examined the sheep and wool, and 
 comparing with those of General H., the society awarded to me the pre- 
 mium, and awarded to General H. a gold medal for having imported a 
 larger number. My sheep were from the flock imported by Bonaparte, 
 and distributed through France to improve the flocks of that kingdom." 
 
 * For further particulars concemmg General Hirniplireys' importation, 
 see Mr. Jarvis' letter in Appendix. 
 
72 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 
 
 Leonesa Transhumantes are found in that part of Spain, 
 there can be but little doubt that they belonged to that race. 
 
 "I attempted in 1806, also in 1807, to obtain some from 
 the most celebrated flocks, but the laws were so strict against 
 their exportation without royal license, that I failed of suc- 
 cess. After the French invasion in 1808, the law became 
 more relaxed, and in 1809, by special favor, I obtained two 
 hundred Escurials. At the second invasion of the French 
 under Joseph Bonaparte, the rapidity of the march of the 
 French troops hurried the Supreme Junta from Madrid, and 
 they retired to Badajos. Being without money, and being 
 afraid of disgusting the Estremadurans, by levying a tax 
 upon them, they were compelled to sell four of the first 
 flocks in Spain, which had been confiscated in consequence 
 of the proprietors joining the French. These were the 
 Paular, previously owned by the Prince of Peace ; the Ne- 
 gretti, previously owned by the Conde Del Campo de Alange ; 
 the Aqueirres, which had been owned by the Conde of the 
 same name, and the Montarco, owned by the Conde de Mon- 
 tarco, and were such sheep as could not have been got out 
 of Spain, had it not been for the invasion of the French and 
 the distracted state of the country growing out of that inva- 
 sion. When the Junta sold, it was upon the express con- 
 dition of their granting licenses to carry them out of the 
 kingdom. Four thousand of the Paular flock were sent to 
 England for the king ; and Col. Downie, a Scotch oflicer in 
 the British service, but who then held the rank of General 
 in the Spanish service, and I, purchased the remainder of 
 the flock, between three and four thousand more ; and of 
 this purchase, I took fourteen hundred, and he sent the rest 
 to Scotland with the exception of two or three hundred, 
 which he sold to come to this country. Sir Charles Stew- 
 art purchased the Negretti flock and sent them to England, 
 with the exception of about a hundred I got out of his flock 
 after they reached Lisbon. 
 
 " I purchased about seventeen hundred of the Aqueirres 
 flock of the Junta, and the remainder was sold and sent to 
 England. The Montarco flock was bought by a Spaniard and 
 a Portuguese, and about two thousand seven hundred were 
 shipped to this country. I shipped to the United States 
 the fourteen hundred Paulars, one thousand seven hundred 
 Aqueirres, two hundred Escurial, one hundred Negrettis, and 
 about two hundred Montarcos. Of this number, about one 
 
INTRODUCTION OF MEraNOS INTO THE UNITED STATES. 73 
 
 hundred were sent to Wiscasset and Portland, one thousand 
 one hundred to Boston and Newburyport, one thousand five 
 hundred to New York, three hundred and fifty to Philadel- 
 phia, two hundred and fifty to Baltimore, one hundred to 
 Alexandria, and two hundred to Norfolk and Richmond. 
 Besides those which I shipped to the United States on my 
 own account, there were about three hundred Gaudaloupes 
 purchased by others, and two to three hundred of the Paular 
 flock sold by Gen. Downie, shipped to Boston ; and of the 
 Montarco flock, shipped by others, about two thousand five 
 hundred were sent to Boston, Providence, New York, Phila- 
 delphia, Baltimore, and Savannah. The Gaudaloupes, Pau- 
 lars, and Montarcos, which were shipped to Boston by others, 
 were for the account of Gorhara Parsons, Esq., Gen. Sum- 
 ner, D. Tichenor, and E. H. Derby, Esq. All these sheep 
 were shipped in the latter part of 1809, during 1810, and the 
 early part of 1 8 1 1 , and were the only Leonesa Transhumantes, 
 if we include Gen. Humphreys' and Chancellor Livingston's, 
 (which I have no doubt were of the same stock) that were 
 ever shipped to the United States. Badajos is but little over 
 one hundred miles from Lisbon, and all the sheep purchased 
 there and in that vicinity, were shipped from Lisbon. I was 
 then Consul there, and from my office was actually acquaint- 
 ed with all the shipments, as certificates of property frora 
 me always accompanied them. 
 
 "I shall now, in compliance with your wishes, give you a 
 description of the sheep of the difi'erent flocks sent to this 
 country. The Paulars were undoubtedly one of the hand- 
 somest flocks in Spain. They were of middling height, 
 round-bodied, well spread, straight on the back, the neck of 
 the bucks rising in a moderate curve from the withers to the 
 setting on of the head, their head handsome, with aquiline 
 curve of the nose, with short, fine, glossy hair on the face, 
 and generally hair on the legs, the skin pretty smooth, that 
 is, not rolling up or doubling about the neck and body, as in 
 some other flocks, the crimp in the wool was not so short 
 as in many other flocks, the wool was somewhat longer, but 
 it was close and compact, and was soft and silky to the 
 touch, and the surface was not so much covered with gum. 
 This flock was originally owned by the Carthusian friars of 
 Paular, who were the best agriculturists in Spain, and was 
 sold by that order to the Prince of Peace when he came 
 into power. The Negretti flock were the tallest Merinos in 
 
 7 
 
74 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 
 
 Spain, but were not handsomely formed, being rather flat- 
 sided, roach back, and the neck inclining to sink down from 
 the withers ; the wool was somewhat shorter that the Pau- 
 lar and more crimped, the skin was more loose and inclined 
 to double, and many of them were wooled on their faces and 
 legs down to their hoofs. All the loose-skinned sheep had 
 large dewlaps. The Aqueirres were short-legged, round, 
 broad-bodied, with loose skins, and were more wooled about 
 their faces and legs than any other flock I ever saw, the 
 wool was more crimped than the Paular, and less than the 
 Negretti, but was thick and soft. This flock formerly be- 
 longed to the Moors of Spain, and at their expulsion, was 
 bought by the family of Aqueirres. The wool in England 
 was known as the Muros flock, and was highly esteemed. 
 All the bucks of these three flocks had large horns. The 
 Escurials were about as tall as the Paulars, but not quite so 
 round and broad, being in general rather more slight in their 
 make ; their wool was crimped, but not quite so thick as 
 the Paular or Negretti, nor were their skins so loose as the 
 Negretti and Aqueirres, nor had they so much wool on the 
 face and legs. The Montarco bore a considerable resem- 
 blance to the Escurials. The Escurial flock had formerly 
 belonged to the crown, but when Philip the II. built the Es- 
 CLirial palace, he gave them to the friars, whom he placed in 
 a convent that was attached to the palace, as a source of 
 revenue. These four flocks were moderately gummed. 
 The Gaudaloupe flock was rather larger in the bone than 
 the two preceding, about the same height, but not quite so 
 handsomely formed, their wool was thick and crimped, their 
 skins loose and doubling, their faces and legs not materially 
 different from the two latter flocks, but in general they were 
 more gummed than either of the other flocks. In point of fine- 
 ness there was very little difference between these six flocks, 
 and as I have been told by well-informed persons, there is 
 very little difference in this respect among the Leonesa 
 Transhumantes in general. The Escurials, the Montarcos, 
 and the Gaudaloupes were not in general so heavy horned 
 as the other three flocks, and about one in six of the bucks 
 were without horns, or what is commonly called a polled 
 buck. 
 
 " I had selected by the Paular shepherds, who came with 
 that flock, three hundred sheep which I shipped to Newbu- 
 ryport. The half of these were Paulars, a fourth Aqueirres 
 
INTRODUCTION OF MERINOS INTO THE UNITED STATES. 75 
 
 an eighth Escurials, and the other eighth Montarcos and Ne- 
 grettis. These I put on the farm in Weathersfield, Vt., that 
 I bought after my return to the United States, and also drove 
 up about a hundred, the remainder of those I had shipped to 
 Boston. In compHance with the invariable practice in Spain, 
 I bred the respective flocks separately, or what in farmer's 
 language is called in and in ; the custom in Spain having 
 existed from time immemorial, of breeding the bucks and 
 ewes of the same cabanna or flock together, or in and in ; 
 but in about 1816 or 1817, I mixed the different flocks to- 
 gether, and have so bred my Merinos ever since." 
 
 An importation of Rambouillet Merinos was made by an 
 enterprising citizen of Connecticut several years since, 
 which is properly noticed under the head of French Sheep. 
 
 The average weight of the Spanish Merino fleece has al- 
 ready been given ; that of the American Merino may be 
 safely, under good management, stated at 3i lbs. ; small 
 flocks, however, which are apt to receive better attentions 
 than large, will yield about 4 lbs. ; but recently, instances 
 have been recorded, where the flocks have been unusually 
 well selected, and fed, an average of 4^ to 5 lbs. has been 
 obtained. High feeding has much to do in increasing the 
 weight of the fleece, as will appear hereafter. 
 
 An enterprising feeling is abroad over large portions of 
 our country for wool improvement, and public attention has 
 latterly been directed to the Merinos to forward this im- 
 portant branch of agriculture. This is right. There exists 
 no hardier breed than the Merinos ; and for the small flock 
 proprietor, whose locality is cold and exposed, they are 
 especially well adapted. To the Merinos we must look for 
 the greatest general improvement of the fleece throughout 
 our widely-extended country. 
 
 FRENCH SHEEP. 
 
 With the exception of the celebrated Rambouillet Merino 
 flock, near Paris, there is little to interest the American 
 wool-grower relative to the sheep and sheep husbandry of 
 France. 
 
 The breeds are varied as the face of the country, and none, 
 except towards the more southern parts of the kingdom, that 
 yield a fleece possessing much intrinsic excellence either 
 for the purposes of combing or cloth. This appears some- 
 what singular, considering the aptitude of the French nation 
 
76 EtJROPEAN SHEEP. 
 
 for the art of manufacture, the general excellence of the 
 agriculture of the country, the adaptation of the climate for 
 perfecting the several properties of wool, and the super- 
 abundance and variety of the herbage. The conclusion is 
 natural, from the proximity to Spain, that France would 
 have availed herself of the superiority of the Merino wool, 
 and long since have become second to no country in the ex- 
 tent of its culture. The prize, however, which she could 
 so easily have possessed, through culpable neglect, has 
 passed to Germany and Austria, and now to these countries 
 is she indebted, like England, for the finest wool employed 
 in her manufactures. Justice, however, requires the state- 
 ment, that, before her bloody and exterminating Revolution, 
 measures were in progress to ameliorate the character of 
 the native sheep, by the introduction of the Merino as rapidly 
 as the government of Spain would sanction their exportation ; 
 but that terrible event overthrew this contemplated good to 
 the agriculture of the nation. The first, and only marked 
 successful effort, was the flock of Merinos, known since as 
 the Rambouillet's, which will presently be referred to. 
 
 As has already been remarked, the most valuable wooled 
 sheep are found in the southern parts of the kingdom ; and 
 none probably surpass, form and fleece combined, those of 
 Aries, which embraces the Districts of Crau, Camarque, and 
 Le Plain du Bourg. About 250,000 are kept in these dis- 
 tricts. All these sheep are migratory, being driven from the 
 plains of Aries in the spring of the year towards the Alps 
 which divide Provence and Dauphine from Italy, and are 
 driven back in November. These migrations have continued 
 from time immemorial ; and laws have been enacted limiting 
 the road for their passage to 36 feet in breadth. The flocks 
 vary in number from 10 to 40,000 ; and to every 1000 sheep 
 three shepherds are allowed, each of whom has his dog. 
 The sheep are led by goats which are trained for the pur- 
 pose, and have bells around their necks. The discipline 
 in which these animals are kept, and the intelligence which 
 they display, is very great. They halt or proceed at the 
 direction of the shepherd ; they come to the centre at the 
 close of each day's march, and there wait in the morning 
 for the proper order, when they repair to their station at the 
 head of the troop with the greatest regularity. If they come 
 to a stream they halt until the word of command is given ; 
 and then they plunge immediately into the water, and are 
 
" FRENCH SHEEP. 77 
 
 followed by the rest of the flock. The journey usually lasts 
 from twenty to thirty days. When they arrive at the moun- 
 tains each shepherd has his appointed boundary marked out ; 
 and the proprietors of the land are usually paid about twenty 
 sous per sheep for their pasture during the summer. The 
 shepherds sleep with their flock in the open air, and live 
 almost entirely on bread and goats' milk.* 
 
 The question of the influence of these peregrinations on 
 the fleece has been already considered under the head of 
 Spanish Sheep. 
 
 M. Daubenton having experimented a sufiicient length of 
 time to test the effect of change of climate and habits of the 
 Merino, which resulted in their retaining every valuable 
 quality for which they are so celebrated, the French govern- 
 ment resolved in 1786 to make a trial, under its immediate 
 patronage, on a larger scale than any previously made. 
 " Accordingly 376 ewes and lambs were purchased in Spain, 
 and sent to Rambouillet, in the neighborhood of Paris, 
 where was an agricultural establishment expressly devoted 
 to the improvement of the domesticated animals. Sixty of 
 them died on their passage. 
 
 " The Rambouillet flock gradually increased, and a few were 
 given to those agriculturists who appeared, to be disposed to 
 bestow sufficient care on their cultivation. This was an ill- 
 advised measure. That which could be had as a gift was 
 deemed to possess little value ; and the new breed had not 
 justice done to it. It was then determined that an annual 
 sale of a portion of the flock should take place. The first 
 sale was made in 1796, ten years after their establishment at 
 Rambouillet. The average weight of the fleece in the yolk 
 was then 6 lbs. 9 oz. ; the average price of the fleece 5 
 francs! — the average price of the sheep, 107 francs for a 
 ram, and 71 francs for a ewe, and the highest price at 
 which a single sheep sold was 200 francs. Five years 
 afterwards the flock had so much improved in public estima- 
 tion, and in real value, that the average weight of the fleece 
 was 9 lbs. — its price 28 francs ; the average price of the 
 ram 412 francs, that of the ewes 236 francs, and the high- 
 est price of any of the sheep 630 francs.f 
 
 " The most rigorous examination was instituted ; and the 
 
 * Annales de I'Agric. France. 
 
 t A franc is about one fifth of a dollar. 
 
78 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 
 
 superfine wools obtained in France from the pure breed, 
 ■were worked into cloths in every respect as good as those 
 from the refina or jyrima wool of the best breeds in Spain. 
 The wool produced from the mixed breed, after the fourth or 
 fifth cross, when made into cloth, was equal to that manu- 
 factured from superfine wool. 
 
 " In order to perfect the undertaking, a publication on the 
 treatment of sheep was drawn up by M. Gilbert, under the 
 patronage of government ; a practical school for shepherds 
 was instituted at Rambouillet, and two other depots for 
 Merino sheep were established, one at Pompadour, and 
 another at Perpignan, at the foot of the Pyrenees. 
 
 " These statements would seem to be highly encourag- 
 ing; but so systematically had the sheep been neglected in 
 France, and so inveterate were the prejudices of agriculturists 
 generally, that when an account was taken of the number of 
 sheep in France, in 1811, 25 years after the establishment 
 of the flock at Rambouillet, there were thirty millions of 
 the native breeds, and only two hundred thousand pure 
 Merinos. 
 
 "At the sale of Merinos at Rambouillet in 1834, the 
 average price of the ram was 328 francs, and the greatest 
 sum given for the best 510 francs. The average price of 
 the ewe had sunk to 108 francs, and the highest price of the 
 best was only 210 francs."* 
 
 Mr. Trimmer, an English writer, has stated the following 
 concerning the Rambouillet flock, which he visited in 1827 : 
 
 " The sheep in size are certainly the largest pure Merinos 
 T have ever seen. The wool is of various qualities, many 
 sheep carrying very fine fleeces, others middling, and some 
 rather indifferent ; but the whole is much improved from the 
 quaUty of the original Spanish Merinos. * * * * Individ- 
 uals are found in this flock with dewlaps down to the knees, 
 and folds of skin on the neck, like frills, covering nearly 
 the head. Several of these animals seem to possess pelts of 
 such looseness and size, that one skin would nearly hold the 
 carcases of two such sheep. The rams' fleeces were stated 
 at 14, and the ewes' 10 lbs. in the grease. By thorough 
 cleansing they would be reduced half, thus giving 7 and 5 
 lbs. each." 
 
 From the fact that an importation from this celebrated 
 
 * Youatt. 
 
FRENCH SHEEP. 79 
 
 flock into the United States has recently taken place, and 
 others not unlikely to follow, it is proper that the public 
 should be fully enlightened as to the degree of its merit. 
 
 The following is a portion of a report concerning them, 
 drawn up by M. Gilbert, of the French National Institute, 
 and Avill be found inserted in Chancellor Livingston's 
 " Essay on Sheep." The eminent moral character of Mr. 
 Livingston forbids the suspicion that the account is exagger- 
 ated, as he had the opportunity personally to attest its truth. 
 
 M. Gilbert says — " The stock from which the flock of 
 Rambouillet was derived, was composed of individuals beau- 
 tiful beyond any that had ever before been brought from 
 Spain : but having been chosen from a great number of flocks, 
 in different parts of the kingdom, they were distingiushed by 
 very striking local differences, which formed a medley dis- 
 agreeable to the eye, but immaterial as it affected their 
 quality ; these characteristic differences have been melted 
 into each other, by their successive alliances, and from them 
 have resulted a race which perhaps resembles none of those 
 which compose the primitive stock, but which certainly does 
 not yield in any circumstance to the most beautiful in point 
 of size, form, and strength ; or in the fineness, length, soft- 
 ness, strength, and abundance of the fleece. The manufac- 
 turers and dealers in wool, who came in numbers to Ram- 
 bouillet this year (1796) to purchase, unanimously agreed 
 to this fact, at the very time that they were combining to 
 keep down the price. All the wool of Spain that I have ex- 
 amined, not excepting the prime Leonese, the most esteem- 
 ed of any, appeared to me to contain much more of jar 
 (hair) than that of Rambouillet." 
 
 An importation transpired, in 1840, of twenty ewes and 
 two rams, selected from this celebrated flock, by Mr. D. C. 
 Collins of Hartford, Conn., who is still their proprietor. 
 The motives which prompted this laudable enterprise, to- 
 gether with a minute description of these valuable sheep, 
 appear in the American Agriculturist, of July, 1843. The 
 following account was prepared by its editor, who had ex- 
 pended much time in examining them : — 
 
 " While Mr. Collins was travelling in Europe in the year 
 1839, having his eye occasionally upon its agriculture and 
 improved stocks, among other things, this gentleman was 
 struck with the marked superiority of the Spanish Merinos, 
 composing the celebrated royal flocks kept at Rambouillet 
 
80 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 
 
 in France, about 40 miles from Paris. He accordingly de- 
 termined to procure a small breeding flock, with a view of 
 raising bucks to restore the fine-wooled sheep of our coun- 
 try to their original character for strength of constitution 
 and weight of fleece, together with excellence of quality. 
 ******* 
 
 " The result of our observations, and the information we 
 obtained, with respect to these Spanish Merinos from the 
 Royal flocks of Rambouillet, and the produce bred from them 
 in this country, is : — 
 
 " 1. They possess as good constitutions, and are as thrifty 
 and as hardy as any native or imported sheep whatever. 
 
 " 2. They attain a great age, having been known to reach 
 20 years, and may be depended on as good breeders till 12 
 or 14 years old. 
 
 " 3. They have large, loose skins, full of folds, especially 
 around the neck and below it, on the shoulders, and not un- 
 frequently over the whole body ; the wool thickly covering 
 its surface, the forehead, cheeks, and the legs, clear down to 
 the hoofs, giving the fleece, when shorn and spread out in its 
 ample dimensions, the appearance of having been taken from 
 the carcase of a huge buflalo, rather than so small an ani- 
 mal as the domestic sheep. 
 
 " 4. The fibre of the wool is very fine, quite equal to the 
 besi Merino in Spain, and is the very antipodes of that of 
 which so much complaint is made by the manufacturer, of 
 being harsh, dry, crispy, and wiry. The fleece opens of a 
 brilliant creamy color within, on a skin of rich pink, and is 
 soft, glossy, wavy, and very even over the whole body ; is 
 exceedingly close and compact, and has a yolk free from 
 gum, and easily liberated when it comes to be washed, but 
 which protects the wool from the weather, and keeps it free 
 of the dead ends that are so objectionable. It becomes of 
 the purest white when scoured by the manufacturer, and 
 still retains its mellow, oily touch, so grateful to the hand- 
 ling of good judges. Its felting properties are beyond dis- 
 pute, making it a choice material for the manufacture of fine 
 cloths." 
 
 SWISS SHEEP. 
 
 There are several breeds of sheep in the several Cantons 
 of Switzerland. The valley sheep are not dissimilar to the 
 
SAXON SHEEP. 
 
 81 
 
 long-wooled English breeds, and approximate more nearly 
 to the Lincoln variety. 
 
 The mountain breed are esteemed the most valuable, 
 having fine, short wool, which, latterly, has been much im- 
 proved in quality and weight by the Merino. 
 
 SAXON RAM. 
 
 SAXON SHEEP. 
 
 The following history of the introduction of the Merinos 
 into Saxony was written by the late Mr. Henry D. Grove, 
 of Hoosic, N. Y., whose decease will long be lamented by 
 those who knew his many private virtues, and by American 
 agriculturists, who will not cease to pay the homage of 
 gratitude to his memory, for the enthusiastic enterprise and 
 zeal he continued to manifest to his latest moments to im- 
 prove the fleece of his adopted country. 
 
 The following was addressed to Messrs. Benton & Barry, 
 at whose request it was written, and affixed to their useful 
 work on the Statistics of Sheep and Manufactures of the 
 United States, and published in 1837. 
 
82 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 
 
 "In the year 1764, the Elector of Saxony obtained, by- 
 special negotiation through his ambassador, a grant from the 
 King of Spain, for the purchase of one hundred ewes and 
 one hundred rams, and a few surplus ones to keep that num- 
 ber good in case any should die during the passage. Ac- 
 cordingly one hundred and nineteen ewes and one hundred 
 and ten rams were selected, principally from the Escurial 
 flocks, then the king's private property, under the care and 
 management of the monks belonging to the monastery of 
 that name, and which were considered the finest sheep in 
 the kingdom. They were shipped at Cadiz, in the month 
 of May, 1765, accompanied by two Spaniards to take care 
 of them. Five rams and three ewes died on the passage ; 
 the remainder arrived safely at the Elector's private domain 
 at Stolpen. The Spanish shepherds remained with, and 
 took care of the flock till the middle of the following year, 
 when they took their departure for Spain. During the time, 
 however, they remained in Saxony, they instructed Saxon 
 shepherds in the care and management of sheep. 
 
 " In order the better to make this valuable acquisition ben- 
 efit the country as much as possible, the Elector appointed a 
 commission, to superintend and direct the general concerns 
 of the sheep establishment, whose particular duty it was 
 made, to spread all the information they could obtain on the 
 care and management of sheep before the public, and who 
 were especially instructed to dispose of the young rams at 
 low prices, in order to induce the sheep-owners to improve 
 their flocks. The tenants of the government domains were 
 particularly favored, by giving them the preference in the 
 purchase (which is kept up till this day), while every possi- 
 ble care was taken to induce farmers generally to improve 
 their breed of sheep throughout the Electorate. It was fur- 
 ther required of the said commission to make a detailed re- 
 port to the government, annually, on the condition of the 
 sheep establishment, and at the same time to submit a list 
 of the persons who had received sheep from the national 
 flock. 
 
 " During the first years these valuable animals found many 
 opponents, and the improvement of the Spanish crop was 
 very slow, mainly on account of the common prejudice of 
 the farmers, which was heightened when the scab broke out 
 among them, but afterwards they became convinced of their 
 value, and the improvement was more rapid. But as most 
 
SAXON SHEEP. 83 
 
 of the flocks in Spain are more or less aff*ected by the scab, 
 those transported to Saxony had to undergo the same ordeal. 
 This, of course, heightened the prejudice of many against 
 them, who pronounced them as entirely unfit for the coun- 
 try, their meat not eatable, or at best, of a miserable descrip- 
 tion ; a notion, however, which soon exploded. The scab, 
 however, caused great ravages among them before they were 
 entirely cured of this disease. 
 
 " When the commissioners had exercised their functions 
 ten years, the call for young rams was so great, — and in or- 
 der the more rapidly to improve the breed of the country, — 
 that they resolved to petition the government to make another 
 importation of ewes and rams from Spain, for which purpose 
 the Elector obtained another grant from the King of Spain 
 for three hundred rams and ewes. At the end of the year 
 1777, a gentleman by the name of Vaigt, manager of Count 
 Eiorsidel's farms, who was considered one of the best judges 
 of sheep at that day in Saxony, was provided with the ne- 
 cessary credentials and sent on that mission. But, for some 
 cause unknown, he selected only one hundred and ten two 
 year old rams and ewes, and returned home with them. 
 These were, however, of a very superior quality, selected from 
 the best flocks of Leon, Escurial, Cavagnon, Negretti, Mon- 
 tarco, and Sorian, and exceeded greatly in beauty of form 
 and quality of wool, the first importation. The cost of them 
 was about forty rix dollars per head. 
 
 " With this acquisition, the commissioners then planted the 
 Merino Tree on the fruitful soil of Lohmen and Renners- 
 dorf, from whence, in conjunction with Stolpen, many pure 
 blood flocks derive their origin. And I owe it to truth to 
 remark, that I have examined private flocks equal, if not su- 
 perior, to the national flocks. 
 
 " It would lead me too far here, to detail the introduction 
 of the Spanish and Saxony Merino into other parts of Ger- 
 many, Prussia, Austria, &c. Sufiice it to say, that many 
 districts rival Saxony ; Prussia, especially, fosters her flocks, 
 not only by premiums, bestowed through her agricultural so- 
 cieties, but by that enlightened protection to domestic indus- 
 try, which so truly characterizes that government." 
 
 The invaluable properties of pure Saxon wool, and the 
 demand consequent for its manufacture into fabrics, the fine- 
 ness of which the world has never before produced, is the 
 cause of the high value of Saxon sheep, and their spread 
 
84 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 
 
 over so large a portion of Europe, and remote parts of the 
 world. No other breeds are so highly prized on the Conti- 
 nent, and none which command such enormous prices. Mr. 
 Grove has stated, that, while grade Saxons sell for 3 to 15 
 dollars per head, individual rams of uncontaminated blood 
 often bring from 100 to 250 rix dollars ; a flock was pur- 
 chased, destined for Russia, a few years since, for which 
 the average price paid exceeded 500 dollars ; and Mr. Spoon- 
 er states that, latterly, rams have been sold at the almost in- 
 credible prices of 100 to near 300 guineas per head. The 
 cause of these extravagant prices has been stated ; and so 
 long as there exist grades in society, and the highest of 
 these covet a wardrobe of the finest texture, the breed wiU 
 continue to be appreciated, and sedulously cultivated. 
 
 The means adopted to improve the wool of the Saxon 
 breed so much beyond the Merinos of Spain consisted for 
 the most part, originally, in the system of breeding in-and-in, 
 and a great degree of care in management, which is briefly, 
 but imperfectly, detailed by several writers, as follows : — the 
 first remarks are by Mr. Grove : — " The Germans keep their 
 sheep under comfortable shelter during the winter. By this 
 means they do not require, in the first place, so much prov- 
 ender ; secondly, the tip ends of the wool do not get weath- 
 er-beaten, which is an injury ; thirdly, a great quantity of 
 manure is saved. They hurdle their sheep during sum- 
 mer for the purpose of manuring the land, which makes it 
 more productive. They raise large quantities of roots, such 
 as ruta baga, potatoes, mangel wurtzel, carrots, round turnips, 
 &c., to feed out during winter. Combined with straw, it is 
 considered an economical mode of wintering sheep. They 
 enrich their land, moreover, by this course of management, 
 which enables them to keep still more sheep and cattle, and 
 raise more grain. Many farmers in that country keep their 
 sheep from nine to ten months of the year in the yard ; some 
 only part of their flock, and others their whole flock. For 
 this purpose they sow red and white clover, lucerne, and es- 
 parrette, which is mowed and fed to them in racks, three 
 times a day, and in wet weather a foddering of straw. It 
 follows, as a matter of course, that the stables and yards are 
 well littered with straw every day. It is considered that an 
 acre, thus managed, will maintain double the number of 
 sheep, or cattle, than it would to turn them out to pick for 
 themselves. By this course of management they are ena- 
 
SAXON SHEEP. 85 
 
 bled to keep large numbers of sheep, without infringing 
 much on their grain growing, and enabled to come in com- 
 petition with the wool-growers of other countries. As there 
 are no fences in that country, the sheep are attended by- 
 dogs. One shepherd with his dog will manage from five 
 hundred to eight hundred in the summer, all in one flock." 
 
 Mr. Carr, an English gentleman farmer, but now a resi- 
 dent of Germany, states the following in the Journal of the 
 Royal Agricultural Society of England. " These sheep 
 (Saxons) cannot thrive in a damp climate, and it is quite 
 necessary that they should have a wide range of dry and 
 hilly pasture, of short and not over-nutritious herbage. If 
 allowed to feed on swampy or marshy ground, even once or 
 twice, in autumn, they are sure to die of liver-complaint 
 (rot) in the following spring. They are always housed at 
 night, even in summer, except in the finest weather, when 
 they are sometimes folded in the distant fallows, but never 
 taken to pasture till the dew is oflf the grass. In the winter 
 they are kept within doors altogether, and are fed with a 
 small quantity of sound hay, and every variety of straw, and 
 which is varied at each feed. Abundance of good water to 
 drink, and rock salt in their cribs, are indispensables." 
 
 Baron Geisler has been many years one of the most suc- 
 cessful breeders of Saxon Merinos, and for a long time 
 (on the authority of Dr. Bright) " he has exercised un- 
 wearied assiduity by crossing and recrossing, so that by 
 keeping the most accurate registers of the pedigree of each 
 sheep, he has been enabled to proceed with a mathematical 
 precision in the regular and progressive improvement of the 
 whole stock. Out of seventeen thousand sheep, comprising 
 his flock, there is not one whose whole family he cannot 
 trace by reference to his books ; and he regulates his year- 
 ly sales by these registers. He considers the purity of 
 Mood the first requisite towards perfection of the fleece. ^^ Dr. 
 Bright makes a few remarks on management. 
 
 " For fourteen days before the coupling-season the rams 
 should be daily fed with oats, and this food should be con- 
 tinued not only during that particular period, but for fourteen 
 days after ; and one ram will thus be in a condition to serve 
 60 ewes, if other proper attentions have been paid to him 
 previously. 
 
 " During the lambing period a shepherd should be con- 
 stantly day and night in the cote, in order that he may place 
 
86 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 
 
 the lamb, as soon as it is cleaned, together with its mother, 
 in a separate pen, which has been before prepared. The 
 ewes which have lambed should, during a week, be driven 
 neither to water nor to pasture ; but low troughs of water 
 for this purpose are to be introduced into each partition, in 
 order that they may easily and at all times quench their 
 thirst. 
 
 " It is also very useful to put a small quantity of barley- 
 meal into the water, for by this means the quantity of ewes' 
 milk is much increased. When the lambs are so strong 
 that they can eat, they are to be separated by degrees from 
 their mothers, and fed with the best and finest oats, being 
 suffered at first to go to them only three times a day, early 
 in the morning, at mid-day, and in the evening, and so to 
 continue till they can travel to pasture, and fully satisfy 
 themselves." 
 
 Although rigid attention is bestowed on these sheep 
 during winter, yet they are not quite the hot-house objects 
 which, from the remarks of Mr. Carr, the reader would in- 
 fer. On the authority of Mr Youatt, although the sheep in 
 Saxony and Silesia are housed at the beginning of winter, 
 yet they are turned out and compelled to seek, perhaps un- 
 der the snow, a portion of their food whenever the weather 
 will permit ; and the season must be unusually inclement 
 in which they are not driven into the yards at least two or 
 three hours during the middle of the day. The doors and 
 windows also are frequently opened, that the sheep-houses 
 may be sufficiently ventilated. This is the practice as far 
 north as Sweden. 
 
 Very great care is taken by the Saxon flock-master in 
 the selection of the lambs which are destined to be saved in 
 order to keep up the flock. " When the lambs are weaned, 
 each in his turn is placed upon a table, that his wool and 
 form may be minutely observed. The finest are selected 
 for breeding, and receive a -first mark. When they are one 
 year old, and prior to shearing them, another close exami- 
 nation of those previously marked takes place ; those in 
 which no defect can be found receive a second mark, and 
 the rest are condemned. A few months afterwards a third 
 and last scrutiny is made ; the prime rams and ewes receive 
 a third and final mark, but the slightest blemish is sufficient 
 to cause the rejection of the animal. Each breeder of note 
 has a seal or mark secured to the neck of the sheep, to de- 
 
SAXON SHEEP, 87 
 
 tach or forge which is considered a high crime, and punish- 
 ed severely."* 
 
 Before the introduction of the Merinos into Saxony the 
 indigenous sheep consisted of two distinct varieties, one 
 bearing a wool of some value, and the other yielding a fleece 
 applicable only to the coarsest manufactures. Both of these 
 breeds have been most extensively crossed with the Saxon 
 Merinos, and very many mixed flocks now exhibit fleeces 
 litte inferior to the best and purest Escurial sheep. 
 
 According to Mr. Carr, the Infantado Merinos are also 
 cultivated in their purity, and are described by him as hav- 
 ing shorter legs, and heavier and rounder bodies than the 
 Escurial Saxons, with heads and necks comparatively short 
 and broad. The wool is often matted upon the neck, back, 
 and thighs, and grows upon the head to the eyes, and upon 
 the legs to the very feet. The grease in their fleeces is al- 
 most pitchy, so as to render the washing very difficult. He 
 describes the mode of washing as follows : — " A warm, mild 
 day, without harsh or drying wind, is indispensable. A 
 marl-pit with a depth of from 8 to 10 feet of clear water is a 
 favorite washing place. The sheep are thrown in from a 
 stage in the evening, and made to swim the whole length 
 of the pond (20 or 30 yards), between rails, with boards on 
 one side, from which women or boys assist them through 
 their bath, by placing wooden rakes or crooks under their 
 chins, and so passing them onwards. When the water has 
 dripped from the fleeces for an hour or two, the sheep are 
 put into a house for the night, as close together as possible, 
 in order to cause the greater evaporation, and the next day 
 they are swum three or four times through the pond, and 
 they are kept in the house (well supplied with clean straw) 
 on dry food, for three or four days, until the wool, by sweat- 
 ing as it is termed, has recovered its characteristic softness. 
 The fleece of this species is generally thick, closely grown, 
 and abundant. Ewes average 2 1-4 to 3 1-4 lbs. by careful 
 feeding {which, however, must never approach to feeding to be 
 fat, else the xoool becomes wiry and hard), and rams and wed- 
 ders vary from 4 lbs. to even 6 lbs." 
 
 The Escurial Saxon breed have long, tapering necks, 
 small heads, with little wool upon them, round carcases, 
 with rather narrow yet deep chests, and when in good flesh, 
 
 * C. Howard. 
 
88 EUROPEAN SHEEP, 
 
 generally well proportioned. Indeed, specimens may be se- 
 lected from the best flocks which rival in symmetry of form 
 any sheep in the world. Compared with other breeds, they 
 are small, and consequently their fleeces are proportionally 
 light ; but being comparatively free from gum, is one of the 
 prominent causes. The average weight of the ewe fleeces 
 is from 1 1-2 to 2 1-2 lbs., and full-grown wethers and rams 
 from 2 1-2 to 4 lbs. The finest and purest flocks yield 
 heavier fleeces than those engrafted on common stock. 
 
 Extraordinary care is observed in washing the sheep be- 
 fore shearing (another cause of the fleeces weighing light), 
 which is manifested by the little waste when subjected to 
 the manufacturer's process of cleansing.* 
 
 The shearing is conducted in the most skilful manner, 
 each shearer, generally, being limited as to the number 
 of fleeces he is to clip per day, in order to ensure a greater 
 degree of care in his work. Thus, the skins of the sheep 
 are not mangled as in our country, and otherwise presenting 
 a slovenly appearance, from unevenness of the clippings. 
 
 After the shearing season is past, the wool is bought of 
 the small proprietors by agents of wool merchants, and 
 transported to Hamburg, Breslau, and Leipsic, where it is 
 sorted, and resold for exportation and home manufacture. 
 The annual wool Fairs of Leipsic are wonders in their way, 
 millions of pounds often exchanging hands in a single day. 
 The large proprietors of pure flocks effect their sales by 
 samples, subject to sorting, which is an art nowhere better 
 understood than in Germany. The fleeces of the same 
 quality are opened and spread flat against each other, when 
 packing, and each bale is made to contain from 400 to 500 
 lbs. The amount of German wools (which includes Prus- 
 sian, Saxon, and Austrian) annually exported is enormous, 
 England receiving annually from 20 to 30,000,000 lbs. ; 
 the amount taken by France is also many millions of 
 pounds. 
 
 Few Americans are aware of the superiority of German 
 woollen fabrics, as, from the great pains, and therefore ex- 
 pense involved, in their manufacture, few specimens com- 
 paratively reach our shores. The Germans make no haste 
 in doing anything, but all their performances are conducted 
 with skill, and with an eye to durability ; and thus German 
 
 * Seo Summer Management— article "Washing. 
 
SAXON SHEEP. 89 
 
 cloths are unrivalled in strength, the brilliancy and perma- 
 nency of their dyes. 
 
 The following Report relative to the introduction of the 
 Saxon Merinos into the United States, was drawn by Mr. 
 Grove, and read before the annual meeting of the New York 
 State Agricultural Society, in 1838, and which will be found 
 in the 1st volume of Transactions of the Society : — 
 
 " The first importation of Saxony sheep into the United 
 States was made by Mr. Samuel Henshaw,* a merchant of 
 Boston, at the instance of Col. James Shepherd, of North- 
 hampton. They were but six or seven in number. In 1824, 
 Messrs. G. and T. Searle, of Boston, imported 77 Saxon 
 sheep. They were selected and purchased by a Mr. Kretch- 
 man, a correspondent of the above firm, residing in Leipsic, 
 and shipped at Bremen on board the American schooner 
 Velocity. I was engaged to take charge of the sheep on 
 the passage, and I also shipped six on my own account. I 
 am sorry to say, that as many as one-third of the sheep pur- 
 chased by Kretchman (who shared profit and loss in the un- 
 dertaking) were not pure-blooded sheep. The cargo were 
 sold at auction at Brookline, as ' pure-blooded Electoral 
 Saxons,' and thus unfortunately in the very outset the pure 
 and impure became irrevocably mixed. But I feel the great- 
 est certainty that the Messrs. Searle intended to import none 
 but the pure stock ; the fault lay with Kretchman. In the 
 fall of 1824, I entered into an arrangement with the Messrs. 
 Searle to return to Saxony, and purchase, in connection with 
 Kretchman, from 160 to 200 Electoral sheep. I was de- 
 tained at sea seven weeks, which gave rise to the belief that 
 I was shipwrecked and lost. When I finally arrived, the 
 sheep had been already bought by Kretchman. On being 
 informed of what the purchase consisted, I protested against 
 taking them to America, and insisted on a better selection, 
 but to no purpose. 
 
 "The number shipped was 167, 15 of which perished on 
 the passage. They were sold at Brighton, some of them 
 going as high as from 400 to 450 dollars. A portion of this 
 importation consisted of grade sheep, which sold as high as 
 the pure bloods, for the American purchaser could not know 
 the difference. It may be readily imagined what an induce- 
 ment the Brighton sale held out to speculation, both in this 
 
 * American Agriculturist ; the name was left blauk in the Report. 
 
90 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 
 
 country and Saxony. The German newspapers teemed 
 with advertisements of sheep for sale, headed ' Good for 
 the American market ;' and these sheep in many instances 
 were actually bought up for the American market at five, 
 eight, and ten dollars a head, when the pure bloods could not 
 be purchased at from less than 30 to 40 dollars each. In 
 1826, Messrs. Searle imported three cargoes, amounting in 
 the aggregate to 513 sheep. They were of about the same 
 character with their prior importations, in the main good, but 
 mixed with some grade sheep. On the same year, a cargo 
 of 221 arrived, on German account, Emil Bach, of Leipsic, 
 supercargo. A few more good sheep, and of pure blood ; 
 but taken as a lot they were miserable. The owners sunk 
 about 3000 dollars. Next came a cargo of 210 on German 
 account ; Wasmuss & Multer owners. The whole cost of 
 these was about $1,125, in Germany. With the excep- 
 tion of a small number, procured to make a flourish on, in 
 their advertisement of sale, they were sheep having no pre- 
 tensions to purity of blood. In 1827, the same individuals 
 brought out another cargo. These were selected exclusive- 
 ly from grade flocks of low character. On the same year 
 the Messrs. Searle made their last importation, consisting 
 of 182 sheep. Of these I know little. My friends in Ger- 
 many wrote me that they were, like their other importations, 
 a mixture of pure and impure blooded sheep. It is due, 
 however, to the Messrs. Searle to say, that as a whole, their 
 importations were much better than any other made into 
 Boston. 
 
 " I will now turn your attention to the importations made 
 into other ports. In 1825, 13 Saxons arrived in Portsmouth. 
 They were miserable creatures. In 1826, 191 sheep ar- 
 rived in New York, on German account. A portion of these 
 were well descended and valuable animals, the rest were 
 grade sheep. In June, the same year, the brig Louisa 
 brought out 173 on German account. Not more than one- 
 third of them had the least pretensions to purity of blood. 
 Next we find 158, shipped at Bremen, on German account. 
 Some were diseased before they left Bremen, and I am 
 happy to state that twenty-two died before their arrival in 
 New York. All I intend to say of them is, that they were 
 a most curious and motley mess of wretched animals. The 
 next cargo imported arrived in the brig Maria Elizabeth, 
 under my own care. They were 165 in number, belonging 
 
SAXON SHEEP. 91 
 
 to myself and F. Gebhard, of New York. These sheep 
 cost me 65 dollars per head, when landed in New York. 
 They sold at an average of 50 dollars a head, thus sinkino- 
 about $2,400 ! I need not say that they were exclusively 
 of pure blood. A cargo of 81 arrived soon after, but I know 
 nothing of their quality. The next importation consisted of 
 184, on German account, per brig Warren. With a few ex- 
 ceptions they were pure-blooded and good sheep. We next 
 have an importation of 200 by the Bremen ship Louisa. 
 They were commonly called the 'stop sale sheep.' They 
 were of the most miserable character, some of them being 
 hardly half grade sheep. The ship Phebe Ann brought 
 120 sheep, of which I know little, and 60 were landed at 
 Philadelphia, with the character of which I am unacquainted. 
 Having determined to settle in America, I returned to Sax- 
 ony, and spent the winter of 1826-7 in visiting and exam- 
 ining many flocks. I selected 115 from the celebrated flock 
 of Macherns, embarked on board the ship Albion, and land- 
 ed in New York June 27th, 1827. In 1828, I received 80 
 more from the same flock, selected by a friend of mine, an 
 excellent judge of sheep. On their arrival they stood me 
 in 70 dollars a head, and the lambs half that sum." 
 
 Notwithstanding so many imperfect specimens of the Sax- 
 ons, as appears from the above, reached our shores, and 
 which have laid the foundation of much prejudice towards 
 the breed, yet there are many flocks in the states which 
 rival some of the best German in fineness, and superior to 
 the latter in average weight of the fleece. The delicacy of 
 constitution which characterizes the German Saxons does 
 not appear nearly to the same degree in the American, and 
 the reader will learn by reference to the Appendix many par- 
 ticulars from diflferent sources to corroborate this statement. 
 
 The American breeders of this noted race have struggled 
 against a discouraging obstacle, from the injustice of manu- 
 facturers, by not paying the true difference of value between 
 their fleeces and more inferior grades. This, however, lat- 
 terly, has been somewhat rectified, and eventually, with in- 
 crease of competition, will be wholly so ; and therefore this 
 breed, with their meritorious progenitors, the Merinos, will 
 continue to be more and more extensively bred, and, by 
 proper management, with equal degrees of profit. 
 
 The average weight of American Saxon fleeces is from 
 2 1-4 to 3 lbs. 
 
92 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 
 
 PRUSSIAN SHEEP. 
 
 Until the middle of the 1 8th century, no attempts had been 
 made either by individuals or the Prussian government to 
 ameliorate the quality of the native sheep, which are repre- 
 sented to have been of a very inferior character. The first 
 move tovsrards their reformation vv^as made by Mr. Fink, dis- 
 tinguished as an enterprising agriculturist, and his enthu- 
 siasm in sheep-husbandry. His first effort w^as to obtain 
 the Silesian native breed, w^hich had long been celebrated 
 for the comparative fineness of their wool. Some improve- 
 ment was effected, but he was not satisfied, and became 
 seized with the mania — then common in Germany — for 
 Merinos, and accordingly imported a number of superior 
 animals of this breed, direct from Spain. His success in 
 naturalizing them to the climate, and wonderful improve- 
 ment accomplished by them to his native flocks, attracted 
 the attention of the Prussian government. Frederick H., in 
 1786, imported one hundred rams and two hundred ewes 
 from Spain ; but, says Mr. Youatt, " illustrative of the dif- 
 ference in result when an organized plan is conducted by 
 one acquainted with all its details, and whose heart is in the 
 affair, and when it is committed to those who know and care 
 little about it, the greater part of the sheep that were dis- 
 tributed in the neighborhood of Berlin perished by various 
 diseases ; those that were sent to distant farms in the coun- 
 try degenerated, and the advantage was far from commen- 
 surate with the expense." 
 
 The monarch, however, did not despair. Mr. Fink was 
 commissioned by the government to purchase a flock of one 
 thousand of the choicest Merinos ; and a school was estab- 
 lished to instruct in their management, at the head of which 
 he was wisely placed. As a proof of the extent to which 
 he improved his own flocks, it is stated on the authority of 
 Lasteyrie, who had an opportunity of examining them, "that 
 the sheep are less than the Merinos of Spain, but are by no 
 means inferior to them in perfections of fleece. Before the 
 improvements had taken place the native breeds produced 
 wool that sold from 5d. to 8c?. per lb., but now, improved 
 by the use of Spanish rams, it sells from 2^. to more than 
 3s. sterling per lb." 
 
 A brief sketch of his system of management may not be 
 unacceptable to the reader ; valuable, principally, as it illus- 
 
PRUSSIAN SHEEP, 93 
 
 trates his knowledge of the fondness of sheep for variety of 
 food, which all experience confirms as contributing so much 
 to their welfare. 
 
 " He properly maintains, that occasional exposure to the 
 air is favorable to the quality of the wool, and therefore, al- 
 though the sheep are housed at the beginning of November, 
 yet whenever it freezes, and the ground is hard, even al- 
 though it may be covered with snow, the sheep are driven 
 to the wheat and rye fields, where they meet with a kind 
 of pasturage exceedingly wholesome, and while they feed 
 there they are likewise benefiting the crop. When the 
 weather will not permit their being taken out, they are fed 
 on hay, aftermath, and chopped straw of various kinds. The 
 kind of straw is changed as often as possible, and wheat, 
 barley, and oat-straw, and pease-haulm follow each other in 
 rapid succession. The oat-straw is sparingly given, and 
 the pease-haulm is preferred to the wheat and barley-straw. 
 Oil-cake, at the rate of six or seven pounds per hundred, 
 and dissolved in water, is also allowed when the flock cannot 
 be turned on the young wheat. 
 
 " Three or four weeks before lambing, an additional al- 
 lowance of hay and straw is given to the ewes ; and while 
 they are suckling, a little oat-meal is mixed with the solu- 
 tion of oil-cake. When the weather will permit the turning 
 out the ews, the lambs are still kept in the houses, and the 
 mothers brought back to them at noon and at night ; after 
 that the lambs are not permitted to graze with the ewes, but 
 are turned on the fallows or the clover of the preceding 
 year ; for it is supposed that they unnecessarily fatigue 
 themselves by running with their mothers, and almost inces- 
 santly trying to suck, and that on this account they refuse 
 the herbage on which they are placed and take less nourish- 
 ment than when quietly kept on separate pastures. A iew 
 barren ewes, however, are placed with the lambs for the 
 purpose of guiding them, and perhaps teaching them to se- 
 lect the best and most wholesome food."* 
 
 Many of the Prussian flocks, at the present day, rival in 
 fineness the purest Saxon, and command an equal price for 
 their fleeces. 
 
 * Lasteyrie. 
 
94 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 
 
 SILESIAN SHEEP. 
 
 As has already been said, a portion of the native sheep of 
 Silesia were comparatively finer than those of Prussia and 
 Hungary. Nevertheless, the breed was infinitely below the 
 Merino in the value of their wool, and it was not until the 
 introduction of the latter that Sile&ian fleeces took high rank. 
 At present the wools of that province, for the purposes of 
 the best manufactures, are almost equally valued with the 
 purest and finest Saxony. 
 
 HUNGARIAN SHEEP. 
 
 Hungary, a large territory within the Austrian domin- 
 ions, abounded with native sheep corresponding in inferi- 
 ority with other northern countries of Europe, which, with 
 bad management, rendered them comparatively worthless 
 for all purposes. 
 
 The celebrated Empress Maria Theresa, after witnessing 
 the success of the Merinos in Saxony, through that enter- 
 prise which shone so conspicuously in her character, to en- 
 gage in everything which would tend to promote the wel- 
 fare of her people, was induced to import in 1775 several 
 hundred of that breed. They were placed at Mereopail, 
 where an agricultural school was established ; but it was 
 long before her laudable exertions were attended with the 
 desired success. In process of time other importations of 
 Merinos were made ; and within the last thirty years no 
 sheep districts have surpassed Hungary in the rapid progress 
 of wool improvement. The Hungarian fleeces now com- 
 pete successfully with the best Saxon, as will be seen on 
 reference to the wool table of prices, in the London market, 
 in the following pages. 
 
 The number of sheep in the Territory of Hungary is 
 probably about eight millions, three millions of which are 
 the property of Prince Esterhazy ! 
 
 SWEDISH SHEEP. 
 
 For many centuries the Merinos were confined to Spain, 
 and preserved with jealous care. Sweden appears to have 
 been the first country which succeeded in procuring them ; 
 and there are now about seven hundred thousand in this 
 country.* 
 
 * Spooner. 
 
DANISH SHEEP. 95 
 
 They were introduced into that high latitude as early as 
 1723 by Mr. Alstroemer, an enterprising agriculturist, and 
 was deemed at the time a presumptuous, indeed, an almost 
 insane attempt. He triumphed over all difficulties, which 
 induced the Swedish government to yield its patronage, by 
 the formation of an agricultural school, which offered pre- 
 miums for the best Spanish Merinos, and on the sale of the 
 best wool. 
 
 A brief notice of the mode of management in this extreme 
 northern latitude may be acceptable. 
 
 " The system of migration is completely abandoned. 
 Both the native and imported sheep, after having been pas- 
 tured during the day, are usually housed at night at all sea- 
 sons, on account of the great number of wolves. The 
 peasantry and small farmers have these houses too confined 
 and crowded ; the better sheep-master has them large and 
 well ventilated. The native Swedish flocks are kept in 
 these buildings when the weather is unusually severe ; 
 the Merinos are housed during the six winter months ; but 
 scarcely any inclemency of weather will prevent the whole 
 flock being driven out daily, at least for a few minutes, in 
 order to breathe the fresh air while the sheep-house is clean- 
 ed. The Merino sheep are seldom used for breeding until 
 they are two and a half years old, and are fattened for the 
 butcher at seven."* 
 
 The native sheep of Sweden are an inferior race in all 
 respects, but the wool of which is strong, and valuable for 
 the clothing of the peasantry. 
 
 DANISH SHEEP. 
 
 The native sheep of Denmark correspond with those of 
 Sweden, Norway, and the more northern parts of Russia. 
 The head is long and thin, the neck arched, the eye small, 
 the countenance mild, the legs and tail without wool. 
 
 In 1797 the government was influenced, by the example 
 of Sweden, to patronize the Merinos. Accordingly 300 
 Leonese Transhumantes were procured and located in the 
 vicinity of Copenhagen. By careful and skilful manage- 
 ment the success in propagating them equalled expectation ; 
 and by crossing them with native sheep, a fair wool was 
 procured. 
 
 * Youatt. 
 
96 
 
 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 
 
 Denmark now exports nearly a million of pounds of wool, 
 one half of which is represented to be of the finest quality 
 of Merino. 
 
 ICELAND SHEEP. 
 
 ICELAND SHEEP. 
 
 The sheep of Iceland are of two kinds : the first, termed 
 the native breed, is small, in color from dun to almost 
 black ; the second is larger, the fleece white, and supposed 
 to have originated from more southern regions. The fleece 
 of these breeds consists of hair externally, with a thick, close 
 layer of wool within, impervious to cold and wet ; it is 
 worthless for manufacturing, and is used for horse collars, 
 and more or less is exported and appropriated to this pur- 
 pose. 
 
 The principal peculiarity about the native sheep is the 
 number of their horns, many individuals having four and 
 five, and instances have been known of eight. These hardy 
 animals propagate without the care of man, and seek refuge 
 
RUSSIAN SHEEP. 97 
 
 from storms among the caverns of the coast during the win- 
 ter season. 
 
 RUSSIAN SHEEP. 
 
 From the certainty that a large portion of the waste places 
 of the immense Empire of Russia is destined to be filled 
 with countless hordes of sheep, a brief notice of the progress 
 already made will doubtless be of some interest to the 
 American wool-grower. 
 
 The following account is supplied by Youatt : 
 
 " Far more attention continues to be made to the breeding 
 of sheep than that of cattle, through almost the whole of this 
 immense Empire. All the wandering tribes possess a great 
 number of sheep. Many of the inferior Boors and Cos- 
 sacks in Southern Russia have flocks consisting of many 
 hundreds. 
 
 " The characters of the sheep differ materially in the 
 various districts. Towards the north they are small, short- 
 tailed, and bear a coarse and harsh wool. About the river 
 Don, and still more towards the centre, and on the banks of 
 the Dneiper, and in some districts of the Ukraine, they yield 
 a better wool ; and thence the greater part of the material 
 for the inland cloth manufactories is supplied. In the neigh- 
 borhood of the Baltic a still superior breed is found, and the 
 Dago and Oesel islands, near the Gulf of Finland, are cele- 
 brated for their wool. The half-cloths that are manufac- 
 tured from it have often as fine and close a substance as 
 that which is imported from Great Britain. The finest of 
 the Russian wools are exported from Odessa, on the Black 
 Sea. It is the produce of all the neighboring provinces, but 
 principally of the Crimea. There is no district in the em- 
 pire so fitted by nature for the pasturage of sheep. 
 
 " There are three kinds of sheep in the Crimea and in 
 Taurida. The common breed is white, or black, or grey, 
 with very coarse wool, and a long tail covered with fat. 
 They are kept in exceedingly large flocks. A rich Tartar 
 will frequently possess 50,000 sheep. The grey sheep 
 produce the grey lamb-skins, 30,000 of which are exported 
 every year. Fifty or sixty thousand black lamb-skins, 
 which are also much valued, are exported from the Crimea. 
 
 " The mountain sheep are smaller than those on the 
 plains. Their wool is beautifully fine, and, even before the 
 improvement which many of tlxe flocks have undergone, 
 
 9 
 
98 EUUOrEAN SIIEEr. 
 
 used to find its way to the French manufactories. The 
 Crimea was scarcely in the possession of Russia ere many 
 attempts were made to improve the sheep, naturally so valu- 
 able. The Merinos were in process of time introduced 
 here, as into every part of Europe. A few have been cul- 
 tivated as a pure flock ; more have been employed in im- 
 proving the native breeds, and the consequence is that the 
 wool exported from Odessa is increasing in quantity and 
 value every year. In 1828, 184,000 lbs. of wool were 
 shipped from this port; in 1831 that quantity had increased 
 to more than 1,260,000 lbs.* 
 
 " The staple from a sample of Odessa wool is from four 
 to six inches in length. The diameter of a fibre is the 
 1 -750th part of an inch, and 2080 serrations to an inch. The 
 wool is very soft, and possesses good felting properties : but 
 it is inferior to Merino, and most decidedly so to Saxony." 
 
 NEW SOUTH WALES, OR AUSTRALIAN SHEEP. 
 
 The island of New Holland, now better known as Austra- 
 lasia, or Australia, is situated in the Indian Ocean, between 
 (including the southernmost point of Van Dieman's Land) 
 the 11th and 41st degrees of south latitude. The climate 
 is temperate of that portion of the country devoted to sheep 
 husbandry, compared with the same latitude of the United 
 States, which may, in part, be ascribed to the proximity of 
 the settlement to the salubrious influence of the ocean. The 
 country is subject to severe droughts, though not of frequent 
 occurrence. " The great drought which commenced in 
 1826, did not terminate until 1829. Very little rain fell 
 during the whole of this period, and for more than six months 
 there was not a single shower."! The soil in general, though 
 exceedingly variable, being in many parts almost wholly 
 barren, is highly productiue of herbage well adapted to the 
 sheep. 
 
 There were no sheep indigenous to the country, therefore 
 the early colonists were compelled to provide themselves 
 with mutton and wool from the native Bengal sheep, which, 
 it is hardly necessary to say, were of the most inferior charac- 
 ter. According to Mr. Atkinson, these sheep resembled 
 goats more than anything else ; but the change of climate, 
 as well as of herbage, contributed in a short time to work a 
 
 * McCuUoch's Dictionary. t McCuUoch'e Com. Dictionary. 
 
NEW SOUTH WALES, OR. AUSTRALIAN SHEEP. 99 
 
 singular modification of the fleece, losing its hairiness, and 
 tolerable wool supplying its place. 
 
 Soon after importations were made to a considerable ex- 
 tent of South Down and Leicester sheep, which, being 
 crossed with the Bengalee variety, was productive of much 
 improvement over the latter, not only in the quality of the 
 mutton, but a similar benefit to the fleece. 
 
 At this period (1800) there were about six thousand sheep, 
 of all kinds, in the colony ; and comparing this insignificant 
 number with that of the present time, shows how remarkably 
 the animal is disposed, in temperate latitudes, to increase. 
 The number thirteen years afterwards was 65,000, in 1828 
 563,000.* The export of wool, of all kinds, in 1843, amount- 
 ed to 16,226,400 Ibs.t 
 
 The colonists, from the kind nature of the climate, were 
 induced to experimemt with the Merino. Accordingly a few 
 were sent over from England, and it was observed that the 
 fifth and sixth cross produced a quality of wool little inferior 
 to the pure Merinos of Spain. This is stated by Mr. You- 
 att, on the authority of Mr. Collins, and must be received 
 with some doubt, considering the decided inferiority of the 
 sheep previously in the colony. 
 
 The success of the Merinos paved the way for still great- 
 er improvement, by the introduction of the Saxons, which 
 have since stamped the high character and value of Austra- 
 lian wools. The original importation was made by Captain 
 McArthur, then in government employ, and distinguished as 
 an enterprising and zealous agriculturist. Mr. Youatt says, 
 " It would not perhaps be truly said, that the quality of the 
 Saxon fleece was improved by the change of climate — per- 
 haps it was somewhat deteriorated — but it soon became evi- 
 dent that its properties were superior to any that the colony 
 had hitherto possessed." 
 
 The present prominent characteristics of Australian wool, 
 of the improved breeds, are, great length of staple, softness 
 in an unusual degree compared with other wools of the same 
 fineness, and " working kindly " in every manufacture in 
 which it is employed. But the climate unquestionably, al- 
 though comparatively so temperate, together with imperfect 
 management, have wrought deteriorating effects, compared 
 with the wool of the original Saxon stock on its first introduc- 
 
 * Wontworth's New South Wales. t Spooner. 
 
iOO EUROPEAN SHEEP. 
 
 tion into the colony. The testimony is conclusive of a deci- 
 dence in fineness, and also in the felting property. The diam- 
 eter of a fibre from a sample of picklock taken from a fleece 
 belonging to Captain McArthur, whose flock is esteemed the 
 purest and best in the colony, was the l-780th of an inch, about 
 the same as pure Merino, and the serrations 2400 in the span 
 of an inch less by 150 than Merino, and 320 less than a 
 fibre of picklock Saxon. This is the result of a microscopic 
 view made by Mr. Youatt, and he remarks as follows : — 
 " The serrations of this sample were very sharp, and in ap- 
 pearance almost barbed. But there is a marked difference, 
 not only in the length but in the structure of the Saxon wool, 
 as obtained direct from Germany and imported from Austra- 
 lia. The fibre of the Australian is considerably longer, but 
 it is not so fine — the serrations are not so numerous — they 
 are of a different character, seemingly giving pliability and 
 softness to the one, and feltiness to the other. In truth, the 
 manufacturer has properly classed them, although he knew 
 nothing of their microscopic appearance. He has appropri- 
 ated the true Saxon wool to the making of the finest cloth, 
 owing to its superior felting quality ; and he is using the 
 Australian wool for the better combing purposes, in which a 
 strong tough wool, soft and long in the staple, is useful." 
 
 Before proceeding to give an account of the mode of man- 
 aging sheep in Australia, taken from Cunningham's " Two 
 Years in South Wales," it is proper to state the fact, not 
 perhaps known to every reader, that it is to the colonies of 
 New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land England banish- 
 es her criminals, to expiate their crimes in menial servitude, 
 not a few of which are employed in the capacity of shep- 
 herds. 
 
 " When the country is destitute of timber, the sheep are 
 very easily managed, and so many as a thousand may be 
 trusted to a single shepherd ; but in general they are divided 
 into flocks of about three hundred breeding ewes, or four 
 hundred wethers. Every flock has a shepherd, who takes 
 his sheep out to graze before sunrise, and brings them in at 
 evening. He keeps always before the flock, to check the 
 forward among them from running onwards, and wearing 
 out the old, sick, and lame ; making all thus feed quietly, so 
 as to keep them in good condition. In summer he sees,' too, 
 that they have water during the heat of the day ; and in 
 drawing up under a tree for shade, when it is too hot for 
 
NEW SOUTH WALES, OR AUSTRALIAN SHEEP, 101 
 
 feeding, he passes occasionally gently among tlaem, spreads 
 them out, and makes them take a fresh position in as small 
 groups as possible, under another tree, because, when they 
 remain too long together in one place, they are apt to become 
 broken-winded. It is a rule that sheep should never remain 
 in one spot so long as to paddle the ground much with their 
 feet ; and hence, in riding round your sheep stations, you 
 have something whereby to judge whether or not your in- 
 structions are attended to. The shepherd takes out his 
 victuals with him, and is required to be on the alert all day 
 long, to prevent the sheep from being lost in the woods, or 
 wild dogs from pouncing in among them. 
 
 "Three flocks are always penned together under the charge 
 of a watchman, who counts each regularly in at night, and 
 the shepherds again count them out in the morning ; so that 
 they form a regular check upon each other, and prevent loss- 
 es from carelessness or depredation. The watchman has a 
 small weather-proof watch-box to sleep in, and is assisted 
 by a watch-dog ; he keeps up a good fire, which generally 
 deters all native or wild dogs from approaching the fold. 
 The hurdles are made of light swamp oak, iron bark, or gum, 
 measuring seven feet long, with five bars, so close together 
 that a young lamb cannot creep through. They are shifted 
 to fresh ground daily, being sloped outward, and propped to- 
 gether by means of forked sticks, driving a stake through 
 between the bars here and there to keep the hurdles firm, 
 and prevent the wind from blowing them over. ***** Bells 
 are attached to the necks of the stoutest leaders, to keep the 
 flock together, and give warning of anything going wrong 
 within the fold." 
 
 Notwithstanding the equability and dryness of the climate, 
 the sheep are subject to the same maladies, though less fre- 
 quent, of those in Europe, and especially that lamentable 
 scourge, foot rot. This originates from the poachy nature 
 of the soil. 
 
 The manner of cleansing the fleece, is by conveying water 
 through spouts, where practicable ; and otherwise, by swim- 
 ming repeatedly the sheep across narrow streams, and after- 
 wards squeezing the wool with the hands. It is not unusual 
 for many of the fleeces to lose three fifths by thorough wash- 
 ing. 
 
 The average weight of the fleeces of the improved breeds 
 is from two to two and a half pounds. 
 
 9* 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 BRITISH BREEDS. 
 
 SOUTHDOWN— RYELAND— DORSET— BLACK-FACED— CHEVIOT— SHET- 
 LAND ISLAND— IRISH SHEEP. 
 
 SOUTH DOWN. 
 
 The sheep of Great Britain for a long time have been 
 classed into middle- wooled, and long-wooled. The short 
 wools, properly speaking, now employed in English cloth 
 manufactures, are of foreign growth. 
 
 The middle-wooled breeds comprise the South Down, 
 Norfolk, Dorset, Cheviot, and some others, which are infe- 
 rior, however, to these. 
 
 Confessedly, on all hands, at the head of the middle- 
 wooled varieties, stands the South Down, and are destined, 
 doubtless, to occupy a large share of the attention of Ameri- 
 can breeders. 
 
 The original as well as present location of a large proportion 
 of this breed is on the South Downs (from whence the name 
 of the breed is derived), a long range of chalky hills, diverg- 
 ing from the great chalky stratum which intersects the king- 
 dom from Norfolk to Dorchester. " They may be considered 
 as occupying a space of more than sixty miles in length, and 
 about five or six in breadth, consisting of a succession of 
 open downs, with very few enclosures. On these downs a 
 certain breed of sheep has been cultivated for many centu- 
 ries, in greater perfection than elsewhere ; and hence have 
 sprung those successive colonies, which have found their 
 way to every part of the kingdom, and materially benefited 
 the breed of short-wooled sheep wherever they have gone."* 
 
 The perfection of carcase which the South Down at pres- 
 ent exhibits, is owing to the skill of that distinguished sheep- 
 
 * Luccock on Wool. 
 
SUUTH UOAVW SHEEP. 
 
 103 
 
 breeder, Mr. John Ellman. He says, " This breed was for- 
 merly of a small size, and far from possessing a good shape, 
 being long and thin in the neck, high on the shoulders, low 
 behind, high on the loins, down on the rumps, the tail set 
 on very low, perpendicular from the hip bones, sharp on the 
 back, the ribs flat, not bowing, narrow in the fore-quarters, 
 but good in the leg, although having big bone." 
 
 
 
 
 '•^ 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 ^'■^i 
 
 ^1' fill E B)OKH(lV'^» 
 
 SOUTH DOWN. 
 
 ^"e: \ 
 
 The improvement eifected by Mr. Ellman, was not 
 from any admixture of foreign blood, " for even the cross 
 with the Leicester was a failure, and the promised advan- 
 tages to be derived from the Merinos were delusive."* It 
 resulted, mainly, from the practice of the true principles of 
 breeding ; a system of choice selection from male and fe- 
 male. The introduction of turnip husbandry was another 
 very important agent, which essentially promoted thrift and 
 size, and an early development of form. " They are now," 
 
 * Youatt. 
 
104 BRITISH BREEDS. 
 
 says Mr. EUman," much improved both in shape and consti- 
 tution. They are smaller in bone, equally hardy, with a 
 greater disposition to fatten, and much heavier in carcase 
 when fat. They used seldom to fatten until they were four 
 years old ; but it would now be a rare sight to see a pen of 
 South Down wethers at market more than two years old, and 
 many are killed before they reach that age." 
 
 The following description of a perfect South Down, from 
 the pen of Mr. Ellman, will be valuable to the American 
 breeder, as well as guard the ignorant from imposition : — 
 
 " The head small and hornless ; the face speckled or grey, 
 and neither too long nor too short. The lips thin, and the 
 space between the nose and the eyes narrow. The under- 
 jaw, or chap, fine and thin ; the ears tolerably wide, and the 
 forehead well covered with wool, and the whole space be- 
 tween the ears also. 
 
 " The eye full and bright, but not prominent. The orbits 
 of the eye, the eye-cap, or bone, not too projecting. 
 
 " The neck of a medium length, thin towards the head, 
 but enlarging towards the shoulders where it should be 
 broad and high, and straight in its whole course above and 
 below. The breast should be wide, deep, and projecting 
 forwards between the fore-legs, indicating a good constitu- 
 tion, and a disposition to thrive. Corresponding with this, 
 the shoulders should be on a level with the back, and not 
 too wide above ; they should bow outward from the top to 
 the breast, indicating a springing rib beneath, and leaving 
 room for it. 
 
 " The ribs coming out horizontally from the spine, and 
 extending far backward, and the last rib projecting more than 
 the others ; the back flat from the shoulders to the setting on 
 of the tail ; the loin broad and flat ; the rump long and 
 broad, and the tail set on high and nearly on a level with the 
 spine. The hips wide ; the space between them and the 
 last rib on either side as narrow as possible, and the ribs, 
 generally, presenting a circular form like a barrel. 
 
 " The belly as straight as the back. 
 
 " The legs neither too long nor too short. The fore-legs 
 straight from the breast to the foot ; not bending inward at 
 the knee, and standing far apart both before and behind ; the 
 hocks having a direction rather outward, and the twist, or 
 the meeting of the thighs behind, being particularly full ; the 
 
SOUTH DOWN SHEEP, 105 
 
 bones fine, yet having no appearance of weakness, and of a 
 speckled or dark color. 
 
 " The belly well defended with wool, and the wool com- 
 ing down before and behind to the knee, and to the hock ; 
 the wool short, close, curled, and fine, and free from spiry 
 projecting fibres." 
 
 This breed will sustain themselves with occasional short 
 keep, and endure hard stocking equal to any other ; and 
 their early maturity is but liltle ir^ferior to the new Leices- 
 ters, the flesh finely grained, and of peculiarly good flavor.* 
 Blacklock says " it is unadapted for bleak situations, but 
 sufficiently hardy and active for a low country." 
 
 The average weight is from 15 to 18 lbs. a quarter;! but 
 on the authority of Mr. Youatt, Mr. Grantham exhibited a 
 pen of three sheep at Smithfield in 1835, one of them weigh- 
 ing 283 lbs.; the second 286 lbs.; and the third 294 lbs. 
 
 The average weight of the fleece was, in 1800, 2 lbs., and 
 the staple at that time very short : it has now increased to 
 3 lbs. ; and the lowland South Down, from better keep, 
 shears from 3^ to 4 lbs. The staple has increased from li 
 to 2 inches in length to from 3 to 4 inches. A picklock 
 fibre is the 1 -600th part of an inch in diameter, and the serra- 
 tions 2080 to an inch. For a microscopic view of the fibre, 
 the reader is referred to the proper place. 
 
 A serious objection has always existed against English 
 South Down wools, from the brittleness of the fibre, origi- 
 nating in the chalky nature of the soil, on which a large pro- 
 portion of this breed are kept. Formerly much of this wool 
 was employed in the manufacture of army cloths ; but its 
 changed character, within a few years, has also changed its 
 uses, and it is now converted into flannels, baizes, and 
 worsted goods of almost all descriptions. The paucity of 
 serrations will prevent its uses beyond combing purposes, 
 for which it is now highly prized. 
 
 There are no sheep more healthy than the South Downs. 
 They seldom suffer from the hydatid on the brain, nor are 
 they as much exposed to rot as the sheep in many other dis- 
 tricts. Their general health is supposed to be much con- 
 nected with. freque?it change of food, and their daily journeys 
 to and from the fold.| 
 
 The South Downs have borne witness to a mania for their 
 
 * Baxter. t Blacklock. t Library of Ag. Knowledge. 
 
106 BRITISH BREEDS. 
 
 possession, like the Merinos and Saxons of our own coun- 
 try. In 1800, two of Mr. Ellman's rams were sold to the 
 Emperor of Russia, in order to try the effect of a cross on 
 the Northern sheep, for one hundred and fifty guineas each. 
 When Mr. Ellman retired from public life, in 1829, his flock 
 was sold by auction at the following rates : 770 ewes 
 $13 64 each; 320 lambs $7 92 each; 36 rams $112 50 
 each ; and his best ram for $292 50. This valuable breed 
 continue to sustain the high character they acquired through 
 Mr. Ellman's effbrts, and amongst the purest and best flocks, 
 very high prices are demanded and obtained for breeders. 
 
 For a further notice of the qualities of the South Down, 
 the reader is referred to the chapter on Breeding and 
 Crossing. 
 
 RYELAND SHEEP. 
 
 In point of number, the most distinguished breed of 
 sheep in Herefordshire, is the Ryeland, so called from a 
 district in the southern part of the county, on which a 
 large quantity of rye used to be grown, and where many of 
 these sheep were bred. This breed are rather small, sel- 
 dom exceeding 16 lbs. to the quarter ; and the weight of the 
 fleece about 2 lbs., but surpassing in fineness any other Brit- 
 ish breed. The diameter of the fibre was formerly the same 
 as pure Merino, and the number of serrations 2420 to an inch. 
 
 The peculiar form of the Ryeland, in some respects re- 
 sembling the Merino, led to the suspicion that the breed 
 was of foreign extraction. The lightness of the fleece, and 
 its comparative inferiority as a mutton sheep, will cause it 
 eventually to be merged into other more profitable breeds, 
 and then the variety will become extinct. 
 
 DORSET SHEEP. 
 
 Dorsetshire possesses a valuable breed of sheep, peculiar 
 to itself. The pure breed are entirely white, the face long 
 and broad, with a tuft of wool on the forehead ; the shoul- 
 ders are low but broad, the back straight, the chest deep, the 
 loins broad, the legs rather beyond a moderate length, and 
 the bone small. They are a hardy and useful breed, and 
 the mutton is well flavored, averaging, when three years 
 old, from 16 to 20 lbs. a quarter.* 
 
 * Youatt. 
 
BLACK-FACED SHEEP. 
 
 107 
 
 A principal characteristic of this breed is the ahnost sin- 
 gular fecundity of the ewe, often bearing lambs twice in the 
 year. " When on luxuriant food, they will often admit the 
 male ten or twelve days after yeaning, and continue to suckle 
 the first lamb after they are pregnant with a second." 
 
 Crosses with the new Leicester have been attempted, but 
 failed of success. The cross with the South Down has 
 been otherwise, and the breed resulting from it are esteemed 
 so valuable that it threatens to supersede both the Dorset and 
 South Down. 
 
 In the neighborhood of cities, where early lambs are in 
 request, the pure Dorset will always be properly appre- 
 ciated. 
 
 ^^^i^ 
 
 '^'>:um 
 
 THE BLACK-FACED HEATH SHEEP. 
 
 BLACK-FACED SHEEP. 
 
 This noted breed abound in the mountainous parts of Jjan- 
 cashire, Westmoreland, Cumberland, Northumberland, and 
 over the whole of Scotland. 
 
108 BRITISH BREEDS. 
 
 By many it is supposed to be the aboriginal sheep of 
 Scotland ; but Mr. Cully, who is high authority, thinks the 
 dun-faced sheep, which is smaller and slower in arriving at 
 maturity, to be the true original Scottish sheep. 
 
 The belief is common in Scotland, that the black-faced 
 sheep are of foreign origin, and the forest of Ettrick was 
 their original locality.* 
 
 " They have mostly horns, more or less spirally formed, 
 but the females are frequently without horns. The faces 
 and legs are black, or at least mottled ; the eyes are wild 
 and fierce. They are covered with wool about the forehead 
 and lower jaw, and the wool generally is somewhat open 
 and long, coarse, and shaggy ; not so long, however, but 
 that the sheep may be properly classed among the middle- 
 wooled breeds. "t 
 
 In consequence of greater attention to choice selections 
 of individuals for breeding, the form has changed, within a 
 few years, for the better ; the carcase has become so short, 
 round, firm, and handsome, as to acquire the name of short 
 sheep, in contradistinction to the Cheviot, or long sheep. 
 
 The mutton, especially since this improvement of form 
 was eff'ected, is highly esteemed in the London market, re- 
 sembling, more than any other English breeds, the South 
 Down in the fineness of its grain and the delicacy of its 
 flavor. This is attributed in a measure to the nature and 
 variety of the herbage on which they are fed during sum- 
 mer. The weight of this breed, when fattened, is from 16 
 to 20 lbs. per quarter, and the weight of the fleece unwashed 
 is about 5 lbs. 
 
 No other breeds equal the black-faced sheep in hardiness 
 of constitution, and endurance of cold. 
 
 CHEVIOT SHEEP. 
 
 One of the most distinguished British breeds of sheep is 
 the Cheviot ; and from their comparative early maturity, 
 valuable mutton qualities, and, especially, hardiness of con- 
 stitution, which would adaptate them to the rigorous climate 
 of the northern portions of our own country, it can scarcely 
 be doubted that a trial, at least, ere long, will be made by 
 some of our enterprising countrymen, and their general 
 merits tested. 
 
 * Farmer's Magazine. t Youatt. 
 
CHEVIOT SHEEP. 
 
 109 
 
 " The Cheviot Hills are a part of that extensive and ele- 
 vated range w^hich extends from Galloway through Northum- 
 berland into Cumberland and Westmoreland, occupying a 
 space of from 150 to 200 square miles. The majority of 
 them are pointed like cones ; their sides are smooth and 
 steep, and their bases are nearly in contact with each other. 
 The soil, except on the very top, is fertile ; and from the 
 base to the summit of most of them there is an unbroken 
 and rich greensward. 
 
 THE CHEVIOT RAM. 
 
 " On the upper part of that hill in Northumberland, which 
 is properly termed the Cheviot, a peculiar and most valuable 
 breed of sheep is found. They have been there almost 
 from time immemorial. Tradition says that they came from 
 the border districts of Scotland ; but they are totally differ- 
 ent from the black-faced sheep, and bear no resemblance to 
 the original dun-faced Scottish sheep. How two breeds, so 
 totally different from each other, came to inhabit the neigh- 
 
 10 
 
110 BRITISH BREEDS. 
 
 boring districts of Ettrick forest and the Cheviot Hills, nei- 
 ther history nor tradition has attempted to explain."* 
 
 They are described by Youatt, as hornless ; the face and 
 legs generally white ; the eye lively and prominent ; the 
 countenance open and pleasing ; the ear large ; the body 
 long, and hence they are called " long sheep," in distinction 
 from the black-faced breed. They are full behind the shoul- 
 der, a long, straight back, round in the rib, and well propor- 
 tioned in the quarters ; the legs are clean and small-boned, j 
 and the pelt thin, but thickly covered with a fine, short wool, 
 which extends over the whole of the body. 
 
 All authorities concur in stating that the Cheviot breed 
 possess considerable fattening properties, and can endure 
 much hardship both from starvation and cold. It is fit for 
 the butcher when three years old, and at two years when 
 crossed with the Leicester. The wethers average from 12 
 to 18 lbs. per quarter, but some have been exhibited at the 
 Highland cattle shows, weighing 30 and 32 lbs. per quarter. 
 
 The wool is not quite so fine as the South Down, and 
 since the improvement of the carcase commenced, the wool 
 has been used mostly for combing purposes. 
 
 The following is Sir John Sinclair's description of the 
 original Cheviot, as it was in 1792 ; since which time it has 
 been extensively crossed with the new Leicester, with de- 
 cided success, so far as earlier maturity and fattening are 
 concerned, but with a corresponding reduction of hardiness. 
 
 " Perhaps there is no part of the whole island where, at 
 first sight, a fine-wooled breed of sheep is less to be ex- 
 pected than among the Cheviot Hills. Many parts of the 
 sheep-walks consist of nothing but peat bogs and deep mo- 
 rasses. During winter the hills are covered with snow for 
 two, three, and sometimes four months, and they have an 
 ample proportion of bad weather during the other seasons of 
 the year, and yet a sheep is to be found that will thrive even 
 in the wildest part of it. Their shape is excellent, and their 
 fore-quarter, in particular, is distinguished by such justness 
 of proportion, as to be equal in weight to the hind one. 
 Their limbs are of a length to fit them for travelling, and 
 enable them to pass over bogs and snows, through which a 
 shorter-legged animal could not penetrate. They have a 
 closer fleece than the Tweeddale and Leicester breeds, which 
 
 * Farmer's Masraziue. 
 
CHEVIOT SHEEP. Ill 
 
 keeps them warmer in cold weather, and prevents either 
 snow or rain from incommoding them. They have never 
 any other food, except when they are fattened, than the grass 
 and natural hay produced on their own hills." 
 
 The Cheviot has pushed itself over nearly all Scotland, 
 and is everywhere contesting the ground inch by inch with 
 the black-faced sheep. With every improvement in agricul- 
 ture it advances. The fleece being more compact, it is found 
 to be a better endurer of cold, though not so patient of hunger. 
 On scanty pasture it does quite as well, and where there is 
 great abundance, it leaves its black-faced competitor far be- 
 hind ; and it is supposed that it will soon be the only breed 
 worthy of the Highlands of Scotland. 
 
 This may be considered a proper place to describe those 
 terrible storms in the Scottish Highlands, to which these 
 and the black-faced sheep are so often exposed. The sub- 
 joined accounts are from the " Shepherd's Calendar," by 
 the Ettrick shepherd, James Hogg. The first account is 
 termed the " thirteen drifty days." 
 
 " For thirteen days and nights the snowdrift never once 
 abated ; the ground was covered Avith frozen snow when it 
 commenced, and during all the time of its continuance, the 
 sheep never broke fast. The cold was intense to a degree 
 never before remembered, and about the fifth and sixth days 
 of the storm, the young sheep began to fall into a sleepy 
 and torpid state, and all that were so affected in the evening, 
 died in the night. About the ninth and tenth days the shep- 
 herds began to build up huge semicircular walls of their 
 dead, in order to aiford some shelter to the remainder ; but 
 shelter availed little, for the want of food began to be felt so 
 severely, that they were frequently seen tearing one another's 
 wool. 
 
 " When the storm abated on the fourteenth day, there was 
 on many a high-lying farm not a living sheep to be seen. 
 Large misshapen walls of dead, surrounding a small pros- 
 trate flock, likewise all dead and frozen stiff' in their layers, 
 were all that remained to the forlorn shepherd and his master. 
 In the extensive pastoral district of Eskdale-muir, which 
 previously contained more than 20,000 sheep, only forty 
 young wethers were left on one farm, and five old ewes on 
 another." 
 
 The sheep seem possessed of an instinctive foresight of 
 the approach of these storms, and will hurry to a place for 
 
112 BRITISH BREEDS. 
 
 protection, when the shepherd himself sees not a cloud, and 
 " dreams not of the wind." " I had left," says one of these 
 mountain shepherds, " my sheep under their accustomed shel- 
 ter, and where I had never failed to find them safe and com- 
 fortable in the morning, and I was plodding my weary way 
 homeward ; but before distance and darkness closed them from 
 my sight for the night, I looked back to see if they had given 
 over work (digging for their food from under the snow), when 
 I was surprised to see them on their march down hill towards 
 a plantation which would afford securer shelter, and to which 
 I had been accustomed to drive them when I feared the 
 coming tempest. They had fallen into rows, pacing one 
 after another until they reached the plantation, and there was 
 nothing to suggest to my mind the return of a drift, but their 
 movement and their bleating. They passed through the 
 plantation, and took that side of it which would afford them 
 a safe shelter from the southwest hurricanes. It, however, 
 happened that, although their instinct had admonished them 
 that a tempest was impending, it had not taught them from 
 what quarter that tempest would come, and it soon began to 
 blow from the northeast, from which they had no defence. 
 When I came to them in the morning, the wreath was higher 
 than the dyke, and was leaning over upon the trees. Some 
 of the strongest sheep had kept treading down the snow as 
 it gathered around them, and were on the top of the wreath ; 
 but many of them further back were quite immersed in the 
 snow. However, by means of probing and digging, T got 
 them all out, except two that had been crushed by the weight 
 of the snow." 
 
 Instances are recorded showing an almost incredible te- 
 nacity of life, when covered with snowdrift. A sheep near 
 Kendal was, in the winter of 1800, buried in the snow thirty- 
 three days and nights, without the possibility of moving, 
 and yet survived. In the same winter, a sheep near Caldbeck, 
 in Cumberland, was buried thirty-eight days ; when found it 
 had completely eaten the wool off both its sides, and was re- 
 duced to a skeleton.* 
 
 "Within the last twenty years much attention has been paid 
 to smearing the sheep of the Highland districts Avith a com- 
 position of tar and whale oil, which mats the wool, and 
 shields the animal alike from cold and wet. 
 
 * Annual Register. 
 
SHETLAND ISLAND SHEEP IRISH SHEEP. 113 
 
 SHETLAND ISLAND SHEEP. 
 
 The Shetland Islands are situated far to the north of 
 Scotland. The sheep which inhabit them have long been 
 celebrated for the remarkable fineness of their wool. They 
 are not, however, aboriginal, but derived many centuries since 
 from Denmark. They are small, seldom weighing more 
 than ten pounds to the quarter, and yield about two pounds 
 of wool, which has commanded as high as from three to four 
 shillings sterling per pound. 
 
 Mr. Youatt says — " There is, perhaps, no part of the 
 world in which the breed, or the few of it that are at present 
 found, have remained, century after century, precisely in the 
 same state. This admits of a ready explanation. The pure 
 Shetland sheep deserves not the name of a domestic animal. 
 He is scarcely seen more than once in the year, when he is 
 hunted home in order to be shorn. Often he is scarcely 
 seen at that period, for he left his coat among the bushes, 
 and is suffered to escape disregarded." 
 
 IRISH SHEEP. 
 
 The sheep has been an inhabitant of Ireland from time 
 immemorial, but history and tradition afford no accounts from 
 whence the animal sprung. 
 
 Few countries are better adapted than Ireland for breeding 
 and perfecting the sheep. The climate is removed from 
 extremes of heat and cold, and the soil, even to the summits 
 of its highest mountains, prolific of pasture. 
 
 The primitive sheep were of two kinds, short and long 
 wooled ; the former are confined to the mountains. In the 
 county of Wicklow the short-wooled breed abounds, perhaps, 
 at the present time, in the largest number. The fleece is 
 represented as wavy, weighing from 2 to 3 lbs., and the fibre 
 about two inches in length. The breed is valuable from the 
 fineness of its wool, hardiness, and endurance of hard stock- 
 ing. The cross of the South Down was attended with evi- 
 dent advantage, yet, from the prejudice and jealousy of 
 the Irish farmers, it was not carried to the extent its success 
 deserved. A cross was also attempted with the Merino, but 
 it failed principally because the Merino was not suited to the 
 humid and cold pastures of the mountains. 
 
 The native long-wooled breed, until about the beginning 
 of the present century, had been sadly neglected. They 
 
 10* 
 
114 BRITISH BREEDS. 
 
 are described by Mr. Cully, thus : " I am sorry to say I 
 never saw such ugly sheep as these — the worst breeds we 
 have in England are by much superior. One would suppose 
 that the sheep-breeders in Ireland have taken as much pains 
 to breed awkward sheep, as many of the people in England 
 have to breed handsome ones. I know nothing to recom- 
 mend them except their size, which might please some old- 
 fashioned breeders who can get no kind of stock large enough. 
 These sheep are supported by very long, thick, crooked, 
 grey legs, their heads long and ugly, with large flagging ears, 
 grey faces, and eyes sunk ; necks long, and set on behind the 
 shoulders ; breast narrow and short ; hollow both before and 
 behind the shoulders ; flat-sided, with high, narrow, herring 
 backs ; hind quarters drooping and tail set low."* 
 
 Mr. Youatt follows up this description with the remark, 
 " that much must be set down to the score of prejudice." 
 Mr. Cully himself was at that time a successful breeder of 
 the New Leicester, and no doubt was anxious to extend his 
 favorite breed into Ireland. This by others was soon effect- 
 ed, and the cross established a sheep admirably adapted to 
 the rich pastures characteristic of the country, and resulted 
 in large increase of profits to those who embarked earliest in 
 the enterprise. So much as 150 guineas were paid for the 
 hire of a single ram of the improved breed of Leicesters. 
 
 Mr. Youatt says — " The new breed struggled for a while 
 against prejudices and difficulties of every description, and 
 at length completely triumphed. They gradually spread 
 over the whole of Ireland ; and the Irish sheep that are now 
 brought so plentifully to the English market will scarcely 
 yield to the best improved Leicesters that any part of Great 
 Britain can produce." The improved fleece weighs from 5 
 to 7 lbs. ; the fibre is the 560th part of an inch in diameter, 
 and the serrations 1920 in the space of an inch. Irish wool 
 is used for stuffs, bombazines, and bombazetts. 
 
 * Cully on Live Stock. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 BRITISH BREEDS. 
 
 NEW LEICESTER, OR BAKEWELL— TEESWATER— ROMNEY MARSH- 
 LINCOLN— BAMPTON—COTSWOLD— WELSH SHEEP— MERINO SHEEP 
 IN ENGLAND. 
 
 NEW LEICESTER, OR BAKEWELL. 
 
 Some writers have contended that the valuable family of 
 long-wooled sheep, now so extensively spread over Great 
 Britain, was of foreign origin ; but thorough investigation 
 proves their assertions groundless.* 
 
 With the short-wooled variety, from time immemorial, each 
 was assigned a locality admirably adapted, from soil, herb- 
 age, and climate, to itself; and thus their respective peculi- 
 arities both of form and fleece, through many centuries, 
 remained distinct. Both varieties have been essentially 
 improved by the art of man, as has already been shown in 
 reference to the South Down ; and, if possible, a still greater 
 improvement has been effected of the long-wooled breeds, 
 especially as to profitableness of carcase, through the inde- 
 fatigable efforts of Mr. Bakewell, of Dishby, Leicestershire, 
 and Mr. Cully, his able coadjutor. 
 
 The compiler will offer no apology for introducing to the 
 reader nearly the whole of Mr. Youatt's faithful and inter- 
 esting history of this renowned breed, valuable to all as 
 showing the means adopted by Mr. Bakewell by which the 
 New Leicester was brought to its present perfection of car- 
 case, and extraordinary early maturity. 
 
 THE OLD LEICESTER SHEEP. 
 
 " This was a large, heavy, coarse-wooled breed, common 
 to most of the midland counties, and reaching from the south 
 of Yorkshire, and as far as Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire. 
 
 * Luccock. 
 
116 
 
 BRITISH BREEDS. 
 
 It had a white face, no horns — it was long and thin in the 
 carcase, flat-sided, with large bones — thick, rough, and white 
 legs — and weighing, the ewe from 15 to 20 lbs., and the 
 wether from 20 to 30 lbs. the quarter. It was covered with 
 wool from 10 to 14 inches in length, coarse in quality, and 
 weighing from 8 to 13 lbs. The pelt and offal were thick 
 and coarse ; the animal was a slow feeder, and the flesh was 
 coarse-grained, and with little flavor." 
 
 NEW LEICESTER SHEEP. 
 
 The following description of the New Leicester will show 
 the reader in what respects Mr. Bakewell effected his im- 
 provement over the old breed. 
 
 4 
 
 NEW LEICESTER RAM. 
 
 The head should be hornless, long, small, tapering towards 
 the muzzle, and projecting horizontally forwards. The eyes 
 prominent, but with a quiet expression. The ears thin, rather 
 long, and directed backwards. The neck full and broad at 
 its base where it proceeds from the chest, but gradually ta- 
 
NEW LEICESTER SHEEP. 117 
 
 pering towards the head, and being particularly fine at the 
 junction of the head and neck ; the neck seeming to project 
 straight from the chest, so that there is, with the slightest 
 possible deviation, one continued horizontal line from the 
 rump to the poll. The breast broad and full ; the shoulders 
 also broad and round, and no uneven or angular formation 
 where the shoulders join either the neck or the back, par- 
 ticularly no rising of the withers, or hollow behind the situ- 
 ation of these bones. The arm fleshy through its whole 
 extent, and even down to the knee. The bones of the leg 
 small, standing wide apart, no looseness of skin about them, 
 and comparatively bare of wool. The chest and barrel at 
 once deep and round ; the ribs forming a considerable arch 
 from the spine, so as in some cases, and especially when the 
 animal is in good condition, to make the apparent width of 
 the chest even greater than the depth. The barrel ribbed 
 well home, no irregularity of line on the back or the belly, 
 but, on the sides, the carcase very gradually diminishing in 
 width towards the rump. The quarters long and full, and, 
 as with the fore legs, the muscles extending down to the 
 hock ; the thighs also v/ide and full. The legs of moderate 
 length, the pelt also moderately full, but soft and elastic, and 
 covered with a good quantity of white wool, not so long as 
 in some breeds, but considerably finer. 
 
 " It was about the middle of the last century that Mr. 
 Bakewell first applied himself to the endeavor to improve 
 the then existing breed in Leicestershire. Up to this period 
 very little care had been bestowed upon the breeding of 
 sheep. 
 
 " Two objects alone appear to have engrossed the attention 
 of the breeders : first, to breed animals of the largest possible 
 size ; and, secondly, such as should produce the heaviest 
 fleeces. Aptitude to fatten, and symmetry of shape, that is, 
 such shape as should increase as much as possible the most 
 valuable parts of the animal, and diminish in the same pro- 
 portion the oflial, were entirely disregarded. 
 
 " Mr. Bakewell perceived that smaller animals increased 
 in weight more rapidly than very large ones ; and that they 
 consumed so much less food, that the same quantity of herb- 
 age applied to feeding a larger number of small sheep would 
 produce more meat than when applied to feeding the smaller 
 number of large sheep which alone it would support. He 
 also perceived that sheep carrying a heavy fleece of wool 
 
118 BRITISH BREEDS. 
 
 possessed less propensity to fatten than those which carried 
 one of a more moderate weight. 
 
 " Acting upon these observations, he selected from the dif- 
 ferent flocks in his neighborhood, without regard to size, the 
 sheep which appeared to him to have the greatest propensity 
 to fatten, and whose shape possessed the peculiarities which 
 he considered would produce the largest proportion of valu- 
 able meat, and the smallest quantity of bone and offal. 
 
 " In doing this, it is probable that he was led to prefer the 
 smaller sheep, still more than he had been by the considera- 
 tion above stated, because it is found that perfection of shape 
 more frequently accompanies a moderate-sized animal than 
 a very large one. 
 
 " He was also of the opinion that the first object to be 
 attended to in breeding sheep was the value of the carcase, 
 and that the fleece ought always to be a secondary consider- 
 ation. The reason of this is obvious : the addition of two 
 or three pounds of wool to the weight of a sheep's fleece is 
 a difference of great amount ; but if to procure this increase 
 a sacrifice is made of the propensity to fatten, the fanner 
 may lose by it ten or twelve pounds of mutton. 
 
 " The sort of sheep, therefore, which Mr. Bakewell select- 
 ed were those possessed of the most perfect symmetry, with 
 the greatest aptitude to fatten, and rather smaller in size than 
 the sheep then generally bred. Having formed his stock 
 from sheep so selected, he carefully attended to the peculi- 
 arities of the individuals from which he bred, and, it appears, 
 did not object to breeding from near relations, when by so 
 doing he put together animals likely to produce a progeny 
 possessing the characteristics that he wished to obtain. 
 
 " Mr. Bakewell has been supposed by some persons to 
 have formed the New Leicester variety by crossing different 
 sorts of sheep ; but there does not appear to be any reason 
 for believing this ; and the circumstance of their varying in 
 their appearance and qualities so much as they do from the 
 other varieties of the long-wooled sheep, can by no means 
 be considered as proving that such was the system which he 
 adopted. Every one who has attended to the breeding of 
 domestic animals must have experienced that, hy careful se- 
 lection of those from which he breeds, and tvith a clear and 
 defined conception of the object he intends to effect, he may 
 procure a progeny in which that object will be accomplished. 
 
NEW LEICESTER SHEEP. 119 
 
 " Such is the origin of the New Leicester breed of sheep, 
 which have within Uttle more than half a century spread 
 themselves from their native county over every part of the 
 United Kingdom, and are now exported to the continents of 
 Europe and America. Such, indeed, have proved to be their 
 merits, that at the present day there are very few flocks of 
 long-wooled sheep existing in England, Scotland, or Ireland, 
 which are not in some degree descended from the flock of 
 Mr. Bakewell. A pure Lincoln or Teeswater flock is very 
 rarely to be found ; and although some flocks of the pure 
 Cotswold breed remain, in the greatest number of instances 
 it is probable that they have been crossed with the New 
 Leicester. 
 
 " No other sort of sheep possesses so great a propensity 
 to fatten — no other sort is fit for the butcher at so early an 
 age — and although they are not calculated for the poorest 
 soils, where the herbage is so scanty that the sheep must 
 walk over a great deal of ground for the purpose of procuring 
 its food, no other sort of sheep, in soils of a moderate or 
 superior quality, is so profitable to the breeder. 
 
 " They vary much in size, weighing at a year and a half 
 old, with ordinary keep, from 24 to 36 lbs. per quarter.* In 
 this respect, therefore, they are inferior to the Lincoln, the 
 Cotswold, and the Teeswater sheep. By crossing them 
 with either of these breeds, the size of the sheep may be 
 considerably increased ; and it is said that this may be 
 done without diminishing perceptibly either their inclination 
 to become fat, or the early maturity for which they have 
 always been remarkable. 
 
 " The kind of meat which they yield is of a peculiar char- 
 acter. When the sheep are not over fattened, it is tender 
 and juicy, but, in the opinion of many persons, somewhat 
 insipid. ****** 
 
 " The Leicester sheep were never favorites with the 
 butcher, because they had little loose inside fat. It ought, 
 nevertheless, to have been recollected that the smallness of 
 j the head, and the thinness of the pelt, would in some meas- 
 I ure counterbalance the loss of tallow ; and that the diminu- 
 tion of offal is advantageous to the grazier, for it shows a 
 
 { 
 
 * The heaviest pure Leicester, of wliich there is any authentic account, 
 \ belonged to Mr. Morgan, of Loughton ; its live weight was 368 lbs., and 
 I the weight of the carcase, 248 lbs. 
 
120 BBITISII BREEDS. 
 
 disposition to form fat outwardly, and is uniformly accom- 
 panied by a tendency to quickness of improvement. 
 
 " The New Leicesters, however, are not without their 
 faults. They are not, even at the present day, so prolific as 
 most other breeds. This was too much overlooked in the 
 time of Bakewell and his immediate followers. Their ob- 
 ject was to produce a lamb that could be forced on so as to 
 be ready, at the earliest possible period, for the purposes of 
 breeding or of slaughter, and therefore the production of 
 twins was not only unsought after, but was regarded as an 
 
 " It was likewise, and not without reason, objected to 
 them that their lambs were tender and weakly, and unable 
 to bear the occasional inclemency of the weather at the 
 lambing season. This also was a necessary consequence of 
 that delicacy of form, and delicacy of constitution too, wliich 
 were so sedulously cultivated in the Leicester sheep. 
 
 " The last objection to the New Leicester sheep was the 
 neglect and deficiency of the fleece. There is little cause, 
 however, for complaint at the present period. The wool has 
 coRsiderably increased in length, and has improved both in 
 fineness and strength of fibre ; it averages from 6 to 7 lbs. the 
 fleece, and the fibre varies from five to more than twelve 
 inches in length. It is mostly used in the manufacture of 
 serges and carpets. 
 
 " The principal value of this breed consists in the improve- 
 ment which it has effected in almost every variety of sheep 
 that it has crossed ; but it has met with, especially in Wales, 
 a powerful antagonist in the Cotswold." 
 
 The introduction of additional evidence showing the ne- 
 cessity of providing luxuriant pasturage for the Leicester 
 breed, will be proper. 
 
 " I occupied a farm," says a Lammermine shepherd, " that 
 had been rented by our family for nearly half a century. On 
 entering it, the Cheviot stock was the object of our choice, 
 and so long as we continued in possession of this breed, 
 everything proceeded with considerable success ; but the 
 New Leicesters came into fashion, and we, influenced by 
 the general mania, cleared our farm of the Cheviots and pro- 
 cured the favorite stock. Our coarse bean pastures, however, 
 were unequal to the task of supporting such heavy-bodied 
 sheep ; and they gradually dwindled away into less and less 
 bulk ; each generation was inferior to the preceding one ; 
 
TEESWATER SHEEP ROMNEY MARSH SHEEP. 121 
 
 and, when the spring was severe, seldom more than two thirds 
 of the lambs could survive the ravages of the storm." 
 
 Sir John Sinclair has also recorded his opinion on this 
 point. " The Leicester breed is perhaps the best ever 
 reared for a rich arable district ; but the least tincture of this 
 blood is destructive of the mountain sheep, as it makes them 
 incapable of withstanding the least scarcity of food." 
 
 The New Leicester breed have been extensively intro- 
 duced into the North American British Provinces, and the 
 United States ; and when suitable localities have been 
 chosen, their cultivation has been attended with success. 
 
 TEESWATER SHEEP. 
 
 This breed derives its name from the river which sepa- 
 rates Durham from Yorkshire. It is supposed, from its simi- 
 larity of conformation to the old Lincolnshires, to have orig- 
 inated from that stock. " It was a tall, clumsy animal, poll- 
 ed, and with white face and legs : the bones small compared 
 with those of other large breeds, yet supporting a thicker, 
 firmer, and heavier body than their size would indicate ; 
 wide upon the back, somewhat round in the barrel, and yet 
 yielding a heavier carcase than any other sheep, but propor- 
 tionably longer in growing to perfection ; the meat, how- 
 ever, was finer-grained than could be expected from such an 
 animal." 
 
 The old Tees water was exceedingly prolific. Mr. Cully 
 records a singular instance of a ewe belonging to a Mr. Ed- 
 dison, which, at two years old, brought him four lambs, 
 three in the following year, two in the succeeding one, and 
 the extraordinary number of five, the next year. The fleece 
 weighed about nine pounds previous to any improvement of 
 the carcase by the cross of the New Leicester ; and the 
 wool was remarkably long, coarse, and thinly set on the 
 skin. 
 
 The improvement which followed the cross alluded to, 
 at length superseded entirely the old breed ; and the im- 
 proved Teeswater sheep now rivals the Leicester, in dis- 
 position to fatten, early maturity, as well as quality of 
 fleece. 
 
 ROMNEY MARSH SHEEP, OF KENT. 
 
 Romney Marsh is an extensive tract of land recovered 
 from the sea in a very early period of English history. 
 
 11 
 
122 
 
 BRITISH BREEDS. 
 
 A portion of the soil is poor and sandy, but very much of 
 the marsh affords a superabundance of rich and valuable 
 pasture for sheep. A long-wooled and highly profitable 
 breed of sheep has been kept on these reclaimed lands 
 from time immemorial, and which has undergone but partial 
 change, until within a few years. 
 
 MMx^.^ 
 
 
 -£r jp-wy'fV* \/ 
 
 ROMNEY MARSH RAM. 
 
 " The pure Romney Marsh breed of sheep are distin- 
 guished by thickness and length of head, a broad forehead 
 with a tuft of wool upon it, a long, thick neck and carcase. 
 They are flat-sided, have a sharp chine, and tolerably wide 
 on the loin, have the breast narrow and not deep, and fore- 
 quarter not heavy nor full. The thigh full and broad, the 
 belly large and tabby, the tail thick, long, and coarse ; the 
 legs thick, with large feet ; the wool long, and not fine ; they 
 have much internal fat, and are great favorites with the 
 butcher. They have much hardihood ; they bear their cold 
 
LINCOLN SHEEP. 123 
 
 and exposed situation well, and they require no artificial 
 food during the hardest winter, except a little hay."* 
 
 The average weight of the fleece is from 6 to 7 lbs. 
 The breed has been successfully crossed with the Leices- 
 ter, and many of the bad points of the original stock rec- 
 tified. 
 
 LINCOLN SHEEP. 
 
 From the fact that the Lincoln sheep have been intro- 
 duced into this and other states, and are deservedly formida- 
 ble rivals of the Leicester and Cotswold, the author, from 
 motives of delicacy towards the respective breeders, prefers 
 to render the account of the Lincoln breed in the language 
 of Mr. Youat, which, on perusal, will appear an impartial 
 one. 
 
 After contradicting, on good grounds, the assertions that 
 the breed was originally foreign, he says — " The Lincoln 
 sheep, according to Ellis, who is the oldest agricultural wri- 
 ter in whom any description of them is given, were the 
 " longest legged and largest carcassed sheep of all others, 
 and carried more wool on them than any sheep whatsoever." 
 
 " It is true that a larger quantity of wool was clipped from 
 the Lincolnshire sheep than any other in the kingdom ; and 
 thence arose the error into which the Lincolnshire breeders 
 fell ; they bred for the fleece, and for the fleece alone. 
 Bakewell neglected the fleece — the Lincolnshire farmer the 
 carcase ; hence the opposite errors of each, and the reason- 
 ableness and advantage of the plan by which both the car- 
 case and fleece were at length brought to the highest degree 
 of perfection. 
 
 " If the Lincolnshire farmer too much neglected the car- 
 case, there were times when the sheep, or when nature, 
 would vindicate its claims. It is true that the form was 
 gaunt and somewhat unsightly, but the excellence of the 
 breed, as a grazing sheep, would occasionally appear. If 
 the Lincoln would consume more food than the Leicester, it 
 would increase in weight proportionably to the extra quan- 
 tity of food which it ate ; and this, together with the addi- 
 tional weight of wool, rendered it nearly or quite as profita- 
 ble to the farmer. 
 
 " There was a long and acrimonious contest between the 
 
 * Price on Shoep. 
 
124 BRITISH BREEDS. 
 
 Leicesters and the Lincolns for the point of supremacy. 
 The continuance, however, of the contest, and the doubt 
 which even now exists in the minds of some, with regard to 
 the relative value of the respective breeds, show that the old 
 Lincolnshire should not have been spoken of in a disparag- 
 ing way. Before they were allied to the Leicesters, and 
 ill-formed and rough as they were, they had attained no small 
 degree of excellence both in the carcase and the wool. 
 
 " At length a union was established between them. The 
 Lincoln ewe was put to the Leicester ram, and the progeny 
 certainly displayed, and to a very great and profitable extent, 
 the excellencies of the male parent ; the wether attained its 
 maturity a full year sooner than it was accustomed to do, and 
 with less comparative expense of food even in that time ; 
 and when the ewe was drafted, she too was sooner ready to 
 be sent to the market, and weighed considerably more than 
 she was wont to do, and was in higher repute and more rea- 
 dily sold. 
 
 " Mr. Clark, of Canwick, in 1827, exhibited two wether 
 sheep in Lincoln Market, the fleeces of which had yielded, 
 each, 12 lbs. of wool. They were slaughtered — the carcase 
 of the larger one weighed 261 lbs.: the fore-quarters were, 
 each of them, 73 lbs., and the hind quarters 57 1-2 lbs. ! On 
 the top of the rib the solid fat measured nine inches in 
 thickness ! 
 
 " The average weight of the fleeces of the Lincoln breed 
 is from 8 to 10 lbs. It has since become finer and the co- 
 lor is improved, but it is shorter, a material objection in some 
 fabrics, and it has lost some of that toughness which is an 
 indispensable quality in the best combing wool. The light 
 and tender kind of wool is valuable in the manufacture of 
 the rougher woollen articles, but it is not suited to the finer 
 worsted fabrics. 
 
 " The fibre is the 480th part of an inch in diameter, and 
 the serrations 1280 in the space of an inch." 
 
 BAMPTON SHEEP. 
 
 This breed is found extensively spread over the north of 
 Devonshire, and also in Somersetshire. The name is derived 
 from a village on the borders of the two counties, where they 
 are supposed to have been first bred. 
 
 In the Annals of Agriculture, a writer thus describes them : 
 " They are the best breed in Devonshire, and have existed 
 
COTSWOLD SHEEP. 
 
 125 
 
 in the neighborhood of Bampton for centuries. A fat ewe 
 of that breed rises to 20 lbs. a quarter on an average, and 
 wethers to 30 lbs. or 35 lbs. a quarter at two years old. 
 They are white-faced ; the best breed living, more like the 
 Leicesters than any other, but larger boned, longer in the 
 legs and body, though not so broad-backed. Eighteen lbs. 
 of wool have been shorn from a ram of this breed that was 
 supposed to be 40 lbs. the quarter. 
 
 They have been crossed with the Leicester with evident 
 advantage it is considered by some, while others contend to 
 the contrary, the wool being lessened in weight, length, and 
 toughness, and the lambs more tender and difficult to rear. 
 
 
 
 '^v-c:^^ C'"^^ 
 
 ^A."' 
 
 COTSWOLD EWE. 
 COTSWOLD SHEEP. 
 
 The following account of this breed is by Mr. Spooner : — 
 
 " This is an ancient and celebrated breed, its wool being 
 
 spoken of very favorably by many old writers. Cotswold 
 
 signifies a sheep-fold and a naked hill. The Cotswold hills, 
 
 the native tract of the breed, are of moderate elevation, pos- 
 
 11* 
 
126 BRITISH BREEDS. 
 
 sess a sweet herbage, and though formerly consisting mostly 
 of bleak wastes, have been latterly much improved. Cam- 
 den speaks of the breed as having fine and soft wool. Dray- 
 ton writes of its fleeces as more abundant than those of Sa- 
 rum and Leominster. Speed, writing 200 years ago, speaks 
 of the wool as similar to the Ryeland, and rivalling that of 
 Spain. Indeed, some imagine it was the origin of the Me- 
 rino sheep, as in 1464 Edward IV. permitted a number to 
 be exported to Spain, where they greatly increased and 
 spread. Spain, however, before this, was celebrated for the 
 fineness of its wool. Markham, in the time of Queen Eliz- 
 abeth, speaks of the Cotswold as having long wool, and Mr. 
 Marshall and other writers consider that they have always 
 been a long-wooled breed. It is difficult to reconcile these 
 differences of opinion ; for my own part, I am disposed to 
 think that the present are the descendants of the old race ; 
 be this as it may, we have no evidence, either oral, written, 
 or traditional, of the change having been made. 
 
 The Cotswold is a large breed of sheep, with a long and 
 abundant fleece, and the ewes are very prolific and good 
 nurses. Formerly these bred only on the hills, and fatted in 
 the valleys of the Severn and the Thames ; but with the 
 enclosure of the Cotswold hills, and the improvement of 
 their cultivation, they have been reared and fattened in the 
 same district. They have been extensively crossed with 
 the Leicester sheep, by which their size and fleece have 
 been somewhat diminished, but their carcases considerably 
 improved, and their maturity rendered earlier. The wethers 
 are now sometimes fattened at fourteen months, when they 
 weigh from 15 lbs. to 24 lbs. per quarter, and at two years 
 old increase to 20 lbs. or 30 lbs. The wool is strong, mel- 
 low, and of good color, though rather coarse, six to eight 
 inches in length, and from 7 to 8 lbs. the fleece. The supe- 
 rior hardihood of the improved Cotswold over the Leicester, 
 and their adaptation to common treatment, together with the 
 prolific nature of the ewes and their abundance of milk, 
 have rendered them in many places rivals of the new Lei- 
 cester, and have obtained for them of late years more atten- 
 tion to their selection and general treatment, under which 
 management still further improvement appears very probable. 
 They have also been used in crossing other breeds, and have 
 been mixed with the Hampshire Downs. It is, indeed, the 
 improved Cotswold that, under the term New or Improved 
 
WELSH SHEEP.- — MERINO SHEEP IN ENGLAND. 127 
 
 Oxfordshire Sheep, are so frequently the successful candi- 
 dates for prizes offered for the best long-wooled sheep at 
 some of the principal agricultural meetings or shows in the 
 kingdom. The quality of the mutton is considered superior 
 to that of the Leicester, the tallow being less abundant, with 
 a larger development of muscle or flesh. We may, there- 
 fore, regard this breed as one of established reputation, and 
 extending itself throughout every district of the kingdom." 
 
 WELSH SHEEP. 
 
 Little can be said of the welsh sheep to interest the 
 American wool-grower. The primitive breeds are of two 
 kinds — mountain and valley sheep ; the former producing a 
 short fine wool, and the latter a coarse fleece with medium 
 length of staple. 
 
 Ellis, the ancient author of the " Shepherd's Sure Guide," 
 says — " I am now come to write on the hardiest sheep there 
 are for living in a cold country, and any where else, on that 
 short bite of grass where a large sheep would pine and 
 starve ; but they are not the choice of many, because they 
 are apt to straggle and run away. They are a small, short, 
 knotty sheep, that come from the poorest living, and thrive 
 and fatten quickly for the butcher, and become the sweetest 
 of mutton, particularly for a private family's uses, Avho de- 
 light to eat the best and finest sorts." The ewes of this 
 breed average about 8 lbs. to the quarter, and the wethers 
 10 lbs, when at three years old. The mutton is particularly 
 well-flavored, and in the months of October and November, 
 commands a much higher price than that of other breeds of 
 larger size. A considerable quantity of Welsh mutton finds 
 its way to the London market. 
 
 Since the introduction of turnip husbandry, the cross of 
 the Leicester has been tested, and in many parts of the val- 
 ley regions more productive of herbage than others, it has 
 succeeded ; but the Cotswold, from greater natural hardihood, 
 has contested the ground with the Leicester, and with mark- 
 ed superiority over its formidable competitor. 
 
 MERINO SHEEP IN ENGLAND. 
 
 George the IIL was distinguished as an ardent promoter 
 of agriculture, and determined in 1787, to make a fair trial 
 of this renowned breed ; and accordingly a few were ordered 
 and placed on his farm at Kew. They were selected in Es- 
 
128 BRITISH BREEDS. 
 
 tremadura, on the borders of Portugal ; and this, at that 
 time, was a sort of smuggling transaction, as no Merinos 
 could be sent from any Spanish port without a license from 
 the king ; therefore they were obliged to be shipped from 
 Lisbon. The sheep were hastily chosen from different 
 flocks and various districts, and consequently exhibited but 
 little uniformity, and not fully the true character of the breed ; 
 the king, therefore, soon disposed of them to others. 
 
 Subsequently, it was determined to make a direct applica- 
 tion to the Spanish monarch for jjermission to make a selec- 
 tion from some of the best flocks. This was promptly 
 granted ; and a small number was taken from the Negrette 
 variety, then deemed the most valuable of the migi-atory 
 sheep. This flock arrived in 1791, and was immediately 
 placed on the king's farm. 
 
 From ignorance, they were at first badly managed. Hav- 
 ing been placed on a moist and luxuriant soil, many soon 
 became affected with foot rot, and others died from attacks 
 of liver rot. This calamity was a triumph to the prejudiced, 
 but a change to dryer pasture proved a remedy, which soon 
 led to a change of opinion in their favor. In a short time it 
 appeared that they were no more subject to diseases than 
 British sheep. 
 
 Crosses took place with several varieties of the native 
 breeds, with various success. Doctor Parry crossed with 
 the Ryeland, the most superior short-wooled sheep in Eng- 
 land, and the fourth cross produced a wool equal to pure 
 Merino. 
 
 Mr. Coke, the renowned English agriculturist, also expe- 
 rimented on both the Ryelands and South Downs, and af- 
 firmed that the cross with the latter was superior to that of 
 the former. It was but a few years afterwards, that he ex- 
 pressed the following opinion, in an address before the Me- 
 rino Society, at Holkham : — " I feel it my duty," said he, 
 to state my latest opinion of the effects of the cross of a part 
 of my South Down flock with Merino tups, and I wish it 
 could be more favorable. From the further trial which I 
 have made, (this, the fourth year), I must candidly confess 
 that I have reason to believe that, however one cross may 
 answer, a farther progress will not prove advantageous to the 
 breeder." This opinion of Mr. Coke should be duly consi- 
 dered by every American breeder. 
 
 But, sometime antecedent to this decision of Mr. Coke, 
 
MERINO SHEEP IN ENGLAND. 129 
 
 very many who had entertained apparently insurmountable 
 prejudices were bold to acknowledge the merits of the Me- 
 rinos, and became fully satisfied that neither the climate or 
 herbage of their new home were incompatible with perfect 
 success. Sir Joseph Banks and Lord Somerville were 
 amongst their staunchest and zealous advocates, and the lat- 
 ter duly tested the sincerity of his opinions, by importing a 
 considerable flock of them. 
 
 Thirteen years after the king's importation of the Negrette 
 flock, a public sale by auction was made of Merinos. The 
 rams averaged about fifty dollars per head, and the ewes thir- 
 ty. In 1808, four years after, the prices averaged 130 dol- 
 lars for rams, and 100 dollars for ewes. In 1810 the Me- 
 rinos arrived at the climax of public favor. In this year, at 
 another public auction sale, rams commanded nearly 300 
 dollars per head. " One full-mouthed Negrette was sold for 
 over 800 dollars, and another for nearly 700." 
 
 A Merino Society was instituted in the following year, at 
 the head of which was placed Sir Joseph Banks, with fifty- 
 four Vice Presidents, and local committees were established 
 in every county in England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. 
 
 Mr. Youatt observes — " No more striking instance can be 
 produced of the fallacy of human expectations and judgment, 
 than the establishment of this society. From this period is 
 to be dated the rapid decay of the Merinos in public estima- 
 tion." After a passing tribute of just praise to the breed, he 
 proceeds to say, " In Great Britain, nevertheless, where 
 the system of artificial feeding is carried to so great a de- 
 gree of perfection — where the sheep is so early and so pro- 
 fitably brought to the market — that breed, however it may ulti-- 
 mately increase the value of the wool, can never be adopted,' 
 which is deficient, as the Merinos undeniably are, in the prin- 
 ciple of early maturity, and general propensity to fatten." 
 
 Other reasons for the abandonment of the Merinos are 
 given by Mr. Flint, a distinguished agriculturist. He says 
 — " I always thought the speculation of cultivating the Me- 
 rinos a decidedly foolish and unprofitable one. We can con- 
 sume all the coarse wool we grow, and more if we could get 
 it ; and taking carcase and weight of wool together, the long- 
 wooled sheep is more profitable by far than the Merino. Be- 
 sides, if the English breeds were to any considerable extent 
 superseded by the Merinos, the price of that wool would 
 fall, and long wools would rise ; and the advantage of grow- 
 
130 BRITISH BREEDS. 
 
 ing fine wool, on account of its high price, would slip through 
 the fingers of the agriculturist. If we could grow more of 
 both kinds, well and good ; but in present circumstances, a 
 profit by foreign wool is as good as a profit by fine wool, and 
 we can only have one ; and it is the part of wisdom to take 
 that which is easiest got." 
 
 The above are the substantial reasons for the downfall of 
 the Merinos in Great Britain, and not altogether, as many 
 have supposed, yVo??! the humidity of the climate. Long after 
 their introduction, the wool of the Merinos was carefully 
 compared with the best samples of pure Spanish, and no 
 deterioration was perceptible. A dry climate is best suited 
 to the Merino, but many years would elapse before a humid 
 one, without other causes, would produce any essential 
 change in the properties of its fleece. High feeding is al- 
 together a more potent cause of deterioration. 
 
 The Table will indicate to the reader the comparative va- 
 lue of the wools imported into Great Britain. The prices 
 were current in 1834, in London. 
 
 Spanish Merino, per lb. . 
 
 Portugal ditto ..... 
 
 Lamb's wool ditto .... 
 GiiRMAN, Saxon, and Silesian : — 
 
 1st and 2d Electoral .... 
 
 Prima 
 
 Secunda 
 
 Tertia 
 
 Austrian, Bohemian, and Hungarian: — 
 
 1st Electoral 
 
 Prima 
 
 Secunda 
 
 Tertia 
 
 Australian: — 
 
 Best fleeces 
 
 Seconds ...... 
 
 Inferior flocks 
 
 Van Dieman's Land : — 
 
 Superior fleeces ..... 
 
 Middling 
 
 Inferior ....... 
 
 British Fleeces : — 
 
 North and South Down 
 
 Leicester fleeces .... 
 
 Roinney Marsh, Lincoln, and Cotswold 
 
 Anglo Merino in yolk 
 
 $ cts. 
 
 
 ^cts- 
 
 60 
 
 to 
 
 77 
 
 44 
 
 (( 
 
 62 
 
 36 
 
 (( 
 
 41 
 
 1 05 
 
 (( 
 
 1 15 
 
 88 
 
 a 
 
 1 10 
 
 66 
 
 (( 
 
 77 
 
 48 
 
 (C 
 
 55 
 
 88 
 
 (( 
 
 1 20 
 
 77 
 
 (( 
 
 1 00 
 
 55 
 
 (( 
 
 78 
 
 44 
 
 (( 
 
 67 
 
 77 
 
 (( 
 
 1 00 
 
 61 
 
 (( 
 
 88 
 
 50 
 
 (( 
 
 62 
 
 55 
 
 (( 
 
 65 
 
 42 
 
 (( 
 
 46 
 
 22 
 
 (( 
 
 34 
 
 44 
 
 i( 
 
 48 
 
 33 
 
 (( 
 
 44 
 
 40 
 
 « 
 
 44 
 
 22 
 
 (( 
 
 30 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 WOOLLY SHEEP OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS— OTTER SHEEP— ARLING- 
 TON LONG WOOLED SHEEP— SMITH'S ISLAND SHEEP— REMARKS 
 ON MERINOS AND SAXONS— PRAIRIE MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP- 
 OBSERVATIONS ON WOOL CULTURE IN THE SOUTH, AND SOUTH- 
 WESTERN STATES— CENSUS STATISTICS— SOUTH AMERICAN SHEEP 
 —ALPACA, OR PERUVIAN SHEEP— WOOL CULTURE ON THE PAM- 
 PAS. 
 
 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Neither North or South America can boast of any abo- 
 riginal or primitive domestic breeds of sheep : those which 
 have received the name of " native" having been brought 
 over at various periods from Europe by the colonists. 
 
 Before proceeding to notice several of these breeds, it will 
 be proper to refer to an animal found among the Rocky 
 Mountains, which is confounded with the Argali, and known 
 as the " woolly sheep." Captain Bonneville says, " This 
 animal is found about the country of the Flathead Indians. 
 It inhabits cliffs in summer, but descends into the valleys in 
 the winter. It has white wool, like a sheep, mingled with 
 a thin growth of long hair ; but it has short legs, a deep 
 belly, and a beard like a goat. Its horns are about five inches 
 lono", slightly curved backwards, black as jet, and beautifully 
 polished. Its hoofs are of the same colour. This animal 
 is by no means so active as the big horn ; it does not bound 
 much, but sits a good deal upon its haunches. It is not so 
 plentiful either ; rarely more than two or three are seen at 
 a time. Its wool alone gives it a resemblance to the sheep ; 
 it is more properly of the goat genus. The fleece is said to 
 have a musty flavor ; some have thought the flesh might be 
 valuable, as it is said to be as fine as that of the goat of 
 Cashmere, but it is not to be procured in sufficient quantities." 
 
132 SHEEP OP THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 The colonists, coming as they did from various districts of 
 their native countries, it is presumed brought with them 
 breeds of sheep peculiar to those districts ; and having been 
 promiscuously bred, at the period of the introduction of the 
 Merinos, few of ihem conformed to any of the varieties of 
 the more distinguished British breeds. 
 
 They were long legged, narrow chested, comparatively 
 slow in arriving at maturity, yielding a coarse white wool 
 of medium length of staple, and the fleeces averaged from 
 3 to 4 lbs. The principal recommendation consisted in being 
 prolific breeders and good nurses ; but their defects greatly 
 predominated, being untractable, impatient of restraint, scaling 
 high fences, and committing often serious depredations on 
 the crops of the farmer. Happily this ungainly and unprofit- 
 able tribe has disappeared, except in portions of the southern 
 States, and their place has been supplied with more profit- 
 able sheep, effected by crossing them with Merinos, Saxons, 
 and the improved English breeds. 
 
 For the gratification of the curious, rather than for utility, 
 the compiler will notice a singular breed of sheep known as 
 
 THE OTTER SHEEP. 
 
 This unique breed have derived no little fame, not so much 
 however, from their peculiarity of conformation, as from their 
 fortuitous origin ; this being the fact, as the sire and dame 
 of the first individual of the breed were distinguished by the 
 usual characteristics of the natives, long legs, &c. This 
 accidental origin, therefore, is valuable to the philosopher as 
 accounting in part for the numerous varieties of the genus 
 Ovis, now spread over almost every inhabitable part of the 
 globe. Climate and herbage are also prominent causes of 
 differences in conformation, but accident has undoubtedly 
 had more to do in producing these differeiices, than is gen- 
 erally conceded. 
 
 The precise point where the Otter breed originated seems 
 unsettled ; Chancellor Livingston states that it was on an 
 island opposite the New England coast ; another writer says 
 it was in Massachusetts, and in a flock which belonged to 
 Seth Wright, and occurred in 1791. It is however, of little 
 moment, as the breed have been abandoned, and become 
 extinct. 
 
 A ewe gave birth to twins, one of which was a male, with 
 legs so short, and being turned outward, that, as Chancellor 
 
ARLINGTON SHEEP. SMITIl's ISLAND SHEEP. 133 
 
 Livingston observes, " they appeared as if they had been 
 broken and set by an avv^kvi^ard surgeon." When running, 
 its gait was of a hobbling or rickety character, and painful 
 to the beholder. The body was long and round, and the 
 animal presented no other evidence of mal-formation. Cu- 
 riosity induced, at first, breeding from it, and the progeny 
 presented a striking resemblance to the sire. They were 
 prized for no other reason than because nature had deprived 
 them of the power to scale fences and commit depredations 
 on the farmers' crops, which was so characteristic of their 
 progenitors. This is probably the only instance where man 
 has availed himself of a defect in the animal kingdom, and 
 turned it to his advantage. 
 
 ARLINGTON LONG WOOLED SHEEP. 
 
 Chancellor Livingston thus notices this breed : " From 
 the Otter breed I turn with pleasure to the Arlington long 
 wooled sheep. These, Mr. Custis, who was the original 
 breeder of them, informs me were derived from the stock of 
 that distinguished farmer, soldier, statesman, and patriot, 
 Washington ; who had collected at Mount Vernon whatever 
 he believed useful to the agriculture of his country ; and, 
 among other animals a Persian ram, which Mr. Custis de- 
 scribes as being very large and well formed, carrying wool 
 of great length, but of a coarse staple. This stock, inter- 
 mixed with the Bakewell, are the source from which the 
 fine Arlington sheep are derived ; some of which, he says, 
 carry wool fourteen inches in length, and are formed upon 
 the Bakewell model. * * * * 'p jjg sample of wool 
 which Mr. Custis sent me from this stock possessed every 
 ingredient which is esteemed in combing wool. It was fine 
 for the sort, soft, silky, and beautifully white." 
 
 This breed is still held in high estimation among some 
 farmers in Virginia and Maryland, but are now very much 
 inferior to their ancestors, and the improved long wooled 
 British breeds, both for mutton and value of fleece. 
 
 There is yet another breed of sheep to notice, which have 
 been somewhat famous, and were doubtless abundantly su- 
 perior to the average of other sheep of the day. They 
 were called the 
 
 smith's island SHEEP. 
 
 The island is on the coast of Virginia, and it, together 
 
134 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 with the sheep, were the property of Mr. Custis, who stated 
 the breed to be peculiar to that part of the country. 
 
 The climate being temperate, and the soil producing a 
 succulent and varied herbage, all being so well suited to 
 sheep, the carcase and wool in process of time became 
 greatly improved ; and hence the deservedly high estimation 
 of the breed by Mr. Custis and others. The wool was very 
 white, and comparatively fine ; the staple from 8 to 10 inches 
 in length, and the fleeces averaged about 8 lbs. The de- 
 scendants of the flocks, though greatly degenerated, are dif- 
 fused over a wide section of country in Virginia, and further 
 south. 
 
 From the foregoing brief description of the qualities of 
 the native sheep, it will readily be conceived that they were 
 susceptible of great improvement. Their amelioration com- 
 menced on the arrival of the Merinos introduced by Chan- 
 cellor Livingston and Gen. Humphrey, but until the embargo 
 of 1807, there was little stimulus to aid this laudable enter- 
 prise. After that event and during the war with Great Brit- 
 ain, which soon after followed, the nation was thrown upon 
 its industrial means for the supplies of the staple necessaries 
 of life ; and wool culture received such an impetus, and such 
 consequently was the competition for the possession of the 
 Merinos, that individuals of the breed sold for the enormous 
 prices of from 500 to 1400 dollars per head. Manufactures 
 had been commenced, and notwithstanding the little skill 
 employed in them at that early day, they prospered ; but on 
 the declaration of Peace in 1815, commerce brought to our 
 shores the cheaper fabrics of Europe, and the Merinos and 
 our infant manufactories were prostrated together. Remu- 
 nerating prices could no longer be obtained for wool of any 
 description, and this unfortunate state of things continued 
 without intermission for many years. Notwithstanding this, 
 however, the wool growers of the north were too sagacious 
 not to appreciate the Merino fleece, and to see in the vista of 
 the future a period when its culture would again be a source 
 of profit. Hence the Merinos spread gradually over all the 
 northern States ; and in all instances where the principles 
 of breeding were properly understood and practiced, their 
 fleeces suffered no deterioration. 
 
 The policy of our National Government in 1824 being 
 more in unison with the agricultural interests of the country, 
 revived the spirit for extending the culture and improvement 
 
PRAIRIE MANAGEMENT. 135 
 
 of the fleece, which had been so many years prostrate and 
 dormant. Accordingly the Saxons were soon after intro- 
 duced ; and notwithstanding the gross frauds which were 
 practised by bringing with them so many worthless speci- 
 mens of the race, and the untoward circumstances which 
 since then wool-growers have been obliged to contend 
 against, the exertions to perfect the fleece have been crown- 
 ed with much success, though by no means commensurate 
 with its importance. 
 
 The New England States, from the unkindness of the soil 
 peculiar to large portions of them for the cultivation of crops, 
 at an early day became distinguished for the growing of 
 wool, and yet maintain their high rank, not only for the ex- 
 tent of its production, but the fineness of its texture. There 
 are Saxon flocks in Connecticut and New Hampshire which 
 rival some of the best German ; and Merinos also in nearly 
 all of these States, whose fleeces surpass in weight and fine- 
 ness those of Spain at the present day, and equal the far- 
 famed Rambouillets of France. 
 
 The State of New York has within her borders more than 
 one quarter of all the sheep in the Union ; and in the aggre- 
 gate, the wool of her flocks is unsurpassed in quality by that 
 of any other State. 
 
 The State of Pennsylvania, although she has fewer sheep 
 by far than her soil is capable of supporting, yet on her west- 
 ern borders, especially in the county of Washington, she has 
 flocks that are rarely equalled. 
 
 Ohio too is far advanced in wool culture, and the flocks 
 descended from the celebrated sheep of Messrs. Wells and 
 Dickinson, formerly of Steubenville, are of very superior 
 quality, the wool of which is distinguished for length and 
 silkiness of staple. 
 
 From Pennsylvania and Ohio have sprung, principally, the 
 colonies of sheep which are now present on the western 
 prairies, and which leads to the subject of wool culture on 
 those immense plains. 
 
 The following extracts are from a pamphlet on the subject 
 of Prairie Management, written by Mr. George Flower, and 
 published in 1841. Mr. Flower has been a resident of Ed- 
 wards County, Illinois, since 1817, and during the whole 
 of this period, a manager and proprietor of fine-wooled sheep. 
 
 " A glance must now be taken at the difficulties and risks 
 to which flocks are exposed in new countries, and which 
 
136 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 have hitherto prevented their rapid increase upon any large 
 
 scale. 
 
 " The wolf is a great drawback on the pleasure and profit 
 of sheep-keeping. It is not only what the beast destroys, 
 but the expense incurred in watching against his attacks. 
 But the greatest loss sustained is being obliged to pen the 
 sheep every night, for safe keeping. * # * * Deaths, 
 from unknown causes, have swept away whole flocks, newly 
 brought into the State, which tends to dampen similar enter- 
 prises. Many sheep are often purchased from drovers, which 
 have been over-driven, and which has laid the foundation of 
 disease. From Avhatever cause it may arise, if the sheep are 
 poor in the fall of the year, great loss will accrue to the 
 owner. The dry, mild weather in autumn is often accompa- 
 nied with scanty herbage, and sheep rapidly decline unob- 
 served, the growth of wool concealing their poverty from an 
 unpractised eye, and a mortal stroke is inflicted before the 
 owner suspects it. It is a great point to procure sheep from 
 healthy flocks, if possible. When they are brought from a 
 distance, care should be taken that they are not over-driven. 
 Twelve or fifteen miles a day is far enough, and should never 
 be urged beyond their naturally slow pace. It behooves the 
 farmer to see that he has an abundance of nutritious food on 
 their arrival at their journey's end. Keeping sheep of all 
 ages in a flock, in a pasture barely suflicient for them, de- 
 stroys the young and the old. The strong, robust sheep eat 
 up all the food. In winter feeding, not allowing sufficient 
 trough and rack room for all the sheep to feed at once, with- 
 out crowding each other, starves the weakest. These are 
 some of the known causes of failure of success, and lest 
 there should be others of a local nature, I would advise 
 every new beginner to be moderate in the number of his 
 flock the first year ; two or three hundred is enough for the 
 ewe flock. 
 
 " The Prairie grass is green, succulent, and nourishing, 
 until the first part of July ; from that time onward it becomes 
 less and less acceptable. If a flock is kept upon it, in the 
 latter part of summer it requires a large range and fresh pas- 
 turage. But a method is knowu to the frontier settlers, of 
 retaining spring herbage, until the approach of winter. Se- 
 lect a patch of prairie (some five or ten thousand acres) that 
 has not been burned the preceding year. The mass of old 
 dry grass, in the middle of June, is sufficiently combustible to 
 
PRAIRIE MANAGEMENT. 137 
 
 allow fire to consume it with the growing crop of green grass. 
 Burn a patch in June, and the young grass will immediately 
 spring up, which, in July, will afford a rich pasture of young, 
 tender, juicy grass, about eight inches high. Burn another 
 patch in July, which will afford another pasture in August ; and 
 a third on the first day of August, which will remain green and 
 tender till killed by winter frosts. In this way juicy pasture 
 may be secured from early spring until the succeeding win- 
 ter. But some forecast is necessary to secure this. In the 
 previous autumn these spots should be selected and made 
 secure by burning round, as the hunters know how ; other- 
 wise they might be consumed in the general conflagration, 
 which often sweeps hundreds of miles of prairie grass in the 
 fall of the year. Supposing no cultivated grasses are pre- 
 pared, sheaf oats, or hay and corn, should be given at night ; 
 the flock going out to pick what they can through all the fine 
 days of autumn and winter. 
 
 " In the summer the shepherd must have a cabin near his 
 pasture ground, and a sheep-yard with a toolf -proof fence. 
 The flock must be out at the first dawn of day, and graze 
 late in the evening. During all the heat of the day they will 
 shade in some neighboring grove. The shepherd must have 
 his horn and rifle, and a pair of good hunting dogs, to chase 
 away the wolf and fox. The size of the flock may be limited 
 only to the size of the pasture. For a summer establish- 
 ment I should select an eminence on some of our extensive 
 prairies, and build four cabins, for the families of four shep- 
 herds — all under the eye of an experienced man. These 
 four shepherds should each diverge with their respective 
 flocks to the four points of the compass, and all return at 
 night. 
 
 " Where there are no cultivated grasses, there should be 
 large fields of early sown rye, for winter and early spring 
 food. Also oats, sown, perhaps, in the same field where 
 oats grew before, by ploughing the field immediately after 
 the crop is off, and sowing about a bushel to the acre. If 
 no cultivated grasses are provided for sheep to feed on in 
 autumn, it is difficult to keep up their condition in the latter 
 part of the year. But the greatest advantage is to be derived 
 from blue grass, which, if shut up in June, will keep green 
 all winter ; and, if a succession of pastures is provided, 
 the sheep will do well upon them all the winter, and will 
 only need feeding when the snow is frozen on the ground." 
 
 12* 
 
138 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 Mr. Flower states, that the diseases to which sheep are 
 subjected on the prairies of Southern Illinois, are liver-rot 
 and foot-rot ; the former caused by " suffering sheep to pas- 
 ture on land that is overflowed with water ; even a crop of 
 green oats, early in the fall before a frost comes, has been 
 known to rot young sheep." He observes, that sheep fed 
 exclusively on pasture are more liable to foot-rot than others. 
 
 The following communication, written at the request of 
 the writer, by J. Ambrose Wight, associate editor of the 
 Prairie Farmer, sets forth the extent to which Northern Illi- 
 nois is adapted to sheep culture ; and, in the main, his re- 
 marks are doubtless applicable to the prairies of all the North- 
 western States and Territories. There is manifestly so much 
 ignorance prevalent on this subject, no apology is necessary 
 for the minuteness with which Mr. Wight has treated it. 
 
 " It is but a little while since wool-growing was com- 
 menced in Northern Illinois. Small flocks, of from ten to a 
 hundred, have been kept here since the first settlement of the 
 country, consisting generally of hardy, coarse-wooled ani- 
 mals ; and though the success of the business, when con- 
 ducted in this manner, might be proof of the adaptation of 
 the country to the keeping of sheep, to a certain extent, it 
 would not be entirely satisfactory to one who should ask the 
 question, whether the country were adapted to growing fine 
 wool on a large scale. It is now about four years since a 
 commencement was made of driving in large flocks for this 
 latter purpose ; since which time the increase has been about 
 one hundred per cent, yearly, until last season, when the in- 
 crease was so much larger, that no accurate estimate can yet 
 be made of it. 
 
 " In order to answer your inquiries the more satisfactorily, 
 I will take them up in their order. 
 
 " First — ' I would be glad to know whether the pasture of the 
 prairies dries so much in summer as to compel the re?noval of 
 sheep from them to other localities V 
 
 " If the question relates, as I suppose it does, to summer 
 drought, I answer no ; the upland prairies — a term which I 
 suppose embraces nineteen twentieths, if not more, of the 
 prairie lands of Northern Illinois — sustain drought better by 
 far than any lands I have ever known. A large component 
 of all these lands — and the remark applies as well to what 
 are here called ' barrens ' — is black sand ; though the color 
 varies much in different localities. The ashes made by the 
 
PRAIRIE MANAGEMENT. 139 
 
 annual fires are also no inconsiderable component, and aid in 
 giving character to the soil. Most of the subsoil is a sort 
 of hard-pan, made of clay or loam cementing together peb- 
 bles and gravel, and is found from one to three or four feet 
 below the surface, and is so tenacious as to require a pick to 
 break through it. 
 
 " In the lowlands, both of prairies and barrens, the subsoil 
 is sometimes clay, and the soil more or less argillaceous. 
 The timber growing on the barrens will very nearly deter- 
 mine the character of the soil and subsoil. If the Burr Oak 
 is plenty, the former will be sandy, and the latter hard-pan ; 
 if black or white oak abounds, clay vi^ill be more likely to be 
 found. Besides the resistance to drought, offered in the 
 character of the soil, the roots of the wild grass run to an 
 extraordinary depth ; many of them reaching entirely through 
 the soil, however deep it may be. The grass grows in 
 stools, at distances of from three to twelve inches apart, 
 there being, in fact, where the wild grasses only are found, 
 no such thing as a surface turf, such as is formed by red-top 
 and kindred grasses. It will be seen that it requires a very 
 dry summer indeed to affect such pasture, on such a soil. 
 In the autumn of 1837, there was, in this latitude, for the 
 five months succeeding the 5th of August, not rain enough to 
 wet the ground perhaps an inch in depth ; and yet potatoes 
 and corn turned out well, and the prairies continued in ver- 
 dure about as well as usual. 
 
 " If, however, the question is asked, — Does not the pasture 
 on the prairies fail early in autumn, so as to compel the re- 
 moval of sheep to other pasture before it is time to go into 
 winter quarters ? I answer, yes — long before. In many 
 sections the prairies afford no adequate pasture for dairy 
 purposes after the first of September. In other localities 
 such pasture will continue in some vigor till as late as the 
 first or even middle of October ; this is the case with lands 
 lying within thirty miles of Chicago ; but such lands will be 
 proportionably late in the spring. The wild grasses are ex- 
 tremely vigorous while they last, but are all, ivithout an ex- 
 ception, short-lived. This may be a habit or condition, 
 induced by the annual fires, which kill out all but those with 
 long roots ; and a prevention of fires and cultivation might, 
 after a time, change the character of some of them in this 
 respect ; but it never will. They are disappearing, a little 
 
140 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA, 
 
 more slowly, but as surely as the Indians, before the plough- 
 share and march of cultivation. 
 
 " ' Does the Prairie grass conform in habit to any of the 
 English grasses V 
 
 " This question has been already pretty well answered. 
 There are a large number of wild grasses here. The dif- 
 ferent plants which go to make up the foliage of the prairies, 
 in any township of land, are very numerous. I have heard 
 them estimated by those who had paid attention to the sub- 
 ject, at two or three hundred. Of these, though but an infe- 
 rior proportion are, strictly speaking, grasses ; yet they all, 
 or nearly all, afford herbage fit to be eaten by animals. An 
 individual has but to cross any prairie, which has not been 
 fed or mown, in a tolerably wet season, and note the endless 
 prospect of blossoms, mingled with green, which wave un- 
 der the wind like the surges of a sea of flowers ; observe 
 the ever-changing colors of the swells, as they come and 
 go, to be sensible that there is variety enough. These flow- 
 ers change throughout the season, a dozen or two varieties 
 being in bloom at once, and continue in the fall long after 
 the prairies are fit for pasture, the rear being brought up by 
 blue and yellow weeds. These flowering plants diminish 
 in number at once from feeding or mowing, and soon almost 
 entirely, with the exception of the coarser ones, disappear. 
 
 " ' What length of time is foddering necessary in Northern 
 Illinois V 
 
 "The seasons have been extremely variable since my resi- 
 dence here — now nearly nine years. The winter of 1842 
 and '43 was the severest one since the settlement of the i 
 State, and the foddering season lasted from the middle of \ 
 October to the middle of April. The winter of 1843 and 
 '44 and the present one would require foddering for a less 
 time, by full two months. This is on the supposition, how- 
 ever, that good artificial pasturage is provided. If the wild 
 prairies alone are relied on for pasture and hay, full two 
 months must be added to the foddering season ; and stock 
 would barely get through at that ; and I think that sheep, in 
 multitudes of instances, would perish. In this latitude, 
 with timothy, red-top, and clover pastures, the average time 
 would be from four and a half to five months. If a good 
 blue grass pasture were provided, in such winters as the 
 last and the present, it might be reduced to two months ; 
 and I am told, that some so provided for, one hundred miles 
 
 i 
 
PRAIRIE MANAGEMENT. 141 
 
 south of here, have, the present winter, scarcely foddered at 
 all. I apprehend, however, that our winters here will 
 always be variable, and that it will be far more difficult to 
 predict their length and intensity than in New England. In. 
 relation to the value of blue grass for fall and spring pasture, 
 Thomas N. Welles, of Peoria, in a communication to the 
 Prairie Farmer, remarks as follows : — ' My sheep have had 
 no feed of any kind, since the first day of April, except pas- 
 turage, (blue grass,) and they are now (May 10th) fat. 
 They were put upon it as soon as the snow would let their 
 noses to the ground. Last fall my stock were kept upon the 
 grass till the 12th of November, when the herbage was cov- 
 ered with snow. Had the climate been open, the sheep 
 would have required little else than the grass. The tame 
 grasses, and especially blue grass, even if fed through the 
 summer and fall, will afford good feed about six weeks later 
 in autumn, and six weeks earlier in spring, than the prairie 
 grass. If shut up all the summer and fall, the blue grass 
 affords the best feed all winter, when the snow does not 
 cover it.' The winter adverted to was the severe one 
 already mentioned. 
 
 " ' What are sheep chiejly fed on V 
 
 " It is doubtful if any fixed mode of feeding has been adopt- 
 ed except in particular instances. Every sort of feeding, ac- 
 cording to circumstances, is practised. Some feed almost en- 
 tirely on the wild grass and hay of the prairies, which, when 
 cut on uplands and well cured, is believed by sheep-keepers 
 to be as good as any other, though more of it in weight will 
 be required than of good English hay. Some feed this hay 
 with a proportion of oats in sheaf, and roots twice a week, 
 and this is undoubtedly, with salt, good treatment. It is 
 found to be decidedly better to keep sheep up in small 
 flocks, with very little ground to run over, while kept on hay, 
 than to let them run out a part of the time, and get such 
 grass as they can pick, while there is not enough to sustain 
 them. They eat much dirt in such cases, are liable to be 
 poisoned, and lose their appetite for hay. A settled course 
 of feed of one character, embracing proper variety, is found 
 here, as at the East, decidedly preferable. The old rule, to 
 keep them at grass, while they can be with profit, and then 
 to put them to hay and keep them at it, works as well here 
 as anywhere. 
 
 " ' /^ is reported that sheep removed from the old States be- 
 
142 SHEEP OP THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 come very fat the Jirst season on the prairies ; is this condi' 
 tion kept up many years after V 
 
 " The first part of this question is true of persons, and is 
 undoubtedly true of stock, and in part may be attributed to a 
 change of climate. The change from an atmosphere which 
 is surcharged with oxygen and which stimulates the lungs 
 like that of the East, to one surcharged with carbon, and 
 which stimulates the liver like that of the West, is at first 
 generally attended with obesity. From other causes too, 
 stock turned upon the clear prairies, become fat, and keep 
 so till the feed fails. Some of the reasons are, that the 
 grass, while it is highly nutritious, is somewhat astringent, 
 and does not scour cattle when turned upon it in the spring, 
 like the eastern grasses. Oxen can be put to hard work 
 with no other feed, as soon as it is started in the spring, and 
 will keep in good heart and become fleshy. Again, the air 
 of the prairies is the freshest and purest on earth ; and stock 
 are less annoyed by insects while fanned by it, than any- 
 where else. Sheep or other stock, but more particularly 
 the former, put upon a given piece of wild prairie, and con- 
 fined to it, unless the range be very large, would not con- 
 tinue to keep fat one season after another, though they would 
 the first ; but if allowed a new range each season, they 
 would always keep fat. The reason is this : — sheep in such 
 cases will go over their range and select such food as they 
 prefer, and will keep at it till it is gone. Hence the wild 
 bean and pea vine, and a few other kinds of plants, will ob- 
 tain their constant attentions, and will be kept so short that 
 they will, on a given piece of land, die out the first year. 
 Therefore if turned out upon the same grounds another sea- 
 son, the best food will be gone, and the poorer, with which 
 they must then take up, and which itself gets continually 
 poorer, will not sustain them in their first condition. A 
 small flock of sheep will thus run over a large extent of 
 ground. 
 
 " Hence the utter hollowness of a supposition which ap- 
 pears to be common at the East, that large flocks of sheep 
 can be sustained on the wild grass of the prairies alone. 
 There are many places, it is true, where a farmer might 
 keep a large flock on the wild prairies during the summer 
 months with profit, provided he had not two many neighbors 
 in the same business. But such flocks would continually 
 lessen their own range, at the same time that it is lessening 
 
PRAIRIE MANAGEMENT. 143 
 
 by immigration, settlement, and extended culture. I have 
 been in the country about nine years, having gone at the 
 first into an entirely unsettled region, and have paid much 
 attention to the matter ; and it is my belief, that the wild 
 prairies are desirable for wool growing to a very limited de- 
 gree ; but that the cultivated prairies are desirable for this pur- 
 pose to an almost limitless extent. When the cultivated 
 grasses are fully introduced, and people get at the business 
 in a proper manner, the prairies will supply wool of all 
 qualities in inconceivable quantities. Hence I have con- 
 stantly urged this view of the subject, and maintained the 
 necessity of entering upon the cultivation of grasses at once. 
 
 " ' Is there any deterioration of the wool of fine flocks V 
 
 " In a letter from George Flower, of Edwards Co., in this 
 State, published in the Prairie Farmer, I find the following : 
 — 'When I emigrated to this country in 1817 I brought 
 with me six of the finest animals of the wool-growing spe- 
 cies ever imported into this country. This is the origin of 
 my flock. They have been kept on the same farm where 
 I now reside ever since. No deterioration in wool has taken 
 place ; on the contrary, the wool fibre of them is somewhat 
 finer.' If the above is true of Southern Illinois, it is doubt- 
 less equally so of the northern part of the State ; since that 
 is nearly 400 miles south of this, and consequently much 
 warmer. Very gross keep is supposed to render wool 
 somewhat coarse. Even, healthy keep, not too high, is 
 generally considered best for a good staple oi fine wool. 
 
 " ' Are shepherds and dogs indispensable when sheep are not 
 enclosed.'' 
 
 " On the open prairie, it would undoubtedly be unsafe to 
 trust large flocks, without oversight. Many have kept small 
 flocks, for years, without, by merely folding them at night. 
 In small flocks, where feed is plenty, there is little dispo- 
 sition to ramble. Sheep soon get accustomed to their 
 homes ; but in large flocks the temptation is increased with 
 the dangers of it. If the pasture is near the house, and a 
 good dog is kept, any further care is generally dispensed 
 with. The prairie wolf is a term beneath which animals 
 of considerable difference in size and fleetness are ranged. 
 Now and then a black or brown one is found, and some of 
 the grey ones equal them in ferocity. They are very sly 
 animals; and I have known one, protected by a hazel bush, 
 to enter a flock, while the keeper was with it, and kill quite 
 
144 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 a number of sheep before he could be got out. The flock 
 frequently does not seem to apprehend the wolf, or flee from 
 him ; and he will do his work without causing any commo- 
 tion among them. Still the destruction by wolves is very 
 limited, and they are easily exterminated. Settlement, and 
 the common modes of war, would soon drive them out ; but 
 there is a far more potent means of being rid of them. 
 Strychnine, an extract of nux vomica, introduced into small 
 pieces of meat, is a most insidious and deadly mode of ex- 
 termination. A correspondent of the Prairie Farmer thus 
 describes his mode of using it : — ' Take a carcase of any 
 kind, or in want of that, the offals of beef or pork, and lay 
 them in a place likely to be frequented by wolves, as a bait 
 or decoy. Then take a piece of fresh lean meat or liver, 
 about the size of a small cracker, and cut, with a penknife, 
 into the edge of it, to the centre, or a little beyond ; then put 
 in the strychnine, in bulk about the size of a kernel of wheat, 
 or the l-8th part of a grain. Be careful that none gets on 
 the outside, and lay it within a few feet of the bait.' The 
 strychnine in crystals is best ; and a wolf will frequently fall 
 dead on the spot where he eats it. Thousands have been 
 killed by this means the present season, and if persevered 
 in, the country will soon be rid of them. 
 
 ^'' ^ Is foot-rot common, and is not liver-rot a formidable dis- 
 ease to which sheep are subject there V 
 
 " The foot-rot, known as such in New England, has never, 
 as far as I can learn, been discovered here. Sheep have 
 sometimes had a disease of the hoofs, [the fouls], which has 
 in all cases been cured by paring, with perhaps a little wash- 
 ing in water. 
 
 " The liver-rot has never, I think, made its appearance in 
 Northern Illinois. I have never known but one instance of it 
 in the West, and that was in another State, and far south of 
 this. Frequent examinations have been made for it, this 
 season, among sheep lately driven in ; and though many 
 have been found with diseased lungs, caused by over-driving, 
 no diseased livers have, that I can learn, been found. I 
 presume this question was prompted by the impression that 
 many of our prairie lands are wet ; but from the description 
 of our soil already given, it can readily be seen that the 
 liver-rot can never prevail to any extent here. Our lands 
 are too dry and warm for that disease, unless under some 
 new and unexpected development. The most common dis- 
 
PRAIRIE MANAGEMENT. 145 
 
 eases known among us, are what is called ' the drying of 
 the many-folds,' and a sore face.* 
 
 " ' What sections of your State are best suited to sheep .<" 
 
 " It is impossible to say, for though the State extends in 
 length about 400 miles by about half that distance in breadth, 
 there is such a similarity in its general pastures, that the 
 description of any three counties together would be a gen- 
 eral description of the whole. There are particular differ- 
 ences, it is true, but these are balanced more or less against 
 each other. Those parts of which I can speak from obser- 
 vation are the Fox, Rock, and Illinois river valleys, though 
 the term valley has no particular applicability to the coun- 
 ties lying near these rivers, unless a valley may consist 
 of high, dry, warm, rolling land. The central counties of 
 Sangamon, Cass, Morgan, Scott, and the adjacent ones, are 
 likewise well adapted to wool growing ; nor have I seen any 
 section of the State, unless the region lying within ten miles 
 of this city, (Chicago) which is an exception. 
 
 " There are in every county some wet lands, which are not 
 suitable, but these form a very inconsiderable portion. The 
 flocks of sheep which have been driven in, have gone to 
 every part of this, as well as to neighboring States and Ter- 
 ritories ; and though some losses have been experienced the 
 past winter, from want of care and skill, and from the nature 
 of the season last summer, when J-hey were driven, they will 
 doubtless continue to come in, as long as there is a market 
 for wool. 
 
 " It will be seen that the same general rules apply to sheep- 
 keeping here as are applicable elsewhere. We have a good 
 climate, can produce plenty of feed, have warm, dry soils, all of 
 which are necessary for the business. Skill, enterprise, care, 
 and attention will ensure success in it. But any launching 
 out into wild experiments, predicated on ideas of the all-sufli- 
 ciency of green savannas and South American pampas, will 
 end in disappointment and disgust." 
 
 Mr. Wight's concluding paragraph is very significant, and, 
 in connection with his preceding remarks, at once dissipates 
 the notion which has so generally prevailed at the East, that 
 
 * The former of these diseases is doubtless caused by the astraigent prop- 
 erties of the prairie liay, and the absence perhaps of water. Green food 
 occasionally, and frequent salting, with daily access to drink, will act as 
 a prevention. The sore face can easily be cured by the external ap- 
 plication of warm tar mixed with sulphur. — Author Am. Shepherd. 
 
 13 
 
1 46 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 the prairie grass was at all seasons of the year abundant, 
 and consequently, that sheep could be sustained with very 
 little fodder, and generally managed at little cost and trouble. 
 This, however, is fallacious ; and those who have embarked 
 largely in the business, without previously having made the 
 provision of cultivated herbage, have learned that that be- 
 nignant decree of Providence — " by the sweat of thy brow 
 shalt thou eat bread" — cannot be evaded ; or in other lan- 
 guage, that neither wool nor any of the necessaries of life 
 can be procured without labor. The fulness with which 
 Messrs. Flower and Wight have treated the subject, super- 
 sedes further remarks. 
 
 We will now advert briefly to some of the Southern States 
 where there are large ranges admirably adapted by nature 
 for wool culture. 
 
 The western part of Virginia can already boast of pos- 
 sessing some of the finest wooled sheep in the Union ; and 
 from the nature of the climate, soil, and herbage of portions 
 of that section of the State, it cannot be doubted that they 
 are destined to greatly multiply. It is true, the climate does 
 not permit of any considerable reduction of the time for 
 foddering, compared with Pennsylvania and portions of New 
 York, yet the mountain lands are cheap, and productive of 
 herbage of a varied character, so well suited to sheep. If 
 the natural grasses are not abundant enough, the deficiency 
 can be supplied by sowing from time to time the seed of the 
 cultivated kinds. This course may be necessary in all the 
 mountain ranges of the South, when appropriated to sheep 
 husbandry. Sheep pastured on such elevations, and trans- 
 ported to the warmer atmosphere of the valleys during win- 
 .er, cannot but be a source of profit ; and if our Southern 
 riends do not choose to avail themselves of such natural 
 advantages, they may rest assured, that, ere long, they will 
 be wrested from them by the hardy and enterprising sons of 
 the North. 
 
 In large districts of the mountainous portions of North 
 Carolina, sheep can be reared at perhaps as little expense as 
 any section of the United States. The grass peculiar to 
 them, it is stated by some, is not agreeable to sheep ; but this 
 can be remedied in a very brief time by adopting the course 
 above recommended. 
 
 The following extract of a letter from the Hon. T. L. 
 Clingman, of North Carolina, addressed to Mr. J. S. Skin 
 
WOOL CULTURE IN THE SOUTH AND SOUTHWEST. 147 
 
 ner, designates some of flie districts of that State best adapted 
 to wool-growing, which are embraced in the counties of 
 Yancey, Haywood, &c. 
 
 Mr. C. says the elevation of Bm-nsville, the county seat 
 of Yancey, is about 2900 feet above the level of the ocean, 
 and that the general level of the county is much higher. 
 The climate is represented as being delightfully cool in sum- 
 mer, the mercury seldom rising higher than 70 or 80 deg. 
 Very little of the county is said to be too rough for cultiva- 
 tion ; a large portion, it is said, is a sort of elevated table- 
 land ; undulating, but not too broken ; " even," says Mr. C, 
 " as one ascends the higher mountains, he will find occasion- 
 ally on their sides, flats of level land containing several hun- 
 dred acres of land in a body. The top of the Roan (the 
 highest mountain in the county except the Black) is cov- 
 ered by a prairie for ten miles, which affords a rich pasture 
 during the greater part of the year. The ascent to it is so 
 gradual that persons ride to the top on horseback from almost 
 any direction. The same may be said of many of the other 
 mountains. The soil of the county generally is uncommonly 
 fertile, producing, with tolerable cultivation, abundant crops. 
 What seems extraordinary to a stranger, is the fact that the 
 soil becomes richer as he ascends the mountains. The sides 
 of the Roan, the Black, the Bald, and others, at an elevation 
 even of five or six thousand feet above the sea, are covered 
 with a deep rich vegetable mould, so soft that a horse in dry 
 weather often sinks to the fetlock. The fact that the soil is 
 frequently more fertile as one ascends is, I presume, attribu- 
 table to the circumstance that the higher portions are more 
 commonly covered with clouds, and the vegetable matter be- 
 ing thus kept in a cool, moist state while decaying, is incor- 
 porated to a greater degree with the surface of the earth, 
 just as it is usually found that the north side of a hill is 
 richer than the portion most exposed to the action of the 
 sun's rays. The sides of the mountains, the timber being 
 generally large, with little undergrowth and brushwood, are 
 peculiarly fitted for pasture grounds, and the vegetation is in 
 many places as luxuriant as it is in the rich savanna of the 
 low country." 
 
 The following extract of a letter received from the Hon. 
 John A. Jones, of Paulding County, Georgia, shows the ease 
 with which sheep, in process of time, can be maintained in 
 that portion of the State. The wolf, formerly so destructive 
 
148 SHEEP OF TIIE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 at the North, will gradually disappear with the increasing 
 settlement of the country. — " I believe the pine forest in the 
 middle and southwestern region of the State best adapted 
 to the raising of sheep. The climate is so mild that they 
 need no shelter during the winter ; the wild herbage is va- 
 ried, luxuriant, and succulent through the summer, and will 
 keep them in high flesh ; the hardy plants that stand the 
 winter sustain them in healthy store order. I think, how- 
 ever, there are still wolves in that region, which makes it 
 necessary the sheep should be guarded ; indeed, I am con- 
 vinced of this, from one or two years' experience with a 
 flock of five hundred, kept on the ' Lookout' mountains (in 
 the northwest corner of the State), that it cannot be safely 
 done in a wooded country. If the range of the sheep is 
 limited they become poor and sickly ; if permitted to roam 
 at pleasure, they scatter, and are lost and killed. In this re- 
 gion we are obliged to afford them grain pastures, or feed 
 them on corn or hay three months of winter. If we dared 
 to turn them in the forest, one month's foddering would suf- 
 fice ; but this the wolves will not permit us to do." 
 
 It is deemed superfluous to particularize further the vari- 
 ous sections of the Southern States in which the culture of 
 wool can be profitably carried on. Suffice it to say, that 
 wherever the herbage is varied and suitable for the sheep, 
 in summer and winter, the soil dry, and industrious men to 
 manage, there can wool be grown, and probably with more 
 profit than the great staple, cotton. The influence of climate 
 upon the fleece has already been considered ; and the reader 
 will find fully discussed, under the head of " Summer Man- 
 agement," everything appertaining to localities and herbage 
 for sheep, thereby enabling each one to form an opinion as 
 to the suitability of his situation for sheep husbandry. 
 
 The following extracts from a communication, recently 
 published in the American Agriculturist, by Judge Beatty, of 
 Kentucky, conveys some valuable information for the benefit 
 of those engaged in wool-growing in the South and South- 
 western States, as well as sets forth the great facilities for 
 that branch of husbandry in Kentucky, which, doubtless, is 
 equally applicable to large sections of Tennessee. 
 
 " For some years after I commenced raising sheep (my 
 cleared land and pastures being then very limited), I housed 
 them during the winter months, and fed them with hay, 
 sheaf oats, and occasionally with corn. But when my clear- 
 
WOOL CULTURE IN THE SOUTH AND SOUTHWEST. 149 
 
 ed land and pastures became more extensive, I found that I 
 could winter my sheep to better advantage by suffering them 
 to run on blue grass pastures, kept in reserve for them, haul- 
 ing out and scattering on the turf corn fodder, when the 
 grass became too short, or was covered with snow. This 
 mode of feeding required less labor, and was less expensive, 
 than housing them ; and experience soon taught me that my 
 sheep passed through the winter in better condition than 
 when housed, and fed on hay and grain. 
 
 " I have now about 300 acres of cleared land ; nearly one of 
 half of which is in meadow, clover, and blue grass — poa pra- 
 tensis ; and the other half reserved for cultivation in corn, 
 wheat, hemp, &c. ; and 150 acres in woodland, the greater 
 part well cleared up and sown in blue grass. I have been 
 taught by experience, recently, that sheep will do remarka- 
 bly well on the rankest clover, which will enable me in fu- 
 ture to keep more of my blue grass pastures in reserve for 
 winter feeding. During the last fall (the season being fa- 
 vorable), my clover fields furnished my flock, of somewhat 
 less than 400, sufficient pasturage till the month of January ; 
 and they have been since kept on my blue grass pastures, 
 without the necessity of feeding, except some four or five 
 days when the ground was covered with snow ; and there is 
 still grass enough to carry them through the residue of the 
 winter. 
 
 " The low price of hemp, and agricultural products generally, 
 has induced me to sow down much of my cleared land in 
 clover, which will enable me to keep double the number of 
 sheep I now have, without interfering with my farming ope- 
 rations ; and when I get the whole of my woodland cleared 
 up and set in blue grass, I expect to extend my flock to 1000 
 sheep. Thus you see we are neither under the necessity of 
 incurring the expense of erecting buildings to shelter our 
 sheep, nor of raising grain or hay for their food ; nor even 
 to employ laborers to feed them, except during the short time 
 it may become necessary to haul out fodder for them, when 
 the ground is covered with snow. And in a single day 
 enough maybe hauled out on sleds to last them a week or more. 
 " It is argued by some that our rich lands are too valuable 
 to be appropriated advantageously to sheep husbandry. There 
 would be much force in this objection if they were entirely 
 appropriated to that purpose. But not so when sheep hus- 
 bandry is combined with large hemp and corn crops. Hemp 
 
 13* 
 
150 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA, 
 
 has hitherto been a profitable crop, though now it is too low 
 to justify its extensive culture ; and Targe corn crops are ne- 
 cessary with a view of raising horses, mules, cattle, and hogs. 
 There is no system of husbandry so well calculated to pre- 
 pare our lands for large products of corn and hemp, as feeding 
 sheep on our clover lands. I had supposed, till I made the 
 experiment, that sheep would not do well on rank clover. 
 To satisfy myself on this point, I put about 150 wethers on 
 a clover field, when in flower, early in May. The clover 
 was at the lime nearly as high as the sheep's backs (Merinos). 
 I kept them on this during the whole summer, and in the fall 
 they were fat enough for the butcher. It is true they trod down 
 much of the clover ; but, as I had an abundance of pasture, 
 this was an advantage, as it left a thick mat of grass on the 
 ground, intermingled with the droppings of the sheep, dis- 
 tributed with much regularity. This thick covering prevent- 
 ed a loss of manure by washing rains, and rapidly brought 
 on a second growth of clover, which furnished my whole 
 flock with an abundance of pasture till the early part of Jan- 
 uary. The season was, however, unusually favorable, and 
 hence the clover pastures lasted two or three weeks later 
 than usual. In future I intend to keep my sheep entirely on 
 my clover fields from the time they are in flower, and thus I 
 shall be able to keep in reserve a greater supply of blue grass 
 for winter feeding. 
 
 " But it is not upon our high-priced rich lands alone that we 
 can carry on sheep husbandry to advantage. Kentucky has 
 a belt of hill and mountain country, bordering on the Vir- 
 ginia line, on the east, and on the rich lands of the State on 
 the west, averaging about 75 miles in width, extending from 
 the Ohio river and Big Sandy, latitude 38 degrees, 40 min- 
 utes, to the Tennessee line, 35 degrees 30 minutes north. 
 The whole of this region is admirably adapted to sheep hus- 
 bandry. The most northern part but a few minutes north of 
 my residence, and extending about two degrees farther south. 
 The lands are very cheap, the State price of those not yet 
 appropri<ated only five cents per acre, and those purchased 
 second-handed, more or less improved, may be had from 25 
 to 50 cents per acre, and still less when unimproved. This 
 country, in a state of nature, furnishes, during the spring, 
 summer, and fall months, a fine range for sheep, and is sus- 
 ceptible of great improvement by clearing up and sowing the 
 cultivated grasses for winter feeding. This whole country 
 
WOOL CULTURE IN THE SOUTH AND SOUTHWEST. 151 
 
 is finely adapted to the Spanish mode of sheep husbandry. 
 Very large flocks might be driven to the mountain region, 
 some thirty to sixty miles from the rich lands, immediately 
 after shearing time, grazed till late in the fall, and then brought 
 back to be sustained, during the winter, on the luxuriant blue 
 grass pastures of the rich lands of the interior. 
 
 " A very intelligent friend, residing in the southern part of 
 the above district of country, speaks of it in the following 
 terms : ' One of the strongest proofs of this region of coun- 
 try being favorable to the growing of sheep stock is, that we 
 are situated in the same degree of north latitude with the 
 sheep-raising parts of Spain — Leon, Estremadura, Old Cas- 
 tile, &c. — only that our mountains are more richly and abun- 
 dantly clad with luxuriant wild grasses and fern, pea-vine 
 and shrubbery, than the mountain regions of Spain, where they 
 raise such abundant stocks of sheep. Wayne county, with a 
 few adjoining counties, affords more fine water power than 
 any country of the same extent that I have ever known ; and 
 for health and fine pure drinking water, no country excels it 
 on the face of the globe. Now is the time to commence the 
 business of sheep husbandry, whilst land can be got almost 
 for nothing. It is worthy of remark that our sheep which 
 are suffered to roam and graze in the mountains altogether, 
 produce about one fourth more wool at a shearing than the 
 sheep that are raised and grazed altogether on our farms, and 
 of a much BETTER QUALITY !' In another part of his letter 
 he says, ' The tops of the mountains of Spain are sterile, 
 without verdure, producing no food for sheep or other ani- 
 mals to graze on ; our mountains are quite different ; they 
 are thickly clad from bottom to top, and all over the top, 
 with fine rich wild grasses and shrubbery of every variety 
 for stock to graze on. In the midst of our mountains are to 
 be found a great abundance of salt water, and stone coal of 
 the finest quality, together with a great variety of mineral 
 waters and pure springs.' 
 
 " Another friend, residing in Knox county, writes to me, 
 ' My sheep upon my farm, adjoining Barboursville, do not 
 thrive, even with pasture and winter food, like the sheep in 
 the extremities of the county, which have neither pastures 
 nor winter food, except 'what they get in the looods. Without 
 cultivated grasses of any description, sheep will live and do 
 well all the lointer, subsisting on the spontaneous growth of 
 the country.'' 
 
152 SIlEEr OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 " Another friend, residing in the northern portion of the 
 above described mountain region, writes that 'the counties 
 of Carter and Lawrence, and the eastern portion of the State, 
 are admirably adapted to sheep husbandry. There are sev- 
 eral flocks of sheep in this neighborhood that thrive and in- 
 crease wonderfully, running at large, at little cost or trouble 
 to the owners. Many flocks have no other reliance, during 
 the winter, but ivhat they get in the woods. The great ad- 
 vantages of this country for sheep husbandry is, the cheap- 
 ness of the land, its adaptation to grasses, grain, and roots, 
 its healthfulness — sheep delight in mountain or hilly land — 
 the natural evergreens and shrubbery upon which sheep can 
 feed and subsist in winter, though it is not safe to rely alto- 
 gether upon these.' " 
 
 The following conclusions of Judge Beatty are sound, and 
 coincide with the Adews of many others : 
 
 " A few remarks as to the probable future market for wool 
 will conclude my letter, already, I fear, too long. The re- 
 turns of the late census show that the number of sheep in the 
 United States in 1840 was a fraction less than 20,000,000. 
 Twice this number would probably not furnish more wool 
 than would be needed by a population of 17,000,000, if we 
 were to manufacture all our own blankets, carpets, and every 
 other description of woollen fabrics. The period is not very 
 distant when this will be done, with the exception of some 
 very fine goods. We shall then need about 100,000,000 
 pounds of wool for a population of 17,000,000, and in that 
 proportion for home consumption, even supposing none should 
 be exported. Now as our population increases, as past ex- 
 perience demonstrates, at a compound ratio of three per cent, 
 per annum, we shall have a population of 34,000,000 in the 
 year 1864; 51,000,000 in 1878; and 60,000,000 in 1888. 
 We shall need at these respective periods, two, three, and 
 four hundred millions of pounds of wool. If we estimate 
 sheep, upon an average, to produce 2^ lbs. of wool per 
 head, we shall require in the year 1888, a little more than 
 forty years hence, 160,000,000 of sheep. This view of the 
 subject, without looking to a foreign market, holds out a strong 
 inducement to engage in sheep husbandry." 
 
ALPACA OR PERUVIAN SHEEP. 
 
 153 
 
 UNITED STATES CENSUS STATISTICS OF LIVE STOCK 
 AND WOOL FOR 1839. 
 
 
 
 Pounds of 
 ^'^- Wool. 
 
 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 1 
 
 States, & 
 
 Horses & 
 
 Mules. 
 
 Neat 
 Cattle. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Swine. 
 
 Maine, . . 
 
 . . . 1,465,551 
 
 59,208 
 
 327,255 
 
 649,264 
 
 117,386 
 
 o 
 
 New Hampshii 
 
 e, . . 1,260,517 
 
 43,892 
 
 275,562 
 
 617,390 
 
 121,671 
 
 3 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 . . 941,906 
 
 61,484 
 
 282,574 
 
 378,22<3 
 
 143,221 
 
 4 
 
 Rhode Island, 
 
 . . 183,830 
 
 8,024 
 
 36,891 
 
 90,146 
 
 30,659 
 
 5 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 . . 889,870 
 
 34,650 
 
 238,650 
 
 403,462 
 
 131,961 
 
 G 
 
 Vermont, 
 
 . . 3,699,235 
 
 62,402 
 
 384,341 
 
 1,681,819 
 
 203,800 
 
 7 
 
 New York, . 
 
 . . . 9,845,295 
 
 474,543 
 
 1,911,244 
 
 5,118,777 
 
 1,900,065 
 
 8 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 . . . 397,207 
 
 70,502 
 
 220,202 
 
 219,285 
 
 261,443 
 
 9 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 . . 3,048,564 
 
 365,129 
 
 1,172,665 
 
 1,767,620 
 
 1,503,964 
 
 10 
 
 Delaware, . 
 
 . . 64,404 
 
 14,421 
 
 53,883 
 
 39,247 
 
 74,228 
 
 11 
 
 Maryland, . 
 
 . . 488,201 
 
 92,220 
 
 225,714 
 
 357,922 
 
 416,943 
 
 li 
 
 Virginia, . . 
 
 . . 2,538,374 
 
 326,438 
 
 1,024,148 
 
 1,293,772 
 
 1,992,1.55 
 
 13 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 . . 625,044 
 
 166,608 
 
 617,371 
 
 538,279 
 
 1,649,716 
 
 14 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 . . 299,170 
 
 129,921 
 
 572,608 
 
 232,981 
 
 878,532 
 
 15 
 
 Georgia, . . 
 
 . . 371,303 
 
 157,540 
 
 884,414 
 
 267,107 
 
 1,457,755 
 
 16 
 
 Alabama, . 
 
 . . 220,353 
 
 143,147 
 
 668,018 
 
 163,243 
 
 1,423,873 
 
 17 
 
 Mississippi, : 
 
 : : 175,196 
 
 109,227 
 
 623,197 
 
 128,367 
 
 1,001,209 
 
 18 
 
 Louisiana, : 
 
 : : 49,283 
 
 99,888 
 
 381,248 
 
 98,072 
 
 323,220 
 
 19 
 
 Tennessee, : 
 
 : : 1,060,332 
 
 341,409 
 
 822,851 
 
 741,593 
 
 2,926,607 
 
 20 
 
 Kentucky, : 
 
 : : 1,786,847 
 
 395,853 
 
 787,098 
 
 1,008,240 
 
 2,310,533 
 
 21 
 
 Ohio, : : : 
 
 : : 3,685,315 
 
 430,527 
 
 1,217,874 
 
 2,028,401 
 
 2,099,746 
 
 22 
 
 Indiana, : : 
 
 : : 1,237,919 
 
 241,036 
 
 619,980 
 
 675,982 
 
 1,623,608 
 
 23 
 
 Illinois, : : 
 
 : : 650,007 
 
 199,235 
 
 626,274 
 
 395,672 
 
 1,495,254 
 
 24 
 
 Missouri, : 
 
 : : 562,265 
 
 196,032 
 
 433,875 
 
 348,018 
 
 1,271,161 
 
 25 
 
 Arkansas, : 
 
 : : 64,943 
 
 51,472 
 
 188,786 
 
 42,151 
 
 393,058 
 
 26 
 
 Michigan, : 
 
 : : 153,375 
 
 30,144 
 
 185,190 
 
 99,618 
 
 295,890 
 
 27 
 
 Florida Ter. 
 
 : : 7,285 
 
 12,043 
 
 118,081 
 
 7,198 
 
 92,680 
 
 28 
 
 Wisconsin Ter 
 
 . : 6,777 
 
 5,735 
 
 30,269 
 
 3,462 
 
 51,383 
 
 29 
 
 Iowa Ter. : 
 
 : : 23,039 
 
 10,794 
 
 38,049 
 
 15,354 
 
 104.899 
 
 30 
 
 Dist. Columbia 
 
 : : 707 
 
 2,145 
 
 3,274 
 
 706 
 
 4,673 
 
 35,802,114 
 
 4,335,669 
 
 14,971,580 
 
 19,311,374 
 
 26,301,293 
 
 SOUTH AMERICAN SHEEP. 
 
 As has already been observed, no sheep are found in 
 South America of an indigenous character. The Argali is 
 not there, and the only native animal whose covering is ap- 
 propriated to manufactures, is the Lama of Chili and Peru. 
 
 ALPACA OR PERUVIAN SHEEP. 
 
 This animal, which, from its great resemblance to the 
 camel, was classed by Linnaeus in the Camclide, is the 
 Lama of Peru and Chili. There are, according to Cuvier, 
 three species of the animal ; the Guanico, the Pace, and the 
 Vicuna. It is the Paco or Alpaca which is under notice, 
 and which, from the peculiar qualities of its long silky hair 
 or wool, has obtained the name of Peruvian sheep. The 
 following authentic description of this animal, and the uses 
 
154 SHEEP OP THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 to which its fleece is applied, is from a late London Jour- 
 nal: — 
 
 " Nine-tenths of the wool of the alpaca is black, the re- 
 mainder being partly white, red, and grizzled. It is of a 
 very long staple, often reaching twelve inches, and resem- 
 bles soft glossy hair — which character is not lost in dying. 
 The Indians in the South American mountains manufacture 
 nearly all their clothing from this wool, and are enabled to 
 appear in black dresses, without the aid of a dyer. Both 
 the lama and alpaca are, perhaps, even of more value to the 
 natives as beasts of burden than wool-bearing animals, and 
 their obstinacy when irritated is well known. The impor- 
 tance of this animal has already been considered by the 
 Enolish, in their hat, woollen, and stuff" trade, and an essay 
 on the subject has been publisbed by Dr. Hamilton, of Lon- 
 don, from which some of these details are collected. 
 
 " The wool is so remarkable, being a jet black, glossy, 
 silk-like hair, that it is fitted for the production of fabrics 
 differing from all others, occupying a medium position be- 
 tween wool and silk. 
 
 " It is now mingled with other materials, in such a singu- 
 lar manner, that while a particular dye will affect those, it 
 AV'll leave the alpaca wool with its original black color, thus 
 giving rise to great diversity. 
 
 " The alpaca weighs, when full grown, from 160 to 200 
 lbs. It yields annually a fleece weighing from 10 to 14 
 lbs., or more. The flesh is said to be wholesome and nu- 
 tritious — the skin may be used for bookbinding and other 
 purposes. 
 
 " The alpaca is found in large herds on the Andes — 
 sometimes at an elevation of 10,000 or 11,000 feet above 
 the sea, where eternal snow rests on the mountain tops, 
 where frequent and violent storms prevail, and where the 
 scanty herljage is of the coarsest kind. There they pros- 
 per, meeting with but slight attention on the part of the 
 shepherds. Disease is unknown among them ; they are at- 
 tached to their keepers, and never stray from their herds. 
 They brave the fiercest snowdrifts ; the strongest of the 
 herd advance first, bend down their heads to meet the com- 
 ing storm, and trample down or leap over the hillocks of 
 snow that obstruct their passage. 
 
 " Viewing the peculiar habits of this animal, },he idea of 
 the author is, that it might, with but little trouble or expense, 
 
ALPACA OR PERUVIAN SHEEP. 155 
 
 and with great advantage, be naturalized in those moun- 
 tainous districts of Scotland and Ireland, and on the bleak 
 and barren hills of England and Wales, which, from their 
 nature, can never be brought into cultivation, and which 
 now yield subsistence to no creatures fit for the use of 
 man. From long and extensive inquiries he is convinced 
 that the alpaca will live and flourish on the coarse mountain 
 grasses, where an English sheep would starve ; and he is 
 satisfied that thus a large addition might be made to our na- 
 tional wealth, as the alpaca would produce fleeces double 
 the weight of those taken from an English sheep, and of a 
 superior quality, while it would furnish a wholesome meat 
 for general consumption. 
 
 " The experiments which have hitherto been made for 
 naturalizing the alpaca in England have not, it must be own- 
 ed, turned out favorably ; but we must be careful not to con- 
 found accidental casualties with a natural incapacity of the 
 creature to flourish on our soil. The only trials yet made 
 have been on too limited a scale to furnish any decisive re- 
 sult. They have been kept in pairs, or groups of five or 
 six, and have rarely been judiciously treated. In some in- 
 stances they have received the seeds of disease during their 
 long voyage, from which they have never recovered, and in 
 others have been injured by being aflbrded rich pasturage, 
 instead of the coarse and scanty food to which they are ac- 
 customed. Yet, even under these unfavorable circum- 
 stances, the whole current of testimony of those who have 
 kept them is in favor of their prospering well on our high 
 lands, if the experiment were fairly tried. 
 
 " Mr. R. Bell, of Villa-house, in the county of Kerry, 
 procured a small herd of alpacas, and his account of them is 
 so curious and interesting that we extract a few of his sen- 
 tences : 
 
 " The alpacas on his farm are of various colors, some be- 
 ing brown, others black, and one perfectly white. They 
 have not been shorn since the month of June, 1841, and the 
 average length of their wool at this time is eleven inches, 
 and so firm to their bodies that the smallest lock cannot be 
 pulled off without great force ; therefore they never lose a 
 bit. It is exceedingly fine and silky ; indeed, very much 
 finer than any alpaca wool I have yet seen imported into 
 England ; and, during the two years they have been here, 
 there is a visible improvement in the texture of their coat, 
 
156 SHEEP OF THE! XnSTITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 and I think that the wool of the alpaca lamb here is superior 
 in fineness even to that of the vicuna. I have never, even 
 after a whole day's rain, found them wet to the skin ; for 
 their wool, on becoming wet on the outside or surface, mats 
 together, and becomes quite impervious to the heaviest 
 showers. I certainly do not exaggerate when I say that 
 each of the old alpacas here would clip at this time upward 
 of thirty pounds of wool. 
 
 " The alpacas are exceedingly playful, and, to see them 
 to full perfection, a dog should be taken into the field beside 
 them ; and as they run at play with the dog, their fine and 
 noble positions are displayed to most advantage. From 
 what I have observed of the nature and habits of the alpaca, 
 I do most heartily confirm your statement, ' That they would 
 live where a sheep would starve,' and would be most valua- 
 ble as a breeding stock in the United Kingdom. They are 
 peculiarly well adapted to mountainous districts, however 
 coarse the herbage, if the ground be dry ; although, at the 
 same time, I will say that the alpaca is as fond of a bite of 
 good sweet grass as any animal I know of." 
 
 There are at present about one hundred of these animals 
 in Great Britain, and efforts are making by an association to 
 introduce more of them. In addition to the foregoing, it has 
 been stated by Mr. Walton, a member of this association, 
 " that the alpaca breed in the third year, the period of ges- 
 tation is seven months, have one at a birth, attain the height 
 of 3i or 4 feet, and usually live ten or twelve years. In 
 Peru, they are generally shorn every third year, about 
 April, when the wool is about eight inches long ; it usually 
 grows three inches in a year, but if shorn yearly grows six 
 or eight inches. A male alpaca shorn three years ago had 
 a coat from eighteen to twenty inches long ; and instances 
 are known of alpaca wool attaining the extraordinary length 
 of thirty inches." 
 
 Considerable quantities of alpaca wool are imported into 
 England, where much of it is spun, taken to France, and 
 made into the finest Cashmere shawls. If the experiment is 
 successful of propagating the alpaca in England, it surely 
 can be done in the United States, as the climate is doubt- 
 less more congenial to it, as well as the herbage. When 
 American enterprise calls for its covering, the trial will un- 
 questionably be made. 
 
WOOL CULTIVATION ON THE PAMPAS. 157 
 
 WOOL CULTIVATION ON THE PAMPAS. 
 
 Almost the whole of the South American wool is the pro- 
 duction of Spanish sheep that have been taken over there, 
 and that have multiplied to a very great extent. Both the 
 sheep and the fleece have considerably degenerated, pro- 
 ceeding in part from unfavorableness of the climate, but 
 probably more from unskilful management. Large quanti- 
 ties of wool are exported to the United States, and also 
 Great Britain, but so decidedly bad in quality, that very little 
 of it, comparatively, can be used except for the most inferior 
 manufactures. The extraordinary facilities for wool culture 
 from climate and exuberance of herbage adapted to the sheep 
 in parts of South America, have induced many enterprising 
 foreigners to embark extensively in the business, and great 
 improvement in a few years may be expected to result in the 
 quality of the wool. 
 
 The following account of sheep management in Buenos 
 Ayres is by a correspondent of the Albany Cultivator : — 
 " The fertile ' Pampas ' in the interior of South America 
 have been long celebrated for the immense herds of cattle 
 and horses reared upon them. So abundant are they, and 
 so easily reared, that they are slaughtered in many places 
 for their skins and tallow alone. Sheep too of native breed, 
 with coarse hairy wool, have been so plentiful that their car- 
 cases were used for fuel in burning brick. The expense of 
 transportation and the absence of timber and salt for barrel- 
 ing alone prevents us from the competition of their meat in 
 our own parts. The attention of agriculturists there has been 
 of late years turned to improving their stocks of sheep by 
 large importations of Saxony from this country and from Eu- 
 rope. An English gentleman began the business with a 
 stock of 60 Saxons and 3000 ewes, and in the year 1835 
 he had increased the number to 45,000, and the grade was 
 nearly increased to full blood. In the year 1837 he 
 had 90,000, and intended to keep on until he numbered 
 200,000, which quantity he has doubtless attained before this 
 lime ; others were copying his example, until the business 
 bids fairly to outstrip that of cattle, within a few years. 
 The prices at which grade wools have sold have been from 
 8 to 12 cents per pound in Buenos Ayres. 
 
 " The price of government lands there is ten cents per 
 acre. It is laid off in ' estancias' a league square, con- 
 
 14 
 
158 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMEEICA. 
 
 taining 5,760 acres English ; the face of the country almost 
 a dead level, no timber, but a luxuriant coat of grass. 
 
 " A cottage is erected in the centre of the farm for the 
 shepherd, and an ample yard enclosed by driving the trunks 
 of the common peach into the earth, and wattling the inter- 
 stices with the branches. An ' estancia ' will support 3,000 
 sheep, which is about the size of their flocks. The only 
 care they require is to guard them at night and during a 
 Storm. They will seldom wander beyond the landmarks 
 during the day ; at the approach of a storm they turn their 
 heads to leeward, and feed on until turned by their keeper 
 towards their place of security. An instance has been 
 known where 900 of a fine stock, and the best sheep in it, 
 were destroyed by being in a storm, pressed by the rear 
 ranks into a run of water, until the chasm was filled with 
 dead bodies, and the remainder of the flock passed over. 
 The shepherd does not remain with the flock, but at the 
 cottage, having a horse already saddled and bridled (ready 
 for a sudden call) always at the door in the daytime. 
 
 " Thus far very little attention has been paid to cleaning 
 the wool for market. It is generally sold in the dirt." 
 
 12* 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 
 
 A SUDDEN CHANGE FROM DRY TO GREEN FOOD IMPROPER— SEPAR- 
 ATION OF THE WEAK FROM THE STRONG— TAGGING OF SHEEP- 
 CUTTING OF HORNS AND HOOFS— DRAFTING— PARTURITION— SALT- 
 ING— WASHING— CASTRATION AND DOCKING. 
 
 A SUDDEN CHANGE FROM DRY TO GREEN FOOD IMPROPER. 
 
 As a Starting point, let us imagine the time to have arrived 
 when the duties of the flock-master relative to foddering his 
 flocks are about to be suspended, by turning them to pasture. 
 This period, in the Northern States, is from the 1st to the 
 20th of April. It is a critical time with sheep, owing to 
 the rigor and vicissitudes of the climate, and their long con- 
 finement to dry food, especially so with the finer-wooled 
 varieties, and therefore claiming more than ordinary care. 
 But many of the duties involved require to be exercised a 
 month or more antecedent to the time under consideration, 
 and which will be found fully detailed under the head of 
 Winter Management. 
 
 If sheep have been confined wholly within . yards, and 
 not permitted to taste the young grass until it is sufficiently 
 advanced to satisfy their hunger without the aid of other 
 food, there is great danger in turning them upon it too sud- 
 denly. This results from its flashy and stimulating proper- 
 ties, causing scours or purging, and unfortunately with that 
 portion of the flock least able to endure the attack, namely, 
 those in low flesh, and consequently feeble. In nearly all 
 such cases, death will often follow, unless a timely arrest of 
 the disease is made by a return in part to dry food. 
 
 But it is better to attend to the prevention, which is, to 
 allow the flock to graze an hour or two each day for at least 
 
160 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 a week previous ; and during this time let the best of hay, 
 accompanied with grain, be provided. If sheep, however, 
 have been trained to eat roots, and have partaken of them 
 freely through the month of March, the danger accompany- 
 ing the too sudden transition from hay or other dry food, will 
 in a measure be avoided. 
 
 SEPARATION OF THE WEAK FROM THE STRONG. 
 
 Notwitstanding the duty of the shepherd may have been, 
 faithfully discharged by taking out from time to time such as 
 are failing in flesh during the winter season, and putting 
 them to better keep, yet not a few in indifferent condition 
 will be found in large flocks at this period, which had better 
 be separated and treated accordingly. The two classes 
 needing this attention perhaps the most, are generally ewes 
 which have already or are about to yean, and yearlings. 
 Whatever they are, let them be put upon the best pasture 
 the farm will furnish, and a few only together. 
 
 The separation will be quickest performed, by adopting 
 the following method : 
 
 Let the flock be stationed one or two hundred yards distant 
 from a gateway or bars, and then, if called by the shepherd, 
 moving on a run, the weaker sheep will soon fall to the rear, 
 and when these are about to pass the gateway, let them be 
 cut off from the others by some one in the vicinity. This 
 mode is sure, and is preferable to pounding the flock, as 
 mistakes are unavoidably committed by so doing, especially 
 with yearlings, owing to the unusual length of wool in indi- 
 vidual cases, which frequently hides from the shepherd their 
 impoverished condition." 
 
 TAGGING OF SHEEP.* 
 
 At or about this time, is assigned the important and indis- 
 pensable duty of the flock-master of thoroughly tagging his 
 sheep. It is wholly neglected by many, and with the great 
 majority of wool-growers the slovenly and half-way manner 
 of performing it is extremely censurable. It is thus, because 
 the manufacturer expects from us that the wool from about 
 the dock and below it, as well as that between the thighs, all 
 
 * In England termed clatting. 
 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 161 
 
 of which is generally of an inferior character, should be 
 separated from the fleece. This being the case, by neglect- 
 ing it, we commit a direct fraud upon him, which he does 
 not fully detect, until his purchases fall into the hands of his 
 sorters. 
 
 Tagging should always be attended to before the sheep 
 are turned off to pasture, for the reason that if any of them 
 only slightly scour, the wool about the dock and thighs is 
 rendered a mass of filth, and therefore is lost. In this situ- 
 ation, too, they are liable to be fly-blown, and without timely 
 discovery, the sheep is also lost. From these considerations 
 alone, it is clearly the interest of all to have this matter sea- 
 sonably and well performed. 
 
 The easiest mode, and that which the writer has adopted 
 for many years, is to place the sheep upon a table, resting 
 on its rump. The table should not be more than twenty 
 inches in height, and about four feet in breadth ; the length 
 must be accommodated to the wants of the flock-master, three 
 feet at least being required for each tagger. It should be as 
 capacious as this, with a view to spreading the wool as it is 
 cut off, which facilitates the separation of the good locks 
 from particles of dung and other stuff wholly useless.* A 
 stool should stand upon the floor beside the table, for the 
 tagger to rest one foot upon ; this brings his thigh in such a 
 position as easily accommodates the back of the sheep 
 against it, and is thus placed in a posture to perform the task 
 without pain to himself. 
 
 If it is a male, the first operation is, to cut the wool one 
 or two inches from about the extremity of the sheath, for, if 
 it is neglected, the wool being constantly saturated with 
 urine, will cause soreness, and sometimes ulceration. After 
 this, let the wool be shorn from the scrotum or testicle 
 bag. Then the tagger with one hand presses upon the thigh 
 joint, which forces the leg to lay in a horizontal position, he 
 proceeds to shear from the inside of the thighs, and down 
 the leg to the fetlock ; the other being served in the same 
 way, he then grasps with one hand both legs near the hoofs 
 and draws them upwards and towards him, which enables 
 him to cut all that is necessary from the dock and immedi- 
 ately below it. 
 
 With the ewe the process is the same, with the addition 
 
 * The table can also be used for rolling the fleeces when shorn. 
 14* 
 
162 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 of shearing all the wool growing on the udder, as well, if it 
 is long, a little from around it, which permits the lamb, in 
 its first attempts to sucli, to find the teats without difficulty. 
 This is very important, for if the lamb drops when the tem- 
 perature is low, the sooner it receives nourishment the better ; 
 but if delayed in finding the teats, from the cause stated, the 
 cold prostrates it, and it soon dies. 
 
 Ewes, if tagged at the period recommended, are generally, 
 in the Northern States at least, heavy with lamb, and there- 
 fore humanity demands that they should be handled with the 
 utmost care, or abortion may follow. 
 
 The tag wool should be placed in a dry situation until 
 ready for use, and if wet, which is very common, it should 
 be spread thinly over the floor, and at intervals of two or 
 three days, stirred with a fork. 
 
 There are many household purposes, such as flannels, 
 stockings, and carpeting, to which this description of wool 
 can be converted ; and the increased price the fleece wool 
 will command, affords an ample compensation to the farmer 
 for the expense of tagging his sheep as directed. He will 
 find consolation, also, in having performed an honest part 
 towards the manufacturer. 
 
 CUTTING HORNS AND HOOFS. 
 
 After the individual has performed his task of tagging, let 
 him place the sheep upon its feet, and if the toes of the 
 hoof require cutting, let another be at hand with a sharp 
 chisel and mallet to do it. This will often be found neces- 
 sary with the Merino and Saxon breeds ; and the ground 
 being usually wet at this season, the hoofs will be softer and 
 more easily cut, than perhaps at any after period. The 
 paring of the feet also, adopted by many in localities where 
 foot-rot prevails, as a prevention of that disease, might now 
 be attended to.* 
 
 It is not unfrequently the case, that the horns of sheep 
 are turned inwards, and from this cause likely to grow into 
 the head or eyes, imless prevented. If neglected, a wound 
 in the flesh ensues, causing great irritation ; and if in the 
 warm season, life is endangered by attacks from maggots. 
 If the horn is large, a fine saw should be used ; if other- 
 wise, the chisel and mallet will perform it soonest, and in- 
 
 * See Foot-rot. 
 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 163 
 
 flict the least pain. As to the use of a block on which to 
 rest the horn, or placing it against a post or studd of the 
 building, must be determined by its shape, and proximity to 
 the head where it may be necessary to sever it. If the 
 quick is touched, let it be anointed with tar. 
 
 DRAFTING. 
 
 Although drafting sheep for the drover and butcher is not 
 confined to any particular season with farmers of the North, 
 yet no period is preferable to the present, for selecting weth- 
 ers and such ewes as have been condemned for breeding, 
 for sale, after shearing. From the increased competition of 
 drovers at the present day, more discrimination is exercised 
 in their purchases than formerly, and consequently it will 
 pay well to have such as are drafted put at once into good 
 pasture. An increased price for the carcase, and some in- 
 crease of wool, will be the natural consequence of this treat- 
 ment. 
 
 PARTURITION, OR LAMBING. 
 
 The usual period of gestation with the ewe is five months, 
 or an average of 152 days. 
 
 The proper time for parturition must be determined by 
 circumstances, of which climate and locality are the most 
 prominent, and these the flock-master must steadily keep 
 in view. The month generally selected in the Northern 
 and Middle States is May, the vicissitudes of the climate 
 forbidding an earlier period, unless in instances where build- 
 ings are provided for shelter, the expense of which is 
 greater than the majority of farmers are willing to incur. 
 
 The ewes during pregnancy should be disturbed as little 
 as possible, and every attention paid to the quantity and 
 quality of their food. Ewes, however, should not be kept 
 fat at this stage ; indeed this state is injurious, as it predis- 
 poses them sometimes to abortion ; but what is usually 
 termed " good store condition" should be maintained through 
 the whole period of gestation. Neither should ewes be 
 exposed to storms and cold during the winter and early 
 spring months, but thoroughly protected from both. It can- 
 not be expected from any domestic animal a healthy off- 
 spring, in our rigorous climate, if the dam has been permit- 
 ted to suffer the hardships of cold and starvation ; therefore 
 it will be wise if the sheep husbandman will always hold 
 
164 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 up to view the apothegm, " so the dam, so the offspring." 
 There must be good condition to sustain the mother in the 
 trying hour of lamb-birth ; and like good condition is equally 
 necessary to sustain the lamb subsequently, and impart to it 
 sound constitution, size, and thrift. 
 
 The field chosen for the ewes to fold should be dry, free 
 from stumps, open ditches, and possess as level a surface as 
 possible, as in little hollows ewes are liable to be cast, which 
 is caused by lazily stretching themselves in sunny weather, 
 when in a lying posture. In this situation they will often 
 be found flat on their backs, and violently kicking the air, 
 without the power of recovery, vmtil aided ; and, if unseen 
 by the shepherd, death will follow sometimes in a few hours. 
 
 But perhaps no field affords that smoothness of surface to 
 prevent these too often fatal occurrences, and therefore the 
 duty devolves upon the shepherd of passing leisurely over 
 every part of the field, several times during the day, to guard 
 against them. But this duty must not be delayed until some 
 of the ewes have dropped their lambs ; he must commence his 
 career of watchfulness at least ten days before, for it is very 
 common with ewes that are in over good condition to be 
 found in this perilous situation some days before their time. 
 
 Other duties obligatory upon the shepherd are lucidly set 
 forth by Mr. Youatt, as follows : 
 
 " The lamber should have with him his lamb-crook ; a bot- 
 tle of milk — ewes' milk if possible, and carried in his bosom 
 or in an inside pocket, that it may be kept warm ; some cords 
 to tie the legs of the ewes that he may have occasion to as- 
 sist or examine ; a little pot of grease or oil, to lubricate his 
 hand, if he should have occasion to introduce it into the womb 
 of any of the ewes ; a sharp knife, with a round or rather 
 curved extremity, should it be necessary to remove the lamb 
 piece-meal from the mother ; a piece of stout polished iron 
 rod, of the size of a goose quill, twelve inches in length, 
 and rounded at one end, somewhat like a button hook, in 
 order to remove from the womb a dead or divided foetus ; 
 a small quantity of cordial, consisting of equal parts of bran- 
 dy and sweet spirit of nitre ; and a strong infusion of ergot 
 of rye. 
 
 " The period of lambing having commenced, the attention 
 of the lamber should be increased. He should carefully ob- 
 serve every ewe that appears to be in labor. While she 
 walks about and does not exhibit any extraordinary degree of 
 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 165 
 
 suffering, he should not interfere ; nor should he do so if she 
 rises when he approaches, and walks away, unless her la- 
 bor has been protracted twenty hours or more. He should 
 not be in haste to render his assistance, although she should 
 be continually lying down and getting up again, and showing 
 more impatience or irritability than actual pain ; but if her 
 strength appears to be declining, his immediate aid is required.. 
 If he has to drive h-er to the fold or pound, it should be as 
 gently as possible, or he should drive some others with her, 
 in order that she may not be frightened by being alone se- 
 lected. The early interference of the lamber is always prej- 
 udicial, and very frequently fatal. Nature, in the course of 
 twenty or twenty-four hours, will, in the great majority of 
 cases, accomplish that which caimot be hurried on by art 
 without extreme danger. 
 
 " The state of the weather will cause a very considerable 
 difference in the duration of the labor. When the weather 
 is cold and dry, and especially if the situation is somewhat 
 exposed, the progress of the labour will be slow — the throes 
 will be comparatively weak and ineffectual, and the ewe may 
 and should be left a considerable time before mechanical assist- 
 ance is rendered. When, however, the weather is warm, and 
 especially if, at the same time, it is moist, the throes will be vio- 
 lent, and the strength of the sufferer will be very rapidly 
 wasted ; there will be a dangerous tendency to inflammation, 
 and the aid of the lamber is speedily required. Except un- 
 der these circumstances, no motive of curiosity, no desire 
 to know how the affair is going on, should induce the lamber 
 to interfere while the throes are natural and the strength con- 
 tinues, unless it is evident, without handling the ewe, that a 
 false presentation, or some mechanical cause, prevents the 
 expulsion of the foetus. When the ewe is nearly exhausted 
 she will often suffer the lamber to kneel beside her and suc- 
 cessfully afford the requisite assistance. If there is a violent 
 struggle between the patient and the lamber, the fcEtus will 
 often be destroyed ; but his help, when she quietly submits 
 to him, will rarely fail to preserve the mother and her off- 
 spring. Let it be supposed that, from certain circumstances, 
 she is driven to the pound, or that she is lying quietly by the 
 lamber in the field. He should first endeavor to ascertain the 
 nature of the presentation. Is the lamb coming in the right way 
 with its muzzle first, and a fore-foot on each side of it ? If the 
 tongue is not protruding from the mouth and becoming almost 
 
166 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP, 
 
 black, and her strength is not quite wasted, a table spoonful of 
 his cordial, with double this quantity of the infusion, will proba- 
 bly increase or recall the pains ; and the lamb will soon be born. 
 If this is not effected in a quarter of an hour, a second dose of 
 the infusion should be given ; and, that being followed by no 
 good result, he should try what mechanical assistance will 
 do. He should draw down first one leg and then the other, 
 endeavoring with his finger to solicit or coax the head on- 
 ward at the same time. If he cannot readily get at the legs, 
 he should push the head of the lamb a little backwards and 
 downwards, when he will probably be able to grasp them. 
 If he does not now succeed, the cause of the obstruction will 
 be sufficiently plain, namely, the too great largeness of the 
 head, which cannot pass the arch of the pubis ; and, there- 
 fore, either tying the legs of the ewe, or an assistant keep- 
 ing her down on her right side, the lamber should grasp the 
 two fore-legs in one hand, and with one or two fingers of the 
 other, urge it forward with as much force as is consistent with 
 the safety of the lamb. The young one will rarely fail to be 
 extracted by these means, except the head very much ex- 
 ceeds the common size." 
 
 In addition to the above sound observations, when me- 
 chanical aid is employed, it is always accompanied with 
 considerable fright to the ewe, and if she is permitted to es- 
 cape immediately after the birth of her lamb, will often re- 
 fuse to own it ; therefore, should it be alive, let it be placed 
 at once before her, and by its form and scent, she will, in 
 most cases, recognise it as her offspring. On the whole, 
 the surest way is, to secure the ewe in a small pound or 
 shed, and there leave her for the day ; for, if she has a sup- 
 ply of milk, rarely further trouble need be apprehended. 
 Should she, however, under these circumstances, or any 
 other, refuse to suckle, she must be held, and a teat placed 
 in the mouth of the lamb. This alternative seldom fails to 
 conquer all difficulty. 
 
 The lambs of fine-wooled sheep are extremely sensitive 
 to cold and wet when they drop, and to guard against expo- 
 sure, the sheep-master must endeavor to anticipate storms, 
 and place his flocks beforehand under shelters. These should 
 be capacious, as the ewe dislikes too much company at the 
 time of parturition, as will be noticed in her retiring often 
 quite distantly, if in a field, from the rest of her companions, 
 when the event is about to transpire. In such instances 
 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 167 
 
 where no sheltering is provided, greater labor and vigilance 
 must be employed, the presence of the flock-tender being 
 constantly needed, with his bottle of vs^arm milk, and putting 
 the more helpless in a large basket, lined with hay or straw, 
 and bringing them before the fire for an hour or more, until 
 animation is restored. When lambs are separated from 
 their dams under such circumstances, care should be ob- 
 served not to have them wrapped or touched with anything 
 that is offensive, as its scent, when very young, is the prin- 
 cipal source of recognition by the mother. A clean blanket 
 or woollen cloth will be best, if swaddling should be found 
 necessary. 
 
 It is proverbial that the Merino and Saxon varieties are 
 not as good nurses as the English breeds, and nature there- 
 fore rarely overtasks, by supplying them with twins. When 
 this occurs, however, if the ewe is in her prime, condition 
 good, udder large, and her keep good, it will be proper to let 
 both of the lambs run with the mother ; but if the reverse of 
 this, let one of them be brought up by hand, or, as is the 
 Spanish custom, be destroyed. A different course will 
 probably cause runts of both, and is one of the means by 
 which many flocks, in process of time, are sadly deterio- 
 rated. 
 
 When the ewe loses her offspring, it is followed by a 
 distension, and frequently an inflammation, of the udder. 
 But such cases will be found by the reader fully treated of, 
 in the chapter of diseases, under the head of garget. 
 
 During the period of lambing, continuing as it does for a 
 fortnight or more, the pasture for the ewes, if they are in fair 
 flesh, should not be luxuriant ; but when it is passed, then 
 they may be removed to better keep ; and in all cases the 
 situation should be dry, and free from too great exposure. 
 If the season has been unpropitious for early grass, and 
 consequently the keep during parturition too low, the flock 
 should have the run of two lots, which should adjoin, and 
 the communication between them at all times kept open. 
 The adoption of this course prevents the confusion incident 
 to changing the whole flock at once. 
 
 The number of ewes herding together at this important 
 period should not exceed one hundred, and a still less 
 number will result advantageously to both the flock and mas- 
 ter. He should at all seasons keep before him the fact, that 
 
168 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 a few sheep kept together tvill do better than many, which will 
 be more particularly enforced hereafter. 
 
 The affection of the ewe for her offspring is often ex- 
 ceedingly strong, as the following example will testify, al- 
 though rather an extraordinary instance, related by the Et- 
 trick Shepherd. 
 
 " One of the two years while I remained on the farm at 
 Willenslee a severe blast of snow came on by night, about 
 the latter end of April, which destroyed several scores of our 
 lambs, and as we had not enough of twins and odd lambs 
 for the mothers that had lost theirs, of course we select- 
 ed the best ewes and put lambs to them. As we were 
 making the distribution, I requested of the master to spare 
 me a lamb for a ewe which he knew, and which was stand- 
 ing over a dead lamb, about four miles from the house. He 
 would not let me do it, but bid me to let her stand over her 
 lamb for a day or two, and perhaps a twin would be forth- 
 coming. I did so, and faithfully did she stand to her charge. 
 I visited her every morning and evening for the first eight 
 days, and never found her above two or three yards from 
 the lamb ; and often as I went my rounds, she eyed me long 
 ere I came near her, and kept stamping with her foot, to 
 frighten away the dog. 
 
 " The weather grew fine and warm, and the dead lamb 
 soon decayed ; but still this affectionate and desolate crea- 
 ture kept hanging over the poor remains with an attachment 
 that seemed to be nourished by hopelessness. It often drew 
 tears from my eyes to see her hanging with such fondness 
 over a few bones, mixed with a small portion of wool. For 
 the first fortnight she never quitted the spot ; and for an- 
 other week she visited it every morning and evening, utter- 
 ing a few kindly and heart-piercing bleats ; till at length, 
 every remnant of her offspring vanished, mixing with the 
 soil, or wafted away by the winds."* 
 
 An important duty devolves upon the flock-master to see 
 that his sheep are regularly and plentifully salted from the 
 time they are turned to pasture till the commencement of the 
 foddering season. 
 
 Fortunately the question, whether salt contributes to the 
 
 * Hogg's Shepherd's Calendar. 
 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 169 
 
 health and thrift of sheep, is, at the present day, no longer 
 mooted, its salutary effects being universally admitted. It 
 operates to stimulate the appetite, and essentially aids the 
 digestive organs in extracting the nutriment of food ; and 
 within a few years it has been ascertained that its free use 
 to sheep has mitigated, if not wholly prevented in some lo- 
 calities that terrible scourge to British flocks, the liver-rot. 
 Its security against the attacks of other dangerous maladies, 
 further time and observation will doubtless demonstrate. 
 
 In Mr. Youatt's work will be found the following remarks 
 on the benefits of salting : 
 
 " Passing by the beautiful country of Montpelier and the 
 mouths of the Rhone, the traveller can study the fine sheep 
 and the sheep husbandry of Aries. The district of the 
 Crau, in length nearly eighteen miles, and about half as 
 much in breadth, extends from the mountains towards the 
 seacoast. It is one uniform gentle declivity : in no part of 
 it is there the slightest portion of stagnant water, and not a 
 tree or shrub is to be seen. The soil is dry and apparently 
 barren enough, but produces a varied herbage well adapted 
 to the sheep. Not less than one hundred and thirty thou- 
 sand sheep graze on this declivity." 
 
 A writer in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sci- 
 ences at Paris attributes the thriving of the sheep on such a 
 spot to the free use of salt, thereby enabling the digestive 
 organs to extract every particle of nutriment which the food 
 contains. He says, " On this spot, seemingly so sterile, by 
 the free use of salt, more numerous flocks of sheep are bred 
 and reared than upon any other common of equal extent 
 throughout the whole kingdom ; and, what is not less re- 
 markable, the sheep are healthier, hardier, and endure the 
 severity of the winter with less loss, though they have fewer 
 sheep cots for covering, than those fed and bred on more co- 
 pious pastures, and that have, besides, the advantage of more 
 convenient shelter." 
 
 For a short time after sheep have been turned to pasture, 
 precaution must be observed not to salt them too freely, as, 
 in conjunction with the stimulating nature of young grass, 
 scours or purging will follow ; and its effects upon ewes 
 shortly before parturition, if allowed access to it without 
 limit, will tend to abortion, as will be found more fully no- 
 ticed in another chapter. 
 
 If common fine salt (say Salina make) is used, two quarts 
 15 
 
170 MANAGEMENT OF SIIEEP. 
 
 to the hundred, given about once a week, is a prudent quan- 
 tity at that time, and may be increased to four quarts after 
 the first of May, for every fourth or fifth day, during the re- 
 mainder of the pasture season. If coarse saU (St. Ubes) is 
 used, a quarter to one third less than of fine will be proper, 
 it being of a much stronger quality. 
 
 Salting in troughs would be well enough, provided the 
 sheep could be stationary in one enclosure ; but the neces- 
 sity of their removal frequently for change of pasture, re- 
 quires the removal of the troughs also ; and the flock-master 
 with several hundred sheep will soon learn that that is quite 
 too troublesome. Again, troughs are thought by many indis- 
 pensable during the season when the Estris Ovis, or sheep 
 gad-fly, is winging its tormenting career, for the reception of 
 the tar (upon which salt is sprinkled) as a defence against 
 its attacks. But this does not supersede their removal, and 
 if time and their expense are considered, it will be found 
 cheaper to pound the flocks several times during the flight 
 of the fly, and with a common paint brush or swab-, tarring 
 their noses can very quickly be performed, and far more 
 effectually than it can be done by themselves in the troughs.* 
 
 The writer salts his sheep upon the ground, before the- 
 dew evaporates, selecting a place which is clean, and the 
 grass short, and divides a handful into two or three parts, as 
 a large quantity thrown upon one spot will not scatter suffi- 
 ciently the quantity used for the flock, and thereby the sheep 
 are afforded a more equal chance. Salt is a fertilizer of the 
 soil, and should any be left uneaten, which is not very like- 
 ly, of course its effects will not be lost. 
 
 Many suppose that sheep, late in the fall, require little or 
 no salt. This is quite a mistake, it being the very period 
 when it will prove most useful to them, by contributing to 
 extract the little nutriment left in the decaying herbage, as 
 well as causing its better relish. 
 
 Salt is quite as necessary in the foddering season, if not 
 more so, than at any other time, for the reason that dry food 
 being harder of digestion than green, the stimulating proper- 
 ties of salt is requisite to aid the process. It is not impor- 
 tant that the hay, or whatever else may be fed, is salted, if 
 the sheep have access to it in troughs or mangers. But if 
 the hay is salted when it is secured, none else will be re- 
 
 * See chapter on diseases, Eatria Ovis, for further remarks. 
 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 171 
 
 quired. This is deemed by a large majority to be the bet- 
 ter way, and coincides with the writer's views and practice. 
 
 WASHING. 
 
 This is a branch of sheep economy which is wholly in- 
 dispensable. 
 
 The careless and slovenly manner with which it is per- 
 formed by the great majority of American wool-growers, 
 calls for sevare reprehension ; the evil consequences result- 
 ing from it, however, are inflicted mostly upon themselves. 
 
 The most suitable time depends upon the latitude and sea- 
 son ; the latter causing sometimes, in the same locality, a 
 considerable variation. At all events, the flock-master must 
 be sure of one thing, namely, that the water and weather 
 are comparatively warm. The violation of this is very 
 common, which is exceedingly cruel and inhumane, and 
 often exposes sheep to disease. 
 
 The day selected should be one of sunshine, if possible ; 
 and as this work in the Northern and Middle States is com- 
 monly attended to from the 10th to the 25th of May, it will 
 rarely be the case, at that season, that the water will be of 
 the right temperature before nine or ten o'clock in the morn- 
 ing ; and when only a few sheep are to be washed, it will 
 be better generally to delay it until the afternoon. 
 
 If the washing can be conducted immediately after a 
 warm rain it will be easier, the eflect of it being to soften 
 and loosen the dirt ; in this event, the yearlings should be 
 selected first, as they are generally the filthiest. 
 
 The flock-master should always be present ; and if he 
 does not possess the physical ability or inclination to " bear 
 a hand," he should at least see that everything goes off 
 properly, and is conducted on " temperance principles," for 
 rum has done its full share of mischief on such occasions. 
 He should be provided with a pair of shears, and if any 
 dung locks are seen, they should be severed before the 
 sheep are put into the water. 
 
 Where there is a running stream of pure water, with a 
 gravelly or stony bottom, no better mode can be adopted 
 for wool cleansing, and none other is so economical. 
 
 For a number of years past the writer has used a vat, 
 made of two inch pine plank, and held together by three 
 inch oak gripes. It is about nine feet long, four and a half 
 
172 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 wide, and three and a half in depth. It is placed at the bot- 
 tom of a gentle fall, upon top of which is laid the troughs 
 that conduct the water into the vat, the elevation of them be- 
 ing about eighteen inches above the level of the top of the 
 vat. The dimensions of this are much larger than is neces- 
 sary for the farmer with a small number of sheep, as it ad- 
 mits of the use of two sets of troughs, and therefore calcu- 
 lated for the washing of two sheep simultaneously. All 
 circumstances being right, five to six hundred can be well 
 washed in it per day. 
 
 On one side of the vat is a permanent platform made of 
 stone and floored with plank, the surface having a gentle in- 
 clination towards the vat, on which the sheep are held for a 
 minute or more, after being washed, that the water may 
 drain from the fleece. Beside the vat (not in it) and upon 
 the platform stands one of the washers, and a temporary 
 staging on the opposite side accommodates another. One 
 man is employed to bring the sheep from a small pound 
 close at hand, and put them into the vat, in which two are 
 held at a time by another at the lower end, for two or three 
 minutes, with a view to soften the dirt. The washers then 
 take them, and each holds one under the troughs or spouts, 
 turning them in every position to receive the full benefit 
 from the fall of the water, which proceeds with such force 
 as to dislodge the dirt rapidly, and in a much briefer time 
 than it can be done by squeezing. When the supply of wa- 
 ter is full, no squeezing will be required, except, perhaps, 
 the belly and thigh wool. As soon as the sheep held by the 
 man for soaking pass from his hands to the washers, he is 
 immediately supplied with others ; and thus while two are 
 soaking, two others are being washed under the spouts. 
 One end of the vat being set a little below a level, the dirt 
 passes freely off", and consequently the water is compara- 
 tively pure, the good effects of which will be seen in the 
 almost cotton whiteness of the inner portion of the fleece. 
 As to eradicating all the dirt from the external surface of 
 wool when upon the sheep, it is not expected, for it is im- 
 possible to accomplish it ; and therefore it must necessarily 
 be left to the cleansing process of the manufacturer. But 
 that much more can be extracted than is usual, cannot admit 
 of a doubt ; and if a general trial will only be made, those 
 who undertake it will be sure to succeed, and rewarded not 
 only with the grateful thanks of jlianufacturers, but a hand- 
 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 173 
 
 some advance upon the prices of their wool. In confirma- 
 tion of this, Mr. Samuel Lawrence, of Lowell, Mass., an 
 eminent woollen manufacturer, states the following : " These 
 cheating practices are short-sighted, inasmuch as the ' clean 
 thing' brings a price proportionate. We always fix the 
 price per lb. by the quantity of scoured wool it will yield. 
 In our purchases we frequently make a difierence of five 
 cents per lb. in precisely similar qualities." This advance 
 will amply compensate for the longer time required in wash- 
 ing our sheep well, and if acted upon, with many of us, our 
 characters for honesty will be considerably amended. 
 
 Bucks, especially of the Merino breed, require an extra 
 time to wash them, and if a little soft soap should be used, 
 their fleeces will not lose anything in value in the estima- 
 tion of the manufacturer. 
 
 After the washing is completed, the sheep should be turned 
 upon a thick-covered sward, that no dirt may collect on the 
 fleeces, before they are shorn. Driving them along a dusty 
 road must be avoided, if possible, when returning from the 
 washing. 
 
 The Spanish custom is to cleanse the fleece with soap, 
 after it is shorn, the grease or yolk abounding to such a de- 
 gree, with its concomitant dirt, as to preclude the possibility 
 of cleansing it properly in the ordinary way. 
 
 In England, the breeds having less of gum than others, 
 washing is comparatively easy, and, where j)racticable, is 
 done by swimming the sheep to and fro in a pond or stream, 
 and gently squeezing the wool with the hands. 
 
 The washing of Saxony sheep in Germany and other parts 
 of the Continent, conforms to the better modes adopted in this 
 country, but is performed with far greater nicety and care. 
 
 On the authority of the manufacturer above named, Span- 
 ish wools, after being washed with soap, as already men- 
 tioned, lose 10 per cent, by the manufacturer's process of 
 cleansing ; German or Saxony wool 24 per cent., but ii accom- 
 modated, that is, the skirts, and head taken oflT, only 16 per 
 cent. ; the Australian or New South Wales wools about 30 
 per cent. ; American Saxony averages 3G per cent., and Amer- 
 ican pure blood Merino A2\ per cent.* The waste from South 
 American wools is enormous, being from 70 to 80 per cent. ; 
 
 * It is proper to state that all marm.facturers do not agree with Mr. 
 Lawrence in opinion, many of them estimating the waste of American, 
 Saxon, and Merino wool to be a little less than above stated. 
 
 15* 
 
174 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 but it is exported " in the dirt," which will explain it. The 
 above statement proves conclusively the indifferent manner 
 with which wools grown in the United States are washed by 
 the growers, and calls loudly for a reform. 
 
 CASTRATION AND DOCKING. 
 
 This is an important and necessary operation to lambs, 
 but in very many instances is cruelly and unskilfully per- 
 formed. 
 
 The proper time depends much on the weather, the size of 
 the lamb, and varying from five to twenty days from its birth. 
 
 As the ewes about washing time are, or should be, through 
 parturition, two or three days after, a cool one may be select- 
 ed for this purpose, although with the great mass it is de- 
 ferred to the period of shearing. No matter, however, as to 
 this, provided it is done very early in the morning, as a warm, 
 moist temperature is very unpropitious, on account of the 
 danger attending it. This arises from the extraordinary ef- 
 fusion of blood in individual instances, which frequently re- 
 sults in the death of the lamb. 
 
 Let the lambs be brought from the field with as little 
 bustle and hurry as possible, and immediately confined in a 
 small pound, to prevent any exercise or running about when 
 catching them. This, and the observance of the following 
 rules, have been the practice of the writer many years : — 
 
 One catches a lamb and seats himself astride of a narrow 
 plank or scantling, which is placed at an inclination of about 
 30 degrees, pressing the back of the lamb firmly against his 
 belly, and with his hands grasps the hind legs, drawing them 
 upwards and towards him, so that the scrotum is fairly ex- 
 posed for the operation. The operator with a sharp knife 
 cuts off about one half to two thirds of the testicle bag ; then 
 drops his knife, and draws out one of the testicles at a time, 
 till a portion of the connecting cord is seen, which he divides 
 by friction of his thumb nail. This mode of division la- 
 cerates the cord, and less bleeding will follow than if done 
 by a sharp instrument. It may, to some, appear unnecessary, 
 and therefore objectionable, to cut off so much of the scrotum 
 or bag ; but if dislodged of its contents it is certainly quite 
 an useless aflair, the little wool growing upon it being almost 
 worthless, and a bother always to the tagger and shearer when 
 '.utting it off. No danger can arise cither, if the ointment, 
 ■which will presently be spoken of, is used. 
 
SUMMER. MANAGEMENT. 175 
 
 After the testicles are removed, the operator grasps the 
 tail of the lamb and severs it about one inch from the root. 
 Here the writer may be again condemned for cutting off ap- 
 parently too much of the tail, it being considered a necessary 
 appendage which the God of nature has provided the animal 
 to brush away annoying insects. But the evil consequences 
 of a moderate length of dock, or indeed any at all, he has 
 seen too often manifested, to induce him to swerve from his 
 practice ; humanity, indeed, sanctions it. The sheep which 
 carries a " natural tail," or only half a one, is very certain 
 not to take that care of it, in regard to cleanliness, which it 
 ought ; on the contrary, it is often seen with large accumu- 
 lations of dung attached to it, and presenting anything but 
 a tasteful aspect. But the sheep is not to be blamed for this, 
 for, unlike all other domestic animals, it can and does void 
 its excrement in a lying posture ; and a huge tail will not 
 be removed, on such occasions, without an extraordinary 
 effort. Hence it is, concretions of dung are formed, which 
 attract the maggot-fly, and unless a timely discovery is made 
 by the master, the sheep dies a horrible death. Thus the 
 life of the animal is often jeopardized, and therefore is it not 
 humane to deprive it of so perilous an appendage ? Again, 
 if the old calculation of the farmer be true, that it takes one 
 bushel of corn to fat a swine's tail, it is a problem to deter- 
 mine, how much feed is requisite to keep in " store order" 
 the undivided tail of a sheep. 
 
 At the conclusion of the castration and docking, use is 
 made of the ointment alluded to. It is composed of the 
 following ingredients : say one quart of tar, two lbs. of lard, 
 and after being warmed to a thin liquid, add a gill of spirits 
 of turpentine, and apply it by means of a soft swab to the 
 mutilations, and for one or two inches around them. This is 
 very healing in its effects, prevents inflammation from colds, 
 and, what is of most consequence, is an effectual guard, 
 against the attacks of the maggot-fly. None will approach 
 it, so abhorrent is the effluvia of tar or turpentine to all winged 
 insects. 
 
 The lambs are put out of the pound as fast as each has 
 passed the operation, and are disposed to be very quiet, 
 which is quite right, as it checks the discharge of blood. 
 Let them remain about for an hour or more, if the pasture 
 to which they are to be turned is distant, and then they ma,y 
 be moved off, but very slowly. Be careful, before this is 
 
176 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 done, to look in the corners of fences, behind trees or what- 
 not, in the immediate vicinity, as some may be concealed, 
 and the stiffness consequent of their wounds will make them 
 unwilling to return with the flock, unless discovered and 
 aroused. Some work may be saved by this little piece of 
 vigilance, as they may get mixed with other flocks subse- 
 quently brought up. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 SUMMER MANAGEMENT CONTINUED. 
 
 SHEARING— INTERIM BETWEEN WASHING AND SHEARING— SORTING 
 —MARKING THE SHEEP— ROLLING THE FLEECES— ARRANGEMENT 
 OF WOOL FOR SALE— SHEARING-HOUSE— BALEING WOOL— SHEEP 
 TICK— MAGGOT-FLY— NOXIOUS WEEDS. 
 
 SHEARING. 
 
 This event, the harvest of the shepherd, as the reader has 
 been informed^ in the " olden time" v»^as celebrated at its 
 conclusion with feastings and other demonstrations of rejoi- 
 cing. But this goodly custom has for long been discontin- 
 ued in this country, if we except the " ancients" of Nantucket, 
 who yet pertinaciously adhere annually to its observance. 
 
 It is very properly termed a harvest, for thus it is to the 
 faithful and humane flock-master ; but the reverse of this is 
 the case with that unprofitable servant, whose slothfulness 
 and negligence may be seen manifested in the emaciated and 
 partly denuded forms of his flock, at this interesting period. 
 The former reaps a bountiful reward, while the other gathers 
 little else than hurs and tag-locks ! 
 
 The remarks of censure prefixed to the notices on tagging, 
 washing, and castration, in reference to the heedless and 
 unskilful manner with which these matters are usually at- 
 tended to, by a large majority of wool-growers, will apply 
 with tenfold force to the subject now under consideration. 
 It will be proper to say, without ceremony or fear of contra- 
 diction, that the shearing of sheep, as generally conducted 
 in the United States, is utterly disgraceful. The passing 
 traveller, to be satisfied of the truth of this assertion, need 
 not confine his observation to the " poor man's flock" as seen 
 grazing by the roadside, but in the fields of those who sus- 
 tain the reputation of good farmers in their respective neigh- 
 borhoods, will often behold sheep whose appearance indicate 
 
178 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP, 
 
 that tlieir fleeces were gnawed off rather than shorn. But 
 with a view to repress indignation, the writer will not enter 
 into further description of such slovenly-looking objects, but 
 propose the question, Whose fault is this, and to whose door 
 is it to be laid ? Is it the shearer, or is it the master ? 
 
 In the first place, the mass of wool-growers are themselves 
 ignorant of the details of this important art, very few having 
 ever learned it practically, and consequently are incompetent 
 to teach it. Therefore, when the shearer is proceeding with 
 his work, the master looks on, and, if faults are committed, 
 he is incapable of directing how they shall be avoided. He 
 may, it is true, vehemently denounce the unskilfulness and 
 cruelty of the shearer, but he has not himself the requisite 
 knowledge to take the shears and personally direct how they 
 should be held, and how far they should clip from the point, 
 or the position the sheep should lie, in order to prevent its 
 tearing the fleece with its feet. In addition to this, it is quite 
 probable that the shearer, with a view to save a shilling or 
 two, has been hired to perform the work by the lump, or so 
 much per head ; and under such circumstances he recklessly 
 " cuts in" and dashes ahead to accomplish it in the most 
 speedy time, regardless of the scolding of his employer, the 
 manner of his work, or humanity to the suffering animal. 
 
 There are shearers, but they are few, who can do their 
 work quickly and yet do it well ; but these have acquired 
 the art correctly at the beginning, and have wisely adhered 
 to its rules through a long experience. But the great ma- 
 jority have been spoiled when learning the rudiments, by 
 the very class of farmers alluded to. Thus even shearers 
 who have had the benefit of some correct teaching, are made 
 reckless performers by parsimonious notions on the part of 
 those who have employed them. 
 
 Bad habits are very easily acquired by a shearer, as the 
 ■writer has had frequent opportunities of observing in those 
 who have served him in this capacity for successive years ; 
 but it has been in the employ of these shear-by-the-head or 
 job flock-masters. Here is the root of the evil — urging 
 shearers to do more than they can do tvell, and thereby con- 
 firming the old but truthful adage, " haste makes waste." 
 The axe must be laid at the root of this evil at once, or good 
 workmen will continue to be, as now, few and far between. 
 The wool-grower must cease to entertain the false notion 
 that by hiring his shearing done by the head or job, he is 
 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 1/9 
 
 the gainer, for the very reverse is the fact in nine tenths of 
 such instances, owing to the slovenly and half-way execu- 
 tion which follows, the sheep carrying away wool enough 
 to doubly pay the ordinary day wages. The fault, it will 
 have been seen, lies at the door of the master, and not 
 wholly to the shearer. 
 
 Of those who can shear a large number in a day, and per- 
 form it skilfully, there are very few ; but nothing precise can 
 be stated, as it depends entirely on the breed. If they are 
 Saxons or Merinos, or grades of these breeds, it will be 
 very safe to say, from twenty-five to forty, taking the aver- 
 age of a flock ; the grown sheep fewer than of yearlings. 
 In general terms, it may be said that he is a good workman 
 who will accomplish about the largest number, cuts the wool 
 with one clip of his shears, and not in twain, as one shear- 
 ing too fast is apt to do, shears even and close without cut- 
 ting the skin, and holds his sheep in those positions both 
 easy to it and himself. 
 
 The following instructions may be followed, intended for 
 the novice : — 
 
 Supposing that the floor of the shearing-house has previ- 
 ously been thoroughly cleaned, the pound containing the 
 flock littered with straw — the shearer proceeds to bring his 
 sheep upon the floor. This he must avoid doing after a 
 common method, which resembles, rather than anything 
 else, the rough-and-tumble eflbrts of a dog dragging a wood- 
 chuck from his burrow — but after catching it, to throw his 
 right arm around the body, grasping the brisket with his 
 hand, then lift it, and with his left hand remove dirt or straw, 
 if any adhere to the feet. If the sheep is filthy about the 
 tail, or perchance any burs are attached to the wool, at the 
 threshold of the door, let all be cut oflf by a suitable pair of 
 shears at hand for such purposes only. Then he may place 
 the sheep on that part of the floor assigned to him, resting 
 on its rump, and himself in a posture, with one knee on a 
 cushion, and the back of the animal resting against his left 
 thigh. Ho grasps the shears about half-way from the point 
 to the bow, resting his thumb along the blade, which affords 
 him better command of the points. He may then commence 
 cutting the wool at the brisket, and, proceeding downwards, 
 all upon the sides of the belly to the extremity of the ribs, 
 the external sides of both thighs to the edges of the flanks ; 
 then back to the brisket, and thence upwards, shearing the 
 
180 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEF. 
 
 wool from the breast, front, and both sides of the neck — ^but 
 not yet the back of it — and also the poll or fore part, and 
 top of the head. Now the "jacket is opened" of the sheep, 
 and its position, and that of the shearer, is changed, by be- 
 ing turned flat upon its side, one knee of the shearer resting 
 on the cushion, and his other gently pressing the fore-quar- 
 ter of the animal, to prevent any struggling. He then re- 
 sumes cutting upon the flank and rump, and thence onwards 
 to the head. Thus one side is completed. The sheep is 
 then turned on to the other side, in doing which great care 
 is requisite to prevent the fleece from being torn, and the 
 shearer acts as upon the other, which finishes. He must 
 then take his sheep near to the door through which it is to 
 pass out, and neatly trim the legs, and leave not a solitary 
 lock anywhere as a harbor for ticks. It is absolutely neces- 
 sary for him to remove from his stand to trim, otherwise the 
 useless stuff" from the legs becomes intermingled with the 
 fleece wool. 
 
 In the use of the shears, let the blades be laid as flat to 
 the skin as possible, not lower the points too much, nor cut 
 more than from one to two inches at a clip, frequently not 
 so much, depending on the part, and compactness of the 
 "wool. 
 
 The above instructions being designed for a beginner, we 
 will suppose that this is his first and only attempt. Let his 
 employer, when he is about it, and it will be a good while, 
 have an eye on all his movements, kindly and carefully di- 
 recting them. After the pupil is through his maiden effort, 
 you will see him smoothing out the crinkles and aches from 
 his back and hips — for thus the poor fellow will feel — and if 
 the weather is warm — and of course it should be — wiping 
 the dripping sweat from his brow. But be easy ; let him 
 blow a while before he catches another sheep, for if you hur- 
 ry him, long before night you will hear murmured from his 
 lips, that " shearing is a back-breaking business — it's not 
 what it is cracked up to be," &c. &c., indicating that he is 
 already disgusted with it, and if so, adieu to his ever arriving 
 at skilfulness. But if he has time afforded to straighten 
 himself, and is patted with kind compliments " upon his un- 
 expected well-doing — that he improves with each successive 
 sheep — and that he will be sure to make a first-rate shear- 
 er," you will bring him under the yoke without his knowing 
 its hardships. He will probably shear eight or ten the first 
 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 181 
 
 day, and possibly a few more the next ; at all events, guard 
 him all the while, and see that he hurries not, or slights his 
 work in any respect. 
 
 In this way, and none other, can we properly educate 
 shearers to do their work with tact, and increased profit to 
 the flock-master. This is but a transcript of the writer's 
 course ; and to show its good results, he has now in mind 
 an instance, among several, where he instructed a raw one, 
 and the following season his pupil sheared forty per day, 
 and performed his task admirably. 
 
 Again : if this plan could be generally adopted, good 
 shearers would be more plentiful, and wool-growers, aside 
 from other evils, would not be compelled to delay shearing 
 often beyond the proper time, for want of them. 
 
 There is yet another mode of taking off" the fleece, not un- 
 common in this country, very generally adopted in England, 
 and in nowise objectionable, and which is here laid before 
 the reader. The following description of it is from the 
 Farmer's Series : 
 
 " A barn or shed into which plenty of light can be admit- 
 ted near the shearers should be selected, and a part of the 
 floor covered with a large canvass sheet, on which two 
 shearers can operate. The sheet should be nailed down, 
 and a little straw placed under it to soften it as a cushion. 
 The floor of the barn should be swept out quite clean, and a 
 light broom be at hand to sweep the sheet when necessary. 
 Everything being arranged, a shearer seizes a sheep, and 
 sets it on its rump, and keeps it in this position by resting 
 the back against his own legs. He removes all straws, 
 thorns, burs, &c., that may have adhered to the wool. 
 While thus held, the wool is removed from the head and 
 neck as far as the shoulders, and also from the belly, the 
 scrotum, and the edge of the thighs. The head of the ani- 
 mal is then bent down sideways, and the shearer, placing a 
 leg on each side of the neck of the sheep, pushes out the 
 opposite ribs by pressing his knees gently against the ribs 
 that are nearest to him. He next shears the wool from the 
 far side with his left hand, from the belly to the middle of 
 the back, and as far down as the loins. The sheep is now 
 turned, and the right hand is employed to shear the wool 
 from the near side. The sheep is then laid flat on its side, 
 and kept down by the shearer with his face towards the 
 rump of the sheep, resting his right knee on the groimd in 
 
 16 
 
182 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 front of the neck, and his right toe being brought to the 
 ground a little behind and below the poll ; the head and 
 neck of the sheep are thus confined by his right leg, while 
 he uses his right hand to shear the wool from the hind-quar- 
 ter. In this way the clips of the shears will appear in con- 
 centric rings round the body of the sheep. The dirty por- 
 tions of wool about the tail are then removed by the shears, 
 and kept by themselves ;* the outside of the fleece is folded 
 inwards, beginning at the sides, and narrowing the whole 
 fleece into a stripe about two feet wide. The stripe is then 
 rolled firmly up from the tail and towards the neck, the wool 
 of which is stretched out and twisted into a rope, and wound 
 round the fleece to give it a cylindrical shape." 
 
 INTERIM BETWEEN WASHING AND SHEARING, ETC. 
 
 The interim between washing and shearing should depend 
 on the state of the weather ; if cool and cloudy, the yolk or 
 oil will not appear so readily, a substance, as the reader has 
 been informed in a previous part of the work,which is high- 
 ly necessary to confer softness and brilliancy to the wool. 
 If the weather has been sunny, from a week to ten days 
 from washing will be quite long enough ; and when the 
 work of shearing begins and is proceeding, the temperature, 
 in the Northern States at least, cannot be too warm. But 
 there are thousands who violate this, and thereby reap sad 
 consequences to themselves, by the death of many of their 
 sheep, which arises from the extreme sensitiveness of the 
 animal to cold immediately after its fleece has been shorn. 
 To guard against this evil as much as possible, it will not 
 be safe to begin shearing, in this latitude, before the 1st of 
 June, and will be yet safer, generally, to defer it a few days 
 longer. After waiting till the last moment, if a cold rain 
 storm should occur during the process, those which have 
 been shorn should be put under cover without a moment's 
 delay, as death to many of them will infallibly follow, if it is 
 neglected. The extreme suffering of sheep under such cir- 
 cumstances is inconceivable, and no one, unless wholly de- 
 void of humanity, to say nothing of regard for his pockets, 
 will refrain to fly to their immediate relief Veteran flock- 
 masters will duly appreciate these remarks, as there are few 
 
 * This is exceptionable ; it should be done before anytlmig else. — .4m- 
 thor Am. Shepherd. 
 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 183 
 
 of US who have not in times past been losers, by inhumanly 
 neglecting this important duty. 
 
 If the cutting of the horns and hoofs has not already 
 been attended to at tagging time, as has been recommended, 
 it should be no longer delayed, but done now. 
 
 Although the indications of scab at any time are infallible 
 with the experienced flock-master, yet perchance a discov- 
 ery has not been made, after the fleece is removed it can no 
 longer escape- observation. Should any be found infected, 
 a resort to the proper remedy must not be delayed for a mo- 
 ment.* 
 
 SORTING, ETC. 
 
 To the breeders for mutton, and more particularly the cul- 
 tivators of wool, no other occasion than the present is more 
 favorable to institute thorough examinations of the forms and 
 fleeces of their flocks. It is thus, because the wool will 
 often conceal, when growing upon the sheep, minor imper- 
 fections of the carcase ; but after the fleece is shorn, they 
 become more obvious. If the sheep are of the mutton vari- 
 ety, those of the same age should be compared as to size, 
 and the individuals having the greatest, with most approved 
 proportions, should be marked, and retained for breeding 
 purposes. Although the fleece can be pretty accurately 
 judged by the experienced wool culturists for several months 
 antecedent, yet not so well as now ; ahd every one bearing 
 wool distinguished for those properties most desirable, as 
 well as possessing a symmetrical form, with indications of 
 thrift and easy keep, must also receive a lasting mark, for it 
 should not be parted with. Let the fleeces of the most ap- 
 proved be weighed, and every other particular noted. In 
 this way only can the wool culturist advance, whilst its neg- 
 lect will soon manifest itself in a deterioration both of fleece 
 and carcase. 
 
 Although it is quite common, and withal very necessary, 
 to classify sheep, by a division into flocks of the sexes, at 
 the beginning of the foddering season, yet if it has been neg- 
 lected, it should be now done. Nothing should be permit- 
 ted to run with the ewes and lambs, and their continuance 
 on the best pasture will be of the highest advantage. The 
 Avethers and dry ewes selected for sale should also be turned 
 
 * See Chapter on Diseases. 
 
184 MANAGEMENT OP SHEEP. 
 
 to good keep ; and indeed so of all others of the flock, if 
 possible. 
 
 MARKING, ETC. 
 
 There is another incidental duty connected with shearing 
 time — namely, marking the sheep before they are finally 
 disposed of to the fields. It is usually done by the shearer 
 or with his aid. This does not refer to ear-marks, but paint- 
 ing the initial letter of the owner's name upon the body of 
 the sheep, which, however, is commonly performed in a very 
 uncouth and ludicrous style. This can be obviated by hav- 
 ing the letter cut in pasteboard, and thereby some degree of 
 taste and uniformity will result. If a letter is not indispen- 
 sable, it will be better to have an iron formed to represent a 
 ring, triangle, or diamond, with a handle attached ; then dip 
 the iron in the paint, which should be deposited in a shallow 
 vessel, and immediately apply it to the wethers on the right 
 shoulders, ewes on the left, or vice versa, and the bucks on 
 the rump. This is practicable, if others near by do not 
 adopt the same mark. Such marks of ownership are quite 
 necessary, with a view to distant or more obvious recogni- 
 tion, and more especially so if any of the flock are breachy 
 and disposed to stray. The manner in which it is done fre- 
 qu'^ntly reflects the character of the flock-master. If it is 
 done neatly, the inference is that his other performances are 
 likewise. 
 
 The materials for marking should be lampblack and lin- 
 seed oil, or, as a substitute for the latter, hog's lard. Let the 
 lampblack be " killed," as painters term it, by using a very 
 little of spirits of turpentine, before the oil is mixed. It will 
 not rub off so easily if allowed to stand twenty-four hours 
 before applied. It is common to use tar ; but this is objec- 
 tionable with the manufacturer, it being difficult to separate 
 by the cleansing process. 
 
 As soon as the flock is pounded for shearing, the lambs 
 should be separated before anything else is done, lest the 
 wound occasioned by severing the dock should be irritated 
 by the squeezing and jostling of the old ones. An exam- 
 ination of the altered tups may be made to see if all is right. 
 If there are any worms (which is not very likely if the pre- 
 caution has been observed to anoint thoroughly as recom- 
 mended), let spirits of turpentine be applied, which the flock- 
 master should never be without. 
 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 185 
 
 ROLLING THE FLEECES. 
 
 After the shearer has performed his task, the fleeces must 
 be carefully taken from the floor, and put upon the rolling ta- 
 ble, the outside of it uppermost. The valuable loose locks 
 about the shearer's stand must all be picked up, and the use- 
 less stuff" from the legs, &c., put into a corner, bag, or basket. 
 It should not be swept out of doors, as it possesses valuable 
 properties for manure. 
 
 The roller then proceeds to spread out the fleece, which 
 cannot be too carefully done, separates the ragged portions 
 from the skirts and head, and then makes it as compact as 
 possible by pushing from all sides towards the centre. The 
 loose wool is then thrown upon the fleece, which is followed 
 by turning over the sides and ends so as to form an oblong 
 stripe, say about two or three feet long, and one and a half wide, 
 which is moved to the front edge of the table. He then com- 
 mences to roll the long side of the stripe, aided by a boy at 
 the other end of it, who lay their arms flat from the elbow to 
 press the wool as the rolling proceeds, till the stripe is re- 
 duced to six or nine inches in width, depending on the size 
 of the fleece. The boy then mounts upon the table, and each 
 commences rolling from the ends of the stripe till the parts 
 meet, when the boy rolls his portion on top of his assistant's, 
 firmly pressing it till the twine is passed round both ways and 
 tied, which effectually secures the fleece, no matter how 
 roughly handled. After it receives a slight pressure, it pre- 
 sents somewhat the form of a cheese. 
 
 There are other modes of putting up fleeces, performed 
 without any aid ; but the writer has yet to see that individ- 
 ual who alone can roll a fleece as firm and solid as it should 
 be, at the same time giving it a symmetrical and attractive form. 
 If it is loosely rolled, the quantity of canvass used for pack- 
 ing is necessarily much increased ; and this item of extra 
 expense is more than equivalent to the services of a lad as an 
 assistant. 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF WOOL FOR SALE, ETC. 
 
 The slovenly manner in which wool is rolled and after- 
 wards prepared for exhibition to the buyer, deserves a pass- 
 ing remark. 
 
 The wool-grower should keep before him the motto of 
 16* 
 
I8i5 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 the shopmen, " goods tidily kept are half sold." This applies 
 with equal propriety to everything saleable by the farmer, 
 and to nothing with greater force than his wool. They are 
 too prone to get along with this matter in a " rough and tumble" 
 style, doing up the fleeces untidily, and then depositing them 
 in dark and uninviting places for exhibition. If wool has 
 been well cleansed, it will not be ashamed of too much light; 
 if only half washed, a dark corner only aggravates its ap- 
 pearance. There is an art in disposing wool for sale, which 
 enables the flock-master to put his best foot out, and yet be 
 guiltless of artifice to deceive the buyer ; on the contrary, 
 increases his opportunity to judge accurately of everything 
 appertaining to condition and quality. 
 
 The adoption of the following will carry out the writer's 
 views and practice : — 
 
 First, against one, or all sides — if necessary — of the wool- 
 loft, let four or five tiers of fleeces be placed upon top of each 
 other, as nearly alike as to size as possible ; the next pile, 
 one tier of fleeces less, and so on dnninishing the succeed- 
 ing piles one tier, till the last is reduced to a single one. In 
 this way, the fleeces represent piazza steps, or perhaps more 
 properly, the ascending seats of an amphitheatre. It will 
 readily be conceived, that if the fleeces have been neatly 
 rolled and adjusted, the whole is not only attractive, but saves 
 the buyer much time in overhauling it, which is unavoidable 
 if disposed of in a bin, or piled in any other form. This 
 constitutes one of those " inviting appearances" which the 
 world delight to gaze on, and which the world are some- 
 times disposed to pay a little beyond the intrinsic value for 
 the sake of possessing. Let the flock-master honestly tag 
 his sheep and cleanse his fleeces, and put nothing loitMn 
 them but the " clean thing," and the inviting scene before the 
 buyer cannot mislead, or deceive him afterwards. 
 
 This leads to an exposure of other " cheating practices" 
 of wool-growers, alluded to by Mr. Samuel Lawrence, under 
 the head of " washing." In a communication to the writer he 
 states the following : — " The practice of enclosing in the 
 fleece clippings, &c., is too common, and should be discour- 
 aged by manufacturers. I have known sin ounces of this 
 useless stuff taken from one fleece. There is another prac- 
 tice equally disgraceful — the use of five to twenty times as 
 much twine as is necessary. A short time since I took sixty- 
 six feet of large twine from one fleece," 
 
StTMMER, MANAGEMENT. 187 
 
 No further comment is "necessary, than to say, that any 
 flock-master who will put tag or dung locks, clippings, &c., 
 in the fleece, with a view to increase the weight, for such is 
 the motive, is committing a gross fraud, and in every instance 
 of discovery, his crime should be exposed to the public for 
 reprobation. 
 
 In addition to excessive quantity of twine, it is not unusual 
 for the size to be adapted almost as well for rope-traces, as 
 tying of fleeces. It should be about half the size of a pipe's 
 tail, as smooth as possible, otherwise, the fibres of flax, hemp, 
 or cotton are intermingled with the wool ; the carder cannot 
 dislodge them — they receive the dye imperfectly, and con- 
 sequently deface the surface of the cloth. 
 
 SHEARING-HOUSE AND APPENDAGES. 
 
 Flock-masters are subjected to many inconveniences for 
 want of an appropriate place for shearing, with the necessa- 
 ry appendages of pounds, &c. The expense of a shearing- 
 house is not large, and will amply reimburse the expense in 
 a few years, as it can be used for the reception of farm im- 
 plements, &;c., when the shearing is over, and wool removed. 
 
 The fence for the pounds should be constructed of posts 
 and boards ; two are required, and the one contiguous to the 
 shearing-house need not be more than twenty feet square ; 
 the other may be much larger. 
 
 It is very important that the wool-loft should be well light- 
 ed. No matter how well the fleeces may have been cleansed, 
 yet if there is a deficiency of light, they present a dingy 
 aspect. One window of good size is all that is necessary 
 at the south end, and two will be required at the opposite 
 or north end, for the reason that from that quarter the light 
 is milder, and gives the wool, if fine, a softer and more silky 
 appearance. Wool sorters always give a " north light" the 
 preference. 
 
 The trap door for suspending the sacks when packing, 
 should be in a central part of the floor, which leads to the 
 subject of 
 
 BALEING WOOL. 
 
 The article commonly used for baleing is termed by the 
 merchant, burlaps, which varies in width from 35 to 40 inch- 
 es ; the latter is preferable. The quantity necessary for a 
 
188 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 sack is 3 yards. A truss hoop is used, around the rim of which 
 the mouth of the sack is twisted, and is then placed on a square 
 frame just large enough to permit the rim of the hoop to rest. 
 The elevation should be sufficient to clear the sack from the 
 lower floor, when suspended. Some half dozen fleeces are 
 then thrown in for a layer, followed by a man who carefully 
 adjusts and treads each successive layer, till full. Gener- 
 ally, there is quite too much haste in this matter, and conse- 
 quently the wool is too loosely packed, and an extra quantity 
 of canvass is made necessary. It will be well before the 
 packing commences, to stuflf the bottom corners of the sacks 
 Avith wool clippings, and tie them, which afibrd handles for 
 lifting the bales. 
 
 THE SHEEP TICK — [Acarus reduvius.) 
 
 This disgusting insect infests sheep of all ages, but none 
 others so much as yearlings. While they tend to impoverish 
 the animal, if collected in large numbers, they stain the 
 wool in such a manner as to make it difficult to cleanse. 
 But they are so easily and effectually eradicated, it is inhu- 
 mane in any flock-master to permit their torments to any 
 portion of his sheep. The following is the modus operandi 
 for destroying them : 
 
 For 100 lambs, use 5 lbs. of inferior plug tobacco, or 10 
 lbs. of stems ; the former should be chopped into small 
 pieces, that its strength by boiling may be more fully extract- 
 ed. This will require some hours to do, and the most ef- 
 fectual way will be to apply at first two pails of water, which 
 may boil for half an hour, and then take one pail of liquor 
 from the kettle, and at the same time add another of water, 
 and so on till 30 gallons of decoction is made, for which 
 the quantity of tobacco named will be adequate. 
 
 A half hogshead will be the best thing for the deposite of 
 the liquor, upon one side of the top of which should be fast- 
 ened a rack, to rest the lambs after their immersion, in order 
 that the liquor may drain from them. If this is not done, 
 much of it will be unnecessarily wasted. About a week 
 after shearing the ticks will have left the ewes and fastened 
 themselves upon the lambs, which will be the proper time 
 to have them got up for this purpose. The lambs must be 
 held by the head with both hands, and then dipped to the 
 ears, using great care that none of the decoction passes into 
 the eyes or mouth. 
 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 189 
 
 There are some flock-masters who immerse all their 
 sheep, but if the lambs are faithfully attended to every year, 
 at the period recommended, few, if any, of the remainder of 
 the flock will ever be infested. Good condition is one of 
 the best preventives for this nuisance. 
 
 The tobacco decoction will also be found excellent for slight 
 wounds of the skin, and cutaneous irritations from johns- 
 wort. 
 
 MAGGOT-FLY. 
 
 Sheep during the summer months are subjected to extreme 
 annoyance from flies — principally the Estris Ovis, or gad- 
 fly, and the several varieties of worm, or maggot flies. 
 Fine-wooled sheep, from the close texture of their coats, do 
 not sufler from the attacks of the latter, unless dirty from 
 scours or wounds ; but the English long-wooled varieties 
 are especially exposed. The following observations are 
 copied from Blacklock : 
 
 " The insects passing under the name of " Fly," though 
 most troublesome in August, attack the sheep from May to 
 September, inclusive, depositing their eggs among the wool, 
 in general about the tail, the roots of the horns, or any part 
 which afibrds, from its filthy appearance, a prospect of suita- 
 ble provision for the maggot. When these eggs are hatched, 
 a process which is, in sultry weather, almost instantaneous, 
 the maggot erodes the skin, and speedily brings the adjacent 
 parts into a fit condition for the reception of succeeding mem- 
 bers of its species. 
 
 The backs of long-wooled sheep are, from their exposure, 
 more liable to be selected by the flies, as a receptacle for 
 their eggs, than the corresponding parts in such as are cov- 
 ered by a short, thick fleece. 
 
 No sooner has the maggot begun its operations, than the 
 sheep becomes uneasy and restless, rubbing itself on stones 
 and trees, and endeavoring, by every means in its power, to 
 free itself from the annoyance. Teased by the constant ir- 
 ritation, fever soon sets in, and, if the sheep be unrelieved 
 by the shepherd's aid, death will inevitably follow. 
 
 It is only lately that attention has been paid to the history 
 of the insect pests which originate the mischief, so little 
 damage do they appear to have occasioned in former periods. 
 In a valuable paper, containing the result of observations 
 made on this subject in the Highlands, and published in the 
 
190 MANAGEMENT OP SHEEP. 
 
 second number of the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, they 
 are thus described : 
 
 " The fly which is so troublesome to sheep, as far as my 
 observations could extend, consist of four species, viz. — the 
 Muscar Ceasar, Cadaverina, Vomitoria, and Carnaria, of 
 Linnaeus. ***#** 
 
 " M. Ceasar is of a shining green color. 
 
 " M. Cadaverina, the thorax shining bluish, the abdomen 
 green, like the Ceasar. 
 
 " M. Vomitoria, thorax black, or dark-blue grey, abdomen 
 dark glossy blue. This is the common Blue-bottle or Flesh- 
 
 fiy- 
 
 " M. Carnaria, grey ; the thorax has three black longitu- 
 dinal markings on the upper surface ; the abdomen is chec- 
 quered, in some positions shining whitish. 
 
 " In all instances in which I observed them, the green 
 flies were the first to attack, and this is the common opinion 
 among the shepherds. After a time, when the larvae (mag- 
 gots) commenced gnawing the flesh, the putrid stench, which 
 was thereby occasioned, attracted other species. The Blue- 
 hottle was very common, more numerous than both the for- 
 mer species, and perhaps contributed most to accelerate the 
 death of the animal, after the others had commenced. * * 
 
 " In five days after the larvas are hatched they arrive at 
 full growth, provided they have plenty of food ; they then 
 cease to eat, and seek to assume the pupa state, crawling 
 under ground two or three inches. Here they remain about 
 fourteen days, when the shell cracks, and the imago, or fly, 
 appears." 
 
 The correctness of this description of their transformation 
 Blacklock attests, from having watched their habits during 
 his anatomical pursuits in the summer months. 
 
 To ward off" the attacks of flies, various substances ob- 
 noxious to them have been recommended. Tar, with spirits 
 turpentine, may be applied about the ears, horns, and tail ; 
 while others prefer a little melted butter, thickened by flour 
 of sulphur, put also along the sheep's back, which is, on the 
 authority of Blacklock, an effectual preventive. 
 
 Flock-masters cannot be too vigilant during the summer 
 months, in watching closely every individual, and if any are 
 seen with scours, they should be got up, and tar and turpen- 
 tine applied. Rams should be still more closely observed, 
 especially the Saxon and Merino, whose pugnacious tempers 
 
SUMMEK MANAGEMENT. 191 
 
 incline them so frequently to battle, often inflicting wounds 
 around the base of the horns which are certain to call the 
 flies. Many valuable rams have been lost from this cause, 
 which watchfulness might have prevented. 
 
 NOXIOUS WEEDS. 
 
 Sheep, from their fondness of variety of herbage, are often 
 disposed to pluck weeds possessing poisonous qualities ; 
 and to guard against this evil entirely, the only remedy is, 
 for the flock-master to eradicate everything of the kind from 
 his sheep-walks. The low Laurel, Kahnia Angustifolia, is 
 always fatal to sheep, and Johnsioort also, if partaken of too 
 freely ; but the reader is referred to the chapter on Diseases 
 for further observations relative to these. 
 
 The burs of the common Burdock and Tory-plant are both 
 injurious to the appearance of the fleece, and much vigilance 
 is requisite to destroy these weeds, as their most congenial 
 places of growth are in fence corners, and beside old stumps 
 and logs, and therefore not so easily seen. But it is an old 
 observation of wool-growers, " if you want to find a bur- 
 dock, put a sheep on the track," and the trophies of success 
 will soon be seen carried in its fleece. Burs in wool injure 
 materially its sale, and a reduction in price frequently fol- 
 lows. If a burdock is early severed near the root, and a 
 handful of salt applied, it will never again " rise and report 
 progress." The common thistle should also be kept down, 
 for which the washer, shearer, and especially the roller of 
 fleeces, will return their grateful thanks 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 SUMMER MANAGEMENT CONTINUED, 
 
 LOCALITIES FOR SHEEP— SOIL — HERBAGE — DEDUCTIONS— VARIETY 
 OF HERBAGE— REVIEW OF PREMISES— FREQUENT CHANGE OF PAS 
 TURE— INCIDENTAL DUTIES— REMARKS ON THE LOCALITIES OP 
 ENGLISH SHEEP— GRASSES AND THEIR RELATIVE NUTRITIOUS 
 PROPERTIES— SHADE TREES— WATER— WEANING OF LAMBS— EAR 
 MARKING— WHEAT STUBBLE— OVERSTOCKING— PASTURING IN THE 
 FALL— SORTING SHEEP FOR WINTER QUARTERS. 
 
 LOCALITIES FOR SHEEP. 
 
 On right locality mainly depends the ultimate profits of 
 sheep culture, which, among other prominent circumstances, 
 embraces that of climate, which will be found fully consid- 
 ered in a subsequent chapter. 
 
 Until within the last hundred years no extraordinary at- 
 tention had been paid to sheep husbandry in Great Britain ; 
 but when the nation became aroused to its vast importance, 
 it was discovered that the prominent breeds, with their nume- 
 rous subdivisions, were placed on localities admirably adapted 
 by nature to each. The light-quartered, long-legged, restless 
 Welsh sheep were gambolling upon the mountains, and pick- 
 ing the uncultivated herbage, peculiar to them. The Down 
 sheep were upon the hill slopes feeding upon a soil afford- 
 ing adequate sustenance for a medium-sized breed ; the 
 heavy-quartered, long-wooled varieties were consuming the 
 fat pastures of the plains and valleys ; and the Cheviot and 
 iron-constitutioned black-faced sheep were sustaining them- 
 selves among the heather of the North mountains of Eng- 
 land, and Highlands of Scotland, where other breeds would 
 have perished from starvation and cold. The pliancy of 
 constitution of the sheep, unequalled by any other domes- 
 tic animal, which adaptates it to almost every transition of 
 climate and soil, will account for the difference of conform- 
 ation of the several breeds, as observsd in these varied lo- 
 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 193 
 
 calities. But centuries were required to accomplish this, for 
 nature, when left to herself, is slow in effecting radical re- 
 sults. But thus the English husbandman found them at the 
 commencement of the era of improvement, and he under- 
 stood quite too well his interest to transfer the sheep, whose 
 accustomed walks for centuries were on the slopes and 
 mountain tops, to the abundant herbage of the valleys, or 
 exchange the rich keep of the larger varieties for poorer 
 and more scanty. He was content to improve the forms, 
 and increase the disposition to fatten and earlier maturity, 
 but to go no farther ; and long experience has attested his 
 practical wisdom. But this commendable example, from 
 various causes, is too often lost sight of by the American 
 breeder, and will presently be alluded to. 
 
 The first point appertaining to locality which will be con- 
 sidered, is 
 
 The soil most suitable for the sheep is a dry one. It is 
 emphatically an upland animal, and loves the short and 
 varied herbage of hill and mountain slopes, provided the soil 
 is not poachy from an excess of moisture. To no other do- 
 mestic quadruped is water more repugnant, unless when ne- 
 cessary to lave its thirst, as will be seen in its aversion to 
 crossing streams, and always selecting the driest points for 
 feeding and rest. Whether it is thus, because it is endowed 
 with the instinctive knowledge, that the presence of too 
 much moisture in a soil engenders diseases too fatal to it, 
 cannot conclusively be determined. But there is strong 
 presumptive evidence that it is so, from the fact that this in- 
 telligent principle abounds in all the brute creation to that 
 degree, when free from the restraints of man, which induces 
 the formation of such habits only as conduce for the most 
 part to their welfare and safety. 
 , The chalky districts of England, on which so large a por- 
 tion of the Down sheep are fed, causes a harsh and inelas- 
 tic feeling of their wool, as has already been remarked in 
 a former part of the work. Blacklock says — " Soil, also, 
 has much influence on the pliability of the wool. Chalky 
 lands, which are so notorious for injuring the fleece, are 
 supposed to act in the manner of a corrosive, but the correct 
 explanation is, not that the chalky particles attack the fibre in 
 .a direct way, but that they render it brittle, by absorbing the 
 
 17 
 
194 MANAGEMENT OP SHEEr. 
 
 oily moisture with which it is naturally imbued. More- 
 over, the plants growing in such situations cannot but be in- 
 jurious to sheep, owing to their impregnation, though a 
 slight one, with calcareous matter ; for grooms know well 
 how soon a horse's coat becomes disordered by the frequent 
 use of hard or well water, and prefer, therefore, the river for 
 their steeds." 
 
 His last remark is true, and is worthy of much consider- 
 ation with the wool-grower. By careful observation and 
 comparison, it will be found that where sheep are fed on 
 limestone soils, and, consequently, the water hard, the wool 
 from them does not possess that peculiar softness, as that 
 from sheep of the same stock kept on lands deprived of cal- 
 careous matter, and the water soft. Exceptions, however, 
 to this exist, if the herbage materially differs of the respec- 
 tive localities, as for instance, if in the latter it is very lux- 
 uriant, and coarse, and the former short, and abounding in 
 aromatic plants. 
 
 The presence of too much moisture in soils being a para- 
 mount objection, other than very chalky ones, none are 
 wholly exceptionable for the purposes of sheep culture but 
 those of the opposite extreme, viz. — too dry, from their po- 
 rosity. This is the case in nearly all sections where sand 
 greatly predominates ; and is thus, to a considerable extent, 
 south of the Middle States, in light loams, from exposure to 
 too much heat. That soil, to furnish a uniform supply of 
 pasture, should have a due admixture of clay, to cause such 
 a degree of adhesiveness as will prevent the herbage, du- 
 ring the summer months, from withering, by drought. Too 
 much sand in a soil is a fatal objection to sheep culture 
 wherever it is found, and especially so in the South and 
 Southwestern States, as nothing contributes so much, not 
 only to perfect the several properties of wool, but early ma- 
 turity and perfection of carcase, as a uniform and plentiful 
 supply of food at all seasons ; and this a soil too porous can- 
 not be expected to furnish during the warm parts of the year, 
 scarcely in any section of the United States. 
 
 The next essential thing connected with locality, is 
 
 HERBAGE. 
 
 There is nothing beyond this in importance to the sheep- 
 breeder, as from the quality and quantity of the herbage 
 produced on his lands necessarily, in a measure, influences 
 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 195 
 
 his choice of breeds, and determines the number he caa 
 keep. 
 
 The question has been conckisively settled, that food ex- 
 erts a more immediate and radical influence upon the car- 
 case, and especially so upon the fleece, than any other 
 known circumstance, which is confirmed by every sheep his- 
 torian. Mr. Youatt states the following : " Pasture has a 
 far greater influence than climate on the fineness of the 
 fleece. The staple of the wool, like every other part of the 
 sheep, must increase in length or in bulk when the animal 
 has a superabundance of nutriment ; and, on the other hand, 
 the secretion which forms the wool must decrease like every 
 other, when sufficient nourishment is not afforded. 
 
 " When little cold has been experienced in the winter, 
 and vegetation has been scarcely checked, the sheep yields 
 an abundant crop of wool, but the fleece is perceptibly 
 coarser, as well as heavier. When the frost has been severe, 
 and the ground long covered with snow — if the flock has been 
 fairly supplied with nutriment, although the fleece may have 
 lost a little in weight, it will have acquired a superior degree 
 of fineness, and a proportional increase of value. Should, 
 however, the sheep have been neglected and starved during 
 this prolongation of cold weather, the fleece as well as car- 
 case is thinner, and although it may have preserved its 
 smallness of filament, it has lost in weight, and strength, 
 and usefulness." 
 
 There can be no doubt that in Great Britain wool has 
 materially changed its character since the introduction of 
 artificial food, and the adoption of the forcing system. Mr. 
 Nottage stales,* of the Western Down sheep, " that he used 
 to get one-eighth part of the finest English wool from each 
 fleece ; but that now the quantity is so small he does not 
 throw it out ; he does not set a basket for it at all." Mr. 
 SutclifTe says, that — " Thirty years ago there was, in some 
 South Down flocks, nearly as good wool grown, as the fine 
 German that now comes into the country." Mr. Varley 
 adds, that " he used to throw his wool extremely high to the 
 sort — very good to the sort — but he found that the qualities 
 generally were getting so low, that if he continued that sort 
 of practice, he should have been looking into two of his best 
 bins without finding a bit of wool in them." Mr. Fison 
 
 * Testimony before a conunittee of Parliament. 
 
196 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 States of the Norfolk sheep, that "in 1780, 420 lbs. of 
 clothing wool grown in Norfolk would produce 200 lbs. 
 prime — in 1828, it would produce only 14 lbs." These are 
 certainly convincing proofs of the effect of high keep. 
 
 Dr. Parry, an English writer on sheep, and distinguished 
 as a patron of the Merino, says — " The fineness of a sheep's 
 fleece of a given breed is, within certain limits, inversely as 
 its fatness, and perhaps also as the quickness with which it 
 grows fat. A sheep which is fat has usually comparatively 
 coarse wool, and one which is lean, either from the want of 
 food or disease, has the finest wool ; and the very same 
 sheep may at difierent times, according to these circum- 
 stances, have fleeces of all the intermediate qualities from 
 extreme fineness to comparative coarseness."* 
 
 The facts and deductions set forth in the foregoing ex- 
 tracts are applicable wherever sheep are kept, as may be 
 seen manifested in very many flocks which have been re- 
 moved from the old States, to the prairies of the West. A 
 large, and intelligent Avool-growerf of Washington, Penn., 
 who with others has kindly favored the writer with his 
 course of management, after alluding to the effect of climate 
 upon the fleece, says, " Much also, in my opinion, depends 
 on the soil ; high, poor lands will produce better wool than 
 rich low lands. I sent a flock a few years since to Warren 
 County, Illinois, of about our latitude, and after three years' 
 experience I scarcely knew my own wool ; the quantity of 
 fleece and size of the sheep have increased, but the wool 
 has not retained its fineness. This no doubt arises from 
 the pasturage ; they become very fat in summer, which in- 
 creases the harshness of the wool and destroys that delicate 
 texture it has in the more eastern and high lands." 
 
 But the effect of rich keep is not peculiar to the prairies ; 
 and therefore forms no objection to them for wool culture, 
 simply because there is a decidence in fineness, since the 
 carcase is enlarged and with it the quantity of wool, the fil- 
 ament or fibre made stronger, as, also, the fabric from which 
 
 * Columella, whose sheep were cultivated principally for their fleece, 
 mentions the hungry lands about Parma and Modena, as feeding the most 
 valuable sheep ; and Virgil was perfectly aware of the influence of lux- 
 uriant pasture in giving coarseness to the fleece when he warns against 
 the " pabula Imta :" 
 
 " Nor in too rank a pasture let them live." 
 t John H. Ewing, Esq. 
 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 197 
 
 it is made. But it is not now the business of the writer to 
 discuss the policy of removing tlie linest breeds to the prai- 
 ries ; sufficient for him is it to make known tlie result from 
 ordinary to high keep, and that tire effect everywhere is 
 precisely the same where experiments have been made. 
 It may, however, be remarked, that the cheap uplands, not 
 easily made arable for general agricultural purposes, will 
 eventually be occupied for the cultivation of the tinest wool, 
 simply because they are best suited to the object. It is on 
 these localities the Saxon and Merino can be maintained in 
 healthy store order, and beyond this nothing more is requi- 
 red. On the other hand, the rich valley lands will be in re- 
 quisition to till our granaries, and large districts of the prai- 
 ries, unneeded for this purpose, will grow the medium and 
 coarser wools, of which, owing to the competition of the ex- 
 treme fine qualities of Germany and other large portions of 
 Europe, no redundancy can be produced, for very many 
 years at least, to over supply the wants of the American 
 manufacturer.* 
 
 No other domestic animal is known to manifest that fond- 
 ness for variety of herbage equal to the sheep. 
 
 Blacklock, after properly rebuking the English breeders 
 for not providing a greater allowance of straw or like mate- 
 rials to mix with their turnip feeding, proceeds to say — " We 
 find, from a perusal of the works of travellers, and from the 
 anatomical peculiarities of the sheep, that it is fitted for res- 
 idence in countries precipitous in surface, and scantily sup- 
 plied with herbage ; consequently, it must range over a vast 
 extent of ground for a subsistence, and its food must, owing 
 to the varied features of the country, consist, not of one or a 
 few plants, but of a most extensive mixture of herbage. Ex- 
 periment also points out that the deductions from these ob- 
 servations are correct. Sheep, in fact, consume a greater 
 number of plants than any other domestic animal. Linnaeus, 
 in examining into this subject, found, by oifering fresh plants 
 to such animals, in the ordinary mode of feeding, that horses 
 ate 262 species, and refused 212 ; cattle ate 276 species, 
 and refused 218 ; while sheep took 387 species, and only 
 refused 141. We find, too, great difficulty in preventing 
 sheep from springing over the dykes and hedges that we 
 place as boundaries to their rambling habits, yet how seldom 
 
 * For further remarks, see Sheep of the United States. 
 17* 
 
198 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 do we see the true cause of their determination to set them 
 at defiance. We may partly account for it by considering 
 their analogy to the goat, and their propensity to scale rug- 
 ged eminences ; but I think these movements rather indicate 
 an anxiety to change a pasture already exhausted of variety, 
 for fresh fields, and herbage abounding in that miscellaneous 
 provision which nature apparently reckons essential for them. 
 Shepherds own as much, and will tell you that frequent 
 change of pasture is the soul of sheep husbandry. ^^ 
 
 In explanation of the philosophy of variety of food, an 
 English author* briefly remarks, — " It is also well worthy 
 of remark, that various herbaceous plants which spring up 
 among others that are esculent, yet are rejected by cattle 
 when offered alone, give a higher relish and even salubrity 
 to the fodder with which they are intermixed. As man 
 cannot live on tasteless, unmixed flour alone, so neither can 
 cattle in general be so thrifty by mere grass, without the ad- 
 dition of various plants in themselves too acid, bitter, salt, or 
 narcotic to be eaten alone. Spices and a portion of animal 
 food supply us with the requisite stimulus or additional nu- 
 triment, as the ranunculus tribes, and many others, seasoa 
 the pasturage and fodder of cattle." 
 
 In reviewing the premises set forth appertaining to local- 
 ities, with a view to further practical conclusions and com- 
 ments, it is manifest in the first place, that the sheep cultu- 
 rist must beware of soils too wet, and, consequently, poachy. 
 Lands of this character are found quite to as great an extent, 
 indeed more so, on mountain declivities as in valleys ; it 
 therefore" is clearly to the interest of those in possession 
 of such, if they contemplate embarking in sheep hus- 
 bandry, to have them made as dry as possible, by drain- 
 age, before they are stocked. If the adoption of this 
 course does not succeed (as is often the case from being 
 " springy"), they should be abandoned for sheep culture, and 
 converted to dairy or other purposes. If persisted in, the 
 owner may expect those consequences which are inevitable, 
 namely, foot-rot and other diseases incidental to such local- 
 ities.! 
 
 It will also have been seen, that the short and yet nutri- 
 tious hebrage of uplands is best adapted to the Merino and 
 Saxon varieties, as being most conservative of those peculiar 
 
 * Sir J. E. Smith. t See Liver and Foot-rot. 
 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 199 
 
 properties of their wool which adaptates it to the manufacture 
 of the finest and softest fabrics ; but on the other hand, if 
 these breeds are removed to rich pastures, these vahiable 
 quaUties of the fleece become in a measure deteriorated. 
 This is unquestionably true if the removal is permanent, but 
 will prove in nowise injurious if a change is made from up- 
 land to valley herbage at short and frequent intervals. In- 
 deed, this is highly proper, as that variety of food, so con- 
 ducive to the health and thrift of the animal, is thereby af- 
 forded. 
 
 From old or natural to the cultivated grasses, alternately 
 once a week or fortnight, the flock-master will learn, from 
 observation, suits well the inclinations of sheep. In keeping 
 with this, they should be allowed occasionally the range of 
 open wood-lands, to brouse upon forest shoots, the slight 
 acidity of which is much to their liking. 
 
 A further argument in favor of frequent change of pasture, 
 is the fact that if sheep are confined too long on one enclo- 
 sure, no matter how good the feed may be, it becomes taint- 
 ed by their constant wanderings over it ; and hence, from 
 their nice habits and extraordinary keenness of smell, will 
 neglect it. When the flock is seen nosing here and there 
 without eating contentedly, lose no time in removing them, 
 even if the pasture to which they are taken is shorter and 
 less abundant. It will be fresh and untainted, which is al- 
 ways reason enough for the change. 
 
 Connected with frequent shiftings of their pasture, is the 
 necessity of small enclosures. This is well understood to 
 be the right policy in England, and, where feasible, is rigidly 
 adhered to. " In an enclosed country sheep generally do 
 best when they are separated into small parcels ; they feed 
 more quietly, and they waste less. When as many sheep 
 are put upon a fair-sized pasture as it will properly keep, 
 they will be cleared oft' for market considerably earlier than 
 if they were put in large numbers on extensive grounds. 
 Grass land, in small divisions, will keep and fatten many 
 more sheep than when they are of a greater extent."* 
 Some of the writer's fields are large, but mostly from ten to 
 fifteen acres — and he has learned the fact that 100 sheep 
 will do better on twenty-five acres if divided, than on thirty 
 acres with no division. 
 
 * Farmer's Series. 
 
200 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 There are several incidental duties to notice when chang- 
 ing sheep from one pasture to another, or removing them 
 for any purpose, namely — ^where gates are not provided, to 
 take out three or four of the lower bars. It is quite common 
 to drop only one end of them ; and if an hundred or more 
 sheep are to pass through, they lose their good manners and 
 patience, and rush with such impetuosity that the weaker ones 
 are frequently thrown down and injured, as, also, liable to 
 have their feet caught in the bars, and legs thereby broken. 
 This is of still more consequence, if the flock consists of 
 ewes and young lambs. 
 
 Again : when flocks of this description are changed, the 
 master should go thoroughly around the field to see that all 
 the lambs are aroused, as, when quite young, they sleep 
 much in the daytime, and therefore are liable to be left. 
 The better course is, not to remove them beyond an adjoin- 
 ing lot if possible, and still better, until after shearing to leave 
 the communications open to change themselves at pleasure 
 As has been before observed, this obviates all confusion and 
 trouble. 
 
 Before proceeding to enumerate the various grasses, and 
 detail their relative proportion of nutritive properties, it will 
 perhaps be well to recall the introductory observations to the 
 present chapter, respecting the appropriate localities of the 
 difl'erent breeds of sheep in Great Britain, intended as hints 
 to the American breeder. 
 
 It is always of paramount importance to adaptate the breed 
 to the quantity of feed the particular locality on which they 
 are placed is capable of furnishing. But, in this and other 
 States, this consideration hitherto, in very many instances, 
 has been lost sight of. The American farmer hears of the 
 amazing size, weight of carcase and fleece of some of the 
 English breeds, and makes undue haste to purchase, in some 
 instances without previously knowing whether their wool is 
 suitable for felting or combing purposes, and without duly 
 considering the fact that the relative quantity of food sheep 
 consume is in the ratio of their size. The herbage of his 
 farm is of the upland character, or their situation is too much 
 exposed to cold, or, on the principle that a " sheep is a 
 sheep," he stints them to the quantity of feed which is capa- 
 ble of supporting a similar number of the smaller breeds ; 
 and from one or more of these causes, his expectations are 
 disappointed, and he abandons them with execrations. This 
 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 201 
 
 has arisen from placing them on too low keep — the locality- 
 was not adapted to them, because the soil was not capable 
 of furnishing that rich and abundant herbage requisite to 
 support and fatten such large animals. He was not aware 
 that the profits of the English breeds must be looked to from 
 the carcase and not so much from the fleece ; and therefore, 
 to bring around quick and remunerating returns, that they 
 required large and continuous supplies of succulent food 
 from the start. One of the grand improvements effected in 
 the English mutton sheep, is an earlier maturity, in order 
 that they may be cleared off" to the butcher in the shortest 
 time ; but to accomplish this the English breeder takes spe- 
 cial care not to place the famed Leicester, Cotswold, or Lin- 
 coln breeds on the stinted feed of mountain sides, but in such 
 situations where ample provision is found for full feed and 
 quick fattening. In such localities as are near to a market 
 where fine fatted mutton is appreciated and paid for accord- 
 ingly, the heavy British breeds will be found profitable ; un- 
 der other circumstances, the Merino, Saxon, and grades of 
 these varieties will bring the largest returns of profit to the 
 American sheep culturist. 
 
 Connected with the general observations of the present 
 chapter, is the consideration of the various grasses, with the 
 amount of nutriment they respectively afford. The following 
 summary was compiled by Mr. Youatt from Sir Humphrey 
 Davy's distinguished work on Agricultural Chemistry. Their 
 times of flowering differ not essentially in this country and 
 England, and in this order they will be mentioned. 
 
 The SwEET-scENTAD Vernal Grass [Anthoxanthum 
 odoratum) is found on almost every kind of soil, and is a 
 true, permanent pasture grass for general purposes, and for 
 early appearance ; but it is not liked by sheep, who will 
 scarcely touch it if there are any white clover or meadow 
 foxtail. 
 
 Meadow Foxtail Grass [Alopecurus prate7isis). This 
 flowers about May 20, and the seeds are ripened about June 
 24. On a clayey, loamy soil, at the time of flowering, will 
 yield about one and a half tons to the acre (in this country), 
 every half pound yielding 11-4 drachms of nutritive matter. 
 The aftermath affords 2 drachms of nutritive matter from 
 every half pound. Sheep are fond of this grass during May 
 and June. 
 
 Short Blue Meadow Grass (Poa Cmrulea), common 
 
202 IVIANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 in the drier parts of peaty meadows ; nutritious, but not 
 sufficiently productive for the purposes of hay. Sheep and 
 cattle are exceedingly fond of it. 
 
 Rough-stalked Meadow Grass {Poa trivalis). In 
 rich, moist soils, and sheltered situations, it is a highly valu- 
 able grass ; but on high and exposed ground its produce is 
 inconsiderable. It flowers about the middle of June, and 
 seed ripens July 10. It is highly nutritive, and sheep are 
 exceedingly fond of it. The nutritive matter is, at seed time, 
 5 1-2 drachms to the pound. Its superior value when fully 
 ripe is very striking, and should not be forgotten. 
 
 Kentucky Blue Grass, June Grass, Spear Grass, &c. 
 (Poa pratense), supposed to be indigenous to this country. 
 It is one of the most nutritive of grasses, either for pasture 
 or hay ; and on rich soils, particularly those of a calcareous 
 nature, is one of the most valuable that can be cultivated. It 
 is this variety which gives name to the far-famed '' blue grass''' 
 pastures of l<!entucky, and the fertile valleys of Ohio. 
 
 Sheep's Fescue {^Festuca ovina). Flowers about June 25, 
 and the seeds ripen about July 10. The produce is com- 
 paratively small, and the proportion of nutriment is not more 
 than 3 drachms to the pound ; but sheep are exceedingly 
 fond of it. Linnaeus affirms that sheep have no relish for 
 hills and heaths that are destitute of this grass. Sheep are 
 so fond of it, they thrive wherever it is found. 
 
 Cock's Foot, or Orchard Grass [Dactylis glomerata). 
 This is an exceedingly productive and nutritive grass ; af- 
 fording in the flowering time 5, and when the seeds are ripe, 
 7 drachms to the pound of nutritive matter. The leaves 
 of the aftermath are very succulent. It is valuable for per- 
 manent pasture, and sheep eat it very readily. 
 
 Welsh Fescue {Festuca Cambrica). The sheep are as 
 fond of it as of the common sheep's fescue, while it is more 
 productive and succulent. It is most valuable when the 
 seeds are ripe. 
 
 Narrow-leaved Meadow Grass (Poa angustifolia). 
 Flowers at the end of June ; and the seed perfect at the end 
 of July. On account of its early and rapid growth, it is very 
 valuable for permanent pasture, and sheep like it. 
 
 Hard Fescue [Festuca duriuscula). This grass is most 
 prevalent on light rich soils, but is always found in the best 
 natural pastures, where the soil is retentive. It is one of 
 the best of the finer or dwarf-growing grasses ; and is most 
 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT, 203 
 
 valuable for the feeding of sheep. It flowers about the be- 
 ginning of July, and at this time it afibrds 7 drachms of nu- 
 tritive matter to the pound. 
 
 Meadow Fescue Grass [Festuca pratensis). It con- 
 stitutes a very considerable portion of the herbage of all rich 
 natural pastures, and makes excellent hay. It is much liked 
 by cattle, but sheep comparatively neglect it. At flowering 
 time it yields about 3-4 of a ton per acre, and affords 9 
 drachms to the pound of nutritive matter. 
 
 Rye Grass [Lolium percnne). Mr. Sinclair says of 
 this grass : " Sheep eat it when it is in the earliest stage of 
 its growth, in preference to most others ; but after the seed 
 approaches towards perfection, they leave it for almost any 
 other kind. A field in the park at Woburn was laid down 
 in two equal parts, one part with rye grass and white clover, 
 and the other part with cock's foot and red clover. From 
 the spring until midsummer the sheep kept almost constant- 
 ly on the rye grass, but after that they left it and adhered 
 with equal constancy to the cock's foot during the remainder 
 of the season." This grass is of almost equal value at the 
 flowering and seed season — the latter at the end of July. 
 It may, however, be objected to, as it exhausts the soil. 
 
 Fertile Meadow Grass [Poa fertilis). In early growth, 
 the proportion of nutritive matter, and the nutritive quality 
 of the latter math, this grass will yield to ie\y. It continues 
 to send forth a succession of flowering culms until the frost 
 arrests their growth. It is therefore an excellent meadow 
 grass combined with others. 
 
 Meadow Cat's-tail, or Timothy Grass [Phleum pra- 
 tense). This is of much value, for permanent pasture, mixed 
 with other grasses, on account of its early herbage, its great 
 productiveness, and the superior proportion of nutritive mat- 
 ter which it contains. At a little before the seed is ripe, 
 when it should be cut, it affbrds no less than 11 1-2 drachms 
 of nutritive substance to the pound. It is most useful for 
 sheep in the form of hay. 
 
 Mr. Youatt proceeds no farther than the above, except the 
 mention of some of the artificial grasses, such as tares and 
 the several varieties of vetches ; but very many years must 
 elapse, before necessity will require their culture in this 
 country. 
 
 Of the Clovers, the most valuable variety for general pur- 
 poses is the common red clover (TrifoUum pratense). Sheep, 
 
204 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 however, eat it sparingly before the first flowering, if any of 
 the natural grasses abound in the same field. But the after- 
 math or rowen they eat greedily, and is exceedingly nutri- 
 tious to all domestic animals. Clover will be alluded to 
 again hereafter, and the comparative quantity of nutriment it 
 affords, mentioned. 
 
 White Clover {Trifolium repens). This grows spon- 
 taneously on dry uplands, after they have been manured with 
 gypsum or with bog marl. It is a very sweet grass for 
 pasture, but not productive. Sheep eat it readily when 
 mixed with other varieties, and proves salubrious to them. 
 
 But, of the various natural grasses common to the United 
 States, none appear to be so much relished by sheep, or 
 afford a greater degree of nutriment, than the blue or poa pre- 
 tense and timothy grasses. Unlike some of the others, sheep 
 consume these with avidity from the earliest to the latest 
 period of the pasturage season. A tolerably well-conducted 
 experiment, made several years since, satisfied the writer 
 that the sheep-grower must rely much on timothy, as being 
 for pasture and hay combined, unsurpassed by all others. 
 
 SHADE TREES. 
 
 For the purposes of adornment and utility, shade trees are 
 not sufficiently appreciated by the American husbandman. 
 To sheep, particularly just after shearing, they are pecu- 
 liarly grateful ; and, during the warm season, are indispensa- 
 bly necessary to promote thrift, inasmuch as they contribute 
 to greater quietness. If the axe has been ruthlessly laid to 
 the roots of those which have been natural tenants of the 
 farm, their places should be supplied by others. The com- 
 mon maple, linden, and sycamore will be found valuable for 
 this purpose. A few of the second shoots of forest clear- 
 ings, which grow with great rapidity, and consequently, in 
 a few years, afford an abundant shade, should be left, and 
 the most thrifty ones selected for this purpose. If the flock- 
 master is careful in his observations, he will learn that sheep 
 which have had the benefit of woods to retire to during the 
 heat of the day, will be in better condition in the fall, than 
 others deprived of such grateful retreats. 
 
 Water is not deemed so absolutely necessary for sheep as 
 other domestic animals, since their instincts lead them to 
 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 205 
 
 graze early in the morning, before the dew evaporates, and 
 again for a while in the evening, when the temperature of 
 the season is warmest. In the hot month of August, how- 
 ever, when the feed is less succulent, they appear eager for 
 it, and should be gratified, if possible. But the lambs, when 
 suckling, will do better if the mothers have access to it at 
 all times. Therefore, since every pasture is not supplied 
 with water, the master should appropriate those which con- 
 tain it to his breed ewes. It should be considered, that the 
 milk secretions cannot be so abundant if the ewe suffers too 
 much from thirst, nor in any wise do as well. 
 
 WEANING LAMBS. 
 
 This period necessarily varies somewhat with locality, 
 the particular breed, the time of parturition, and the disposi- 
 tion afterwards to be made of the lambs. 
 
 The time usually allotted for the lamb to suckle is about 
 four months, and if the weaning takes place about Septem- 
 ber 1st, which is about the common period in the Eastern 
 and Middle States, it supposes the birth to have been in the 
 early part of May. If the lambs are of the mutton breed, a 
 longer or shorter time is taken, depending on the condition 
 they are in for the butcher. But with sheep kept for wool 
 culture, in about this latitude, weaning should not be delay- 
 ed beyond August 25th, or at most a few days after. As 
 early as this is quite necessary, as the time is full short for 
 the ewes to recover their wonted order for renewed gesta- 
 tion, and pass with safety through the rigorous winters inci- 
 dent to our climate. 
 
 The first thing to be attended to, is to remove the lambs 
 and the ewes as far as possible from each other. There 
 will be plenty of confusion and unhappiness for a while, and 
 which would be prolonged until it was injurious both to the 
 mother and the offspring, if they were able to hear each 
 other's bleating. The lambs should be placed on better pas- 
 ture than that to which they had been accustomed, in order 
 to compensate for the loss of the mother's milk. But it 
 must not be too luxuriant, otherwise, they overgorge them- 
 selves, and acute diseases in some form will follow. From 
 this cause flock-masters often complain of losing their lambs 
 soon after weaning, which might, however, have been pre- 
 vented, if they had previously been trained to eat salt, 
 
 18 
 
206 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 which, when given freely, operates much to counteract 
 hoove, and some other diseases of the digestive organs. 
 When lambs are first placed on clover rowen, let them have 
 all the salt they will eat. If this is done, the gases 
 evolved, instead of acting as in cases of hoove, will pass 
 naturally through the intestines. This is applicable to 
 every class of sheep, and the course recommended is found- 
 ed upon the writer's experience. 
 
 When the weaning takes place, let one or two tame sheep 
 be put with them, to subdue their wildness, learn them to 
 eat salt, and aid in conducting them through bars for change 
 of pasture. 
 
 A contrary course must be adopted with the ewes, in ref- 
 erence to their pasture, for a week or more after weaning. 
 It can scarcely be too poor ; otherwise, it is frequently fol- 
 lowed by great distension of their udders, and inflammation 
 or garget. Under any circumstances they should be watch- 
 ed, and if this is likely to occur with any of the flock, they 
 should be separated and milked for a day or two, and during 
 this time fed with hay or other dry food. After the lapse 
 of a week or more, the ewes should be placed on such pas- 
 ture as will hasten their return in the most speedy time to 
 good condition. Should there be a few, which is often the 
 caie, much below the order of the majority of the flock, they 
 should be taken out, and put on better keep than the others. 
 The loss of valuable ewes from poverty during the winter, 
 may be traced frequently to a neglect of this. This admo- 
 nition is applicable also to the lambs. 
 
 EAR-MARKING. 
 
 The duty devolves on the flock-master, at the time of 
 weaning, to mark the ears of his lambs, and putting the ini- 
 tials of his name on their bodies, if deemed necessary. 
 One, or both, is quite indispensable, as, from their anxiety 
 to get to the mothers immediately after their separation, they 
 will creep through fences, in places, too, where it would not 
 be supposed possible, and stray. This is quite likely to 
 happen, if placed in enclosures adjoining the road in which 
 sheep are permitted to run. It is quite common to crop one 
 of the ears, which is not proper, as it gives the sheep an un- 
 natural and ungainly appearance. It requires no special in- 
 genuity to devise a mark which will leave the length of the 
 ears entire. 
 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 207 
 
 WHEAT STUBBLE. 
 
 Permitting sheep to run on ungleaned wheat stubble is 
 exceedingly dangerous, and should be avoided. This arises 
 from the inflammatory nature of wheat, if eaten in too large 
 quantities by herbivorous animals. Swine should always 
 precede sheep, unless the field is small, and the flock a large 
 one. Even under these circumstances it will conduce to 
 greater safety, if the sheep are full salted at the time, and light- 
 ly for one or two days following. There is no danger to be 
 apprehended by allowing sheep to glean other stubble. The 
 lambs and least fleshy portions of the flock should have the 
 run of them. 
 
 OVERSTOCKING. 
 
 Said a foreigner to the writer, " There are two important 
 errors committed by American agriculturists — they overdo, 
 and underdo ; the former consisting in cultivating too much 
 land, and overstocking, — and the latter in the slovenly per- 
 formance of their work, and heedless management of their an- 
 imals." There is no want of sagacity or truth in these as- 
 sertions, however unpalatable they may be. If overstocking 
 is an " overdoing," few of us can escape the charge, for it is 
 confessedly quite too common an error ; and to this cause, 
 perhaps, more than any other, the passing traveller may at- 
 tribute the emaciated carcases of sheep during the winter 
 which he sees around the dwellings of numerous farmers. 
 Too many of us imagine that sheep can be supported on little 
 or nothing ; while others suppose the larger the number they 
 can assemble on their premises, the greater, consequently, must 
 be the returns of profit, not being sensible of the fact that 100 
 sheep well fed and well managed are more lucrative than the 
 addition of one quarter more, if ill fed and otherwise indiffer- 
 ently provided. Charity should be extended to the inexperi- 
 enced under such circumstances, but withheld from those 
 who pertinaciously cling from year to year to this unprofita- 
 ble, and it may justly be added, inhumane policy. The well- 
 ordered husbandman will gather wisdom from seeing his er- 
 rors ; but the " overdoing" and " underdoing" not from his, un- 
 til gradual reduction to poverty make them too tangible lon- 
 ger to escape his observation. 
 
 The number of acres required for the annual support of 
 one hundred sheep of the Merino and Saxon varieties, or 
 
208 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 high grades of these, it is scarcely necessary to say, depends 
 entirely on the quantity of feed the soil is capable of furnish- 
 ing. If the writer may judge from his own experience and 
 of the many with whom he has corresponded, the average 
 may be stated at thirty-five acres. One flock-master made 
 provision, last season, by the aid of some straw and chaflf 
 fed through the winter for the above number, from off" twenty- 
 five acres. But his locality is of the fertile region of West- 
 ern New York, and his example therefore will not be safe 
 generally to follow, without the hazard of incurring the charge 
 of " overdoing." In considering his success, the straw and 
 chaff" must be taken into view, which of course grew not on 
 the area of land stated. 
 
 BAD POLICY IN KEEPING SHEEP TOO LONG ON PASTURE 
 ALONE, LATE IN THE FALL. 
 
 It is the practice of a large majority of flock-masters to 
 allow their sheep to run upon the fields in the fall, as long 
 as the ground is uncovered with snow, without the aid of a 
 little hay or grain. This is bad management, and cannot be 
 too strongly condemned. The grass, it is well known, after 
 repeated freezing, loses much of its virtue to nourish, and 
 therefore fails to keep up good condition, unless accompanied 
 with a modicum of hay, or grain. The diminution of flesh 
 may not be very apparent, yet nothing is more certain than 
 that the sheep are losing their stamina. If some are expos- 
 tulated with on this subject, they reply, " We do off"er hay, 
 but the sheep refuse to eat it ;" but on further investigation, 
 it proves to be the tops of their stacks, somethimg not worthy 
 the name of hay, and therefore no wonder the sheep rejected 
 it, preferring the decaying grass to such trash. It would 
 not have been thus, if it had been barn hay ; which is an 
 item proving the great utility of barns to the flock-master. 
 Many sheep are sent out of this " breathing world before their 
 time ;" and if their ghosts were permitted to return and un- 
 fold the cause, they would shake their woolly locks, and say, 
 " We did it," by starvation late in the fall. Let us reform in 
 tliis matter altogether. 
 
 SORTING, PREPARATORY TO MINTER. 
 
 This very obvious and essential duty is strangely unheed- 
 ed, yet nothing scarcely is more important. To put the 
 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 209 
 
 weak with the strong, spring lambs with adults, or wethers 
 with breeding ewes, should always be avoided. 
 
 The writer, about the 10th of November, assembles his 
 lambs, and classifies them as to condition and size, and herds 
 them in flocks of about one hundred each. 
 
 The older sheep are already divided with respect to sex, 
 as he never permits wethers and ewes to run together, at 
 least not after their first shearing. Of these, 100 constitute a 
 flock. 
 
 The least fleshy are selected, and, from this time onward, 
 receive attentions accordingly. 
 
 Wethers, designed to be turned off the following summer, 
 are thrown out, and fed a little grain daily, as these are pro- 
 vided through the winter mostly with oat or wheat straw, 
 with an allowance of grain ; therefore, early graining is some- 
 what necessary. 
 
 The breeding ewes should be sorted with great care ; but 
 this duty will be found adverted to in the chapter on Breed- 
 ing. 
 
 An early preparation for winter, in this latitude, is quite 
 indispensable ; otherwise, from the vicissitudes of the cli- 
 mate, a premature depth of snow will find the flocks unsort- 
 ed and many little duties undischarged. After the 1st of 
 November, the master should be speedy in making all repairs 
 necessary about his barns, yards, &c., for the reception of 
 the flocks into their respective quarters. It is better to be a 
 few days too early, rather than even a few hours too late. 
 " Ever ready" is the motto of the thrifty and well-ordered 
 flock-master. 
 
 18* 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 WINTER MANAGEMENT 
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS— OBSERVATIONS ON CLIMATE— PRO- 
 TECTION OF SHEEP— PRODUCTION OF ANIMAL, HEAT. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 On reviewing the subject of Summer Management, it will 
 be perceived that the duties of the flock-master are far from 
 being few, and that nothing short of unremitted care is re- 
 quired to ensure that degree of condition and heahh with 
 his sheep, to enable them to withstand the hardships of 
 Northern winters. If it has been thus, it will be well with 
 them, and the truthful adage, " well summered, half wintered" 
 will be verified. On the other hand, if they have not suffi- 
 ciently occupied his thoughts, and have been permitted to 
 " sherk" for themselves ; while the rest of his stock only 
 have eaten of the fat of the pasture, — it will not be so well 
 with them ; and consequently, it will be a vain expectation 
 that, at the proper time, they will make grateful returns for 
 attention and humane treatment which they have not re- 
 ceived. 
 
 But whatever may be the condition of the flock when 
 winter arrives, to carry it through with safety and profit, 
 greater skill and attention will be called in requisition than 
 during any other period of the year, as will be fully demon- 
 strated before the detail of duties involved is concluded. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON CLIMATE. 
 
 Although the influence of temperature upon the sheep has 
 been partially considered in the early part of the work, yet 
 a few additional remarks are deemed necessary, with a view 
 to establish certain premises, from which useful deductions 
 will be drawn, having an important bearing on the duties in- 
 terwoven with winter economy. 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 211 
 
 The history of the breeds with their distinctive peculiari- 
 ties, found dispersed over so large a portion of the world, 
 exhibiting such diversified forms and coverings, naturally 
 excites our wonder, and staggers the belief of a common 
 origin. But this perplexity is easily unravelled. In con- 
 sideration, it would seem, of their great utility to man, na- 
 ture has endowed them with a pliancy of constitution, which 
 accommodates them to every variety of climate, becoming 
 impressed at each transition with some peculiarity suited to 
 their welfare. But where the climate is temperate and 
 equable, the sheep, if long accustomed to it, seems almost to 
 defy our efforts to model it at will ; but whatever the local- 
 ity, if a change is wrought in any important particular, na- 
 ture constantly battles to return to the original point, unless 
 the alteration attempted is in unison or compatible with the 
 temperature and other circumstances which surround it. 
 Thus, if any given breed, distinguished for its compactness 
 of fleece, is transported to a latitude materially warmer than 
 that to which it had been accustomed, nature flies to its aid 
 by relieving it of a portion of its superfluous coat, to prevent 
 the suffering consequent of an oppressive degree of heat. 
 To this may be referred the cause of the annual falling off 
 of the fleece, when unshorn, of the coarser breeds, in nearly 
 all parts of the world, at the approach of summer. There 
 is an exception to this, in the Merino variety, but its fleece 
 becomes thinned by removal into regions too warm, and 
 man's efforts are in vain to counteract it. And thus it is, 
 too, if the heavy British breeds are taken to a climate ma- 
 terially colder than its native, the carcase losing its rotun- 
 dity, unless precautionary measures are adopted to protect 
 them against the cold incident to their new locality ; the 
 fleece, also, is shortened in staple, but proportionally thick- 
 ens, to check the escape of warmth from the body, and 
 thereby guarding against a rapid waste of the system. 
 
 It will be deduced from the foregoing, that plants and ani- 
 mals are analogous, and that however pliant may be the con- 
 stitution of the sheep, there are geographical limits, out of 
 which it does not attain perfection. It is true, the animal 
 propagates in Iceland, and districts within the tropics ; al- 
 though there are certain localities in the last, in which 
 sheep have been taken to from temperate latitudes, and per- 
 ished from the excessive heat of the climate. This was the 
 case in Batavia, as also on the plains of South America, 
 
212 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 near the equator. Extremes of temperature, then, being tin- 
 suited to the animal, the question arises. How does it happen 
 to have spread over so many parts of the world in spite of 
 such extremes 1 Simply for the reason, that when under 
 the dominion of its instincts, and free from the restrictions 
 of man, it will not subject itself to the danger of an ex- 
 treme in anything, for it will not remove to remote points in 
 a single season, and thereby expose itself to sudden changes. 
 A writer happily remarks — " The natural dispersion of all 
 animals is gradual, so that their constitutions are enabled, 
 from the slowness of the transition, to accommodate them- 
 selves, by an alteration in covering and habit, to surrounding 
 circumstances, which would, were the variations abrupt, 
 speedily destroy them. The reason why a race of animals 
 occasionally thrives so well in a country to which it may be 
 removed, appears to lie in its being suited, I may say, acci- 
 dentally, by peculiar conformation, to the temperature to 
 which it is transplanted. There are some happy climates, 
 where, introduce what animals you will, no matter how 
 stunted they are, or how different the degree of warmth 
 may be, the offspring will thrive, proving large and vigor- 
 ous, and every way worthy of being placed at the head of 
 the species. These are, however, cases where the transition 
 is from an extreme heat or cold to a tejnperate one." The 
 writer quotes in corroboration of these views the report of 
 Mr. Dawson, of the Australian Agricultural Company, as 
 follows : " Both the climate and the soil appear by nature 
 to produce fine wool, and fine animals too, even from the 
 worst beginnings. The latter seems a paradox. The exten- 
 sive range afforded to every animal keeps it in good condi- 
 tion, and, perhaps, the natural grasses have more of good in 
 them than their appearance indicates. However this may 
 be, the climate clearly has a wonderfnl effect on the size of 
 all animals, even upon man, who is universally tall here, 
 though born of diminutive parents. From this I am led to 
 believe, that the climate governs chiefly, and thus every 
 breeding animal introduced here will attain a size not known 
 in Europe." 
 
 Notwithstanding sheep are forced to submit to extremes 
 of temperature, there is a happy medium of climate which 
 it delights in, and which greatly disposes it to yield the 
 largest profits, and this is found in the countries of the vine. 
 The western parts of continents also are more congenial to 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 213 
 
 its habits than the eastern ; and the Southern hemisphere 
 than the Northern, for the reason, that in the former situa- 
 tions the temperature is milder and more equable. Degrees 
 of latitude, in reference to temperature, correspond in the 
 ratio of elevation or declination on mountains ; and thus it 
 is that at an altitude on the Cordilleras, under the equator, 
 of from 3,500 to 7,000 feet, sheep propagate scarcely with- 
 out care during the entire year, while at the base, the heat 
 is so excessive they perish. On elevated points, the south- 
 ern side is very much warmer than the northern, as will be 
 seen on the Alps at identical degrees of height, the north 
 aspect presenting the Glacier, and the southern the vine- 
 yard yielding a perfect fruit. 
 
 From the foregoing premises, somewhat incoherently sta- 
 ted for the sake of brevity, as also in consideration of the 
 subject having been heretofore partially treated, the reader 
 will readily deduce, that the temperature of the Eastern and 
 Middle States is not so well suited to the nature of the sheep, 
 as in sections where the climate is more temperate. It will 
 therefore appear, in order to counteract the injurious effects 
 of exposure to the rigors of Northern winters, that shelters 
 are indispensably necessary ; which leads, without further 
 preliminary remarks, to the subject of 
 
 PROTECTION. 
 
 There is nothing appertaining to sheep economy, in the 
 Northern States, more generally neglected than the provision 
 of ample and warm accommodations for shelter, and from no 
 other cause does such large losses annually accrue. It is 
 rigidly practised in all climates corresponding to our own, 
 in Prussia, and throughout all Germany, as well as in Scot- 
 land and the northern parts of England ; and every sheep 
 historian earnestly recommends it. Mr. Youatt frequently 
 alludes to it as a very necessary point of good management, 
 and the Mountain Shepherd's Manual (a Scotch publication) 
 speaks thus : — " Shelter is the first thing to be attended to 
 in the management of sheep. While every good shepherd 
 is decidedly hostile to their being confined, or to their being 
 forced into shelter, whether they wish it or not, it cannot be 
 too strongly recommended to all sheep farmers, to put the 
 means of avoiding the severity of stormy weather within the 
 reach of their flocks at all times." The remarks of Mr. 
 
214 MANAGEMENT OP SHEEP. 
 
 Spooner on the subject, with the examples he adduces, will 
 be quoted hereafter. 
 
 The opponents of shehers assert, without, however, ever 
 having made any experiments to decide positively, that they 
 tend to make sheep tender, induce disease, &c., which is 
 about as reasonable as it would be to contend that man phys- 
 ically degenerates by having a comfortable dwelling to protect 
 him from the cold inseparable from northern climates. But 
 before offering any philosophical reasons to sustain the ques- 
 tion of the necessity of shelters, the writer begs to obtrude 
 his own experience touching this matter, and if more space 
 is occupied than many think necessary, his apology must 
 be found in his belief that nothing is more conducive to the 
 health and thrift of sheep, and, consequently, profit to the 
 flock-master, and which he will endeavor to demonstrate. 
 
 Until within the last ten years, the writer's flocks, like 
 thousands of others at the present time in this and other 
 States, were denied the benefits of shelters ; and the loss, 
 in proportion to the severity of winters, varied from five to 
 ten per cent. The diseases caused by their exposure were 
 scab, pelt-rot, dysentery, and colds, which caused an exces- 
 sive discharge of mucus from the nostrils, while many died 
 from no other cause, apparently, than sheer poverty of con- 
 dition. Since, however, his sheep have been protected, the 
 deaths have not exceeded one and a half per cent, in regard 
 to number, and if comparative value were the standard, it 
 would not be considered of any moment, as the loss has been 
 mostly among diminutive spring lambs — so from bad nursing, 
 and old ewes which, from superiority of fleece or carcase, 
 were retained thus long, to breed from. If this is contrasted 
 with the per centage of loss before the resort to protection, 
 it will readily dispel the delusion that shelters enervate the 
 constitution of sheep, or are in any wise an inducing cause 
 of disease ; for, since protected, no epidemic has prevailed 
 among them, and disease of any kind is rare indeed, and only 
 occurring in individual cases. 
 
 The next strong argument in favor of protection, is the 
 fact that it materially increases the weight of the fleece, as well 
 as improves its properties, which arises from the better con- 
 dition which it is the means of producing. 
 
 All farmers are aware that in fattening swine, or other 
 animals, mildness of temperature is of paramount importance 
 to hasten the process — and why ? The philosophical reason 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT, 215 
 
 will be duly assigned hereafter ; but in common parlance, 
 the answer is, because the comfort of the animal is thereby 
 promoted ; and it will not be denied that this is equally ap- 
 plicable to the sheep. Hence, if the animal will better retain 
 its flesh, or be likely to receive accessions from being shel- 
 tered, because it conduces to greater comfort, it follows that 
 its fleece will be increased proportionally ; for the flesh se- 
 cretions and the wool fluids are derived from the same 
 source ; and any cause which will increase or diminish the 
 one will operate thus on the other. But the following facts 
 will supersede for the present further theorizing : 
 
 The clips of the writer's flock, (which is of the Saxon 
 Merino blood) before sheltering, varied from 2 lbs. 5 oz. to 2 
 lbs. 9 oz. per head, the latter, under the most favorable cir- 
 cumstances, being the maximum. But since then, notwith- 
 standing material advances have been made in fineness, it 
 has averaged 2 lbs. 12 oz., and the last season arose to 3 lbs. 
 2 oz. ; and thus the aggregate amount of increase, within 
 about nine years, exceeds 2000 pounds, which has amply re- 
 imbursed all expenses incident to the construction of barns, 
 shelters, and their appendages, to say nothing of other profits 
 derived from the same cause. 
 
 The additional softness of the fleece, and also evenness 
 and soundness of the fibre, may be traced to the same cause 
 which increases its weight ; for if the cutaneous glands are 
 full and healthy, which follows good condition, greater sup- 
 plies of yolk are imparted to the wool, conferring greater 
 pliability, elasticity, and brilliancy, and, at the same time, 
 promoting greater equality in the growth of the filament. 
 Hence it is that in Spain, Australia, and other countries cor- 
 responding in mildness and equability of climate, the wool 
 of the sheep possesses a degree of softness and uniformity 
 of growth unequalled by any other, which arises, for the 
 most part, from the evenness of the condition of the sheep 
 through the year, and consequently regular supply of yolk, 
 not being checked in its flow at any period by extreme cold. 
 From this cause, the true Spanish, Merino, and Australian, 
 to use the phraseology of manufacturers, " work more kindly" 
 than all other fine wools ; and less wastage follows in the 
 process of cloth making, occasioned by their soundness and 
 toughness. 
 
 Another material source of profit, induced by better con- 
 dition from sheltering, is the increased number of lambs. 
 
216 MANAGEMENT OP SHEEP. 
 
 Very many of the ewes, from their exposure, and in spite 
 of full feeding, were sadly impoverished at the time of yean- 
 ing, and consequently were unable in many instances to fold 
 without assistance. In all such cases, the character of the 
 offspring may easily be conceived ; for, if they lived, they were 
 puny and ill constitutioned, from the deficiency of nutriment 
 afforded by the mothers. It is needless to add, that when 
 winter came it made terrible havoc with these. 
 
 But an entire change came over the ewes after they had 
 experienced the benefits of protection. Rarely mechanical 
 aid is now needed at parturition, the lambs are alike healthy 
 with their dams, and receive a " good start" from the greater 
 amount of nutriment afforded them ; and thus the foundation 
 of all good animals, in all cases, is laid. 
 
 Another source of profit originating from protection, is the 
 saving of provender. 
 
 Facts, the result of thorough experiments, which will 
 hereafter be adduced, satisfactorily confirm this position, al- 
 though the writer regrets that he has none to offer deduced 
 from his own experience. But nevertheless, he is as well 
 persuaded of its truth, as though he had made hundreds of 
 experiments, for it is founded in the very nature of things, 
 and made conclusive by only ordinary observation. Every 
 practical farmer is well aware, that every description of 
 stock will consume more food in severe, or moderately cold 
 weather, than when it is otherwise. Now nature is always 
 exerting herself with everything, from man to the reptile, to 
 promote its physical welfare for the preservation of the prin- 
 ciple of life. Hence when any animal is exposed, or sub- 
 jected to extreme hardship, and our climate is the greatest 
 natural one, it is prompted to partake of greater quantities of 
 food in order to combat, or counteract it ; therefore, inasmuch 
 as sheep, from the severities of our winters, are subjected to 
 more hardship, without protection than with it, the inference 
 is legitimate that they will consume a larger amount of food 
 with a view to their welfare. But further reasoning here 
 will not be necessary, as this position will be again advert- 
 ed to. 
 
 Again, shelter for sheep is a means of making additional 
 manure, which is the mine to which the farmer must look as 
 the main source of his wealth. Indeed, this is his capital 
 stock, and whether it is to be increased or diminished, de- 
 pends wholly on his bad or good management. If the ma- 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 217 
 
 nure is protected from the weather, its virtues are not dissi- 
 pated by the winds ; and, being amassed at a single point, 
 can be distributed when and where it best suits the interest 
 of the husbandman. In Germany, England, and elsewhere 
 in Europe, this matter is deemed of such consequence, it is 
 customary to fold the sheep nightly in convenient places, 
 that their manure may be concentrated, and subsequently 
 deposited where it is most needed. Thus the American 
 wool-grower, if he chooses, can make his flocks efficient 
 auxiliaries to increase the productiveness of his lands, and 
 thereby reap greatly additional profits from his labors. 
 
 What has been advanced in support of the policy of pro- 
 tection, it is apparent, has been with entire reference to pe- 
 cuniary gain ; but does not humanity urge us to its adoption 1 
 If the sheep had not been tamed to man's submission, its in- 
 stincts would not have led it to regions like ours. No, the 
 God of nature would have inotected it from the sufferings 
 inseparable from northern winters, by guiding its wandering 
 steps to warmer climes. Therefore, since man has ap- 
 propriated it to his use, does not the great Dispenser of 
 good require of us that we should deal kindly towards it ? 
 It is, indeed, a religious obligation thus to do, which it would 
 seem none but barbarians would violate. When the storm 
 howls, and bitter cold urges around the " blazing hearth," 
 let us feel happy in the reflection that we have provided the 
 animal, which clothes and warms us, with the means of 
 making its situation alike comfortable with ourselves. 
 
 Before entering into further details of a mere mechanical 
 nature connected with management, it will be proper to il- 
 lustrate the foregoing results by some familiar reference to 
 the principles of chemistry, and which will serve also as a 
 fit prelude to observations on feeding and fatte7iing. 
 
 PRODUCTION OF ANIMAL HEAT. 
 
 Animal heat is produced by means of respiration, the 
 chemical process being carried on in the lungs. 
 
 An extremely subtle fluid pervades all nature denominated 
 caloric, the particles of which have a tendency to repel each 
 other and unite with other substances. This is apparent if 
 we touch a body the temperature of which is lower than that 
 of the hand, caloric passing rapidly from it to the substance, 
 and a sensation of cold is experienced; and, on the contrary, 
 
 19 
 
218 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 if the temperature of the substance is higher, we feel a de- 
 gree of heat from the passage of caloric into the hand. 
 Fire or heat is the derivative of caloric. It is one of those 
 singular phenomena of nature, that caloric exists in two 
 different states, the one in a free or sensible form, the other 
 in a latent or combined form. Tlius two hodies may have 
 apparently the same degree of temperature, yet one contains 
 a larger quantity of caloric than the other, but from its pecu- 
 liar combination with the body, it is not sensible to the touch. 
 For instance, if sulphuric acid and water be mixed, although 
 each fluid may be before cold, a high temperature will sud- 
 denly be effected, and caloric will be evolved. 
 
 In the process of fermentation of malt liquors, the temper- 
 ature is elevated, and carbonic acid is produced, the sub- 
 stance expired by the lungs ; indeed, whenever this is formed, 
 heat is evolved. 
 
 Now heat is produced and supported by the chemical 
 union of two substancces, oxygen and carbon, which cause 
 combustion of wood, coal, and our candles. Carbon is the 
 fuel, not only in ordinary combination, but also in the animal 
 economy ; while oxygen may be regarded ihefire. Carbon 
 is furnislied by the food, whether in man or beast, and if a 
 sufficiency is not taken in to counteract the consuming ten- 
 dency of the oxygen, a gradual waste of the system follows, 
 and life eventually ceases. Now in cold climates the air is 
 de7ise, and in proportion to this is the amount of oxygen in- 
 spired by the lungs, and greater waste of the system would 
 take place were it not counteracted by an increase of appe- 
 tite, and consequently more food is required, especially that 
 which contains within it the largest proportion of carbon. 
 Thus in the icy regions the inhabitants consume largely of 
 oily or fatty substances which consist chiefly of carbon ; 
 while those living in hot climates prefer vegetable diet. So 
 we perceive the functions of the lungs and the stomach sin- 
 gularly agree. In cold weather large fires are necessary to 
 keep up the animal warmth ; otherwise the tissues of the 
 body would be rapidly wasted by the consuming properties 
 of the oxygen. 
 
 Without proceeding further, the above will afford a ready 
 solution of several of the positions under the head oi protec- 
 tion. It will be deduced that, if the equilibrium of the sys- 
 tem in reference to animal heat is deranged, unhealthy ac- 
 tion surely follows. If the sheep is permitted to breathe too 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 219 
 
 dense or cold an atmosphere, the excess of oxygen with 
 which it is surcharged, if the language may be used, be- 
 comes proportionally voracious for the carbon of which it 
 preys on ; and if it meets not with an adequate supply in the 
 food, it flies to the tissues of the body. In this case the 
 equilibrium is overcome — the carbon of the food is not a 
 match for the oxygen, and the consuming fire — for thus it is 
 aptly termed — gradually wastes the system, and life sooner 
 or later terminates in the last stages of exhaustion or impov- 
 erishment. To this may be ascribed what every farmer has 
 borne witness, namely, when extreme cold occurs for a few 
 days together, during its continuance, but more particularly 
 at its subsidence, his stock, if exposed, present a lank, and 
 haggard appearance ; and hence the common saying, " Cold 
 impoverishes animals." Here is the reason at hand, fur- 
 nished by science, why all animals thrive better in temperate 
 latitudes ; as also, why it is proper, if transported to colder 
 ones, the means recommended should be adopted to guard 
 against the waste incident to exposure. If the effects of 
 low temperature can thus be avoided, it follows that the equi- 
 librium will be preserved — the general organization unim- 
 paired, and thus disease will be warded off". Here too is 
 the ready explanation, why the sheep yields a heavier fleece 
 — no larger quantity of carbon being abstracted from the 
 food than is needed for respiration, having portions adequate 
 for nourishing the frame ; and thus the lacteals or absorbents 
 carry through their fructifying channels ample provision to 
 expand and increase dimensions at every point. And thus 
 too we learn, why protection, by modifying the temperature 
 of the air inhaled, sheep will consume less provender, for 
 the reason that less oxygen is imbibed, and consequently a 
 smaller portion of food will supply the requisite quantity of 
 carbon it unites with to engender animal heat through the 
 act of respiration. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 WINTER MANAGEMENT CONTINUED, 
 
 FEEDING— SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES APPLIED— FATTENING. 
 
 FEEDING. 
 
 We are now about to enter a department of winter econo- 
 my of the highest importance, and will require at the outset 
 a brief development of a few fundamental principles, a know- 
 ledge of which is indispensably necessary to correct prac- 
 tice. 
 
 It is a law of nature that nothing is lost or annihilated. 
 In the combustion of wood or straw, the elements which 
 compose them only change their form by assuming a gase- 
 ous character, and thereby become active agents in repro- 
 ducing other bodies of like nature. The majestic tree, 
 springing into existence from the liny acorn or nut, in at- 
 taining its huge bulk, does not produce any new elements ; 
 its growth is derived from the power it possesses to assimi- 
 late that which floats in the atmosphere or exists in the soil. 
 These are the sources of nourishment to plants ; on the 
 other hand, animals derive their sustenance from the food 
 taken into the body, and through the process of digestion 
 converting the nutrient part of the food into flesh and blood. 
 The animal mass, with its various organs, is formed of the 
 constituents of the herbage upon which it feeds. The ex- 
 ercise of animals to obtain subsistence, and for other pur- 
 poses, requires a certain force, to produce which is attended 
 with loss or waste of the system — " the living parts become 
 dead parts, and are at length cast from the system." To 
 counteract this tendency to waste food is required, and when 
 the supply of food and the waste are equal, the weight of 
 the animal is unaltered. 
 
 Food has a twofold purpose to effect : one is to nourish the 
 system, the other afibrds the means by which animal heat i» 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 221 
 
 supported. The temperature of the body is considerably 
 warmer than the surrounding atmosphere, and varies but lit- 
 tle throughout the whole year. The cause of this high tem- 
 perature has already been explained. 
 
 According to the theory of Liebeg, in carnivorous animals 
 the carbon required for the purposes of respiration and 
 warmth, is supplied by the waste of the tissues of the body, 
 which waste is materially greater than in herbivorous ani- 
 mals ; but in the latter the greater proportion is supplied by 
 the food itself. In the carnivora the whole of the food is 
 converted into flesh ; but in the herbivorous species a part 
 only is thus assimilated, other portions being required for 
 animal heat, and the formation of fat. But this will be bet- 
 ter understood by the following analysis of these several sub- 
 stances. Flesh and blood consist of the following elements, 
 subject to some variations, and to the water being removed. 
 To avoid decimals, we will suppose the substance to consist 
 of 10,000 parts. 
 
 Flesh. Blood. 
 
 Carbon - - 5182 - - 5195 
 
 Hydrogen - - 757 - - 717 
 
 Nitrogen - - 1501 - - 1507 
 
 Oxygen - - 2137 - - 2139 
 Ashes - - 423 - - 442 
 
 10,000 10,000 
 
 By comparing the above, it will be perceived that the 
 relative proportions of constituents is very nearly the same, 
 especially those of carbon and nitrogen. These, then, are 
 properly the proportions in which these elements unite in 
 the tissues of the body, and hence nitrogen being a distin- 
 guished element of flesh and blood, no foud destitute of ni- 
 trogen can nourish the body. 
 
 By the following analysis of mutton fat, it will be seen 
 that the principal difference between flesh and fat consists 
 in the absence wholly of nitrogen. 
 
 Carbon - - - 7,900 
 Hydrogen - - 1,170 
 Oxygen - - - 930 
 
 10,000 
 
 Thus it is that such articles of food as sugar, starch, gum, 
 19* 
 
222 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 oil, or butter, will increase the development of fat, yet not 
 so the flesh ; consequently animals confined wholly to such 
 diet, will certainly die. 
 
 The analysis of hay is thus: 1162 parts being dried in 
 the air will contain 162 parts of water, which, being deduct- 
 ed, leaves 1000 parts, which are thus composed: 
 
 Carbon . - - 458 
 
 Hydrogen - - - 50 
 
 Oxygen - - - 387 
 
 Nitrogen - - - 15 
 
 Ashes ... 90 
 
 1000 
 A scientific writer comments on the analysis of blood and 
 hay as follows : — " It is evident that an animal, to make 10 
 lbs. of blood, must eat 100 lbs. of hay before he acquires 
 suflScient nitrogen to compose it. By consuming this 100 
 lbs. of hay, which we will suppose divided into 10,000 
 parts, he will take 4580 parts of carbon, whilst not more 
 than 520 parts are required by the blood, leaving 4060 por- 
 tions not required for nutrition ; there will also be 424 parts 
 of hydrogen unrequired, and 3656 of oxygen ; what then be- 
 comes of these superfluous elements 1 Why, they are re- 
 quired principally for the purpose of sustaining the heat of 
 the body ; the hydrogen and oxygen form water, and the 
 carbon unites with the oxygen taken by respiration, pro- 
 ducing heat by the combustion, and is given off by the lungs 
 in the form of carbonic gas. The nutritious portions of the 
 blood are jibrine and albumen, whose elements are almost ex- 
 actly the same, and correspond also with the fibrine and al- 
 bumen found in vegetables. Although nitrogen forms such 
 an essential part of nutritious food, yet it cannot, in any 
 way, enter the system or afford nourishment in a simple or 
 uncombined form, but only in such combination as we find in 
 albumen. It is evident, therefore, that to form blood food 
 must be taken which contains albumen, or substances analo- 
 gous to it, in order to be nutritious, and in proportion to the 
 amount of albumen it possesses will be its nutrient properties. 
 Modern chemists designate food which is thus capable of 
 nourishing as nitrogenized or azotized, from its containing 
 nitrogen ; whilst other varieties of food, such as starch, 
 gum, sugar, fat, wine, beer, and spirits, which contain no 
 nitrogen, are denominated carbonized or unazotizcd." 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 223 
 
 Albumen is thus composed : 
 
 Carbon 550 
 
 Hydrogen - - - - 70 
 
 Nitrogen - - - - 159 
 
 Oxygen 221 
 
 1000 
 
 Fat, we have seen, contains no nitrogen ; it is clearly, 
 therefore, produced from the excess of the carbon of food 
 beyond that which is required for respiration. Starch, gum, 
 sugar, and other similar substances, are converted also into 
 fat by the abstraction of their oxygen. 
 
 Young animals are not disposed to take on fat like adults, 
 much of their food being assimilated into blood, for the de- 
 velopment of size. Another cause may be assigned, the 
 additional waste from their playful exercise, which is pecu- 
 liarly so with lambs. This arises from their breathing be- 
 ing increased, thereby consuming a larger amount of oxy- 
 gen, and more carbon consequently is expended. The milk 
 of sheep contains a much greater proportion of nitrogenized 
 matters, than the food partaken by the lamb after its wean- 
 ing- 
 
 The following shows its analytical composition : 
 
 Ewe. Ass. 
 
 Cassein - - 40 19 
 
 Butter - . 46 13 
 
 Sugar - - 38 ... - - 63 
 
 Ashes -- 6 
 
 Water - - 890 905 
 
 1000 1000 
 
 Of the above, Cassein is the only nitrogenized substance, 
 and this with butter form cheese. Cassein resembles albu- 
 men, into which it can readily be converted in the system. 
 The butter and the sugar are the carbonized constituents for 
 respiration, and the ashes contain phosphate of lime and 
 common salt, for the formation of bone and the gastric juice. 
 
 The writer will now proceed to spread before the reader 
 a series of tables, exhibiting the relative proportions of nu- 
 triment of the various kinds of food consumed by sheep, 
 which were prepared by distinguished scientific men. The 
 
224 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 1 
 
 first will sliow, that the usual food of sheep abounds very 
 considerably with the carbonized constituents. 
 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 Organic matters. 
 
 Ashes. 
 
 100 lbs 
 
 of Hay contain - 
 
 - 16 
 
 - - 
 
 76-^ 
 
 - n 
 
 
 Turnips 
 
 - 89 
 
 - - 
 
 10 
 
 - 1 
 
 
 Swedes 
 
 - 85 
 
 - - 
 
 14 
 
 - 1 
 
 
 White Carrots 
 
 - 87 
 
 - - 
 
 12 
 
 - 1 
 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 - 72 
 
 - - 
 
 27 
 
 - 1 
 
 
 Peas 
 
 - 16 
 
 - - 
 
 80^ 
 
 - H 
 
 
 Oats 
 
 - 18 
 
 - - 
 
 79 
 
 - 3 
 
 
 Oatmeal 
 
 - 9 
 
 - 
 
 89 
 
 - 2 
 
 The organic matters thus separated are found to consist 
 of the following proportions : — 
 
 Albumen. Unazotized matters- 
 Hay - - - 8 .-.--. 68^ 
 
 Turnips -- 1 9 
 
 Carrots - - 2 10 
 
 Potatoes - - 2 24J 
 
 Oats - - lOJ 68 
 
 Peas - - 29 51^ 
 
 The next table, showing the nutriment of a large num- 
 ber of articles of food, is translated from the French, by W, 
 Rham, of England, and is said to be " the result of the ex- 
 periments made by some of the most eminent agriculturists 
 of Europe in the actual feeding of cattle." Mr. Rham ac- 
 companies it with the following observations : 
 
 " Allowance must be made for the different qualities of 
 the same food on different soils and in different seasons. In 
 very dry summers the same weight of any green food will 
 be much more nourishing than in a dripping season. The 
 standard of comparison is the best upland meadow hay, cut 
 as the flower expands, and properly made and stacked, with- 
 out heating ; in short, hay of the best quality. With re- 
 spect to hay, such is the difference in value that if 100 lbs. 
 of the best is used, it will require 120 lbs. of a second qual- 
 ity to keep the same stock, as well as 140 lbs. of the third, 
 and so on till very coarse and hard hay, not well made, will 
 only be of half the value, and not so fit for cows or store 
 cattle, even when given in double the quantity. While good 
 hay alone will fatten cattle, inferior hay will not do so with- 
 out other food. 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 
 
 225 
 
 " I shall gire the table as it stands, and add the notes 
 which accompany it. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Good hay - - 100 is equal in nourishment to 
 
 Lattermath hay - ] 02 
 
 Clover hay . - go made when the blossom is 
 
 completely expanded. 
 
 Ditto - - - 88 before the blossom expands. 
 
 Clover, second crop 98 
 
 Lucerne hay - - 98 
 
 Sainfoin hay - - 89 
 
 Tare hay - - 91 
 Clover hay, after the 
 
 seed - - - 146 
 
 Green clover - - 410 
 
 Vetches or tares, green 457 
 
 Shelter wheat straw 374 
 
 Rye straw - - 443 
 
 Oat straw - - 195 
 
 Pea straw - - 153 
 
 Bean straw - - 140 
 
 Mangold-wurtzel - 339 
 
 Turnips - - 504 
 
 Carrots - - 276 
 
 Swedish turnips - 308 
 
 Wheat (cleaned) - 45 
 
 Barley - - - 54 
 
 Oats - - . 59 
 
 Vetches - - 50 
 
 Peas - - . 45 
 
 Beans - - - 45 
 
 Wheat bran - - 105 
 
 Wheat and oat chaff 167 
 
 " Lattermath hay is good for cows, not for horses. Raw 
 potatoes increase the milk of cows, but they must be given 
 with caution, and only a few at first, till the stomach is ac- 
 customed to them ; boiled, they fatten every kind of stock ; 
 mixed with cut chaff, they are excellent for horses ; 14 lbs. 
 of boiled potatoes will allow of a diminution of 8 lbs. of hay ; 
 hence their value in this way is calculated. 
 
 " Every kind of cattle eat turnips except horses. Turnips 
 will feed store pigs, but they will not fatten them. Carrots 
 and parsnips are excellent for horses, and, when boiled, will 
 
226 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 fatten hogs. Ruta-baga is liked by horses ; it makes their 
 coats fine, but it must not be given in too great quantity, or it 
 will gripe them." 
 
 In the German Farmer's Encyclopedia, Petkt, an hono- 
 rary and corresponding member of many societies for the 
 promotion of agriculture, contributed a valuable paper on " The 
 keeping, care, and breeding of Sheep," in which will be 
 found the following table of the comparative nutriment of vari- 
 ous kinds of food. 
 
 [matter. 
 100 lbs. of aromatic meadow hay contains 50 lbs. nutritious 
 100 " Clover hay, - - 
 
 100 « Tender vetch hay, - 
 
 100 " Wheat straw, - 
 
 100 " Corn straw (stalks), 
 
 100 " Barley straw, - 
 
 100 " Oat straw, - - 
 
 100 " Pea straw, 
 
 100 " Vetch straw, - 
 
 100 " Millet straw, - 
 
 100 " Chaff, - 
 
 100 " Potatoes, - 
 
 100 " Cabbage turnips, 
 
 100 " Yellow turnips, 
 
 100 " . White turnips, - 
 
 100 " Beets, - - - 
 
 100 " Corn, - - - 
 
 100 " Wheat, - - - 
 
 100 " Rye, - - - 
 
 100 " Barley, - - - 
 
 100 ■" Buckwheat, 
 
 100 " Oats, - - - - 
 
 100 " Peas, - - - - 
 
 100 " Vetches, - - - 
 
 100 " Wheat bran, - 
 
 100 « Rye bran, - - 
 
 Petri confirms what has already been said in relation to 
 the fondness of sheep for variety of food, by enumerating 252 
 plants which they eat with salutary effects, and 39 others they 
 partake, of an injurious tendency. 
 
 He gives the following as examples of average of fodder 
 for a ewe in the month of January, when the yeaning com- 
 mences in March ; 
 
 55f 
 
 ditto. 
 
 55| 
 
 ditto. 
 
 14 
 
 ditto. 
 
 20 
 
 ditto. 
 
 27i 
 
 ditto. 
 
 25 
 
 ditto. 
 
 25 
 
 ditto. 
 
 25 
 
 ditto. 
 
 26 x% 
 
 ditto. 
 
 27^ 
 
 ditto. 
 
 25 
 
 ditto. 
 
 25 
 
 ditto. 
 
 25 
 
 ditto. 
 
 12A 
 
 ditto. 
 
 16i 
 
 ditto. 
 
 95 
 
 ditto. 
 
 95 
 
 ditto. 
 
 90 
 
 ditto. 
 
 82 
 
 ditto. 
 
 78 
 
 ditto. 
 
 70 
 
 ditto. 
 
 93 
 
 ditto. 
 
 93 
 
 ditto. 
 
 48 
 
 ditto. 
 
 46 
 
 ditto. 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT, 
 
 227 
 
 1st day, — In the morning, f lb 
 2d day, 
 
 noon, 
 evening, 
 morning, 
 noon. 
 
 3d day, 
 4tli day, 
 
 5th day, 
 6th day, 
 
 evemng, f 
 morning, | 
 noon, ^ 
 evening, 1 
 
 morning, f 
 noon, ^ 
 
 evemng, f 
 morning, f 
 noon, 2 
 
 evening, f 
 morning, | 
 noon, as in 
 eveninw, 1 
 
 of good oat straw, 
 
 " of good hay or clover, 
 
 " of good barley straw. 
 
 " of millet straw, 
 
 " potatoes with 4 oz, chopped 
 straw, and 4 oz, of oats. 
 
 " barley straw. 
 
 " hay. 
 
 " hay. 
 
 " wheat, oat, barley or buck- 
 wheat straw. 
 
 " summer straw. 
 
 " chopped straw, with 3 oz. oats 
 and 3 oz. bran, moistened 
 with water. 
 
 " winter straw. 
 
 " of hay. 
 
 " of potatoes with ^ lb. chop- 
 ped straw. 
 
 " winter straw. 
 
 " of hay. 
 
 4th day. 
 
 " of straw. 
 
 He has likewise given the following table of variations of 
 Fodder, which may be successfully practised with sheep : 
 
 
 
 Loth, 
 
 
 
 Loth, ( 
 
 
 Loth, 
 
 
 Day. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 equal 
 
 Morning. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 equal 
 
 Noon. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 equal 
 Xoz. 
 
 Evening. 
 
 1 
 
 
 21 
 
 hay 
 
 
 21 
 
 hay 
 
 
 21 
 
 hay 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 rye straw 
 
 1 
 
 22 
 
 hay 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 rye straw 
 
 3 
 
 
 23 
 
 bean straw 
 
 
 26 
 
 vetch hay 
 
 
 23 
 
 bean " 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 wheat " 
 
 1 
 
 
 sainfoin 
 
 1 
 
 
 wheat stravir 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 oat " 
 
 
 21 
 
 hay 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 oat " 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 artichoke stalk 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 red clover 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 artichoke stalk 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 turkey wheat 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 luzerne 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 turkey wh. str. 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 b'kwheat straw 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 hay 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 b'wheat straw 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 oat " 
 
 
 7 
 
 horse beans 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 oat " 
 
 10 
 
 
 19 
 
 red clover 
 
 
 19 
 
 red clover 
 
 
 19 
 
 red clover 
 
 11 
 
 
 18 
 
 sainfoin 
 
 
 18 
 
 sainfoin 
 
 
 18 
 
 sainfoin 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 millet straw 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 millet straw 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 millet straw 
 
 13 
 
 
 30 
 
 lentil straw 
 
 
 21 
 
 hay 
 
 
 30 
 
 lentil " 
 
 14 
 
 
 30 
 
 pea straw 
 
 
 21 
 
 hay 
 
 
 30 
 
 pea " 
 
 15 
 
 
 30 
 
 barley straw 
 
 1 
 
 
 artichoke stalk 
 
 
 30 
 
 barley " 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 horse bean str. 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 horse bean str. 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 horse bean str. 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 rye straw 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 oat straw 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 rye straw 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 wheat " 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 " " 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 wheat " 
 
 19 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 rye " 
 
 1 
 
 
 turkey wheat 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 " " 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 oat " 
 
 1 
 
 
 " " 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 oat " 
 
 21 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 wheat " 
 
 
 22 
 
 artichoke stalk 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 " " 
 
 2« 
 
 
 30 
 
 lentil " 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 vetch straw 
 
 
 30 
 
 lentU " 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 oat " 
 
 1 
 
 6 wheat " 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 oat " 
 
228 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 Petri allows on an average to a sheep, of hay, 3 to 3^ lbs. 
 per head, and says : " In the winter a full-grown sheep of 
 70 lbs. live weight, eats, in fattening-fodder, 3 lbs. of hay, or 
 with some hay 3 to 4 lbs. potatoes, or 14 to 18 lbs. of cab- 
 bage leaves, by which he weekly gains 1| lbs. of flesh and 
 wool." The following example, of a slaughtered sheep weigh- 
 ing 116 lbs., gives the proportions of the parts : 
 
 Flesh and tallow, - - - - 54 lbs. 
 
 Fat taken from the entrails, - - 7^ " 
 
 Liver, lights, and milk, . - - 5 " 
 
 Blood, 3 « 
 
 Head, paunch, and other entrails, - 42^ " 
 
 112 
 Leaving for blood and waste, 4 
 
 Total, 116 
 
 Thaer was a long time at the head of the distinguished 
 agricultural school of Mogelin, in Prussia, where many ex- 
 periments were conducted in sheep management under his 
 own eye. The late Judge Buel, in his Farmer's Companion, 
 speaks of him as one " who has not, perhaps, his superior in 
 the practical and scientific business of farming anywhere." 
 
 Thaer says, " The quantity of hay which is given to sheep 
 is very different. In poor sheep-folds it is considered much 
 to allow 3,000 or 4,000 lbs. of hay to 100 sheep for a win- 
 tering. In better conducted ones 7,500 lbs. is considered 
 the minimum for 100 sheep : 3| lbs. of dry fodder for a sheep 
 daily are necessary, and the greater proportion of this in nu- 
 tritious hay, compared with dry straw, the better. Where 
 hay is not plenty, it is usual to have recourse to grain-fodder ; 
 oats, rye, and barley are equally good ; where peas, beans, 
 and vetches are largely cultivated, these may be used. The 
 grains are given them either threshed or unthreshed ; more 
 frequently they have the rough grain mixed with chaff some- 
 what moistened. It is customary also, especially with the ker- 
 nels of the leguminous fruits (peas, beans, &c.), to soak them; 
 others prefer to fodder with the pods strewed on chopped, 
 straw, &c. Sheep which have daily If lbs. of hay, and 1 
 lb. of potatoes, or 1 lb. of hay and 2 lbs, of potatoes, and some 
 straw, can be kept in a well-fed, wool and milk-producing 
 state." 
 
Lire w(. of. 
 
 Daily. 
 
 Yearly. 
 
 Summer. 
 
 Winter. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 100 
 
 2.50 
 
 912 
 
 532 
 
 380 
 
 88 
 
 2.20 
 
 803 
 
 473 
 
 330 
 
 3,) 75 
 
 1.87 
 
 682 
 
 402 
 
 280 
 
 ) 62 
 
 1.55 
 
 566 
 
 334 
 
 232 
 
 66 
 
 1.65 
 
 602 
 
 355 
 
 247 
 
 WINTER MANAGEMENT. 229 
 
 VEiTwas Professor of Agriculture in the Royal institution 
 of Bavaria, and his v/ork is full of experiments and calcula- 
 tions at that seat of agricultural science. He makes the 
 following observations : — 
 
 " The need of fodder is proportioned to the live weight of 
 the sheep, and two and a half pounds of the value of hay is 
 required daily for every 100 lbs. live weight, to keep the an- 
 imal in a profitable state. Hence the following amount of 
 fodder is required :" — 
 
 For a long-wool German sheep, 
 Infantado Merino, 
 
 Electoral species, (grade Saxons,) 75 
 Esciirial electoral, (pure Saxon,) 
 One-eighth electoral. 
 
 In juxtaposition with the above the writer will place the 
 estimate given in Mr. Spooner's work on sheep. 
 
 " An ox requires 2 per cent, of his live weight in hay per 
 day; if he works, he requires 2 1-2 per cent. ; a milch cow, 
 3 per cent. ; a fatting ox, 5 per cent, at first ; 4 1-2 per cent, 
 when half fat; and only 4 per cent, when fat; or 4 1-2 on 
 the average. Sheep grown take up 3 1-3 per cent, of their 
 weight in hay per day, to keep in store condition." It must 
 be understood by the reader that, in this estimate as well as 
 all others, good hay is the standard of nutriment, and that if 
 any grain or other food is used as an equivalent, allowance 
 must be made for the quantity of hay accordingly. 
 
 The following remarks relative to the different kinds of 
 straw, by Veit, are worthy of attention by the feeders of 
 every kind of stock. 
 
 " 1. The straw of the usual liguminous fruits, and espe- 
 cially of lentils, vetches, and peas, is more nutritious than 
 the straw of seed-clover. The greener the tips are, the less 
 it is lodged the better can it be dried and brought in, the 
 more nourishing it is. The fine stalk vetch straw is also 
 very nutritious, behind which stands somewhat the pea 
 straw, with its thicker stalk. All straw of liguminous fruit 
 is particularly a welcome fodder to sheep, on which account 
 therefore it is greatly prized by many sheep-owners, and 
 considered equal to hay. 
 
 "2. Oat and barley straw is the straw for fodder of the 
 cereal fruits. Oat straw is most agreeable, and also most 
 nutritious, on account of its peculiar taste, for all species of 
 
 20 
 
230 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 cattle, because on the tips of the panicles are usually found 
 unripe grains, and oats are cut before they are fully ripe. 
 Barley straw has, on account of its moisture, and short pe- 
 riod of Ai'egetation, a high value as fodder, and other things 
 being equal, is as nutritious as oat straw, if it were not, as is the 
 case, fully ripe before reaping. Yet it is more liable to in- 
 jure than oat straw, because it imbibes more moisture from 
 the air and soil. 
 
 " 3. Straw of swnmer ivheat, summer speltz, and summer 
 rye, for fodder, stands after oat and barley straw. 
 
 "4. The stalk of maize or Indian corn contains much sac- 
 charine matter, and therefore is very nutritious, used fine, and 
 agreeable to all kinds of cattle. The cobs, after the corn 
 has been taken off, ground up, are likewise a very nutritious 
 fodder, and the hard stalks may be chopped up for the pur- 
 pose. Taking all these things into view, it stands next to 
 the straw of summer rye in value as fodder. 
 
 " 5. Millet straw has a hard stalk, but contains at least as 
 much nutriment as the winter straws. 
 
 " 6. Buckwheat, on account of its quantity on a field of less 
 fertility, and if of fine stalk, in which its value as fodder 
 from its straw being rich with leaves, is enhanced, is as 
 good as the straw of winter grain. 
 
 " 7. Bean straw, in case its leaves have not fallen off or 
 decayed, and the ends of the stalk are green when it is cut, 
 as many experiments have shown, is more valuable than gen- 
 erally supposed." 
 
 Observations naturally suggested by a review of the tables 
 of feeding, as well as some comments on German manage- 
 ment of sheep in general will be found in the succeeding 
 chapter. 
 
 FATTENING. 
 
 As an introduction to the subject, the following interesting 
 observations by Mr. Spooner will be considered very appo- 
 site : — 
 
 " Though in many countries the principal value of sheep 
 is to be attributed to their woolly covering, yet in this coun- 
 try (Great Britain), for some years past, the flesh has been 
 the greatest source of profit, and the carcase, therefore, the 
 paramount consideration. 
 
 " This has naturally led the attention of breeders to the 
 consideration of what particular breed has the most aptitude 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT, 231 
 
 to make flesh and fat, how these qualities could be improved, 
 and what particular shape or form is connected with this 
 propensity to fatten ? But though the above has been per- 
 haps the principal consideration in view, there are other 
 subordinate ones springing out of it of scarcely inferior im- 
 portance — such as which breed, or individual sheep, will fat- 
 ten soonest on good pasture 1 Which on indifferent or bad 
 pasture ? Which has the earliest maturity ? Which can 
 bear wet and dirt with the greatest impunity, or can best 
 endure exposure to the weather in a cold and severe lo- 
 cality ? 
 
 " These several points must all enter into the consideration 
 of the sheep-owner, who must of course pay the utmost at- 
 tention to the nature and quality of his land and its suitability 
 for particular sheep, being, after all, governed by the ultimate 
 calculation as to which brings in the greatest return of profit. 
 
 " The various points in the form of a sheep, connected 
 with the aptitude to fatten, have received the utmost atten- 
 tion from practical and sagacious breeders, although some of 
 these points are still matters of dispute. The superiority of 
 particular improved breeds is now generally acknowledged, 
 and may be considered to be established on certain principles, 
 though in arriving at these principles it must be confessed 
 that we are little indebted to science, but to the long and at- 
 tentive observation and correct reasoning of sagacious and 
 practical men. It is, indeed, only very lately that anything 
 like a correct explanation could be offered for the various phe- 
 nomena that attend the fattening of animals, or why one 
 description of food should be more suitable for the purpose 
 than another. It had, indeed, been laid down as a fact, that 
 a large capacious chest and lungs were necessary for the 
 production of fat, and that its secretion depended in a great 
 degree on the quantity of air that could be respired ; whilst 
 the researches of modern chemists have shown that nothing 
 could be further from the truth. And now that the fallacy 
 has been exposed by chemistry it can also be readily shown 
 by anatomy, for we find that whilst the horse and the camel 
 have eighteen ribs, the ox and the sheep have only thirteen. 
 The absence of these five pair of ribs must of course mate- 
 rially diminish the cavity of the chest, and its greater breadth 
 (necessary for another purpose) does not by any means com- 
 pensate for its diminished length. Animals of speed have 
 rarely a propensity to fatten, but in greyhounds, foxes, deer, 
 
232 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 &c., we find the chest is long and deep, though not wide, 
 whilst in pigs, sheep, and oxen, we notice an opposite con- 
 formation. The fact is, in proportion to the activity of the 
 animal is its respiration and demand for oxygen, and in pro- 
 portion to the consumption of oxygen is the wear and tear 
 of the system and the consumption of the elements of the 
 food. If the exertions are therefore excessive, that portion 
 of the food that would have increased the weight of the body 
 is called for to support respiration. 
 
 " In animals having a propensity to fatten, we find the 
 chest of a circular form ; the ribs spring from the spine more 
 horizontally than in others, almost at right angles ; this is 
 observed in the ox, compared with the horse, and still more 
 so in the sheep. The effect of this conformation is certain- 
 ly in one respect to increase the width of the chest, but an- 
 other important effect is to increase very considerably the 
 size of the abdomen ; for in order to obtain the greatest pos- 
 sible nutriment from the food, it is essential that the organs of 
 digestion should be capacious, which cannot be the case un- 
 less the cavity in which they are situated is large. The 
 abdominal muscles and membrane which support the bowels 
 are attached to the cartilages of the ribs, and the short ribs 
 in some measure cover the abdomen. It must, therefore, be 
 evident that in proportion to the width between the posterior 
 ribs must, in a great measure, be the size of the abdomen ; 
 and this width must be in proportion to the horizontal direc- 
 tion in which the ribs are given off. The loins must cor- 
 respond with the ribs ; the transverse processes are long 
 and horizontal in proportion to the horizontal manner in 
 which the ribs spring from the spine ; for, in fact, they are 
 but a continuation of the same roof, and must possess the 
 same relative proportions. We must illustrate this point by 
 comparing it with an umbrella, which, when thoroughly open, 
 the whalebone ribs, so to speak, coming off at right angles, 
 may be compared with the broad circular animal, and, when 
 half extended, to the narrow-chested, flat-sided beast. In its 
 former state the umbrella forms the roof of a much larger 
 space of ground than it does in its latter state ; and, in the 
 same manner, the long transverse lumbar processes must 
 form the roof of a larger abdominal cavity than the short 
 transverse processes found with narrow loins. The same 
 form that extends the roof of the abdomen, also gives a 
 larger surface for the muscles of the back and loins to rest 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 233 
 
 on ; and thus we find in sheep of this description a very 
 considerable development of the flesh or muscles of the loins 
 — the primest part of the carcase. It is a common observa- 
 tion with judges of sheep, that one of the best points is a 
 channel between the shoulders and along the back. This is, 
 indeed, a desirable form, for it is connected with those ne- 
 cessary qualifications for producing flesh and fat. The 
 channel along the back is owing partly to the large develop- 
 ment of the muscles of the loins and back arising from the 
 form we have commended, and partly to the shortness of the 
 upright or spinous processes of the vertebrae of the back. Now 
 the use of these processes is to afford leverage to the mus- 
 cles, and their length, therefore, enhances the activity of the 
 animal. Sheep, however, do not possess nor require these 
 active powers, and they would, in fact, be very detrimental 
 to the principal object of the animal's existence ; it is a 
 quiet state and a quiet disposition that disposes an animal to 
 increase in flesh and fat. The shortness of these processes 
 is illustrated in the sheep as compared with the goat, and in 
 the improved breeds of the former as compared with those 
 of the mountain and the forest." 
 
 With a view rather to confirm principles already stated, 
 the following remarks by Mr. Spooner, and the examples in 
 illustration, are quoted. It will be proper to add, that in no 
 other country is the system of fattening better understood 
 than in England, established by numerous experiments of 
 her many enlightened and sagacious breeders. 
 
 " Quietude and warmtli greatly contribute to the fattening 
 process. This is a fact which has not only been developed 
 by science, but proved by actual practice. The manner in 
 which these agents operate is simple and easily explained : 
 — motion increases respiration, and the excess of oxygen 
 thus taken requires an increased quantity of carbon, which 
 would otherwise be expended in producing fat. So like- 
 wise, cold robs the system of animal heat, to supply which 
 more oxygen and more carbon must be employed in produ- 
 cing extra combustion, to restore the diminution of tempera- 
 ture. Nature enforces this restoration of warmth by causing 
 cold to produce both hunger and the disposition for motion, 
 supplying carbon by the gratification of the former, and ox- 
 ygen by the indulgence of the latter. The above facts are 
 illustrated by Lord Ducie : — 
 
 " One hundred sheep were placed in a shed, and ate 20 
 20* 
 
234 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 lbs. of Swede turnips each per day, whilst another hundred, 
 in the open air, ate 25 lbs., and at the end of a certain period 
 the former animals weighed each 3 lbs. more than the latter, 
 plainly showing, that, to a certain extent, warmth is a sub- 
 stitute for food. This was also proved by the same noble- 
 man in other experiments, which also illustrated the effect of 
 exercise : — No. 1. Five sheep were fed in the open air, be- 
 tween the 21st of November and the 1st of December ; they 
 consumed 90 lbs. of food per day, the temperature being about 
 44° ; at the end of this time they weighed 2 lbs. less than when 
 first exposed. No. 2. Five sheep were placed under shel- 
 ter, and allowed to run at a temperature of 49° ; they con- 
 sumed at first 82 lbs., then 70 lbs. per day, and increased in 
 weight 23 lbs. No. 3. Five sheep were placed in the same 
 shed, but not allowed any exercise ; they ate at first 64 lbs., 
 then 58 lbs., and increased in weight 30 lbs. No. 4. Five 
 sheep were kept in the dark, quiet and covered ; they ate 35 
 lbs. per day, and increased in weight 8 lbs. 
 
 " A similar experiment was tried by Mr. Childers, M. P., 
 and is thus related by that gentleman in the Journal of the 
 Royal Agricultural Society of England for that year. He 
 says, ' I last winter enclosed a small yard with posts and 
 rails, and erected a low thatched shed, just large enough to 
 allow a score of sheep to lie down at once. The floor of 
 this shed was boarded with rough slabs, and was raised 
 eighteen inches above the surface of the ground, the boards 
 being placed three-eighths of an inch apart, in order to allow 
 the free passage of water and keep the boards dry, as my 
 great fear was that the sheep might get the foot-rot. 
 
 " ' I then proceeded, on the 1st of January, to draw forty 
 wethers out of my flock of Leicesters, and divided them into 
 two lots, as equal in quality as I could get them. On 
 weighing each sheep separately, I found the weight of one 
 score to be 2565 lbs., and that of the other 2580 lbs. I put 
 the first lot into the yard, and placed the other lot on turnips. 
 The field was a dry sandy soil, well sheltered, and peculiar- 
 ly favorable and healthy for sheep. Each lot had exactly 
 the same quantity of food given them, which was as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 " ' 1st. As many cut turnips as they could eat, which was 
 about 378 lbs. per day for each lot. 
 
 " ' 2d. Ten pounds of linseed cake, at the rate of half a 
 pound per sheep per day. 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 235 
 
 " * 3d. Half a pint of barley per sheep per day. 
 
 " ' 4th. A little hay, and a constant supply of salt. 
 
 " ' For the first three weeks both lots consumed equal por- 
 tions of food ; but in the fourth week there was a falling off 
 in the consumption of the wethers in the shed of 52 lbs. of 
 turnips per day ; and in the ninth week there was also a 
 falling off of 28 lbs. more ; of linseed cake there was also a 
 falling off of 3 lbs. per day. The wethers in the field con- 
 sumed the same quantity of food from first to last. The re- 
 sult of the experiment was as follows : 
 
 20 Shed Wethers. Increase. 20 Field "Wethers. Increase. 
 
 January 1, 2565 lbs. 2580 lbs. 
 
 February 1, 2870 " 305 lbs. 2794 " 214 lbs. 
 
 March 1, 3020 " 150 " 2914 " 120 " 
 
 April 1, 3355 " 335 " 3092 " 178 " 
 
 Total increase, 790 lbs. 512 lbs. 
 
 " ' Consequently the sheep in the shed, though they con- 
 sumed nearly one fifth less food, made above one third 
 greater progress. The circumstances of the experiment 
 were, if anything, unfavorable to the sheep in the shed. 
 The turnips, by being stored in a house for their use, be- 
 came drier than those consumed by the sheep in the field ; 
 and also in February the shed wethers were salved or rub- 
 bed w ith mercurial ointment, which is generally supposed to 
 give a check to feeding sheep. The floor of the shed was 
 kept clean by fresh straw litter after every rain.' " 
 
 Mr. Spooner adds the following : — " The result of these 
 important and valuable experiments is precisely what we 
 should expect from theoretical reasoning on the principles of 
 the subject. It shows the pecuniary advantage of attending 
 to the comforts of sheep and other animals, the expediency of 
 providing proper sheds, and affording shelter when the weather 
 is severe, and lessening, as much as possible, their exercise." 
 
 Quietness, as has been observed, is indispensable to rapid 
 fattening of sheep, or cattle, and to contribute as much as 
 possible to this object, regularity is requisite not only in the 
 quantity of the food, but the time which it is given. It is 
 not a little surprising how quick animals, especially when 
 fattening, will learn the stated hours when their food is to be 
 supplied ; and if it is transgressed, they become restless, 
 which greatly retards the process. The observance of this, 
 with full measure of feed, are of paramount importance. 
 
236 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP, 
 
 Again : it is essential that the sheds or buildings in 
 which they are confined should often be supplied with fresh 
 litter, and plenty of it ; in short, everything must be done to 
 promote complete rest, ease, and contentment. 
 
 Sheep, when fattening, should not be fed oftener than 
 three times a day — namely, when day has fairly dawned, at 
 noon, and an hour before sunset. The interim between 
 feedings will enable them to fill themselves leisurely, and to 
 have time sufficient for that quiet digestion which is inter- 
 rupted by too frequent feeding. Water should be given 
 without limitation, and that immediately after their meals. 
 
 The sheep-fattener must not lose sight of that peculiar 
 habit of the animal exhibited in its fondness for variety of 
 food. Indeed, change is very essential, as otherwise it may 
 become cloyed on one species of diet. In fattening all ani- 
 mals, the shortest time in which it can be accomplished, the 
 most profit will result. To effect this, we will suppose that 
 it will take at first only of one kind of sustenance sufficient to 
 maintain good store order ; if it can be induced to eat one 
 quarter more of another sort, then it begins to acquire fat ; 
 but if in addition to this, its appetite can be stimulated to eat 
 yet another quarter of something else, it will readily appear 
 that the animal will fat all the sooner. A great point to 
 gain, is to induce it to eat as largely as possible of the most 
 nutritious food ; but we shall fail in this if the appetite of 
 the sheep is not courted and stimulated by variety. An au- 
 thor remarks — " Variety of food, with animals, operates like 
 cookery in the human subject, enabling more sustenance 
 to be taken." 
 
 When sheep are put up for fattening, care should be ob- 
 served at first not to feed in full quantities of grain or meal, 
 as, in so doing, acute diseases of the intestines will be 
 avoided. Again : those of the same age with similarity of 
 condition should be put together, as better calculations may- 
 be made of the aggregate quantity of food they will require 
 daily. This is suggested for the reason that animals, when 
 growing, require longer time and additional feed to make 
 them fit for the butcher, as a portion of it nature appropri- 
 ates for the development of muscle or flesh. Hence the 
 great excellence of some of the improved English breeds, 
 whose early maturity allow of fattening when only eighteen 
 months old. 
 
 The following sound observations by Mr. Spooner will 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 237 
 
 conclude the subject : — " With respect to the most advanta- 
 geous food to be given, there is some difference of opinion, 
 some preferring oil-cake, some beans or peas, and others 
 oatmeal or barley-meal. It must, of course, depend, in some 
 measure, on the nature of the farm, as it must, to a certain 
 extent, be preferable to use the product of the farm. Sheep 
 certainly prefer beans to oats ; and vv'here the former are 
 grown they can be undoubtedly used to advantage. They 
 abound in that principle in which turnips are most deficient, 
 and thus are adapted to counteract, in a measure, the too 
 weakening effect of the turnips ; and the latter, abounding 
 more in the elements of fat, prevent the beans from harden- 
 ing the flesh too much, which they are otherwise apt to do. 
 Oats and barley are more fattening than beans, both contain 
 less albumen ; and oil-cake nourishes but little, but possess- 
 es the principle of fat in a concentrated form. Perhaps the 
 best plan would be to begin with beans, gradually mixing 
 oil-cake, and finishing with that and turnips alone ; or it 
 may be prudent to mix other grain with the beans ; or, if 
 more convenient, substitute peas. Mr. Childers states that 
 sheep fed with the addition of half a pint of barley per sheep 
 per day, half a pound of linseed-cake, with hay, and a con- 
 stant supply of salt, become ready for the butcher in ten 
 weeks, and gain of flesh and tallow 33 lbs. to 40 lbs. per 
 head (one sheep gained 55 lbs. in twelve weeks) ; and that, 
 with artificial food, 30 tons of turnips will feed 60 sheep ; 
 while, on the usual plan of feeding on turnips alone, out of 
 doors, the average of the country is that 20 tons of turnips 
 will feed, in sixteen weeks, 10 sheep, with a gain of only 
 20 lbs. of flesh and tallow." 
 
 Although the ruta-baga turnip is the essential food for fat- 
 tening sheep in Great Britain, yet in localities in the United 
 States unadapted for its culture, the American breeders 
 have ample substitutes in potatoes, Indian corn, as well as 
 all other grains usually appropriated to this purpose abroad. 
 By reference to the tables of comparative nutritiousness of 
 the different kinds of food, and by weighing a few of the 
 sheep when put up for fattening, a ready calculation will be 
 made of the quantity required for feeding daily, which is 
 highly necessary to know, in order to prevent waste. Profit 
 being the ultimate object in keeping sheep of any kind, small 
 things must be kept steadily in view. Handfuls make 
 bushels, and ounces make pounds. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 WINTER MANAGEMENT CONTINUED, 
 
 REVIEW OF THE TABLES OF ANALYSES— WHAT FOOD WILL PRO- 
 DUCE THE MOST WOOL— DERAUMER' STABLE OF EXPERIMENTS- 
 OBSERVATIONS ON GERMAN MANAGEMENT— VARIATIONS OF FOD- 
 DER—FODDER PROPORTIOxNED TO THE LIVE WEIGHT OF THE SHEEP 
 —IMPORTANCE OF GREEN FOOD— WATER NECESSARY— MANAGE- 
 MENT OF LAMBS— TWO-YEAR OLDS— BUCKS— HOSPITAL FLOCK- 
 MODES OF FODDERING— RACKS— TROUGH&-BARNS AND SHELTERS 
 —PLANS OF SHEEP BARNS. 
 
 If the reader will now pause, and recall that which has 
 been set forth in the two preceding chapters, but more par- 
 ticularly the last, he will perhaps concur with the writer, 
 that there is much matter for reflection, and much to form the 
 basis of correct practice in winter economy. Let us take a 
 brief and familiar retrospect. 
 
 From the analyses of fat, flesh and blood, and of the vari- 
 ous kinds of food consumed by sheep, although very clear 
 conclusions may be drawn by the better educated, yet per- 
 haps it will be well, for the benefit of those whose informa- 
 tion is limited in the rudiments of science, to glance at 
 these things again. 
 
 It will have been seen, that there is quite a distinction in 
 different plants in regard to the relative proportions of the 
 nitrogenized and carbonized constituents they respectively 
 contain ; and that food destitute of the former can afford no 
 nutriment to the blood, and consequently none to the body ; 
 but those which furnish carbonized properties most abun- 
 dantly, make much fat. Hence all kinds of food which are 
 highly carbonized, to be which they must possess much of 
 sugar, starch, gum, &c., in combination, are fitted for fatten- 
 ing purposes. Therefore it will appear plain that wheat, 
 barley, corn, rye, oats, buckwheat, and ruta-baga, are better 
 for fattening, than the leguminous grains — such as peas, 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 239 
 
 beans, &c., simply for the reason that their chemical prop- 
 erties correspond more nearly with the elements of fat, and 
 the organs of the system therefore readily assimilate them 
 for its formation. The question now presents itself, 
 
 WHAT FOOD WILL PRODUCE THE MOST WOOL 1 
 
 Peas, beans, vetches, &c., are useful for the purpose of 
 enriching the blood, by furnishing it with large supplies of 
 albumen, which is its principal constituent. It will be re- 
 membered that in the analyses of flesh and blood the relative 
 proportions of their constituents are nearly identical ; con- 
 sequently, whatever food contains nitrogen, and the greatest 
 amount of albumen, is best adapted to the development of 
 flesh or muscle, and is therefore the most nutritious. Wheat, 
 rye, barley, and buckwheat, contain large quantities of albu- 
 men, especially the first two ; while oats, it will have been 
 seen, contains 10^ per cent, of its organic elements of albu- 
 men, and peas and beaiis no less than 29 jyer cent. What 
 conclusion, then, is to be drawn from this ? In Chapter I. 
 it is seen that the chemical composition of horns, hoofs, 
 hair, vmoI, and even feathers, is substantially the same ; their 
 organic elements are coagulated albumen and gelatin, and 
 their inorganic, silica, carbonate, and phosphate of lime, 
 and the oxides of iron and manganese. Hence it will read- 
 ily appear that that food given to the sheep which will sup- 
 ply the greatest proportion of albumen, in the same ratio 
 will increase the wool secretions, and consequently be pro- 
 ductive of the most wool, provided, however, they also hold 
 in suitable combination the inorganic substances of wool, with- 
 out which they assimilate mostly for the formation of flesh 
 or fat. This may be exemplified thus — a soil may be 
 highly productive of corn, as well as a few of the cereal 
 grains ; yet for the production of wheat it may lack the 
 proper proportion of the phosphate and carbonate of lime, 
 and consequently the berry will not only be deficient in 
 quantity, but quality. 
 
 The following table exhibits the results of the experiments 
 of the distinguished agriculturist De Raumer, on the efiects 
 produced by an equal quantity of several substances in in- 
 creasing the flesh, tallow, and wool of sheep : 
 
2i0 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 
 
 Ib^ 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 100 lbs. 
 
 potatoes, raw, with salt. 
 
 46^ 
 
 64 
 
 124 
 
 do. 
 
 do. without salt, 
 
 44 
 
 64 
 
 114 
 
 do. 
 
 mangel wurtzel, raw, 
 
 381 
 
 H 
 
 64 
 
 do. 
 
 wheat, 
 
 155 
 
 14 
 
 594 
 
 do. 
 
 oats, 
 
 146 
 
 10 
 
 424 
 
 do. 
 
 barley, 
 
 136 
 
 114 
 
 60 
 
 do. 
 
 peas. 
 
 134 
 
 14X 
 
 41 
 
 do. 
 
 rye, with salt, 
 
 133 
 
 14 
 
 35 
 
 do. 
 
 do. without salt, 
 
 90 
 
 12^ 
 
 43 
 
 do. 
 
 meal, wet, 
 
 129 
 
 13i 
 
 m 
 
 do. 
 
 buckwheat. 
 
 120 
 
 10 
 
 33 
 
 These results are said to agree with those of De Dombale, 
 and with those of a number of other agriculturists. 
 
 It will be perceived by the above table, that wheat pro- 
 duces the greatest increase in the flesh of the sheep, though 
 but little greater than oats ; that peas, wheat, and rye, pro- 
 duce the greatest increase of wool ; and that barley and 
 wheat cause the greatest increase of tallow. That, as an 
 average, grain generally gives about three times the increase 
 in the flesh, that roots do when in equal weight ; that grain 
 produces about twice as much wool as is caused by an equal 
 weight of roots, and several times the amount of tallow. 
 
 The legitimate conclusion from the foregoing is, that the 
 flock-master, whose object is wool only, must rely on good 
 hay and some straw, whose constituents are admirably 
 adapted for the growth and perfection of wool, with a mod- 
 erate allowance daily of ground peas and oats, and some po- 
 tatoes as green food, for the greatest amount of wool ; and 
 those gross substances, oil-cake, corn-meal, and ruta-baga, 
 may be turned over to the producers of fat mutton. This 
 will presently be adverted to again. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON GERMAN MANAGEMENT. 
 
 The Germans are unrivalled in their scientific and practical 
 knowledge of every department in agriculture, and in no 
 one superior to that of sheep management. Economy is the 
 grand basis of every species of cultivation, and their profits 
 are rigidly determined by the expense of means employed 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 241 
 
 in production. A writer who is familiar witli the subject 
 speaks thus : " The great distinction in German agriculture, 
 compared with our own, is economy. The question is not, 
 whether a great crop can be produced, or a fine story can 
 be told, what large animals can be raised, &c. — but what is 
 the whole cost, the expenditure of labor, of land, of manure, 
 &c. For this reason computations have been made, and 
 the proportion of all the parts and processes has been fixed. 
 Economy compels them to weigh and measure their fodder. 
 The minutest details have been entered into, the most diffi- 
 cult points examined, and the results brought out." 
 
 The variations of fodder, daily, with the quantities of each 
 duly weighed and proportioned to the size of the animals to 
 be fed, as observed in the different tables, is not a solitary 
 experiment to determine a point only ; but having become 
 confirmed by thousands of experiments, is the basis of uni- 
 versal practice among her numerous wool-growers. The 
 late Mr. Henry D. Grove, in seasons of scarcity, was accus- 
 tomed to weigh daily the rations of his flock ; and thus per- 
 mitted nothing to waste, which exhibited the economical 
 practice of his native country. These remarks are deemed 
 essential, in order that the tables may be appreciated by 
 those whose information is limited relative to the perfection 
 to which sheep husbandry has attained in Germany. 
 
 The first thing which will strike the reader is the daily 
 
 VARIATIONS OF FODDER, 
 
 in which we see manifested the principle of economy prac- 
 tically carried out. The grain fields, and not almost wholly 
 meadows, as in this country, are made greatly the means of 
 maintenance of their flocks during winter ; thus not a pound 
 of straw nor a pound of anything valuable is permitted to be 
 wasted. Hence the cultivation of sheep and crops in a meas- 
 ure are mutually dependent on each other. The manure of 
 the flock augments the quantity of grain, and thus a larger 
 quantity of straw is provided for it in return. We also ob- 
 serve displayed, their knowledge of that habit of the sheep 
 as seen manifested in its eagerness for varieties of food, and 
 of its love of frequent change. In this habit of the ani- 
 mal we behold that wise economy of nature in endowing it 
 with instincts to promote its welfare to the greatest extent in 
 every point of view. One kind of food may develop flesh, 
 
 21 
 
242 MANAGEMENT OF SHEET. 
 
 and another make fat ; but it seems to be aware that several 
 kinds are required to enable its digestive organs to effect such 
 chemical combinations as will not only nourish the wool, 
 but assimilate the inorganic substances which compose the 
 external parts of the filament. From thousands of experi- 
 ments made in Germany, it has been demonstrated that hay 
 alone will not produce as much wool, as when straw is mixed, 
 which cannot be philosophically explained on any other prin- 
 ciple than that which has been laid down. It must be re- 
 peated, that variety only mill furnish those perfect proportions 
 of organic and inorganic materials of which wool is composed. 
 If we give the animal too much food of a carbonized or fat- 
 tening character, the fibres of wool, being tubular in their 
 conformation, distend or become coarser, and the weight is 
 certainly increased ; but on the contrary, if fed several kinds, 
 and each abounds as largely as possible with albumen, the 
 fibre is materially increased in length, though not so much 
 in bidk, simply because the variations of food supply to a 
 greater extent the substances requisite to form the filament 
 This may be termed natural wool, the quantity or weight of 
 which will be as great as that produced by feeding grosser 
 food, which has the effect to increase the diameter of the fibre 
 at the expense of the length, and therefore is coarser, as well 
 as harsh and wiry. The Germans abhor feeding large quan- 
 tities of fattening food in growing Saxon wool, as it destroys 
 its delicate texture, and its value is lessened accordingly for 
 the manufacture of the finest and softest fabrics. 
 
 The American wool-grower need not overfeed simply with 
 a view to make heavy fleeces, as the wool of the sheep, when 
 fat, is comparatively coarse ; and the expense of the food used 
 in placing them in this condition, together with the reduction 
 in the value of their wool, will more than counterbalance the 
 gain from the increased weight. The wool of the Saxon and 
 Merino variety is never so beautiful and perfect in all respects, 
 as when it is natural ; and this follows only from keeping 
 the sheep in healthy store order, and nothing beyond that. 
 The feeding of grain by the Germans is simply as equiva- 
 lents, hay always being the standard, by which the quantity 
 of any kind of food, daily, is determined. Their aim is not 
 to increase the flesh and fat at the expense of the wool or 
 any of its valuable properties ; and if we ever expect to rival 
 them in the extensive production of the most beautiful wool 
 in the world, and at the least sacrifice, we must imitate their 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 243 
 
 economy in feeding, and unsurpassed mode of management 
 in all things. 
 
 The next point which will claim attention, from a review 
 of the tables, is, that the quantity of 
 
 FODDER SHOULD BE PROPORTIONED TO THE LIVE WEIGHT 
 OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 That animals, after arriving at maturity, consume of food 
 in the ratio of their size, is a fact which admits of no dispute. 
 
 Petri, it appears, estimated 3 lbs. of hay, or with some 
 hay 3 to 4 lbs. potatoes, or 14 to 18 lbs. of cabbage leaves to 
 be necessary for a sheep of 70 lbs. live weight, when fatten- 
 ing — and with this amount daily of food would gain 1^ lbs. 
 of flesh and wool weekly. 
 
 Thaer's estimate is 3 J lbs. of dry fodder for a sheep daily, 
 and " the greater proportion of this innutritions hay, compared 
 with dry straw, the better." 
 
 Veit, from numerous experiments, determined that 2| lbs. 
 of the " value of hay" is required daily for every 100 lbs. live 
 weight, to "keep the animal in a profitable state." 
 
 Now we will suppose, taking Veit's estimate as the stand- 
 ard, that the average weight of a flock of sheep to be 80 lbs. 
 per head, and the foddering time 150 days ; this will give 2 
 lbs. daily to each, and for 150 days 300 lbs., and consequent- 
 ly for that period 100 will eat 30,000 lbs., or 15 tons. 
 
 This certainly seems a low estimate as to the quantity a 
 sheep requires daily, it being i^oths less than the English 
 standard, as rendered by Mr. Spooner. But different breeds 
 and their subdivisions vary so materially in weight, that to 
 form a proper estimate, the sheep-master should weigh some 
 of each of different ages of his flock, and by classifying them 
 according to their relative size, he may feed with greater ac- 
 curacy. He must remember, however, that sheep when 
 growing, of any breed, require nearly as much food as when 
 ihey have arrived at maturity ; and sheep growing should 
 never be stinted. 
 
 Another very important consideration must not be lost sight 
 of, namely, the quality of the hay. If it is coarse, much of it 
 sheep will reject ; and consequently an allowance of from 
 10 to 25 per cent, must be made accordingly. It is for this 
 reason, old meadows produce a better quality of hay for sheep, 
 than new ; that of the former being finer, and more miscella- 
 
244 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 neous. Sheep love clover hay, and will increase more rap- 
 idly in flesh if it is provided for them, than by any other de- 
 scription ; but the quantity in bulk, comparatively, they re- 
 quire of it, is enormous. If farmers V4^ill top-dress their 
 meadows with sheep manure, and occasionally harrow them, 
 and early in the fall sow a little of timothy and other grass 
 seed, the herbage will maintain a vigorous growth, and full 
 crops for successive years may be expected. The manure, 
 however, from the sheep-folds will, if hay has been used for 
 fodder, afford generally the required quantity of seed. 
 
 From the above premises we are enabled to deduce an ex- 
 ceedingly important fact, which, if always duly considered, 
 will be the means of avoiding the serious blunders hitherto 
 so frequently committed by American breeders, namely, that 
 it requires an equal amount of food to produce a pound of flesh, 
 or a pound of wool, without regard to the size of the sheep, or 
 the breed. This is indeed a truism, and therefore self-evi- 
 dent. But by way of illustrating the point, let us select one 
 of each of the rival breeds of England — the South Down 
 and Leicester ; we will suppose the live weight of the former, 
 when in store condition, to be 100 lbs., and that of the Lei- 
 cester 150 lbs., which is probably, in general, the relative 
 disproportion. Now it is clear, taking the estimate of Mr. 
 Spooner, which is the standard of England, the Down sheep 
 will consume 3 1-3 lbs. of hay daily, while the Leicester 
 will need 5 lbs. Is the latter, however, more or less profit- 
 able than the Dovirn ? Clearly there is no difference, for the 
 offal is relatively the same, and so is the proportion of the 
 valuable parts — the flesh and the wool. The expenditure 
 of food for the Leicester is greatly the largest, but only in 
 proportion to the difference of value derived from the addi- 
 tional size of its carcase. Thus it is seen, the pound of 
 everything in both animals costs alike, and all circumstances 
 being equal, the profits are the same.* 
 
 But we will go farther, and instance the Merino and Sax- 
 on, alike distinguished for wool-growing purposes. The 
 Saxon, it will be remembered, is of the same race, being 
 only a sub-variety of the former. Let a selection be made 
 of one of each, which combines to the greatest extent their 
 
 * Let it be understood by the reader that the point is wool and Jlesh, 
 and not fat, which it will readily be conceded several breeds of animals 
 will gather more rapidly than others, arising either from improved con- 
 formation or more quietness of habit. 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 245 
 
 perfections respectively. By taking the standard of Veit, as 
 shown in his table, of the live weight of a pure Merino, say 
 88 lbs., and that of a pure Saxon, say 62 lbs. (which is per- 
 haps the comparative weights of the breeds when pure), the 
 Merino, if fed at the rate of 2 1-2 lbs. of hay per 100 lbs. of 
 live weight, consumes 2 ni'jths lbs. daily, and the Saxon 
 1 iVoths lbs., a difference, it will be noticed, of nearly 40 
 per cent, less than the Merino. Now, both being supplied 
 M^ith this pro rata of ration daily, the Merino will produce 
 40 per cent, more of wool and flesh, at an expenditure, how- 
 ever, of 40 per cent, more of feed. Thus it is clear that the 
 pound of wool and flesh, in both cases, costs precisely the 
 same. Hence it may be laid down as a rule by which the 
 unwary may learn, that, after knowing the usual average 
 weight of carcase and fleece of a given breed, if he hears 
 of any very extraordinary individual instances of either, 
 generally it may be ascribed to extra feeding, and at a cost 
 accordingly. 
 
 Let not the reader, however, misapprehend the point in 
 question. The breeds of sheep vary much in the quanti- 
 ties of wool they respectively produce, and individuals of a 
 given breed will often outstrip their fellows, although fed in 
 the same fold, in the amount of wool they will yield. But 
 if two are selected of the same breed and of equal weight, 
 and fed precisely alike, and all other circumstances equal, if 
 one shears a heavier fleece than the other, it will be found, 
 on weighing, to lack an equal amount of flesh, which his 
 comrade has acquired at the expense of his covering. This 
 has arisen from the difference in the assimilation of the food 
 — in the one case, more for the formation of wool than the 
 other. 
 
 IMPORTANCE OF GREEN FOOD. 
 
 The feeding of green food, such as potatoes, apples, hem- 
 lock or pine bows, &c., is strangely disregarded by a large 
 majority of American sheep-growers. This is a prominent 
 point of attention in German management ; indeed, it is thus 
 in every section of the Continent where fine-wooled sheep 
 are cultivated. The sheep, if placed in localities suitable 
 to its general habits, at no period of the year is it so perfectly 
 healthy and thrifty as during the season of pasturage ; and 
 from this the inference should be deduced, that succulent food 
 is the prominent inducing cause. Confinement wholly to dry 
 
 21* 
 
246 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 food does not comport with that variety of condiment, which 
 has so frequently been urged ; and consequently, if a pro- 
 vision is not made of something else, it will be followed by 
 disorganized action of the digestive functions^ producing 
 costiveness and constipation. The disease so frequent and 
 fatal in American flocks, called the " stretches," results from 
 costiveness ; but this is scarcely known in England, which 
 arises from the large quantities of succulent food the sheep 
 are supplied with during the winter months. In addition to 
 this, further proof may be found in the fact that it is never 
 known to attack the animal during the grass season. The 
 writer speaks from personal observation, in stating that a 
 supply of green food is indispensably necessary as a pre- 
 ventive of this disease. 
 
 In addition to green food operating thus, it has a tendency 
 to increase the wool and yolk secretions, and thereby those 
 valuable properties of wool, such as elasticity, softness, and 
 soundness, are increased and perfected ; and withal, being 
 conducive to health, the condition is improved, and conse- 
 quently an augmented quantity of wool is a certain result. 
 
 WATER NECESSARY. 
 
 That water during the foddering season is of paramount 
 importance to the health and general well-doing of sheep, is 
 no longer a mooted point. It is true that the animal will 
 quench its thirst, as far as it is possible, by eating snow ; but 
 if tested by experiment, it will readily be seen which it 
 prefers. Some object to provide water, for the reason, that 
 when the weather is very cold, it drinks too much, and there- 
 by is robbed of much animal heat. This is somewhat true, 
 but if warm shelters are provided, as they should be, it is 
 counteracted. If the experiment is made with a given num- 
 ber, a portion being permitted access daily to water, and the 
 others only the poor privilege of eating frozen snow to be 
 dissolved in the stomach, it will be discovered that the first 
 are more healthy, and will yield a greater crop of wool, 
 which will be distinguished for those properties named under 
 the preceding head. It cannot be expected that the wool 
 fluids will be abundant if the sheep is denied water, unless 
 roots form, a good proportion daily of its consumption. In 
 this case they will rarely drink, provided they are not salted 
 too profusely. If the reader will refer to the chapter on the 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 247 
 
 " SirucUire of Sheep," he will discover that a large supply 
 of saliva is needed in the process of rumination, which must 
 be afforded, mostly, either by green food or water. In con- 
 clusion, humanity demands our practical attention to this 
 subject. 
 
 Havins introduced sufficient to answer as a basis for what 
 the writer deems a correct system of practice m wmter, he 
 will now proceed briefly to set forth some general instruc- 
 tions for the management of the different classes of a flock 
 — and first — 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF LAMBS. 
 
 The necessity for making ample provision of pasture for 
 lambs from their Aveaning until the approach of winter, 
 has already been urged. This, however, is not properly at- 
 tended to by many, and when winter is at hand, their condi- 
 tion is by no means what it should be. It may be set down 
 as a rule never to be transgressed with impunity, that all an- 
 imals when growing should be bountifully fed, as well as 
 receive all other proper attentions conducive to their welfare ; 
 otherwise, it will be in vain to expect, when at maturity, 
 they will exhibit the perfection of their species. The general 
 qualities of any domestic animal, however perfect nature may 
 have done her work, can always be further improved by art, 
 or otherwise, by judicious feeding, and strict attentions in 
 every other regard. It is very much from this cause, that 
 celebrated breeders have gained their renown for improve- 
 ments effected in breeds of cattle, as well as sheep. If we 
 would have perfect animals, we cannot commence too early 
 to lay the foundation of their excellence. 
 
 It is a custom with quite a large majority of sheep farmers 
 to delay graining their lambs until the approach of spring, 
 when they are sometimes far gone in poverty. Is this wise? 
 Would it have been thus if they had been grain-fed at the 
 beginning and through the early part of winter? Is it not 
 better to begin as soon as this, in order to furnish them with 
 the necessary stamina to withstand the severities of northern 
 winters, which is always greatest in the months of January 
 and February ? Put them early in a condition to pass 
 through those terrible months, and subsequently all will be 
 well. Trifly the course of flock-masters, in this regard, is 
 like giving the patient his medicine when he is on the con- 
 fines of death ! Therefore, viewing the matter in this light, 
 
248 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 the writer has no hesitation in saying that a single peck of 
 grain fed in December is worth the bushel fed in March. 
 
 As was remarked at the conclusion of Summer Manage- 
 ment, the grass at the beginning of November loses much 
 of its nutrition from repeated freezing ; therefore at this pe- 
 riod the lambs should be assembled, and classed relative 
 to size and condition, divided into flocks of about 100 each, 
 and feeding them grain should forthwith commence. As it 
 is sometimes impracticable to call them into the sheep-folds 
 without considerable trouble, the feeding-troughs should be 
 removed to the field in which they are confined ; then the 
 flock-master may begin feeding them about four quarts of 
 oats, daily, which he should be careful to distribute the (ui- 
 tire length of the troughs. They will be very shy for a day 
 or two, but the example of approaching them by the tame 
 sheep which were placed among them at weaning time, will 
 be the means of soon overcoming it. After the lapse of a 
 week, the quantity of grain may be gradually increased to a 
 half a bushel, which should be the minimum quantity for the 
 residue of the season. When the major portion have par- 
 taken of the oats, the troughs may be removed back to the 
 sheep-yards, and the time fixed for feeding should be about 
 sundown, after which they can retire to the shelters, should 
 the weather require it. At this time, a little hay should also 
 be given early in the morning, which may be pursued until 
 circumstances demand a change wholly to fodder. 
 
 About the middle of December, or before, let the feed be 
 somewhat changed, by mixing with the oats a portion of 
 pea-meal or wheat shorts ; at all events, let it be meal of some 
 kind which they may fancy, for in order to induce them to 
 eat potatoes it will be necessary to cut them into delicate 
 pieces and sprinkle the meal well over them. If sheep are 
 wholly unaccustomed to potatoes their aversion to them will 
 not be overcome without the adoption of this course. Beets and 
 ruta-baga may be substituted for the potatoes ; but the reader 
 has been informed that they are better adapted to the purpose 
 of the sheep-fattener. If it is our wish to grow wool and not 
 fat mutton, it will be wise in us to use those means which 
 will afford the largest returns. Half a bushel of potatoes 
 given at intervals of twice a week will be the right quantity, 
 which it will be well to continue to sprinkle with meal, as 
 well as with a small quantity of salt. On other days the pea- 
 meal and oats may be fed. 
 
WINTER. MANAGEMENT. 249 
 
 The hay given them should be of fine stalk, and of the 
 choicest quality ; but in its place may be substituted once or 
 twice a week, for a single foddering, oat or barley straw. 
 If the lambs are thus provided through the winter, and have 
 the benefit of warm shelters, their size at shearing time will 
 equal the majority of two-year olds, whose treatment has 
 been only ordinary. 
 
 TWO-YEAR OLDS. 
 
 The class of sheep thus designated refers to those passing 
 into their second year ; therefore they require extra atten- 
 tions, on account of not having yet attained their maturity. 
 The quantity of food they need is quite as much as will suf- 
 fice for mature sheep, which proceeds from that law of na- 
 ture, when the animal is growing, the dead parts of the sys- 
 tem thrown off" are not in the ratio of increase of the living 
 parts, demanded for the development of si:5e ; and to effect 
 this, additional food is necessary. Here is the reason why 
 animals are stunted — the food given them was only equal to 
 the natural waste, whereas, an extra quantity was needed 
 not only for this, but an extension of the system and its va- 
 rious organs. When animals become matured, this exten- 
 sion or growth ceases, and the waste parts and the new for- 
 mations are equal, when adequately provided with food. 
 
 It will be proper, therefore, to make provision for this 
 class, and especially the ewes, approximating that of lambs. 
 The measure of grain, however, must be determined by cir- 
 cumstances ; if they have attained good size, and the season 
 has been favorable for the accumulation of flesh, a less 
 quantity will be required. Let them have pine or hemlock 
 brouse, which has a very salubrious tendency with sheep, 
 cut apples, or potatoes, and also pea, oat, barley, or wheat 
 straw once or twice a week. They should have a variety, 
 at all events. 
 
 BREEDING EWES. 
 
 This portion of the flock demand no especial attention 
 beyond a full measure of food, until the approach of spring. 
 The course of management then will depend on the time of 
 yeaning, which, if fixed for the month of April, they will re- 
 quire a large measure daily through March of potatoes, for the 
 assimilation of milk. In addition, nothing better can be sup- 
 plied them than a half pint each of wheat shorts, mixed with a 
 
250 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 little barley or oat-meal. Oil-cake and corn-meal are not so 
 suitable, as they do not afford as much cassein, the only ni- 
 trogenized element, as the reader has been informed, of milk. 
 Their fodder through the winter should be of a miscellaneous 
 character. Pea and buckwheat straw are highly agreeable 
 to them, especially the former, which, from its succulency, is 
 well suited to their situation. 
 
 The reader is referred to the correspondence in the Ap- 
 pendix for many valuable hints on the management of breed- 
 ing ewes, when the yeaning takes place in April. In con- 
 clusion, comfort, quietness, and generous feeding are cardinal 
 points of attention with breeding ewes, through the whole 
 period of gestation. 
 
 WETHERS. 
 
 The proper treatment for wethers must be determined 
 by their ages ; w4ien growing, however, they should receive 
 better attention than is usually bestowed. If turned off after 
 their third year, which is usually done if of the Saxon or 
 Merino variety, during the previous winter some graining 
 will be necessary for profit's sake. At this age the writer 
 confines his wethers mostly to oat and wheat straw, feeding, 
 in addition, to each hundred half a bushel of corn-cob and oat- 
 meal mixed, or that quantity of unground oats and corn, daily, 
 with half a bushel of cut apples, thrice a week. Apples are 
 much relished by sheep, and withal are very nutritious. After 
 partaking of a mess they manifest greater eagerness for other 
 food, which is quite conclusive of their being stimulating to 
 the appetite. They are an excellent substitute for roots and 
 brouse. Half a bushel (quartered before fed) to the hundred, 
 thrice a week, will be proper. 
 
 After the tupping season is over, the bucks should be sep- 
 arated from the ewes, and fed a generous allowance of good 
 hay, with some grain. The latter is especially necessary, if 
 they have performed extra service ; and whether thus or 
 not, those which have not yet attained maturity, should re- 
 ceive the best of attention. For development of the greatest 
 size and the fairest proportions, which are certainly objects 
 of the highest importance, no other policy will accomplish. 
 It will be wise, therefore, in the flock-master not to spare 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 251 
 
 his attentions, at no period of the year, to his stock's rams. 
 For some other observations on this subject, the reader is 
 referred to the chapter on Breeding and Crossing. 
 
 HOSPITAL FLOCK. 
 
 This is the general appellation of such sheep as are in 
 low condition, proceeding either from poor keep, or temporary 
 illness. 
 
 The attentive and well-ordered sheep husbandman will 
 not be troubled with many of this class, for he will not over- 
 stock, neither will he permit any to remain on his hands till 
 they have become too old ; thus few will enter the " poor 
 house" to reflect unskilful management. It is scarcely ne- 
 cessary to say, however, that every good flock-master will 
 provide a place for the reception of sheep under consider- 
 ation, as often, in spite of his humane care, disease will make 
 its way to some individuals, which, in that event, require 
 removal from their strong and healthy comrades, and treated 
 accordingly. After the disease is subdued, their diet should 
 depend much on the character of the malady. As a general 
 rule, their food at first should not be of an exciting nature, 
 especially if the disease was seated in the stomach, or intes- 
 tines. But all suitable advice in this regard will be found 
 in the history of diseases. When a sheep is seen declining 
 in flesh, let it be removed forthwith to the hospital, and after 
 a few weeks perhaps it may resume its place in the flock 
 from whence it was taken ; this is often so, if the removal 
 is instant in the early stages of decline. Variations of the 
 food will greatly contribute to restore invalids, as well as 
 those in poverty of flesh. 
 
 MODES OF FODDERING RACKS. 
 
 The custom so general among sheep-farmers of strewing 
 fodder on the ground, is attended with a vast waste in the 
 aggregate, and a corresponding ill-doing of the flock. No 
 animal is more nice in its habits, or more keen in its sense 
 of smell, than the sheep ; consequently, if their fodder is 
 thrown upon the ground, in moist weather, two or three 
 passing over it, will cause the whole flock to reject the great- 
 er proportion, and thus from day to day their appetites are 
 tmsatiated. The waste from this slovenly practice during 
 one season only, will more than counterbalance the cost of 
 suitable racks. 
 
252 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 FIG-.S. 
 
 7 
 
 
 The kinds of rack most generally approved conforms to 
 those represented in the cuts, or are very similar. 
 
 Figure 1 is a model of those used by the writer for many 
 years. They cost but little, and little waste can result from 
 their use ; and are also light, and therefore easily removed, 
 which is sometimes necessary whether feeding is done under 
 cover or not. Where, however, the severity of the climate 
 compels feeding wholly under shelter, the kind designated 
 by figure 2, appears admirably adapted for the purpose. The 
 writer, however, never having used any of this description, 
 cannot speak confidently whether their superiority is greatly 
 Over the other kind, and must therefore refer the reader to 
 the remarks concerning them of several of his correspond- 
 ents. 
 
 The upright pieces or posts of figure 1 should be of pine 
 or hemlock scantling, 2 by 3 inches, and at least 2 feet 9 
 inches in length. The lower boards 12 inches in width, 
 and the upper 10 inches ; the spaces between them 9 inches ; 
 the width of the rack 2 1-2 feet. The most convenient 
 length is about 12 feet, and if thus, 6 will be required for 
 100 sheep of the Saxon and Merino varieties, or grades of 
 these, when full grown. 
 
 For lambs, the width of the lower boards may be reduced 
 two inches, the top board not any, and the space between, 
 less about two inches, the width of the rack four inches less, 
 and the posts shortened three inches. 
 
WINTER JIANAGEMENT. 253 
 
 From the length of the posts, an allowance, it will be 
 seen, is made for nailing the lower boards two or three inches 
 above the bottoms of them, which is proper. Five racks, if 
 each is 12 feet long, will be required for 100 lambs of ordi- 
 nary size. There should be no crowding when eating. 
 
 The front and upper edges of the lower boards should be 
 planed slightly, to prevent the wool from the breasts and 
 necks of the sheep from being rubbed off. To secure the 
 boards permanently to the posts, spikes should be used of 
 sufficient length to clinch. Four spikes to each side and 
 end board are necessary. 
 
 Figure 2. The most correct idea of the construction of 
 this is given by the cut, which represents one sawed in two 
 crosswise. Six pieces of 3 by 4 inch scantling and 33 
 inches each in length are required for a rack. The shelv- 
 ing boards, as seen above the heads of the sheep, are of ^ 
 inch stuff', and 14 inches in width, and are very necessary 
 to prevent hay seed and chaff from falling into the necks ; 
 and further, the hay, if pulled down faster than eaten, cannot 
 waste, as it is saved by the troughs. The front board of the 
 troughs should be 9 inches in width ; the space for the heads 
 of the sheep 10 inches ; and from the top of the space to the 
 end of the support, 14 inches. The triangles A A represent 
 the troughs. This is a double rack, but on this principle 
 they can be made single, and placed against the sides of the 
 shelter. They are more expensive than the kind first de- 
 scribed, but have decided advantages for feeding within 
 doors, as troughs are connected. 
 
 The boards of the trough (Fig. 3) may be of hemlock, or 
 pine ; the former, however, are not only cheapest, but hold 
 nails more firmly. They should be 10 inches in width, one 
 inch thick, and nailed at right angles, or, simply the edges 
 of two nailed together. A notch must then be sawed pre- 
 cisely to correspond with the flare of the trough into a two- 
 inch pine plank, a piece of which 12 inches wide and 15 
 inches long constitutes the proper dimensions for the end 
 pieces, or legs of the trough-. (See end piece. Fig. 4.) 
 
 FODDER PENS. 
 
 In connection with the subject in hand, pens for the re- 
 ception of the fodder when thrown from a stack or barn, are 
 
 22 
 
254 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 very necessary. Let four pieces of 3 by 4 inch scantling 
 be used for posts, to whioh slats or boards 4 or 5 inches in 
 width should be nailed, and sufficiently close to prevent the 
 sheep from putting their heads between them. On each 
 side of the pen should be fastened a slat diagonally, which 
 adds to its strength. The posts may be 3^ feet high, and 
 the pen about five feet square. Thus the hay is not run 
 over by the sheep when thrown down, and injured ; and if 
 the quantity should exceed a foddering, it can remain in the 
 pen, and the trouble of pitching it back is saved. 
 
 REGULARITY OF FODDERING. 
 
 The remarks as to regularity of feeding when fattening 
 are equally applicable to store sheep. At a given hour na- 
 ture calls for the allowance of food, and the careful shepherd 
 will see that it is not transgressed. But it is not more a 
 fixed time, than regular quantity, which needs observance. 
 Quantity, however, varies with temperature, as well as the 
 quality of the fodder, of which the reader has already been 
 made acquainted. 
 
 There are not a few who think it necessary that sheep 
 should be fed four times per day ; but this is wholly un- 
 necessary — three is quite often enough. If fed early in the 
 morning, at noon, and, in the heart of winter, an hour and a 
 half before sunset, it affbrds them ample time between feed- 
 ings for quiet rumination and rest, which is interrupted by 
 more frequent attentions. Let the roots, grain, or whatnot 
 always be fed at noon ; after which the sheep will work at 
 the stubbs or coarser parts of the hay or straw left of the 
 morning foddering ; and thus all is consumed. If, however, 
 the temperature is severe, let a little fresh fodder be given in 
 addition to their grain. 
 
 BARNS AND SHELTERS. 
 
 Of the utility of barns for the protection of fodder no one 
 will question, and that a well-constructed barn is conducive 
 to economy, is susceptible of demonstration. Hay is often 
 essentially damaged when stacking, by a sudden and violent 
 rain ; whereas, whatever is secured in a barn is freed there- 
 after from harm. Again, a skilful stacker is rare, and there- 
 fore much hay is subjected to damage from this cause ; and 
 when unthatched, of course much is injured on the surface. 
 Taking only these into view, the inducement is ample for 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 255 
 
 every sheep-farmer to build commodious barns for the recep- 
 tion of his provender. That they will reimburse their ex- 
 pense in a few years, by the saving of hay, and the better 
 order of the flock can be sustained from the improved quality 
 of the hay, all who have had the opportunity to judge, will 
 at once testify. 
 
 The construction of barns, as with dwellings, will always 
 vary, depending on the taste and means of the proprietor, 
 where the climate is severe, and subject to considerable 
 depth of snow, making it difficult at times to travel a distance 
 to the sheep-folds, a large barn capable of sheltering all the 
 sheep, as well as their provender, is certainly desirable, and 
 would be preferred to several, especially if placed remotely 
 from each other. But it is a question, however, whether 
 the extra time consumed in carting the hay to fill one of 
 these mammoth barns will not more than overbalance this 
 inconvenience. Again, in case of conflagration by lightning, 
 which, if ever, is almost always after being filled with hay, 
 the loss is very considerable. The prudent flock-master, 
 therefore, will duly consider everything before he makes his 
 decision. 
 
 The locality of the writer being favorable with regard to 
 climate, and the snow rarely of much depth, he gives the 
 preference to single barns, which are situated on the borders 
 of his meadows, and therefore very convenient for the re- 
 ception of hay. These barns are 32 by 24 feet, with 16 
 feet posts. The sheds are placed at the east end of the barns, 
 and front the south. The latter, however, is objectionable ; 
 they should be on the west side, and front the east. By this 
 plan the barn affords ample protection from the cutting winds 
 of the north while the flock is feeding. The writer would rec- 
 ommend, in reference to the sheds, the north gable ends to be 
 placed in a line with the south sides of the barns, with single 
 roofs, the peaks of which may ascend to the eaves of the 
 barns, and the lower ends elevated ten feet from the 
 ground. The space for the sheep to occupy should be six 
 feet in height, with a view to easy removal of the manure by 
 carts ; and above, there will be abundance of room for the 
 stowage of straw and pea vines, for the variations of fodder, 
 and for the deposite of litterings. For 100 sheep the shed 
 should be 20 by 30 feet at least. By this plan, it will be 
 seen that the feeding racks must be placed in the yards. 
 To those whose circumstances forbid the expense of the 
 
256 MANAGEMENT OP SHEEP. 
 
 erection of barns and framed sheds, the writer would recom- 
 mend the following: — For the consumption of 100 sheep, 
 during the foddering season, two large stacks of hay are 
 necessary ; let those be placed in a north-east and south- 
 west line ; and when they are about to be built, place two 
 poles 35 feet each in length on the top of the stack pens, 
 the centre of the poles to be supported by strong crotches. 
 Before winter the hovel may be completed by putting rails 
 crosswise of the poles to support the straw necessary for the 
 roof; the back can be made of common boards, or by placing 
 rails or poles parallel, and about one foot apart, and stuffed 
 with old or partly rotted straw. This description of hovels 
 are warm, and made in a very brief time. Wind-breakers 
 may be built at right angles of the hovels, of the materials 
 and manner as the back of the hovel, which afford much 
 protection from winds when the sheep are feeding. 
 
 The following plans of sheep-barns are submitted, and 
 which were selected from a large number forwarded to the 
 writer, nearly all of them possessing considerable merit. 
 
 Fig. 1 represents a side-hill barn with underground apart- 
 ments, which are unquestionably warmer for sheep than any 
 other, and probably can be erected at as little expense. 
 Where, however, it is not feasible to build after this model, 
 the kinds represented by Fig. 2 and 3 may be substituted. 
 In regard to Fig. 2, the carriage-house and horse stable may 
 be dispensed with, and a shearing and wool house substi- 
 tuted. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FIGURE 1. 
 
 BY M. Y. TILDEN, OF NEW LEBANON, COLUMBIA CO., N. Y. 
 
 A. Well with pump. 
 
 B. Water tubs. 
 
 C. Boxes for hay 4 by 6 ft. directly under a trap-door, through which hay is 
 thrown from the mow ; this prevents the sheep running into it before feeding, and 
 also keeps the dust and seed out of the wool. 
 
 D. In this section is a shearing floor, 13 by 40 ft., and wool room 14 by 18 ft., 
 plastered. 
 
 Racks are placed around the sides of each apartment. 
 
WINTER. MANAGEMENT. 
 
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*258 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FIGURE 2. 
 
 BY RICHARD MORGAN, OF AURORA, CAYUGA CO., N. Y. 
 
 I have adopted the plan of bringing all of the buildings upon the farm into one 
 compact body instead of being scattered promiscuously over the farm. You will 
 discover that I have drawn four sheep-barns in connection with each other, a de- 
 scription of one of which will answer for all. Sheep barn No. 1 is a building//^;/ 
 feet in length by twenty in width, with fifteen feet posts, the first room or sheep 
 room to be six feet and a half in height from the bottom of the sill to the floor. A 
 tight floor overhead to keep oiM all dust and seed. The sheep are to be on the 
 ground, it being better than a floor of wood. A pen three feet high, and to contain 
 a space equal to five or six feet square, to be placed as ^shown by the letter P on 
 ground plan, for receiving the hay when pitched from the mow, that the sheep may 
 not trample upon it, and for holding the surplus hay that may be pitched from the 
 mow. A rack for hay, grain, and roots, to extend entirely around the barn, except- 
 ing at the doors ; one door opening into the interior yard and one into the outer 
 yard. The outer yard, in which the sheep are to go into, for their daily exercise, 
 extends around the barns upon three sides, to be subdivided into small yards for 
 the accommodation of each flock ; to be enclosed by a fence five or six feet high, 
 close boarded ; the division fences are each to have a gate near the barn for passing 
 with a team, as the barns are to be filled with hiiy from that side ; yards No. ] and 
 4 are thirty-five feet by fifty ; Nos. 2 and 3 are thirty-five by eighty-five feet. The 
 mow is sufficient for twelve or fourteen tons of hay each. The sheds, if built all at 
 a time, may be divided by a fence between flocks, and the mow be left all in one. 
 
 Each sheep barn gives room for one himdred sheep ; fifteen inches of rack for 
 each sheep ; sufficient room for all to lie down in, without being too much crowded ; 
 the room should be well ventilated by funnels running up through the roof, or by 
 windows near the upper floor, with blinds, or slats. The barn I believe to be a 
 good size for one hundred sheep, but to those who are willing to add two or three 
 feet more in width, in order to give an alley between the sides of the barn and 
 racks, would find it convenient and profitable ; — but with the size given there would 
 not be sufficient room. I will give you a description of the barn and carriage room 
 attached. The barn, cawiage-house, and stable, occupies thirty-five by one hun- 
 dred feet ; K, is a granary for oats ; J, is a bay for oats in the sheaf; a cellar under 
 both for roots, with stairs at S, to enter the cellar, to be closed by a trap door, to be 
 hung with hinges ; I, is threshing floor ; G, Is bay for hay ; H. is a stable for four 
 cows or oxen ; a passage way leads from the stable into the barn floor ; a small 
 door opens out of the stable into the yard ; a small door also, from the threshing 
 floor, with large door in front for driving in with hay and grain : the whole occu- 
 pies forty-four feet of the building ; F, is a covered road-way into the yard, twelve 
 feet in width ; D, is a grain room for the horses ; C, is the horse stable with five 
 stalls, racks for hay and grain, &c.; B, is an alley, for mixing feed, enclosed tight to keep 
 dust and dirt out of the wagon-room ; O, is stairs leading into the hay mow ; A, is 
 carriage room, a deposit for farm implements, &c. A tight floor covers the carriage 
 room and stable, leaving the room nine feet in the clear. At N, stairs lead into a 
 room for storing wool. Let a room of sufficient size be partitioned off in the loft, 
 and be made tight against rats, mice, and dust, lighted by a window in the end of 
 the barn. Let there be a window or door at each end of the mow for filling the 
 same with hay. When the sheep are to be shorn let them be housed in sheep 
 barn No. 1 ; let the wagon and tool room be cleared out for the purpose, and be 
 used for a shearing room ; V, V, V, are tables, or leaves made smooth, and to be hung 
 with hinges to the side of the room near the floor, to be used for shearing upon, 
 eight and a half feet wide ; when not in use to be fastened back against the side of 
 the room, taking up but two inches of the room ; the roller to place his table in 
 such a place near the stairs, that he may throw the fleece, when tied up, directly 
 into the wool loft; let there be a trap door in the wool loft for sacking the wool. 
 The sheep, when "fleeced," may be turned into the interior yard. If the barns 
 cannot be supplied with water by pipes, let the well be dug as shown in the yard. 
 Yard No. 5 would answer a good purpose for fowls, and yard No. 6 for the hog- 
 pen, or if needed, erect a shelter, and keep the bucks safe from the other sheep, or 
 such other purpose as may be most convenient. The interior yard is fifty by sixty 
 feet, and may be used for young cattle. I should have given the height of the 
 barn and carriage house, which is eighteen feet posts. The expense of erecting 
 one sheep barn would be about $150. The expense of erecting all of the buildings 
 would be about eight or ten hundred dollars, depending entirely upon the price of 
 lumber, and of labor. 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 
 
 259 
 
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260 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP, 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FIGURE 3. 
 BY JOSHUA BICKNELL CHAPIN, PROVIDENCE, R. ISLAND. 
 
 No. 1 — A, represents the main building or store-house — of the following dimen 
 sions : length 45 ft., width 34 ft., height to the eaves 16 ft 
 
 The front internal arrangement is shown by supposing this end open. 
 
 B, B, are grain bins for convenience of daily distribution. They are 3 1-2 ft. wide, 
 12 ft. long, 3 ft. deep in front, and 3 ft. 8 in. at the back, with one or more divi- 
 sions. The bins are placed in lobbies — that lead, from either side, to the sheep-folds. 
 At the farther end of the main building on the left is a granary (not shown in the 
 drawing) 12 by 15 ft. and 8 ft. high. Adjoining this may be constructed a wool 
 room, of like dimensions ; and over these two rooms, as well as over the lobbies, 
 are spaces for depositing the straw of the ditierent grains. 
 
 The space at the right, C, C, beyond the lobby, and occupying the entire re- 
 mainder of that side of the barn, foriBs a capacious bay for the deposit of clover 
 hay, &c. 
 
 The width of the lobbies, including the bins, is 7 1-2 ft. The width of the mala 
 floor is 10 ft. Under this, and descended to by a trap-door, is the cellar, capable of 
 containing 2500 bushels of roots. 
 
 It is intended that the main floor be used for the operations of cutting or other- 
 wise preparing the food, shearing, &c. The entrance at each end is the same. 
 The barn will contain from 60 to 80 tons of hay, and 2000 bushels of grain. 
 
 On the right and left of the main building are two wings, E, E, which are the 
 sheep barns. These are 75 ft. long (they may be longer or shorter according to the 
 number of sheep desired to feed), 25 ft. wide, and 6 ft. high at the eaves, and will 
 amply accommodate 400 or 500 sheep. 
 
 F, F, are the racks, which pass all around the folds, with the exception of 
 an entrance at either ends : the one for the ingress and egress of the sheep to the 
 yards, the others for the convenience of the shepherd. Between the racks and 
 the outer walls of the fold is a passage way, of 2 1-2 ft. width, passing all around, 
 the floor of which e.xtends under the racks, and four feet beyond them, into the 
 fold proper. This is designed for the sheep to stand upon while feeding — by this 
 plan they eat better and waste less. The platform is elevated about 8 in. above the 
 ground — (represented in the drawin gby the shaded part). 
 
 The windows, hinged shutters, and doors, are sufliciently well shown in the 
 drawing. The shutters should be kept open, except during stonns, and severe cold 
 weather. No animal suffers sooner or more seriously from imperfect ventilation 
 than the sheep. Allowing a fold on either side of the main barn, admits of a divi- 
 sion of the flock, which is of much consequence. 
 
 The disposition of the yards is also shown by the drawing. Racks and open 
 sheds may be arranged around these if desirable. 
 
 A small house may be attached, and a division yard made at the outward end of 
 either fold, say at G, for diseased sheep. At H is a pump. 
 
 No. 2 is an enlarged view of the rack, f, &c. ; a is the platform spoken of above, 
 h is the back of the rack, c the feeding trougli in front, d the feeding hopper to 
 the trough. 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 
 
 261 
 
 1Bllililii'''''i'^iiS 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 BREEDING AND CROSSING. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS— QUALITIES OF A GOOD MUTTON 
 SHEEP— QUALITIES OF PURE BRITISH BREEDS— LEICESTER— SOUTH 
 DOWN— CHEVIOT,&c.— REMARKS ON THEIR CULTIVATION— IN-AND- 
 IN BREEDING— CROSSING— BREED[NG REGISTER — INFLUENCE OP 
 SEX— GOOD POINTS OF A aiERINO AND SAXON— TUPPING SEASON. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 There is no department connected with the management of 
 every description of stock of such paramount importance as 
 the one we are about to consider ; and comparative success 
 or failure must depend in a measure on the degree of knowl- 
 edge of physiological principles the breeder may possess, to- 
 gether with that information acquired by perseverance, and 
 close and discriminating observation. Those principles 
 which form the basis of successful stock breeding are not 
 wholly the results of scientific investigation, but in part by 
 having the particular points to be added or changed in the 
 form and fleece well defined in the mind, a ready perception 
 of minute blemishes as well as good points, and indefatiga- 
 ble attentions in management in every regard. The breed- 
 er acts on that general law of nature, that " like produces 
 like," a knowledge of the anatomical structure of the animal, 
 with a thorough acquaintance of its habits ; but art or skill is 
 equally necessary to make everything available to his pur- 
 pose. So it is an union of art and science which forms the 
 perfectly successful breeder. 
 
 The jostling incident to a redundant population necessarily 
 begets excessive competition in every department of industry, 
 which sets invention at work, and wit accordingly is sharp- 
 ened to aid in every enterprise. Hence, in England, to sup- 
 port her numerous subjects, everything is brought into requi- 
 
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 263 
 
 sition — every rood of ground is made subservient to grazing 
 or tillage — the form of every animal is studied, and if sus- 
 ceptible of improvement, with a view to additional profit, is 
 persevered in till accomplished. Perfection, therefore, in 
 tillage and stock can only become very general where com- 
 petition is excessive at all points, in order to secm'e individ- 
 ual competency, and the support of an overgrown population. 
 Thus we have only to refer to countries sparsely settled, and 
 the means of support consequently ample and attainable with 
 little effort, to find indifferent agriculture, as well as indiffer- 
 ent animals, and therefore little knowledge possessed, or at- 
 tention paid, to correct principles of breeding. Our own 
 widely-extended country unfortunately affords incontroverti- 
 ble evidence of the truth of this position ; hence it is appre- 
 hended that we shall not practically avail ourselves of all the 
 light which has been afforded on breeding, to a very general 
 extent, for many years to come, because stern necessity is 
 not at our backs, as in overgrown Europe, to require it. This 
 is the fact at present, and it is feared the cause stated will 
 long operate to retard the progress of general improvement 
 in stock, commensurate with its importance. 
 
 England is indebted to Bakewell and Ellman for extraor- 
 dinary reformations in her breeds of sheep ; but it is hazard- 
 ing little to say that she numbers hundreds among her breed- 
 ers at the present day quite as enlightened as their illustri- 
 ous predecessors. Bakewell and Ellman acted as pioneers 
 in a new and unexplored enterprise, and are worthy of the 
 renown they have so justly acquired ; but their efforts were 
 bent to improve the form and hasten its maturity, while the 
 American Bakewells and Ellmans have a twofold and far 
 more important object to accomplish — improvement of form 
 and fleece. Both are within the reach of American enter- 
 prise and skill, and in process of time will be attained. 
 
 As hitherto remarked, the carcase engrosses almost ex- 
 clusively the attention of British breeders, mutton being the 
 great object, and the fleece therefore takes secondary rank, 
 while in the United States it is the reverse. The subject of 
 breeding consequently will be divided, and that which will 
 claim attention first, is the consideration of the English breeds 
 of which the writer has no personal experience in their culti- 
 vation, and therefore is necessarily compelled to rely on such 
 authorities as his best judgrhent approves. The following 
 sound observations of Mr. Spooner will open the discussion : 
 
264 BREEDING AND CROSSING, 
 
 QUALITIES OF A GOOD MUTTON SHEEP. 
 
 " There are various points that are sought after by breed- 
 ers, not because of the particular value of those points, but 
 because they are evidence of other valuable qualities, such 
 as aptitude to fatten and early maturity. Thus, in the South 
 Down breed, small heads and legs, and small bones, are es- 
 teemed, as they are qualities which are found connected with 
 fattening properties. Black muzzles and legs are also val- 
 ued, probably because they denote the good constitution and 
 hardihood of the animal. We must, however, take care lest, 
 in carrying these points to an extreme, we neglect other val- 
 uable qualities. Straightness of the back, breadth of loins, 
 and rotundity of frame, are points which cannot be disputed, 
 and are not merely sig7is of good qualities, but good qualities 
 themselves. The straightness of the back, so perfect in the 
 Leicester, is by no means natural to the South Down, in an 
 unimproved state, but rather the contrary. In the improved 
 breeds, however, it is present, and is justly regarded as an 
 excellent point, giving a better surface for the laying on of 
 flesh, and afibrding larger scope for the abdominal organs. 
 Its converse, too, a round or convex back, is produced or in- 
 creased by the eflects of poverty and cold, and is almost sure 
 to follow if the breed is neglected and exposed. 
 
 " The development of bone, of course, requires nutriment 
 as well as any other part, though not, perhaps, in the same 
 degree. Large bone, therefore, abstracts nutriment which 
 would otherwise be more profitably employed, and thus is 
 anything but a desirable point in sheep. Horns, for the same 
 reason, are much better dispensed with. One point in sheep, 
 which is justly regarded as extremely favorable, is a soft, 
 mellow feeling of the skin and parts beneath. These parts are 
 the cellular, or rather adipose membranes, which in fat sheep 
 are full of fat, and in lean sheep, when possessing this mel- 
 low feeling, denote the plentiful existence of these membra- 
 nous cells ready for the reception of fat, which is deposited 
 in them almost in the form of oil. 
 
 " Breadth of loin and rotundity of frame are qualities that 
 require no observation, having been before alluded to. The 
 former denotes the presence of a large quantity of flesh in 
 the spot where it is most valuable, and it also bespeaks a 
 large and roomy abdomen. A round frame is also the sure 
 attendant of a large abdomen, and an extended surface for the 
 
QUALITIES OF PURE BRITISH BREEDS. 265 
 
 muscles of the back and loins. A general squareness of 
 frame bespeaks large muscles, particularly of the quarters. 
 
 " What, indeed, is wanted in a good-formed animal, is as 
 much flesh and as little bone and gristle as possible, and this 
 flesh is required where it is most valuable ; for instance, it 
 is much more valuable on the loins and quarters than about 
 the head and upper or scrag-end of the neck. A large de- 
 velopment of flesh is pretty sure to be accompanied by a 
 disposition to fatten ; but for profitable feeding it is essential 
 that these qualities should be developed early — constituting 
 early maturity." 
 
 QUALITIES OF PURE BRITISH BREEDS. 
 
 The three pure breeds which claim so large a share of 
 attention in Great Britain, are the New Leicester, South 
 Down, and Cheviot. It is universally conceded that, so far 
 as propensity to fatten and early maturity are considered, the 
 Leicester outstrips all competition. These qualities may 
 be regarded as a model, and other breeds are proportionally 
 valuable as they approximate these prominent points of the 
 Leicester. Placed on a fertile pasture, and free from expo- 
 sure, its quick and large returns of profit will ever make it 
 the favorite of a large majority of English sheep-farmers. 
 Its drawbacks, originating from the extreme refinement of 
 its breeding by Mr. Bakewell and his successors, are, com- 
 paratively, a weak constitution, incapacity to endure travel 
 and exposure to bleak situations, and great liability to inflam- 
 matory disorders. Again, the assimilation of its food tends so 
 greatly to the production of flesh and fat, the milk secretions 
 are proportionally injured, and its qualities therefore for nurs- 
 ing are decidedly inferior to the South Down, Cotswold, 
 Lincoln, Cheviot, as well as some other varieties. Its prom- 
 inent good qualities, as mentioned, have been turned to the 
 improvement of other breeds deficient in these qualities, and 
 to such an exterit that an original Lincoln or Cotswold is 
 quite rare in all England ; indeed it is thus with all other of 
 the ancient long-wooled varieties. Mr. Spooner observes, 
 " That the Leicester have been extensively employed in im- 
 proving the breed of other sheep, and so successfully has 
 this practice been in many instances that the result of the 
 cross has produced a breed more profitable than the Leicester 
 itself, retaining the fattening qualities of the sire with the 
 greater hardihood and adaptation to the soil possessed by the 
 
 23 
 
266 BREEDING AND CROSSING. 
 
 native breed." This is applicable to the Lincoln, Cotswold, 
 and Romney-marsh breeds. The mutton of the Leicester 
 (on the authority of Mr. Spooner) is by no means so good 
 as the South Down, which, however, is partly, not wholly, 
 owing to the early period (twenty months) at which they are 
 fit for the butcher, and partly to the very large proportion of 
 tallow compared to the lean. Thus it is not a favorite in the 
 London markets, and accordingly, of late years, the first cross 
 between the Leicester and the Down has been produced 
 instead of the Leicester ; and it is contended that this cross 
 is the most profitable sheep that can be fattened, making 
 greater and more rapid progress than the Down, and better 
 meat than the Leicester. 
 
 In the history of the South Down the reader is made aware 
 that between the original Down and the Improved there is a 
 wide difference, the latter possessing most of the important 
 requisites which constitute the perfect mutton sheep. With 
 a propensity to fatten inferior only to the Leicester, but with 
 later maturity, this breed are good travellers, hardy compared 
 with the Leicester, and capable of thriving on short pas- 
 ture. Their mutton is second only to the mountain breeds 
 in fineness of flavor, and instead of their fat being concen- 
 trated as in the Leicester, it is dispersed through the flesh, 
 or " well mattled," according to the butcher's phraseology. 
 Mr. Spooner says, " Nothing can afford a better proof of the 
 sterling qualities of this breed than the fact that some twenty 
 years since, the price of South Down wool rendered the 
 fleece a matter of great importance ; and now, although the 
 price is reduced to one third, and it can never expect to real- 
 ize much advance, yet, notwithstanding this, the valuable 
 qualities of the animal, and the improvements that have been 
 made, have enabled the breed still to retain a foremost rank 
 in public favor." 
 
 The South Down ram is extensively employed at the pres- 
 ent day in Great Britain for perfecting the more inferior 
 breeds, and with the long-wooled sheep to produce a first 
 cross, the mutton of which is so highly esteemed. A dis- 
 tinguished breeder in Hampshire some years since crossed 
 the improved Cotswold ewe with the Down ram, and to such 
 perfection has he brought the product, that he now challen- 
 ges all England to produce a breed that will yield larger 
 returns. The Down is evidently making rapid progress in 
 the estimation of American breeders, and thus far, the cross 
 
QUALITIES OF PURE BRITISH BREEDS. 267 
 
 with low grade sheep has been attended with much success, 
 which, however, considering its marked superiority, is by 
 no means a cause of wonder. Wherever the pasture is not 
 over-abundant, this breed is likely to take precedence over 
 all others for mutton. 
 
 The third pure breed is the Cheviot, which are inferior to 
 the South Down in fattening powers and early maturity, but 
 greatly superior in hardihood and endurance of cold. Their 
 excellence as nurses is pre-eminent, and consequently in 
 instances where it was desirable to push forward lambs for 
 market, the cross with the Leicester has been resorted to 
 with complete success. In the northern parts of this State, 
 as well as through the New England States, the Cheviot is 
 admirably adapted to the climate, and ordinary modes of 
 management. 
 
 The next breeds of the long-wooled varieties which will be 
 very briefly noticed, are the Lincoln and Cotswold. These, 
 however, have lost some of their original characteristics by 
 extensive crossing with the Leicester ram, and by it have been 
 made as greatly superior to their ancestors, as the modern 
 Leicester is over the old breed. In many respects the Lin- 
 coln and Cotswold are better suited for American breeders 
 than the Leicester, being hardier, carrying heavier fleeces, 
 and withal, are better nurses ; and, as observed of the Lei- 
 cester, where ample provision can be made for quick fatten- 
 ing, and placed in localities which afibrd facilities for easy 
 access to a good mutton market, they are worthy of much 
 consideration with those who cultivate sheep for the carcase. 
 
 The above brief summary of the qualities of the prominent 
 English breeds, which is but a recapitulatio-n of what the reader 
 has remarked in their history, is for the purpose, in part, of 
 calling the attention of American breeders to their great and 
 undisputed merits. It will at once be conceded, that they are 
 not as profitable as the fine-wooled breeds, if placed in situa- 
 tions unadapted to them, and such localities have already been 
 pointed out. But it is scarcely necessary to say, that it would 
 be unwise for all to turn their attention to raising fine wool, 
 and wholly neglect the production of an article which is be- 
 ginning to be so highly appreciated, and paid for accordingly, 
 in our city markets. Fine mutton must always be in requi- 
 sition as well as fine wool ; and with a considerate choice of 
 breeds which produce the former, and of such as are partic- 
 ularly adapted to the products of the farm, the growing of 
 
268 BREEDING AND CROSSING. 
 
 mutton can be made quite as profitable as the cultivation of 
 wool only. In addition to the value of the carcase, the new 
 American enterprise for manufacturing the combing wool of 
 English sheep, has already materially advanced the value of 
 their fleeces, as good combing wools are now commanding 
 as high as thirty-seven cents per lb. ; and the average weight 
 of fleece of the long-wooled breeds may safely be estimated 
 at six lbs. 
 
 The prejudice entertained against the British breeds by 
 American farmers originates in ignorance and mismanage- 
 ment. In many instances they have been abandoned and 
 unjustly condemned because they could not be supported on 
 the same amount of feed which is requisite for smaller breeds. 
 Now let the American breeder for one moment consider the 
 fact that the expenditure of food is in the ratio of the 
 size of the breed ; and if the same amount of flesh and fat 
 can be grown on three English sheep, that can on five or six 
 grade Saxons, or Merinos, pray why are not the three as 
 profitable as the six ? The English breeds consume, we will 
 suppose, double the quantity of an equal number of the 
 ordinary American varieties, but when they are butchered 
 the proportion of valuable parts to the offal is greatly the 
 largest, and the weight of carcase is occasionally three times 
 greater, and almost invariably more than double. All that it 
 is necessary to do in order to test the truth of these remarks, is, 
 to weigh accurately an equal number of English and Amer- 
 ican sheep, and also their daily rations till fit for the butcher. 
 This is the only way for every farmer to do, who doubts. 
 
 The turnip system of feeding so universal in Great Britain 
 for fattening sheep should be resorted to in this country 
 wherever it is practicable, and conformity in all other respects 
 to English practice. This we should not despise and reject 
 simply because England is one thing and America another. 
 English animals and agriculture are second to none in the 
 world ; and in whatever point we imitate these, when prac- 
 ticable, will result in the largest returns of profit. The fol- 
 lowing observations, by Mr. Spooner, are in keeping with 
 the above remarks : 
 
 " The management and selection of any breed of sheep 
 must, after all, become a matter of pounds, shillings, and pence. 
 The question the farmer has to consider is, what description 
 of sheep will in the long run return the most profit ; and this 
 question must be viewed in relation to the management he 
 
IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 269 
 
 will be able to adopt on the particular farm on which he 
 may be located. It is not therefoi;e a simple, bvst a compound 
 question. It is not merely which breed will make most flesh 
 and fat, but which will make it in the shortest time and on 
 the least food ; which can bear the weather, or hard keep, 
 or travelling, or a particular mode of management, with the 
 greatest impunity. All these considerations must enter into 
 the farmer's mind before he can come to a sound conclusion. 
 From the want of making these considerations many fatal 
 mistakes have been made, and a flock has been selected al- 
 together unsuitable to the soil, and incapable of bearing the 
 severity of the weather." 
 
 IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 
 
 No point connected with breeding has elicited so much 
 controversy, and much of it certainly of a random character, 
 as the one we are about to consider. There are grounds, to 
 a certain extent, both for an affirmative and negative of the 
 question ; and therefore, the writer, with due deference to 
 divided opinion, will present some of the views and argu- 
 ments entertained and advanced on either side, which will 
 enable the reader to draw his own conclusions from the 
 premises. 
 
 By breeding in and in is properly meant choosing indi- 
 viduals to breed from of the same family between which 
 exist propinquity or relationship of blood. The objects 
 sought to be accomplished by breeding m and in, are to 
 strengthen good qualities and get rid of bad ones as soon as 
 possible ; it is therefore very evident that it requires a mas- 
 ter's skill in selection of individuals, for if any possess im- 
 perfections, these, however slight at first, become hereditary, 
 and will go on assuming a worse and worse type till the. 
 breed become worthless. Mr. Cully, the eminent sheep 
 breeder, entertained the opinion, that less risk was run by 
 breeding in and in than is generally supposed ; yet at the 
 same time was slyly procuring his rams from Mr. Bakewell, 
 and selling his own at high prices to others. 
 
 Blacklock contends that breeding in and in is as " destruc- 
 tive to flocks, as marriages of near relations to the human 
 kind. We would not witness an every-day entailment of 
 diseases, if people would forego their unnatural love of 
 money, and cease their endeavors to keep it in ' the family,' 
 by forming matrimonial alliances with those who are near of 
 
 23* 
 
270 BREEDING AND CROSSING. 
 
 kin. The law of God forbids us to wed those who stand in 
 certain degrees of propinquity ; but, if we and our descend- 
 ants avail ourselves of the limits of this law, and marry on 
 its verge a certain number of times, misery must infallibly 
 be the lot even of the tenth generation ; and instead of be- 
 ing fathers of a mighty people, few and full of sorrow will 
 be the days of our children ; while in place of retaining in 
 their possession our darling wealth, it will, ere long, pass 
 into the hand of the stranger." 
 
 In 1800, Mr. Ezra L'Hommedieu, Vice-President of the 
 New York State Agricultural Society, collected very many 
 observations and facts on the breeding of sheep, which went 
 to show the degenerating tendency of breeding in and in. 
 Mr. Dick, of Edinburgh, states, on information given him by 
 many intelligent farmers, that cattle bred in and in are sub- 
 ject to dyers in the throat after they have attained their first 
 year. Blacklock says — " Clyers are enlarged lymphatic 
 glands, which are a sure sign of what is termed a scrofu- 
 lous habit, and a breaking up of the constitution." 
 
 Mr. Dickson asserts the following, which will be found in 
 the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, of Edinburgh : — " The 
 evil of breeding in and in, or, in other words, producing too 
 great refinement of tone, is manifested in the first place by 
 a tenderness of constitution ; the animals not being able to 
 withstand the extremes of heat and cold, rain and drought. 
 If the evil is prolonged through several generations, the 
 forms of the animals become affected, the bone becomes 
 very small, the neck droops, the skin of the head becomes 
 tight and scantily covered with hair, the expression of the 
 eye indicates extreme sensibility, the hair on the body he- 
 comes thin and short, and the skin as thin as paper ; the 
 points continue good, and predisposition to fatness increases, 
 but the whole carcase becomes much diminished in size, 
 though retaining its plumpness and beautiful symmetry. The 
 evil, however, does not terminate in the production of these 
 symptoms. Internal diseases ensue, such as disorganiza- 
 tion of the liver, or rot, polypi in the trachea, clyers, and 
 malformation of the neck and legs." A writer observes — 
 " It is from this cause that almost every Royal family con- 
 tains a large proportion of idiots, or, at the best, persons of 
 very weak intellect ; and such will continue to occur till 
 legislators fall on some plan of striking at the groundwork of 
 the mischief. If the laws of God and man define to us so 
 
IN-^IKD-IN BREEDING. 271 
 
 clearly the evils of intermnrrying with relatives, — and if, as 
 all animals are constructed on one grand plan, we admit the 
 proximity of the sheep to the human race, it follows, that 
 what is destructive in this respect to the one, is destructive 
 to the other, and that we should seek, by a nearly similar, 
 if not wider range of rules, to obviate many of those dis- 
 eases, of which, when under our protection, they are so 
 frequently the subjects." 
 
 The above is deemed sufficient to show the ground on 
 which the opponents of breeding in and in substantiate their 
 arguments. The writer will now introduce the views of 
 Mr. Spooner on the other side of the question, and from the 
 great interest which every sheep-breeder, who aspires to 
 complete success in his calling, should feel on the subject, 
 no apology is necessary for the length of the extract. 
 
 " The subject of breeding in and in, or from near affini- 
 ties, is one which has given rise to much discussion, and on 
 which there still prevails much discordance of opinion. Its 
 merits, however, can be best understood by carefully exam- 
 ining into its advantages and disadvantages. In the human 
 subject, sexual intercourse between near relations is very 
 properly forbidden by law, and appears, indeed, altogether 
 foreign to our feelings ; and even marriage between rela- 
 tives of the second degree, such as cousins, is regarded by 
 many persons as subject to great objection, and apt to entail 
 disease on the offspring, and particularly disease of a men- 
 tal character. Statistical facts bearing on this matter cer- 
 tainly support this opinion in a marked degree. 
 
 " With animals there is no reluctance to sexual intercourse 
 between the nearest affinities, and the custom of breeding 
 from sheep closely related has been for a long time prac- 
 tised by breeders of considerable eminence. In the human 
 subject the objections to the practice are at once granted, 
 but let us see whether they likewise obtain with animals. 
 In the former, marriages are generally entered into with 
 little, if any regard to the health of the individuals con- 
 cerned, the consequence of which is, that the diseases of 
 the parents, or rather their predispositions, are entailed on 
 their offspring. The result of this is, that most families 
 have predisposition to some particular complaint ; and 
 thus if two members of the same family have sexual inter- 
 course, the probability is, that if both parents had predispo- 
 sition to a particular disease in an equal degree, this will be 
 
272 BREEDING AND CROSSING. 
 
 increased in their offspring in a double ratio. But on the 
 contrary, if a man unites with a woman of a different family 
 and a different predisposition, the idiosyncracy of the off- 
 spring to the diseases of either parent is likely to be pre- 
 vented or retarded. 
 
 " With animals the case is different. If due attention be 
 paid, a principal object will be to breed from healthy sub- 
 jects, by which means one fertile cause of hereditary pre- 
 disposition to disease is prevented. A healthy form and 
 sound constitution are essential to successful breeding, and 
 for the development of those points we seek to obtain. 
 Thus the principal objection to breeding from near affinities 
 which exists in the human subject, does not obtain amongst 
 animals ; and even if, in the former, mental disease is more 
 apt to occur when this practice is pursued, this also is an 
 objection which does not apply to animals, though it has 
 been urged by some that sheep bred in and in are more sub- 
 ject to diseases of the brain — a conclusion, however, which 
 I am much disposed to doubt. 
 
 " Thus the objections to breeding in and in are not insuper- 
 able ; what, however, are its advantages ? The stronger 
 resemblance there is in the qualities of both parents, sup- 
 posing those qualities are good, the more likely is it that the 
 offspring will be perfect. By breeding with a view to im- 
 provement, the greatest excellences are likely to be con- 
 centrated in one family ; if, therefore, the members of this 
 family were not coupled, they must probably be united to 
 inferior animals of either sex, by which practice improve- 
 ment will be materially retarded. It is, therefore, very fre- 
 quently the surest method of arriving at the greatest degree 
 of excellency, and thus it is a practice which has been fol- 
 lowed by the most eminent breeders of sheep with the 
 greatest success ; yet it does not possess any advantages 
 peculiar to itself and different from those we have stated, 
 and if two rams were obtainable possessing precisely equal 
 qualifications, I should not be disposed to select one because 
 he was a near relation to the ewe, but the contrary. 
 
 " In-and-in breeding may thus be either productive of good 
 or bad effects, but in neither case is the result to be attributed 
 to the close affinity, but rather to the circumstances con- 
 nected with it. If no care is employed either in selecting 
 or culling the flock, unquestionably both disease and defect 
 will arise ; and two animals, each predisposed to the same 
 
IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 273 
 
 bad quality, being allowed to connect, the predisposition to 
 such defect will exist in their offspring in a twofold de- 
 gree. If, on the other hand, proper care is employed — 
 if those animals only are allowed to breed that possess 
 good forms and healthy constitutions, then undoubtedly the 
 stock will be preserved pure, disease will be warded off, 
 and the proper form and qualifications will be perpetuated." 
 
 It is proper to add, that Mr. Spooner in a subsequent page 
 qualifies somewhat more the tendency of the above, leaving 
 the reader to infer that breeding in and in is a very nice mat- 
 ter, of which the number is exceedingly small in whose hands 
 it can be intrusited with safety, and to be pursued always 
 within proper limits. His views are presented rather to 
 show what can be said in its favor, and not because the wri- 
 ter thinks they should be acquiesced in. In his humble opin- 
 ion, in general, it is to this vile system of breeding that, quite 
 as much as the miserable general management to which Amer- 
 ican flocks have been subjected, we see so many worthless 
 specimens of sheep, both in form and fleece, throughout the 
 length and breadth of the land. It has been the practice of 
 thousands of sheep-farmers to confine themselves to a single 
 tup in their flocks until age, perhaps, had nearly destroyed his 
 procreative powers, putting him to his own progeny for suc- 
 cessive years, which resulted in causing disease and prema- 
 ture death, which, however, was often ignorantly and unjust- 
 ly attributed to imbecility of constitution of the breed : hence 
 in numerous instances the violent prejudices engendered 
 towards the Saxon race. Farmers in general of the North, 
 from the vicissitudes of the climate, if for no other reason, 
 must avoid the system of breeding in question, as they would 
 a reptile. None need imagine for a moment that their sheep 
 are so perfect in all respects, but others either far or near 
 may be found among which can be obtained individuals fully 
 equal if not superior to their own. At all events, the effort 
 should be made to find them, rather than incur the risk of ul- 
 timately making worthless those in their possession. Every 
 flock-master should beware of entering any flock to purchase 
 from, if he knows that its proprietor has pursued for any 
 length of time the breeding in-and-in system, and especially 
 if the flock is small, and the range therefore has been limited 
 for selection. 
 
 The evils incident to breeding in and in have long since 
 been discovered in England, and also among the celebrated 
 
274 BREEDING AND CROSSING. 
 
 German Saxon wool-growers, and consequently a system has 
 been adopted of breeding from different families of the same 
 race. This unquestionably is the best course, where the flocks 
 are about perfect, as the males interchanged have shades of 
 difference impressed by soil, herbage, and treatment, and the 
 defects of each family have a good chance to be counteracted 
 by the perfections of the other. By this means the bad points 
 are gradually lessened, and of course are succeeded by other 
 valuable properties. 
 
 CROSSING. 
 
 The next system adopted in breeding, is crossing an infe- 
 rior race by another possessing properties desirable to ac- 
 quire. This, it will at once be conceded, is the most proper 
 course for us, as it will be the means of most speedily dimin- 
 ishing the imperfections which characterize the forms and 
 fleeces of a large majority of American flocks. Where the 
 contrast is so great as it is between the ordinary sheep of the 
 country and the pure Merino and Saxon, years will be re- 
 quired of patience, steady perseverance, and nice discrimina- 
 tion in selecting from generation to generation, before the 
 goal of perfection will be reached. Many sheep-farmers 
 imagine that two or three crosses will accomplish their ob- 
 ject, whereas nothing scarcely is more absurd to expect. The 
 greater the contrast, or less homogeneousness of the breeds 
 crossed, the greater length of time will be required, and skill 
 necessary to employ. The proper steps to be taken in the 
 process of crossing, the writer will endeavor familiarly to 
 illustrate. 
 
 The object sought, we will suppose, is the improvement, 
 for the most part, of the fleece, by changing its character 
 from openness and coarseness to the opposites, fineness and 
 compactness, or improvement in quantity as well as quality. 
 The ewes we will imagine are the more ordinary grades and 
 the ram of the Merino blood, the good pedigree of which 
 there can be no question, and whose fleece comes fully up 
 to the object of our wishes. 
 
 The result of the first cross will exhibit a few, the wool of 
 which about their shoulders approximates that of the sire, 
 while of other parts there will be great discrepancies, and 
 especially so in the region of the rumps and thighs. All will 
 manifest a general improvement over the dams, and a few a 
 marked likeness of form to the sire ; taking the Avhole to- 
 
CROSSING. 275 
 
 gether, however, the progeny of the first cross will present a 
 queer melange ; but they must undergo a rigid examination, 
 and those whose fleeces conform nearest to the rams should 
 be marked and retained, and those farthest from his excel- 
 lencies, disposed of. The ram may be again put to the same 
 ewes, but a similar result will follow, and selections should 
 be made from the second batch in like manner as from the 
 first. The question now presents itself. What should be done 
 with the ewes of the first cross, which we will suppose old 
 enough to receive the tup ? Should they be put to their sire ? 
 This is certainly revolting, to say the least of it, and yet if 
 it is done, is part and parcel of the in-and-in system. If it 
 is permitted, however, there can be little doubt, that their 
 progeny will approximate more nearly to the sire than if an- 
 other ram equal in all respects had been substituted. This 
 will arise from the first cross possessing much, in a general 
 sense, of his nature, or, in the phraseology of breeders, a 
 " strong dash of blood." Notwithstanding this, and however 
 others may differ, the writer would prefer decidedly using a 
 second ram, as, by so doing, he might correct some trifling 
 defect the original one may have possessed, and which, if 
 used, where the affinity is so extremely close, would exhibit 
 itself in a much stronger type in the second progeny. 
 
 If the second ram has been used, which we will consider 
 the most proper, it will make a second cross, and the prog- 
 eny of this will exhibit also a curious variety of fleeces and 
 forms, being neither one thing nor the other ; indeed, on the 
 whole, will operate to discourage much the breeder, and he 
 will think his object almost unattainable. Some will be, as 
 those of the first cross, pretty good about the shoulders, the 
 fleeces, however, thin ; others will show a dozen, more or 
 less, qualities of wool in their respective fleeces, in short, 
 everything but being right. But the breeder must not be 
 discouraged. Let another ram be procured of equal excel- 
 lence with the first and second, and used for the third cross, 
 and to his great delight, among the progeny he will discover 
 a number which begin to resemble quite closely the object 
 for which he is striving. After each successive cross, he 
 should pursue rigidly his course of selection, for his ultimate 
 triumph will depend greatly on his skill and attention in this 
 respect. The progeny of the fourth cross (at least a good 
 majority of them) will come well up to the mark — not quite, 
 however, as, by critical examination, he will discover some 
 
276 BREEDING AND CROSSING. 
 
 coarseness yet about, the rump, belly, thighs, &c. ; and per- 
 haps the fleeces will not be compact enough ; others there 
 will be, although qualities generally good, whose fleeces will 
 be too dry, not being sufficiently imbued with yolk. 
 
 Let the breeder pursue an undeviating track in selection, 
 for he will discover individuals even after the seventh and 
 eighth crosses comparatively indifl^erent, and if his motto is 
 " onward," he will not breed from these. But what, perhaps, 
 will surprise him greatly at this stage, notwithstanding a 
 particular ewe may be almost as perfect in her fleece as 
 either of the rams employed, yet she will bring forth an 
 offspring occasionally, which will represent the defects in a 
 marked degree of some of those of the first and second cross ! 
 but were he an " old stager" this would not astonish him, as 
 it is an ordinary occurrence for even ten or fifteen years after 
 the commencement of improvement in instances where the 
 blood on one side was of the ordinary stamp, and which 
 would have been still more frequent, if the rams used had 
 not been ivholly pure. This is an item showing the great 
 value to be attached to blood. 
 
 After the seventh or eighth cross, will it be proper to em- 
 ploy any males produced in the flock ? As a general rule, 
 no; it is safer to procure them from another family higher 
 bred. Hitherto it has too frequently been the case that, after 
 a flock has been pushed far on to perfection, the breeder has 
 resorted to his own rams, by which improvement has ceased, 
 arising from the propensity of even high-grade animals to 
 transmit some of the defects of the stock on one side from 
 which they sprang, to their progeny. This rule, however, 
 may sometimes be violated with impunity. For instance, 
 after the third or fourth cross, some of the ewes may pro- 
 duce offspring uniformly alike, and very perfect, and such 
 instances show that they have been very thoroughly infused 
 with the pure blood of their sires ; therefore in such cases it 
 may be safe to employ their offspring as tups. But the 
 breeder should be very sure of the circumstance stated, which 
 can only be arrived at with certainty by attention in marking 
 the lambs for several successive years. 
 
 In breeding for the fleece, other points must not be neg- 
 lected, such as form, and indications of sound constitution. 
 The remarks which have appeared in reference to breeding 
 the mutton sheej) will apply in some measure to Merinos 
 and Saxons. Small bone, and a compact square frame, but 
 
CROSSING. 277 
 
 not too large, are always good points in any breed, and 
 should never be lost sight of. It should be considered that, 
 after we have shorn the fleece, the drovers have a right to 
 step in to judge of the carcase, and they have a curious way 
 of " coming over us," if our sheep are too small and slab- 
 sided. 
 
 The following observations on the subject in hand are by 
 Blacklock, which the writer believes are worthy of much 
 attention, and which he quotes for the reason that he feels 
 they will have more weight than any he can offer himself, 
 while they also corroborate several points already set forth. 
 
 " The fact is, that, if you wish to have a particular kind 
 of sheep, you must first of all be in possession of a pasture 
 suitable for the new-comers. You must consider the influ- 
 ence of the individval parents on the progeny, the size of 
 the animals, their habits and dispositions, and their peculiar- 
 ities in regard to the time of their maturity, and fattening 
 properties ; and. having anticipated these apparently trifling 
 affairs, you must see that the surface of the farm, its degree 
 of exposure, and the quantity and quality of its productions, 
 are calculated for the profitable maintenance of the breed in 
 view. Far too little attention is bestowed, at the commence- 
 ment of such an undertaking, on these all-swaying matters. 
 Farmers enter upon this, the most arduous of all professions, 
 with the settled conviction, that nothing is so simple as the 
 engrafting of a race of animals on a particular part of a coun- 
 try. They have read, or heard, of others who have gained 
 fame, and a fortune, by successful endeavors of the kind, and 
 they think that nothing is easier than to follow their example ; 
 but they forget the thoughtful hours, and irksome duties, 
 these men had to tolerate, before they could speak of any- 
 thing like success. No animal can be 7nade to forego at once 
 a long-used food, an ancient locality, a peculiarity of clime and 
 season, and the instinctive habits that have bee7i long nurtured 
 by these, without both it and its progeny suffering from the 
 change* 
 
 " In crossing there are several important things to be at- 
 tended to. Well-formed parents ought to be selected, and, 
 if enlargement of the carcase be wanted, the issue should 
 be better fed than its originators, which ought to be of a size 
 rather under, than above what the pasture is capable of sup- 
 porting. The size of the parents should not be much dispro- 
 * The truth of this remark will strike the prairie flock-master. 
 24 
 
278 BREEDING AND CROSSING. 
 
 portioned at first, as nature abhors sudden extremes, and does 
 everything in the most gradual maimer. We must not imag- 
 ine that when, by dint of crossing, we have obtained the 
 variety wanted, that it will remain in the condition we have 
 brought it, without the slightest liability to alter. Many far- 
 mers believe they have done all that is required, if they 
 subject their stock to three or four crossings with a breed of 
 acknowledged excellence. They think that the improved 
 animals they have obtained will support their acquired char- 
 acters, uninfluenced by extraneous agency. Now nothing can 
 be more faulty than this mode of management, as is proved 
 by a comparison of stock so treated, with flocks which have 
 uninterruptedly received that undeviating attention which can 
 alone ensure a continuance of the properties desired. Such 
 men forget that the climate is operating with as great certainty 
 as on the rocks around ; and that as the herbage is determined 
 by the nature of the adjacent rocks, so are the peculiarities 
 of the sheep influenced by the herbage ; and that if they man- 
 age to change the characters of the breed, it can, in a majority 
 of cases, be only for a time, unless the tendencies of the sur- 
 rounding elements are counteracted hy a constant recurrence 
 to the originators of the fiock. 
 
 " In crossing we must beware of the tendencies which 
 nature, in numerous instances, displays to perpetuate dis- 
 eases, dispositions, and aberrations of the normal structure. 
 A predisposition to many diseases is engendered in the sheep, 
 hy too great refinement in breeding, lohich tends to diminish 
 the size of the animal, prevents them feeding to perfection, de- 
 stroys their fecundity, and imparts great tenderness of con- 
 stitution. Accidental deviations from the natural type may, 
 also, be hereditary, as is seen in those races of dogs which 
 have a supernumerary toe on the hind foot, and tarsal bones 
 to correspond. In the human race, also, several gener- 
 ations of a particular family have been distinguished by 
 having six fingers and six toes on their hands and feet. It 
 is in like manner to an accidental malformation, that the 
 Americans are indebted for their Otter breed of sheep." 
 
 BREEDING REGISTER. 
 
 It is of the highest importance that every sheep-farmer 
 who aspires to distinction and success in his profession, and 
 more especially those who are strictly professional breeders, 
 should properly classify their sheep, and keep a record of 
 
BREEDING REGISTER. 
 
 279 
 
 them. This particular, and, indeed, everything appertaining 
 to the subject of breeding, is most rigidly attended to by 
 German flock-masters, and is the means by which breeding 
 from too close affinities is avoided, as also for affording a 
 reference to the qualities of every individual of the flock. 
 
 The Germans are exceedingly particular in their examina- 
 tions, beginning with the lamb when only a few months old, 
 which receives at this time a mark denoting its qualities, 
 and subsequently and before it has attained the age of one 
 year, is subjected to two more inspections, and if the results 
 correspond with the first examination, it receives a final 
 mark of approval, and is retained as a permanent member of 
 the flock. The first class is denominated " Super Elector ;" 
 the second class " Elector ;" the third class " Prima ;" the 
 fourth class " Secunda ;" the fifth class " Tertia." Few 
 among the better flocks will range as low as the last, and if 
 any individual is found to sink any farther, it is disposed of. 
 The sheep are put upon a table and held, while the exam- 
 iner with a small pair of scissors clips samples from the 
 neck, shoulders, and thighs, which are at once enveloped in 
 papers, and on the back of each is noted a number corres- 
 ponding with the ear-marks. A clerk, with pen and ink, is 
 in attendance, who notes down the texture of the staple, 
 whether short or long, round, flat, or spiral, exterior appear- 
 ance of the fleece, evenness, size, shape, &c. 
 
 The following cut exemplifies the mode of numbering on 
 the ears, by which the age of each individual is denoted, 
 and its general qualities explained by reference to the Reg- 
 ister. 
 
 Each slit in the lower rim of the right ear represents, 1 
 
 do. upper do. 5 
 
 do. lower left 100 
 
 do. upper do. 500 
 
280 
 
 BREEDING AND CROSSING. 
 
 The central hole in the right ear, 
 do. left 
 
 In the above figure 
 7 slits in the upper rim of the left ear, 500 each 
 4 do. lower do. do. 100 
 
 The central hole in do. 
 
 4 slits in the upper rim of the right ear, 5 
 4 do. lower do. do. 1 
 
 The central hole in do. 1 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 50 
 
 each 
 
 3500 
 
 do. 
 
 400 
 
 
 50 
 
 do. 
 
 20 
 
 do. 
 
 4 
 
 do. 
 
 25 
 
 3999 
 
 Number of the sheep. 
 
 The following is a form of a Breeding Register kept by 
 the late Mr. H. D. Grove. His notes of explanation, to- 
 gether with some valuable remarks, are quoted from Col- 
 man's Fourth Mass. Agricultural Reports, and which are 
 worthy of much attention, from his acknowledged experi- 
 ence and skill as a sheep-breeder. 
 
 BREEDING REGISTER, FROM JULY 1, 1838, TO JULY 1, 1839. 
 
 No. 
 
 Year in 
 which 
 born. 
 
 Tup'dby 
 Ram No. 
 
 Date of 
 lambiug- 
 
 No. of lambs. 
 
 Classification of the 
 Lambs, etc. 
 
 General Remarks. 
 
 Rams 
 
 Ewes. 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 1833 
 1834 
 
 27—4 
 26—4 
 
 6—4 
 7—4 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 CI. small, and 
 close culled. 
 
 2 CI. middle, 
 small curls. 
 
 Thin lambs — one was 
 very feeble and died. 
 
 The lambs had a few 
 hairs under the belly, 
 &c. 
 
 " In the first column is the number of the ewe ; in the 
 second, his age, and instead of writing it out in full, I 
 merely write 3, 4, 5, and 6, which means either 1833, '34, 
 '35, and '36, (fee. In the third column is the number and 
 age of the ram, thus 27 — 4, — 27 means the number, and 4 his 
 age, namely, 1834, &c. In the fourth colmnn is the day 
 and month when the lamb is yeaned, thus 6 — 4, — 6 means 
 the 6th day, and 4, fourth month. In the 5th and 6th columns 
 are the number of ram and ewe lambs. In the seventh is 
 the classification of the lambs, when a few days old, and 
 the last column is for general remarks. 
 
 " I am very particular in classifying my lambs with as 
 much accuracy as possible, to enable me to decide upon the 
 good or bad qualities of a progenitor as a breeder ; if his 
 progeny is not such as I desire, he is rejected at once from 
 further service. 1 do not often use my rams after they are 
 
BREEDING REGISTER, 281 
 
 5 or 6 years old, for when they have attained that age, their 
 progeny begins to fail in vigor and strength. Much, how- 
 ever, depends upon the treatment he receives. If a ram is 
 carefully used, not over-worked, he will retain his vigor and 
 elasticity much longer, and I have known rams 7, 8, or even 
 9 years of age, whose progeny was as vigorous as that from 
 a ram of 3 years old. 
 
 " I select my stock rams with the greatest care, for I con- 
 sider this the most important point in breeding ; and here I 
 find my records of great value in aiding me to make the best 
 choice. If, for instance, I have a ram before me, who has, 
 in every respect, the requisite qualities, and turning to my 
 records, I find his ancestors occupy a high rank, that is, 
 stand in the first class for a number of generations back, 
 I then have no hesitation to appoint him a sire for my ewes, 
 and in nine cases out of ten, he acquits himself to my entire 
 satisfaction. Or, if I have two rams before me of equal 
 quality, and hardly knowing to which one to give the pref- 
 erence, my records decide the question, for the one who has 
 the best ancestry is preferred to the other. 
 
 " The experienced shepherd knows, that even in full- 
 blood flocks, not all individuals are equal in quality of wool, 
 size, form, &c., but that some families arrive to much greater 
 perfection than others. Here again my records are of great 
 value, for with their aid I can designate every individual 
 member of each family, and cross them with other families, 
 and in such divisions as I think most beneficial. For eleven 
 years have I thus managed my flock, and selected my stock 
 rams from those of my own raising, and yet I have no very 
 near relationship, and I can go on eleven years more in the 
 same manner and avoid that error, only taking a little more 
 trouble, and some years use more rams, than to a superficial 
 observer would seem necessary. Now if my sheep were 
 not numbered and recorded, I could not go on without run- 
 ning the risk of injury to my flock by too close breeding. 
 This is an important point in the breeding domestic animals 
 of all kinds, and if once lost sight of, the injury will soon 
 be perceived by the experienced and discerning eye, which 
 injury is often irreparable. That it is lost sight of and is 
 overlooked by too many of my brother shepherds, is but too 
 true, and this is one reason why so many make but little 
 progress in the improvement of their flocks."* 
 
 * Notwithstanding Mr. Grove undoubtedly vi'as equal if not superior to 
 24* 
 
282 BREEDING AND CROSSING. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF SEX. 
 
 This question, in former times, excited much discussion 
 among breeders and physiologists, many contending that the 
 influence of sire and dam were equal upon the progeny, 
 taking general and not particular qualities into view. When 
 thus considered, there is much of truth in this conclusion, 
 although correct observation has very clearly established the 
 fact, that the influence of the male greatly predominates rela- 
 tive to the color, as well as texture of the hair and wool. This 
 opinion is sustained by Mr. Sanford Howard, associate ed- 
 itor of the Cultivator, in an able paper on the subject of 
 breeding, published in that periodical of 1844. On the point 
 in question he speakes thus : 
 
 " It is, however, reasonable to suppose, that in some re- 
 spects this influence of the parents cannot be equal ; and 
 that the theory is well founded that the constitutional quali- 
 ties, nervous temperament, &c., are more likely to resemble 
 the dam, and the external qualities, such as outward form, 
 color, hair, &c., to resemble the sire. Many examples 
 might be cited in support of this theory. Many farmers 
 have noticed how much more likely their animals are to in- 
 herit the diseases of their dams, than their sires. When we 
 consider that the animal is supported during the foetal stage of 
 its existence entirely from the blood of the mother, and that 
 this blood, circulating through every part of the system, would, 
 of course, be aff*ected by the state of the animal's health, this 
 consequence would seem to be perfectly natural. 
 
 " On the other hand, it has been noticed that the outward 
 features of the sire, more frequently than those of the dam, 
 
 any other sheep-breeder of our countiy, and the great precautions he ob- 
 served not to breed from those between wliom there existed too near af- 
 finities of blood, yet the writer has every reason to believe that he en- 
 croached on the breeding in-and-in system to a greater extent than he 
 was sensible of. Mr. G., as appears from his concluding remarks, dep- 
 recated the practice, for no one knew better than himself, theoretically 
 at least, the certain evils attending it. The writer engaged a valuable 
 ram of him previous to his decease, which, soon after getting home, he 
 lost by one of those legitimate diseases (dyers) which follows the system 
 of breeding in question. The loss of the valuable animal is certainly a 
 matter of no consequence to the public, but the cause is, however, and 
 which the writer has purposely delayed mentioning, that it might go 
 forth appended to his late friend's remarks in allusion to the point in hand, 
 and have its proper weight in connection with all that has hitherto been 
 said on the subject. 
 
IKFLUENCE OF SEX. 283 
 
 are enstamped on the progeny. This has been attributed to 
 the nervous influence of the dam — or what is called the in- 
 fluence of the imagination of the dam on the foetus. Prac- 
 tical men believe there is something m this. Professional 
 breeders avail themselves of the principle in giving to their 
 animals some desired marks or qualities. It must have been 
 something akin to this, by the influence of which, through 
 the medium of peeled rods, Jacob caused the cattle to be 
 born 'ringed, streaked, and speckled.' Breeders of horses 
 sometimes take great pains to operate on the imagination of 
 the mare, and thus produce in the foal certain characteristics. 
 At the time of conception, or within the first month after- 
 wards, the fcetus seems to be particularly susceptible to this 
 influence, and it is not difficulty to produce the changes spo- 
 ken of. Some striking instances of the effect of this sym- 
 pathetic influence might be given. One of the most re- 
 markable, perhaps, as showing the evidence of anterior ex- 
 citement, is that of a mare, seven-eighths of Arabian blood, 
 after having produced a foal by a stallion quagga, (a species 
 of zebra,) continued, after a lapse of five years, to reproduce 
 the markings of that animal, at three successive births, al- 
 though the sire of all the subsequent progeny was a thorough 
 bred Arab horse. This is a well authenticated fact, and 
 correct portraits of the mare, the hybrid, and the three foals 
 which the mare afterwards had by the horse, the latter 
 showing the stripes of the quagga, are preserved. 
 
 " The influence of one black sheep, though it may never 
 have any progeny, is often noticed in causing black lambs. 
 Shepherds who have kept black dogs with their sheep, have 
 observed the same effect. The nervous influence of animals 
 in a state of pregnancy, shows itself very conspicuously in 
 the effects of fright on the offspring. Many cases of this 
 kind might be cited in the human species, as well as in our 
 domestic animals." 
 
 In immediate connection with his closing remarks, the 
 writer will state, that he makes it a point never to breed from 
 sires or dams that are otherwise than entirely white, yet a 
 few years since one of his highest bred ewes produced a 
 lamb whose head and tail were perfectly white, but every- 
 where else jetty black, and thus resembled a skunk. From 
 this it is not unreasonable to suppose that, in the early stage 
 of gestation, one of these disgusting animals crossed the path 
 of the ewe, causing such a degree of fright as to impress the 
 
284 BREEDING AND CROSSING. 
 
 marks of the skunk upon the foetus. This is only an analo- 
 gous instance, with results quite as singular, as observed in 
 the offspring of the human species, produced by highly ex- 
 citing circumstances during pregnancy. 
 
 The following will show that the male exercises a mate- 
 rial influence also upon the form, indicated most strongly, 
 however, in general, in the progeny of the first cross. Mr. 
 Boswell, in his essay on the subject in question, published 
 in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, says — " Being fully 
 convinced of the power of the male on the offspring, 1 have 
 always accounted it as a loss to put a bad male to a high- 
 bred female, and have never done so. I have, however, 
 observed, where the country people have purchased high- 
 bred sheep at any sale of mine, and bred from them with 
 the ordinary rains, that the' breed very quickly got bad ; 
 whereas, when a Bakewell ram had been purchased, I have 
 seen a most remarkable change in the quality of the sheep ; 
 and, in several instances, where the ewes had been tolerable 
 from which they had been bred, the cross was so nearly re- 
 sembling a New Leicester, as to deceive any one who was 
 not a thorough judge." 
 
 A writer observes — " The progeny of most domesticated 
 animals often bear a striking resemblance to the grandmother 
 or grandfather, and it is well known that the desired changes 
 cannot be effected on a breed, or that the desired breed can- 
 not be produced, till the third, fourth, or even the fifth cross- 
 ing, so that the importance of having few defects in a stock 
 will readily be admiUed, seeing their debasing consequences 
 are carried through whole generations, and that, though ab- 
 sent in one remove, yet that they may appear in the next." 
 
 As an instance to show how these " debasing consequen- 
 ces " may be prolonged through defect of the male, the fol- 
 lowing is stated, having occurred with the writer's personal 
 knowledge : — The father of the writer, nearly twenty years 
 ago, purchased a high grade Saxon ram distinguished for 
 good form and fineness of wool, but was objectionable on ac- 
 count of the openness of his fleece and shortness of its sta- 
 ple ; he was used, however, for several years. The ram ex- 
 hibited a peculiarity about his eyes, which protruded so far, 
 as to give him a ludicrous aspect, and consequently he re- 
 ceived the soubriquet of " bulge-eye ;" in addition to this, his 
 pate was entirely bare of wool, and nothing but the fineness 
 of his fleece induced his usage in the flock. But after a fair 
 
GOOD POINTS OP A MERINO AND SAXON. 285 
 
 trial he was abandoned, his stock in general exhibiting his 
 lightness of fleece, and many his peculiarity of visage ; and 
 therefore the worst specimens were disposed of as soon as 
 possible. But strange as it may appear, for more than 
 twelve years after, a " straggler " would now and then ap- 
 pear, whose eyes and fleece were the very counterpart of the 
 ram in question ! and the novelty of the circumstance is, the 
 dams of these were as perfect in all respects as the average of 
 the flock, and entirely free from the peculiarities described in 
 the ram ! I. Stanley Carr, in a paper published in the Jour- 
 nal of the English Agricultural Society, on the agriculture and 
 management of sheep in Northern Germany, says — " I know 
 an instance where a large and valuable flock has been for 
 years retrograding, in consequence of one unsuitable ram 
 having been introduced into it 12 or 14 years ago." 
 
 The above strongly manifests the influence of the male, 
 and affords a striking lesson to the flock-master, to beware 
 of imperfections of every character, no matter however 
 slight, in his stock rams, as irreparable injury may follow if 
 it is neglected. 
 
 It is supposed by some that the sex of the progeny is de- 
 termined by the relative ages of the parents ; thus, issue 
 from a young male and an old female vvill in general he fem- 
 inine, while that from an old male and a young female will 
 generally be masculine. The writer having little confidence 
 in this theory, and from never having met with but one re- 
 corded instance of its being tested, he has never thought it 
 worth the trouble of an experiment. He has, however, re- 
 peatedly put rams of 18 months old to ewes which were 
 from 4 to 7 in years, and as in other instances where older 
 bucks were used to ewes of similar ages, the number of 
 lambs as regards sex were nearly equal, rarely varying more 
 than five in 100, which, as far as he is able now to recall, a 
 majority would sometimes be masculine, and again, feminine. 
 The point is noticed that others may make the experiment 
 if they think proper. 
 
 GOOD POINTS OF A MERINO AND SAXON, 
 
 From the description of the Merino, as presented to the 
 reader in the history of the race, it has been seen that there 
 is an essential difference in conformation between some of 
 the varieties, and that all are deficient in that symmetry of 
 outline so necessary in any animal to please the eye of the 
 
286 BREEDING AND CROSSING. 
 
 breeder of taste. Many of their ungainly points have been 
 removed by the Germans ; and doubtless it would have been 
 thus to some extent in this country, provided that, from their 
 landing on our shores up to the present time, there had ex- 
 isted, vi^ithout interruption, a remunerating price for their 
 fleeces ; but unfortunately this has not been so, and conse- 
 quently the instances are rare vs^here any improvement has 
 been effected in either form or fleece. Nature, ever benefi- 
 cent in her purposes, for centuries was at work moulding 
 the Merino for a specific object, and that object consisted in 
 producing a superabundant covering for its body, and incom- 
 parable in its general qualities for the manufacture of the 
 softest and most beautiful fabrics ; whereas, if its conforma- 
 tion had been essentially different, it would not be what it 
 now is, but a mutton sheep. It has been seen that the im- 
 provement effected in the English breeds, was at the sacri- 
 fice of the quantity and quality of the wool of the old breeds, 
 proving most conclusively, that in breeding the Merino, if 
 we attempt to mould its form too much after the fashion of 
 the improved English sheep, it will be at the hazard of a 
 diminution of some of the admirable qualities of its fleece. 
 A wide chest and large abdominal organs are indispensable 
 qualities in a mutton breed, as they afford the means of has- 
 tening maturity, by enabling the animal to take up much 
 food, and more readily converting it into flesh and fat. But 
 on the contrary, these qualities ai'e not needed to the same 
 degree for the production of a material for the finest fabrics, 
 and in the largest quantity. Nature constantly battles for 
 her rights in these matters, and evinced her obstinacy when 
 the English breeder undertook to overtask her by endeavor- 
 ing to make the Merino at once the producer of fine wool 
 and fat mutton ; but in the struggle she triumphed, showing, 
 that the race and draft horse can never be so assimilated, 
 that the product will exhibit the fleetness of the former 
 with the strength and docility of the latter, nor the sheep 
 both the bearer of much fat on its loins, and a fleece of the 
 finest texture. 
 
 It has been observed that the Germans materially cha.nged 
 the form of the Merino, but it must be considered that in ef- 
 fecting this, they resorted to that extreme " refinement of 
 tone" in breeding, which always results in producing effem- 
 inacy, and to this is to be ascribed the extreme fineness of 
 the fleece of the Saxon Merino variety, at the sacrifice, how- 
 
GOOD POINTS OF A MERINO AND SAXON. 287 
 
 ever, of quantity, and much of its original hardiness of con- 
 stitution. It is, therefore, for the reasons assigned, the 
 writer is of the opinion that the form of the Merino cannot 
 be essentially altered without perverting the object of nature, 
 and at the hazard eventually of pecuniary loss. If we at- 
 tempt to mould it after the fashion of the true mutton sheep, 
 there is danger that the assimilation of its food will be for 
 the production of more flesh and fat, and a consequent de- 
 terioration of the fleece, and reduction of its weight. Again, 
 if we breed for increase of size, we do not augment profits, 
 as large animals consume proportionally ; and if we adopt 
 the German example, while we improve the appearance of 
 the carcase, and texture of its covering, it will be at the ex- 
 pense of size, and hardiness. Therefore, in accordance 
 with these views, the writer is bound in duty to say to the 
 breeder of the Merino, Be not too anxious to rid the animal 
 of those peculiarities with which nature has endowed it. We 
 may relieve it in some measure, and can do so without sacri- 
 fice, by proper selections of a portion of the superfluous folds 
 of skin about the neck ; and by proper attentions in feeding, 
 it will acquire that rotundity necessary to gratify the eye of 
 taste. Wide chest and an expansive abdomen cannot be 
 eff"ected by mere breeding without also full measure of 
 food. The horizontal springing out of the ribs from the 
 spine in the improved English breeds, is quite as much 
 from this cause as any other. Ill feed the famed Leicester 
 for two successive generations, and think you that its beau- 
 tifully-arched ribs, and capacious abdomen, would be present ? 
 Indeed, it would be the height of absurdity to expect it. 
 
 The best specimens of the Merino present forms well 
 enough for all practical purposes, and it should be our duty 
 to breed from such individuals as will best preserve and trans- 
 mit the admirable properties of its fleece to the latest gene- 
 rations, and not hazard experiments simply because its form 
 is not as perfect as our wishes would have it. 
 
 The qualities of a good Merino ram are as follows : — 
 Wool should appear from the forehead to the fetlocks, and 
 as compact as possible, with due regard to a good length 
 of staple, which is now highly prized by manufacturers ; the 
 fibres spiral or much crimped ; no jar or hairs intermingled 
 with the fleece ; little variation as possible in the qualities 
 of the fleece, as in the genuine Spanish there are but four 
 qualities, the lowest growing about the legs, and this, there- 
 
288 BREEDING AND CROSSING. 
 
 fore, is one of the most essential points to observe. Mel- 
 lowness of skin, which indicates a fine fleece, and that the 
 mucous coat is filled with the unctuous substance, yolk, 
 which confers so much softness and brilliancy to the wool, 
 and protects its surface from the injurious action of the 
 weather ; hence in the male there can scarcely be too much 
 yolk, for a deficiency in the ram will cause too little in the 
 other classes of the flock, in which it is never present in too 
 large quantities, however abundant in the sires ; the eyes 
 should be bright, prominent, with a placid expression, which 
 indicates docility of disposition, a point always to be consid- 
 ered ; the horns should be large, and the spirals not too 
 short, and not too near the eyes ; the frame compact, but not 
 over large, neck thick where it sets on to the body, and 
 straight from the withers to the horns ; back short and hori- 
 zontal with the rump as possible, which is rare, however, 
 with the breed ; buttocks well protruded, and tail at its root, 
 not too wide ; the bones not too large, as they abstract nu- 
 triment, nor the legs too long. 
 
 We will now consider briefly the points of the Saxon va- 
 riety of the Merino. 
 
 The artificial value attached to the finest fleece, induced 
 the Germans to cultivate the Merino solely for this object ; 
 and so long as there are castes of society, and the highest of 
 these fancy that a wardrobe only of the finest texture is ne- 
 cessary as a means in part to support that distinction, so 
 long will the Saxon race be appreciated and profitably cul- 
 tivated. But when this adventitious state of society ceases, 
 the chief aliment of profit of the Saxon will cease with it. 
 The reader, however, Avill probably coincide with the writer 
 in the belief that that day is very remote, and therefore the 
 race cannot become extinct ; and in proportion to the increase 
 of wealth in our country, in that ratio will increase the demand 
 for the superlative material the breed produce. 
 
 The true Saxon is of beautiful symmetrical proportions, but 
 not hardy ; a light fleece, but of such exquisite fineness of 
 texture as in some instances to be only the psVo''^ P''-^'' °^ '^'^ 
 inch in diameter, while the Merino rarely is less than the 
 Tf-jT, th. That tenderness of constitution peculiar to the German 
 Saxon is not present to the same degree in the American ;* 
 
 * The writer lias now in his possession a ewe 12 years old, from the 
 flock of Major Grant of Walpole, descended from the Searl's importa- 
 tion, as fleshy and hardy as any individual of his flock. 
 
TUPPING SEASON. 289 
 
 and is therefore successfully cultivated in the cold latitude of 
 New Hampshire, and with equal profit to the Merino, when 
 properly managed. 
 
 The essential points of a good Saxon ram conform to those 
 of a Merino ; in reference to the eyes and horns they are 
 identical ; the staple cannot be too fine, silky, long, and yet 
 compact, — the objection to a very short staple is now very 
 general ; the spiral curls or crimp very minute or close, — 
 this is a prominent good point ; the fleece should be imbued 
 with yolk, which is indicated by the surface being somewhat 
 dark, — a dry fleece is unprofitable, and the wool never so 
 soft and strong ; the wool should be very white below the 
 surface, — if it has a bluish or pearly-grey cast, it denotes an 
 unhealthy sheep or an indiff'erent constitution. The form 
 should be square and compact, with a tolerable wide but deep 
 chest, and full, round belly ; bones small, and legs not too long, 
 with a good covering of wool ; full about the hind quarters ; 
 the neck small and tapering near the head, without ruffles, 
 and no droop from the withers to the poll ; the back nearly 
 straight, with tameness and docility of disposition. 
 
 TUPPING SEASON. 
 
 This important season we will suppose being near at hand, 
 the rams should be rigidly examined, and those selected for 
 use should be served in an aldermanly way for several weeks 
 before they are put, by giving their " lordships" each a gill 
 of oats daily, to which may be added, at intervals of two or 
 three days, half a handful of wheat, which will increase more 
 rapidly the supply of seminal fluid. If the duty to be per- 
 formed is extra, high feeding should be continued till their 
 services for the season have expired. 
 
 The number of rams apportioned to 100 ewes, depends 
 much on the breed, the age, and vigor they possess. With 
 the English breeds, the ram is put when 18 months old, and 
 if he has been pushed forward by artificial means, will cover 
 from 60 to 80 ewes ; the latter is considered in England the 
 maximum, with security to the health of the ram, and sound- 
 ness of constitution to his progeny. Overtasking the male is 
 always followed by a greater or less degree of effeminacy of 
 his gettings, and therefore should be avoided. Nothing is 
 gained either by allowing the ram to cover too many, as his 
 vigor fails him proportionally, when he arrives at the age of 
 six or seven ; whereas, if prudently worked when young, will 
 
 25 
 
290 BREEDING AND CROSSING, 
 
 retain his generative powers in considerable strength till he 
 is ten years old. The Saxon and Merino breeds being slow- 
 er in attaining maturity than the British varieties, greater 
 care should be observed with the young rams, by not permit- 
 ting them to cover more than from 15 to 20 ewes, when only 
 18 months old. The writer uses five of this class to the 
 hundred ewes, and from three to four when the rams are in 
 their prime. This course is followed by hardier and earlier 
 offspring, the lambs nearly all dropping within the space of 
 a fortnight. They are put from the 5th to the 8th of De- 
 cember, and thus when the period of parturition arrives, the 
 grass is somewhat abundant, and a flush of milk follows. 
 
 There is a diversity of opinion as to the best manner of 
 putting the rams — a large majority turning in several at once, 
 others keeping them confined in yards and bringing a certain 
 number of ewes for each to serve daily, while many turn in 
 only one buck at a time, to remain a day or two, when he is 
 taken out and his place supplied by another. This is prob- 
 ably, where the flocks are large, the better and least trouble- 
 some way ; and prevents contests which are unavoidable 
 when several rams are together, which results in the master 
 one performing a heavier duty than is compatible with reten- 
 tion of his vigor, and hardiness to his progeny. 
 
 Supposing the rams begin their services in the early part of 
 the month of December, they should cease at the close of the 
 month, and be withdrawn from the flock, as they lose their 
 gallantry after the tupping season is over, and sometimes 
 when feeding they are very unceremonious with their horns 
 among the ewes, which cannot but cause momentary suffer- 
 ing, if nothing worse. In conclusion, the writer strongly 
 protests against the use of one ram to over 50 ewes, (and to 
 do this he should be a very prime animal) not but what a 
 larger number can be tupped, but because of its injurious ten- 
 dency with the progeny, which may not manifest itself par- 
 ticularly when young, but is perceptible when grown, in 
 some form or other, and limits materially longevity. If we 
 reason from analogy on this point, it will quickly set ns right. 
 
 From the earlier maturity of the British breeds, the ewes 
 are ready for the tup when at 18 months old ; but the Saxon 
 and Merino never should be put until they have attained the 
 age of two and a half years. If done before this, they will 
 drop their lambs, and often wholly disregard them, which 
 arises from their not being supplied with the necessary ali- 
 
TUPPING SEASON. 291 
 
 ment to sustain them. Nature teaches a lesson on this point 
 which should not be disregarded, and supersedes all argu- 
 ment. 
 
 Has the flock-master, before the tupping season has arrived, 
 duly performed his duty in selecting those only that are right 
 in all respects, for breeders ? Does every ewe approximate or 
 come fully up to the mark in form and fleece ? Is the latter 
 fine, close, and compact, staple long, and as even as possible 
 from the neck to the thighs, and well wooled on the belly 
 and legs ? In short, do they possess those qualities which 
 look to the goal for which the master is striving? If so, he 
 has at least done his duty, and patience only is necessary to 
 obtain his certain reward. But if he permits a solitary ewe 
 to be tupped, whose general qualities are much below the 
 average of the flock, his course of improvement will be re- 
 tarded. Let him look to it. 
 
 15 
 
STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 BY W. C. S P GONE R, 
 
 VETERINARY SURGEON, LONDON. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP— SKELETON- 
 BONES OF THE HEAD— BONES OF THE BODY— BONES OF THE FORE 
 EXTREMITIES— THE FOOT— BIFLEX CANAL— THE HIND EXTREMI- 
 TIES—MUSCLES OR FLESH— BRAIN AND NERVES— ORGANS OF MAS- 
 TICATION, &c.— ORGANS OF DIGESTION— THE URINARY AND GENE- 
 RATIVE ORGANS— CONTENTS OF THE CHEST— CIRCULATION OF 
 THE BLOOD— RESPIRATION AND ITS EFFECTS. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 The body of the sheep resembles, in most respects, that 
 of the ox ; with a somewhat less degree of nervous energy, 
 it possesses a greater capability of enduring the extremes of 
 cold and heat, and still stronger digestive organs. Much of 
 the nervous energy is, indeed, expended on these parts, and a 
 diminished degree is possessed by the organs of locomotion 
 and sensation, in which respect both the ox and the sheep 
 differ considerably from the horse. 
 
 The body of the sheep, in common with other animals, is 
 composed of solids and fluids, the latter exceeding the former 
 in weight in the proportion of six or eight to one. To the 
 solids, however, is owing the organization of the frame, for 
 they surround and contain the fluids. Late anatomists con- 
 sider that animals are composed of three forms of tissues, 
 which they have denominated the fibrous, the lamellar, and 
 the globular. The two former are exemplified in the struc- 
 ture of the cellular substance, which composes the greatest 
 proportion of the animal fabric : the fibrous is characteristic 
 of the muscular and ligamentous structures ; the fibrous 
 
STRUCTURE OF THE SIIEEP. 293 
 
 united with the granular is exhibited in the texture of the 
 glands, and in the medullary substance of the nervous sys- 
 tem ; and the globular is shown in the composition of the 
 chyle, the blood, and several of the secretions. These sev- 
 eral textures being combined together in different propor- 
 tions, we have the various organs of which the body is com- 
 posed. 
 
 To give support to the animal frame, and afford fixed objects 
 for the attachment of various parts, is the use of the skeleton, 
 which is composed in the sheep of nearly two hundred bones 
 of various sizes and shapes. These bones, in order to admit 
 of motion, are connected one to another by means of strong 
 bands called ligaments, the ends of the bones being con- 
 structed in various ways so as to admit of motion ; in many 
 we have the form of a hinge, in others that of a ball and 
 socket. The motion of the limbs is effected by means of 
 the muscles or flesh, which, although to a casual observer 
 appearing as a homogeneous mass, is readily separable into 
 a greater number of distinct bodies of various forms and sizes. 
 These muscles have commonly two separate attachments, 
 which are usually bones, and by contracting in length, they 
 bring these points of attachment nearer to each other. Mus- 
 cles are composed of a vast number of fibres, which, on 
 being acted on by nervous influence, diminish in length and 
 increase in bulk, and thereby approximate the different ob- 
 jects to which they are attached. They are usually fastened 
 to bones by means of a strong white substance called tendon, 
 which, however, possesses in itself no power of contraction, 
 but merely communicates the contractile force to the object 
 to be acted on. Where the two objects of attachment are 
 distant from each other, the greater portion of the distance 
 is occupied by the tendons, the advantage of which is owing 
 to their diminished size in proportion to their strength ; thus 
 we find the legs of sheep below the knee are light and slen- 
 der, from the absence of muscular and the substitution of 
 tendinous substance. The greater part of the muscles are 
 voluntary, being under the control of the mind ; but some 
 are involuntary, such as the heart and the diaphragm. 
 
 Muscles are extensively supplied with vessels of various 
 kinds, such as arteries for their nourishment, and veins for 
 the return of the blood after this purpose is effected. They 
 have likewise nerves, which not only furnish sensation, but 
 also communicate to them the mandates of the will. 
 25* 
 
1294 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 These nerves proceed either from the brain or spinal cord, 
 which, therefore, may be considered as the fountain of sen- 
 sation and the residence of the mind. And thus sensation 
 is first sent from the extremities to the brain by the nerves, 
 and then by another set of nerves the vi^ill is conveyed to 
 the muscles. 
 
 The hrain is a soft pulpy substance contained vv^ithin the 
 head, and the spinal cord is somewhat similar in structure, 
 and extends from the brain to the tail, through a hole in the 
 bones vi^hich form the spinal column. The body is divided 
 into two principal cavities, the chest and the abdomen, and 
 separated by a muscular partition called the diaphragm. The 
 former contains the heart and lungs, whose uses are princi- 
 pally to purify and distribute the blood by means of the res- 
 piration and the circulation ; and the latter contains the stom- 
 ach and bowels, in which the functions of digestion are car- 
 ried on, besides several important glands, such as the liver, 
 kidney, and pancreas, together with other supplementary 
 parts. Both the small and large intestines are fastened to 
 the spine by means of a strong membrane called the mesen- 
 tery, which, besides veins and arteries, is furnished with a 
 vast number of small vessels called lacteals. These lacteals 
 open into the intestines, and there absorb the nutritious part 
 of the food, which is a white milky fluid called the chyle, 
 and convey it to a vessel running along the course of the 
 spine, which empties itself near the heart into the circulating 
 system. Thus by these means the blood becomes enriched 
 with nutriment, and is thus enabled to supply the constant 
 waste the system is continually undergoing. 
 
 The blood being furnished with nutriment, requires to be 
 purified before it is fit for circulation ; for this purpose it 
 passes into the right side of the heart, by the muscular con- 
 traction of which it is sent to the lungs, where- it becomes 
 exposed to the action of the atmosphere, by which it is 
 changed from a dark to a light red color, and being freed 
 from impurities, it enters the left side of the heart, and from 
 thence is sent, by means of the arteries, to all parts of the 
 body, supplying every part with nourishment, and furnishing 
 the various glands of the body, not only with their own 
 proper nourishment, but with material for the secretion of 
 their peculiar fluids. Thus the salivary glands separate the 
 saliva from the blood ; the pancreas, a juice somewhat sim- 
 ilar ; the testicles, the semen ; and the kidneys, the urine. 
 
STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 295 
 
 Each gland separates its peculiar fluid and no other. The 
 urine being secreted by the kidneys, is conveyed by means 
 of two small but long tubes into the bladder, whence it is 
 excreted from the body. 
 
 The liver is nourished by the arteries, but separates the 
 bile from the dark impure blood, which is conveyed to it by 
 a large vein. The contents of the bowels are passed on- 
 wards by the influence of their peculiar action, and having 
 had the nutritious part extracted are excreted from the body, 
 generally in a solid form. 
 
 The cellular membrane is a very elastic substance, and en- 
 ters largely into the composition of the body : it connects 
 the various glands together, forms frequently a covering for 
 the muscles as well as for various vessels, and exists in the 
 form of cells, which have communication with each other. 
 
 The adipose membrane is found in various parts of the 
 body, and, indeed, secretes the fat, which is deposited in a 
 liquid form, and in small circumscribed bags. The/a^ thus 
 contained often performs the important office of affording a 
 cushion for parts that would otherwise be exposed to injury ; 
 thus we find that the socket of the eye is abundantly fur- 
 nished with this material. 
 
 There are two other important membranes which are ex- 
 tensively found in animal bodies : they are the serous and 
 the mucous membranes. Whenever an internal part has an 
 external opening, we find that it is furnished with a mucous 
 membrane which secretes mucus for its protection ; but 
 when the cavity has no external opening, then it is lined 
 with a serous membrane which secretes a thin watery fluid 
 to lubricate the parts, and preserve them from injury by fric- 
 tion. Thus from the entrance of the mouth and nostrils to 
 the anus, throughout the whole internal surface of the bow- 
 els, a mucous membrane exists, by which the fluid is se- 
 creted, the nature of which gives a name to the membrane, 
 and which protects it from injury either by the external air, 
 or by the contents of the bowels. In like manner we find 
 the bladder and urinary organs similarly lined. 
 
 On the other hand, the cavity of the chest and the abdo- 
 men, with their contents, as well as the internal surface of 
 blood-vessels, are furnished with a serous membrane, which 
 secretes a watery vapor. These difTerent membranes are 
 very frequently the seat of disease, and are subject to severe 
 and dangerous inflammation. The admirable manner in 
 
296 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 whicli the various organs are packed away in their proper 
 cavities is worthy of particular notice. The lungs and the 
 heart are so adapted to the shape of the chest, that there is 
 at no time any vacant spot ; and the more numerous contents 
 of the abdomen are so disposed, that while each has suffi- 
 cient freedom for the proper performance of its functions, 
 yet the whole are packed away with the most economical 
 care : there is no void whatever to be found. 
 
 SKELETON OR BONY STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 The skeleton of animal bodies is formed of bone, a sub- 
 stance possessing firmness and stability for the attachment 
 of muscles, the protection of the vital organs, and the sup- 
 port of the softer parts. It is composed of animal matter 
 and earthy salts ; the former consisting of cartilage, gelatine, 
 and fat or marrow, and the latter of phosphate of lime in 
 considerable proportion, a lesser quantity of carbonate of 
 lime, and a small portion of other salts. The cartilage of 
 bones is formed before the earthy matter, and constitutes, in 
 fact, the nidus in which the latter is deposited. Bones can 
 be freed from their earthy portion by immersion in an acid, 
 by which process the gelatine is also dissolved, and>pure 
 cartilage is left, which is elastic, but retains the original fig- 
 ure of the bone. On the other hand, bones, by exposure to 
 a great heat, are deprived of the animal substance, and the 
 earthy part remains. 
 
 The use of the marrow is more particularly to prevent the 
 too great dryness and brittleness of bones. To the animal 
 portion of their composition they are, therefore, indebted for 
 their shape and what degree of elasticity they possess, and 
 from the earthy portion they derive the important purposes 
 of strength and stability. Thus are these different elements 
 combined together, and by an union of their different princi- 
 ples form a substance admirably adapted for affording full 
 scope for the play of the various organs of life, protecting 
 at the same time the vital parts from external injury, admit- 
 ting and assisting the powers of locomotion, and, in fine, 
 forming a secure fabric for the beautiful building of animal 
 frames. 
 
 Every bone is covered by a membrane called the perios- 
 teum^ which also lines the internal cavities and secretes the 
 marrow •, its use is to circumscribe the form of bones and 
 protect them by its tenseness, as well as to afford the medium 
 
THE BONES OF THE HEAD. 297 
 
 whereby they are furnished with their vessels. The shape of 
 particular bones intimately corresponds to the purpose for 
 which they are intended ; where for the office of protection, 
 we find them flat, and where for the purpose of motion, long 
 and cylindrical, as in the extremities. 
 
 THE BONES OF THE HEAD. 
 
 In the construction of the skull the most perfect mechan- 
 ism is displayed. The first object to be obtained is the pro- 
 tection of the brain from the accidents to which, from the 
 peculiarities of animals, it is mostly exposed. For this pur- 
 pose the skull consists of two tables or plates ; the outer 
 thick and tough, the inner hard and brittle : the former, by 
 yielding in a measure to resistance, diminishes concussion, 
 whilst the latter, by its hardness, prevents sharp bodies from 
 penetrating to the brain. Now, if these two plates were re- 
 versed, the brittle would not only be in great danger of frac- 
 ture, but would also vibrate considerably ; and the injurious 
 effect of this vibration may well be conceived when we are 
 told that, even with the present wise precaution, it often oc- 
 casions in the human subject greater mischief than the most 
 serious fractures. 
 
 There is a remarkable difference in the appearance of the 
 head in the horned and the polled sheep ; the former have a 
 more pugnacious, and it may be a more sensible appearance, 
 owing to the elevation and projection of the upper part of the 
 head. This, however, is in appearance only, for the promi- 
 nence of the head is not formed by any increase in the brain, 
 but is owing to the considerable space which exists between 
 the two tables of the skull, the outer being half an inch or 
 upwards from the inner. This separation accomplishes two 
 purposes, one being the additional security it affords to the 
 brain by the interposition of this vacant space, and the other 
 the greater root or basis it afl'ords to the horns. And when, 
 we c'onsider that horned sheep are generally more pugnacious 
 than others, and that they have not only the will, but the 
 power, of butting each other with great force, the additional 
 security is not without use. In fact the brain is seated so 
 much beneath and behind the forehead, that very little of the 
 shock can be communicated to it. This circumstance too 
 operates in affording protection to the polled sheep as well. 
 Between the skull and the brain are interposed several mem- 
 branes, which also assist materially in preventing vibration, 
 
298 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 like a piece of parchment on the inside of a rummer glass. 
 The skull in quadrupeds is composed of upwards of thirty 
 bones, which are connected together by dove-tailed sutures. 
 It used to be considered that the object of this extensive di- 
 vision of the bones vi^as the convenience of ossification, vi'hich 
 always commences at the centre ; but a more extended view 
 has discovered other wise purposes ; for not only is the dove- 
 tailed suture the strongest mode of union, but it is also the 
 best adapted for securing the brain from injury, as it yields 
 considerably to the impression received, and thus wards off 
 both concussion and vibration. There is an exception, how- 
 ever, to this usual connexion in the temporal bones which 
 form the sides of the cranial cavity, and which are connect- 
 ed to .the other bones by what is termed the squamous suture 
 ■ — one bone, in fact, simply overlaps another. This union is 
 inferior in strength to the former ; but nature has here another 
 office to perform, and the reason of this exception will at once 
 be comprehended on examining the skull. If a considerable 
 blow be received on the upper portion of the arch, its sides 
 are the parts most likely to give way ; and to guard against 
 this consequence, the under bone overlaps the upper, and 
 thus acts like the tie-beam of an arch in keeping the parts 
 together. This dove-tailed suture does not connect the bones 
 of the inner table ; for, though a carpenter might find this mode 
 of union serviceable in joining the sides of a wooden box, it 
 would by no means be found applicable in connecting togeth- 
 er brittle substances, as it would be extremely liable to chip 
 off at the edges. 
 
 The cranial cavity, or that part which contains the brain, 
 is not more than a third the size of the other parts of the 
 skull, the remaining portions being devoted to mastication 
 and smelling. 
 
 There are no less than nine bones which enter into the 
 composition of the cranium. The two frontal bones form 
 the anterior part usually called the forehead ; but the inter- 
 nal plate of these bones separates and recedes from the ex- 
 ternal plate so as to form a cavity between them, which is 
 called the frontal sinus, and is divided by a septum or ridge 
 of bone between them. The internal plate forms a covering 
 for the anterior lobe of the cerebrum. In horned sheep the 
 separation of the plates of the frontal bones is considerably 
 greater than in others. The horns proceed on each .side 
 from the frontal bone, and seem, as it were, prolongations of 
 
THE BONES OF THE HEAD. 299 
 
 the bone ; for although externally we find the structure of 
 horn, internally we have bone, and between this horn and 
 bone we find the vascular structure by which both are secre- 
 ted. In many animals the age can be judged of by the horn, 
 which each year presents an additional ring round its base. 
 In the cow this is not an uncertain guide, and is owing to 
 the irregular growth of the horn at different periods of the 
 year, growing probably with greater force in the spring than 
 in the winter ; but in the sheep, although the same causes 
 obtain, yet it cannot be depended on with accuracy. At the 
 root of the horn we observe a cavity which communicates 
 with the frontal sinus. 
 
 The two parietal bones are proportionately shorter than in 
 the horse, and are situated at the upper and middle parts of 
 the cranium, and cover the middle lobes of the cerebrum, to 
 which their internal part closely corresponds. 
 
 The occipital, a single bone of great strength, is found at 
 the back and base of the cranium. Its internal surface 
 covers the cerebellum, and on a strong process at the base 
 the medulla oblongata rests. The external surface of this 
 bone is extremely irregular. At its lower and back part 
 is the occipital hole, through which the spinal cord, as well 
 as some nerves and an artery, make their exit from the brain. 
 On each side of this hole the bone is smooth and rounded 
 for the purpose of articulating with the atlas, the first bone 
 of the neck ; besides which there are several curious pro- 
 cesses for the attachment of muscles. 
 
 The temporal bones forming the sides of the cranium are 
 composed of two parts, the squamous and the petrous. 
 Though in man these pieces are united, yet in the sheep 
 they are distinct from each other. The squamous portion is 
 externally a convex plate with a hooked projection arising 
 from it ; this process assists in forming the zygomatic arch. 
 The squamous portion affords at the posterior part a shallow 
 cavity for the articulation of the lower jaw-bone. This gle- 
 noid cavity, as it is termed, is much deeper in carnivorous 
 animals, which require to open their jaws more extensively : 
 and an inspection of this portion of the skeleton alone will 
 enable the comparative anatomist to decide to what order 
 the animal might have belonged. In herbivorous races a 
 grinding lateral motion of the jaws only is required, and ac- 
 cordingly the articulation is wide and shallow. The zygo- 
 matic arch, too, is much more arched in the carnivora, in order 
 
300 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 to afford more room for the development of the temporal 
 muscle, which governs the jaw, than is required for the more 
 moderate exertions of herbivorous animals. The petrous 
 portion of the temporal bone, so called from its rocky nature, 
 is apparently a solid convex figure. It contains, however, 
 the organ of hearing, and has on its internal surface orifices 
 for the passage of the auditory nerve, and on the external we 
 find a larger orifice for the passage of sound. The internal 
 structure of this bone is as beautiful as it is curious, possess- 
 ing vestibules and canals for the ramification of the nerve, 
 and a singular cavity having a communication with the mouth, 
 in which are discovered four diminutive bones, with their 
 corresponding muscles, which serve the purpose of propaga- 
 ting and modifying the sound. 
 
 The inferior and middle parts of the cranium are formed 
 principally by the sphenoid, a bone which somewhat resem- 
 bles a bird in flight, having a body and four processes, two 
 of which are called the wings and two the legs. This bone 
 supports the middle lobes of the cerebrum, and presents 
 holes and depressions for the passage of nerves. The cranial 
 cavity is separated from the nasal by the ethmoid bone, which 
 also somewhat resembles a bird in flight, but without legs, 
 and is situated in front of the bone last described. It sup- 
 ports the anterior lobes of the cerebrum, and has holes for 
 the exit of the olfactory nerves ; and on its internal and in- 
 ferior surface it forms cavities called the ethmoidal sinuses, 
 which are separated by a long septum from each other, and 
 are perforated by a vast number of small holes for the passage 
 of the olfactory nerves to the nasal cavities. It is this thin 
 part of the bone which is penetrated in the operation of 
 wiring giddy sheep. Such is a brief description of the 
 various bones which form the cranium and envelop the brain, 
 and which are connected together and arranged on principles 
 more durable and economical than can be displayed by the 
 noblest specimens of mechanical skill. 
 
 The face occupies a larger portion of the head than the 
 cranium, but is less in proportion than the ox and the horse, 
 and particularly the latter animal. Its upper part is formed 
 by the lower portion of the frontal bones, which are consid- 
 erably longer in the sheep than in the horse, descending 
 much lower down, and in fact forming the roof of a great 
 portion of the nasal cavity. Another peculiarity in these 
 bones is, that whereas in the horse they descend in a straight 
 
THE BONES OF THE HEAD. 301 
 
 direction, in the sheep, just above the orbit, they form almost 
 a right angle. 
 
 The nasal bones are much less developed in the sheep 
 than in the horse. 
 
 The superior maxillary bones, though relatively smaller 
 than in the horse, yet form a great portion of the face, ex- 
 tending the whole length of the molar teeth, for which these 
 bones form suitable sockets, and laterally from the molar 
 teeth to the frontal and nasal bones. Within the cavity of 
 the mouth these bones form the roof of the palate, being 
 imited together by a suture. This portion of these bones is 
 wider though shorter than in the horse, so that the molar 
 teeth are farther apart, and the mouth thus gains in width 
 what it loses in length. Thus situated, these bones have 
 three surfaces — the facial, the nasal, and the palatine. At 
 the superior part of their palatine surface we tind what are 
 called the palate bones, which, in the horse, chiefly consist of 
 narrow curved bones, forming together the semi-oval border 
 dividing the cavity of the mouth from that of the nostril, and 
 serving for the attachment of the soft palate. In the sheep, 
 however, these bones extend further down into the mouth, 
 and form, indeed, a portion of the palate, which, in the horse, 
 is formed of the maxillary. The border, too, instead of 
 being nearly semi-circular, is almost conical, from being so 
 very narrow. The consequence of this structure is, that the 
 upper entrance to the cavity of the nostrils is much less in 
 proportion than in the horse, and the soft palate is less de- 
 veloped, so as not to close the cavity of the mouth. The 
 nature of the sheep corresponds with this structure : not 
 being an animal of speed, it does not require to inhale so 
 much atmospheric air ; and the purposes of rumination re- 
 quire the food to ascend from the stomach to the mouth, 
 which it could not do if the soft palate were developed, as in 
 the horse, where it closes the back part of the mouth, except 
 when food is passing from the mouth towards the stomach. 
 
 The anterior or inferior maxillary bones, which are want- 
 ing in the human subject, are attached above to the superior 
 maxillary bones, and thence descending and enlarging, in the 
 horse form the sockets of the upper incisor teeth, but in the 
 sheep and other ruminating animals not possessing these 
 teeth, they become smaller instead of larger as they descend, 
 merely forming the basis of the hard pad which meets the 
 under incisor teeth. 
 
 26 
 
302 STRUCTURE OF TIIE SHEEP, 
 
 The molar bones, comparatively larger in the sheep than 
 in the horse, and irregular in shape, are situated on the 
 sides of the face above the large maxillary, and partly 
 within and partly without the orbit of which they form the 
 lower part. 
 
 The lachrymal bones, so called because the lachrymal 
 duct for the conveyance of the superfluous tears to the nos- 
 trils passes through them, is situated about half within and 
 half without the orbit, the latter portion being between the 
 molar and frontal bones — a different arrangement from that 
 which obtains in the horse. The orbit or bony socket which 
 contains the eye is thus composed of a variety of bones. 
 
 There is a long but very thin bone called the vomer, situ- 
 ated at the floor of the nostrils, and running throughout their 
 length, and having a groove into which is imbedded the car- 
 tilaginous substance which divides the nostrils into two equal 
 cavities. 
 
 The posterior maxillary or lower jaw bone is formed of 
 two halves, united at the inferior part by cartilage in the 
 young subject and by bone in the adult. This united por- 
 tion forms the sockets for the eight incisor teeth, which 
 sockets, however, are by no means so deep or so strong in 
 proportion as in the horse, and thus it is common for sheep 
 to lose or break these teeth soon after they are fully devel- 
 oped. From the place of junction the lower jaw bones sep- 
 arate and gradually recede from each other, becoming wider 
 and deeper, and forming strong and secure sockets for the 
 molar teeth, after which the bones become thinner, turn up- 
 wards, and terminate in two extremities, one rounded, which, 
 with the temporal bone above, forms the maxillary joint, 
 which is secured from displacement by a hook-like projec- 
 tion which is the other termination of the lower jaw bone. 
 
 The bones which we have mentioned as composing the 
 face are none of them solid in their structure, but most of 
 them hollow, and thus various cavities or sinuses are formed 
 which are called after the bones in which they appear. Ac- 
 cordingly we have \\\e frontal^ the maxillary, the sphenoidal, 
 the ethmoidal, and the palatine. The frontal are the largest 
 and most important, particularly in the horned sheep, in 
 which they are partly divided into cells and communicate 
 with other sinuses immediately surrounding the horn. These 
 singular cavities are not found in the young subject, but are 
 gradually formed as the size of the head increases. They 
 
THE BONES OF THE BODY. 303 
 
 thus serve the important purpose of increasing the size of 
 the head without adding to its weight. 
 
 THE BONES OF THE BODY. 
 
 The neck is formed by seven bones, whicji, with the ex- 
 ception of the two first, are very much aUke. The first is 
 connected with the occipital, or bone of the skull, with 
 which it forms a joint possessing much motion in a vertical 
 direction. In the human subject it is termed the atlas, from 
 its supporting the head. It forms a joint behind with the 
 dentata, as the second bone is termed, from its having in the 
 front part a process like a tooth, which, however, affords the 
 head considerable lateral motion. All the bones of the neck 
 are extremely irregular in shape ; they all possess a large 
 hole through the centre for the passage of the spinal marrow, 
 and small ones at the sides for the exit of nerves and arte- 
 ries. They have also projections on each side and above 
 for the attachment of muscles, and each one forms a joint 
 both before and behind which affords that great flexibility 
 to the neck which most animals possess. 
 
 The back or chine is composed of separate bones called 
 vertebrae, of which there are thirteen belonging to the back 
 alone. They all possess, like those of the neck, a hole 
 through the centre for the passage of the spinal cord, as well 
 as a small one at the side for the exit of the nerves. The 
 superior projections or processes are much higher than those 
 of the neck, but considerably shorter than we find in the 
 horse ; and thus we have high withers in this animal and 
 low ones in the sheep, and they are also shorter in the im- 
 proved breeds than in the wilder races of sheep, a channel 
 between the shoulders and along the back being justly re- 
 garded as a sign of a disposition to fatten. These processes 
 serve for the attachment of muscles, as well as of a strong 
 elastic substance which is attached to all the bones of the 
 neck as well as to the occiput, and serves to support the 
 head, and thus relieves the muscles to a great extent. 
 
 The ribs are attached to the vertebrae by means of a joint 
 — one rib is joined to two vertebrae, and vice versa, thus af- 
 fording the ribs a certain extent of motion. There are thir- 
 teen ribs on each side, eight true and five false ; the former 
 are attached to the sternum or breast-bone, and the latter are 
 merely joined to the former at their lower parts, which is 
 formed of cartilage. The ribs should spring from the back 
 
304 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 bone as horizontally as possible, as thereby the rotundity of 
 the frame is increased. 
 
 The loins are formed by five bones, which partly resem- 
 ble the bones of the back ; but instead of ribs springing 
 from the sides there are fixed bony processes, several inches 
 in length, which afford a protection or roof for the abdomen. 
 These processes, in a well-formed sheep, should be long 
 and horizontal. 
 
 After the loins the spine continues in the sacrum., which, 
 in the lamb, is composed of separate pieces, but is consoli- 
 dated into one bone in the sheep. This bone is perforated 
 for the passage of the spinal cord, which, however, dimin- 
 ishes in size, and terminates at the end of the sacrum in 
 several nerves which run to the tail. The bones of the tail 
 are numerous, but are not perforated. 
 
 THE BONES OF THE FORE EXTREMITIES. 
 
 The joints or articulations of the extremities are the same 
 in number as those of the horse, but the limbs, on reaching 
 the fetlock joint, become divided, and the four bones situated 
 below the fetlock are consequently double. The scapula or 
 blade-bone is similar in shape to that of the horse, having a 
 spine or ridge down its middle for the attachment of mus- 
 cles, but in sheep the bone is not so long in proportion to its 
 width. It is attached to the ribs by muscular substance, by 
 means of which the body is suspended or hung like a car- 
 riage between the two fore-legs, and concussion is thereby 
 materially diminished. From the more circular shape of the 
 ribs the shoulder blades are attached to them with much less 
 mechanical advantage as far as speed is concerned. They 
 are placed wider apart, both above and below, but particu- 
 larly at their lower parts, so that the limbs spread open, at 
 a greater angle, much more like a pair of compasses than 
 do those of the horse, and even the ox, thus giving the 
 sheep that rolling walk so peculiar to the animal and so dis- 
 advantageous with regard to speed. 
 
 The humerus, or shoulder-bone, strong and cylindrical, 
 forms with the blade above the shoulder-joint, the action of 
 which, with that of the elbow-joint below, is more limited 
 than that of the horse. 
 
 The radius or bone of the fore-arm is comparatively 
 shorter than that of the horse, and we find that it is always 
 
THE BONES OF THE FORE EXTREMITrEIS. 305 
 
 long in animals of speed and short where speed is not re- 
 quired : this bone is also strong and cylindrical. 
 
 The ulna, or bone which forms the elbow, does not sup- 
 port the weight, but serves for the attachment of the power- 
 ful muscles so conspicuous in a shoulder of mutton and 
 which are generally divided by the first cut. For this pur- 
 pose it is attached to the radius, and rises above the elbow- 
 joint, the back of which it forms, but does not reach the 
 knee. This joint, the carpus, is composed of seven bones, 
 arranged in two rows, the upper of which articulates with 
 the radius, and the lower with the cannon or metacarpus. 
 
 The metacarpus or shank much resembles that of the 
 horse, until it reaches the fetlock, where it is to some little 
 extent cloven, so as to articulate with the double arrange- 
 ment of the bones below. Instead of the two small meta- 
 carpal or splent-bones that we find in the horse, there is 
 merely one, and that of small extent and use. 
 
 The small bones situated at the back of the fetlock, called 
 the sesamoids, and which serve as levers for the attachment 
 of ligaments and the action of the sinews, are double those 
 of the horse, being four in number. 
 
 The bones below the fetlock, viz., the large pastern or os 
 suffraginis, the small pastern or os coronm, the os pedis or 
 coffin-bone, and the navicular bone, are all double, and, like 
 the same parts in the ox, somewhat resemble in shape the 
 bones of the horse sawn in two. 
 
 All these joints have less extent of motion than we find 
 in the horse, and the bones therefore present a more upright 
 appearance. In the horse and in the ox an angle is formed 
 at the fetlock with various degrees of obliquity, and the three 
 bones below pass down in a straight line though in an ob- 
 lique direction. In the sheep, however, there is a different 
 conformation ; the large pastern-bone passes down in an ob- 
 lique forward course, as in the ox, but the small pastern de- 
 scends in a perpendicular direction so as to form an angle 
 with the bone above almost as great as, though precisely op- 
 posite to, that of the fetlock-joint. This it is which gives 
 the more upright appearance to these parts in sheep, though 
 the cause is not externally visible, and it throws the centre 
 of gravity on the back part of the coffin-bone and on the 
 horny heels of the foot. The small pastern bone is rela- 
 tively longer than in the horse, and there is more motion in 
 
 26* 
 
306 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 the pastern-joint, though much less in the fetlock ; indeed 
 the action of the former is quite as much as the latter. 
 
 Though not belonging to the skeleton, this will yet be the 
 most convenient situation for noticing the structure of the 
 other parts of 
 
 THE FOOT. 
 
 The bones dividing at the fetlock, the tendons likewise, 
 both before and behind, become divisible, and there are con- 
 sequently two flexor tendons or benders and two extensors to 
 each division. The former, as in the horse, consists of a 
 perforans and a perforatus, the latter forming a sheath for 
 the perforans just above the fetlock, in which it continues to 
 the small pastern-bone, into which the perforatus is inserted. 
 The perforans then glides over the back of the navicular 
 bone, which forms a sort of pulley, and is inserted into the 
 lower and back part of the coffin or foot-bone. Of the ex- 
 tensors one is inserted into the upper and front part of the 
 small pastern, and the other is continued to the coffin-bone. 
 These bones are connected together by capsular and other 
 ligaments, and there is one very strong one in particular, which 
 passes from the lower, inner, and anterior part of the large 
 pastern in a perpendicular direction to the inner and back part 
 of the coffin-bone. To the lower and back part of the coffin- 
 bone is attached an elastic pad of a fibrous and ligamentous na- 
 ture, which receives the greater part of the superincumbent 
 weight, and by yielding to it takes off the jar. It rests on 
 the horny heels of the foot, which thus supports the principal 
 part of the animal's weight, very little resting on the anterior 
 portion of the foot. It is thus very evident that there is a 
 considerable difference both in the structure and functions of 
 the various parts of the foot in the sheep and in the horse. 
 In the latter we find that the crust or wall of the foot is con- 
 nected to the coffin-bone by means of a double arrangement 
 of a vast number of horny and fibrous plates, the former 
 connected with the inside of the crust, and the latter with the 
 coffin-bone. These laminae, as they are called, are dove- 
 tailed together, and thus the connection is rendered of great 
 strength ; and the vast extent of surface thus afforded, and 
 the elasticity of the parts, obviate concussion, and afford, 
 indeed, an admirable spring and a principal cause of the 
 elastic tread of the animal. In the ox we observe an ar- 
 rangement somewhat similar, though the laminae are much 
 
BIFLEX CANAL. 307 
 
 less developed ; but in the sheep, so little weight being sup- 
 ported by the crust and front part of the foot, such a com- 
 plicated structure is not required, consequently we find no 
 laminae, but the crust is connected to the bone by a simple 
 vascular structure, which secretes the principal part of the 
 crust, in the same manner as the sole or lower part of the 
 foot is formed. The coronary substance which in the horse 
 secretes the greater portion of the crust is wanting in the 
 sheep. The sole of the foot is secreted as in the horse by 
 the vascular membrane above, and there is a greater thick- 
 ness of this dense substance interposed between the coffin- 
 bone and the sole of the foot. 
 
 We can thus understand from this description how it is 
 that the horn of the foot is so speedily restored in sheep 
 when the hoof is lost in foot-rot or the epidemic by the matter 
 insinuating itself between the horn and the bone : it has not, as 
 in the horse, to wait for the slow and tedious growth of the horn 
 from the coronet downwards. The inside of the crust is con- 
 siderably thinner and weaker than the outside, particularly 
 towards the back part, where foot-rot most frequently com- 
 mences. 
 
 The horny part of the foot may be considered to consist of 
 the crust, or wall, and the sole. The former surrounds the 
 outside of the foot and turns inwards at the toe, and passes 
 in a straight direction to the heels. It is thickest at the toe 
 and thinnest on the inside. The sole is situated at the bot- 
 tom of the foot between the outer and inner part of the crust, 
 but it is difficult to say where the crust ends or the sole 
 begins, the structure of each being so much alike. The 
 heels are formed both by the crust and the sole, though princi- 
 pally by the former, which turns inward and joins the inner 
 crust, and it here becomes more elastic and spongy, resem- 
 bling very much the frog of the horse. This part supports 
 the principal part of the weight, and suffers most when sheep 
 are driven much on the hard road. 
 
 We have yet to notice a very singular peculiarity in the 
 foot of the sheep, which is the 
 
 BIFLEX CANAL. 
 
 The large pastern-bones are connected together by liga- 
 mentous substance, and it is not till the pastern-joint that the 
 foot becomes exteriorly disunited. At the situation of this 
 joint in front we can detect a small opening sufficiently large 
 
808 STRUCTURE OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 to admit a small probe ; this is the entrance of the canal just 
 spoken of, which presently enlarges, and passes first down- 
 wards, and then winds round in a semicircular direction, 
 ending in a sort of cul de sac. On cutting into this canal it 
 appears to be a duplication of the skin ; its internal sui"face 
 is lined with hair, and there is found a considerable quantity 
 of detached hair mixed with a waxy secretion in the canal, 
 secreted by various glands. This hair is no doubt excreted 
 from the internal surface, and which, from the smallness of 
 the opening, cannot escape, or rather is detained for a useful 
 purpose. The use of this canal thus stuffed with hair is self- 
 evident. We have mentioned the great motion possessed by 
 this pastern-joint, which is so great as to threaten to chafe 
 the skin by the friction of one side against the other. It is 
 to prevent or ward off" this friction that these biflex canals, or 
 rather hair-stufl^ed cushions, are provided ; and they act, indeed, 
 precisely like the fenders which are lowered down the side of a 
 vessel to prevent it coming into contact with another. The ox 
 possesses little or no motion in this joint, and consequently re- 
 quires no such provision to prevent friction. The benevolence 
 'of Nature is strikingly exemplified by this simple structure. 
 
 This part occasionally suffers from the insinuation of dirt 
 and sand, and is subject to inflammation and ulceration, which 
 sometimes prove very troublesome. 
 
 THE HIND EXTREMITIES. 
 
 The haunch is formed by three bones in the young subject, 
 but these bones soon become consolidated into one, and is 
 called the pelvis or basin, within which is situated the blad- 
 der and part of the organs of generation. Viewing this bone 
 from below it appears pretty nearly circular within, but exter- 
 nally the circle is broken by various irregular processes, two 
 of which project upwards on each side the spine which lies 
 between ; then two others extend backwards below the tail 
 and are called the haunch bones, and two project laterally, and 
 are termed the hips. These bones project but little in a well- 
 formed sheep, being altogether clothed with flesh and fat. 
 
 The bones of the pelvis extend downwards and backwards 
 from the spine, and towards the inferior part form on each 
 side a deep cap or socket, into which fits the upper part of 
 the thigh bone, which is formed like a ball so as to fit into 
 the socket. The thigh bone, or foemur, extends forward, and 
 is relatively longer in the sheep than in the horse. It is the 
 
THE MUSCLES OR PLESH. S09 
 
 flesh surrounding this bone which composes the bulk of a leg 
 of mutton. Its lower part forms with the tibia below the sti- 
 jle joint, which is singular from having two cartilaginous bod- 
 ies within it ; and is protected in front by a small bone call- 
 ed the patella or knee-pan, which bone becomes a sort of 
 pulley, receiving the insertions of the very strong muscles 
 above, and is attached below to the tibia by strong ligaments. 
 
 TYiehbia or leg bone runs backwards from the stifle, and 
 is not so lotig in proportion as in the horse ; it corresponds 
 to the radius in the fore extremity, and it forms the upper 
 part of the hock joint. 
 
 This joint is composed of six bones arranged in rows so 
 as to form three articulations, but motion is confined to that 
 formed by the astragulus or knuckle bone and the tibia ; the 
 other bones serve as cushions to diminish concussion, with 
 the exception of the os calcis, situated at the back, which acts 
 as a lever receiving the insertions of the powerful muscles- 
 which straighten the hock. This bone is much shorter than 
 it is in the horse, speed not being required. The bones be- 
 low the hock correspond with those found below the knee in. 
 the fore extremity. 
 
 THE MUSCLES OR FLESH. 
 
 Although th§ shape of the body depends materially on that 
 of the skeleton, so that if the latter is anywise faulty the for- 
 mer will not be perfect, yet there is a very great contrast be- 
 tween the appearance of the skeleton and that of the body 
 itself, of which it forms a part. Whilst the former is angu- 
 lar and extremely irregular, the latter is round and smooth, 
 so that though the good shape of the animal depends on the 
 skeleton, yet it requires the eye of the anatomist to detect, in 
 the conformation of the latter, the good points which in the 
 body itself are readily observed. 
 
 The bulk of the body is formed of flesh or muscles ; their 
 principal use, when living, is to eflfect the movement of the 
 limbs ; when dead, to aftbrd nutriment to man. The motion 
 of the body is occasioned by the contraction of the muscles, 
 which, being fastened to different bones, draw these bones 
 towards each other, and thus the limbs are bent whenever 
 particular muscles shorten or contract. These muscles, 
 which bend the limbs, are called the flexors, whilst an oppo- 
 site set which straighten them again, are denominated the 
 extensors ; the latter, however, are mostly smaller and weak- 
 
310 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 er than the former. The size and shape of muscles are very 
 diversified, some being so minute as to be scarcely visible, as 
 those within the ear ; whilst others, namely, those of the 
 loins and buttocks, are large enough to afford a feast for sev- 
 eral persons ; some muscles are thin and spread out like a 
 fan, others are thick and bulky, and whilst some are extreme- 
 ly short, others are cylindrical and of great length. Muscles 
 are furnished with nerves both of motion and sensation : the 
 former convey the mandates of the will, and are thus the 
 cause of motion ; the latter communicate the sense of feeling, 
 and are the medium both of pleasure and pain ; but there is 
 considerably less degree of feeling possessed by the flesh 
 than by the skin. The muscles are composed of fibres, and 
 are bound together by cellular membrane, and they are, in 
 sheep, mostly clothed with fat, which also is deposited amongst 
 the fibres. It is the capability of containing this fat, and the 
 abundance and laxity of the membrane containing it, which 
 distinguishes a sheep of a good from one of a bad breed, 
 and gives to the former that softness and elasticity or resil- 
 iency which is felt on handling it, even when poor. The 
 former sheep, too, possesses large muscles, particularly at 
 those parts where the meat is most esteemed. Thus the 
 loins of a good sheep are broad, and abundantly covered with 
 flesh and fat, and so likewise are the buttocks and the shoul- 
 ders, whilst the head and neck are small. The muscles that 
 are in most constant use are more interlaced with tendinous 
 fibre, and consequently are much less tender, as meat, than those 
 which are less actively engaged. The muscles of the lower 
 part of the legs between the knees and hocks and the joints 
 above, as well as those of the neck and head, are instances 
 of the former kind ; whilst the muscles of the loins, and more 
 particularly those within the pelvis, are examples of the lat- 
 ter, and afford the most tender meat in the body. 
 
 THE BKAIN AND NERVES. 
 
 The brain, the seat of the mind, and the fountain of sen- 
 sation, is a soft body, situated in a cavity of the skull called 
 the cranium. In man it occupies by far the greater portion 
 of the skull ; but, in the sheep, from its much smaller size, 
 and from the large space devoted to the face, its cavity, the 
 cranium, is much the smaller part. It is closely invested by 
 a membrane called the pia mater, whilst the cranium is lined 
 by a firm, strong membrane called the dura mater. Between 
 
THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 311" 
 
 these there is another delicate membrane called the tunica 
 arachnoides. The dura mater, by its duplications, forms sev- 
 eral processes and sinuses ; the former, by descending be- 
 tween its divisions, serve to secure the brain in its position, 
 and the latter act as reservoirs for the venous blood, thus pre- 
 venting the brain from being injured by any temporary im- 
 pediment in its passage. 
 
 The pia mater closely embraces the brain, and dips into 
 its convolutions. The brain consists of three parts — the 
 cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata. 
 
 The cerebrum is considerably the largest, and is divided 
 into two hemispheres, each of which closely corresponds 
 with its fellow. 
 
 On cutting into the cerebrum, we find that it consists of 
 two portions — the medullary or white, and the grey or corti- 
 cal part. The latter is mostly situated towards the surface, 
 and the former towards the centre, but both appear to run 
 into each other. Within the hemispheres there appear to be 
 various cavities, canals, and membranes, which, in this work, 
 it is unnecessary to describe. 
 
 The cerebellum, or little brain, is situated behind the 
 cerebrum, than which it is considerably smaller. It appears 
 to consist of medullary and cortical substance mingled to- 
 gether. 
 
 The medulla oblongata, the smallest division, is situated 
 at the base of the brain. It is medullary in its structure, 
 and gives origin to the greater part of the cranial nerves. 
 It is by far the most sensible part of the brain, for whilst 
 portions of the cerebrum have been cut away in some ani- 
 mals without giving any apparent pain, the least pressure on 
 the medulla is productive of injury or death. The brain is 
 largely supplied by means of the carotid arteries with blood, 
 which is returned to the heart by the jugular veins. 
 
 The spinal marrow may be considered as the continuation 
 of the brain, running from the medulla oblongata, throughout 
 the spinal canal, to the tail. It is enveloped by the same 
 membranes as the brain, and continues to the sacrum, where 
 it ends in several nervous cords. Its form is cylindrical, 
 and it has been found to consist of six bands, in the centre 
 of which there is a sort of canal. The nerves arising from 
 the brain and spinal cord, in sheep, are forty pair, ten of 
 which proceed from the brain and the remainder from the 
 cord, and are therefore called the spinal nerves. 
 
312 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 On examining a nerve, we find that it consists of a vast 
 number of white filaments, each having its particular cover- 
 ing, and yet compactly bound together and invested by 
 membrane. 
 
 Of the cranial nerves the first pair is the olfactory, the 
 nerve of smelling, pulpy in its structure, and the largest in 
 the body. It rises from the cerebrum, passes out of the 
 cranium, and is spread out on the membrane lining the nos- 
 trils. 
 
 The second pair, the optic, rise from the cerebrum, but, 
 before they pass out of the skull, join together and decussate, 
 the right nerve going to the left eye, and vice versa. Each 
 takes an oblique course, pierces the outer coats of the eye, 
 and is spread out in the form of the retina, and thus conveys 
 the impressions of objects to the brain. The sense of hear- 
 ing is supplied by a soft nerve, the auditory, which enters 
 an orifice in the temporal bone, where the seat of hearing is 
 contained. The sense of taste is supplied by the fifth, 
 which is a compound nerve, conveying both sensation and 
 motion. The other cranial nerves convey sensation and 
 motion to the various parts of the head ; but there is one 
 nerve which demands more particular notice. This is the 
 par vagum, or pneumo- gastric of the French. It rises from 
 the brain, passes down the neck close to the carotid artery, 
 and distributes branches to the pharynx, larynx, and oeso- 
 phagus, heart, lungs, stomach, and liver. If divided on 
 both sides in the living animal, death immediately ensues. 
 Its importance may thus be readily conceived ; it is inti- 
 mately connected with life itself, giving to the heart and 
 stomach their power of motion, independent of the will. 
 The spinal are compound nerves ; having a double function 
 and a twofold origin, they convey both sensation and motion. 
 They arise by numerous filaments from both the upper and 
 under surface of the spinal cord. The filaments coalesce, 
 and, before they emerge from the dura mater, join together, 
 previous to which the upper nerve forms a sort of knot called 
 a ganglion. This latter is the nerve of sensation, the other 
 the nerve of motion ; and thus, though united together, the 
 filaments are yet distinct, and a part is endowed mostly with 
 sensation, or with motion, according as the filaments of the 
 former or the latter predominate. 
 
 There is yet another nerve which requires to be noticed 
 
ORGANS OF MASTICATION. 313 
 
 as being of great importance. It has been called the gan- 
 glial, from the nature of its apparent origin, and sympathetic, 
 from its functions, but more properly the great organic nerve. 
 It appears to arise from a small red ganglion or knot at the 
 base of the brain, and just previous to the commencement 
 of the spinal cord. It appears to have intimate communica- 
 tion with all the other nerves, and distributes branches to all 
 the glands, arteries, and absorbents of the system — the heart, 
 lungs, and digestive organs ; it is the soul, as it were, of the 
 organic system, influencing the functions of nutrition and se- 
 cretion. 
 
 We have before observed that the brain of the sheep is 
 small as compared with the size of the body. In fact, the 
 whole nervous system is, as it were, feebly developed, and 
 this peculiarity has a considerable influence over the diseases 
 of the animal, and accounts for the fact that in the greater 
 number debility quickly supervenes, and in many the animal 
 speedily sinks. 
 
 THE ORGANS OF MASTICATION, ETC. 
 
 The mouth of the sheep and its contents are admirably 
 adapted for their natural functions. The sheep is intended 
 by Nature to thrive on scanty pasture and to take a consider- 
 able bite, and much closer to the ground than the ox. The 
 lips are therefore protected by hair, which defends them 
 from injury from the ground ; they approach somewhat to a 
 j)oint, and the upper lip is cleft, which suits it well for the 
 purpose. 
 
 The incisor teeth or nippers, like those of the ox, are sit- 
 uated only on the lower jaw, the upper having instead a firm 
 fibrous pad, sufficiently strong to retain the food between it 
 and the teeth. The incisor teeth are eight in number in a 
 perfect mouth, but the lamb, when dropped, has only two, 
 and sometimes none visible, but in a few weeks the others 
 make their appearance : these, however, are but temporary 
 teeth, smaller than the permanent ones, and adapted to the 
 size of the mouth. By two years old the central teeth drop 
 out, and are succeeded by two larger and stronger teeth — the 
 permanent. These teeth are formed within the sockets in 
 the bone some time previous to their appearance, and pressing 
 against the root of the temporary incisors, gradually induce 
 their absorption. By three years old the two next teeth 
 have undergone the same change, and are succeeded the 
 
 27 
 
314 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 following year by those adjoining, so that by five years the 
 whole eight teeth are thus renewed, and the sheep is then 
 said to be full-mouthed. Although the order and period of 
 these changes are sufficiently regular to ensure them as a suffi- 
 cient criterion for a general rule, yet it is not without exception, 
 as sometimes the permanent teeth appear much earlier, and 
 at others their appearance has been protracted to a later 
 period. 
 
 After the sheep becomes full-mouthed, there is no method 
 of judging of the age with accuracy, but the teeth rarely 
 remain perfect long, particularly if fed on turnips ; some of 
 them are lost or become broken, and the sheep is then said 
 to be broken-mouthed. 
 
 The incisor teeth are somewhat conical in shape, the point 
 being inserted in deep sockets ; the portion visible is covered 
 by a very hard transparent material called the enamel, and 
 it is brought to a sharp edge at the anterior part, so that it 
 cuts very much like a chisel. Compared with those of the 
 horse the incisor teeth appear somewhat loose, but this is 
 rather an advantage than otherwise. The food, being era- 
 braced between the incisor teeth and the pad above, is torn 
 asunder by the nodding action of the head, and the food is 
 conveyed by the tongue to the molars or grinders. When 
 turnips, however, form the diet, the food is scooped out, as 
 it were, by the teeth alone, and they are consequently sooner 
 worn out and broken ; but even otherwise, this effect gener- 
 ally follows a few years after the mouth becomes perfect. 
 The molar teeth are six in number, on each side of each jaw ; 
 they are firmly planted in deep sockets, and their faces are 
 covered with enamel. These faces are very irregular, but 
 admirably adapted for tearing and grinding the tough and 
 unyielding grass ; and they are also secured in their positions 
 by means of the gums, which, in common with the other 
 parts of the mouth, are covered with a mucous membrane, 
 and in some parts a firm dense material is interposed between 
 the mucous membrane and the bone. 
 
 The sides of the mouth are formed by the cheeks, which 
 are composed of skin and membrane sufficiently loose to 
 admit the limited motion of the jaws ; they are connected 
 with the powerful masseter muscles, which form the greater 
 part of the bulk of the face, and principally occasion the 
 grinding motion of the jaws. In the skull we find the lower 
 jaw considerably narrower than the upper, but in the living 
 
ORGANS OF MASTICATION. 315 
 
 animal this does not appear, the space being occupied by the 
 masseter muscles. 
 
 The lips greatly assist in gathering together the food, and 
 are largely furnished with the nerves of feeling ; they are 
 composed of skin, muscle, and membrane, and possess the 
 powers of motion and sensation in a high degree. 
 
 The mouth is abundantly supplied with a watery fluid 
 called saliva, particularly during mastication, when it is se- 
 creted and poured in in considerable quantities. This fluid 
 is principally secreted by three pairs of glands, the largest 
 of which are the parotid, situated at the root of each ear, 
 and from which two ducts on each side convey the fluid and 
 unite in one previous to entering the mouth. The submaxil- 
 lary glands are situated under the jaws, and their ducts ter- 
 minate in tubular eminences near the frsenum or bridle of the 
 tongue. The other salivary glands are the sublingual, situ- 
 ated under the tongue : its ducts terminate rather higher up 
 than those last described. Besides these there are other 
 small glands connected with the cheek and the bottom of 
 the mouth ; and one peculiar to sheep situated behind the 
 lower jaw, and extending towards the eye, and communica- 
 ting with the mouth by means of a duct opening near the last 
 molar tooth. There is thus from these various sources an 
 abundant supply of saliva more copious than most animals 
 possess, and which is rendered necessary by the hard and 
 woody nature of the food consumed in a natural state. And 
 it has been found that a large supply passes into the stomach 
 independent of mastication, and is there required for softening 
 and macerating the dry food ; for, when deprived of this sup- 
 ply by an experiment, it has been found that the contents of 
 the paunch remained dry. 
 
 The mouth is principally filled with the tongue, which is 
 muscular in its structure and very flexible, being, indeed, a 
 principal agent in mastication and swallowing. It is larger 
 at the upper part than towards its tip, and is confined poste- 
 riorly to the muscles between the branches of the lower jaw, 
 by a sort of fleshy bridle, and above to a singularly shaped 
 bone called the os hyoides. It possesses both the power of 
 feeling and tasting, and for this purpose is well supplied with 
 two descriptions of nerves, and is covered by both cutis and 
 cuticle. 
 
 There is a marked distinction in the back part of the 
 mouth between the horse and the sheep and other rumina- 
 
316 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 ting animals. In the former the velum palati, or soft palate, 
 a fleshy substance attached to the semicircular border of the 
 palatine bones, is sufficiently long to fall down on the back 
 of the tongue, and thus eff'ectually to close the back part of 
 the mouth, except when food is passing, and prevent either 
 the air or food returning through the mouth. Thus a horse 
 can breathe through his nostrils only, and whenever food is 
 vomited it passes in the same direction. The sheep being 
 a ruminating animal, such a structure would be inapplicable, 
 as it would prevent the food being returned to the mouth ; 
 consequently the soft palate is considerably shorter and nar- 
 rower. It does not reach the tongue, and the diminished 
 extent of the palatine bones, to which it is attached, as be- 
 fore observed, also limits its action. 
 
 The larynx, the pharynx, and the tongue are connected to- 
 gether and to the upper jaw-bone, or rather to the bones of 
 the head, by means of the os hyoides, so called from its re- 
 semblance to a spur. The semicircular part of the spur em- 
 braces, in a manner, the larynx, whilst the shaft is intimately 
 connected with the root of the tongue. The os hyoides has 
 two long appendages, which articulate with the temporal 
 bone. Thus situated and constituted, this bone gives great 
 support to the soft parts connected with it, whilst, at the 
 same time, it freely admits their extensive mobility. In the 
 act of swallowing, therefore, this bone is greatly called into 
 action. 
 
 Adjoining the pharynx are two large spaces called the 
 Eustachian cavities, situated one on each side, and commu- 
 nicating by means of a tube with the internal ear. 
 
 THE ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 
 
 The digestive organs of the sheep, like those of grami- 
 nivorous animals in general, are extensive and complicated, 
 having a far more difficult and elaborate office to perform 
 than those of carnivorous animals. The food of the latter 
 is taken, as it were, ready prepared ; its constituents closely 
 resemble those of the blood itself, and, of course, it is ex- 
 actly similar to the flesh it is intended to nourish. A small 
 quantity of food only is required to be taken, and nearly the 
 whole of this food is employed in nourishing the system or 
 supplying its waste, the faeces being exceedingly scanty. 
 The digestive organs of herbivorous animals have a much 
 more onerous task to accomplish ; the food is in a more 
 
ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 317 
 
 crude or less prepared state ; the nutritious portions bear a 
 much smaller proportion to the whole mass, and, accordingly, 
 the food taken is of very considerable bulk. To meet these 
 peculiarities the digestive organs are much more spacious 
 and more complicated than those of the carnivora ; means 
 are afforded for detaining the food until the nutriment can be 
 properly extracted, a larger amount of chemical and vital 
 force is employed, and a more abundant supply of nervous 
 energy afforded. The horse, in a state of nature, is almost 
 continually feeding ; he bites short and well triturates his 
 food, but is almost constantly so engaged ; and though, in a 
 domesticated state, the food is not so abundant nor so fre- 
 quently taken, it is in a much more nutritious form. Corre- 
 sponding to these natural habits, we find that though the ali- 
 mentary canal altogether is of enormous bulk, the stomach 
 itself is single and of moderate size. Digestion is almost 
 constantly going on ; food is passing out of one orifice of 
 the stomach as it comes in at the other, and the supply of 
 bile is constant, there being no reservoir for it — no gall- 
 bladder. The smallness of the stomach is compensated for 
 by the prodigious bulk of the large intestines. Thus the 
 horse, though an animal that requires a large quantity of food, 
 is yet able to perform great physical exertions, and can make 
 them after a full meal more readily than any other animal. 
 
 The ox, the sheep, and other ruminating animals, have, 
 like the horse, very extensive digestive organs, but very dif- 
 ferently arranged. The horse, in a state of nature, will 
 rarely get fat ; the ox and the sheep, in good pasture, will 
 almost invariably do so, and will otherwise greatly increase 
 in size ; the digestive organs are, therefore, more bulky than 
 in the horse, and much more complicated. The intestines 
 are of greater length, though not so large, and instead of 
 one stomach there are no less than four. 
 
 The natural food of the sheep is embraced by the joint 
 apposition of the incisor teeth of the under jaw and the 
 cartilaginous pad on the upper, and is separated mainly by 
 the action of the muscles of the head and neck, giving the 
 head an almost constant motion, which may be readily ob- 
 served when the animal is feeding on pasture. The grass 
 is torn off, not bitten ; but when turnips form the food the 
 teeth are more actively employed, and consequently are 
 more worn and become sooner lost. The food being mode- 
 rately chewed by the molar teeth or grinders, to which it is 
 27* 
 
318 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 conveyed by the tongue, is by the same organ carried to the 
 back of the mouth, and being softened by the saliva and 
 thereby mixed with atmospheric air, enters a fleshy bag 
 called the pharynx or gullet. 
 
 This pharynx is lined by the same membrane as the 
 mouth, and is surrounded by, and, in fact, composed of vari- 
 ous muscles, which contracting force the food forwards into 
 a long tube called the oesophagus, which leads to the stomach. 
 The pharynx is situated immediately above the larynx or 
 cartilaginous box which forms the entrance to the windpipe, 
 and the food in entering the gullet passes over the entrance 
 to the larynx, which it is prevented from entering by a trian- 
 gular lid termed the epiglottis, which in the act of swallow- 
 ing shuts down on the larynx, but otherwise leaves it open 
 for the purpose of respiration. The food after leaving the 
 gullet enters the oesophagus, a very long tube lined internally 
 by a white insensible membrane, and externally by muscu- 
 lar coats, which, by contracting, force the food onwards to 
 the stomach. The oesophagus passes down the neck to- 
 wards its left side and somewhat above the windpipe, with 
 which it enters the chest between the two first ribs ; it then 
 takes an upward or ascending course through the cavity of 
 the chest over the base of the heart, passes the midriif or 
 diaphragm, and then descending soon afterwards reaches 
 the stomachs. On entering the chest it somewhat dimin- 
 ishes in size, but again expands in the abdomen. It does 
 not actually terminate in either of the stomachs, but in what 
 is called the oesophagea?i canal, which is about four inches 
 and a half in extent, and is formed above by a continuation 
 of the oesophagus, and below by a sort of muscular pillars 
 — duplications of the upper portions of the first and second 
 stomachs. Thus the oesophagean canal is a sort of lobby 
 or passage having entrances to the difl^erent stomachs, and 
 which, with the exception of the second and fourth, are the 
 only entrances these stomachs possess. By the annexed 
 cut it will be seen that the food duct commences at the en- 
 trance to the rumen, and for the space of three inches its 
 floor consists of muscular pillars or lips, formed by the up- 
 per part of the second stomach, the entrance to which is be- 
 tween these lips. The pillars then continue within the 
 cavity of the third stomach for the space of an inch and a 
 half to the entrance of the fourth stomach, the cavity of the 
 third being principally situated above, forming the roof of 
 
ORGANS OF DIGESTION. S19| 
 
 the (Esophagean canal. The entrance, however, to the third 
 commences before the opening into the second stomach 
 ceases. The entrance to the fourth stomach is two inches 
 and a half in extent, and is formed by duplications of the 
 mucous and muscular coats of this viscus, which meet so 
 as to close the entrance when either the will of the animal 
 or the necessity of nature requires. 
 
 The usual course of the food is into the rumen or first 
 stomach, whose entrance is close to the termination of the 
 oesophagus and the entrance of the canal. This stomach is 
 of enormous extent, occupying, indeed, when full, nearly 
 three-fourths of the abdomen. It lies towards the left side 
 extending to the flank, and by a sort of muscular band it is 
 partially divided into two principal compartments. It is 
 lined externally by the peritoneal membrane, in common 
 with the other contents of the abdomen, and internally by 
 an insensible membrane, called the cuticular, between which 
 there are two other coats — the mucous, which secretes the 
 fluid found in the stomach, and external to this the muscular 
 coat, which is formed of two orders of fibres running in op- 
 posite directions. Its interior aspect presents a number of 
 pouches or compartments, which are formed by muscular 
 bands thrown across from one part to another ; and the sur- 
 face presents an innumerable number of papillae or eminen- 
 ces, not sharp, but blunt-pointed, which are formed by the 
 mucous coat and merely covered by the cuticular. These 
 papillae are coarser in the lower compartment of the viscus 
 than in the upper. We have said the rumen consists of two 
 compartments, but with greater propriety it may be stated 
 that there are three, a smaller one being situated immediately 
 below the termination of the oesophagus and adjoining the 
 second stomach. The use of these partial divisions is very 
 evident. They relieve one portion of the stomach from sus- 
 taining the whole of the weight of the food, and they afford 
 a sort of steps or resting-places for the food that has under- 
 gone maceration, the upper and smaller compartment being 
 that into which the food is raised just previous to being ru- 
 minated. The rumen is partly attached to the second stom- 
 ach, but only communicates with it through the common 
 opening into the oesophagean canal. 
 
 The second stomach is called the reticulum; its size is 
 considerably less than the rumen, but it possesses much 
 strength in its coats, and its muscular fibres are more devel- 
 
320 
 
 STRtJCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 INTERNAL VIEW OF THE STOMACHS. 
 
ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 321 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE CUT. 
 
 A. The lower part of the (Esophagus, showing its external coat. 
 
 B. Its internal coat at its termination. 
 
 C. The upper compartment of the rumen, or first stomach, showing its internal coat. 
 
 D. The strong mu->cular band which divides the lower from the upper compartment. 
 
 E. The lower compartment of the rumen. 
 
 F. Another muscular band. 
 
 G G. The external coat of the rumen. 
 
 H. The entrance to the rumen cut open, and its opposite part reflected back, so as 
 
 to e.vhibit an internal view of the second stomach. 
 I. The external coat of the reticulum, or second stomach. 
 J J J J. The muscular pillars forming the floor of the msophagean canal when 
 
 close, but now spread open to show the second stomach. 
 K K. An internal view of the reticulum, or second stomach, showing its peculiar 
 
 honeycomb structure. 
 L L. The continuation of the oesophagean canal at the entrance to the third 
 
 stomach. 
 M M. An internal view of the maniplus, or third stomach, showing its peculiar 
 
 folds or plaits. 
 N N. The fleshy lips, which act as valves to guard the entrance between them to 
 
 the fourth stomach. 
 O. The termination of th€ oesophagean canal. 
 P P. The external coat of the abomasum, or fourth stomach. 
 Q, CI. The internal coat of the abomasum, or fourth stomach, showing its folds. 
 
 Both these coats are displayed by slitting open the stomach and then pinning 
 the duplications together, at its upper part. 
 R R. The valve formed by puckerings of the internal coat, and guarding the en- 
 trance into the small intestines. 
 S. The internal coat of the small intestines. 
 
 oped. It is globular in shape and somewhat larger than the 
 maniplus, and is familiar to us in tripe, not only from its cel- 
 lular structure, but from its being thicker than the others. 
 Its internal aspect is very singular, having a vast number, 
 indeed several hundred, of shallow cells somewhat like a 
 honeycomb. These cells are much smaller at the part of 
 the viscus nearest the entrance, and gradually increase in size 
 from this point. The sides of these cells consist of ridges 
 formed by the mucous and cuticular coats, and smaller ridges 
 are also observed running across within the cells. Most of 
 them are pentagonal, but many have six sides, and on their 
 surface we observe an immense number of sharp-pointed 
 papillae much smaller in size though sharper than those of 
 the rumen, and which secrete a mucous fluid. This viscus 
 has the same coats as the rumen, but the muscylar coat has 
 two layers of strong fibres arranged both transversely and 
 longitudinally. The opening into this stomach is of some 
 extent compared to its size ; the duplications or lips which 
 form it are indeed the floor of the greater portion of the oeso- 
 phagean canal. Though in the ordinary state the roof or 
 upper part of the reticulum is the floor of the oesophagean 
 canal, yet if air is pumped into the oesophagus so as to dis- 
 
322 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP, 
 
 tend the stomachs, the situation of the reticuhim will become 
 reversed, rising up towards the oesophagus ; and thus if this 
 viscus is distended in hoove, as from its free communication 
 with the rumen it probably is, it must press upon the dia- 
 phragm with very considerable force, greater in proportion 
 even that the rumen itself The contents of this stomach 
 are more liquid than those of the others. 
 
 Somewhat before the end of the entrance of the second, 
 the canal terminates, as it were, in the third stomach, the 
 maniplus or manifolds, so called from its curious internal 
 structure, which is formed by a great number of plaits or 
 folds arranged longitudinally in a direction from the entrance 
 of the stomach ; so that althoug-h it is not large, externally 
 not exceeding the reticulum, its internal surface is increased 
 in more than a tenfold degree. These plaits are very cu- 
 riously arranged, being in the form of seven or eight groups 
 of six leaves, each leaf dissimilar in length, the longest ex- 
 tending almost from the upper to the lower part of the stom- 
 ach. These leaves are studded with numerous small papillae, 
 much harder than those of the reticulum, and some on the 
 
 edges of the plaits of the shape of a bent cone, thus / / , 
 
 the point directed towards the entrance. It has been found 
 in certain cows that would never retain their food, but were 
 continually scouring, that these plaits were unusually short. 
 
 The maniplus has but one opening, but this opening is in 
 direct communication with both the canal and the fourth 
 stomach, as may be seen in the sketch, page 320. The 
 plaits are studded with numerous minute papillae, somewhat 
 similar to those found in the reticulum. The maniplus pos- 
 sesses four coats like the others, and its external appearance 
 is globular. Its contents are generally found of a much 
 harder consistence than those of the other stomachs. 
 
 This stomach, when full, is found above the cesophagean 
 canal, forming, indeed, a portion of its roof, and its longest 
 leaves fall down, as it were, almost into that canal. 
 
 The abomasum, as the fourth stomach is called, is, in fact, 
 the true stomach, being that which secretes the gastric juice 
 by which the food is converted into chyme. It is this pe- 
 culiar acid which gives it the power of coagulating milk, and 
 in calves it is particularly employed for this purpose in the 
 manufacture of cheese, under the term rennet. 
 
ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 323 
 
 Externally this organ is somewhat conical in shape, its 
 apex being the part which joins the intestines. It possesses 
 three coats, hke the other stomachs ; but its internal surface 
 is very different, being smooth and shining, and of a pale red 
 color. Its mucous membrane is, indeed, very vascular, and 
 this secretes the gastric juice. The internal surface is greatly 
 increased, and exceeds the external, by being in the form of 
 plaits, arranged longitudinally, but very different from those 
 found in the maniplus. The entrance to this stomach (its 
 cardiac opening) is close to the entrance to the maniplus ; it 
 is arranged somewhat in a crescentic form, and is situated at 
 one extremity of the base, whilst the liyloric opening, leading 
 into the small intestines, is, as before observed, situated at 
 the apex. Having thus described the situation and appear- 
 ance of the stomachs, an external view of which may be seen 
 at page 326, we must return to the consideration of the course 
 of the food through them. 
 
 The situation, the structure, and the size of the rumen 
 point it out as the first and general receptacle for the food, 
 which receives in the mouth only sufficient mastication to 
 enable the animal to swallow it. It is then received by the 
 rumen, and morsel after morsel is taken until this viscus is com- 
 paratively full. The animal then feels some repletion, and 
 rumination usually takes place, the animal generally prefer- 
 ring a recumbent posture. It has been shown, however, 
 that it is not the food just taken, but that which has been 
 swallowed some twelve or sixteen hours previously, that un- 
 dergoes the ruminating process. The food, indeed, is turned 
 and shifted about the stomach by its muscular action, and 
 well mixed with the fluid secreted by its internal surface : 
 it, of course, enters at first the superior compartment, from 
 which it passes to the inferior, and again enters the former 
 division ere rumination takes place. A tolerably full stom- 
 ach is necessary for the act ; for it has been found in sheep 
 that had fasted for several days that a tolerable portion of 
 food still remained in the rumen. Before rumination can take 
 place it is evident that the food must rise to the upper part 
 of the viscus and enter the oesophagean canal. What, then, 
 is its direction ? The liquid portion passes on in the course 
 of the canal ; but it is contended by some physiologists that 
 the second stomach, the reticulum, is the active agent in ru- 
 mination, and that the food enters it previous to its being re- 
 turned to the mouth, and they are supported in this opinion 
 
324 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 by the muscular strength possessed by this viscus. In op- 
 position to this opinion it may be urged that it requires but 
 little more force to raise the food to the root of the ossopha- 
 gus than to the entrance of the reticulum, and also, that the 
 contents of the second stomach are of a more fluid nature 
 than those of the first. It is not to be supposed that all the food 
 taken is again ruminated ; it is only the hard indigestible 
 portion that undergoes the process. Rumination is assisted 
 by the pressure of the abdominal muscles and the diaphragm, 
 and the larger and more distended the stomachs the more 
 likely they are to receive assistance from these aids. Keep- 
 ing these facts in view, we are inclined to believe that both 
 the first and second stomach may have equal power in the 
 process of rumination. In accordance with this idea we must 
 suppose that a mass of food is raised from the rumen into the 
 CEsophagean canal, that the hardest and driest portion is se- 
 lected by the root of the oesophagus, and that the other part 
 passes onwards, and whilst some portion may reach the third, 
 the great part will fall, as it were, through the trap-door into 
 the second stomach, there to undergo a further macerating or 
 digesting process. When this viscus is moderately full it 
 will contract on its contents, and first squeeze out the fluid 
 portion, which will, of course, pass onwards into the third 
 and fourth stomachs, whilst the solid part will be embraced 
 by the oesophagus and returned to the mouth. 
 
 It is evident that the functions of the oesophagus are much 
 more onerous than in non-ruminating animals, and according- 
 ly it is furnished with more muscular power ; the lower por- 
 tion particularly is surrounded with spiral muscles, by which 
 the selected pellet is first sent upwards. 
 
 It is not unlikely that some portion of the food may be 
 submitted two or more times to the process of rumination. 
 
 It is probable that the most liquid portion of the food at 
 once enters the fourth stomach, and that of a harder nature 
 the maniplus. The singular construction of this viscus evi- 
 dently shows that it must effect an important office, and it 
 has been found that in animals which through life have never 
 thriven well, notwithstanding that they have consumed a lar- 
 ger quantity of food than other beasts, the maniplus has been 
 imperfectly formed, the plaits being short so as to afford con- 
 siderably less surface than usual. The use of this stomach, 
 therefore, is to detain the food, to press it between its folds, 
 and to soften it by the secretion afforded by its extensive 
 
ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 325 
 
 surface, and thus to prepare it for the action of the gastric 
 juice in the fourth stomach, to which organ we now trace it. 
 
 In the young animal living entirely on its mother's milk, 
 the fourth is the only stomach employed ; it is, therefore, 
 then fully developed, whilst the others are small and imper- 
 fectly formed. The milk contains the elements of nutri- 
 tion in a much more perfect state than it exists in vegeta- 
 ble food. It requires but a little separation in order to fit it 
 for nutrition. As the young animal gradually becomes in- 
 ured to other food, the other stomachs become more devel- 
 oped. By the time the food reaches the abomasum it is in a 
 macerated pulpy state, and fit to be exposed to the powerful 
 solvent action of the gastric juice. This fluid is secreted in 
 abundance by the mucous coat of the fourth stomach. It is 
 a peculiar fluid, acid in its nature, and so powerful a solvent 
 that it has been known after death to dissolve a portion of 
 the coats of the stomach itself. It has in its composition 
 hydrochloric acid, and its action on the food is of a chemical 
 nature, converting it into chyme and rendering it into a fit 
 state for the other digestive processes. The food being thus 
 dissolved passes through the pyloric opening into the small 
 intestines ; this orifice has a valve-like construction (see p. 
 320), admitting the food to pass in one direction only, and 
 then not until it has been sufficiently acted on by the gastric 
 juice. 
 
 The small intestines are of considerable length in the 
 sheep, being upwards of sixty feet. In the human subject 
 it is customary to divide them into three portions, and they 
 are called the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. These 
 distinctions are arbitrary even in man, but still more so in 
 the sheep, and, in fact, cannot be properly applied. The 
 first portion of these intestines (the duodenum in man) dif- 
 fers much from the rest. It lies comparatively loose, and 
 on opening it we observe a yellow substance, which is, in 
 fact, the bile, which enters by a duct or very small tube 
 some eighteen inches from the stomach, and at nearly the 
 same place another fluid flows in from the pancreas or 
 sweetbread. These fluids, it may be supposed, exercise an 
 important office in the process of digestion, and the early 
 portion of the small guts is the situation where the admix- 
 ture takes place. 
 
 The liver is a bulky organ whose size, general appear- 
 ance, and shape must be familiar to most people. Its weight 
 
 28 
 
326 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 EXTERNAL VIEW OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES 
 
 Spread apart and arranged according to the following scale, so as to show their 
 actual and relative size. 
 
ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 327 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE CUT. 
 
 A A. The (Esophagus. 
 
 B B B B. The rumen, or first stomach, showing its compartments. 
 
 C. The reticulum, or second stomach. 
 
 D. The maniplus, or third stomach. 
 
 E. The abomasum, or fourth or true stomach. 
 
 F. The conuuencement of the small intestines at the pyloric orifice of the stomach. 
 
 G. The situation where the biliary duct empties its contents into the duodenum. 
 
 H H H. The small intestines freed from the mesentery, and arranged evenly, so as 
 
 to show their length. 
 I. The termination of the small and beginning of the large intestines, guarded by a 
 
 valve. 
 J J. The colon, or first large intestine. 
 
 K. The blind extremity of the colon, by some termed the ecEcum. 
 li. The rectum, or straight gut. 
 
 in sheep is about one-fiftieth that of the carcase, and its spe- 
 cific gravity is somewhat greater tlian water. It is par- 
 tially separated into divisions or lobes, and is principally 
 situated towards the right side. Its office is to separate the 
 bile from the venous blood — that which has circulated through 
 a great portion of the body and is on its way to the lungs to 
 be re-purified. It is called a gland, and is, in fact, a fine 
 sieve or filter, having the power of separating a peculiar 
 substance from the blood and no other. It is supplied with 
 arterial blood for its own nourishment, but by means of a 
 large vein called the vena porta it is furnished with venous 
 blood for the exercise of its functions. The bile being thus 
 separated, is then conveyed into a reservoir attached to 
 the liver and called the gall-bladder, from which the gall- 
 duct rises, and enters the intestine about eighteen inches 
 from the stomach. Ruminating animals, in common with 
 man and the carnivora, are furnished with a gall-bladder, 
 vi'hilst horses and the other solid ungulous animals do not 
 possess them ; the reason being that in the latter the diges- 
 tive process is continually going on, and therefore a constant 
 supply of bile is essential, while in the former the food is 
 either taken in distinct meals, as in man and the carnivora, 
 or otherwise the ruminating process is carried on and re- 
 newed at different periods, as in sheep and cattle — in either 
 case requiring large and copious supplies of bile to complete 
 the process of digestion. It must be evident from the exist- 
 ence of the gall-bladder in some species of animals and its 
 absence in others that the bile must perform an important 
 part in the digestive process. One of its functions is to 
 neutralize the acidity which the food or chyme has acquired 
 in the stomach by means of the gastric juice, and thus pre- 
 
328' STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP, 
 
 pare it for the separation of the chyle which may be seen on 
 the surface of the food. For this purpose it is largely sup- 
 plied with an alkaline fluid, which unites chemically with the 
 acid of the chyme. The quantity of bile secreted by the 
 sheep in 24 hours is very considerable, probably from 3 lbs. 
 to 5 lbs. ; but we are not to suppose that its sole use is that 
 above stated, for it has been proved that the bile does not 
 pass away with the excrements, but is again taken into the 
 system to perform an important office to be noticed when we 
 speak of the circulation. Thus the liver separates that 
 which would be detrimental to the blood, and it supplies 
 what is wanted for digestion as well as for another important 
 process in respiration. 
 
 Besides the bile the duodenum receives a copious supply 
 of fluid of a thin watery nature from the pancreas. This 
 fluid closely resembles the saliva, and its principal use ap- 
 pears to be to liquify the contents of the intestines. 
 
 The remaining part of the small intestines understood un- 
 der the terms jejunum and ileum are confined to, and con- 
 nected with, the spine by means of a thin transparent mem- 
 brane called the mesentery, which not only supports the in- 
 testines, but prevents their entanglement, and serves as the 
 vehicle by means of which the arteries, veins, nerves, and 
 absorbent vessels are transmitted to and from the bowels. 
 Amongst these there are some very minute, though very 
 numerous vessels called the lacteals, whose oflice it is to 
 convey the chyle, a white milky liquid resembling albumen, 
 from the intestines to a duct termed the thoracic^ which 
 passes along the spine and terminates in a large vein just 
 previous to its arrival at the heart. 
 
 The composition of the chyle is very similar to the blood, 
 differing from it in little more than the absence of its color- 
 ing principles. The lacteals, of course, open into the inner 
 coat of the intestines, and the greater portion of the chyle 
 is taken from the food in the small intestines and in the ear- 
 liest portion of them in the greatest degree. The small in- 
 testines are remarkably long in the sheep, exceeding, indeed, 
 sixty feet, and this great length renders them capable of con- 
 taining much more than the large guts. 
 
 In man, the large intestines are distinguished as the ccscum, 
 the colon, and the rectum ; in the horse, these divisions like- 
 wise obtain, and with much more propriety than the artifi- 
 cial distinctions of the small guts. The caecum and tho 
 
THE URmAUY AND GENERATIVE ORGANS. 329 
 
 colon in the horse commence almost close to each other, 
 but the former is a bhnd gut, having but one entrance. 
 The sheep, however, can scarcely be said to possess a 
 cascum, unless we term the blind portion of the colon 
 by that name ; for the fact is, the small intestines terminate 
 in the large at a right angle with them (see I. in cut p. 120), 
 and the blind portion extends about a foot in one direction 
 from this angle and maintains its size for the space of two 
 feet. 
 
 The termination of the small intestines in the large de- 
 serv^es particular notice. The internal membrane of the 
 former projects into the latter so as to form a sort of valve, 
 which, admitting the faeces to pass forwards, effectually pre- 
 vents their passing backwards, and thus, too, prevents the 
 effects of clysters operating beyond the large intestines. 
 The diameter of the colon is about treble that, of the small 
 intestines, but this increased size only reaches the extent 
 of three feet, when the intestine gradually diminishes to 
 about the size of the small guts, and so continues for about 
 nine feet, when it enlarges about a foot prior to its termina- 
 tion. This latter portion may be termed the rectum without 
 impropriety. Soon after the large intestines become narrow, 
 the faeces gradually become hard, and acquire the form of 
 small black balls, in which state they are dropped. 
 
 The chyle, we have observed, is principally absorbed from 
 that portion of the small intestines termed the ileum ; there 
 is little or none remaining by the time the faeces reach the 
 large intestines, but the fluid absorbed from these guts is 
 principally of a watery nature. 
 
 THE URINARY AND GENERATIVE ORGANS. 
 
 The urine is separated from the arterial blood by means 
 of the kidneys, which are two large glands shaped like a 
 bean, situated within the abdomen, but attached firmly to the 
 loins. These glands are largely supplied with blood by im- 
 portant arteries ; and the urine being separated as by a filter 
 enters two long white ducts termed the ureters, one of which 
 rises from the pelvis or central notch of each kidney, and 
 passes on to the bladder, whose coats are pierced in an ob- 
 lique direction (which, forming a sort of valve, prevents the 
 urine returning) not very far from its extremity or fundus.* 
 
 * The urine of the sheep is much less copious than that of the cow, 
 28* 
 
330 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 The bladder is situated partly in the pelvis and partly in 
 the abdomen, the latter part being comparatively free, whilst 
 the former is closely attached to the pelvis. The shape of 
 the bladder is too well known to need description. It be- 
 comes smaller as it approaches its posterior part, where it 
 contracts and forms the neck just prior to its opening into a 
 canal called the urethra. The bladder, although apparently 
 so thin, yet has three coats, the middle one of which is mus- 
 cular and possesses the power of contracting so as to expel 
 the whole of its contents when required, and the opening is 
 usually kept closed by a sphincter or circular muscle, which 
 relaxes when the bladder is being emptied. The urethra in 
 the ewe is very short, a few inches only in length, and it is 
 guarded by muscles which are employed both in expelling 
 the urine and in the act of procreation. 
 
 In the ram the urethra is of considerably greater length, 
 extending the whole length of the penis ; it forms an acute 
 angle at the perineum, just under the anus. The penis is a 
 muscular organ, having a very curious structure, which ena- 
 bles it to receive at times a considerably increased quantity 
 of blood, which causes the erection of the organ and fits it 
 for the purpose of generation. Its usual state, however, is 
 flaccid, when its use is confined to the ejection of the urine. 
 
 The vagina and uterus, or womb or lamb-bag, lies between 
 the rectum above and the bladder below, and though much 
 within the pelvis in their ordinary state, yet when pregnant 
 they rise into the abdomen to a great extent. The vagina, 
 which commences a few inches within the body, is a cylin- 
 
 and, though less abounding hi substances containing nitrogen, possesses 
 a larger proportion of salts. The following is an analysis of 100000 
 parts by weight : — 
 
 Water 96000 
 
 Urea, along with some albiunen and coloring 
 
 matter 2-800 
 
 Salts of potash, soda, lime, and magnesia, with 
 
 traces of silica, alumina, iron, and manganese . 1-200 
 
 100000 
 This gives 4 per cent, more water than the urine of cows, than which it 
 is less fertilizing to the soil, if the latter is properly prepared ; but the 
 dung of sheep is much more nutritious than that of cows, and the lu-ine 
 likewise, when dropped on pasture land, is more serviceable, in conse- 
 quence of the small quantity deposited at a time, and the less proportion 
 of caustic ammonia contained, so that it does not render the herbage 
 rank, as is the well-known effect of the fresh uruie from cows. 
 
THE URINARY AND GENERATIVE ORGANS, 331 
 
 drical cavity several inches in length, and opens into the 
 uterus by a round opening called the mouth of the womb, 
 which is naturally open, but becomes closed after impregna- 
 tion. Its shape corresponds with the extremity of the penis, 
 and these parts come into contact in the act of coition. The 
 womb consists of a body and two branches or horns. It has 
 the same number of coats as the bladder, but they are much 
 stouter and more so than those of the vagina. Attached to 
 the extremity of each horn by a membranous substance are 
 two red bodies called the ovaries, each of which consists of 
 a number of ova or eggs, the germs of the offspring, one of 
 which on being impregnated escapes into the uterus, and 
 thus, in the course of time, becomes a young animal ; some- 
 times, indeed, two or even three ova may be impregnated, 
 and twins or triplets are produced. 
 
 The testicles, or stones, as they are commonly termed, are 
 two oval glands situated in the scrotum, a sort of bag formed 
 by the skin and two membranes within, which are so dis- 
 posed as to form two separate cavities, each containing a 
 testicle. The testicles are first formed in the abdomen of 
 the foetus, and each possesses a covering closely attached to 
 the gland. They escape from the abdomen through the 
 openings called the abdominal rings and take with them por- 
 tions of the peritoneum, the membrane which lines the abdo- 
 men and its contents ; thus it is that they possess two coats 
 besides the skin. The abdominal rings remain open after- 
 wards, contrary to what takes place in the human subject, 
 so that a fluid can be injected from the scrotum into the ab- 
 domen, and thus it is that sometimes after the operation of 
 castration inflammation takes place and spreads upwards 
 into the belly and destroys the lamb. In those cases where 
 portions of the intestines are found in the scrotum they es- 
 cape from the abdomen, together with the testicle, and the 
 case is denominated congenital hernia. The testicles are 
 also each connected with the belly by means of the sper- 
 matic cord, which consists of a long slender muscle, nerves, 
 veins, arteries, and a strong hollow tube called the spermatic 
 duct. It is the latter which conveys the seminal fluid se-. 
 creted by the singular structure of the testicle into the ure- 
 thra, where, after mixing with other secretions from some 
 small glands, it is forcibly ejected by the muscles of the 
 penis in the act of copulation. 
 
 The testicles are very large in proportion to the size of 
 
832 STRUCTURE OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 the animal, and are in keeping with the powerful seminal 
 powers possessed by the ram, and which enable him when 
 full grown to serve properly eighty ewes or upwards. 
 
 THE CONTENTS OF THE CHEST. 
 
 The mouth in the horse is almost entirely devoted to the 
 office of mastication. It is separated from the cavity of the 
 nostrils by a loose fleshy membrane called the velum palati, 
 which is confined to the bone above by a semicircular bor- 
 der, and falls downwards and backwards so as to prevent, in 
 a natural state, any communication between the windpipe 
 and the mouth. The sheep likewise possesses this velum 
 palati, but it is not so long, and therefore permits this animal 
 to respire through the mouth as well as the nostrils. The 
 importance of this construction is seen in the process of ru- 
 mination, and also accounts for the horse vomiting through 
 the nostrils, on those few occasions when this animal has 
 been known to vomit. The nostrils, however, are the prin- 
 cipal channel through which the air passes to and from the 
 lungs. Their entrance is comparatively small and confined ; 
 the sheep does not require so extensive a supply of air as 
 other animals that are called upon to make considerable ex- 
 ertions. The cavity of the nostrils is divided into two com- 
 partments by a thick cartilaginous substance, termed by 
 anatomists the septum nasi, fixed to the nasal in front, and 
 behind to the maxillary bones. This cartilage, as well as 
 the other parts of the nostrils, is lined by a fine delicate 
 membrane which secretes a mucus for its protection. It is 
 indeed an inflammation of this membrane which constitutes 
 a catarrh or cold, and an increase of its natural mucous se- 
 cretion is the discharge from the nose which is visible in 
 this disease. This membrane is called the Sckneiderian, 
 from the name of its discoverer, as well as the pituitary, and 
 it is endowed with a high degree of sensibility, which it de- 
 rives from an abundant supply of sensitive nerves ; it is also 
 the principal seat of the sense of smelling, and for this pur- 
 pose the nerve devoted to this function is spread out on its 
 surface. This membrane also covers four curious bones, 
 thin and gauze-like in their structure, and rolled up like a tur- 
 ban, so that they are termed turbinated, and attached to the 
 chambers of the nostrils. These greatly extend the surface 
 on which the nerve of smell is diffused, and consequently 
 
CONTENTS OF THE CHEST, 333 
 
 increases the function of this sense, which sheep enjoy in 
 a very high degree. The nostrils at the upper and back 
 part terminate in a cartilaginous box called the larynx, which 
 is situated immediately beneath the pharynx or food-bag, so 
 that food, in passing into the latter, traverses the entrance of 
 the former, which, however, it is prevented from entering 
 by a triangular lid called the epiglottis : this lid in its usual 
 state is elevated from the glottis or entrance of the larynx, 
 so as to admit the free entrance and exit of the air, but the 
 passage of food forces it down so as to close the entrance 
 of the windpipe. The larynx is formed by four separate 
 cartilages besides the epiglottis just spoken of One is 
 shaped like a shield, and forms the front of the larynx and 
 great portion of its sides. Another below this is circular, 
 and two other smaller ones, shaped like an ewer, forms the 
 rims on which the epiglottis shuts down. The larynx is 
 lined throughout by a mucous membrane, which is endowed 
 with a high degree of sensibility, particularly at its upper 
 portion ; and thus when any foreign body accidentally en- 
 ters, or the mucus is in undue quantity, it excites the mem- 
 brane, and coughing is produced, by which it is expelled. 
 The loindpipe consists of a number of cartilaginous rings 
 connected together by elastic membrane so as to form a con- 
 tinuous tube passing down the front part of the neck, and 
 entering the chest between the two first ribs. The rings are 
 not completely cartilaginous, but the circle is made up of 
 membrane, the membranous part being on the upper portion 
 of the tube. This structure permits the windpipe to be bent 
 in any direction or compressed without injury, its elasticity 
 quickly restoring it to its former shape, or position. The 
 windpipe, on entering the chest, divides into two portions, 
 going to each division of the lungs ; and these subdivide into 
 others, which again ramify into numerous small tubes, which 
 ultimately terminate in very minute air-cells. The lungs, 
 which receive these terminations, form by far the greater 
 portion of the contents of the chest, which, however, it will 
 be proper to describe first. 
 
 The chest of the sheep, in common with most quadrupeds, 
 is unlike that of the human body, becoming narrow towards 
 the lower part and terminating like the keel of a ship ; a 
 form more favorable to the flexion and extension of the fore- 
 legs, as well as of the shoulder-blades, than any other. 
 This keel-like form is, however, much less developed in the 
 
334 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 sheep than in the horse and many other quadrupeds. The 
 upper part of the chest is formed by the spine or back-bone, 
 the sides by the ribs, and the lower and front part by the 
 sternum or breast-bone. The number of ribs varies in dif- 
 ferent animals ; in man there are twelve, in the horse eigh- 
 teen, but in the sheep there are only thirteen pair. Each 
 rib possesses two heads or protuberances, each of which is 
 connected by a joint with two vertebra? or bones of the back, 
 . and to the breast bone by means of cartilage. The sternum 
 or breast-bone, in young animals, is chiefly cartilaginous, 
 and may be separated into eight pieces ; it afterwards be- 
 comes divisible into four only, and with age is consolidated 
 into one. The ribs are externally convex, and are divided 
 into the true and false ; the former being situated anterior to 
 the others, and immediately connected with the sternum, 
 whilst the latter are implanted into each other at their carti- 
 laginous extremities, and are only connected with the breast 
 bone by means of the true ribs. Their connexion with the 
 spine, by means of a double joint, affords to the ribs a mo- 
 tion backwards and forwards, by which means the cavity of 
 the chest is enlarged or diminished. This motion, however, 
 is considerably less in quadrupeds than in man, for in the lat- 
 ter the rising and falling of the chest is seen in common 
 respiration, whilst in the former it is not perceived, unless 
 the breathing be embarrassed. The ribs are connected to- 
 gether by fleshy substance, termed the intercostal muscles, 
 which are disposed in an oblique course, by which means 
 their length considerably exceeds that of the space between 
 one rib and another, so that a contraction of one-third their 
 length will bring the ribs together, which could not be the 
 case if the muscles took the shortest course from one rib to 
 another. 
 
 The chest is separated from the abdomen or belly by a 
 very singular and important muscle, called the diaphragm or 
 midrifl", which is convex towards the chest when in a state 
 of rest. This muscle is shaped somewhat like a fan, and is 
 attached to the inferior extremities of the ribs and the spine, 
 by which means its position is rendered oblique, its develop- 
 ment more extended, and its action greater than it would 
 otherwise have been. The diaphragm, unlike every other 
 muscle, is fleshy at its circumference and tendinous at its 
 centre. The reason of this peculiar construction may be 
 thus explained : — the central part of the diaphragm is pierced 
 
■THE BLOOD AND ITS CIRCULATION. 335 
 
 with two holes, for the passage of the oesophagus (the tube 
 which conveys food to the stomach) and the vein which 
 conveys the blood to the liver for the secretion of bile. 
 Now, if these important vessels were surrounded with mus- 
 cular substance, they would be forcibly compressed every 
 time the diaphragm contracted, and would in consequence 
 be liable to considerable injury ; but bemg surrounded with 
 tendinous substance, which possesses no such power of con- 
 traction, all danger of compression is at once removed, with- 
 out any sacrifice of strength or power in the muscle. The 
 diaphragm, when in a quiescent state, is convex towards the 
 chest, and when in action it becomes flat, thus enlarging the 
 cavity of the chest. 
 
 The thorax is everywhere lined internally by a thin se- 
 rous membrane, which secretes a fluid by which the sur- 
 face of the cavity is lubricated, and its contents are enabled 
 to glide upon each other without occasioning any friction or 
 inconvenience. This membrane is called the pleura, and 
 the portion which lines the chest itself is designated the 
 pleura costalis, while that which covers the lungs is distin- 
 guished as the pleura pulmonalis. This membrane divides 
 the chest into three cavities, one on the right side containing 
 the right lung, and the other two on the left side, the smaller 
 of which contains the heart and the larger the left lung. 
 
 The right lung is thus the largest, and consists of three 
 lobes or divisions, whilst the left lung only contains two. 
 These divisions of the chest do not communicate with each 
 other, so that if one cavity is injured, or air is admitted into 
 it, respiration can be carried on in the other. 
 
 The lujigs are light spongy bodies, their specific gravity 
 being one-half less than water. They are composed of the 
 air-cells before spoken of, the bronchial tubes connected 
 with them, and a vast number of arteries, veins, and absorb- 
 ent vessels, the whole being connected together by cellular 
 substance, or parenchyma as it is termed : thus constituted, 
 the lungs are closely packed away in the cavity of the chest, 
 filling every part of it, so as to leave no vacant space what- 
 ever. 
 
 THE BLOOD AND ITS CIRCULATION. 
 
 The blood is by far the most important fluid in the animal 
 machine : it stimulates the heart to contract, secretes and 
 nourishes the various organs of the body, and supplies it 
 
336 STRtJCTURE OF THE SHEEP, 
 
 with heat ; and although it is the source whence other fluida 
 are obtained, it is yet a fluid sui generis, differing from all 
 others. Soon after it is drawn from the body it coagulates, 
 and then separates into two parts : the serum, a watery, col- 
 orless fluid, which floats on the top, and the crassamentum, 
 which appears of a firm consistency and a red color. The 
 serum is a peculiar fluid, and may be separated into its con- 
 stituent principles. If subjected to a temperature of 150°, 
 a portion is converted into a substance resembling albumen 
 or the white of an egg ; the other portion remains fluid and 
 is termed the serosity of the blood, and is that which consti- 
 tutes the gravy in meat. The serum contains several salts 
 in solution, the most abundant of which is soda. The 
 crassamentum is likewise divisible into two portions : the 
 cruor, which gives to the blood its purple hue ; and the 
 lymph, which is more solid in its nature, and is considered 
 the basis of the coagulum. The latter can be separated from 
 the former by washing, and likewise separates when the 
 blood is a long time coagulating, in which case the red por- 
 tion of the blood, being the heaviest, falls to the bottom of 
 the vessel, leaving the lymph on the top. The cruor, or 
 red portion of the blood, has been found, on being submitted 
 to a microscope, to be composed of globules, which are sup- 
 posed to be each about the three or four thousandth 
 part of an inch in diameter. It is therefere to these glo- 
 bules that the blood owes its redness ; but the intensity of 
 the color is subject to great variation, being darker in animals 
 that are poorly fed, or when exposed to carbonic acid, and 
 becoming more florid in others that are well fed, and also 
 when exposed to oxygen, or to atmospheric air. 
 
 The other part of the crassamentum, the lymph, which from 
 its nature is also called the Jibrine, is, in fact, the most im- 
 portant of all ; for it is that which mainly supplies the dif- 
 ferent parts of the body, particularly the muscles, with nu- 
 triment, and repairs wounds and fractures in an extraordinary 
 manner. Unlike the cruor, it exists in the blood of all ani- 
 mals, and in every part of the system. Some animals have 
 entirely white blood, the cruor being absent ; and in red- 
 blooded animals there are some portions of the body, such 
 as the white of the eye, where the vessels are so small that 
 they do not admit the red globules. The specific gravity of 
 blood rather exceeds that of water ; but venous blood is 
 somewhat heavier than arterial. The temperature of the 
 
THE BLOOD AND ITS CIRCULATION. 337 
 
 blood varies in difFerent animals ; in man it is 90°, but in 
 the sheep nearly 100^. It is rather warmer in the arteries 
 than in the veins, and is liable to variation from disease, it 
 having been found in severe inflammations to be raised 
 7'' in man, and in the cold fit of agues 4° lower than in a 
 state of health. It is, however, but slightly raised or de- 
 pressed by external temperature. It was not till compara- 
 tively a recent date that the blood has been considered to 
 possess vitality, which, however, is now generally acknow- 
 ledged. The vitality and fluidity of the blood are intimately 
 associated ; in fact, its coagulation, when removed from the 
 body, constitutes its death. The time in which this is ta- 
 king place is difl^erent in difl^erent animals, and is influenced 
 by various circumstances. In strong animals, such as the 
 horse, it is longer than in such weak animals as the sheep : 
 in the former it is often as long as fifteen minutes ; and if 
 the body be in a state of plethora, the vital power being too 
 highly developed, the death of the blood is much longer re- 
 sisted. In these cases coagulation is delayed, and, in con- 
 sequence, the red portion of the blood, being the heaviest, 
 falls to the bottom of the vessel, and the fibrine remains at 
 the top, constituting the buffy coat of inflammation. This 
 separation, when arising from the above cause, takes place 
 long before the serum is developed. The coagulation of the 
 blood has been endeavored to be accounted for without suc- 
 cess ; it was held by some that it was produced by the ces- 
 sation of its motion ; but it has been found that if stirred in 
 a vessel it will coagulate quicker than before. It was 
 thought that exposure to the atmosphere was the cause ; but 
 it has been known to coagulate in a vacuum, and likewise 
 in the body when a vein has been tied. It was next con- 
 ceived that it was caused by the low temperature to which 
 it is exposed ; but it has been ascertained that it will coag- 
 ulate quicker if the temperature is either higher or lower 
 than natural ; but if so low as to freeze the blood, it will not 
 coagulate when afterwards thawed. These experiments 
 show that the blood is analogous to no other fluid, and that 
 coagulation cannot be owing to physical causes, but can be 
 explained only by reference to its vitality. 
 
 Although the blood will coagulate in the body if obstructed, 
 yet there is a considerable difference between this state and 
 its coagulation out of the body. In the former instance co 
 agulation is longer occurring, new vessels are thrown into 
 
 29 
 
338 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 its substance, and it becomes organized. So, likewise, if a 
 part be wounded, the divided vessels throw out clots of 
 blood, which adhere to the surface of the wound ; the red 
 particles become absorbed, the glutinous tibriiie organized, 
 and the breach is thus gradually restored. Thus we see 
 how important it is that the blood should possess its peculiar 
 properties, its state of fluidity, and its disposition to coagu- 
 late : if the former did not exist, the blood would be ob- 
 structed in the capillary vessels, and the vital functions 
 could not be carried on ; and if deprived of its coagulating 
 property, no wounds could heal, or loss of substance be re- 
 stored, but the most trifling cut would be the precursor of 
 death. 
 
 The quantity of blood contained in the body is very dif- 
 ficult to ascertain ; for if an animal be bled to death, a good 
 deal will still remain in the blood-vessels. It has, however, 
 been estimated to be about one-fifth the weight of the body ; 
 and of this, about three-fourths are contained in the veins, 
 and one-fourth in the arteries. In young animals there is 
 more than in old ones, as in them the body must not only be 
 sustained, but increased in size. It is likewise more abun- 
 dant in wild animals than in tan>e ones, and in proportion to 
 the vigor of the animal. 
 
 The Heart is a strong hollow muscle, of a conical shape, 
 with its base towards the spine, and its apex towards the 
 left side, against which it is thrown at every contraction. 
 It is double, having a right and left side, the former contain- 
 ing black, and the latter red blood ; the right side is the 
 thinnest and weakest, being devoted to the lesser office of 
 the circulation of the lungs : the left the stoutest, having to 
 govern the general circulation of the system. Each of 
 these halves consists of two cavities, an auricle and a ven- 
 tricle ; the former, which derives its name from its resem- 
 blance to a dog's ear, is considerably thinner than the latter, 
 and is situated towards the base. The heart is formed prin- 
 cipally of fleshy fibres, connected together by cellular tis- 
 sue, whence it obtains its elasticity ; and its surfaces, both 
 internal and external, are lined by a transparent membrane. 
 The blood is prevented from moving in a retrograde course 
 by means of a number of valves : there are three in the 
 left ventricle, the edges of which are connected by tendi- 
 nous cords [cordcB tendincB) to small fleshy eminences on the 
 inside of the ventricle, called carnem columnar, or fleshy 
 
THE BLOOD AND ITS CIRCULATION. 339 
 
 columns. These tendinous cords are more numerous in the 
 valves of the left ventricle than in the other parts, and be- 
 ing supposed, with the valves, to resemble a mitre, are 
 named mitral valves. There are valves also in the right 
 ventricle for similar purposes, which are named tricuspid, 
 or three pointed ; also in the great artery, or aorta, and in 
 the pulmonary artery, where, having no cords, and resem- 
 bling, or supposed to do so, a half-moon, they are named 
 semilunar. The heart is enclosed in a strong membranous 
 bag, which is named pericardium, and this encloses also the 
 trunks of the veins and arteries, as well as the appendages 
 or auricles. 
 
 The heart is a muscle, but, unlike other muscles, it is in- 
 voluntary, being altogether independent of the will, and is 
 for this purpose supplied by a peculiar set of nerves. It is 
 also furnished abundantly with blood for its support, by 
 means of arteries which are the first that are given off; and 
 these arteries are accompanied by veins for the return of 
 the blood to its proper receptacle. 
 
 THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD 
 
 is one of the most important processes in the animal 
 economy : when suspended for a few moments, a state of 
 insensibility is produced, and if this suspension continues a 
 little longer, death quickly supervenes. 
 
 The heart, we have seen, consists of two halves or sides, 
 the right being devoted to the pulmonary circulation. The 
 right auricle receives from a large vein, called the vena 
 cava, the blood which has travelled throughout the system ; 
 whence it passes, by the action of the heart, into the right 
 ventricle, which by its contraction forces it into a large 
 vessel called the pulmonary artery. Thence the blood is 
 sent into the lungs and ramifies throughout its minute ves- 
 sels, where it is exposed to the action of the inspired air, 
 and becomes, by means we shall afterwards speak of, red- 
 dened and purified. This process being accomplished, the 
 blood passes into minute vessels, which, coalescing, become 
 the pulmonary veins, and through them the blood again re- 
 turns to the heart ; thus finishing the circuit of the pulmo- 
 nary circulation. 
 
 The left auricle receives the purified blood from the pul- 
 monary veins, forces it into the left ventricle, which, con- 
 tracting, sends the vital fluid into a large strong vessel 
 
340 STRUCTURE OP THE SHEEP, 
 
 called the aorta, whence it enters smaller arteries, to be dis- 
 tributed throughout the whole system. The remote divis- 
 ions of the arteries are called the capillary vessels, and in 
 them the blood, after having accomplished its purposes and 
 conveyed nourishment to all parts, becomes black and im- 
 pure, and in this state enters the capillary veins, which, con- 
 joining and increasing in size and diminishing in number, 
 convey the blood again to the right auricle of the heart. 
 Just before it enters the heart it receives a supply of chyle, 
 which, as we have before observed, is extracted from the 
 food, absorbed by certain small vessels called lacteals, and 
 conveyed by a specific channel to the heart. Such, then, is 
 the circle, or rather the double circle, which the blood takes, 
 and by which so many important purposes are beautifully 
 and correctly accomplished. 
 
 The circulation of the blood is accomplished by the joint 
 action of the heart and arteries, but principally by that of 
 the former. The contraction of the ventricles and of the 
 auricles immediately succeed each other : as the one ex- 
 pands to receive the blood, the other contracts to force it 
 forward, thus producing the unequal double action of the 
 heart that we feel. These actions, however, of the different 
 cavities could not be correctly performed unless some provis- 
 ion were made for preventing the blood, when the ventri- 
 cles contract, from retrograding into the auricles. This, 
 however, is effected by means of a valve, situated between 
 these cavities, which is formed by a duplication of the inner 
 membrane of the heart, thickened by fibrous substance. 
 The floating edges of this valve in the right ventricle pre- 
 sent three points and in the left two ; whence the former is 
 called the tricuspid, and the latter the mitral. The edges 
 of each valve are joined by numerous short tendons to the 
 fleshy columns of the heart ; and whilst the blood is flow- 
 ing into the ventricles the fleshy columns are passive ; but 
 when the ventricles act these columns also contract and 
 draw the edges of the valve together, and thus close the 
 cavity in that direction and prevent the blood re-entering 
 the auricle. 
 
 There are also valves that guard the entrance of the 
 aorta and pulmonary arteries, but they are of a different de- 
 scription, being of less strength, because they are not called 
 upon to oppose the powerful action of the ventricles. Ac- 
 cordingly we find that they consist of three folds of mem- 
 
THE BLOOD AND ITS CIRCULATION. 341 
 
 brane, and are called, from their shape, semikmar. They 
 are so situated that when the blood passes into the arteries 
 they are thrown against their sides, and when the blood has 
 passed they are thrown up so that their edges meet, and thus 
 prevent the blood returning to the heart. 
 
 In fishes the heart is single, and only serves the office of 
 the pulmonary circulation, that of the system being accom- 
 plished by the arteries alone. In the sheep, though the 
 heart is the principal power, yet the arteries greatly assist. 
 The aorta, which receives the blood from the left ventricle, 
 divides into two branches, called the anterior and posterior 
 aorta ; the former conveying the blood to the head and neck, 
 and the latter to the lower parts of the body. These arte- 
 ries are strong and thick, and consist of three coats ; the 
 outer, the strongest and thickest, gives the vessels the re- 
 markable elasticity which they possess ; the middle coat is 
 the fibrous, which seems to be a modification of muscular 
 power, and enables the arteries to contract on their contents ; 
 the third coat is the serous, which lubricates the interior of 
 the vessel and facilitates the passage of the blood. Thus 
 to these several coats, but particularly to the two former, do 
 the arteries owe the remarkable property they possess of 
 contracting when distended with blood, and almost immedi- 
 ately afterwards expanding to receive a fresh supply, and 
 which, assisted by the action of the heart, constitutes the 
 pulse ; and may be felt in every part of the body where an 
 artery is sufficiently near the surface to be perceptible. 
 
 The arteries, however, do not all possess an equal thick- 
 ness and power ; for instance, the pulmonary artery, though 
 quite as large as the aorta, is neither so thick nor so strong ; 
 and the reason is, that the same power is not required to 
 send the blood over the smaller circuit of the lungs as over 
 the larger one of the whole system ; and, for the same rea- 
 son, the right side of the heart is weaker than the left. 
 The arteries, as they divide and subdivide in their course, 
 become weaker in their coats in proportion to the diminu- 
 tion of their size, till at length they terminate in the minute 
 branches called the capillary vessels, which do not possess 
 any pulsating power, and many of which do not contain red 
 blood. Diminutive, however, as these branches may be, yet 
 it is by them that the most important offices are performed ; 
 by them the different parts of the body are nourished, 
 whether bone, flesh, nerve, or skin ; by them the various 
 29* 
 
342 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 fluids are secreted, however different in appearance they 
 may be ; by them the most ghastly wounds are healed, and 
 often in a remarkably short space of time ; and all these 
 various offices are performed not only by the same class of 
 vessels, but by the same fluid, the blood. Having accom- 
 plished these important purposes, the capillary arteries ter- 
 minate in equally minute vessels, called the capillary veins ; 
 and so abundant are these diminutive vessels that the finest 
 point of the finest needle cannot be plunged into the body 
 without penetrating some of them. By the time the blood 
 reaches the veins it becomes dark and impure, and loaded 
 with carbon : the office of the veins, therefore, is to return 
 it to the heart to be again purified. The circulation, how- 
 ever, becomes much slower as it is further removed from 
 the impulsive power of the heart, and the veins, which are 
 supposed to contain two-thirds of the whole blood circula- 
 ting in the system, are consequently much more numerous 
 than the arteries : they do not, however, possess the same 
 strength in their coats as the arteries, nor have they any 
 pulsating power. They have, however, the assistance of 
 other agents in propelling the blood to its destination. The 
 greater number of them possess valves, which admit the 
 blood to pass in one direction, but effectually prevent its 
 passing in any other. It was, indeed, from reflecting on the 
 structure and necessary office of these valves that led the 
 immortal Harvey to discover the circulation of the blood. 
 Another circumstance peculiar to the veins is their situation, 
 being mostly near the surface of the body, whilst the arte- 
 ries are generally deep seated. The wisdom of this pro- 
 vision is evident : it is well known that in wounds it is 
 readily ascertained if an artery be wounded by the jet of 
 blood that ensues, and which even from an artery of small 
 size is very considerable, and the danger of death from 
 bleeding is often great in consequence of the force with 
 which the blood is thrown into these vessels. Now such 
 being the danger attending the division of arteries, it was 
 necessary to remove them as much as possible from the risk 
 of injury, and accordingly they are almost invariably deep 
 seated, and when they do approach the surface it is in parts 
 least likely to be injured. Thus round these important ves- 
 sels nature throws a thick muscular covering, and protects 
 the whole by a mantle so sensitive as to give warning to the 
 least attack. The veins, however, do not require this care ; 
 
THE BLOOD AND ITS CIRCULATION. 343 
 
 in them the circulation is languid, and their wounds are com- 
 paratively unimportant and unattended with danger, for the 
 blood generally stops, without assistance, from its coagula- 
 ting quality. It is also of importance that the greater por- 
 tion of the veins should be situated near the surface, in or- 
 der to receive the influence of the atmospheric pressure, 
 which greatly assists the motion of the blood ; and it has 
 also been found that veins possess a power of absorption in 
 common with a particular order of vessels called the absorb- 
 ents ; thus these various purposes are effected by the rela- 
 tive position of the veins and arteries. The structure of 
 the veins is very different from that of the arteries ; for, 
 M'hilst the latter are thick, elastic, and composed of three 
 coats, the former are thin, inelastic, and composed only of 
 two coverings. But although thin they are yet capable of 
 aflbrding great resistance to pressure. 
 
 We have seen that the blood is sent to all parts of the 
 body by the action of the heart and arteries, but what is the 
 cause of its return ? First in importance is the law of hy- 
 drostatics, " that all fluids support their level." Thus the 
 same law by which springs arise, and streams are produced, 
 and rivers flow towards the sea, is brought to bear in the 
 living system, and enables the blood in the arteries to sup- 
 port that in the veins. This effect is greatly assisted by 
 the action of the valves in supporting the column of blood. 
 The blood thus supported and propelled by the arteries, as- 
 sisted by atmospheric pressure, must go somewhere, as the 
 valves prevent return ; it goes, therefore, where alone a va- 
 cancy is afforded, and that is in the right auricle of the 
 heart, which has just propelled its contents into the ventri- 
 cle. To these several forces may be added a power of suc- 
 tion the heart pos^sses whenever the chest is enlarged in 
 respiration. 
 
 The manner in which the chyle is mixed up with the 
 blood, so that its color quickly disappears, is worthy of par- 
 ticular notice. It is owing, indeed, to the great agitation 
 the blood receives, and to the irregularity of the heart's in- 
 ternal surface. When the auricles contract, their contents 
 are, in a great measure, discharged into the ventricles, but a 
 portion is thrown back into the veins, which constitutes 
 what is called the venous pulse, and may sometimes be seen 
 in the jugular veins. In like manner, when the ventricles 
 contract a portion of their contents is thrown back into the 
 
844 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 auricles, at any rate that part of it situated behind the valves. 
 By these means an agitation is produced which effectually 
 mixes these different fluids together. 
 
 It has been ascertained that the veins possess a power of 
 absorption in common with a numerous class of vessels 
 called the absorbents, or lymphatics. These vessels are 
 very minute, and are distributed throughout the whole body ; 
 they generally accompany the veins, and, like them, are fur- 
 nished with valves. 
 
 ON RESPIRATION AND ITS EFFEr:TS. 
 
 The phenomenon of respiration, which is carried on from 
 the first minute after birth to the last of existence, consists 
 of two acts, inspiration and expiration. The former, that of 
 inhaling the atmosphere, is accomplished mostly by the 
 diaphragm, which, in its relaxed state, is convex towards 
 the chest. As its fibres contract, the muscle flattens, and 
 thus enlarges in a considerable degree the cavity of the 
 thorax. A vacuum is thus produced, or rather a tendency 
 towards it; for the air rushes into the lungs, and the blood 
 into the heart ; and, as the lungs are elastic and spongy in 
 their nature, they become closely adapted to the enlargement 
 of the chest, and prevent any vacuum from taking place be- 
 tween them and the sides of the thorax. The diaphragm is 
 thus the chief agent in the act of inspiration, although in 
 some degree assisted by the intercostal muscles, which raise 
 the chest, and also, when the breathing is violently excited, 
 by those muscles that in quadrupeds attach the fore extremi- 
 ties to the body. The air thus drawn into the lungs traverses 
 throughout its internal surface, and, having fulfilled its office, 
 is forced out by the act of expiration. This part of the 
 process is effected chiefly by means of the elasticity of the 
 lungs, which acts as soon as the diaphragm becomes passive, 
 assisted, however, in some degree by the elastic cartilages 
 of the chest, and occasionally by the abdominal muscles. 
 
 Atmospheric air consists of unequal parts of two aeriform 
 fluids, viz., four-fifths of nitrogen or azote, and one-fifth of 
 oxygen in each 100 parts ; besides which it contains other 
 heterogeneous matters, such as odorous efliuvia, aqueous ex- 
 halations, electric matter, and carbonic acid gas. It every- 
 where surrounds and embraces the globe, extending, in the 
 opinion of some, a distance of forty-five miles, and in that 
 of others a much greater height. Its gravity diflfers very 
 
RESPIRATION, 345 
 
 much at different times and in different places, being heav- 
 ier on a clear than on a close day, and also in low places 
 than in lolty ones. The small portion of carbonic acid gas 
 which the atmosphere contains is not chemically, but me- 
 chanically mixed with it. This gas is evolved by the 
 fermentation of beer, and the decomposition of vegetables, 
 and is often found in wells and deep places. It is much 
 heavier than the atmosphere, and thus remains in these lov/ 
 places by its gravity. A lighted candle placed in this gas 
 is immediately extinguished ; so that it is used as a safe- 
 guard in descending into these low and foul places ; for 
 whatever will not support combustion will not support life. 
 It is not a simple gas, like oxygen, but is formed by the 
 union of carbon and oxygen. 
 
 Nitrogen or azote is a simple gas, but its use in the at- 
 mosphere seems to be principally of a passive nature, being 
 for the purpose of diluting the oxygen nnd rendering it less 
 stimulating : it will not alone support life or combustion, but 
 is chemically mixed with the oxygen. Oxygen is essential 
 for the support of life and combustion ; for if air be deprived 
 of it no animal can live, nor will a candle remain lighted. 
 It is abundantly furnished by plants and shrubs, which thus 
 restore the loss of it occasioned by animals. When a flame 
 is exposed to this gas it greatly increases in brilliancy ; and 
 when venous blood is submitted to it, it quickly becomes florid. 
 
 We have before shown that all the blood in the body was 
 in its turn carried from the heart to the lungs by means of 
 the pulmonary artery, which divides and subdivides into the 
 smallest branches, and terminates in small capillary veins, 
 which, coalescing, become larger, and convey the blood 
 again to the heart by the pulmonary veins. Before it reaches 
 these veins, however, an important change takes place : the 
 blood proceeds from the heart in a black and impure state ; 
 it returns reddened and purified ; it is submitted in its course 
 to the action of the air in the air-cells, not by actual contact, 
 but through the membrane which forms these cells : and by 
 this means the important change is effected. 
 
 There is, we well know, a considerable difference be- 
 tween the expired and the inspired air ; the former is hot, 
 the latter cold ; this is healthy, that injurious ; one will sup- 
 port combustion and life, the other is unfit for breathing, and 
 will extinguish a flame. There is but little difference in 
 quantity between the air in its different states, but the oxy- 
 
346 STRrCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 gen in expired air has nearly disappeared and carbonic acid 
 gas is found in its stead ; it also contains much aqueous va- 
 por, which is condensed in a visible form, at a temperature 
 of 60°. Thus, although the carbonic acid gas is much 
 heavier than common air, yet, partly from the aqueous va- 
 por which the expired air contains being much lighter, but 
 principally from its own increased temperature, the expired 
 air, notwithstanding its carbonic acid, is yet specifically 
 lighter than the atmosphere ; and consequently rises up- 
 wards, and thus, in great measure, is prevented from being 
 respired a second time. It has been found by experiment 
 with a portion of atmospheric air, containing 80 parts of ni- 
 trogen, 18 of oxygen, and 2 of carbonic acid, that, on being 
 respired, the nitrogen continued the same, but the carbonic 
 acid was increased to 13 parts, and the oxygen reduced to 
 5 ; whence it appeared that 11 parts of carbonic acid were 
 substituted for 13 of oxygen, 2 parts having entirely disap- 
 peared. Thus the disappearance of the greater portion of 
 the oxygen was accounted for by its being converted into 
 carbonic acid ; but there remained a small portion, whose 
 absence could not be thus explained, more particularly as 
 Sir H. Davy calculated that about 32 ounces of oxygen 
 were necessary for 24 hours' expenditure in a man ; but 
 only 26^ ounces are requisite for the formation of even 37 
 ounces of carbonic acid gas, giving us an unexplained sur- 
 plus of 5 J ounces of oxygen, during the above period. By 
 some it was supposed that this surplus oxygen united with 
 the hydrogen thrown ofT by the blood, and is thus converted 
 into watery vapor : by others it is held, that this oxygen is 
 absorbed by the blood, and enters the circulation. Carbonic 
 acid gas is exhaled from the lungs in different quantities du- 
 ring different periods of the day, being generated in the 
 greatest quantity about noon, decreasing in the afternoon 
 and night, and again increasing in the morning. It also in- 
 creases in man by taking animal food. 
 
 Sir H. Davy contended that a small portion of nitrogen is 
 absorbed by the blood ; but this has been denied by others. 
 The chief use of nitrogen, however, is to dilute the oxygen ; 
 for if the latter is inspired pure a sense of warmth is felt in 
 the chest, the heat of the skin is raised, the pulse quickened, 
 and other symptoms of excitement are produced. A given 
 quantity of oxygen will, however, support life longer than 
 the same quantity of atmospheric air. It has been computed 
 
RESPIRATION. 347 
 
 that, in the course of twenty-four hours, about 2 lbs. 8 ozs. 
 of oxygen is consumed by a man. After an ordinary respi- 
 ration a considerable quantity of air still remains — perhaps 
 four-fifths, one-fifth having been expired. 
 
 Having mentioned the changes that take place in the at- 
 mosphere, we must next consider in what manner the blood 
 becomes so altered by its passage through the lungs. 
 
 The blood, as it traverses through the body, gradually be- 
 comes darker ; it is loaded with carbon, and is rendered 
 unfit for the circulation, and in this state it is called venous 
 blood. If venous blood, taken out of the body, be exposed 
 to oxygen, it quickly becomes red ; and so it does if ex])osed 
 to the atmosphere, but not so rapidly. So, likewise, if ar- 
 terial blood be exposed to carbonic acid, it quickly acquires 
 the color and character of venous blood. In the same man- 
 ner is the color of the blood changed in the lungs ; thus the 
 principal use of respiration appears to be to free the blood 
 from its impurities ; and this is effected although the air and 
 the blood do not actually come in contact. It was found, 
 that if blood in a common bladder were exposed to the at- 
 mosphere for some time, it acquired a coating of florid 
 blood ; and thus, as the membrane lining the air-cells is by 
 no means so thick as that of the bladder, there is no longer 
 any difficulty in accounting for the change taking place. It 
 has been the subject of some dispute as to when the change, 
 or rather exchange, takes place, some contending that the 
 carbon unites with the oxygen in the air-cells, whilst others 
 maintain that the oxygen enters the blood, and there unites 
 with the carbon, forming carbonic acid gas, which is then 
 exhaled into the air-cells. It was found, however, that if 
 venous blood were put within the exhausted receiver of an 
 air-pump a quantity of carbonic acid escapes ; thus proving 
 the presence of this gas in the blood, and supporting the 
 second theory. And as there appears to be a greater quan- 
 tity of oxygen abstracted from the atmosphere than can be 
 accounted for by the formation of carbonic acid, we must 
 conclude that a portion mingles with the blood and enters 
 the circulation ; which theory agrees with the fact, that it 
 has recently been discovered, by correct analyses, that both 
 venous and arterial blood contains carbonic acid, nitrogen, 
 and oxygen ; but that the latter gas is most abundant in ar- 
 terial and the former in venous blood. 
 
 Although the action of the heart is much more frequent 
 
348 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 than that of the chest in respiration, yet there is a most in- 
 timate connexion between the one and the other ; for, be- 
 sides the changes which we have spoken of in the blood, it 
 rushes into the heart when the chest is expanded, and when, 
 from any cause, respiration is delayed, the pulse becomes 
 less frequent and more languid in consequence of the ob- 
 struction in the current of the blood. Thus, in violent fits 
 of coughing, the chest collapses, the air is expelled, and the 
 blood not being purified, is unfit for circulation, and the con- 
 sequence is the veins of the head become distended, and, 
 in man, the person becomes red or black in the face, and 
 sometimes a blood-vessel has ruptured and death super- 
 vened. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS — DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND 
 SPINAL MARROW— STURDY OR DIZZY— HYDROCEPHALUS— TREM- 
 BLING— APOPLEXY. THE AIR PASSAGES — CESTRIS OVIS OR GAD- 
 FLY, CAUSING WORMS IN THE HEAD-CORYZA OR COLDS. DIS- 
 EASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES — HOOVE — BRAXY— 
 STRETCHES— DIARRHOEA OR SCOURS— ACUTE DROPSY OR RED WA- 
 TER—DYSENTERY—POISON. DISEASES OF THE LUNGS— ANATOMY 
 OF THE LIVER— ROT— INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS — DROPSY. 
 DISEASES OF PARTURITION— ABORTION— INVERSION OF THE UTE- 
 RUS—GARGET. THE INTEGUMENT OR SKIN —DISEASES OF THE 
 SKIN— SCAB OR ITCH— ERYSIPELAS— JOHNSWORTSCAB— PELT-ROT 
 —SORE MOUTH— MAGGOTS. FOOT-ROT— FOULS. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 There is no department in the management of sheep so 
 little understood as the nature and treatment of their dis- 
 eases. Happily, however, for the American shepherd, 
 many of the diseases which prove so destructive in Great 
 Britain, are here of rare occurrence. From this circum- 
 stance, the compiler of the following treatise has been com- 
 pelled to rely on Messrs. Youatt and Blacklock, both distin- 
 guished veterinary surgeons, for much information concern- 
 ing those diseases, which, with us, are but partially known. 
 It is proper therefore to affirm, that this treatise has been 
 compiled from the most approved authorities — from personal 
 knowledge of the writer of some diseases which are most 
 common to the country, as well from careful comparison of 
 the opinions and experience of some of the most distin- 
 guished breeders of sheep in this and the Eastern States ; 
 and hence, he has every reason for believing that the pre- 
 monitory symptoms, preventives, and treatment of every dis- 
 ease, which will be noticed, are entitled to the implicit con- 
 fidence of the American shepherd. 
 30 
 
350 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 But, should the several remedies proposed, in every case 
 prove inadequate to perform a cure, let the reader, before he 
 condemns, remember that diseases of the human family are 
 sometimes fatal from their extraordinary virulence, and at 
 other times from neglect of timely treatment. This remark 
 is applicable to sheep, as well as all other domestic animals. 
 Again : diseases are often fatal from want of the necessary 
 knowledge of their origin and locality, confounding those 
 peculiar to the brain and spinal marrow with those of the 
 air passages, or the stomach and intestines. Therefore, with 
 a view to avoid mistakes of this character, the various dis- 
 eases have been properly classified under appropriate heads, 
 as will hereafter be noticed. 
 
 The following remarks of Mr. Blacklock, inculcating 
 " caution in prescribing," are very just : — " Great reliance is 
 in general placed upon prescriptions, which profess to suit 
 diseases in every stage and circumstance. Than this, how- 
 ever, scarcely anything can be more absurd. It is an opin- 
 ion engendered not so much by ignorance as by laziness, a 
 determination not to be put about by thinking of a remedy 
 for the evils which surround us, but, while we continue to 
 soothe ourselves by doing something, to leave everything to 
 the hit-or-miss practice of charlatans.* There are many 
 who, on being informed of the presence of disease in a 
 neighbor's flock, confidently advise the employment of a 
 favorite nostrum, on the empirical supposition that because it 
 cured, or was thought to cure, one flock, it will cure another. 
 Nothing is taken into account, saving that, in both cases the 
 aflfected animals are sheep ; and it is at once concluded, 
 that what benefited one will benefit another. The many 
 niceties in prescribing are never thought of : oh, no, that 
 would be of no use ! Of course it can be of no importance 
 to give a moment's attention to age or sex, pasture and situ- 
 ation, or to leanness or fatness, or to the presence of preg- 
 nancy ! These are of trifling moment, and only to be de- 
 spised by a person armed with a recipe, which some one 
 has shown to be capable of walking like a constable through 
 the body, and bearing off" the intruder ! But enough of this : 
 sufficient has, I think, been said to prove the utter folly of 
 confiding in things of the above nature or intention, and to 
 
 * Whenever we hear a person recommending a medicine of universal 
 virtues, we may safely set him down either for a fool or an impostor. 
 Things which are good for everything are good for nothing. 
 
STURDY, OR STAGGERS. 351 
 
 show that such confidence can lead to nothing but a waste 
 of life and capital. Even though the remedy is a harmless 
 one, it ought (unless calculated from known powers to arrest 
 disease) to be received with distrust, as incurring a loss of 
 time, during which other and better measures might have 
 been resorted to." 
 
 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND SPINAL MARROW. 
 
 The Diseases of the Brain are Sturdy, or Dizzy, caused 
 ly Hydatids or Blobs ; Hydrocephalus, or Water in the Head ; 
 Trembling, or Leaping-ill ; Apoplexy. 
 
 STURDY, OR STAGGERS. 
 
 This disease is not of frequent occurrence in the United 
 States, but very common in Great Britain. It is caused by 
 Hydatids or Blobs. " These are animals, generally pear- 
 shaped, found in various animals where they are parasitic, 
 and resembling a vesicle or bladder filled with water. It 
 was for a long time doubted whether they had an indepen- 
 dent existence ; but as they have evidently a voluntary mo- 
 tion, and as they have the property of acting on matter in 
 such a way as to convert it into a substance like that which 
 constitutes the agent, (which, according to Roget, demon- 
 strates a vital power) there is no reason to doubt it has a 
 distinct animal existence. Hydatids occur sometimes in 
 man, but more frequently in animals. In hogs, it causes the 
 measles ; in sheep, in the brain, they cause the staggers, and 
 in the liver, the rot."* 
 
 In England, according to Mr. Youatt, this disease is 
 nearly always confined to sheep from six to twelve months 
 old ; after that period sheep seem to have acquired an im- 
 munity from the attack of the hydatid. 
 
 The symptoms are as follows : — " The sheep cease to 
 gambol with their companions — they are dull — they scarcely 
 graze, they ruminate in the most languid and listless manner 
 — they separate themselves from the rest of the flock — they 
 walk in a peculiar staggering, vacillating way — they seem at 
 times to be unconscious where they are, or they seek some 
 ditch or brook, and there stand until they appear to be com- 
 
 * Die. of Terms ; Cultivator. 
 
352 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 pletely giddy, and suddenly tumble in. In the midst of their 
 grazing they stop all at once, look wildly around as if they 
 were frightened by some imaginary object, and start away 
 and gallop at full speed OA^er the field. They lose flesh ; 
 the countenance becomes haggard ; the eye wanders and as- 
 sumes a singular blue color. This last circumstance, al- 
 though not observed so carefully as it ought to be, is per- 
 fectly characteristic of the disease ; and a good shepherd 
 would select every sturdied sheep from the flock, guided 
 simply by the color of the eyes. 
 
 By and bye the sturdied sheep commences a rotatory mo- 
 tion, even while grazing, and always in one way, and with 
 the head on the same side. When this occurs, he almost 
 ceases to eat or to ruminate (chew the cud), partly because 
 the disease, from its debilitating character, destroys the ap- 
 petite altogether ; and also because he cannot restrain those 
 circular motions, during which it is almost impossible to 
 graze ; but principally because he is rapidly becoming blind. 
 He begins to be unconscious of surrounding objects. The 
 habit of turning round increases ; he continues to form these 
 concentric circles for an hour at a time, or until he falls ; 
 aad then scrambles up again, and commences the same 
 strange motion. At length he dies emaciated and ex- 
 hausted." 
 
 The remedy sometimes for hydatids, as soon as discovered, 
 is by removal from all wet, low land, to dry pasturage. The 
 disease, however, is rarely cured. In some desperate cases 
 it has been effected by trepanning, and the extrication of the 
 hydatids. 
 
 James Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd, says — " The sturdy 
 more commonly attacks sheep if exposed to a windy and 
 sleety winter. It is always most destructive on farms that 
 are ill-sheltered, and on which the sheep are most exposed 
 »o blasts and showers," 
 
 HYDROCEPHALUS, OR WATER IN THE HEAD. 
 
 This disease, it appears, is more general with young 
 lambs, than with the adult sheep. " It is not confined within 
 a cyst — it is not a portion or part of a living animal, as ia 
 the disease just treated of — but it accumulates between the 
 two inverting membranes of the brain, — the pia mater and 
 the arachnoid coat ; or it is found within the latter ; or, and 
 
TREMBLING, OR LEAPING-ILL APOPLEXY. 353 
 
 more frequently, it occupies and distends the ventricle of 
 the brain."* 
 
 An English writer remarks — " Young lambs oftener die 
 of water in the head than the shepherd or the sheep-master 
 suspects." The symptoms are — a short time after birth the 
 appetite sometimes fails, but frequently is voracious — the 
 bowels become relaxed, but oftener constipated ; the lamb 
 is dull and disinclined to move — staggering a little, pining 
 gradually away almost to a skeleton — and dying, occasion- 
 ally before it is a month old. The disease is generally in- 
 curable. Epsom salts, with ginger and gentian, have some- 
 times proved efficacious. Diseases of the brain in animals 
 are unmanageable, and baffle the most skilful efforts for 
 their removal. 
 
 TREMBLING, OR LEAPING-ILL. 
 
 Blacklock says, " Several affections are included under 
 the name of trembling, or leaping-ill, all having, in common, 
 more or less of the symptoms which these names denote. 
 They may be considered as arising from exposure to cold 
 and damp, especially on long, fatiguing journeys. Injuries 
 of the loins, either inflicted by themselves in jumping and 
 running, or by others from rough usage in the fold, are com- 
 mon causes of the disease ; but in this variety the hind quar- 
 ters only are powerless. Another species is owing to op- 
 pression of the brain from congestion, in this way resem- 
 bling incipient sturdy, and occurring only in very fat sheep. 
 
 " The treatment of the first variety is by rest, shelter, and 
 a supply of nutritious food. In the second kind, no cure 
 can be accomplished, and the animal should be immediately 
 slaughtered. Copious blood-letting, and doses of Epsom 
 salts, will be found of most advantage in the third species ; 
 but if the sheep can be disposed of, so much the better, as 
 this kind of trembling is almost certain, unless combated by 
 energetic depletion, to end in sturdy." 
 
 APOPLEXY. 
 
 This disease is peculiar only to sheep when they are very 
 fat ; it is their plethoric situation which is the inducing 
 cause. But the fit rarely occurs, if the animal is kept quiet ; 
 but hurried journeys, worry, and over-fatigue will often do it. 
 Sheep, therefore, in high condition, should be driven with 
 * Youatt. 
 30* 
 
354 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 great care. If the symptoms are aggravated, a small quan- 
 tity of blood should be drawn from the jugular vein, and four 
 oz. of Epsom salts immediately administered, and one oz. 
 every six hours, until the bovi^els are open. The sheep 
 should then be very sparingly fed for a few days. 
 
 THE AIR PASSAGES. 
 
 (ESTRIS OVIS, OR GRUB IN THE HEAD CORYZA. 
 
 Blacklock says, " Much annoyance is caused to the sheep 
 by the presence of animals in the air passages. The 
 CEstris ovis (Gad-fly) deposites its eggs on the margin of 
 the nostril in autumn ; these are soon hatched, and the larvae 
 immediately find their way up the interior of the nose, till 
 they arrive at the frontal sinus, a cavity situated between the 
 layers of the frontal bone, and of considerable size in the 
 sheep. Here they remain until the following spring, when 
 they quit, burrow in the earth for a short season, then be- 
 come winged insects, and ready to enter upon the career of 
 torment so ably gone through by their predecessors." 
 
 To prevent the attacks of this mischievous insect, it will 
 be found necessary about the beginning of July, and again 
 about the first of August, to assemble the flock, and thor- 
 oughly tar the parts adjacent to the nostrils. Others have 
 tried, with success, smearing the bottoms of troughs, and 
 sprinkling salt occasionally over it. The effluvia of tar is 
 abhorrent to all winged insects ; and hence the philosophy 
 of this treatment. 
 
 Few sheep are exempt from grubs in the head, and when 
 the number does not exceed two or three, will not cause 
 much annoyance. It feeds on the mucus secreted by the 
 sinus membrane. 
 
 When the number of grubs is larger than common, they 
 produce much irritation, and the sheep will sneeze violent- 
 ly. Blacklock says, " Tobacco smoke is the only available 
 remedy, and a very good one, being easily brought in con- 
 tact with the worms, and, when properly administered, cer- 
 tain in its eflects. One person secures the sheep, holding 
 the head in a convenient position, while another, having 
 half-filled a pipe with tobacco, and kindled it in the usual 
 manner, places one or two folds of a handkerchief over the 
 
CORYZA — HOOVE. 355 
 
 opening of the bowl, then passes the tube a good way up 
 the nostril, applies his mouth to the covered bowl, and blows 
 vigorously through the handkerchief. When this has con- 
 tinued for a few seconds, the pipe is withdrawn, and the 
 operation repeated on the other nostril." 
 
 During the winter season this disease is very common 
 with sheep that are wholly exposed, or when shelters are 
 imperfectly constructed. The chief annoyance is occasion- 
 ed by an excess of mucus, which clogs the nasal passages, 
 and causes great difficulty of breathing. When a sheep is 
 in this situation, it is said to have a " bad cold." In some 
 cases, unless relieved, the sheep will sometimes die from 
 suffocation. At other times the inflammation will extend to 
 the bronchial tubes, and pulmonary consumption (rot) will 
 ensue. 
 
 Treatment. — Removal to a warm shelter, and a dose oi 
 purgative medicine, is all that will be required. The eflforts 
 of nature, however, are sufficient to remove the disease, 
 when the attack is slight. 
 
 The preventive, which is always worth the pound of cure, 
 are good shelters, and wholesome food. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 
 
 HOOVE, OR DISTENSION OF THE STOMACH BY GAS. 
 
 This cannot be considered a disease, but an impediment 
 of respiration and circulation. It is occasioned by the sheep 
 being changed from a poor pasture to a luxuriant one, and 
 gorging itself to an immoderate degree. The gullet is ob- 
 structed, and the gases in the paunch cause remarkable dis- 
 tension, with no passage for their escape, except into the 
 chest, which ends in suffocation of the animal. 
 
 Treatment. — An aperture is sometimes made with a sharp 
 instrument in the side to permit the passage of the gas ; but 
 this Blacklock explicitly condemns. The remedy is the 
 probang, a flexible rod, with a small ball of wood or ivory at 
 the end, which, being forced to the lower extremity of the 
 gullet, removes the obstruction, and the gas or wind is 
 readily void^^d. 
 
356 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 Prevention. — Change the flock often, and neither a poor 
 pasture nor too rich a one will follow. But peradventure it 
 happens that sheep must be put suddenly on too high keep, 
 salt them freely before it takes place, and this should be re- 
 peated for several successive days. 
 
 BRAXY. 
 
 This disease is not unusual to sheep kept in the latitude 
 of ours. It originates from several causes ; and first — a 
 sudden change from green to dry food ; second — when the 
 animal partakes of some irritating weed to which it is wholly 
 a stranger ; third — frozen grass is an exciting cause, rapidly 
 producing inflammation by lowering the temperature of the 
 stomachs so as to arrest digestion ; fourth — when, being 
 worried, forced to plunge into a stream of cold water. It is 
 constipation of the bowels, followed by a high degree of in- 
 flammation. 
 
 Symptoms. — The sheep is seen to frequently lie down and 
 get up, loathing its food, and drinking often ; the mouth is 
 parched, the eyes red. partly closed and watery. The head 
 is down, the back drawn up, and belly swollen ; there is 
 scarcely any passage through the bowels, the urine is small 
 in quantity, high colored, and sometimes bloody. Death 
 occurs not unfrequently after a lapse of a few hours, and 
 again, not till nearly the expiration of a week. 
 
 Treatment. — Bleeding must be resorted to at as early a 
 stage of the disease as possible ; but previous to this the 
 sheep must be placed in a tub of warm water, and there kept 
 for half an hour ; then administer two ounces of Glauber 
 salts, dissolved in water. An injection of tobacco decoction 
 will be also of great benefit. The animal must then be kept 
 warm by throwing a blanket about it, and given laxative 
 provender for a week or more. 
 
 STRETCHES. 
 
 This disease very commonly occurs in flocks which are 
 kept exclusively on hay, or other dry food, and is fatal very 
 often, unless an early application of medicine follows the 
 attack. 
 
 Symptoms. — The sheep will alternately lie down and rise 
 at brief intervals, frequently stretching, and refuses every 
 kind of food. It is now generally admitted that it proceeds 
 
DIARRHCEAj OR SCOURS. 357 
 
 from costiveness, by being deprived wholly of green food. 
 The disease is unknown in Great Britain, where succulent 
 provender is so bountifully fed. 
 
 Treatment. — Two table-spoonfuls of castor oil, or one 
 ounce of Epsom salts, will be effectual. A small quantity 
 of hog's lard has also been used with success. A neighbor 
 administers a large quid of tobacco ; and he recently in- 
 formed the writer that he had never lost a sheep by the 
 stretches after administering this nauseous potion. 
 
 Preventive. — Give the flock green food once a week or 
 oftener — such as apples, potatoes, or turnips. Pine or hem- 
 lock boughs are also excellent. 
 
 DIARRHOEA, OR SCOURS. 
 
 This being so common and fatal a disease with the junior 
 portions of the flock, in our own country, requires an ex- 
 tended notice. The following are Mr. Youatt's remarks, 
 and mode of treatment : — 
 
 " If the affections of the external coats of the intestines 
 do not frequently occur, inflammation of the inner coat or 
 mucous membrane is the very pest of sheep. When it is 
 confined principally to the mucous membrane of the small 
 intestines, and is not attended by much fever, it is termed 
 diarrhoea ; when there is inflammation of the large intestines, 
 attended by fever, and considerable discharge of mucus, 
 and occasionally of blood, it is dysentery. These diseases 
 are seldom perfectly separate, and diarrhoea is too apt to de- 
 generate into dysentery. The diarrhoea of lambs is a dread- 
 fully fatal disease. If they are incautiously exposed to the 
 cold, or the mother's milk is not good, or if they are suckled 
 by a foster-mother that had yeaned too long before, a violent 
 purging will suddenly come on, and destroy them in less than 
 twenty-four hours. 
 
 " When the lamb begins to crop the grass at his mother's 
 side he is liable to occasional disturbance of the bowels ; 
 but as he gains strength, the danger attendant on the disease 
 diminishes. At weaning-time care must sometimes be taken 
 of him. Let not, however, the farmer be in haste to stop 
 every little looseness of the bowels. It is in these young 
 animals the almost necessary accompaniment or consequence 
 of every change of diet, and almost of situation ; and it is 
 frequently a sanative process ; but if it continues longer than 
 twenty-four hours — if it is attended with pain — if much mu- 
 
358 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 cus is discharged — if the appetite of the animal is failing 
 him in the slightest degree, it will be necessary to attend to 
 the case. Then use the following remedy : — Take of pre- 
 pared chalk an ounce, powdered catechu half an ounce, 
 powdered ginger two drachms, and powdered opium half a 
 drachm ; mix them with half a pint of peppermint water. 
 The dose is from one to two table-spoonfuls morning and 
 night. 
 
 " The diarrhoea of lambs is, in a majority of cases, attribu- 
 table to the carelessness or mismanagement of the farmer, 
 either referrible to deficient or improper food, or the want of 
 shelter at an early age ; as the animal grows up he is better 
 able to struggle with the disease. 
 
 " Diarrhoea occasionally attacks the full-grown sheep, and 
 is too often fatal, especially when it has degenerated into 
 dysentery. It is very common in the spring, and particularly 
 in the early part of the season, when the new grass begins 
 rapidly to sprout. Here, still more decidedly than with the 
 lamb, the sheep proprietor is urged not too suddenly to in- 
 terfere with a natural or perhaps beneficial discharge ; and 
 after which the animal often rapidly gains condition. Four 
 and twenty hours should pass before any decisive step is 
 taken ; but if the looseness then continues the sheep should 
 be removed to shorter and dryer pasture, and hay should be 
 offered to them, if, after having tasted of the fresh grass of 
 spring, they can be induced to touch it. If the looseness 
 does not abate, then adopt the treatment recommended." 
 
 With the writer's flock, diarrhoea rarely occurs with 
 lambs when suckling the ewes ; it is at an after age, gene- 
 rally during their first winter, and early in the following 
 spring, when they commence nipping the young grass. 
 
 The disease originates under the following circumstances: 
 
 First : Too sudden a change from dry to green food. 
 Therefore, as has already been remarked in a previous part 
 of this work, when the foddering season is about to expire, 
 the flock should not be allowed to go wholly to grass, but 
 permitted to eat only a little each day for a week or more ; 
 then the sheep may be placed on their pastures permanently, 
 with impunity. 
 
 Second : Salting freely too early in the spring, while the 
 grass is young and flashy. 
 
 Third : When beginning to feed grain, giving it in too 
 
ACUTE DROPSY, OR RED WATER. 359 
 
 large quantities. It should be fed moderately at first, and 
 the quantity gradually increased. 
 
 Fourth : Feeding unripe hay. This is not generally 
 known as an inducing cause of scours ; but the compiler 
 knows it to be so from sad experience, and the fact has been 
 repeatedly confirmed by the experience of farmers living in 
 the vicinity of his residence. In this country, it is prob- 
 ably the most prominent cause of the disease. 
 
 Fifth : Exposure to sudden transitions of w^eather ; shel- 
 ters are therefore needed as a preventive. 
 
 Sixth : Eating of irritating w^eeds ; the flock in this case 
 cannot be removed too quickly to another field, and salted. 
 
 Diarrhoea can be easily arrested, by mixing a small quan- 
 tity of pulverized alum in wheat bran, and fed for a day or 
 two. If this should not succeed, there is a tendency to 
 dysentery, and a purgative of castor oil (a table-spoonful) 
 should be administered, accompanied with dry food, and lit- 
 tle drink. The reader is also referred to Mr. Youatt's re- 
 cipe, already stated. A decoction of hemlock bark, after 
 boiling, is a powerful astringent, and has been used with 
 success. 
 
 ACUTE DROPSY, OR RED WATER. 
 
 Red water is a common disease in American flocks. 
 Sheep that are destroyed by it present no premonitory symp- 
 toms of any disease whatever ; the shepherd leaves his 
 flock at night after a minute examination, and on his return 
 in the morning, a sheep will be found dead, lying nearly in 
 the usual posture, the legs bent under them, and the head 
 protruded. Apparently there has not been any severe strug- 
 gle, and on examination the belly contains a greater or less 
 quantity of bloody fluid. Often a change of pasture, espe- 
 cially from a dry to a cold one, and especially if accouipa- 
 nied with white frost, will induce the disease, which origi- 
 nates in excessive inflammation of the enveloping membrane 
 of the intestines. The animal becomes chilled by this sud- 
 den change of situation. The belly, coming most in contact 
 with the damp and cold ground, is first aff'ected ; the peri- 
 toneal coat of the intestines becomes chilled — reaction, in- 
 flammation, soon follows — its natural function, the secretion 
 of a fluid to lubricate the cavity of the belly, is morbidly and 
 strangely increased — the fluid accumulates, and it is red and 
 bloody from the rupture of the small vessels of the periton- 
 
360 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 eutn distended by inflammation. The inflammation pursues 
 its course with ahnost incredible rapidity, and the animal 
 soon dies. 
 
 DYSENTERY.* 
 
 The careless observer would not always mark the differ- 
 ence between diarrhoea and dysentery ; they are, however, 
 perfectly distinct in their seat, their nature, and their conse- 
 quences. Diarrhoea is often an eflx)rt of nature to expel 
 from the intestinal canal something that offends. It may be 
 only increased peristaltic action of the bowels, increased se- 
 cretion from the mucous glands, and accompanied by little 
 inflammation and less danger. It is, at first, an affection ot 
 the small intestines alone ; but it may extend through the 
 whole alimentary canal, and inflammation, which is not a ne- 
 cessary part of it, appearing and increasing, general fever may 
 be excited, attended by considerable danger. Dysentery is 
 essentially inflammation of the large intestines — the result of 
 neglected or obstinate diarrhoea, or altogether distinct from 
 it — the consequence of unwholesome food — of being pastured 
 on wet or ill-drained meadows — and of being half starved 
 even there. Fever is a constant attendant on it in its early 
 stages, and wasting and debility rapidly follow. 
 
 The discharge of dysentery is different from that of diar- 
 rhoea. It is thinner, and yet more adhesive. A great deal 
 of mucus mingles with it, which causes it to cling to the tail 
 and the thighs ; and there it accumulates, layer after layer 
 — a nuisance to the animal, a warning to the owner of much 
 danger, and that near at hand. When this kind of evacua- 
 tion has been established but a little while, the next warning 
 will be a loss of flesh, and that to an extent that would 
 scarcely be deemed credible. Sometimes the animal eats 
 as heartily as ever ; at other times the appetite utterly fails. 
 Dysentery occasionally carries off its victim in a few days ; 
 but frequently will live five or six weeks. 
 
 It is only lately that the proper treatment of this malady 
 has been recognized. In every case of acute dysentery, 
 and whenever fever is present, bleeding is indispensably re- 
 quisite ; for this is a disease of inflammation. Physic 
 should likewise be administered, however profuse the dis- 
 charge may be ; for it may carry away some of that perilous 
 stuff which has accumulated in the large intestines, and is a 
 * By Youatt. 
 
POISON ANATOMY OF THE LIVER. S6I 
 
 source of fearful irritation there, and it will lessen the gene- 
 ral fever which accompanies this stage of the malady. The 
 sheep must be removed, and its food changed. Mashes, 
 gruel, and a small quantity of hay, must be given. 
 
 Two doses of physic must be administered, and then re- 
 course must be had to astringents. 
 
 The purging medicines must not be discontinued, until 
 there is a perceptible alteration in the stools ; the doses, as 
 a general rule, should be small, and given for several days. 
 
 The sheep must not be turned on the same pasture from 
 which it was taken ; let it be a dryer one. 
 
 Sheep and calves will often, in the winter or spring of the 
 year, eat greedily of the low Laurel [Kalmia Aiigustifolia). 
 The animal appears to be dull and stupid ; swells a little, 
 and is constantly gulping up a greenish fluid which it swal- 
 lows down ; a part of it will trickle out of its mouth, and dis- 
 color its lips. 
 
 The plant probably brings on a fermentation in the stom- 
 ach, and Nature endeavors to throw off the poison herb by 
 retching or vomiting. 
 
 Treatment. — In the early stages, if the greenish fluid be 
 suffered to escape from the stomach, the animal most gene- 
 rally recovers. To effect this, gag the sheep, which may 
 be done in this manner. Take a stick of the size of your 
 wrist and six inches long, — place it in the animal's mouth ; 
 tie a string to one end of it, pass it over the head and down 
 to the other end, and there make it fast. The fluid will then 
 run from the mouth as fast as thrown up from the stomach. 
 In addition to this, give roasted onions and sweetened milk 
 freely.* 
 130 
 
 DISEASES OF THE LUNGS, LIVER, AND KIDNEY. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE LIVER. f 
 
 It seems to be a law of comparative anatomy that the bulk 
 of the liver shall be in an inverse proportion to that of the 
 lungs. In the horse the lungs are necessarily capacious. 
 He needs a large supply of arterial blood in order to answer 
 
 » Northern Shepherd. t By Youatt, 
 
 31 
 
362 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 to its rapid expenditure when the utmost exertion of strength 
 and speed are required from him. In the ox the kmgs are 
 less developed ; yet this animal is used in some countries as 
 a beast of burden, and employed in Great Britain in agricul- 
 tural labor ; the lungs, therefore, are of considerable size, 
 and the liver, although much larger than in the horse, is re- 
 stricted in its growth. In sheep little exertion of strength 
 or speed is required ; and the lungs are smaller compared 
 with the size of the animal. The liver is proportionally 
 larger : it is about one twentieth part of the whole weight of 
 the animal, or nearly double the proportionate size which it 
 is in the human being. 
 
 The liver of the sheep differs little in form and situation 
 from that of the ox. It is placed in the anterior part of the 
 abdomen, between the maniplus and the diaphragm. It has 
 but two principal lobes, separated by a triangular scissure, 
 through which, in the pregnant ewe, the umbilical vein of 
 the foetus passes. Its office is to receive the blood that is 
 returned from the intestines ; to separate from the blood, or 
 to secrete by means of it, a fluid termed bile, and to transmit 
 the remaining part to the lungs, there to undergo the usual 
 process of purifaction, and be changed to arterial blood. 
 The vessel to which the bile is first conveyed is the gall- 
 bladder ; where it is stored up for future use, and perhaps 
 undergoes some change. From the gall-bladder it is con- 
 veyed to the first intestine, the duodenum, either in a con- 
 stant but slow stream, or probably in a larger stream while 
 the work of digestion is going on ; the supply from the gall- 
 bladder, and probably the secretion from the liver, being 
 stopped at other times. A little before this duct reaches the 
 intestine, it is joined and perforated by the duct from the 
 pancreas. The fluid from the pancreas is mixed with that 
 from the liver, and the compound flows on to the duode- 
 num." 
 
 This disease is classed among those of the liver, because, 
 except when the animal dies perfectly worn out by the mal- 
 ady, the most striking and the supposed characteristic mis- 
 chief is found in this organ. 
 
 Happily for the American farmers, this destructive mala- 
 dy is, comparatively, of unfrequent occurrence in their 
 flocks ; but in Great Britain, on the authority of Mr. Youatt, 
 
ROT. 363 
 
 more than a million of sheep and lambs die every year by 
 this disease. "In the winter of 1830-31 this number was 
 more than doubled ; and had the pestilence committed the 
 same ravages throughout the kingdom which it did in a few 
 of the middle, eastern, and southern counties, the breed of 
 sheep would have been, in a manner, extirpated." Many of 
 the farmers lost their entire flocks, not an individual sheep 
 escaping. 
 
 It appears, however, the disease is not peculiar to Eng- 
 land. Many sheep are destroyed by it in Germany. In the 
 north of France they are frequently swept away by it ; and 
 in the winter of 1809 the ravages were terrific throughout 
 the kingdom. It has prevailed at some periods nearly over 
 all Europe, as far north as Norway. 
 
 The compiler has no personal knowledge of this destruc- 
 tive malady, and is therefore compelled to rely on the ac- 
 count presented by Mr. Youatt, all of which that is of inter- 
 est is subjoined. 
 
 " The early symptoms of this disease are exceedingly 
 obscure ; this is much to be deplored, because in the first 
 stage of it alone does it often admit of cure. The animal 
 is dull, lagging behind his companions — he does not feed so 
 well as usual. If suspicion has been a little excited by this, 
 the truth of the matter may easily be put to the test, for if 
 the wool is parted, and especially about the brisket, the skin 
 will have a pale yellow hue. 
 
 " The eye of the sheep beginning to sicken with the rot 
 can never be mistaken ; it is injected, but pale ; the small 
 veins at the corner of the eye are turgid, but they are filled 
 with yellow serous fluid, and not with blood. Farmers very 
 properly pay great attention to this in their examination or 
 purchase of sheep. If the caruncle is red, they have a proof 
 which never fails them that the animal is healthy. There 
 is no loss of condition, but quite the contrary, for the sheep 
 in the early stage of the rot has a great propensity to fatten. 
 Mr. Bakewell was aware of this, for he used to overflow 
 certain of his pastures, and when the water was run off" 
 turn those of his sheep there which he wanted to prepare for 
 the market. They speedily became rotted, and in the early 
 stage of the rot they accumulated flesh and fat with wonder- 
 ful rapidity. By this manoeuvre he used to gain five or six 
 weeks on his neighbors. 
 
 " As the disease becomes confirmed the yellow tinge be- 
 
364 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 gins to spread — the muzzle and the tongue are stained — the 
 animal is more dull and dispirited — his false condition rap- 
 idly disappears — the membrane of the nose becomes livid— 
 the tongue gradually assumes the same character — the eyes 
 are dull, and their vessels charged with a yellow-brown 
 fluid. The breath now becomes fetid — the bowels variable 
 — sometimes costive, and at other times loose to a degree 
 that defies the power of medicine. The skin often becomes 
 spotted with yellow or black — the emaciation is more and 
 more rapid — the general fever increases — the vessels of the 
 eye are more distended and red — the skin becomes loose 
 and flabby, and if it is pressed upon, a peculiar crackling 
 sound is heard — the wool comes ofi" when pulled with the 
 slightest force — the appetite entirely fails — the belly begins 
 to enlarge — on pressure fluid is easily recognized within it, 
 and hence one of its names 'the hydropic' or dropsical rot. 
 The animal is weak in every limb — a violent purging is now 
 very frequently present — the sheep wastes away to a mere 
 skeleton, and at length he dies — the duration of the disease 
 being from two to four or six months. 
 
 " When a rotted sheep is examined after death, the whole 
 cellular tissue is found to be infiltrated, and a yellow serous 
 fluid everywhere follows the knife. The muscles are soft 
 and flabby ; they have the appearance of being macerated. 
 The kidneys are pale, flaccid, and infiltrated. The belly is 
 frequently filled with water, or purulent matter ; the perito- 
 neum is everywhere thickened, and the bowels adhere to- 
 gether by menus of an unnatural growth. The heart is en- 
 larged and softened, and the lungs are filled with tubercles. 
 The principal alterations of structure are in the liver. It is 
 pale, livid, and broken down with the slightest pressure ; 
 and on being boiled it will almost dissolve away. When 
 the liver is not pale, it is often curiously spotted. In some 
 cases it is speckled like the back of a toad. Nevertheless, 
 some parts of it are hard and scirrhous ; others are ulcer- 
 ated, and the biliary ducts are filled with jlukes. Here is 
 the decided seat of the disease, and it is here that the na- 
 ture of the malady may be learned. It is inflammation of 
 the liver. In consequence of this the secretion from the 
 liver is increased — at first scarcely vitiated, and the diges- 
 tive powers are rendered more energetic ; but soon the bile 
 flows so abundantly that it is taken into the system, and the 
 eye, the brisket, the mouth, become yellow. As the disease 
 
ROT. 365 
 
 proceeds, the liver becomes disorganized, and its secretion 
 more vitiated., and even poisonous ; and then follows a total 
 derangement of the digestive powers. 
 
 The liver attracts the principal attention of the examiner ; 
 it displays the evident effects of acute and destructive in- 
 flammation ; and still more plainly the ravages of the para- 
 sites with which its ducts are crowded. Here is plainly the 
 original seat of the disease ; the centre whence a destruc- 
 tive influence spreads on every side. Whatever else is found, 
 it is the consequence of previous mischief existing here. 
 Then the first inquiry is a very limited one — the nature of 
 this hepatic aflection, and the agency of the parasites that 
 inhabit the liver. Are they the cause or consequence of dis- 
 ease ? 
 
 The Fluke — the Fasciola of Linnaeus — the Distoma he- 
 paticum of Rodolphi — is found in the biliary ducts of the 
 sheep, the goat, the deer, the ox, the horse, the ass, the hog, 
 the dog, the rabbit, and various other animals, and even in 
 the human being. It is from three-quarters of an inch to 
 an inch and a quarter in length, and from one-third to half 
 an inch in greatest breadth. The head is of a pointed form, 
 round above, and flat beneath ; and the mouth opens late- 
 rally instead of vertically. There are no barbs or tenacuia, 
 as described by some authors. The eyes are placed on the 
 most prominent part of the head. No difference of sex has 
 yet been discovered in the fluke-worm, and it is believed 
 to be an hermaphrodite. « * # * 
 
 Then, is the fluke-worm the cause or the effect of the 
 rot 1 To a certain degree both. They aggravate the dis- 
 ease ; they perpetuate a state of irritability and disorgani- 
 zation, which must necessarily undermine the strength of 
 any animal ; they unnaturally distend, and consequently 
 weaken the passages in which they are found ; they force 
 themselves into the smaller passages, and, always swimming 
 against the stream, they obstruct the flow of the bile, and 
 produce inflammation by its accumulation ; they consume 
 the nutritive juices by which the neighboring parts should 
 be fed ; and they impede the flow of the bile into the intes- 
 tines, by clogging up the ducts with their excrement and 
 their spawn. Notwithstanding all this, however, if the 
 fluke follows the analogy of other entozoa and parasites, it 
 is the efl'ect and not the cause of the rot. The ova are 
 continually swallowed by the sound animals and the dis- 
 
 31* 
 
366 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 eased ; but it is only when the fluids are altered, and some- 
 times essentially changed, and the condition of the digestive 
 organs is materially impaired, that their appearance is fa- 
 vored, or their multiplication encouraged. 
 
 WHAT, THEN, IS THE CAUSE OF THE ROT IN SHEEP ? 
 
 The knowledge of the cause can alone guide us to a 
 cure, or at best to the prevention of it. It does not arise 
 from deficiency of food ; a sheep may be reduced to the 
 lowest state of condition — he may be starved outright, but 
 the liver would not be necessarily as often in a diseased 
 state. It is not to be traced to the eflTects of sudden flush of 
 grass. The determination of blood to the head, diarrhoea, 
 dysentery, might be thus produced, but not one symptom re- 
 sembling rot. Some persons, led away by a favorite theory, 
 have traced it to defective ventilation ; but in the closest 
 keeping to which the British sheep is usually committed 
 there is no foul air to be got rid of, and defective ventilation 
 would be words without meaning. * * * * 
 
 The rot in sheep is evidently connected with the soil or 
 state of the pasture. It is confined to wet seasons, or 
 to the feeding on ground moist and marshy at all seasons. 
 It has reference to the evaporation of water, and to the pres- 
 ence and decomposition of moist vegetable matter. It is 
 rarely or almost never seen on dry or sandy soils and in 
 dry seasons. In the same farm there are certain fields on 
 which no sheep can be turned with impunity. There are 
 others that seldom or never give the rot. * * * 
 
 Some seasons are far more favorable to the development 
 of the rot than others, and there is no manner of doubt as 
 to the character of the seasons. After a rainy summer, or 
 a moist autumn, or during a wet winter, the rot destroys like 
 a pestilence. A return and a continuance of dry weather 
 materially arrests its murderous progress. It is, therefore, 
 sufficiently plain that the rot depends upon, or is caused by 
 the existence of moisture. A rainy season, and a tenacious 
 soil, are fruitful or inevitable sources of it. 
 
 But there is something more than moisture necessary for 
 the production of rot. The ground must be wet, and its 
 surface exposed to the air ; and then the plants, previously 
 weakened or destroyed by the moisture, will be decomposed ; 
 and, in that decomposition, certain gases or miasmata will 
 
INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 367. 
 
 be developed, that cannot long be breathed, or scarcely 
 breathed at all, by the sheep without producing the rot. 
 
 Chemistry, even in its present advanced state, will afford 
 no means of analyzing these deleterious gases ; and it is a 
 matter of little practical consequence to be acquainted with 
 their constituent principles. * * * * Then the mode of pre- 
 vention consists in altering the character of as much of the 
 dangerous ground as he can, and keeping his sheep from 
 those pastures which defy all his attempts to improve them. 
 
 Treatment. — In the early stage of the disease, bleed. 
 Abstract, according to the circumstances of the case, eight, 
 ten, or twelve ounces of blood. There is no disease of an 
 inflammatory character, at its commencement, which is not 
 benefited by an early bleeding. To this let a dose of physic 
 succeed — two or three ounces of Epsom salts ; and to these 
 means let a change of diet be immediately added — good hay 
 in the field, and hay, straw, or chaff in the straw-yard. 
 
 To this should be added — a simple and a cheap medicine, 
 but that which is the sheet anchor of the practitioner here — 
 coimnon salt. * * * * ^^w* The farmer is beginning to be 
 aware of the valuable properties of salt in promoting the 
 condition, and relieving and preventing many of the diseases 
 of all the domesticated animals. In the first place, it is a 
 purgative, inferior to few, when given in a full dose ; and it 
 is a tonic as well as purgative. Its first power is exerted 
 on the digestive organs — on the stomach and intestines — ■ 
 augmenting the secretions and quickening the energies of 
 each. It is the stimulus which Nature herself points out, 
 for, in moderate quantities and mingled with the food, men 
 and beasts are fond of it. The sheep, having a little recov- 
 ered from the disease, should still continue on the best and 
 dryest pasture on the farm, and should always have salt 
 within their reach- It should be rock salt. 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 
 
 This is by no means an unfrequent disease among sheep. 
 It is caused by cold and wet pasture — chills after hard dri- 
 ving — washing before shearing, when the water is at too low 
 a temperature — shearing when the weather is too chilly and 
 wet, and other circumstances of a similar description. Its 
 first indication is that of fever — hard and quick pulse — dis- 
 inclination for food — ceasing to chew the cud — unwilling- 
 ness to move — slight heaving of the flanks, and a frequent 
 
368 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 and painful cough. The disease soon assumes a more ag- 
 gravated form, but further description will be useless : it is 
 sufficient for the farmer to know the first stages of the mala- 
 dy, and then pursue that course of treatment which experi- 
 ence determines as best. 
 
 Treatment. — Bleed and purge freely, and secure the sheep 
 in some comfortable place, free from all exposure to the vi- 
 cissitudes of the weather. Let no irritating food be given. 
 Mashes of wheat bran will be found excellent, with a little 
 salt occasionally. 
 
 This disease is induced by long exposure to cold and wet 
 •weather. Tapping is condemned by Blacklock, unless per- 
 formed by a skilful veterinary. The best plan is to bleed 
 freely, and give two or three doses of Epsom salts. It is 
 better, however, in general, to kill the sheep at once, as 
 rarely a permanent cure can be effected. 
 
 DISEASES OF PARTURITION. 
 
 ABORTION. 
 
 This disease is not so common as m cows, but sometimes 
 occurs very extensively in flocks of sheep. Ewes are liable 
 to it through every stage of pregnancy ; but generally it oc- 
 curs when they are about half-gone. The causes are vari- 
 ious : — sudden fright, jumping over ditches and whatnot, 
 worried by dogs, and the too free use of salt ; but the prom- 
 inent cause is the unlimited use of turnips and succulent 
 food. 
 
 The symptoms, according to Spooner, first manifested, are 
 dulness and refusal to feed ; the ewe will be seen moping 
 at a corner of the fold, and will be heard to bleat more than 
 usual. To these succeed restlessness, and often trembling, 
 with slight labor pains ; and in the course of twelve hours 
 abortion will have taken place. Sometimes the parts will, 
 be so relaxed, that the uterus or vagina will become invert- 
 ed, and the expulsion of the placenta will precede that of the 
 foetus. 
 
 Mr. Spooner reconamends placing the ewe in a dry situa- 
 
INVERSION OF THE UTERUS INTEGUMENT, OR SKIN. 369 
 
 tion, as soon as her situation is discovered, and the follow- 
 ing medicine may be given with some nourishing gruel : 
 
 Epsom salts ^ ounce. 
 
 Tincture of opium - - - 1 drachm. 
 Powdered camphor - - - i do. 
 
 The two latter medicines ma)'- be repeated the following 
 day, but not the salts, unless the bowels are confined. 
 
 INVERSION OF THE UTERUS. 
 
 Though this occasionally takes place in the ewe at any 
 period, from sudden severe exertion or straining hard, yet it 
 is most frequent immediately or very shortly after parturi- 
 tion. In this case it arises from the violent spasmodic ac- 
 tion of the womb, which turns inside out, and protrudes out 
 of the sheep. 
 
 No time should be lost in replacing it. The ewe must be 
 placed on her back, with her hind feet elevated ; and the 
 hands being lubricated with oil or lard, the uterus should be 
 gently forced back into its natural situation. Twenty to 
 thirty drops of the tincture of opium should be given in a 
 pint of gruel, and the ewe kept perfectly quiet. 
 
 This is inflammatory affection of the udder, caused some- 
 times by constitutional derangement, but generally by the 
 death of the lamb, and the milk of the udder becoming co- 
 agulated. 
 
 An ounce or two of Epsom salts, with a drachm of gin- 
 ger, should be given the ewe, dissolved in warm water ; let 
 the udder be fomented with water as hot as it can be borne. 
 The fomentation, if necessary, should be repeated, and then 
 camphor ointment rubbed upon it twice a day. If the 
 swelling continues, and matter forms, it should at once be 
 opened by an incision, and the puss pressed out. If the 
 smell is very offensive, it should be syringed with a weak 
 solution of chloride of lime for several days. 
 
 THE INTEGUMENT, OR SKIN.* 
 
 The skin of the sheep, although composed, like that of 
 Other animals, of the cuticle, the subjacent raucous tissue and 
 the true skin, differs materially from that of most of them in 
 
 * By Youatt. 
 
370 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 some of its functions. It is exceedingly deficient both in the 
 powers of secretion and absorption ; or rather there are cir- 
 cumstances about it which materially limit the action of these 
 functions ; and, as it were, confine the ofiice of the skin to 
 the production and the support of the fleece. It is surround- 
 ed by a peculiar secretion, adhesive and impenetrable to mois- 
 ture — the yolk — destined chiefly to preserve the wool in a soft, 
 pliable, and healthy state. 
 
 There can be little cutaneous perspiration going forward 
 from the skin of the sheep, and there are consequently i&vf 
 diseases that are referrible to change in this excretion ; and, 
 on the other hand, little or no advantage can be derived from 
 an increase of it, as indicating a salutary direction of the fluids, 
 or relieving other and dangerously-congested parts. There 
 is likewise less expenditure or radiation of animal heat, both 
 on account of the interposition of the yolk, and the non-con- 
 ducting power of the wool. The caloric disengaged from the 
 sheep is about the seventh part of that of a man. This is a 
 wise and kind provision of nature, well explaining the means 
 by which the animal is enabled to endure many hardships 
 from vicissitudes of weather. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 
 
 Scab, Erysipelas, Johnswort-scab, Pelt-rot, Sore Mouth, 
 Maggots. 
 
 SCAB, OR ITCH. 
 
 This disease of the skin is exceedingly common among 
 sheep almost all over the civilized world. According to Mr. 
 Youatt, there are several varieties of it. " A sheep is occa- 
 sionally observed to scratch himself in the most furious man- 
 ner, and with scarcely a moment's intermission. He rubs 
 himself against every projection of the fence, and of every 
 post, and the wool comes off" from him in considerable flakes. 
 When he is caught there is no appearance whatever of cutane- 
 ous disease." Mr. Young says, that " the sheep rub them- 
 selves in all attitudes — they have clear skins without the least 
 sign of scab — never observed that it was catching — and the 
 better the food the worse they become." 
 
 Treatment. — The sheep should be caught and housed, 
 shorn as closely as possible, washed all over, and most care- 
 
SCAB, OR ITCH. 371 
 
 fully, with soap and water ; and after that, on the second day, 
 with a wash of lime-water and tobacco decoction, of equal 
 parts. 
 
 The ordinary scab in sheep is much akin to the mange in 
 other animals. It is most common in the spring and early 
 part of the summer. It may be produced by a variety of 
 causes, such as bad keep, and exposure to cold and wet weather ; 
 thus producing suppression of the perspiration. The pre- 
 A'ailing cause, however, is contagion. 
 
 Symptoms. — The sheep is restless — scratching and nib- 
 bling itself, and tearing off the wool. When closely exam- 
 ined, the skin will be found to be red and rough. Numerous 
 pustules have broken and run together, and form small or 
 large patches of crust or scab — hence the name of the disease. 
 The shoulders and the back, most frequently, earliest exhibit 
 these pustules. The general health of the animal is affected 
 according to the extent and virulemce of the eruption ; some- 
 times he pines away and dies, exhausted by continued irri- 
 tation and suffering. It is a most contagious disease. If it 
 is once introduced into a flock, the farmer may be assured 
 that, unless the diseased sheep are immediately removed, the 
 whole of his flock will become infected. 
 
 It seems to spread among the sheep, not so much by di- 
 rect contact as by means of the rubbing-places ; for it has 
 happened, that when a farmer has got rid of his tainted flock, 
 and covered his pastures with a new one, the disease has bro- 
 ken out again ; and this has arisen from contact of the sheep 
 with the old scratching places of fences, trees, and so forth. 
 
 " After it was found that the itch in the human race was 
 caused by an insect, a species of Acarus, it was supposed that 
 similar cutaneous diseases in animals might arise from the 
 same source. M. Walz, a German, was the first to establish 
 this point and fully investigate its character, and numerous 
 subsequent examinations have proved the correctness of his 
 opinions. He found that the scab, like the itch, mange, &c., 
 is caused by animalculae ; that the irritation caused by his 
 burrowing in the skin, forms the pustule, and that when this 
 breaks, the acarus leaves his habitation and travels to anoth- 
 er part of the skin, and thus extends the disease. When 
 one of these acari is placed on the wool of a sound animal, 
 they quickly travel to its roots, where the place of burying 
 themselves is shown by a minute red point. About the six- 
 teenth day the pimple or pustule breaks, and if the acari is 
 
872 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 a female it appears with a multitude of young. These im- 
 mediately set to work on the skin, bury themselves and prop- 
 agate until the poor animal is irritated to death, or becomes 
 incrusted with scab. M. Walz satisfactorily traced the par- 
 asite through all its changes, and by experiment discovered 
 its mode of action, and method of infection. He found that 
 when the male acari was placed on a sheep it burrowed, the 
 pustule was formed, but the itching and scab soon disappear- 
 ed without the employment of any remedy. Such was not 
 the case where the female acari was placed on the sound 
 skin ; as with the breaking of the pustule from eight to fif- 
 teen little ones made their appearance. M. Walz found that 
 the young acari kept in a dry place, dried and crumbled to 
 dust ; but when old, that it would retain its life through the 
 whole winter ; thus proving the necessity of not relying on 
 the season for their destruction, but on preparations of active 
 medicine when the disease shows itself. Of the origin of 
 these insects, we of course can know nothing ; it is enough 
 that we are certain when they make their appearance they 
 can be met and destroyed." — {Cultivator.) 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Fig 1. The insects of their natural size on a dark ground. 
 Fig. 2. The female, of 366 times the natural size, larger than the male, of an 
 oval form, and provided with eight feet, four before and four behind. 
 
 a. The sucker. 
 
 b. b. b. b The four anterior feet, with their trumpet-like appendices. 
 
 c. c. The two interior hind-feet. 
 
 d. d. The two outward feet, the extremities of which are provided with some 
 long hairs, and on other parts of the legs are shorter hairs. To these hairs the 
 young ones adhere when they first appear from the pustule. 
 
 e. The tail, containing the anus and vulva, garnished by some short hairs. 
 Fig. 3. The male on his back, and seen by the same magnifying power. 
 
ERYSIPELAS. 373 
 
 Treatment. — Shear off the wool about the pustules, then 
 let the scab be removed with knife or comb : after which the 
 diseased parts must be washed with soap and water ; then 
 apply the following mixture : — One lb. of plug tobacco to four 
 gallons of water, which should be thoroughly boiled ; then 
 add the same quantity of lime-water with one pint of spirits 
 of turpentine. 
 
 Another recipe. A decoction of hellebore, mixed with 
 vinegar, sulphur, and spirits of turpentine. 
 
 The "Mountain Shepherd's Manual" recommends the 
 following : 
 
 Corrosive sublimate - - - 8 oz. 
 
 White hellebore in powder - 12 oz. 
 Whale, or other oil - - 6 gallons. 
 
 Rosin 2 lbs. 
 
 Tallow 2 lbs. 
 
 The sublimate is to be reduced to a fine powder, and 
 mixed with a portion of oil, and also the hellebore. The 
 rosin, tallow, and remainder of the oil are to be melted to- 
 gether, and the other ingredients then added and well mix- 
 ed. Should the ointment appear too thin, the proportion of 
 oil may be reduced, and that of the tallow increased." 
 
 Many years ago the first recipe was used in the writer's 
 flock, with entire success. The best recipe, however, is in 
 the shape of a preventive, namely, warm shelters for the 
 flock during winter, and wholesome and nutritious food the 
 year round. A poor sheep will always be the first to suffer 
 from this loathsome disease. 
 
 ERYSIPELAS. 
 
 The appearance of this disorder is that of a red inflamma- 
 tory thickening of the skin breaking out into a fine eruption 
 frequently watery, attended with fever and heat. It attacks 
 most generally those sheep which are in the best condition, 
 and has sometimes proved very fatal, it being a disease 
 which does not run long before it kills the animal. 
 
 Examination after death generally shows an inflammation 
 of the stomach, kidneys, intestines, or the neck of the blad- 
 der, which may be brought on by feeding on too succulent 
 food. 
 
 Treatment. — A change of diet is recommended, and cool- 
 ing purgative medicines administered freely. The follow- 
 
 33 
 
374 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 ing prescription has been used with success : — Epsom salts, 
 six ounces ; nitre, four ounces ; boiling water, three pints : 
 pour the water upon the salts, and when about blood warm, 
 add four ounces of spirits of turpentine — give from three to 
 four table-spoonfuls at a dose, once or twice per day, accord- 
 ing to the severity of the disease.* 
 
 JOHNSWORT SCAB, OR ITCH. 
 
 That, pestiferous weed, called Johnswort, if growing abun- 
 dantly where sheep are pastured, will cause an irritation of the 
 skin, often over the whole body and legs of the sheep ; but 
 generally it is confined to the neighborhood of the mouth. 
 If eaten in too large quantities, it produces violent inflamma- 
 tion of the bowels, and is frequently fatal to lambs, and 
 sometimes to adults. Its effects when inflammation is pro- 
 duced internally are very singular. The writer has wit- 
 nessed the most fantastic capers of sheep in this situation, 
 and once a lamb, while running, described a circle with all 
 the precision of a circus horse : this was continued until it 
 fell from exhaustion. 
 
 Treatment. — Anoint the irritated parts with hog's lard 
 and sulphur. If there are symptoms of inflammation of the 
 stomach, administer tar — putting it into the mouth of the 
 sheep with a flattened stick. Simply hog's lard is used fre- 
 quently with success. Remove the flock to pasture free 
 from the weed, and salt freely. It is said that salt, if given 
 often to sheep, is an effectual guard against the poisonous 
 properties of the weed. 
 
 PELT-ROT. 
 
 This is a disease of the skin, as the name implies. It 
 causes a premature falling off" of the fleece in the spring of 
 the year. 
 
 It is produced by exposure during the winter, and low 
 condition — the latter principally. 
 
 Preventive. — Good shelters and good keep. Let the wool 
 fluids be kept healthy and abundant, and there will be no 
 danger of any attack from this disease. 
 
 SORE MOUTH. 
 
 This is supposed by some to be caused by sheep eating, 
 in the winter season, noxious weeds, for it is that period of 
 
 * Northern Shepherd. 
 
MAGGOTS. 375 
 
 the year generally that they are most subject to it. A cor- 
 respondent of the Cultivator thus speaks concerning it : " It 
 generally commenced in one corner of the mouth and spread 
 over both lips, and the lips swelled to the thickness of a 
 man's hand. My flock consisted of about 300, and in the 
 space of three weeks, about forty died of the distemper, and 
 not one had recovered. By this time at least one half of the 
 remainder of the flock were attacked. It occurred to me 
 that tar would be as likely as anything to give relief. I ac- 
 cordingly had my sheep all brought together ; and filled their 
 mouths, and daubed on to their lips all that could be made 
 to stick ; and, to my surprise, it effected an immediate cure. 
 I lost but two or three after this, and these were nearly dead 
 when I made the application. In a few days, every sheep 
 was well." 
 
 The writer, a few years since, had a few of his sheep 
 affected in a similar way, and inasmuch as it was confined 
 to but one flock, he attributed it to irritating weeds cut with 
 the hay. The application of tar to their mouths was made, 
 as described above, which effected an immediate cure. 
 Hog's lard and sulphur will also cure the disorder. 
 
 MAGGOTS. 
 
 Sheep in the spring are subject to scours or diarrhoea, 
 which causes an accumulation of filth about the tail and at- 
 tracts the maggot-fly ; and again — rams by fighting will often 
 lacerate the skin around the forehead, which will also invite 
 the approach of the fly. If maggots are at work about the 
 tail, the sheep will be seen biting it, and rubbing against 
 fences and whatnot ; and the ram to shake his head almost 
 constantly, and also rubbing against every object that pre- 
 sents itself. 
 
 Treatment. — Dislodge the worms with a knife, and apply 
 spirits of turpentine. If they have penetrated far into the 
 skin, hold the sheep in such a position as to retain the liquid 
 for a minute or more in the affected part. By so doing the 
 maggot will crawl out and perish instantly. Sheep cannot 
 be too closely watched before they are shorn, otherwise 
 some will be destroyed from the above cause. 
 
 Sheep Louse [Hippobosca ovina) and the Tick [Acarus 
 reduvius) are destroyed by tobacco decoction. For particu- 
 lars, see " Summer Management of Sheep." 
 
376 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE HOOF. 
 
 FOOT-ROT. 
 
 This common scourge of the sheep, through all parts of 
 the United States, requires an extended notice of the causes, 
 and the most approved treatment. The compiler has had 
 no personal observation of this loathsome malady, other 
 than from seeing it in flocks away from his home, not a 
 sheep of his own ever having been attacked with it. For 
 this reason, he is compelled to rely on the scientific accounts 
 of Mr. Youatt, and of Professor Dick of Edinburgh, as to 
 the causes, and to intelligent sheep-breeders of our own 
 country, for its treatment. 
 
 Mr. Youatt proceeds to say, — " Foot-rot is a disease at 
 first, and usually throughout its whole course, confined to the 
 foot. The first indication of foot-rot is a certain degree of 
 lameness in the animal. If he is caught and examined, the 
 foot will be found hot and tender, the horn softer than usual, 
 and there will be enlargement about the coronet, and slight 
 separation of the hoof from it, with portions of the horn 
 torn away, and ulcers formed below, and a discharge of thin 
 fetid matter. The ulcers, if neglected, continue to increase ; 
 they throw out fungous granulations, they separate the hoof 
 more and more from the parts beneath, until at length it 
 drops off. All this is the consequence of soft and marshy 
 pasture. The mountain or the Down sheep — the sheep in 
 whose walk there is no poachy ground, if he is not actually 
 exposed to infection by means of the virus, knows nothing 
 at all about it ; it is in the yielding soil of the low country 
 that all the mischief is done." 
 
 The following is from the pen of Professor Dick : — 
 
 " The foot presents a structure and arrangement of parts 
 well adapted to the natural habits of the animal. It is di- 
 vided into two digits or toes, which are shod with a hoof 
 composed of different parts, similar in many respects to the 
 hoof of the horse. Each hoof is principally composed of 
 the crust, or wall, and the sole. The crust, extending along 
 the outside of the foot, round the toe, and turning inwards, 
 is contiimed about half way back between each toe on the 
 inside. The sole fills the space on the inferior surface of 
 the hoof between these parts of the crust, and being contin- 
 ued backwards becomes softer as it proceeds, assuming 
 
FOOT-ROT. 377 
 
 somewhat the structure of the substance of the frog in the 
 foot of the horse, and performing, at the same time, analo- 
 gous functions. The whole hoof, too, is secreted from the 
 vascular tissue underneath. 
 
 " Now this diversity of structure is for particular purposes. 
 The crust, like that in the hoof of the horse, being harder 
 and tougher than the sole, keeps up a sharp edge on the 
 outer margin, and is mainly intended to resist the wear-and- 
 tear to which the foot of the animal is exposed. The soft 
 pasturage on which the sheep is occasionally put presents 
 little, if any, of that rough friction to which the feet of the 
 animal is naturally intended to be exposed. The crust, 
 therefore, grows unrestrained until it either laps over the 
 sole, like the loose sole of an old shoe, and serves to retain 
 and accumulate the earth and filth, or is broken off in de- 
 tached parts ; in some cases exposing the quick, or opening 
 new pores, into which particles of earth or sand force their 
 way, until, reaching the quick, an inflammation is set up, 
 which, in its progress, alters or destroys the whole foot. 
 
 " The finest and richest old pastures and lawns are particu- 
 larly liable to this disease, and so are soft, marshy, and lux- 
 uriant meadows. It exists to a greater or less extent in 
 every situation that has a tendency to increase the growth 
 of the hoofs without wearing them away. 
 
 " Sheep that are brought from an upland range of pasture 
 are more particularly subject to it. This is very easily ac- 
 counted for. By means of the exercise which the animal 
 was compelled to take on account of the scantier production 
 of the upland pasture, and also in consequence of the greater 
 hardness of the ground, the hoof was worn down as fast as 
 it grew ; but on its new and moist habitation, the hoofs not 
 only continued to grow, but the rapidity of that growth was 
 much increased, while the salutary friction which kept the 
 extension of the foot within bounds was altogether removed. 
 When the nails of the fingers or toes of the human being 
 exceed their proper length, they give him so much uneasi- 
 ness as to induce him to pare them, or if he neglects this 
 operation they break. He can pare them after they have 
 been broken, and the inconvenience soon ceases, and the 
 wound heals. When, however, the hoof of the sheep ex- 
 ceeds its natural length and thickness, that animal has no 
 power to pare them down, but there long continues a wound, 
 irritated and induced to spread, by the exposure of its sur- 
 32* 
 
378 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 face, and the introduction of foreign and annoying matters 
 into it. 
 
 " The different parts of the hoof, likewise, deprived of their 
 natural wear, grow out of their proper proportions. The 
 crust, especially, grows too long ; and the overgrown parts 
 either break off in irregular rents, or by overshooting the 
 sole allow particles of sand and dirt to enter into the pores 
 of the hoof. These particles soon reach the quick, and set 
 up the inflammation already described, and followed by all 
 its destructive effects. * # * 
 
 " The ulceration of foot-rot will not long exist without the 
 additional annoyance of the fly. Maggots will multiply on 
 every part of the surface and burrow in all directions. To 
 this, as may be readily supposed, will be added a great deal 
 of constitutional disturbance. A degree of inflammatory 
 fever is produced. The animal for a while shifts about on 
 its knees ; but at length the powers of nature fail, and it dies 
 from irritation and want." 
 
 Treatment. — The following is Mr. Youatt's mode of cu- 
 ring the disease ; and it will be well to remember that this 
 gentleman is highly distinguished in England for his emi- 
 nent skill and knowledge as a veterinary surgeon. 
 
 " The foot must be carefully examined, and every portion 
 of loose and detached horn pared off, even though the greater 
 part, or almost the whole of the hoof, may be taken away. 
 The horn once separated from the parts beneath will never 
 again unite with them, but become a foreign body, and a 
 source of pain, inflammation, and fungous sproutings. This, 
 then, is the first and fundamental thing — every portion of 
 horn that is in the slightest degree separated from the parts 
 beneath must be cut away. A small, sharp, curved-pointed 
 knife, or a small drawing knife, will be the best instrument 
 to effect this. 
 
 " If there are any fungous granulations they must be cut 
 down with the knife or a pair of sharp curved scissors, un- 
 less they are exceedingly minute, and then the caustic 
 about to be mentioned will destroy them. The whole hoof 
 must be thoroughly cleaned, although it may occupy no liltle 
 time, and inflict considerable pain on the animal. The after 
 expenditure of time, and the suffering of the patient, will be 
 materially diminished by this decisive measure. 
 
 " The foot should then be washed with a solution of chlo- 
 ride of lime, in the proportion of one pound of the powder to 
 
POOT-EOT. 379 
 
 a gallon of water. This will remove the fetor, and tendency 
 to sloughing and mortification, which are the too frequent 
 attendants on foot-rot. The muriate or butyr of antimony 
 must then be resorted to, and by means of a swab, applied 
 to every denuded part ; lightly where the surface has a 
 healthy appearance, and more severely where fungous gran- 
 ulations have been cut off, or there are small granulations 
 springing up. There is no application comparable to this. 
 It is effectual as a superficial caustic ; and it so readily com- 
 bines with the fluids belonging to the parts to which it is 
 applied, that it quickly becomes diluted, and comparatively 
 powerless, and is incapable of producing any deep or cor- 
 roding mischief. The change of color in the part will ac- 
 curately show to what portions it has been applied, and what 
 effect has been produced. 
 
 " If the foot has been in a manner stripped of its horn, and 
 especially, if a considerable portion of the sole has been 
 removed, it may be expedient to wrap a little clean tow round 
 the foot, and to bind it tightly down with tape, the sheep be- 
 ing removed to a straw yard, or some enclosed place, or to 
 a dryer pasture. This last provision is absolutely necessary 
 when the sheep is again turned out ; for if the foot is ex- 
 posed to the original cause of disease, the evil will return 
 under an aggravated form. 
 
 " The foot should be dressed every day ; each new separa- 
 tion of horn removed ; and every portion of fungous submit- 
 ted to the action of the caustic, with a degree of severity 
 proportioned to the necessity of the case. The new horn 
 should likewise be examined. If it appears to be healthy 
 and tolerably firm, nothing should be done to it ; but if it is 
 soft and spongy, the caustic must be lightly applied. The 
 sooner the bandage can be removed, and the sheep turned into 
 some upland or thoroughly dry pasture, the better it will be 
 for the foot, and the health of the animal generally. 
 
 " The sheep that has been attacked by foot-rot should not 
 be suffered to rejoin his companions while there is the slight- 
 est discharge from any part of the hoof, inasmuch as the dis- 
 ease is highly infectious." 
 
 The following recipes for foot-rot have been used success- 
 fully by American sheep-breeders : 
 
 By Major Grant, of Walpole, N. H. : — 4 oz. blue vitriol, 
 2 oz. verdigris to a junk bottle of urine. The same has been 
 adopted by others with success. 
 
380 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 Another : — Spirits turpentine, tar, and verdigris, in equal 
 parts. 
 
 Another, by Leonard D. Clift, Esq., of Carmel, Putnam Co-, 
 N. Y. : — 3 quarts of alcohol, 1 pint spirits of turpentine, 1 
 pint strong vinegar, 1 lb. blue vitriol, 1 lb. copperas, Ij lbs. 
 verdigris, 1 lb. alum, 1 lb. saltpetre, pounded fine : mix in 
 close bottle, shake every day, and let it stand six or eight 
 days before using : also mix 2 lbs. honey and two quarts 
 of tar, which must be applied after the previous compound. 
 Two applications will entirely remove the disease. A cor- 
 respondent of the Cultivator says, that he used the above 
 with perfect success, while almost every other recipe that 
 he ever heard of, failed. 
 
 There are an abundance of other mixtures or com- 
 pounds which are asserted to be " infallible cures ;" but the 
 question naturally arises. Is not the prevention better than all ? 
 and if so, what is it ? A friend of the writer, after having 
 become acquainted with the true cause of the malady, made 
 known by Professor Dick, and which has been fully present- 
 ed to the reader, immediately after his sheep are tagged, 
 which is done in April, he pares the horn or crust of the hoof 
 down to a level with the sole, and then applies a mixture of 
 tar — say four quarts, half a pint of spirits of turpentine, and 
 the same quantity of oil of vitriol, using it almost boiling hot. 
 The two latter ingredients are not mixed with the tar all at 
 once, but a little poured in at a time, inasmuch as they are, 
 in a heated state, very evanescent. A small brush is used, 
 and not only the bottom of the hoofs, but the sides and clefts 
 are thoroughly coated. If the season is a wet one, he goes 
 through the same process late in the fall — but not otherwise. 
 By this precaution, although in the district of his residence 
 foot-rot is common, his sheep know nothing of the disease. 
 This is at least worthy of a trial by all. 
 
 One remark more. Foot-rot is contagious beyond all 
 question : and hence necessary care is requisite not to put 
 sound sheep on grounds where infected ones have run ; no, 
 not during the spring, summer, or fall — not until the frosts of 
 winter have utterly destroyed the poison virus which has 
 been left by diseased flocks. The following instance will 
 show this precaution to be indispensably necessary : A farmer 
 of the writer's acquaintance having been sorely plagued with 
 foot-rot in his flock, frequently renewing itself after repeated 
 cures, resolved to slaughter the whole, which was according- 
 
FOULS. 381 
 
 ly done. Several months afterwards he possessed himself 
 of another flock, which were known never to have been in- 
 fected, nor was the disease known in the vicinity where their 
 purchase was made ; and lo ! in less than a month after they 
 were brought to their new home, the sheep became diseased 
 like their ill-fated predecessors. Every farmer should de- 
 duce a lesson from this not uncommon instance. 
 
 Blacklock says — " Another variety of foot-rot is produced 
 by the friction of long grass between the hoofs. The rubbing 
 of the grass frets the skin in the cleft of the hoof, the gland in 
 that situatlion swells, becomes enlarged, and suppurates. This 
 complaint is, however, more readily remedied than the other, 
 and does not cause nearly so much suffering to the sheep. 
 An application of tar, warmed to a liquid, and a small quan- 
 tity of spirits of turpentine, will heal the irritation." It is 
 not contagious. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 SURGICAL OBSERVATIONS.* 
 
 WOUNDS— TO STOP BLEEDING— REMOVAL OF EXTRANEOUS MATTER 
 —CLOSURE OF A WOUND— BANDAGING— CLEAN CUTS— PUNCTURED 
 WOUNDS— BRUISES AND SPRAINS— WOUNDS OF JOINTS — FRAC- 
 TURES— BLOOD-LETTING. 
 
 All the wounds which can be inflicted may be classed un- 
 der the heads of incised^ punctured, and lacerated. 
 
 An incised wound is one made by a cutting instrument, 
 such as a knife or piece of glass. 
 
 Punctured wounds are those produced by sharp-pointed 
 bodies, such as pins or thorns. 
 
 Lacerated wounds are those occasioned by blunt bodies, 
 as the teeth of a dog, tearing rather than cutting the flesh. 
 
 1st. Arrest the bleeding, if profuse, and likely to endan- 
 ger life. 
 
 2d. Clip away the wool for a few inches around the in- 
 jured part. 
 
 3d. Remove dirt or other foreign body from the wound. 
 
 TO STOP BLEEDING. 
 
 Bleeding will, if no large arteries are divided, cease on 
 the free exposure of the surface for a few minutes to the air; 
 but when a large vessel has been cut, more determined 
 means must be had recourse to. Pressure on the bleeding 
 surface and its neighborhood will in many cases succeed, 
 but this or any other similar method is far inferior to that of 
 securing the open vessel by a thread. To accomplish this, 
 
 * By Blacklock. 
 
CLOSURE OF A WOUND. 383 
 
 the mouth of the vein or artery must be slightly drawn out 
 from the contiguous surface, by means of a small hook, call- 
 ed by surgeons a tenaculum, and easily procured from any 
 blacksmith. While the mouth of the vessel is thus held ex- 
 posed, an assistant must surround it with a noose of thread, 
 which, on being secured with a double knot, will effectually 
 close it. The thread ought to be of white silk, though any 
 undyed thread, which is firm, round, and capable of standing 
 a pull, will answer the purpose. Care must be taken to 
 place the thread, before tying it, fairly behind the point of 
 the tenaculum, so as to avoid including the instrument with- 
 in the ligature — a circumstance which would lead to the 
 slipping of the noose and failure of the operation. The 
 hook is now to be withdrawn, and one end of the ligature cut 
 off by scissors a short distance from the noose. The re- 
 maining threads are allowed to hang out of the wound, so as 
 to admit of their removal when they become loose, which 
 does not, however, take place till the termination of the first 
 four days, and they are frequently retained for a longer pe- 
 riod. At each time the wound is dressed, after the fourth 
 day, the ligatures should be gently pulled, or, which is pref- 
 erable, twisted, to disengage them, if at all loose, so that the 
 wound may be more speedily closed. Before proceeding to 
 any operation where bleeding is expected, the operator should 
 provide himself with a few well-waxed threads, each twelve 
 inches long, so that no delay may ensue on a division of 
 large vessels. 
 
 REMOVAL OF EXTRANEOUS MATTER. 
 
 Dirt is best removed by washing with a sponge or old 
 linen rag and warm water. Other foreign bodies may in 
 general be extracted by the finger and thumb. In some 
 cases, however, it may be necessary to enlarge the wound 
 with a fine-edged knife, in order to facilitate the removal of 
 substances which, from their shape or situation, cannot be 
 otherwise displaced. 
 
 CLOSURE OF A WOUND. 
 
 The last thing to be done is to bring the edges of the 
 wound into as accurate contact as the state of the parts will 
 at the moment permit, without, however, using any force. 
 This, with a little care, is readily accomplished, the only 
 
384 SURGICAL OPERATIONS. 
 
 difficulty being to retain them in the desired position. They 
 may be held in contact either by stitches, plasters, or ban- 
 dages, or by a union of the three. Stitches are only re- 
 quired when the wound gapes to a considerable degree, as it 
 will always do when running across a muscle. They may 
 be applied in the following manner. Transfix one side of 
 the wound with a curved needle with a well-waxed thread, 
 forcing the needle from without obliquely towards the bot- 
 tom of the wound, then carry it through the opposite side 
 from within, taking care to bring it out about the same dis- 
 tance from the edge as that at which it entered on the other 
 margin. The needle must now be removed, by cutting the 
 threads close to its eye, and while the ends are allowed to 
 hang loose. Your assistant will now bring the sides of the 
 wound together as accurately as possible, and retain them 
 there till you have tied the corresponding ends of the threads 
 in a double knot. 
 
 BANDAGING. 
 
 Adhesive plaster is in some instances of service, but upon 
 the whole ought rather to be dispensed with, being of diffi- 
 cult application, and moreover tending to the accumulation 
 of filth and the discomfort of the animal. Nothing will be 
 found to serve the purpose of supporting the parts so well as 
 a properly adjusted bandage, which is useful in every in- 
 stance, and sure to stay on if sewed here and there to the 
 fleece. The bandage should never be omitted where the 
 wound has any tendency to gape, as too great a strain upon 
 the stitches cannot but lead to delay in the healing process. 
 In bandaging a limb or part of a limb, commence always at 
 the foot, and proceed upwards ; in other parts of the body, 
 begin where you find it most convenient. Before applying 
 a bandage to a wounded surface, a couple of pieces of old 
 linen or cotton rag should be folded into pads or compresses, 
 and laid one on each side of the cut, and over these the ban- 
 dage should be rolled, evenly and with moderate and uniform 
 firmness. By this plan the separated surfaces are support- 
 ed and preserved in close juxtaposition, especially at the 
 bottom of the wound, a thing of some importance where the 
 cavity is deep. Transverse cuts of the limbs of sheep re- 
 quire more careful and more complicated treatment than cuts 
 in other parts, as there is a constant tendency of the edges 
 to retract. This retraction of the edges may be in some de- 
 
CLEAN CUTS PUNCTURED WOUNDS. 885 
 
 gree obviated by the application of a splint, which may be 
 made of a slip of stiff leather well wetted, so as to be easily 
 adapted to the form of the limb. It is intended to impede 
 the motion of the leg, which occasions the gaping of the 
 wound, and must therefore be made to pass over one or more 
 joints as circumstances may require. A bandage must be 
 placed over to make everything secure. 
 
 CLEAN CUTS. 
 
 Clean cuts, as every one knows, heal readily in a healthy 
 animal, seldom demanding above three dressings ; lacera- 
 tions, on the other hand, require a longer period for their 
 reparation, inasmuch as the process which nature goes 
 through is more complicated. In the former, the parts are 
 speedily glued together, so soon almost as in contact, and 
 the union is generally complete within the first thirty-six 
 hours. Not so, however, with the latter. Here the parts 
 are bruised, torn, and perhaps to a considerable extent want- 
 ing. Some of the bruised portions may die, and are of 
 course to be renewed. This is a process requiring a great 
 effort on the part of the vital powers, which are often inade- 
 quate to the task, and on this account we ought, when the 
 injury is severe, to sacrifice the animal rather than run the 
 risk of its dying during the process of the attempted cure. 
 To replace the lost part, suppuration or the formation of 
 matter commences ; while under cover of this, a crop of 
 fleshy particles (granulations) rise to fill the vacancy. 
 Granulations are best promoted by warm emollient applica- 
 tions, such as poultices of oatmeal, linseed meal, or barley 
 flour, which ought to be frequently renewed to prevent their 
 becoming cold or dry. When the granulations become too 
 luxuriant, and rise, as they are apt to do, above the level of 
 the skin, the poultices must be laid aside, the sore washed 
 once or twice a day with a solution of sulphate of copper, 
 (made by dissolving two or three drachms of blue vitriol ia 
 a pint of soft water), and covered carefully over with a little 
 fine tow, spread with lard, or any simple ointment, by which 
 means, conjoined with cleanliness, a cure will easily be ac- 
 complished. 
 
 PUNCTURED WOUNDS. 
 
 The orifice being small in these, and the depth consider- 
 able, the sides are apt to adhere irregularly, and prevent \hA 
 
 83 
 
386 SURGICAL OrEEATIONS. 
 
 free escape of matter, which is certain to collect at the bot- 
 tom. To avoid such occurrences, it is in many cases proper 
 to convert a punctured into an incised wound. When, from 
 neglecting this, the matter is denied an outlet, an incision 
 must be made to allow it to escape, otherwise much harm 
 will ensue from its burrowing between the different textures. 
 Fomentations will also here be serviceable, and should be 
 preferred to poultices. To apply them, place well-boiled 
 hay, when very hot and moist, within a fold of old blanket 
 or woollen cloth, and lay it on the injured parts, taking care 
 to renew the heat frequently, by dipping the bundle in the 
 hot decoction. 
 
 BRUISES AND SPRAINS. 
 
 These, unless severe, need not be interfered with. When 
 the shepherd, however, considers it necessary to make an 
 application, he cannot do better than foment the part for an 
 hour or so with meadow hay, in the same manner as recom- 
 mended for punctured wounds. 
 
 WOUNDS OF JOINTS. 
 
 Such wounds are highly dangerous, and apt to baffle the 
 most experienced. If the injury be extensive, the best 
 thing the farmer can do is to slaughter the animal. 
 
 FRACTURES. 
 
 If there be no wound of the soft parts, the bone being 
 simply broken, the treatment is extremely easy. Apply a 
 piece of wet leather, taking care to ease the limb when 
 swelling supervenes. When the swelling is considerable, 
 and fever present, you can do no better than open a vein of 
 the head or neck, allowing a quantity of blood to escape, 
 proportioned to the size and condition of the animal and the 
 urgency of the symptoms. Purgatives in such cases should 
 never be neglected. Epsom salts in ounce doses, given 
 either as a gruel or a drench, will be found to answer the 
 purpose well. If the broken bones are kept steady, the cure 
 will be complete in from three to four weeks, the process of 
 reunion always proceeding faster in a young than in an old 
 sheep. Should the soft parts be injured to any extent, or 
 the ends of the bone protruding, recovery is very uncertain, 
 and it will become a question whether it would not be better 
 at once to convert the animal into mutton. 
 
BLOOD-LETTING. 387 
 
 BLOOD-LETTING. 
 
 In describing this operation, too much stress is always 
 laid on the importance of opening particular veins, or divis- 
 ions of a vein, in certain diseases. Such directions are al- 
 together unnecessary, as it matters not from what part of 
 the animal the blood be dravi^n, provided it be taken quickly. 
 Nothing tends so much to the recovery of an animal from a 
 disease in which bleeding is required, as the rapid flow of 
 the blood from a large orifice. Little impression can be 
 made on an acute disease by the slow removal of even a 
 large quantity of blood, as the organs have time to accom- 
 modate themselves to the loss, which might, for any good it 
 will do, as well be dispensed with. Either bleed rapidly, or 
 bleed not at all. The nearer the commencement of an ail- 
 ment, in which you employ bleeding, the operation is resorted 
 to, the greater the chance of doing good ; no time ought, 
 therefore, to be lost in using the lancet, when once it is 
 known to be required. Bleeding and nicking the under sur- 
 face of the tail, does very well where no great deal of blood 
 is required, but it is not to be thought of if the veins of the 
 face or neck can possibly be opened. These are to be 
 taken in preference to a vein on the leg, as they are much 
 more readily got at. The facial vein commences by small 
 branches on the side of the face, and runs downwards and 
 backwards to the base of the jaw, where it may be felt 
 within two inches of the angle, or opposite the middle 
 grinding tooth. It is here that the orifice must be made ; 
 the thumb of the left hand being held against the vein, so 
 as to prevent the flow of blood towards the heart, will make 
 it rise. Some prefer opening the jugular vein, which com- 
 mences behind the eye and runs down the side of the neck. 
 This vessel is, however, more difficult to open than the 
 former, being more covered with wool, and not so easily ex- 
 posed or made to swell. To effect this, a cord is drawn 
 tightly round the neck, close to the shoulder, so as to slop 
 the circulation through the vein, and render it perceptible 
 to the finger. A lancet is the instrument generally used in 
 bleeding, though a sharp-pointed penknife will do at a pinch. 
 The opening must always be made obliquely ; but before 
 attempting this the animal must be secured, by placing it 
 between the operator's legs, with its croup against a wall. 
 The selected vein is then fixed by the fingerss of the opera- 
 
388 SURGICAL OPERATIONS. 
 
 tor's left hand, so as to prevent it rolling or slipping before 
 the lancet. Having fairly entered the vein, the point of the 
 instrument must be elevated, at the same time that it is 
 pushed a little forward, by which motion it will be lifted 
 from, or cut its way out of the vein. A prescribed quan- 
 tity of blood should never be drawn, for the simple reason, 
 that this can never be precisely stated. If the symptoms 
 are urgent, as in all likelihood they will, your best plan is 
 not to stop the flow of blood till the animal fall or is about 
 to fall. When this occurs, run a pin through the edges of 
 the orifice, and finish by twisting round it a lock of wool. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 LETTERS FROM DISTINGUISHED WOOL-GROWERS 
 ON THE MANAGEMENT OF THEIR FLOCKS. 
 
 LETTER FROM HON. WM. JARVIS; WEATHERSFIELD, VERMONT. 
 
 Dear Sir, — I received your favor of the 28th ultimo, making 
 inquiries respecting Merino Sheep, and putting several questions 
 to me regarding those invaluable animals, which I cheerfully an- 
 SATcr ; and the more so, because at some future period, when the 
 wool-growing business may be a primary object of agriculture 
 with the fanners of the Northern and Western States, much con- 
 fusion may arise from the conflicting pretensions and accounts of 
 many persons who are more disposed to puft" up their flocks, than 
 to give the public correct information. 
 
 [Mr. Jarvis here alludes to the importation of Chancellor Liv- 
 ingston.] 
 
 The next importation was by Genl. Humphreys when he was 
 about leaving the Court of Spain, in 1801, to give place to the 
 Hon. Charles Pinckney, of South Carolina. It has been stated 
 by some late writer, that Genl. Humphreys married a Spanish 
 lady and obtained a part of his flock by means of her father. 
 This is not correct. Genl. Humphreys married the second daiigh- 
 ter of John Buckley, a wealthy British merchant of Lisbon, when 
 he was Charge at the Court of Portugal, and took her with him 
 to Madrid on his appointment, in 1797, Minister at that Court. 
 The story of his obtaining these sheep is this. It was a custom 
 of the Spanish Court, when a Foreign Minister was recalled, on 
 taking leave to make him a present of five to ten bars of gold ; 
 each bar, if I recollect right, was of one pound weight ; but as 
 the law of this country forbids any Minister taking any present 
 from a foreign court, Mr. Hum])hreys declined it, but suggested 
 to the Minister that he should be much gratified with a royal li- 
 cense to take out of the kingdom two hundred Merino sheep. 
 This the Minister stated could not be granted, but intimated that 
 if he wished to take them out no obstruction should be thrown in 
 his way. These were purchased in Lower Leon, or Upper Es- 
 tremdura, and driven down the valley of the Mondego to Figueira, 
 where they were embarked for the United States. I never could 
 
 33* 
 
390 APPENDIX. 
 
 leam out of what flock these sheep were obtained, bnt they un- 
 questionably were pure blood Transhumantes, which is the only 
 fact of importance worth knowing. Still, I thought it worth while 
 to go into the above detail, as some late writer has undertaken to 
 give an account of Genl. Humphreys' marriage and the manner of 
 obtaining some of these sheep, very diflerent from the above.* 
 In 1831 and 1832, I made inquiries of some Connecticut gentle- 
 men about Genl. Humphreys' flock, and they told me that, at his 
 death, they had been sold in small parcels, and distributed about. 
 Many now make a parade of having Paular sheep, and those who 
 have the bump of credulity largely developed on the cranium, 
 may believe it, but I am persuaded that no one in the United 
 States can trace back any Merinos they may have had for the 
 last twenty years to that cabanna or flock. As I have mentioned 
 elsewhere, I bred my Paulars, AigueiTas, Negrettis, Escmials, 
 and Montarcos separately, that is, each kind by itself, from 1811 
 to 1816, but in that year I began by mixing all together, and have 
 ever since bred so without discrimination. Although at that early 
 day I had a very extensive intercourse with our breeders, I did 
 not know of another breeder who purchased Merinos of the differ- 
 ent flocks imported, that ever took any pains to separate the dif- 
 ferent kinds. So far from it, there was a general opinion perva- 
 ding the country that crossing the different kinds would inqjrove 
 the wool. Doubtless the reason why we have latterly heard so 
 much puffiing about Paulars is owing to its having been under- 
 stood that the Paulars carried rather the heaviest fleeces. 
 
 From 1811 to 1826, when I began to cross with the Saxonies, 
 my average weight of wool was 3 lbs. 14 oz. to 4 lbs. 2 oz., varj'- 
 ing according to the keep. The weight of the bucks was fi-om 6i 
 lbs. to 6^ lbs. in good stock case, all washed on the sheeps' backs. 
 My flock now consists of 160 pure blood Merino ewes, bixcks, and 
 lambs, 100 pure blood Saxonies, and about 750 crossed between 
 pure blood Merinos and pure blood Saxonies. My flock has al- 
 ways been composed of the descendants of the Merinos I exported 
 in 1809 and '10, and the Saxonies imported in 1826, and the crosses 
 between the two, never having bred from any other kind. The 
 present average weight of my flock as above is about 3 lbs. 4 oz. 
 per head, but the pure blood Merino part of it ■will not vary ma- 
 terially from the original weight. 
 
 In reply to your question, whether I consider the Escurial, 
 Montarco, Negretti, Paular, or Gaudaloupe most profitable to the 
 American wool-grower, I reply, that as none of these varieties 
 are now distinct in our country, we cannot have a choice ; but 
 when I had a control of the five flocks, namely, the Paular, the 
 
 * The author of this treatise is personally acquainted with the wonl-srower who 
 put forth the statement Mr. Jarvis alludes to, and he has not a doubt but that it 
 was innocently done. It should serve as a caution, however, to others, to beware 
 of going before the public with statements of which they have not proper testi- 
 mony to sustain. The public is indebted to Mr. Jarvis for the exposure of several 
 errors relative to Merinos. 
 
APPENDIX. 391 
 
 Aiguen-as, the Escurial, the Negretti and Montarco, I thought 
 there was so httle diflereiice that I conchided to mix them all to- 
 gether. It is true the Paular was rather the handsomest and car- 
 ried the heaviest fleece, and the Escurial was a shade the finest ; 
 but the wool of all was soft and silky to the touch, and all pos- 
 sessed the feltmg or fulling properties so essential for superfine 
 broadcloths. 
 
 I take up my sheep from the 15th to the 2oth of November, 
 according to the weather, and put them in separate yards of a 
 hundred to two hundred in a yard, having a troixgh supplied by 
 rumiing water from an aqueduct in each yard. I give about a 
 pound and a quarter of hay in the morning, and the same quantity 
 in the afternoon to each sheep, fed in racks. If my hay runs 
 short, and I have a plenty of grain, I lessen my hay and give a 
 gill of com or a half pint of oats per head, at noon. By feeding 
 in racks in yards, as we have no ti'ouble in driving our sheep to 
 water, one man will feed a thousand sheep, and take care of four 
 to six horses in a stable besides. To every yard there is attached 
 a shed for the sheep to run under whenever they will, and when 
 the shed gets foul it is lightly strawed over. A part of a sill is 
 slightly boxed up and salt kept in it. Potatoes contain much mu- 
 cilage or starch, and are a good article of food. The sugar beet or 
 mangel wurtzel possesses much saccharine matter, and is likewise 
 nutritious. When hay is scarce, about half may be saved by 
 giving an equal weight of either sliced up in a cutting machine. 
 Rutabaga is also good food, but I think it does not contain more 
 than half the nutriment of either of the foregoing. 
 
 My usual yeaning season has been about the first of May, but 
 I have sometimes purposely had the lambs come ten days later, 
 sometimes ten days sooner, and the success of either has much 
 depended on the state of the weather. In a lot near to my house 
 where a man has looked after them three or four times a day, and 
 in rainy and stonny weather they have been put under cover at 
 night, i have raised nine lambs from ten ewes ; but when turned 
 to pasture without any special care, we generally do not raise 
 more than a lamb to two ewes. But I am satisfied it would 
 amply pay breeders if their pastiires were within convenient dis- 
 tances to erect slight shanties in them, and in stonny weather to 
 put their ewes in during the yeaning season. My rule has been 
 to put a buck to twenty-five to thirty-five ewes, according to his 
 strength: the Spanish rule was one to twenty-five. 
 
 Sheep prefer high dry grounds for pasture, but any dry lands 
 will answer well. They are not so healthy when fed on cold, 
 wet, or swampy land, and the foot-rot is undoubtedly occasioned 
 by swampy grounds. As sheep are somewhat nice in the choice 
 of their food, if put in pastures where they can select a sufficiency, 
 I am not aware that the coarse or finer grasses would be likely to 
 have much influence on the quality of their wool. There was a 
 general opuaion prevalent amongst the shepherds of Spain, that to 
 
:893 APPENDIX. 
 
 retain the soft, flexible, and felting properties of the wool, the 
 Merinos must be pastured the year round. But the experience of 
 the Saxons, and of all those countries where the jNIerinos have 
 been bred, has proved this opinion to be erroneous. If one was 
 to reason from analogy, we should ccniclude that the wool grovm 
 in a cold climate would be softer than that raised in a warm one, 
 as it is a well known fact that the beaver and all other furred 
 animals, found in high northern latitudes, have longer, softer, and 
 thicker fur than the same species have in southeni latitudes, 
 Spam, however, has a mild climate, the thermometer being sel- 
 dom or never lower than forty degrees in the plains of E<trema- 
 dura or Leon during the winter, but the excessive heat of those 
 plains in the summer is avoided by pasturing the sheep in the 
 mountainous region. I think this breed of sh^ ep would thrive in 
 the Alleghany range as far south as Georgia, and everywhere 
 north of forty degrees of latitude. But I am incln^d to beheve, 
 from what little 1 know of our Western Prairies, that the Leicester 
 or some other of the large, strong, long-wooled breeds of sheep 
 would do better on the tall, coarse grasses common to them. 
 
 As comiected with sheep management, it will not be improper 
 to point out the remedies for some of ihe mo.-t ccmmo.i diseases. 
 Foot-rot was totally unknown among the Spanish Merinos. It 
 was brought mto this countiy in 1826 with the sheep imported 
 from Saxony. The best remedy f )r this disease is Roman or 
 blue vitriol, pulverized very tine, three parts, and one part of 
 white lead mixed into a thin paste with linseed oil. Slightly cut 
 the bona of the hoof to come at the part affected, and if put on 
 in season one or two dressings will almost invariably cure them. 
 The foul substances ought to be cleaned out v/ith a knife or thin 
 stick from between the hoof before it is put on. An excellent pre- 
 ventive against the f )ot-rot is to wash the hoot-' clean in scrong 
 soap suds made of ordinaiy soft soap, directly after shearing, as 
 during this process their feet get vety foul.* The scab, however, 
 was a disorder to which the Spanish Merinos were very subject, 
 if not taken great care of. Sulphur mixed with hog's lard, well 
 rubbed into the part atTected, directly afier shearing, will cure the 
 disease. Another remedy is boiling tobacco in water till the 
 liquor is pretty strong, put into a hogshead tub, take the fore legs 
 in one hand and the two hind legs in the other, and immerse the 
 sheep except its head for about two minutes, then take a very 
 hai"d brush or a very fine curry-comb and scrub the hard scab on 
 from the part affected till it appears raw — pour on some tobacco 
 liquor and let the sheep run. One or two dressings will almost 
 invariably cure them ; the best time likewise is directly after 
 shearing. If the lambs are immersed, it inust be in a much 
 weaker liquor, as, if too strong, it is very pernicious to them. 
 Lambs are often infested with ticks, which are easily destroyed 
 
 • This will be avoided by littering the pounds often with stta.w.— Author Am. 
 
APPENDIX. 393 
 
 by immersing them, about ten days or a fortnight after shearing 
 the ewes, in weak tobacco water. Sheep are sometimes subject 
 to be blown or bloated, which I believe to be a kind of colic. 
 The remedy is two great spoonfuls of castor oil mixed with a 
 tea-spoonful of pulverized rhubarb, to which add two or three 
 gi-eat spoonfuls of hot water to make it more fluid ; open tlie 
 mouth and put dowai a spoonful at a time as fast as they can 
 swallow it. It never fails to cure them if given before the sheep 
 has fallen. About half as much more is required for a stout 
 buck, and half the quantity for a lamb. If pulverized rhubarb is 
 not at hand, ground ginger will do, but it is not so certain. 
 
 I believe I have now answered all your questions, and shall 
 leave you at liberty to make what use you please of this letter, 
 or that some time since published in the Cultivator, which I the 
 more readily do, as it affords me great pleasure to aid, in any 
 Avay, the advancement of this very important branch of Ameri- 
 can amculture. 
 
 LETTER FROM WM. EROWNLEE, OF WASHINGTON, PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Dear Sir, — I received your letter informing me of yoiir inten- 
 tion of publishing a work on Sheep Husbandry, and desiring my 
 views on the subject. I have been engaged in that business for 
 nearly thirty years, and have at this time a flock numbering 
 about three thousand and five hundred, one half of which is in 
 this county, and the remainder in Lee County', Iowa. I com- 
 menced my flock with the full-blooded Merinos, and after some 
 time crossed them with the long-wooled Saxons, which I received 
 from Dutchess County, N. York. My flock at present is chiefly 
 Saxon-blood, and average about three lbs. to the fleece of clean 
 washed wool. I give the preference to the Saxonies, as their 
 wool is rather the softest, and free of yolk or eke. The length of 
 tiine we feed our sheep, and the amount of hay they consume, I 
 cannot well decide, as it greatly depends on the winter, and the 
 quantity of winter pasture that we may have ; but generally we 
 have to feed more or less about five months, in which time the 
 sheep eat from six to eight tons of hay to the hundred ; but I be- 
 lieve in a close winter, and without much winter pasture, that 
 number will require ten tons. I prefer good clover hay to any 
 other, as they will improve upon it more than other descriptions. 
 I feed but little grain until towards spring, and then make use of 
 oats and com, which I think equally good. But if there are any 
 dousy or poor shr^p, I feed them some grain through the Avhole 
 of the winter. It has not been my practice to feed any roots, 
 although I think them very good. 
 
 I have been in the habit of housing my sheep in the winter. 
 The dimensions of my shelters are about sixty or seventy feet in 
 
394 APPENI^IX. 
 
 length, and sixteen in width, which are closed on the west side 
 and open at the east ; some are covered with boards, and others 
 witli straw. 
 
 [The kind of rack Mr. Brownlee uses is the box rack.] 
 
 As for pasture, I prefer the prairie grass to any other until to- 
 wards fall, when it becomes dry, and sheep will not do so well on 
 it as other kinds. The blue grass I think ranks next, but timothy 
 and clover do very well. The prairie grass is not good for hay, 
 in my opinion, it being too binding, and therefore sheep do not 
 thrive upon it so well. 
 
 I generally keep from 150 to 200 together summer and winter, 
 unless on the prairies, where I keep one thousand together in the 
 summer, if they have a large district to range over. When we 
 keep our sheep in the fields, I generally change them once a 
 week, and keep salt and ashes (about equal portions) in a trough 
 under some shelter constantly by them summer and winter ; they 
 can then take it as often as they please, and the ashes will prevent 
 them from eating too much salt. The eflect of the ashes is to 
 keep them more healthy. I thinli sheep should not be without 
 water every day during the winter when confined to diy food. 
 My bucks are put with the ewes from the 15th to the 20th of 
 November, and rusually raise from 80 to 90 lambs to the hundred 
 ewes. 
 
 As to diseases, I am happy to say that I have veiy little experi- 
 mental knowledge of them, as our sheep have not been exposed 
 to them, until last summer, when the foot-rot visited us, which is 
 a very stubborn disease to cure. I had it in one of my flocks, 
 but I think I have eradicated it after much trouble, and wiU 
 here give you a recipe for the cure of it : — 
 
 One lb. of Blue Vitriol finely pulveiized. 
 One ounce of Alum. 
 
 Honey and hog's lard enough to make a stiff" salve. The feet 
 must be closely pared, cleaned, and anointed with the salve, and 
 the sheep should be kept on dry ground on all occasions of this 
 kind. 
 
 I am glad to hear that you are undertaking a work of the de- 
 scription you name, and the few lines of broken remarks I send 
 you are at your service. I wish you much success in your 
 project. 
 
 LETTER FROM CHARLES B. SMITH, OF WOLCOTTVILLE, CONN. 
 
 Dear Sir, — Your favor of the 12th inst. is at hand. It gives 
 me great pleasure to learn that the piiblic is so soon to be in pos- 
 session of a work on Sheep Husbandry, the need of which I have 
 no doubt every wool-grower feels. I am aware that I can give 
 you no neio ideas on sheep management, yet I wiihngly comply 
 with your request in giving you my experience in the matter. 
 
APPENDIX. 395 
 
 During the siimmer season my sliecp receive but little atten- 
 tion. As soon as they are shorn, which is about the 1st of June, 
 I immerse all of them in a decoction of tobacco of sufficient 
 strength to kill the ticks, if there are any. I then divide them 
 into flocks, paying regard only to sex and condition, put them into 
 pastures, and when it can be done conveniently, change them 
 every week. They are regularly salted once a week. About 
 the 1st November, or when the wool is of sufficient length to 
 judge of its quality, I examine each one of them myself and se- 
 lect for sale such as I consider of the least value. I do not sell 
 my best ewes, although I am not unfrequently offered prices for 
 them which might be considered exorbitant. I let my rams re- 
 main with the ewes from the 25th of November till 1st of Jan- 
 uary. During the winter season, if the ground is not covered 
 with snow, I keep them in yards, always providing for them good 
 shelters, and of course plenty of water — feed them in the common 
 racks or boxes, placed in the open yard, on hay of good quality, 
 and give them as much as they will eat. I do not feed grain or 
 roots of any kind. I find by this treatment that my flock go out 
 in the spring in as good condition as they were at the commence- 
 ment of winter, with their wool more perfect and more rich in ap- 
 pearance.* If sheep in good condition at the beginning of winter 
 do not receive sufficient attention during the winter to keep them 
 so, of course, the wool will show it, besides it very much lessens 
 its value. I have been engaged for several years past in the pur- 
 chase of wool, and almost daily have come in contact with wool 
 of this description, which has been essentially injured by the bad 
 management of the flocks during the winter season. 
 
 I have at this time something over 300 sheep, most of which 
 are pure-blooded Saxonies (i. e., if the importations of Saxons were 
 pure), having been bred from imported sheep. I have long been 
 of the opinion that the pure Saxony sheep, well managed, would 
 be hardy, and my object in the commencement of my flock was 
 to produce a strong, healthy animal, with a fleece of superfine 
 quality, and good weight ; in this I have perhaps succeeded tol- 
 erably well — certainly beyond my expectations, although I am 
 far from being satisfied yet. Notwithstanding there is quite a 
 family resemblance throughout the flock, yet I have some sheep 
 which are so different from any I have seen that I shall not be 
 satisfied until my entire flock more nearly resemble them than 
 they now do. 
 
 I had much rather show my sheep than describe them, but as 
 you wish to know the quantity of wool they yield, &c., I will 
 give 3'ou the weight of the fleeces of 104 ewes, which were kept 
 in the same flock last \vinter, and which raised 101 lambs ; their 
 fleeces (104) weighed 341 lbs. ; and although the quality of it was 
 
 * Mr. Smith seems to be well aware of the impolicy of high feeding, simply to 
 make heavy fleeces, and causing harsh and wiry wool. 
 
896 APPENDIX. 
 
 considered better than the average of my dip, yet it was sold 
 with my entire lot fjr 70 cents per lb., to Messrs. Samuel Slater 
 & Sons, of Providence, R. I. To give you some idea of the 
 constitution of my sheep, I will say that during the last eighteen 
 months I liave lost but four sheep, one of which was an imported 
 ram injured by fighting. I had forgotten to mention that 1 im- 
 ported from Germany two years since two rams and one ewe ; I 
 think my flock will be improved by this cross. 
 
 LETTER FROM JOHN JOHNSTON, OF GENEVA, NEW YORE. 
 
 Dear Sir, — I have before me your favor of the 24th inst., and 
 take great pleasure in stating to you my experience and practice 
 in sheep farming. 
 
 It is now twenty-three years that I have kept sheep in this 
 (Seneca) county, and for the last 16 years my flock has varied in 
 number from 6U0 to 1000 ; at this time it amounts to 974, all 
 Merinos, and which originated from the flock of the late Hon. R. 
 S. Rose, before he crossed with the Saxon breed. 
 
 In relation to feeding sheep, my early custom was to feed with 
 hay alone during winter, excepting the lambs, to which I gave in 
 addition a little oats or corn, and to my wethers, which were stall- 
 fed, corn, oats, buckwheat or peas, feeding at the rate of one 
 bushel of corn, or its equivalent in other grain, per day to the 
 hundred, allowing also as much hay as they would eat. I think 
 buckwheat cjuite ecjual to corn as feed for sheep. 
 
 Since the year 1840 I have adopted a ditierent system of keep- 
 ing my sheep, at least so long as my straw holds out, which is 
 generally until the middle of Feb. or 1st of March. In 1840 I 
 entered the winter with 1050 sheep, allowing them as much straw 
 in their racks as they would eat, and some to waste. In addi- 
 tion to the straw I fed one bushel of oats, or one bushel of corn- 
 cob meal, (oats also mixed in grinding), to every 100 sheep per 
 day, exce])t my lambs, which were fed on hay. Under this 
 treatment my sheep wintered well, full as well as when fed 
 hay alone. I threshed every week, and consequently the straw 
 was always sweet. 
 
 During the winter of 1843-44, I tried an experiment successful- 
 ly, as follows : — I selected 100 ewes and 10 wethers of one year 
 old past; to this flock I fed wheat straw only, with one bushel 
 oil-cake meal per day; this was continued until the 22d March, 
 when my straw was exhausted. I then fed them on hay, and 
 discontinued the oil meal. This flock did exceedingly well, being 
 fat in the spring. I also fed a flock of lambs (134) in the same 
 way until the 1st March, and then fed them on hay, discontinu- 
 ing the oil-cake ; they likewise did remarkably well, and were 
 the b««t yearlings of the breed I ever saw. The ewes yielded 
 
APPENDIX. 397 
 
 precisely 3| lbs. of clean washed wool per head, and the yearlings 
 lacked only one pound in the aggregate (juantity from diem, of 
 averaging 3| lbs. 
 
 The present season I am feeding the whole of my flock, except 
 the lambs, straw and oil meal, at the rate of one bushel to the 
 hundred per day; 318 lambs are fed with hay and an allowance 
 of two bushels of oil meal per day. I may as well say here that, 
 in my opinion, the oil meal causes the wool to be finer than the 
 grain ; it is more economical also than hay — and therefore think 
 it the best feeding for sheep. Clover hay will certainly fatten 
 sheep, if well cured, but they eat very large quantities of it, and 
 we know that it costs more to cut and cure than herds grass ; 
 while oil meal costs at the mill Sll per ton; now a ton contains 
 40 bushels, which gives 27i cents cost per bushel. If I then feed 
 150 days, as we generally do, then each sheep would consume 41 
 cents worth of oil meal, and no more. 
 
 The quantity of hay consumed by sheep depends much on the 
 winter, and also on the condition of the lands. If the fields are 
 left rough in the autumn, with the pasture old, and the winter 
 like the last, and mild as the present so far, sheep would not re- 
 quire so much hay. But where the pastures are close fed by the 
 end of November, and where sheep are (^n hay for 150 days, I be- 
 lieve that each sheep ■will in that period consume 500 lbs. of hay, 
 if fed nothing else. In making this estimate, I of course suppose 
 that the sheep are to be shorn in as good condition as they were in 
 the previous November ; such is almost always the case with 
 mine, for I have no opinion of putting on flesh in summer to be 
 wasted in winter. 
 
 In respect to the keeping of sheep through the summer, I 
 would remark that I have large fallows, and I change my sheep 
 from pastures to these ; after harvest they have a range on the 
 stubbles. I never turn from winter keep until the pastures are 
 good ; these I sow with plaster, which causes a great increase of 
 feed. 
 
 [Mr. Johnston states that his ewes raise 90 per cent, of lambs.] 
 
 In relation to my Bucks, I would say that I have been tempted 
 recently to purchase some from gentlemen who have from lime 
 to time boasted of their large average weight of fleeces, as pub- 
 lished in the Cultivator and other papers ; but unfortunately thus 
 far none of them have produced anything near the average weight 
 of wool claimed for them, which I cannot account for, unless the 
 gentlemen do not wash as clean as we do in this quarter. Cer- 
 tainly the sheep are never in worse condition than when they 
 came into my hands. For several years past my flock has yield- 
 ed an average of from 3 to 3^ lbs. ; the last clip averaged 3 lbs. 
 10 oz., and this year I hope for more. 
 
 Since I commenced purchasing high-priced bucks, it has been 
 my practice to put only one to the 1 00 ewes ; but he is permitted 
 to remain among them only about 30 days, preferring rather a dry 
 
 34 
 
398- APPENDIX. 
 
 ewe to a late lamb. I have rarely, however, more than five bar- 
 ren ewes to the 100, and that would be the case if 10 bucks had 
 been permitted to run with them. The time when I turn in my 
 bucks is from the 20th to the 25th of Nov. ; the ewes therefore be- 
 gin yeaning about the 20th of April. 
 
 [Mr. Johnston thinks, and very rightly too, that it is bad policy 
 to put ewes, of the Saxon and Merino blood, to buck before they 
 are two and a half years old.] 
 
 I always tag my sheep thoroughly before I turn them to pas- 
 ture, and wash them well about twelve days before shearing them. 
 I salt regularly once a week during the season of pasturage ; salt 
 is mixed with the oil meal when fed, as often as once a week, or 
 else a brine is made and sprinkled over the straw. 
 
 The protection of sheep from severe weather, I deem very im- 
 portant. My sheds are 24 feet wide, 16 feet posts, with girts 5^ 
 feet from the foot of the posts, with poles laid on them to support 
 the hay, leaving the clear space under for sheep to go in at pleas- 
 ure. 
 
 [Mr. Johnston makes use of the box rack, and his feeding 
 troughs are of triangular shape and made of boards.] 
 
 During some winters I have confined my sheep to their yards, 
 while other seasons I have allowed them to go in and out at will ; 
 but the former management I deem altogether preferable, though 
 it is attended with much additional trouble in pumping water for 
 them. More manure is made by confining them wholly, an object 
 of much importance to the farmer; in addition to all, quietness is 
 promoted by it, and more flesh will be acquired from the same 
 amount of feed. 
 
 [Mr. Johnston adopts the old Scotch system of castration — 
 making an incision on each side of the scrotum, and then drawing 
 out the testicles with the teeth ; he thinks highly of this method.] 
 
 In conclusion, I will add that land in this neighborhood is 
 worth fifty dollars per acre, and will pay as good an interest, or 
 perhaps better, by raising sheep, than by tillage. Yet sheep and 
 wheat do well together, for the sheep manure the land, and better 
 crops of wheat and grass follow. 
 
 LETTER FROM JOSEPH BARNARD, OF HOPKINTON, NEW HAMP- 
 SHIRE. 
 
 Dear Sir, — Your letter of 12th inst. was duly received, and by 
 its contents I am informed that you are preparing a work for publi- 
 cation on sheep-husbandry, which I think is very much called for 
 in this country. 
 
 You wished me to give you a history of my flock of sheep — 
 their pedigree, &c. The following are the answers to your in- 
 quiries : — The number of my flock is between three and four 
 
APPENDIX. 399 
 
 hundred, and the breed, Saxony, and mostly from the Searls im- 
 portation. I also obtained a buck which arrived at Boston in 
 1826, from the Burendorf flock, one of the most esteemed in Sax- 
 ony, for which we paid $128. The full-grown sheep of my flock 
 shear from 2 to 2^ lbs. per head, when in good condition. The 
 sheep are washed very clean, tagged close, by cutting off" all the 
 wool that is in the least dirty. We are very fastidious in doing 
 up our Avool and prepaiing it for market. I received in 1838 from 
 the American Institute (New York) a medal for the finest wool, 
 and in 1839 my wool was sorted at the Middlesex Manufactory, 
 Lowell, which stood thus : — 
 
 [It having been stated in a former part of this work that there 
 were American Saxon flocks which rivalled the German, the fol- 
 lowing sorts of Mr. Barnard's wool will confinn the statement.] 
 32 lbs. Super Extra 
 
 124 " 
 
 Extra 
 
 154 " 
 
 Prime 
 
 103 " 
 
 No. 1 
 
 5i» 
 
 " 2 
 
 i" 
 
 " 3 
 
 00c. 
 
 $ 32 00 
 
 90 
 
 111 60 
 
 80 
 
 123 20 
 
 70 
 
 72 10 
 
 60 
 
 3 30 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 
 419 $342 45 
 
 [Average per lb. nearly 82 cents.] 
 
 When my flock comes to the bam for the winter, it is separated 
 into lots of from 50 to 60 each, and their apartments well ven- 
 tilated and littered ; in a word, I aim to keep the flock comfortable. 
 The principal provender given them is, from the first coming to 
 the bam until February, mowed oats, cut when about half ripe. 
 From the latter period and for the remainder of the foddering 
 season, they receive boiled potatoes, oat and corn-cob meal, mixed 
 together, and strewed on good hay, and put into crib boxes, 
 which are placed in the sheep stalls. 
 
 [As far as could be comprehended from the description of the 
 crib-boxes they are similar to the cut. Figure 2.] 
 
 I browse my sheep occasionally during the vdnter season, by 
 driving them into the pastures, or woods, where they can crop 
 sweet-fern, hemlock, pine and cheekberry, and whatever else they 
 please. This contributes to their health ; if browse cannot be ob- 
 tained (owing to the depth of snow), roots of all kinds are substi- 
 tuted. Raw potatoes are very good, if given regularly and in 
 small quantities. Sheep, to do well, should have plenty of good 
 water provided for them through the foddering season. 
 
 My ewes yean their lambs in the month of May ; I raise gen- 
 erally 90 lambs from 100 ewes. My loss has not exceeded 2 per 
 cent, during the winter season. 
 
 [Mr. Barnard states that his sheep were affected with foot- 
 rot about 20 years since ; his remedy for the disease is omitted.] 
 
400 APPENDIX. 
 
 LETTER FROM HENRY HARTZEL, OF DARLINGTOX, PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Dear Sir, — Your communication came duly to hand, and with 
 the greatest pleasure I embrace the opportunity of communica- 
 ting to you, as far as conveniently may be, the information de- 
 sired. 
 
 My flock at present numbers about 900 — of the Merino breed — 
 originally from the stock of Dickinson of Ohio, and Marvin of 
 this State. 
 
 2d. The flock yields from 3i to 3i lbs. per head. 
 
 3d. The blood is considered valuable, and my sales annually 
 have been large. 
 
 4th. I never allow my sheep to herd in greater numbers than 50 
 to 100, either summer or winter. 
 
 5th. For the last two years, I have folded from 100 to 150 at 
 the commencement of winter, within a small yard containing wa- 
 ter, without removing them until shearing. These were for 
 slaughtering, and fed accordingly. 
 
 We generally feed clover and timothy hay three times per day 
 when the weather is severe, and when otherwise, twice a day. 
 We do not feed grain or roots till in January or February, except 
 to such portions of the flock as appear in a declining condition. 
 These are put by themselves, and fed on wheat bran, oats, pota- 
 toes, and such articles as the nature of the case requires. To our 
 breeding ewes we generally feed from a bushel and a half to two 
 bushels of potatoes, finely cut, with the addition of half a bushel 
 of bran mixed per day to the 100. The sheep for slaughtering 
 alluded to, receive the same treatment as the ewes, except, that in- 
 stead of the bran, 1 peck of oats or buckwheat was mixed with a 
 peck of bran, and the whole mixed with the potatoes, and fed in the 
 latter part of the season twice a day. We generally feed our 
 com fodder at noon. 
 
 6th. We shelter our sheep during the whole winter season. 
 
 7th. In our climate we are obliged to fodder five months of the 
 year. 
 
 8th. Blue grass and white clover mixed, and timothy are, for 
 sheep pasture, the best we have here. 
 
 9th. We salt our flock once a week, but think twice would be 
 better. 
 
 10th. When we think our hay has not been suflSciently cured, 
 or has been damaged by bad weather, we add 1 quart of salt to 
 the ton ; but when well cured, we do not salt it at all. 
 
 11th. We put our bucks during the two last weeks in Nov., 
 and wean our lambs in the latter part of August. It is destruc- 
 tive to put lambs upon luxuriant clover immediately after weaia- 
 ing. 
 
 12th. There is always a ready cash market for wool in this 
 quarter. 
 
APPENDIX. 401 
 
 13th. The average price of land m Beaver county is about 15 
 dollars per acre. 
 
 14th. The foot-rot is a disease unknown to the sheep of Beaver 
 county. 
 
 JOINT LETTER FROM CHAS. W. HULL AND M. T. TILDEIV, OF NEW 
 LEBANON, NEW YORK. 
 
 The flock was accidentally commenced, in the year 1810, by 
 the late Elam Tilden. He was in New York waiting the sloop 
 to sail, when he met the late Chancellor Livingston, who invited 
 him to go to a sale of Merino sheep, and while there he purcha- 
 sed a full-blooded ewe, and shortly after purchased of other impor- 
 tations. 
 
 From this stock sprang quite a flock of full-blooded Merinos. 
 In 1822 Mr. Hull became associated with him, and as soon as 
 the Saxons were introduced, they commenced crossing with them. 
 In 1827 they purchased one of the best rams ever imported (at a 
 sale in Brighton) ; in 1828 they purchased largely of both bucks 
 and ewes at the large sale in New York. From this stock, pre- 
 served pure, have sprung our present flocks. We have been very 
 particular to breed from the best Saxon bucks we could procure. 
 The flock on the farm of the late Elam Tilden numbers aboui 
 800 ; Mr. Hull's about 300. 
 
 Formerly our aim \\'as short staple and light wool ; then our 
 fleeces averaged from 2 lbs. 6 oz. to 2 lbs. 9 oz. ; since the man- 
 ufacturers have discovered that length of staple is not incompat- 
 ible wiih fine wool, we have, by increasing its length, increased 
 its weight to 2| lbs., and we hope, by judicious breeding, to bring 
 them to 3 lbs., and still preserve the fineness of the fleece. 
 
 We winter in herds, ranging from 50 to 100, and in herding aim 
 to keep those of an age, size, and sex together. We shelter all 
 principally in cellar bams, and feed all under cover, in boxes, 
 being particular to keep fresh water and salt by them constantly. 
 We consider both as essential for them as for neat cattle or horses, 
 for by having both water and salt by them, they never eat or 
 dnnk inordinately. To one who has never practised this system, 
 it woiild be quite a curiosity to see them running from the hay to 
 the water. 
 
 Our feed is well-cured hay, three times a day, of which we feed 
 them all they will eat, which is about 15 tons to the 100, except 
 about four weeks before the dropping of the lambs, when we feed 
 the ewes about a peck of corn-cob meal, mixed with one bushel 
 potatoes, or Rutabaga, grated, to the 100. Occasionally we feed 
 oat and barley straw, corn stalks, &c., as we have them to spare.* 
 We make no difference in the feed of our lambs. 
 
 * Messrs. Hall & Tilden, it seems, adopt the German system of variety of food 
 •—for which they are to be commended for their sagacity. 
 
 84* 
 
402 APPENDIX. 
 
 We have pursued this system for many years, and would like 
 to compare our flocks, of over 1100, with any like number of fine- 
 wooled to be foimd, which are not furnished with a wann shelter, 
 let their feed be what it may. Our losses have also been very 
 small, not averaging one per cent. We aim to bring them into 
 the fold in fine order, which we consider very essential to their 
 wintering well. Under the old system of short pastures, feeding 
 at stacks without shelter, you may estimate the per centage of 
 loss, as high as you please, and not overstretch the bounds of prob- 
 ability. Are there not many farmers of the present day, who 
 still pursue this system, and wonder why they lose so many sheep, 
 and finally ascribe their " bad luck" to disease rather than the 
 true cause ? Experience should have taught them ere this, that a 
 large portion of hay stacked is injured by stonns, which, at the 
 very time the sheep should eat plentifully, they almost refuse it, 
 particularly if it becomes wet by a drizzling rain or a snow stonn ; 
 as a conseqiience the loss of hay and sheep is large — the flock 
 comes out " spring-poor" — cuts less wool, and that more or less 
 injured for manufacturing. 
 
 We tried this system long enough to see its utter want of econ- 
 omy, and then adopted barns ■with basements or cellars underneath, 
 taking care to have them well ventilated ; and each succeeding 
 year has found us more and more satisfied Avith our experiment. 
 So firm is our faith, that we have no hesitation in recommending 
 to every farmer who has none, to lose no time in providing them 
 for all his stock, or at least for his sheep. The increased value 
 of the manure will alone pay a good interest upon the investment. 
 
 In breeding we are careful to avoid the " m-and-in system." 
 We turn out from the 1st to the 15th Nov., and put from 50 to 100 
 with a buck, depending on his age and constitution. The buck 
 should be well fed. In large flocks, from 80 to 85 lambs to the 
 100 is the usual average raised; small flocks the average will 
 range higher. Nights, and cold, unpleasant days, we are careful 
 to keep them housed. Warm days we turn them out to gi-aze, 
 and find when the ewes can get a good bite of grass, that the 
 lambs are stronger, and that they require less feed and care. We 
 wean about the 20th of August. The sheep should be tagged 
 early in the spring, and when well tagged will jdeld from 15 to 20 
 lbs. to the hundred. 
 
 From several causes, Saxon wool is not now cultivated so 
 eagerly as formerly, and the demand for Merino has largely in- 
 creased. The heavier the fleece, the larger the price, even though 
 much of the weight consists of gum, &c. This is a lamentable 
 fact, but how can it be expected othei-wise, when so httle discrim- 
 ination is made between Saxon and Merino wool? Some large 
 flocks have been broken up, and sheep shearing from 3J to 4 lbs. 
 substituted, and we predict, if this system of buying without 
 makuig a suitable discrimination is to be continued, it will result 
 eventually in the destruction of nearly all the firie-wooled sheeji in 
 
APPENDIX. 403 
 
 the country. Pride will doubtless cause some of us to continue 
 growing fine wool, for a time, but when we see our neighbors 
 getting about as much by the pound, and more by the fleece, in- 
 terest will prompt us to adopt the course which pays best. 
 
 The supply of wool having been larger than the demand for 
 the past three years, has, in our opinion, led the manufacturers to 
 suppose that no such change was going on. When the old stock 
 is worked oft' and a fair competition springs up, they will find it 
 difficult to obtain a supply of as good wool asunder the same de- 
 mand three years ago. 
 
 If this should be the result they may attribute it to the want of 
 their usual sagacity. We trust they will look to this subject be- 
 fore it is too late. AH the wool-grower needs to induce him to grow 
 fine wool is a proper system of discrimination ; let this be done, 
 and there will be no difficulty in procuring a supply. 
 
 We believe that a proper emulation in the growing of fine wool, 
 tends to make better farmers, for if they once acquire a taste for 
 superior flocks, it will extend to other branches of farming, which 
 is a result to be desired by every one who has the interest of the 
 farming community at heart. 
 
 LETTER FROM JOSEPH BARNUM, OF SHOREHAM, VERMONT. 
 
 Dear Sir, — According to your request, I herewith send you a 
 statement of my management of sheep, and the breed. My flock 
 consists of about 700, and is of the pure Merino blood ; for their 
 pedigree I refer you to Mr. Randall's statement in the Albany 
 Cultivator of December last. My flock was bought of Mr. A. 
 Cock, of Long Island, by Leonard Bedell, and said to be of the 
 Paular breed. I now own the flock and farm of the said Bedell, and 
 the sheep have been kept pure to this day. Last year I sheared 
 610, whio*i yielded to me 2441 lbs. of wool, being a fraction over 
 four pounds per head. I tag my sheep immediately before turn- 
 ing them to pasture, and take from each about 3 onnces of wool. 
 
 I think it very necessary that sheep should be sheltered in win- 
 ter. Feeding roots is preferable to grain ; oats, however, I think 
 as good a grain as any. Turnips and carrots are very acceptable 
 to sheep, especially the last. One bushel of carrots to the hundred 
 will keep them thriving ; half a bushel of oats to an hundred Iambs 
 daily will result greatly to their benefit. Four weeks before lamb- 
 ing it is very necessary that ewes should be fed from 8 to 16 
 quarts of corn or peas daily, as it will contribute to their strength, 
 increase their milk, and give less trouble in raising the lambs. I 
 raise from 85 to 95 lambs from 100 ewes. They are usually 
 dropped in the field, during the month of May. One buck to a 
 hundred ewes is sufficient, if put up nights, and grained high. I 
 do not allow more than one buck to go with a flock of ewes at the 
 
404 APPENDIX. 
 
 same time. I prefer ridge land for pasture ; an acre of our land 
 will pasture fi-om 4 to 10 sheep. An hundred will consume from 
 10 to 15 tons of hay, if fed nothing else. 
 
 LETTER FROM CHARLES COLT, OF GENESEO, NEW YORK. 
 
 Dear Sir, — Your esteemed favor was duly received, and I 
 hasten to comply with the request therein contained. I have not 
 that experience to give you, which you will be able to obtain 
 from many of your correspondents, but such infomiation as I am 
 possessed of will be cheerfully rendered. 
 
 Four years ago, I commenced my present flock of sheep by 
 purchasing of S. C. Scoville, of Litchfield county, Connecticut, 
 twenty-five yearling ewes and one yearling buck. This is all I 
 know concerning their pedigree ; I, however, believe them to be 
 full-blooded Saxons. My flock at present numbers two Inmdred 
 and fifty-six. Wishing to increase it as fast as possible, I have 
 never as yet been able to cull my flock. I have always sold my 
 buck lambs in the fall after they were one year old. 
 
 The average weight of wool per head the present season was 
 2 lbs. 14 ounces. I am fully persuaded that by pursuing the 
 course I have marked out for myself, I can reahze at least 3 lbs. 
 p«?r head, of as fine quality of wool as I now get. I tag my 
 ewes in the fall and all my sheep in the spring, before turaing 
 them out to pasture, clipping about ^ a pound from each sheep. 
 
 At shearing I do not put into the fleece any tags, or any of the 
 wool that falls upon the floor during the process of clipping. My 
 practice is to wash in a clean running stream, if possible, soon 
 after a hard shower. I then turn my sheep into a hard turf pas- 
 ture, shearing from six to ten days thereafter, as the weather will 
 pennit. There has been much coinplaint made on accoimt of the 
 impossibility of shearing Saxons without the fleeces breaking. This 
 is owing to the want of proper benches for shearing. I use 
 benches about four feet long, two being connected by a piece of 
 tow cloth, about one yard wide and four feet long. The fleece 
 falling upon the cloth is kept clean, and is prevented from break- 
 ing- 
 
 I protect my sheep during winter, and here insert a ground 
 plan of my barn and sheds. 
 
 [Mr. Colt's plan is meritorious, but of necessity is omitted.] 
 
 My feeding fixtures are racks of different kinds. The best 
 kind is upon tlae following plan : — The bottom is a two inch oak 
 plank a toot wide and sixteen feet long, legs four and a half feet 
 long, crossed and halved together, and the bottom plank framed 
 into them, twenty inches from the ground, by a two inch round 
 tenon. The rack is filled with inch rounds, three inches apart. 
 The top pieces and legs are made of oak scantling, four by two 
 
APPENDIX. 405 
 
 inches ; and the top pieces are connected to the legs in the same 
 manner as the bottom plank is, the tenon running through the 
 legs sufficiently to put in a small wooden pin. The rick is made 
 flaring, so that it is two feet wide at top. The cost of each is 
 about two dollars. 
 
 I have never had my attention called particularly to the amount 
 of hay Saxon sheep will consume, but should judge I had kept 
 well one hundred during the winter on seven tons, together with 
 the straw and chaff" I fed them. 
 
 I feed neither roots nor grain, believing it to be neither profit- 
 able nor economical so to do, for the following reasons : — It is 
 much more expensive to feed grain ; — grain I conceive to be an 
 unnatural food for sheep ; — it causes an undue degree of heat, 
 and as it produces a greater quantity of wool, it is of coarser tex- 
 ture. 
 
 I think it is of gi-eat importance that a sheep should be, as 
 nearly as possible, in the same condition, as regards flesh, at all 
 seasons of the year, particularly a flock of sheep you intend to 
 keep and breed from. This you cannot do and feed grain a portion 
 of the year. 
 
 I think variety of food is beneficial during the winter. I should 
 prefer feeding clover hay about one-third of the time and timothy 
 the remauider ; clover has an effect upon the bowels of sheep 
 similar to that produced by grass. I also feed straw and 
 chaff', believing that there is no animal to which they can be led 
 with as much profit. 
 
 Never having fed any grain, I cannot say what kind will pro- 
 duce the greatest quantity of wool. 
 
 The supposition that sheep cannot be sufficiently well kept upon 
 hay during the winter is, in my opinion, erroneous. Much de- 
 pends upon the time at which, and the manner in which, it is 
 cured. I am satisfied from my experience, that timothy for 
 sheep should be cut at least two weeks before you would cut it 
 for cattle ; before the seed gets fully ripe, and clover while in the 
 blow. My practice in curing timothy is to turn oiit the swarths 
 immediately after the mower in the morning, turning over again 
 after dinner, and cocking up the grass before night. The next 
 day (if fine) turning out from cock as soon as the dew is off", 
 turning over twice, and getting it into the bam before night. 
 Hay should be thoroughly cured, and still be as fresh as possible. 
 Clover requires a different process — I turn out as in timotby, cure 
 as much as possible the first day, cock it up at night in tall, 
 slim cocks, and let it remain so two or three days till it is nearly 
 cured, then open it to the air and get it in. This process of cu- 
 ring preserves all the heads, leaves, and most of the juice of the 
 hay. 
 
 There is no difficulty in keeping sheep well upon such hay, 
 properly fed out. I feed my sheep three times a day with hay 
 and twice with straw and chaff', watering twice daily. 
 
406 APPENDIX. 
 
 I put my bucks about the 1st of December. Yearlings with 
 25 ewes, older ones with about 40. I make it a practice not to 
 put a ewe until she is two years old past. In this way a larger 
 and hardier race of sheep are produced. I have generally been 
 very successful in the raising of lambs ; coming as they do about 
 the first of May, few die. Nine-tenths I think would be a fair 
 estimate of the per centage of lambs I raise. Coming late in the 
 season, they generally drop in the field. 
 
 It is difficult to say how many Saxons can be supported on an 
 acre of land during the year, depending as it does on the quality 
 of the soil, the manner in which the land is stocked, the care 
 taken of the sheep, and various other circumstances. I stock my 
 lands with one bushel of timothy seed to every 8 acres in the fall, 
 and with the like quantity of clover, on the same ground, in the 
 spring. Herd grass pasture is peferable for sheep, but clover is 
 best to plough under for wheat. Duiing the summer past I kept 
 250 sheep on 36 acres of pasture ground ; 10 acres of meadow 
 would yield sufficient hay to support them through the winter. 
 This would seem to indicate that about five sheep can be kept 
 the year round upon an acre of my land. 
 
 Good improved farms in this section are worth ^35 per acre. 
 
 The diseases most prevalent are the foot-rot, the scab, and the 
 grub in the head, but never having had any diseases in my flock, I 
 can give no opinion as to the best mode of treating them. Since 
 I commenced my present flock, I have lost but three sheep. 
 
 LETTER FROM C. N. BEMENT, OF ALBANY, NEW YORK. 
 
 Dear Sir, — Your favor came duly to hand, and in compliance 
 with your request offer you the following replies to your queries : — 
 
 In regard to the management of sheep, I fear I cannot render 
 you such information as you may wish, as I have never kept an 
 exact account of the food consumed by them, neither can I impart 
 much infonnation on the subject of feeding sheep for slaughtering. 
 
 You are aware, I presume, that my little flock consists of the 
 South Down variety, which are so highly esteemed in England 
 and beginning to be appreciated in this country for the quality of 
 their flesh, hardihood, and great aptitude to take on fat. 
 
 The stock from which my flock originated, was imported by 
 Sidney Hawes, in 1823, of whom I obtained them, consisting of 
 36 ewes, 2 bucks, and 10 two-year old wethers. The ewes, in 
 consequence of the carelessness of the person who had them in 
 charge, the winter and spring previous to my purchase, lost near- 
 ly all the lambs ; and at the time they came into my possession, 
 which was in July, they were most all afflicted with foot-rot. 
 This I soon cured by paring the hoofs and washing with a prepa- 
 ration of blue \'itriol, spirits of turpentine, and vinegar. Some of 
 
APPENDIX. 407 
 
 tliem were so lame as to stand on their knees to feed. After two 
 or three appHcations they entirely recovered, and became very 
 fat, so much so, that I feared they would not breed. On the 20th 
 of Nov. I commenced feeding the ten wethers a few rutabagas, 
 and continued to increase the quantity until they consumed about 
 three bushels per day. They were fed as much hay as they 
 would eat. I sold them to one of our butchers, early in Febru- 
 ary, for ten dollars per head. After dressing, their carcases 
 weighed from 80 to 100 lbs. each ; and the mutton was greatly 
 admired, and extolled for its high flavor, juicy and tender quality, 
 by all who partook of it. Their fat, unlike the Bakewell breed, 
 lying on the outside, like pork, was fiiTnly mixred with the lean, 
 or marbled, as some term it. It is estimated by those who have 
 cooked the South Down mutton, that there is as much edible meat 
 on a saddle weighing 30 lbs., as there is on a saddle of Bakewell 
 weighing 40 lbs., as a great proportion of the latter finds its way 
 into the dripping-pan. 
 
 I winter my sheep in yards with tight fences, and open sheds, 
 facing the east ; feed hay in board racks, under cover, and no grain. 
 I put the bucks with the ewes about the 25th of October, so that 
 the lambs will come the latter part of March, and first of April. 
 About the first of March we begin to feed the ewes, say one bushel 
 of rutabagas to fifteen head, to induce a flow of milk. I have a 
 wann stable, where the ewes which are expected to lamb are 
 confined nights. The lambs are confined with their mothers until 
 three or four days old, when they are turned into the yard, and 
 seem to stand the cold as well as their mothers. 
 
 This method, I am aware, could not be adopted where large 
 flocks of sheep are kept. Formerly, I allowed the lainbs to come 
 in May, and used to lose some from the cold storms which usually 
 occur in that month. Lambs will stand severe cold, if dry, much 
 better than wet. Besides, we have more time to look after them 
 in March, than we have in May, when work in the field is press- 
 ing. Young ewes will not always own their lambs ; by having 
 them in yards they are more at our command. Another advan- 
 tage I found in having lambs come early was, that when first 
 turned to pasture the young lambs will feed on the young grass, 
 by which means their growth was much accelerated, and by the 
 first of July were fit to wean. 
 
 The South Down sheep are very prolific, often producing twins, 
 and sometimes three lambs at a birth, and being good nurses, will 
 bring them up as well, if not better, than some other breeds will 
 one. A neighbor has ten half-blood South Down ewes, that pro- 
 duced last spring twenty-one lambs, all of which he succeeded in 
 raising. 
 
 My flock has generally consisted of breeding ewes, and when 1 
 have weighed their fleeces, they have averaged 3i lbs. per head. 
 I had one buck, which at two years old gave me 6^ lbs. I have 
 sold my wool from 25 to 35 cents per pound ; but latterly had it 
 
408 APPENDIX. 
 
 manufactured into flannel, which I have sold at 50 to 58 cents per 
 yard. 
 
 South Down sheep, according to my experience, are better 
 adapted for those farmers living near market, where carcase as 
 well as wool is an object. They are also well adapted to cross 
 with our native sheep, imparting to them a better quality of mut- 
 ton, as well as wool, stronger constitution, and greater aptitude to 
 fatten. Butchers will pay from 75 cents to -$1.00 per head for 
 early lambs of this cross, and the mutton will always sell more 
 readily, and command the highest price in market, for, as the 
 butchers term it, they always " die well." 
 
 There is another good quality of the South Down : they have 
 not a roaming disposition, but are (piiet and orderly, seldom leav- 
 ing their pasture, even when the fence is partly down ; whereas, 
 the native sheep can hardly be restrained when the fences are up — 
 in fact, I have had some long-legged sheep, that would clear, at 
 one leap, a six rail fence. After nine years experience, I have 
 found the South Down sheep as they have been represented, a 
 tough, hardy race, defying the severest storms. 
 
 LETTER FROM SAMUEL WHITMAN, OF WEST HARTFORD, CONN. 
 
 Dear Sir, — My flock at present consists of 275, some of which 
 are superfine full-blood Saxons, raised from sheep which I pur- 
 chased at auction, at Brighton, Mass., and imported by George 
 and Thomas Searle, of Boston, in the years 1824, '25, '26, and '28. 
 In 1826, I bought a buck without horns, which I think laid the 
 foundation for all the wool in this region, which may be said to be 
 absolutely superfine. A majority of my present flock are JSaxony 
 and Merino mixed, with a few half-blood South Downs, and a few 
 mixed blood Leicesters for experiment. I have come to the con- 
 clusion that the Saxon, after it has attained its growth, is as hardy 
 a sheep as any with which I have been acquainted. Our country 
 in general, I think well adapted to sheep. Our land, however, I 
 think too valuable for sheep husbandry, being worth about 50 dol- 
 lars per acre. Such of our land as is devoted to sheep pastures 
 are those in which clover aboixnds. In winter I feed under cover 
 entirely ; my shelters are in my bam imder hay-lofts. I allow 
 from 50 to 100 sheep to herd together in winter. I do not think 
 water indispensable for sheep when they can get plenty of clean 
 snow ; but think they do better where they have access to water. 
 I have seldom made use of grain ; when I have, it has been for 
 that class of sheep which I have thought needed better keeping 
 than barely hay, whether old or young. White beans are excel- 
 lent ; sometimes I have made use of oil meal, and in quantity it 
 has been from half to one gill per head daily. I generally suc- 
 ceed in raising 95 per cent, of my lambs ; in my first stock of half- 
 
APPENDIX. 409 
 
 blood Saxons, I raised 126 lambs from 127 ewes. They com- 
 mence dropping about the first of April, and I wean them by the 
 first of September. When my flock was mostly Saxons, it shear- 
 ed ?i lbs. per head, and a mixture of Merino has increased it to 
 2| lbs. I wash them in brisk running water, at the mill tail, and 
 shear from 7 to 10 days after. I have lost 5 per cent, yearly, from 
 disease, age, and accident. The only disease from which they 
 have suffered has been the rot ; in two instances within 25 years, 
 I have lost 20 per cent, from this cause. Sometimes, too, they 
 have suffered from wonn in the head. As yet I am ignorant 
 of any cure for these complaints. I feed both in boxes and in 
 racks. 
 
 [The fonner are like cut No. 1, and, as near as comprehended, 
 the latter conform to No. 2. See plate — racks.] 
 
 Within 8 or 10 years past, I have several times sold the princi- 
 pal part of my flock, alwaj'S reserving, however, some of the very 
 best, from which I might reproduce another flock of superior ex- 
 cellence. At the present time I have only a small number of pure- 
 blood Saxons, the principal part consisting of the aforementioned 
 mixtures. As the result of my own observation and experience 
 with regard to the health and thrift of a flock, I may state that, in 
 this section of country, at least, more disease is induced by scanty 
 and bad keeping, than fi-om any other cause whatever. 
 
 LETTER FROM MARK R. COCKRILL, OF NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE. 
 
 Dear Sir, — Your favor duly reached me, and I am much 
 pleased to give you any infomiation my experience has taught 
 me upon the important sulyect of wool-growing. You ask many 
 questions which I will endeavor to answer hi part, in my plain 
 way of writing. I have about a thousand head of fine sheep, and 
 from 400 to 500 long-wooled or mutton sheep. My Saxon sheep 
 were imported in 1824 or '26, I cannot say which, and I find as 
 yet no falling ofT in quantity or quality of their fleeces ; on the 
 contrary, I believe a little improvement on both points and a lit- 
 tle more yolk, when well provided for, which you know does not 
 abound much in the Saxon breed. In addition, the fleeces are a 
 little more compact than formerly — hence more weight, and, from 
 our mild climate, the staple has become longer. In Tennessee 
 we do not fodder more than 80 or 100 days, and from the little 
 snow, our sheep pasture upon the grain fields, which soon grow- 
 again, and thus we are provided with an excellent substitute for 
 roots. But both may be made use of to good advantage, as all 
 very well know that succulent food for sheep the year round, the 
 better they thrive. I assert it to be a fact that the cotton region 
 I am now in (Mr. Cockrill dates from Madison county, Mississippi, 
 where a part of his sheep are kept), in about latitude 32 degrees 
 35 
 
,410 APPENBIX. 
 
 north, is better than any country north of it to grow wool, as the 
 sheep can be kept all the time grazing, by sowing small grain, for 
 if grazed oft', it quickly grows again in a few days ; and the wool 
 of tine Saxon sheep in this climate is softer and more cotton-like 
 than any I have ever seen, although I have samples from all 
 parts of the world. I have travelled from this very place to 
 Boston sampling all the sheep of note on the way, and I found 
 nothing on my journey or at Boston as good as the wool I had 
 grown, and so said all the wool-staplers whom I met with, and 
 they were not a few. I presumed, in reality, that the blood of my 
 sheep was no better than many I saw, but the superiority of my 
 wool I ascribed to our climate, and the provision for the sheep of 
 succulent food the year round. The weight of my fleeces is fair 
 — say from 3 to 5 J lbs. each. 
 
 At my residence, near Nashville, in latitude 36 deg. north, the 
 best lands, if well set in blue and orchard grass, wdll graze from 5 
 to 8 sheep per acre during the grazing season, when we have the 
 usual rains through the summer. With proper care of our 
 grown ewes, we may calculate on raising 80 lambs from one hun- 
 dred. 
 
 The long-wooled or Bakewell sheep are rather short-lived in 
 Tennessee, from getting too fat in summer, as they cannot lose 
 that great body of fat without deranging their health; hence, 
 compared to the Saxon or Merino, they are short-lived. My fine- 
 wooled lambs commence dropping on the 10th of March. Our 
 meadows yield from 1^ to 2^ tons per acre. Tennessee is not 
 the true grass climate ; about 28 deg. north is the most congenial 
 for grass ; notwithstanding, our State is fair for pasture ; blue and 
 orchard grass, white and red clover, prosper pretty well. We 
 feed considerable millet, which yields from 4 to 6 tons to the acre ; 
 this and Irish potatoes, which thrive reasonably well here, will 
 keep sheep in good health and condition. 
 
 There is much country in Tennessee and other Southern States 
 not fit for the plough, and would do admirably well for tine-wool- 
 ed sheep, and can be profitably so employed. A small capital 
 thus appropriated here in Mississippi would do better than cot- 
 ton-growing, at present prices. 
 
 [Mr. Cockrill states that sheep are exposed to liver-rot and 
 gi"ubs in the head.] 
 
 LETTER FROM T. C. PETERS, OF DARIEN, GENESEE COUNTY, 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 Dear Sir, — Your favor covering certain queries in relation to 
 sheep husbandry is before me. I shall give you an account of our 
 management without a formal answer to the various questions 
 
APPENDIX. 411 
 
 wliicli your letter contains, giving you full liberty to use so much 
 of it as you may deem important. 
 
 We have been engaged in the business fifteen years, and for ten 
 years our flock has averaged about 600, mostly Merinos, or a cross 
 of Merino and Saxony. The average yield in that time exceeds 
 3i lbs., probably not far from 3 lbs. 6 oz. of washed wool. The 
 sheep are usually tagged before they are turned out to grass. 
 We never wash our sheep until the water is warm, nor shear un- 
 til the weather has become warm and dry. Hundreds of valuable 
 sheep are lost every year by too early washing and shearing. 
 If a rain-storm comes on soon after shearing we give them shelter. 
 
 The bucks are let among the ewes about the 5th of December, 
 and we think eight to an hundred not too many, but have fre- 
 quently used but five. The lambs begin to drop in May, and 
 generally continue through the month. In April we usually feed 
 the ewe^with a little Indian corn daily, less than a wine-glassful, 
 to each one. This inakes them strong, and the lambs are much 
 more active than when the dam has not been so fed. About the 
 1st of September we take the lambs from the ewes and put them 
 into a field by themselves with a few dry ewes or wethers. They 
 are wintered in a separate flock. 
 
 Shelter we consider indispensable, not so much against cold, 
 as wet and storms. Around our barns we have sheds ; but, as 
 we prefer wintering a portion in the meadows, we make our stacks 
 so that sheds can be constructed there with little trouble. Two 
 stacks are built about 60 feet apart, perhaps further, depending upon 
 the number intended to be fed there. As our prevailing wind is from 
 the west, the stacks are on the north and south side of the shed, 
 and it is open to the east. The shed is ixsually made of boards 
 kept for the purpose, antl is four feet high in the rear and six in 
 front. It is also very important that these shelters be often lit- 
 tered with diy straw, or when that is not at hand, dry muck or 
 swamp earth will answer if put in often. We usually put a 
 stack of straw to each shed. One hundred and fifty are as many 
 as it is prudent to keep in a flock during the winter, though we 
 have kept as many as two hundred. We have used moveable 
 mangers or board racks some, but generally feed upon the ground, 
 and fodder often. 
 
 We have fed peas, oats, and com ; peas we consider the cheap- 
 est food [and Mr. Peters might have added, without fear of con- 
 troversy, the best to promote the growth of a soft and long fila- 
 ment] . Like many others, we have never kept any account of the 
 quantity of grain fed. 
 
 Twelve tons of hay is considered a fair allowance for 100 
 sheep during the winter. We never make any account of straw 
 except as litter. Sheep do best when they have free access to 
 water in winter; although I have seen sheep wnnter well in 
 fields where they could not get it ; if shut up in yards water is in- 
 dispensable. 
 
412 APPENDIX. 
 
 The pasturage which seems to do best for sheep is in old fields 
 which have been long in grass. They prefer dry, rolling land. 
 Old pastures, however, should be close fed early in the season, so 
 that the grass will come up alike over the whole field ; otherwise, 
 it will be spotted. We usually calculate that thirty acres should 
 carry 100 sheep through summer and winter, pasture, hay, and 
 grain. The longer a field has been used for a sheep-pasture the 
 more it will support. Farms which will carry through four to 
 the acre, summer and winter, with tolerable buildings, can be 
 bought for from nine to fifteen dollars the acre. Lands with us 
 are valued according to their productiveness of wheat. Good 
 wheat farms are worth from twenty-five to fifty dollars per acre. 
 The most profitable farming with us is sheep and wheat, as the 
 sheep do much the best with us when they have the free range of 
 a summer fallow. 
 
 Clover hay, if well cured, makes excellent fodder for them. We, 
 when stocking for hay, put one-third timothy with the clover seed, 
 and mow when the clover is in blossom, and cure in cocks. 
 There can be no better hay for sheep than is made in this manner. 
 Hence there is no stock that goes so well with wheat raising as 
 sheep. Many persons have lost sheep by turning them too soon 
 into wheat stubble. They should not be allowed to go in until the 
 hogs have had time to glean the field thoroughly. 
 
 We usually allow fifteen per cent, for loss of lambs, depending, 
 however, very much Tipon the season. Our loss rarely comes up 
 to ten per cent. Stall feeding has not been much practised by us, 
 the fall market generally paying the best. 
 
 The only disease among us is the foot-rot, and that has been 
 confined to the two flocks in which it appeared ; and hopes are 
 entertained by our flock-masters that it will be eradicated. 
 The disease was brought into the country by sheep from the 
 southeast. We have seen nothing of it yet among our own, and 
 have maintained a rigorous quarantine against our neighbors. If 
 vigilantly watched, I hope we shall be able to prevent its 
 spreading. 
 
 LETTER FROM DANIEL B. HAIGHT, OF WASHINGTON, DUTCHESS 
 COUNTY, NEW YORK. 
 
 Dear Sir, — T received a letter from you. in which you wished 
 me to infonn you of my mode of keeping sheep, which 1 will do 
 with pleasure, although I have not had very miich experience in 
 keeping South Do^^^^s, having, until recently, kept Saxons only; 
 therefore I am not able to answer all of your interrogatories. 
 
 I have a small but valuable flock of South Downs, which I in- 
 tend to increase as fast as practicable, as I consider them the most 
 
APPENDIX. 413 
 
 profitable, being more hardy and better adapted to our climate 
 than any other breed of sheep. 
 
 I have had a few of the Cotswold breed, b^^t was glad to get 
 rid of them as soon as possible, on account of their being very ten- 
 der, and the wool of little value ; also, their requiring more food for 
 the same quantity of mutton than the South Downs. 
 
 You wished to know my practice of wintering sheep. I endeavor 
 to have them in good condition at the commencement of winter, 
 which I do by feeding them with grain when the pasture begins 
 to fail, as I think there is much lost by neglecting them at this 
 season of the year. [Mr. Haight never uttered a truer thing.] 
 It cannot be too firmly impressed on the mind of every farmer that 
 it is more easy to keep an animal in good condition, and requires 
 less food to do it, by not allowing it to fall away, than to restore it 
 after once becoming poor. [Here is another important truth.] 
 
 It is of great importance to protect them from the cold winds 
 and storms, particularly rain. I keep them in flocks not exceed- 
 ing fifty, and a less number is preferable. I give them free access 
 to water, and feed them morning and night with hay, which was 
 lightly salted when put up, and some kind of vegetables in the 
 middle of the day. Potatoes, in my opinion, are preferable to any 
 other. I salt them frequently in the pasturing season, and keep 
 their noses thoroughly tarred from the first of July to the first of 
 October. 
 
 You wished to know how large a flock I keep. I have only 
 about thirty South Downs, and two hundred and fifty Saxons; 
 the former will yield from three and a half to four pounds of wool 
 a head, and the last clip was worth thirty-seven and a half cents 
 per pound. 
 
 You also wished me to inform you of my mode of fattening 
 them, and at what age I turn them oft' to the butcher. I am not 
 able to answer these inquiries, having kept them so short a time, 
 but I think they will do to turn off" at two years old. 
 
 I weighed some of my lambs at three months and a half old ; 
 the twins weighed from seventy to eighty pounds each, and one 
 single lamb one hundred and one. 
 
 I have my ewes to lamb about the middle of April, and gener- 
 ally raise two lambs from each ewe. They are excellent nursers, 
 and produce very fine lambs for market. 
 
 I feed my ewes a little grain for three or four weeks before 
 lambing, so as to have them in good condition for yeaning, and 
 afterward commence feeding them with vegetables and with oat 
 meal and wheat bran mixed with a little water, which I increase 
 as the lambs increase in size. 
 
 35* 
 
414 APPENDIX. 
 
 I-ETTER FROM JOHN H. EWING, OF "WASHINGTON, PENN. 
 
 Dear Sir, — Yoiir favor was duly received, from wliich I wag 
 pleased to learn that you were engaged in the preparation of a 
 work on sheep husbandry ; one much needed by the wool-grower, 
 and of great importance to the country generally, as comparative- 
 ly little is known on the subject. Wool-growing must, in time, be- 
 come the great business of this country, possessing as we do all 
 the facilities to produce an article as cheap in time as any other 
 country, our climate, soil, and mountains being favorable for the 
 business ; nothing, thei'efore, but a home market is wanted to in- 
 duce our people to engage largely in it, and shortly not only sup- 
 ply home demand, but furnish large quantities for exportation. 
 ***** * * 
 
 But I must return to your inqtiiries, and endeavor to impart, as 
 far as experience will warrant, my knowledge of wool-growing. 
 
 I have been engaged in the business about twenty years, and 
 have given it my personal attention. My flock exceeds two 
 thousand, and partake more of the Saxon than Merino character, 
 as well the most of the flocks in this section of country ; and yet I 
 am inclined to think the most of the original stock was of Merino 
 blood. But many of the flocks have been formed by crossing with 
 the native sheep, and by close attention for a series of years have 
 become very good, and will generally pass for full-blood Merino. 
 Shortly after the introduction of the Merino sheep in this country, a 
 few enterprising individuals, namely, the late William Hoge, 
 James Gilmore, and others, commenced the business, which was 
 afterwards much improved by Wm. Brownlee, and the late 
 Alexander Reed, and some others. But of those most distinguish- 
 ed for their efforts, Messrs. Wells and Dickinson of Steubenville, 
 Ohio, are entitled to the greatest credit ; they made great prog- 
 ress in wool improvement, and spent a fortune to accomplish 
 their purpose, and establishing its manufacture. After a series of 
 reverses, they finally failed, to the great regret of all who knew 
 them. Upon the sale of their flock, I became the purchaser of a 
 thousand, from which my stock has been formed ; and notwith- 
 standing they were originally from the best imported stock, and 
 the greatest care and attention given to their improvement for 
 many years, and since by myself, there is still much to be done. 
 Nothing, indeed, is more difficult than the making of proper selec- 
 tions of such as produce wool desirable to the manufacturer, and 
 at the same time profitable to the wool-grower. Again, in the 
 selection of breeders, the peculiar character of the stock will be 
 carried down for generations ; hence the selection of good bucks 
 is all-important. There ought, in all cases, to be three bucks to 
 the hundred ewes, other%vise the bucks will be more or less injured. 
 
 It is desirable that the lambs should not drop before the middle 
 of April, and on until the middle of May, at which time the grass 
 
APPENDLX. 415 
 
 'will begin to spring, and enable tlie ewes to furnish an abundant 
 sup]ily of milk. The time here mentioned is applicable to this 
 section of country ; the most suitable period in other places must 
 depend on the climate in some measure. Whenever the ewes can 
 have a flush of grass they will do well ; the deficiency of pasture, 
 however, may be supplied with a good rye-field, which will be 
 rather earlier, and no danger need be apprehended in turning ewes 
 upon rye, as they will not scour as other sheep ; the nourishment 
 appears to be secreted in milk. 
 
 Our foddering season here lasts from five to six months, but not 
 more than three or four of bad weather, during which time we 
 feed on hay, oats, com and corn fodder. Sheep should have just 
 what hay they will eat up clean ; and the ewes and weaker ones 
 be provided with a bushel of oats per hundred daily, or half that 
 quantity of com ; in bad weather it is best to fodder three times a 
 day. The less gi-ain, however, they have the better, provided 
 they can be kept in good order, which alone can be done by the 
 use of roots, or an extensive range, which has been permitted to 
 gi^ow up during the summer, which of all others is the best mode 
 of keeping (if the owner has extensive lands) ; under these cir- 
 cumstances, sheep will require but little care. Those who adopt 
 this course shoiild have fields of blue grass, as it is less liable to be 
 affected with frost than any other, and one of the best for 
 pasturage. 
 
 Those who feed during the winter on dry food, should be care- 
 fiil to see that their stock has plenty of water ; the idea that sheep 
 will do without it is absurd, except when upon soft grass in the 
 summer. Potatoes are excellent to counteract the binding effect 
 of dry food, but are troublesome to feed where the flocks are large ; 
 when given, they should be washed and cut up in small pieces. 
 
 As to the use of salt, my plan is to salt two or three times a 
 week in the summer, more frequently in wet weather than in dry, 
 and generally on the ground. I do not salt my hay, though some 
 of our wool-growers speak well of it ; my stock is supplied with it 
 regularly during winter, and salt is very essential to health. 
 
 You ask, what kind of pasturage is best ? My experience has 
 led me to believe that wood-land range is best. For many years, 
 I have been accustomed to graze my flock on the mountains, 
 where it is all covered with timber and underbrush, and whenever 
 they have had sufficient scope, have done well ; and my opinion 
 is, that it has greatly contributed to their health. [This is to be 
 attributed to the variety of herbage they obtained.] Nothing 
 more conduces to the health of sheep than frequent change of pas- 
 ture ; without it they will not thrive. 
 
 [Mr. Ewing remarks that sheep are little subject to disease in 
 his section.] 
 
 Another and important matter with the wool-grower, is the 
 preparation of wool for market. The mode I have adopted in 
 washing, is to drive the sheep across some water that will swim 
 
416 APPENDIX. 
 
 tliem, two or tliree hours before commencing to wash, so as to let 
 the wool become thoroughly soaked ; it will then wash easily, and 
 all the ink will come out, leaving the wool pertectly white ; those, 
 however, who wish to make the manufacturer pay for dirt, will 
 not adopt this course. 
 
 There is one of your inquiries which I have omitted to refer to, 
 viz., the effect of climate and herbage upon the quality of the 
 wool. Upon this subject there can be but little doubt — a north- 
 ern climate is far preferable for fine wool, and I am of opinion 
 fnmi my present experience that very fine wool cannot be raised 
 in the South. In all cases that I have known it tried, the wool 
 has deteriorated, and the health of the sheep failed. Much also, 
 in my opinion, depends on the soil ; high poor lands will produce 
 better wool than rich low lands. I sent a flock a few years since 
 to Warren county, Illinois, of about our latitude, and after three 
 years' experience, I scarcely knew my own wool ; the quantity 
 of wool and size of the sheep have increased, but the wool has 
 not retained its fineness. This no doubt arises from the pastur- 
 age ; the sheep become very fat in the summer, which inci-eases 
 the harshness of the wool, and destroys that delicate texture it 
 has in the more eastern and high lands. The business of wool- 
 growing must ultimately settle down in the hilly and mountainous 
 countries where lands are cheap, and climate adapted to the na- 
 ture of sheep. Lands in this section are worth on an average from 
 20 to 25 dollars per acre, and at present the growing of wool is 
 considered better than the raising of grain ; this, however, will 
 not continue long, as the prices of grain must advance, and wool 
 decline. 
 
 But I must close this communication, having extended it be- 
 yond your inquiries ; biit it being a subject of much interest to 
 me, and one of importance to the country, I could wish our peo- 
 ple to know more on the subject. My ardent wishes are for the 
 success of your undertaking. 
 
 LETTER FROM LEONARD D. CLIFT. OF CARMEL, PUTNAM COUNTY, 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 Dear Sir, — Your favor of was duly received, but I have 
 
 not found time before this, to bestow that care in my answer, 
 which its importance demands. And even now, I know not whe- 
 ther I shall be able to do the subject on which you request me to 
 write, viz., " my experience in the cultivation of the long-wool- 
 ed sheep," that justice, which will give satisfaction, and prove 
 worthy of a place in your contemplated treatise on American 
 sheep husbandry. I very much appreciate, sir, your motive, 
 and the object you have in view. It is high time that we hava 
 something American on this, as well as many other subjects thaf 
 
APPENDIX. 417 
 
 relate to our agricultural pursuits. I have been long convinced, 
 that to follow implicitly any foreign system of agriculture, will, 
 and has already, led us into many fatal errors. 
 
 My experience has been considerable with ahnost all of the 
 different breeds of sheep which have been (-ommon among us ; 
 and more especially for the last ten or twelve years my attention 
 has been given, in a great degree, to a flock of English, or long- 
 wooled sheep. During this time I have imported several on my 
 own account, and have bought quite a number of others that were 
 imported, and have spared no pains nor expense to estabUsh a 
 sample flock of English mutton sheep, fit or suitable to propagate 
 their species, or turn over to the shambles. 
 
 You propose a number of questions, relative to the habits 
 and qualities of my flock as a distinct breed — viz., the Lincoln- 
 shire. I have, as is well known, written several articles in re- 
 spect to them, as published in the Albany Cultivator and Ainer- 
 ican Agriculturist, of recent dates. This, I think, supersedes the 
 necessity of repeating what I have already said about them, only 
 further to say, however, that taking the Lincolnshire sheep such 
 as I have bred, of this species of sheep, I have never yet had 
 any, in all respects, their equal. They have a compact, well- 
 formed carcase, and covered with a thick, long, and fine-stapled 
 fleece of wool, including the belly, neck, and legs. No sheep will 
 prove as hardy in our Northern climate, as those well covered with 
 wool ; and by the same rule, vice versa, in the Southern. The 
 fleece is the protection from heat as well as cold, and more than 
 anything else, in my opinion, secures the good and hardy constitu- 
 tion of the sheep. The Lincolns are good feeders, and from 
 close observation I have noticed, that they would consume much 
 that other sheep would pass over and leave. They are quiet, 
 and easy of restraint, and excellent nurses ; but at the same time 
 have more agility and spirit of countenance, than any other of the 
 long-wooled breeds with which I am acquainted. 
 
 My flock of Lincolns have usually given me from 5 to 6i lbs. 
 of wool per head, on the average, and many individuals from 8 
 to 10 lbs., clean washed, and free from all tags, &c. In years 
 gone by, I have sold much of my wool at 37 cents per lb., and the 
 last clip brought 30 cents per lb. This kind of wool is now be- 
 ginning to be much sought for, and in quick demand for purposes 
 of worsted fabrics, &c. And now that machinery is being put 
 into operation for the manufacture of our long wools, these sheep, 
 and others of the like class, must be the most profitable to culti- 
 vate for the fleece alone, aside from their great value for mutton. 
 I have sold numbers of my wethers in the New York market, ac- 
 cording to age, &c., from 10 to 20 dollars per head. My lot this 
 winter, marketed about the 1st of February, brought me 12 
 dollars per head, on the average. Two of this lot was sold at 
 15 dollars each, and the weight of the carcases dressed, was 150 
 and 133 lbs. These wethers were two years old past. I fed 
 
418 APPENDIX. 
 
 them last winter with good hay, and a moderate feed of chopped 
 turnips, mixed with a httle meal, once per day ; and the present 
 winter, until marketed, their feed was about one pint of com and 
 oats to each sheep per day, for about eight weeks only. 
 
 As respects my general mode of management of these kind of 
 sheep, it may be asserted, that what is essential to the proper 
 management of one, or any particular breed of sheep, is essential 
 to all, less or more. A few things I can only name ; and first, I 
 regard protection from storms in winter, and the right sort of hay, 
 secured under cover, as lying at the foundation of all good sheep 
 husbandry. It is a well known fact, that of all domestic animals, 
 the sheep is the most hamiless, and the most delicate in the choice 
 of its food ; hence, we have only to be guided by these principles 
 of their nature, in all our management of them, to ensure success. 
 
 [Mr. Clift here enters into minute details of his process of cu- 
 ring hay, which is very meritorious, and worthy of imitation by 
 every farmer, but of necessity is omitted.] 
 
 It will be expected that I should say something of the manage- 
 ment of my ewes and lambs ; first, in regard to the ewes. In the 
 fall, about the first of September, I overhaul my whole flock, se- 
 lecting such of them as I design to keep over, and have lambs the 
 following spring, selecting none but those I feel assured will re- 
 main hardy through the winter, and bring a good lamb or lambs. 
 The reinainder, or those I have condemned for purposes of breed- 
 ing, I fat, and sell to the drover or butcher, as soon as possible. 
 It is important that ewes should be in a thriving condition, pre- 
 vious, and at the time of taking the bucks, which, with me, is 
 about the middle of October, or first of November. I endeavor to 
 have my ewes come into the winter strong in flesh, and in order 
 to this, I am careful not to keep them out upon the fall pastures 
 too late. Many sheep are pennitted to fall off" in this way, when 
 of all other times it is most important to keep up thrift, and this I 
 do by giving them daily, at first, a bite of my choicest hay. I am 
 not in the habit of feeding grain, or roots of any kind, to my stock 
 eices during winter. This I do, however, when the time draws 
 nigh for them to bring forth their yoimg, by drawing off' from time 
 to time those coming forward. Ten days previous feeding at this 
 time is none too soon, and is of more importance than twenty after 
 the ewes have lambed, if you could do but the one or the other. 
 But my practice is to continue the grain or roots, more or less, 
 imtil they are turned off" to pasture for the season. Tagging at 
 this time is highly necessary, and should be performed with a good 
 pair of shears, and in as tasteful a manner as a jockey would trim 
 his horse ; and also at all other times, when any dung is seen ad- 
 hering to the wool about the tail. 
 
 Small ranges, with a few sheep together, and shifted often, 
 sheep will thrive the best when at pasture. 
 
 Lambs should be weaned at the age of three or four months. I 
 do this as soon as my early mown meadows get a good coat of 
 
APPENDIX. 419 
 
 grass, say from the middle of July to tlie first of August. There 
 are several important advantages to your flock, by weaning lambs 
 at those ages. At the time mentioned, the grass of the pastures 
 begins to be too wiry and tough for the lambs to thrive upon it, 
 and the ewes fail in flesh on the same account. Both, therefore, 
 will do better to be separated. 
 
 I might yet speak of many things connected with the manage- 
 ment of sheep, such as the necessity of water for them in Avinter, 
 keeping them free from ticks, shelters, bams, racks, &c. All these 
 things I attend to. And I would just observe, that while I have 
 been penning this article, we have had here an unusually severe 
 snow-storm, which has continued some forty-eight hours ; and I 
 can assure you, sir, next to the health and comfort of my family, 
 has been the pleasure and satisfaction of having every animal on 
 my premises comfortably housed and sheltered from the howling 
 storm of snow and wind that has raged without and around us. 
 With one exception, and this was a Tom turkey, that would, in 
 spite of me, keep himself perched high up into the top of an apple 
 tree. I was somewhat vexed at the foolish bird, but let him have 
 his own way. Why, sir, motives of mercy and liumanity, as well 
 as interest, ought to influence every man that has a beast or bird, 
 to give them comfoitable protection, and food sufficient to supply 
 their natures. 
 
 I regret that my communication is not more acceptable in mat- 
 ter as well as manner ; such as it is, however, it is at your dis- 
 posal. 
 
 LETTER FROM TALBOTT HAMMOND; OF BROOKE COUNTY, VA. 
 
 Dear Sir, — Your letter was duly received, and you have my 
 best wishes for the success of your worthy undertaking. 
 
 The number of my flock at present exceeds one thousand. My 
 sheep are principally of the Spanish Merino blood. My first ad- 
 venture was in the fall of 1822, when I purchased seven ewes and 
 a buck of my brother, Charles Hammond, of Belmont county, 
 Ohio. His flock was bred directly from the flocks of Messrs. 
 Wells and Dickinson, of Steubenville. The buck that I obtained 
 of ray brother was an imported one, for which he paid Mr. 
 Dickinson eighty dollars ; he was quite old at the time I procured 
 liim. I have since then crossed my sheep with Saxony bucks 
 from Dutchess county. New York, but the result was not very- 
 favorable ; therefore, on the whole, I preferred the Merino. 
 
 The average weight of my clips is from 2| to 3 lbs. per head. 
 Our foddering season in this country is not less than four months, 
 and sometimes longer. I shelter all my sheep in the winter 
 season. I have two shed bams, one of which will accommodate 
 500, the other 300, and for the balance of the flock we make tern- 
 
420 APPENDLX. 
 
 porary sheds. I think there is no stock needs to be sheltered from 
 the storm more than sheep, as we are subject to very sudden 
 changes of weather in this cHmate during the winter months. 
 
 Of grain, we feed princij)ally corn and sheaf oats ; corn-cob 
 meal makes a very hearty feed. I have no doubt but sugar-beeta 
 and other roots might be raised and fed to great advantage here, 
 but we have not got into the way of ir yet. 
 
 I think the best flocks of sheep in the State are of the Spanish 
 Merino, though some of them have been crossed more or less with 
 the Saxony. In my opinion, the northwestern part of the State is 
 best adapted to sheep, the land being hilly, and a rich limestone 
 soil, well suited to the production of grass. 
 
 A half bushel of com to the hundred, or a dozen sheaves of oats 
 once a day, is about our rule of feeding grain. 
 
 On the subject of housing sheep, I am decidedly in favor of good 
 dry sheds for them ; my experience is, that sheep should not be 
 suffered to get wet in the wnter season. Last winter, I had 
 comfortable shelters for all my sheep, except one flock of about 
 200, which were exposed to the weather ; and I have no hesitation 
 in saying that they ate one-fourth more feed than any other flock 
 of the same number on the farm ; and the consequence of this ex- 
 posure was, that in the spring, when grass came, they were all 
 very poor, while the rest of my sheep were in good condition, 
 with full coats of wool on them. By feeding under sheds we save 
 all the manure, which is a very desirable object. 
 
 LETTER FROM ASAHEL B. HODSKINS, OF WALPOLE, N. HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 Dear Sir, — Your favor was duly received, in which you pro- 
 pound a series of questions, which I now proceed to answer to the 
 best of my ability. 
 
 My stock of sheep amounts to over 400 ; about one half of 
 which are pure Saxonies, bred from the importations of G. andT. 
 Searls, of Boston ; the residue were bred from pare Merinos, and 
 which have been crossed with Saxon bucks since 1825. 
 
 My sheep average 3 lbs. 2 oz. per head of clean washed wool, 
 which shrinks, in cleansing, from 22 to 25 per cent. I shelter my 
 sheep in winter. My shelter is formed by digging sufficiently 
 deep on a warm dry side hill, sloping to the south, and building a 
 smooth-faced stone wall, well pointed with lime mortar, below the 
 frost on the rear side, and across the ends and the middle, to sup- 
 port my baras, and rising 2^ feet above the ground on the rear 
 side, so as to fill against it to turn off water, and admit of a glass 
 window of 18 6x 8 glass. There are six divisions of my princi- 
 pal establishment, and one of these windows in each division, hung 
 to the sill of the barn, and turns upwards, to admit a fresh current 
 of air, which I think is indispensable to the health of sheep. On 
 
APPENDIX. 421 
 
 these walls are placed my bams, 126 feet long, with additional 
 supports between the divisions of a sill and posts, the whole facing 
 the south, with 12 feet doorway to each, and closed by four doors, 
 so as to shut the two bottom, and leave the top ones open, if 
 necessary. 
 
 [Mr. Hodskin's racks conform to cut No. 2. (See racks.)] 
 
 I do not give my sheep grain when I have good hay, except 
 wethers, which I fatten ; and to these I give 8 quarts of corn per 
 day, and one bushel of potatoes, cut fine. To my lambs 1 give 
 four bundles of oats per day to the one hundred. P^'or sc^me years 
 past I have given to my breeding ewes 5 pecks of potatoes every 
 other day, to the 100, from the time they were put in winter 
 quarters till turned to grass. Three weeks before my ewes drop 
 their lambs they are provided with 8 quarts of com, and the same 
 quantity of oats, which is fed between potato days. 
 
 I think sheep do better with a variety of food ; mine receive 
 hay three times per day, and once oat straw, the latter being fed 
 at night. I think they do much better thus fed than on hay only. 
 
 My lambs begin to drop about the 12th of April. I shut my 
 ewes under cover nights, while dropping their lambs, but when 
 grass begins to appear, I tum them out in fair weather, near by, 
 where I can see to them often. I do not lose on an average two 
 in 100 ; I reared this year 139 lambs from 140 ewes, and gave 
 three others away, which were twin lambs. 
 
 I think I have as hardy a flock of Saxonies as I ever saw of 
 Merinos, and are well fonned ; but there are other flocks in this 
 town as hardy as my own. I seldom lose a sheep except by dogs. 
 I do not know of a Merino flock, that produces so much money 
 per head as mine and some other Saxon flocks in this place. 
 
 I do not believe that there is a flock of ])ure Merinos in New 
 Hampshire ; as to Saxons, there is one small flock in this place 
 which are all piire, and several, a part only. A mixture of Me- 
 rino, native, and Saxon abound the most in this section. 
 
 I should have said, I never shut my sheep under cover in win- 
 ter, unless in some driving snow-storm, and never close my back 
 windows except when the weather is very severe. I think when 
 sheep are provided with a comfortable shelter, kept clean and 
 well littered, they will seek it, when needed. 
 
 I think salting another essential point of good management. 
 My practice is to keep salt by them in troughs, and intermixed 
 with a Httle flour of sulphur ; at other times, a little tar. Both of 
 these substances have a tendency to ward oft' scab, and other dis- 
 tempers. 
 
 I also practise immersing my lambs in a decoction of tobacco- 
 water, say 7 lbs. of tobacco to the 100, to destroy ticks ; besides, 
 it keeps the skin healthy. 
 
 36 
 
422 ' APPENDIX. 
 
 LETTER FROM MESSRS. PERKINS AND BROWN, OF AKRON, SUM- 
 MIT COUNTY, OHIO. 
 
 Dear Sir, — Your favor was received, and our reply will be as 
 brief as possible, and our remarks practical, so far as we are able 
 to make them. 
 
 We have about 1300 sheep, Saxon, and mixed-blooded, of 
 Saxon and Merino. We have never taken more than 59 lbs. of 
 wool from 20 head of our fine sheep ; but our flock is principally 
 ewes and lambs. We are so well aware of the great ditference in 
 the manner of fitting wool for market, that we deem the reports of 
 wool-growers in this particular as of very little value. We sup- 
 pose that kind of sheep (to the wool-grower) which not only pays 
 the most cash per head, but pay most per acre for the land they 
 occupy, to be the best breed. These remarks we do not intend for 
 those who can sell fat sheep and lambs to good account. 
 
 We take this opportunity to propose to those who keep fine 
 sheep, that, in order to determine where the best fine sheep may 
 be found, each man concerned furnish yearly a certain number 
 of fleeces — say not less than five bucks, 20 lambs, and 25 ewes — 
 to be cleansed by some manufactiu'er in the best manner, and the 
 cash value of each parcel to be determined by a committee of 
 three of the best manufacturers in the United States ; and fur- 
 ther, that each individual deposit with his wool from one to five 
 dollars towards the expense of cleansing, and publishing a full 
 statement, and the balance to be paid as a premium to him who 
 shall furnish 50 fleeces worth most in cash when cleansed ; or, 
 in other words, to him who shall furnish the greatest weight of 
 the most valuable jjure ivool per head from each of the kinds of 
 sheep mentioned. We would like to go into something of that 
 kind the present season. Who will join us ? 
 
 Our pure-blooded Saxons were from the flocks of Samuel WTiit- 
 man, of West Hartford, Conn. ; Col. Jenison, of Walpole, New 
 Hampshire ; and of Frederick Brandt, of Kilgore, Carroll county, 
 Ohio, who brought over his sheep in company with the late H. 
 D. Grove's, of Hoosic, New York. Our mixed-blooded sheep 
 were selected from some of the best flocks in the counties of 
 Washington and Beaver, in Pennsylvania, and from the counties 
 of Brooke and Ohio in Virginia, and from Columbiana and Stark 
 coimties in this State. 
 
 We keep more or less in a flock in summer and winter, accord- 
 ing to circumstances. We think the health of flocks depends, in 
 summer, more upon frequent change of pasture, than the number 
 of the flock ; but we have no doubt that the smaller the flock at 
 any season the better. We generally salt twice a week with 
 about three quarts to 100. We salt our hay when it is gathered. 
 What kind of pasture is best for sheep, we cannot well deter- 
 mine ; with us they appear to be most fond of timothy or herds 
 
APPENDIX. 423 
 
 grass. The amount of sheep per acre that our lands will keep, 
 varies much ; some of them will support five to the acre through 
 the year. Lands will average about 25 dollars per acre here; 
 and we think wool-growing, if the whole business was properly 
 managed, and the sales of wool made understandingly, might be 
 made equal to any other fanning business. 
 
 We put in our bucks from the 20th of Nov. to the 1st of Dec. 
 We probably raise 80 per cent, of lambs to the 100 ewes. For 
 the two last winters our flock suffered severely from worms in 
 the head ; before that our loss was merely nominal. We shelter 
 our slieeji. Any kind of shelter that will keep off the storms and 
 break the winds, and yet be airy, we use. 
 
 [Messrs. Perkins and Brown use box racks.] 
 
 We have as yet had no experience in the use of roots. We 
 feed the value of half a bushel of oats, or some kind of grain, 
 per day, to the hundred, unless we have them in as good condi- 
 tion as we wish them, without it ; or unless we have plenty of 
 fall feed on the ground, when the winter sets in ; in that case, we 
 want neither roots nor grain, except in extreme cases. We stall- 
 feed no sheep. 
 
 The most fatal of all diseases of which we have any experience, 
 is that occasioned by the fly {CEstris Ovis), causing the worm in 
 the head. There is also a disorder of the feet, the fouls, to which 
 our sheep are very subject in summer. It is very easily cured with 
 tar only, and indeed will go off" of itself, and is not in the least con- 
 tagious. Our homed cattle have the very same. We suppose it 
 to be entirely different irora foot-rot, but are not certain, as we have 
 no experience personally with that disease. [Messrs. Perkins and 
 Brown are right in their conjectures ; see Diseases of Sheep.] We 
 generally get along ^vith as good common care of our flock as we 
 can, with but very little in the way of medicine. 
 
 We think that most shepherds do not examine and compare 
 flocks enough to know what constitutes a good sheep ; and that 
 an animal combining constitution, quality of wool, as well as quan- 
 tity, would not be prefeiTed by thousands, at least of those who 
 think they understand the matter well. The last remark we sup- 
 pose to be the most valuable we can make. Our success must 
 mainly depend on our first learning what is a thoroughly good 
 animal, and in the next place, how to take good common care of 
 him, and finally, how to make the peculiar traits of a good sheep 
 as general in our flock as possible. We suppose, if our flock is not 
 what it should be, that we need a variety to make it so ; say very 
 fine sheep, very long-wooled sheep, and very thick-wooled sheep ; 
 each kind of good constitution, and given very much to wool, (i. e.) 
 woolly all over, in order to breed successfully. We believe any 
 traits may be imparted to a flock, and woiild like to see our brother 
 wool-growers getting clear, among other things, of that worse than 
 useless appendage, the horns. We think it best to class our ewes 
 for breeding, giving to our most perfect class our most perfect 
 
424 APPENDIX. 
 
 bucks, keeping a distinction afterwards in all lambs from that 
 class. For those ewes that are defective in any trait, we use 
 bucks that excel as much as possible in those traits ; but avoid 
 breeding in-and-in. We doubt not that Americans are capable 
 of as nice breeding as any other men on the globe, if they will but 
 apply in earnest to the matter, and not be governed by foolish prej- 
 udice and short-sighted selfishness. [The sentence would have 
 been complete, if the gentlemen had added criminal laziness.'] 
 One great hindrance to improvement is the strong relish many 
 have for the extravagant accounts that some give of the pro- 
 ceeds of their business, and the marvellous fine puffing they 
 give when they want others to buy of them. Sober realities will, 
 we believe, wear the best. 
 
 LETTER FROM E. KIRBY, OF EROWNVILLE, JEFFERSON CO., N. Y. 
 
 Dear Sir, — I am pleased to leam from your favor that you are 
 progressing with your treatise on sheep. I am necessarily so 
 much absent from home, that I have not been able to bestow such 
 careful attention upon all the details of sheep husbandry, as to 
 authorize me to set up for a teacher. I will confine myself, there- 
 fore, to a few general remarks, bearing on such points of the in- 
 quincs contained in your letter as I can speak to with some con- 
 fidence. 
 
 I have about 1500 sheep. I formed my flock nineteen years 
 ago, by the purchase of 500 high-grade Merinos, and by subse- 
 quent additions, which I endeavored to improve, after the fashion 
 of the time, by an infusion of Saxon blood, for which purpose I, 
 from time to time, purchased imported Saxon bucks. Having be- 
 come satisfied that the wool-buyers do not inake a just discrimina- 
 tion in price between fine wool and that of inferior grade, and 
 that the Spanish Merino, by reason of its heavier fleece, is a more 
 profitable sheep for the farmer, in this climate, than the Saxon, I 
 am endeavoring to get back to the Merino platform, or rather to 
 medium ground between it and the Saxon, which shall combine 
 the advantages of the fine staple of the Saxon wool with the 
 heavier fleeces, and more rugged constitution, of the Merino. 
 This may unquestionably be attained by proper care in breeding 
 these rival branches of the family together. 
 
 To this end, in 1842, I purchased a Rambouillet buck of D. C. 
 Collins, of Hartford, Conn. His stock promises to realize my 
 wishes. My yearlings of his getting are greatly admired ; one 
 buck, in especial, is a noble fellow. 1 lost my Rambouillet buck 
 in the spring of 1843 ; Mr. Collins kindly sent me another, which 
 I value highly. At the cattle show at Poughkeepsie, in Septem- 
 ber last, I purchased one of the Merino bucks exhibited by J. N. 
 Blakeslee, of Litchfield County, Conn., said to be of uncontanaina' 
 
APPENDIX. 425 
 
 ted descent from the importations of Gen. Humplireys and others. 
 I also, at the same time, purchased of S. W. Jewett, of Vermont, 
 one of the Merino bucks exhibited by liim. He is a fine animal, 
 of fair pretensions to purity of blood, as set forth in the certificates 
 recently published by H. S. Randall. In addition to these, I pro- 
 cured, in October last, two bucks and six ewes from Vermont. I 
 intended to get them from Consul Jarvis' well-known flock, but 
 they came from his neighborhood, with a warranty of purity of 
 blood ; but the warrant is not so reliable as if signed by Mr. Jar- 
 vis, who is well understood to have pure Merinos. 
 
 You have asked me to describe iny flock ; I have done so fully, 
 and you can judge of its character. I will now say something of 
 its treatment. Commencing the business of farming with more 
 zeal than experience, I fell into the common error, that sheep re- 
 quire no shelter in winter. The consequence was, that from this 
 cause, and perhaps allowing too great numbers to herd together, I 
 lost many evei'y winter for several years. From exposure to the 
 weather they became diseased, discharged mucus from the nos- 
 trils, and numbers perished miserably. The survivors came 
 through the winter greatly emaciated — ewes, from want of nour- 
 ishment for their lambs, would abandon them as soon as dropped, 
 and many of them perished also. 
 
 I soon became conscious of the improvidence, as well as cruelty, 
 of exposing these valuable animals to the pelting storms of our 
 severe winters, and set about providing shelter for them. I con- 
 tented myself at first with sheds open, or nearly so, at the sides, 
 which turned the rain and descending snow, but left the sheep ex- 
 posed to the cutting winds that prevail so frequently in the winter 
 months. I continued to improve upon these structures, till now 
 my sheds are carefully enclosed on all sides, with an opening near 
 each end, for free ingress and egress, and made comfortable by 
 frequent litterings of straw. 
 
 Instead of the severe losses I used to sustain, I now have the 
 satisfaction of wintering my sheep with very little loss at all, and 
 that confined to the old and infinn. I am as well persuaded of 
 the importance of providing shelter for sheep, in this rigorous cli- 
 mate, from the storms of winter, as of any other ascertained fact. 
 Its necessity is indicated, as well by the instinct which invariably 
 leads them in bad weather to seek the shelter of fences, thickets, 
 or the lee of bams, as by the fatal effects of exposure. The ad- 
 vantages of this sort of protection may be summed up in the pres- 
 ervation of health, consumption of less food, better fleeces, and 
 more lambs. 
 
 My sheep are usually divided into lots of about 100 each for 
 vdnter quarters, though sometimes as many as 150 are allowed 
 to run together ; but the smaller the divisions the better. They 
 are fed on hay, corn-stalks, straw, peas, oats, com, oil-meal or 
 shorts, according to circumstances. Sometimes portions of them 
 rough it through the winter on hay alone. I have never fed them 
 
 36* 
 
42td APPENDIX. 
 
 vnth. rutabaga or other roots, except to a small extent, witli pota- 
 toes. I am not so systematic and careful in feeding grain as to 
 make it worth while to go into details. This winter I am feeding 
 two flocks of 100 each with hay at morning and evening, and five 
 half pints each of still-slops at noon. The slops cost me 17^ cents 
 for 100 gallons, and the expense of hauling them from the distille- 
 ry, distant about 60 rods. The sheep are thriving under this treat- 
 ment, but I am not clear that it is more economical than feeding 
 grain. I feed out much less grain now than I did in former years, 
 when my sheep were exposed to the weather without shelter, and 
 the sheep do much better now without it than they did with it. 
 
 [Mr. Kirby's racks are of the box kind.] In wet weather it is 
 of great advantage to be able to fodder under shelter. I have 
 abandoned the practice of salting my hay, except when compelled, 
 by stress of weather, to house it before it is thoroughly cured. 
 My sheep are salted about once a week the year round, and in- 
 stead of giving them tar as recommended by some persons, I oc- 
 casionally strew the yards with pine boughs, which they are 
 fond of. 
 
 I regard the fall management of lambs one of the most im- 
 portant branches of sheep husbandry. Having paid for my ex- 
 perience on this point as well as that of winter shelter, I can 
 s]Deak with confidence. They should be separated from their 
 dams about the first of September, and with a few old sheep, that 
 require nursing, turned to the best pasture. Care should be 
 taken that they are not stinted till removed to winter quarters, 
 when they should have a small allowance of grain or oil-meal, 
 in addition to a plentiful supply of good hay. As soon as the 
 pasture begins to fail the ration of grain should be supplied. By 
 neglecting to provide suitable pasture for a lot of upwards of 
 100 very superior lambs one season, I lost the greater part of 
 them the ensuing winter. My utmost efforts, after I discovered 
 the en'or, were of no avail. I gave them a comfortable shed, 
 plenty of litter, good hay, a regular allowance of meal, and free 
 access to water ; but they never recovered, and the greater part 
 died before spring. 
 
 My bucks and ewes are put together about the first of Decem- 
 ber. The flock which I keep at my home bam, under my own 
 eye, and from which I raise bucks for the supply of my own, 
 and many of my neighbors' flocks, is managed in this way. The 
 ewes in lots of 20 to 35 are placed in separate pens, and a select 
 buck is turned into each pen, where they are kept together 15 or 
 20 days. The ewes in each pen are marked with a letter in tar 
 and lampblack, to indicate what buck they were served by. At 
 shearing time, the best buck lambs are selected, and receive a 
 mark to denote their origin. 
 
 In my judgment, water is as essential to sheep as it is to any 
 other animal. They will go through the winter on snow instead 
 of water, and so would a man or a horse, if compelled by neces- 
 
APPENDIX. 427 
 
 sity to do so ; but either would prefer to have it thawed before 
 vising it, rather than perform that ofRce in his bowels. 
 
 When my sheep run in large flocks without shelter, they were 
 occasionally affected with the scab, but since I have provided com- 
 fortable sheds for them, they have been troubled with no serious 
 disease. This climate is well suited to sheep. 
 
 I.ETTER FROM STEPHEN ATWOOD, OF WOODBURY, CONNECTICUT. 
 
 Dear Sir, — I have made, agreeably to your request, diligent in- 
 quiries respecting the varieties of Merinos imported by General 
 Humphre3's, but can learn nothing definite on the subject. I was 
 17 years old at the time of their arrival in this country, and think 
 Gen. H. called them Paulars ; but of this I cannot be positive. 
 I purchased a ewe from his flock, for which I paid him 120 dol- 
 lars, and put her to bucks sold by him into my immediate neigh- 
 borhood, and her descendants to bucks raised from his ewes, until 
 about 15 years ago ; since then I have used bucks of my own 
 raising. I have now a small flock of Merinos, in number about 
 150, about half of which are ewes, and the other half bucks and 
 wethers. They will consume through the winter about 18 tons 
 of hay. I feed the ewes, once a day, half a gill of com and oats 
 mixed, from the first of December until the first of May. I feed 
 the lambs the above given time with half the quantity mentioned ; 
 the rest of the flock hay only. I wash my sheep as clean as I 
 can in the river, and let them run 6 or 8 days, and then shear 
 them; we generally shear from 10 to 15 per day; indeed, I never 
 hired a man that sheared as many as 20 in one day. My ewes 
 will shear yearly 5 lbs. of wool per head, my lambs 5 lbs. each, 
 ai.d wethers 6 lbs. ; my bucks will shear from 7 to 9 lbs. per 
 head. The heaviest ewe fleece last spring was 6 lbs. 6 oz., and 
 the heaviest buck fleece 12 lbs. 4 oz. I tag my sheep in the 
 spring, but not so thoroughly as you do. The buck I sold you 
 was finer than my others would average. You will confess, 
 doubtless, that he is a noble animal. Since I began my full- 
 blood flock, I have had three important properties in view to com- 
 bine, viz., constitution, quantity, and quality ; my success has at 
 least been satisfactory to myself. 
 
 LETTER FROM ABNER BROWN, OF NORTHEAST, DUTCHESS 
 COUNTY, NEW YORK. 
 
 Dear Sir, — Yours I have duly received, and now with pleasure 
 proceed to answer some of your interrogatories. 
 
 My flock of fine-wooled sheep is small, averaging for the last 
 
428 APPENDIX. 
 
 10 years probably 160. I usually shear about 3 lbs. of wool per 
 head, and in the spring clip about 14 lbs. of tags from 100 sheep. 
 I much prefer washing in a stream of running water ; I think 
 this mode is easier for the washer, and there is less risk of injuring 
 the animal. Experienced and skilful shearers will sometimes 
 shear 30 per day, and do their work well ; but those workmen 
 who manifest carelessness, or recklessness in regard to the com- 
 fort of sheep, should be immediately discharged. I think that 
 from seventy-five to one hundred is as many as should herd to- 
 gether in the winter season. The building for shelter should be 
 enclosed, with doors to open and shut, as circumstances may re- 
 quire, on the south side. I deem it of vital importance, that 
 sheep have easy access to water, during the winter season. If 
 the water is not convenient to the sheep-barn, and cannot be 
 brought there, then carry the bam to the water. Some assert 
 that sheep will live in winter if they can get snow ; this is true, 
 and it is equally true, more or less will die too. Many diseases 
 are induced by depriving sheep of water. 
 
 After haying, I scrape my sheep-yards, and carry the manure 
 on to my meadows, before the rowen starts much ; in that way I 
 often double the quantity of hay, besides improving the quality. 
 [Mr. Brown made an experiment, which satisfied him, that nothing 
 is gained by feeding fine-wooled sheep grain, provided they are 
 well cared for during the whole year, and fed enough of the best 
 quality of hay.] 
 
 I think the Saxon sufficiently hardy to endure our hard winters 
 with that care and attention which may easily be given to all 
 dumb beasts in the dt)mestic line, intrusted to reasonable and ra- 
 tional man. It is true that fanners sometimes, either by breed- 
 ing in-and-in, or by making an injudicious cross, will obtain an 
 unsightly, ill-shapen, narrow-chested animal, with weak vitals, 
 that will lie down and die at almost any time. But I have not 
 lost over one per cent, annually, for the last ten years, and with 
 large flocks, properly managed, no greater loss will accrue. Suc- 
 cess must ever depend on good judgment and skill in management. 
 [Nothing more true.] 
 
 My lambs usually drop in the field in pleasant weather ; but if 
 the weather is stormy or cold, the ewes are placed in the sheep- 
 fold. We usually raise 95 per cent, of lambs from mature ewes. 
 
 The fine-wooled sheep are generally cultivated in this county 
 now ; but there are some Bakewells, Lincolns, Cotswolds, and 
 a few of the beautiful South Downs ; there seems to be a prevail- 
 ing desire among fanners in this vicinity to get the pure Sax- 
 ons. [Mr. B. uses a tobacco decoction to destroy ticks ; his local- 
 ity is well adapted to sheep, diseases being very rare ; cures the 
 stretches by the use of castor oil ; land is worth, in his town, from 
 45 to 60 dollars per acre.] 
 
APPENDIX. 429 
 
 LETTER FROM JESSE EDINGTON, OF HOLLIDAY's COVE, VIRGINIA. 
 
 Dear Sir, — [Mr. Edington states, that his flock was formed by 
 the purchase, in 1821, of 200 superior ewes, descended from Gen. 
 Humphreys' importation, and subsequently by a portion of the 
 celebrated flock of Messrs. Wells and Dickinson, of Ohio.] These 
 flocks form the basis of my present flock of 3000, and they also 
 form the basis of nearly all the fine sheep in this region of country. 
 
 My sheep are kept in flocks of about 200 each. They are fed 
 on hay and com ; say 5 tons to the 100, and at the rate of 50 
 bushels of com for that number, which is fed in troughs, and half 
 a bushel per day. Housing I think is necessary to protect the 
 animal from drenching rains in winter, as frequent wetting of the 
 wool renders the tops stiff' and rotten, and the whole fleece harsh 
 and apparently coarse ; moreover, injures the health of the sheep, 
 and requires more provender to sustain them. In severely cold 
 weather, they should be kept closely housed, and exposed only for 
 the purpose of obtaining water. [Mr. E. is located near the Ohio 
 river, and raises considerable com, the stalks of which he feeds his 
 sheep during winter.] I raised a considerable crop of sugar-beet, 
 which is excellent food for sheep, but expensive, compared with 
 com. Hay and corn I think, upon the whole, the cheapest, best, 
 and most convenient feed for large flocks, with some oats occa- 
 sionally. 
 
 My average yield for the last 5 years does not exceed 2^ lbs. 
 per head, having 700 lambs, 800 to 1000 ewes, and the greater 
 part of the flock not full grown. I raise about 75 lambs from the 
 100 ewes. 
 
 I wash in the Ohio river, which is generally very clear and soft, 
 with a pretty strong current. We put about 150 in a ferry boat, 
 anchored a short distance in the stream, where three or four hands 
 wash over the sides of the boat. In this way, a sheep can be 
 washed pretty clean in about two minutes, and then they are per- 
 mitted to s\vim ashore, which removes all remaining dirt and 
 grease from the wool. They are then piit on a clean sward from 
 4 to 8 days before shearing. The wool, washed in that way, will 
 be some 20 per cent, lighter than if washed in cold, limestone 
 water. [Mr. Edington's bams are spacious and convenient, but 
 his description is omitted.] I put my rams to the ewes the first 
 week in November, and permit two or three to the 100 ewes. 
 The rams remain with them about four weeks, and during this time 
 they are fed 2 gills of corn a day, or twice that quantity of oats, 
 which is continued for a month after their separation from the 
 ewes. 
 
 Our best pasture is spear grass {poa pratensis), which grows 
 spontaneously on our rich lands, and will last the year round ; for 
 early and late grazing, white clover is uncertain. We are obliged 
 to fodder some five months of the year. I sold my crop of wool 
 
430 APPENDIX, 
 
 of 1830 to Messrs. Bullock and Davis, at 75 cents per lb., which 
 amounted to 6,400 dollars. I raised that year 900 lambs, and 
 sold 800 sheep for 2,500 dollars. [If Mr. Edington's success has 
 been in proportion to this statement since the period he mentions, 
 is it not highly encouraging to our Southern brethren to under- 
 take his vocation, of growing fine wool ?] 
 
 LETTER FROM SAMUEL GRANT, OF WALPGLE, N. HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 Dear Sir, — Your esteemed favor of the 16th came to hand a 
 few days since. I ain gratified to learn that a work of the nature 
 you mention, so much needed by wool-growers, is about to be 
 published. 
 
 My flock at present numbers between 800 and 900, Saxony, 
 Merino, and half-bloods, the Saxons, perhaps, predominating. 
 My Saxons are jpwre-blooded, bred from the flocks imported by 
 Searle and Kratzman, in 1829. For the last three or four years, 
 I have crossed part of iny flock with Jarvis Merinos. My fleeces 
 averaged last season 3 lbs. 6 oz. well-washed wool, which, con- 
 sidering the number of Saxony fleeces, is a fair average. My 
 sheep (and this will apply to every lot in town) are closely shel- 
 tered in winter, and all have pure water in abundance at all 
 times. This I consider absolutely necessary. I feed in racks, 
 under the hay -lofts, with coiTesponding openings above, where hay 
 is carefully shaken down, at least three times a day. Hay is the 
 principal article of food. I have sometimes fed straw alone, with 
 a bushel of potatoes, (cut by machine) to 100 ewes, with good 
 success. The smallest, poorest lambs are selected at the begin- 
 ning of the winter season, and usually fed with the better kinds 
 of hay, rowen, &c., together with perhaps half a pint oats each 
 per day. I feed either potatoes or oats liberally to ewes, four to 
 six weeks before they commence having lambs ; litter the folds 
 well with straw, at all times, to make them comfortable, and to 
 increase the quantity of manure. I fatten generally with com 
 — dislike potatoes for this purpose. We are careful to waste no 
 hay, every particle is eaten, when the quality is good; feeding 
 without racks I consider slovenly and wasteful. We tend our 
 bucks when put to ewes, permitting them to serve 6 or 8 per day, 
 and are careful to feed their lordships high ; they seldom exceed 
 100 ewes, going but once to the same ewe. We are partial to, 
 and take good care of our bucks throughout the year. I have 
 used this fall a Merino buck which sheared the past season 13i 
 lbs. washed wool. 
 
 The Saxons are not considered too tender for this region. We 
 are obliged to treat them carefully, but find no difficulty at all in 
 rearing them. Our ewes seldom foal out of doors, except per- 
 haps during the day, at which time they have the limits of the 
 
APPENDIX. 431 
 
 yard. We oftentimes raise 94 to 98 lambs from an liimdred ewes. 
 The price of pure Saxony ewes varies from two to four dollars. 
 There are no diseases among sheep at present in this quarter, ex- 
 cept perhaps some cases of foot-rot. The best remedy for this 
 disease is, first, paring the hoofs closely, and then apply a wash 
 composed of the following ingredients : say, 4 oz. blue vitriol, 2 
 oz. verdigris to a junk bottle of urine. This is " sure fire." 
 
 I have no means of ascertaining accurately the amount of hay 
 necessary for 100 sheep during the winter; I should think at 
 least 12 or 13 tons. We are in the habit of dipping our sheep in 
 a strong decoction of tobacco, immediately after sheaiing, for the 
 purpose of destroying ticks. We give salt weekly, but never feed 
 tar. 
 
 [The feeding-racks of Mr. Grant conform to the cut Fig. 2, 
 to whom, with Mr. Hodskins, the writer is indebted for the de- 
 sign.] 
 
 At the time Searle and Kratzman imported their sheep, some- 
 thing like 1000 of the very best grades were selected in Germany, 
 and from this lot about 150 again selected and reserved for them- 
 selves, being the cream of the entire flock. This last very supe- 
 rior lot were given into my hands to keep, and eventually became 
 mine. 
 
 LETTER FROM JACOB N. BLAKESLEE, OF WATERTOWN, LITCH- 
 FIELD COUNTY, CONN. 
 
 Dear Sir, — Your favor has been received, in which you ex- 
 press a wish to know the pedigree of my flock of Merinos, and 
 some particulars as to my mode of management. In reference to 
 pedigree, I must refer you to a statement of mine on the subject, 
 and published in the Nov. number of the Albany Cultivator of 
 1844. [The follo\ving is an extract :] "My pure bloods are the 
 offspringof someof the first that ever came into the United States, 
 brought into the country by David Humphreys in 1802, which were 
 a present to his wife by her father. After a few years, two pairs 
 of them were purchased by Daniel Bacon, of Woodbuiy, Litch- 
 field county. They were kept in their pure state till 1811. There 
 was then an importation of the Guadaloupe sheep by a company 
 formed in Litchfield county ; John De Forest, supercargo. They 
 arrived at New Haven, and were sold at auction, Jan. 17, 1811. 
 There was one full-blooded Escurial buck, which was purchased 
 by Daniel Bacon at $275, and was crossed upon those sheep that 
 came by the way of Mrs. Humphreys. He continued this cross 
 till 1816 or 1817, when he sold his Escurial buck to WiUiam K. 
 Lampson for $1,1.30. He kept his sheep pure till the introduc- 
 tion of Saxony sheep. He then sold the remainder of his flock to 
 Daniel Martin. I began a flock of sheep in 1815, that were im- 
 
432 APPENDIX. 
 
 ported by Peck & Atwater, New Haven. A part of them were 
 the Negretti and a part Montarco. I let them run together till 
 1823. I then procured the use of a buck for three seasons, bred 
 by Daniel Bacon from his Escurial buck. The average weight 
 of the fleeces of the stock from this buck was four pounds, and 
 the wool brought me ten cents a pound more than the original 
 stock. In 1828 I purchased a buck that was raised by Daniel 
 Bacon. From that time down to the present, I have kept that 
 blood pure ; this flock is now a cross of three sorts of Spanish 
 sheep, and perfectly clear from native or Saxony blood. My 
 farm is not a healthy farm for sheep, and of course they are a lit- 
 tle under size. They are a full, round, handsome-bodied sheep, 
 with shortish legs and a very round neck. They have veiy 
 heavy fleeces for their size. Their wool is a long staple, a great 
 deal of crimp, and very compact at the outer end. They have 
 generally wool about their face and on their legs down to their 
 feet. After taking great pains to wash them, the average weight 
 of their fleeces this season was three pounds and a half, and there 
 are very few flocks of Saxony sheep any finer. Mr. Samuel Law- 
 rence, of Lowell, who has had this wool for four seasons past, has 
 given his opinion that there is no Merino wool that compares with 
 it. This improvement has been made by a cross of the different 
 breeds. I am decidedly of the opinion that there is no full-blood 
 animal equal to a cross ; the reason I give is, that there is no per- 
 fect animal on the face of this earth : where an animal is imper- 
 fect, you can never remedy the defect by the use of an animal 
 that has the same defect." 
 
 I have for the last ten years kept from four to six hundred 
 sheep, but they were not all of the breed of which I have given 
 the pedigree. My last clip from my pure bloods averaged just 3i 
 lbs. per head, exclusive of tag-wool. I raise from 90 to 95 lambs 
 £o the 100 ewes. My lambs are dropped in the month of March, 
 and of course during that time the ewes are protected. My best 
 buck went to 160 ewes the present season, and was fed high du- 
 ring service ; 50 ewes are enough for one buck, if he is permitted 
 to run altogether with them. My sheep generally are fed in the 
 open field in the winter season, having sheds, however, to run 
 under when it suits them. My practice is to confine them to 
 hay mostly, except my ewes, before and during their yeaning, 
 when they are grained. I feed grain also to my feeble sheep. I 
 think a change of food very conducive to the health of a flock, 
 and I conform to this opinion as far as possible. In regard to other 
 particulars of management, I probably differ so little from the 
 practice of many other wool-growers, that it is needless, perhaps, 
 to enter into further details. My attention is not confined to rais- 
 ing of sheep, but for years past have bred many cattle and 
 horses ; the former is of" the Devon blood. 
 
APPENDIX. 433 
 
 LETTER FROM STEPHEN SIBLEY, OF HOPKINTON, NEW HAMP- 
 SHIRE. 
 
 Dear Sir, — In answer to yours of the 14th inst., I will say that 
 my flock of sheep is of the Saxon breed, and at this time numbers 
 three hundred ; before my sales in the fall, it usually reaches 
 from three hundred seventy-five to four hundred. 1 began my 
 flock in the fall of eighteen hundred and twenty-one, with a few 
 Merinos which originated from a flock imported into this country 
 from Spain, and kept in the neighborhood of Newburyport, Mass., 
 by a gentleman of the name of Gorham Parsons. 1 bred in the 
 same flock several years, and then procured and put to my sheep 
 an imported Merino buck. In the summer of 1826 a cargo of 
 very fine Saxony sheep was imported into Boston, and sold at 
 Brighton, Mass. A friend of mine in Hillsborough county in this 
 State attended the sale and bought two bucks, one of which I 
 purchased immediately after his return. In 1828 I introduced 
 into my flock a few Saxony ewes. The piincipal importers of 
 Saxony sheep into New England were two gentlemen of Boston 
 by the name of Searle. They purchased in Saxony, for their own 
 use, one hundred ewes and four bucks, without regard to price. 
 That flock was taken to Walpoie, N. H., by Samuel Grant, who 
 eventually became the owner of it, and from that stock I drew my 
 male breeders from 1832 to 1839. I hkewise bought of the same 
 gentleman a few of his most approved ewes. In the fall of 1839, 
 I visited the celebrated flock of Electoral Saxony sheep of the 
 late Henry D. Grove, of Hoosic, New York, and bought of that 
 gentleman forty-seven ewes and three bucks. Since my purchase 
 of Mr. Grove, I have introduced no sheep from abroad into my 
 flock, for I am satisfied it cannot be done from any flock in this 
 country, without producing a retrograde. I am an equal owner 
 with another person of a silver medal, awarded for the finest 
 American wool by the American Institute at the city of New 
 York in 1838. The Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic As- 
 sociation also awarded to me a splendid gold medal for the finest 
 American wool in 1841. 
 
 My sheep are small, beautifully proportioned, and perfectly 
 healthy. I shear per head on aa average, after tagging three 
 ounces from each, about two pounds of wool. I dispose of all 
 my wethers as young as possible to give place to breeders, which 
 are more profitable. Were I to keep a usual proportion of full- 
 grown males it would bring up my average to about two and a 
 half pounds. I have made it a rule for about twenty years to 
 cull from my flock every coarse and ordinary ewe, and breed from 
 the finest only, with the utmost care as to male parentage. I 
 make the month of May my yeaning month, for I have never 
 known a delicately fine-wooled sheep that came in the winter. Cli- 
 mate has an effect, and a very great one, on our flocks, as regards 
 
 37 
 
434 APPENDIX. 
 
 the quality of wool. All agree that a cold climate is calculated 
 to produce a finer, softer, and more abundant covering for the 
 animal creation, than a hot one, and for that reason a lamb that is 
 dropped in May, or the fore part of June, will produce more, and 
 better, wool than one that comes in the fall or fore part of winter. 
 By allowing the male to go to the female in December, we have 
 the whole of the winter for the formation of the animal, and with 
 all the other parts every fibre of wool is formed, and the lamb is 
 fitted for a cold climate, with a fleece of the finest and warmest 
 kind. After the perfect formation and production of the animal, 
 the heat of our summers produces no change in the quality of the 
 wool, or, if any, it is so slight as to be wholly unperceived. 
 Sheep that are at all times kept in a perfectly healthy condition, 
 continue to produce wool equally fine, soft, and beautiful, year af- 
 ter year, till visited by old age, and then, like the hair of an aged 
 person, it becomes in some degree more harsh and rigid. Were 
 we to provide for the birth of lambs in December, gestation would 
 be going on during the heat of summer, and nature, true to her 
 work, would prepare the lamb with a hairy, coarse covering, 
 suited to a warm climate. The broken surface, the dry summers, 
 and steadily cold winters of New England, New York, Pennsylva- 
 nia, seem admirably adapted to the perfect development of all the 
 valuable properties of the sheep ; and it is certainly true that the 
 oflspring of the Spanish and Saxony sheep that have been judi- 
 ciously managed, and bred in this section of country, now produce 
 wool more open and free, and more elastic and delicately fine, 
 than the imported original stock. It is not known that any per- 
 son in this country has gone into a minute calculation of the 
 greater or less increase of wool arising from different kinds of 
 food ; nor is it necessary, for Providence itself attends to this bu- 
 siness, and it will not lead the husbandman astray if he furaishes 
 his flock with a variety of food such as their appetites crave. The 
 disposition of sheep prompts them to range over a precipitous 
 country, where herbage is various and territory extensive. No 
 domestic animal feeds upon so many kinds of plants as the sheep, 
 ner does any so quickly pine by confinement to any one kind. 
 Peculiarity of pasture may have some effect upon the fleece, 
 making it finer or coarser, so far as it affects the general health 
 of the sheep, and no farther. The most perfect and valuable wool 
 that can be produced is from sheep that are neither over-fat nor 
 miserably lean, but in a perfectly healthy condition. The main 
 and almost entire reliance for the improvement of the wool of our 
 flocks is in judicious selection, season of breeding, patience, and 
 the shepherd's unceasing attention. By a long and imdeviating 
 course in these practices, our best flocks may be made to yield 
 fleeces that will not suffer by a comparison with the finest the 
 world produces ; and thus the avaricious may gratify his desire, 
 and the patriotic be prouder of his country. 
 
 During the inclemency of our winters sheep should be well 
 
APPENDIX. 435 
 
 sheltered, but the stalls at all times well ventilated and made to 
 accommodate not more than one hundred. The wethers ought not 
 to be allowed to go in the stalls with the ewes in w inter, nor the 
 lambs the first season of foddering with either. The cribs should 
 be swept daily and replenished with hay, cut in proper season 
 and perfectly dried, and made from all the usual kinds of our 
 grasses — the more kinds the better, not excluding the sour ones 
 that grow upon our low lands ; and weeds and vines may also be 
 included to advantage. In addition to hay, about 12 quarts of 
 Indian com or an equivalent of smaller grain ought to be fed 
 daily to a hundred ewes, during three or four weeks in the rut- 
 ting, and four or five weeks in yeaning season — beginning the lat- 
 ter tenn three weeks before yeaning. Lambs ought to be fed 
 during the whole of the first winter with about six quarts of com 
 or its equivalent, daily, to the hundred. Wethers full grown and 
 healthy will pass the winter very well without grain. 
 
 That management may be perfect, it is very essential that ex- 
 ercise, fresh air, and green food, should be given our flocks through 
 all the winter, and as often as four or five times each week. This 
 can best be done by driving them to the woods where they can 
 browse from the bushes, or boughs pendant from large trees. If 
 the browse is beyond their reach, it ought to be cut for them and 
 placed in rows from which they can conveniently feed without the 
 privilege of running over it. No snow is so deep as to prevent 
 this being done, for, led by the shepherd, they make their own paths 
 and use them when needed. If browsing sheep is not practicable 
 with all wool-growers, they certainly can give their flocks exer- 
 cise in some other way, and green food also, by deahng out to 
 them potatoes, or some kind of turnips, which will be better than 
 nothing green ; turnips, however, are not regarded in this place 
 conducive to the growth of wool. 
 
 In the season of shearing, sheep ought to be washed as clean as 
 possible in soft running water, and their fleeces suffered to dry on 
 them, and then become a very little moist with the oil of the ani- 
 mal before shearing. No definite time can be fixed between 
 washing and shearing, for that depends on the weather. The honest 
 wool-grower will readily decide on the proper time to shear, and 
 be careful that his sheep do not wallow in the sand-bank or upon 
 ploughed ground, after the disappearance of snow in the spring, 
 and before shearing. 
 
 Sheep of the Merino and Saxon family are smaller than most 
 other kinds, but they produce the finest wool known in this or any 
 other country. The size and quantity of wool per head has been 
 an objection to these sheep by some. It is calculated that if the 
 cash income of a large, coarse, individual sheep is greater than 
 that of a small, fine one, the coarse sheep are most profitable to the 
 wool-grower. These partial calculations are delusive ; for it re- 
 quires the same, or nearly the same quantity and quality of food 
 
436 APPENDIX. 
 
 to produce a pound of wool or a pound of mutton, whether it be 
 given to a large or a small sheep. The rational and safe basis on 
 which a profit is to be calculated and derived, is upon the quan- 
 tity and cost of food and the greater value of wool and mutton 
 produced therefrom. Fine sheep, ever since their introduction into 
 New England, have been duly valued by some, and they are now 
 coming into more general favor — the demand and price steadily 
 increasing. 
 
 The American who shall publish a work on Sheep Husbandr}'-, 
 such as is needed and shall be approved, will do a greater service 
 to his country than all the furious politicians in it, and secure to 
 himself a name as durable as our granite, while theirs pass from 
 the world like shadows. I heartily wish you all the success due 
 to your laudable undertaking. 
 
 LETTER FROM SAMUEL LAWRENCE, OF LOWELL, MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 Dear Sir, — ****** That the properties of wool 
 are affected by herbage and soil, I have not a doubt, and were it 
 not invidious, I would name some sections where wool-growers are 
 greatly favored by nature. One thing is certain, whatever may 
 be the character of the soil, where there are good shepherds there 
 is sure to be found good wool. By judicious selections and cross- 
 ing, I believe a breed may be reared which will give 4 lbs. of ex- 
 quisitely fine wool to the fleece. 
 
 We can make a fine cloth from a long staple, if the felting prop- 
 erty is right. 
 
 As a general remark, the wool of this country is badly put up, 
 the sheep are not properly washed, then they are allowed to run 
 too long after washing before being sheared ; and what is worse, 
 the " tags and stuff'" are rolled up inside the fleece, and tied Avith 
 tow yarn, or heavy twine in enormous quantities. There are 
 honorable exceptions to this usage, and the names of the parties I 
 should like to show up as models for their inferiors to imitate. 
 Manufacturers are quite as much to blame in this business as 
 wool-growers ; they have seldom made sufficient difference in 
 prices between wool in good and bad condition. 
 
 The woollen manufacture of this country is on a more perma- 
 nent base than at any former period of its history, as there are 
 engaged in it more men of character and property, and the 
 amount of skill employed is very great. Should anything be 
 done to injure the present excellent tariff', the wool-grower will re- 
 ceive the blow. Our works are in full operation as usual, and if 
 we have no accidents, shall work over a million of pounds this 
 year. We are preparing to extend our works by the addition of 
 
APPENDIX, 437 
 
 a new mill, which will require from three to four hundred thou- 
 sand pounds more per annum ; this will not be completed till the 
 fall of 1846. 
 
 If the wool-growers of this country will carry on their business 
 with as much heart and spirit as the Middlesex Company, the 
 time is not distant when we shall export woollens to foreign 
 countries. 
 
 37* 
 
3477