Class. IS S-AIS. Book ,H gi? GcpigM^? COFXRIGHT DEPOSIT. - 'ft ! -: *' fnMwu> ii uu.,M,\,vk mmmgmmBBB ' A i it 1*1— I •T^-o / _ £ - ■■;.. .'■ ' -.,. v&S&t^&tftttefr.rZ mm -.* !.«■«.»■ le.^.- ., ...^j.. -=-— - — ^ ipn hi nn IB? Wf%& THE WINDOW OP SELIM-SHISTI S MONUMENT. From a painting by V. Verestchagin. By permission of the American Art Association. [Copyright, 1888, by W. Kurtz.] .. I N DI K A THE COUNTRY AND THE PEOPLE OF INDIA AND CEYLON / BY JOHN F. HLTKST, D.D., LL.D. WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS SEP : / INGT Bengal W E The Briton rules this whole territory, either in direct sov- ereignty or by feudal grasp. Numbers count but little. It is a question of brain, gunpowder, and muscle. The ratio of the ruler to the subject is no longer a secret. There are in India one hundred and forty thousand Englishmen, civilians and soldiers. Out 'of this number there are nine hundred members of the Cov- enanted Service. These last are the administrators of the gov- ernment of all India. Less than a thousand men, therefore, Britons all, govern two hundred and fifty millions of Indian na- tives. No questions are asked. Each class well understands the other. England rules far India more easily than near Ireland. The first appearance of India in the general and prominent history of nations was when the Aryans conquered and ruled the country. They, far off as they seem to us, were only later comers into the attractive valleys of the Ganges and the Indus. From the Aryan to the Englishman the path has been long, and many have walked in it. The Mohammedans, or Persian Moguls, the Portuguese, the Dutch, the Danes, the French, and THE ANGLO-SAXON IN INDIA.— HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS. 33 then the English, have each stepped upon the golden shore, and claimed the land for themselves.* But they have all dropped aside, excepting only the Anglo-Saxon. This man, of inevitable destiny, coming latest and profiting by the mishaps of all his pred- ecessors, has caught the secret of staying. He is now as much at home in Madras as in Piccadilly. He sits at the table of Watson's Hotel in Bombay, and eats his curry and rice, and slings his gun across his shoulder for a day's hunt around the waters of Surat, with a couple of kulis to follow his every step with such collected air that one would think this latest master had discov- ered the country and invented all its industries. India is already THE "LAKSHMIDAS KHIMJI KAPAD BAZAR," A CLOTH MARKET IN BOMBAY. and permanently Saxon. Scratch a Hindu and you reach an Englishman. What is the Hindu but the Aryan who first es- tablished himself in India, say five thousand years ago ? What is the Anglo-Saxon but an Aryan who settled in Europe and began the central chapters in the world's general history ? He is the same Aryan, whether on the banks of the Ganges, the Weser, the Thames, the Seine, or the Hudson. When the Anglo-Saxon went to India, in the person of wild Robert Clive, it was only the Aryan going back to the old homestead, as Alexander did * Lethbridge, " Short Manual of the History of India," p. 244. 34 INDIKA. over twenty centuries ago. When the German Ziegenbalg went to Tranquebar with his printing-press, and Carey went to Ser- ampore with his open Bible, it was an Aryan visitation, to renew acquaintance with long-separated kinsmen. It was good advice which Hafiz, the Persian poet, born in the original Aryan home, gave to his brothers who had suffered from violent hands. It were well if the conquered India of these last days would bless the hand which offers gifts better than the sword. " Learn from Orient shell to love thy foe, And store with pearls the hand that brings thee woe; Free, like yon rock, from base vindictive pride, Emblaze with gems the wrist that rends thy side. Mark where yon tree rewards the stony shower With fruit nectareous, or the balmy flower. All nature calls aloud, ' Shall man do less Than heal the smiter and the railer bless ?' " CHAPTER YI. INDIA IN HISTORY. I. — The Original Inhabitants. The first inhabitants of India of whom we have even the most vague traces bear no general name, but are grouped under the general term of non- Aryans. They consisted of three great stocks : the Tibeto-Burman tribes, which came down into India LORD CLIVE. (From the painting in the Government House, Calcutta.) from the northeastern gateway of the Himalayas, and still cling to the eastern ranges ; the Kolarian tribes, which also entered by the same gateway, and still live in the hilly northeastern re- 36 INDIKA. gion ; and the Draviclian tribes, which entered by the northeast- ern gateway, and drifted southward, and whose posterity still occupy the southernmost part of India.* If we may judge by the rude remains of these elementary tribes, war was their chief occupation. Some of them were wild savages. They were not acquainted with the use of metals, and their rough flint weapons and agate knives are now to be found in the Narbada valley. They did not use letters, or even hiero- glyphs. The only works we have from them are upright slabs and the places where t\iQj interred their dead. They were suc- ceeded by others, who were also ignorant of the use of metals, but hunted and fought with stone implements of nearly the same character as the early Scandinavian weapons, which we can see in endless variety in the museum in Copenhagen. Still later we come to the mound-builders, who knew the use of metals, fought with iron weapons, understood the manufacture of earthenware, and wore ornaments of gold and copper. The duration of this long non- Aryan period is uncertain. There were many grades of intelligence, however, some of the tribes being in a state of abject slavery, while their masters were intelligent, and knew the power of civil government. The earliest non-Aryans seem to have had no religious rites, while the latest, who held the countr\ r at the time of the great Aryan invasion, had a religion, believed in the future, and adorned their dead with gifts, raiment, and ornaments. In this they gave proof that they believed their dead would attain to a future life. That these non- Aryan inhabitants of India were brave and patriotic, and knew the value of their country, is abundantly at- tested by the great Indian epics, which describe the long struggle of the Aryans to conquer India. Though no authentic history has come down to us concerning this mighty war of races, and we are compelled to rely solely on the mythical poetry of the epic writers, it is not likely that bloodier battles were ever fought than those which resulted in the possession of India by the Ar- yan invaders. The conquerors, if we may believe the Yedic hymns, loathed their enemies, whose lands they were striving to overrun. They called them Dasyus, or "slaves." They declared them " noseless," or flat-nosed, " disturbers of sacrifices," " gross * Hunter, " Brief History of the Indian People," pp. 32 ff. INDIA IN HISTORY. 37 THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON. feeders on flesh," "raw eaters," and " without gods and without rites." When the aboriginal tribes were conquered, they either fled to the mountains or became serfs to the Aryan lords of the soil. During all subsequent ages some of these aboriginal tribes have kept their languages and dialects, and have preserved a certain measure of individuality. But they have remained the most ab- ject part of the population of India. The servitude which was the outcome of the great Aryan struggle has left its permanent impression upon them. II. — The Great Invasions. India has been the world's Eastern battle-field. The invasions have been on a vast scale, and are the real measure of the great 38 INDIRA. foreign estimate placed upon the value of the land and the treas- ures of the people. The great invasions, with two exceptions, by Asiatic forces, have been eleven in number : 1. The Aryan Invasion. 2. Invasion by Sesostris, King of Egypt, b.c. 1308. 3. Persian Invasion by Darius Hystaspes, b.c. 518. 4. Invasion by Alexander the Great, b.c 327. 5. The Scythian Invasions, b.c 100-a.d. 500. 6. The Tartar Invasion, b.c 126. 7. The Invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni, a.d. 1001. 8. The Invasion of Tamerlane, a.d. 1398. 9. The Invasion of Babar, a.d. 1526. 10. The Invasion of Nadir Shah, a.d. 1739. 11. The Invasion of Ahmad Shah al Abdali, a.d. 1761. III. — The Gkeat Aryan Invasion and Conquest. The Aryans first appear in history as an advanced and grow- ing race in the upper table-lands of the southerly districts of Cen- tral Asia and Turkestan— probably the Pamir plateau and the region surrounding the sources of the Oxus.* Their home was Bam-i-Dunya, the " Roof of the World." But this land, though broad and beautiful, was not near enough to the sun, and the soil too unyielding, for the great genius and boundless ambition of its occupants. The Aryans began to colonize, not as peaceful migra- tory bodies, but as armed hosts, marching boldly forth for the possession of fairer fields and for the blood of all who stood in their path to possession. The sparks from this metal, carried to white heat, flew off with amazing rapidity. Each one carried destiny with it. They fell upon three continents. The first outgoing host took a westward path, and on its way founded the great Persian empire. It then reached Europe, and, finding it wild and disorganized, set to work to bring it into shape and within the grasp of law. It created the history of the classic and modern world. It founded the Greek republics, built and governed Rome, occupied Spain, produced the Teuton race, converted Gaul into France, and peopled and moulded Britain into its present shape and history. The Anglo-Saxon was thus the di- * Willi asfts^ Modern India and the Indians," p. 148. I2TDIA IJV HISTORY. 39 rect offspring of Aryan ancestry. The roots of the most familiar words spoken by Harold and his soldiers who fell at Hastings before the Normans, had floated all the way along the Persian pathway, and still live in the Sanskrit taught by Brahman pun- dits beneath the palms which fringe the banks of the lower Ganges. Wherever these Aryans went towards the setting sun they carried victory, law, organization. Another Aryan body, or possibly a part of the larger one moving westward, struck a southwestern path, and Egypt was its miracle. But these great movements did not exhaust the Aryans of the homestead. There was a portion of the race which thought it best to take its chances by going towards the rising sun. They pressed down through the Afghan passes upon the plains of the Indus and the Ganges, caught the aroma of the plants and flowers of India, and set vigorously to work to conquer the country. They pushed onward as by a spell of enchantment. The very air seemed to give them the spirit of conquest. The wealth which they took in battle was enormous. No aboriginal armies could stand before them. They halted in the Panjab, and founded settlements along the banks of the Saraswati, a small river between the Jamna and the Satlej. Here they be- came famous. It was in this territory, including the North Be- har of the present Hindustan, that the Aryans created the rich Sanskrit language, produced their immortal bards and sages, and developed that wealth of poetic literature which must forever hold a firm place in the family of the world's great epics. This is the country which bears the name of Brahmarshidesa, the Hindu's Holy Land. It is his Palestine. He thinks of it with the profoundest reverence, because of its association with the most heroic deeds of his immortal ancestors. The Aryans here organized a government, and possessed houses, chariots, mailed armor, ships, and merchandise. The government was patriarchal. The tribal chief was priest. But even here these Aryan masters found the field too small. The farmers put on their weapons and marched farther into Hindustan. They did not know when or where to stop. On they went, dropping off colonies, organizing governments, ap- pointing satraps, and then conquering new regions. Finally, they subjugated nearly the whole of the broad India of to-day, 40 INBIKA. extending from the Arabian Sea on the west to the bay of Ben- gal on the east, and from the Himalayas in the north to Cape Comorin in the south. They gave their whole land the name Aryavartta, or the Land of the Aryans.* Nation after nation went down before these victorious Aryan armies. Many were so thoroughly conquered that their identity seems to have been lost. The northern nations which fell be- fore them bore the generic name of Dasyus. The southern may be grouped under the broad term of Dravidians, who extended down to Cape Comorin. IY. — The Brahman Supremacy. The ascendency of the Brahmans, or the priestly caste, was the first period during which we observe approaches to a settled government of the Aryan race in India. The long process of civil organization gave evidence of all the great qualities which distinguished the Aryans on ' their first battle-fields in India. This process continued about fifteen centuries, or from b.c. 2000 to b.c 543. It was in this time that the Yedic hymns were composed. The earlier Yedas tell of the Aryans in the first stage of their conquest and gov- ernment in the extreme north- west. The later Yedas bring the Aryan race farther southward, not only conquering their foes, but establishing a permanent gov- ernment on the banks of the Ganges, f The Rig Yeda, a collection of one thousand and seventeen short poems, and containing ten thousand five hundred and eighty verses, reveals the first Aryan civilization in India. The family was presided over by the father, who was the priest, * Lethbridge, " History of India," pp. 137 ff. t Hunter, " Brief History of the Indian People," pp. 46 ff. Fergusson and Burgess say that the Brahman ascendency continued to the middle of the third century before Christ (" Cave Temples of India," pp. 12, 13). But this position is unquestionably untenable, because of the earlier rise of Buddhism, B.C. 543. BRAHMA. INDIA IN HISTORY. 41 while the chief of the tribe was father and priest to the tribe. The king was elected by the tribe. Women were held in high honor, and noble ladies and queens became the authors of some of the most beautiful hymns. There were various craftsmen, such as blacksmiths, coppersmiths, goldsmiths, carpenters, and masters in other trades. The Aryans had towns and villages, and used chariots and cavalry in battle. Four divisions, or castes, arose — the original source of the present caste system of the Hindu race. The first caste was the Brahmans, or priests ; the second was the warriors, the fight- ing companions of the king ; the third was the agricultural class ; and the fourth was the Sudras, or conquered non- Aryans, who were serfs. The Brahmans became the highest class, and have remained so until the present day. They were not only the priests who preserved the sacred writings, but the makers and teachers of the law, the poets and the men of science. The two great epics of this period — the Mahabharata and the Ramayana — were composed by them. The former, which comes down to b.c. 1200, tells of the Aryan conquest and settlement in north- ern India. The latter describes the Aryan conquest of southern India. There are other epics of inferior grade which come down to a time approaching the Christian era. They describe the le- gends of the gods more than the actual exploits of the Aryan heroes. The long line of kings professing the Brahman faith cannot be definitely traced, since it is impossible to detect, in Hindu chronology, where fable ends and history begins. Saha-deva was king at the time of the Mahabharata war. The thirty-fifth king in succession from him was Ajata-Satru, who murdered his father, Brinbasara, and whose reign witnessed the birth of Buddhism.* V.— The Buddhist (Religious) Supremacy. b.c. 543-a.d. 1000. The dynasties professing the Brahman faith ruled India with- out serious obstacles until the rise of Buddhism, about b.c 543. The greatest ruler who openly espoused the system of Buddha with a view to establish and propagate it, was the celebrated * Pope, " Text Book of Indian History," p. 39. 42 INDIKA. Asoka, king of Magadha, or Behar. He was converted to Buddhism about b.c. 257, and made his government one im- mense machine to propagate his faith. Kanishka, a king of the Scythian line, was also a zealous Buddhist. He convened the fourth great Buddhist council, a.d. 40. The celebrated Si- laditya, of the seventh century, was a zealous advocate of Bud- dhism. He called the fifth great council, a.d. 634. VI. — The Greek (Political) Supremacy in India, b.c. 327-161. The Greek episode in Indian history is of profound signifi- cance. For ages there had been no direct intercourse between the Aryan wanderers in Europe and their kinsmen in India. Each, widely separated in the world, was working out its destiny. The two groups were strangely alike, however, whether study- ing astrology on the plains of Delhi, or rearing the matchless Parthenon at Athens, or building on the banks of the Tiber a city destined to rule the world. Each scion of the Aryan family was intense in its search for truth, for framing law, for occupa- tion of the land, for the government of men. Greece was fragrant with Indian associations. The brothers, long separated, seem to have maintained a subtle sense of rela- tionship. The mythology of Greece, coming from the Aryan hearthstone, could not be unlike that of India, emanating from the same place. The ancient Hindu pantheon is strangely simi- lar to, and often identical in name with, that of Greece. The Latin word for heaven (coelum), coming through the Greek, is believed to owe its origin to the Indian mount Kailas, which rises to the enormous height of thirty thousand feet !* It can- not be doubted that whenever a Greek conqueror arose above the surface of his times, and thought of further conquests, he had his hope of India. The wealth which it was known to pos- sess, the abundance of its natural products, and the variety of its climate, made it an object of military ambition. Alexander the Great was the first European successful enough to realize the dream of Indian conquest. "When he led his army from the * Pocoke, " India in Greece " (London, 1832), p. 68. This author has ex- ceeded all others in tracing the wonderful parallel between Greece and India in religion and language. INDIA IN HISTORY. 43 SILVER COIN OF ALEXANDER I. Dardanelles southward and then eastward, and never rested until he reached the bank of the Indus, it was the visit of one Aryan brother to another, after many centuries of separation. It was warfare, but it was that of brothers. In b.c. 327 Alexander the Great entered India and began his campaign for its conquest. He had no doubt studied the coun- try in the writings of Hekataios of Miletos (b.c 549-486), He- rodotus (b.c 450), and Ktesias (b.c 401). He was determined that his sword should conquer India. He reached Orthostaana, the modern Kabul, capital of Afghanistan, and planned for a campaign of triumph. He divided his army into two great col- umns. Taking one himself, and putting the other in charge of his most trusted subordinate, they came down through the Khai- bar and other difficult passes, and spread out their army on the plains of the Panjab in the hottest season of the year. Taxiles, Abisares, and Porus ruled over a large part of the Panjab. Porus, the ruler over three hundred cities, met Alexander with 4000 cavalry and 50,000 foot. Alexander fought him and won the battle of Jhelam in April or May, b.c 326. His victory cast all northwestern India at his feet. Alexander built here two cities, one south of the Jhelam, and the other on the north. The one on the south was called Nikaia, and is identified in the ruins of the present Mong. The city on the north, which the conqueror called Bukephala, after his favorite horse, was built on the site of the present Jalalpur.* Alexander's men refused to proceed farther into the interior. He accordingly followed the Indus down to the sea, and then upward through "the burning Gedrosian deserts of Biluchis- tan," to his Persian capital, Susa. After Alexander's death the * Lethbridge, " Short Manual of the History of India," pp. 163 ff. 44 INDIRA. dream of Indian conquest by the Greeks was dissipated. No later Greek dared to engage in a similar campaign. The slender hold of Seleukos on the Panjab was maintained in the form of an alliance with Chandra Gupta, rather than as a direct control. The same relationship continued after the death of these two rulers. The great Asoka, grandson of Chandra Gupta, and An- tiochus, the grandson of Seleukos, were united as allied kings. Later, the rulers of Bactria, a country on the northwest of the Himalayas, whose government was founded by the Greeks, in- vaded India with desperate energy. The Greco-Bactrian kings combined much of the genius of the Greek with that of the Hindu. They penetrated farther into India than Alexander had carried his sword, and between b.c. 181 and 161 reached as far eastward as Oudh and as far south as Sind and Cutch. But these conquests never assumed the form of a regular gov- ernment. The invasions were not followed by direct and perma- nent results in the form of laws and dynasties. The Indian, on his own soil, was always too strong for the Greek away from home. In an indirect way there remained traces of Greek cult- ure. The Greeks bequeathed to India a higher knowledge of astronomy than it had ever possessed. The architectural remains of Buddhist temples built before the Christian era show the in- fluence of the Greek builder, while the sculptures of the Indian artists which have survived to this day prove the refined taste of the Greek. Constant additions are made in the Panjab to the archaeological treasures emanating from this period of Greek influence. The Bactro-Greek coins in use in India were numer- ous, and are still coming to the light. In this field Prinsej) has been the most industrious gleaner.* While Alexander's stay and that of his successors from both Syria and Scythia was brief, it is now a matter of knowledge that the Greek letters and language were understood in north- ern India and in Kabul as late as the second century of our era. The lately discovered coins furnish the incontestable proof. It need not surprise if, later, other monumental remains will con- firm the same fact on a much larger scale. \ * Compare his " Indian Antiquities." 2 vols. London, 1858. t Gardner, " The Coins of the Greek and Scythian Kings of Bactria and India in the British Museum," p. liii. London, 1880. INDIA IN HISTORY. 45 VII. — The Scythian Invasion. B.C. 100-A.D. 500. Not far from the original home of the Aryan race, on the border land of Persia and northwestern India, a great body of warriors united and set out in search of conquest. They have passed into history as Scythians. They speedily put an end to the Bactro-Greek kingdom, and marched down through the great northwestern pass into India. Wherever they found traces of the Greeks they obliterated them, and on the ruins of the Bactro- Greek colonies in the Panjab they reared a great kingdom. This was about the beginning of the Christian era. The celebrated Scythian, King Kanishka, became a zealous Buddhist, carried on great wars, and consolidated an empire extending from Agra and Sind in the south to Yarkand and Khokand north of the Himalayas.* Strong efforts were made by the native Indian kings to break up the Scythian kingdom, and drive the hated people out of the country. King Vikramaditya, in b.c. 57, was the most celebrated of the Indian opponents. He was distinguished for wisdom in the council, for profound learning, and for heroism in the field. Salivahana, in a.d. 78, followed him in patriotic warfare. But both were unsuccessful. The Scythians were reinforced by new arrivals. For five centuries the strife went on, and it was only about a.d. 500 that the Scythian kingdom was broken up, and the Aryans already in India were permitted to continue their rule over the country. VIII. — The Hindu Supremacy. a.d. 500-977. The rule of the native Hindus in India continued about five hundred years. During this period there were wars, great and small, between competing kingdoms, with occasional invasions from the northwest. The land was seldom, if ever, at peace. The boundary -lines of the kingdoms constantly varied with suc- cess or defeat in warfare. In the northwest of India the terri- tory was governed by Kajput princes. They ruled the country * Hunter, " Brief History of the Indian People," pp. 80 ff. 46 INDIKA. along the valley of the Indus and the upper waters of the Jara- na.* The great central north, the classic theatre of the Aryan period, had its capital at Kanauj. The northeastern country, comprising the lower valley of the Ganges, or much of the pres- ent Bengal, from Behar down to the mouth of the Ganges, was under the control of three powerful dynasties in succession — the Yidyu, the Pala, and the Senas— the last of which defied all opposition until overrun, finally, by the Mohammedan conquer- ors, a.d. 1203. The Yindhya mountains, which run east and west across India, dividing the northern from the southern half, were occupied chiefly by the fragments of the rude aboriginal tribes. On the west, near the coast of Bombay, was the pow- erful kingdom of Malwa. Southern India was cov- ered principally by the four great kingdoms of Chera, Chola, Pandya, and Vija- yanagar. Here was the powerful abode of the abo- riginal or Dravidian popu- lation, who still speak for the most part the Tamil language. The kingdom of Pandya had its capital at Madura ; Chola, at Comba- conum and Tanjor ; and Chera at Talkad,in Mysore. There have been no kings, outside of China, whose dynasty was of such long continuance as these. Their protracted ex- istence is attributable to remoteness from the points of invasion. The Pandya dynasty numbered one hundred and sixteen kings, and extended, approximately, from the seventh century before Christ down to a.d. 1304. The Chera kingdom had a dynastic line of fifty kings, and Chola one of sixty-six. The most modern of the four Hindu kingdoms was Vijayana- lota (drinking-vessel), old brass, HINDU. * Hunter, " Brief History of the Indian People," pp. 100, 101. INDIA IN HISTORY. 47 gar, or JSTarsingha. It existed from a.d. 1118 to 1565. Its cap- ital " can still be traced within the Madras district of Bellary, on the right bank of the Tungabhadra Eiver, where there are to be seen extensive ruins of temples, fortifications, tombs, and bridges, haunted by hyenas and snakes. For at least three cent- uries the kingdom of Vijayanagar dominated over the southern part of the Indian triangle." * It was one of the descendants of the royal family of this kingdom who granted to the English the site of Madras, in 1639, and thus laid the foundation of the British empire in India. No general description of the kingdoms and rulers of In- dia at this period can present an adequate picture of the real state of the country. "While there were large kingdoms which had been able to perpetuate themselves for many cen- turies, there were many smaller ones which defied all the power of the larger ones to conquer and absorb them. The following are the ancient Hindu states, large and small, of this period. Our list begins with the north and closes with the south : 1. Magadha. 10. Manvar. 2. Malwa. 11. Sind. 3. Gujarat. 12. Kashmir. 4. Mevvar. 13. Pandya Kingdom of Madura, 5. Kanauj. 14. Chola of Kanchipuran. 6. Benares. 15. Sera of Travancore. 7. Mithila. 16. Balala of Dwara Samudra. 8. Delhi. 17. Warangal. 9. Ajmir. 18. Pacthun— Salivahana. IX. — The Afghan ok Mohammedan Dynasties in India. a.d. 996-1526. The whole Mohammedan period in India extends from the first successful inroad by Sabaktigin, a.d. 996, down to the break-up of the Mogul empire through the capture of Delhi by Nadir Shah, in 1740. But the Mogul empire, because of its peculiar history and specific name, while thoroughly Moham- medan, deserves separate treatment. The Afghan rulers began their conquests a.d. 977. They were succeeded by the Mogul emperors, the first of whom, Babar, by the second battle of * Hunter, " Brief History of the Indian People," p. 116. 48 INBIKA. Panipat, founded the Mogul empire, which lasted two hundred and twenty-two years, and astonished the world by its achieve- ments alike in war and peace. The Afghans did not occupy merely the territory now known as Afghanistan, but were a group of fierce and powerful tribes inhabiting the mountain regions of Ghor, and other great stretches of territory bordering on Kabul and Persia.* They were originally fire-worshippers, but, having been conquered by the Mohammedan warriors, be- came zealous propagators of Islam. They loved warfare. They looked upon India as their proper field of battle, and gave themselves no rest until they had crossed the Indus, planted their banner on the walls of ancient Delhi, and founded dynas- ties which furnish a catalogue of thirty-four kings. There are four classes of Mohammedans in India. 1. The Sayyids, who claim to be of the family of Mohammed. 2. The Moguls, descendants of the Tartar conquerors of India. 3. The Pathans, or Afghans, whose title is Khan. 4. The Shaiks — all who do not belong to the three former divisions. There were seven Afghan dynasties which invaded and ruled India : A.I). I. The Ghaznivides 996-1152. II. The Ghorians . 1153-1206. III. The Slave Kings 1206-1288. IV. The House of Khilji 1288-1321. V. The House of Tnghlak 1321-1412. VI. The Sayyids 1412-1450. VII. The House of Lodi 1450-1526. The history of these royal families is not surpassed for daring, for wisely planned campaigns, for contrasts between lowly origin and great honor, and for all the varieties which enter into bloody Avarfare. Mohammed of Ghazni, descended from the slave Sa- baktigin, ruled thirty-three years, invaded India seventeen times, and spent twenty-five years in fighting. He laid the founda- tions of the Afghan rule in India. The great Mogul chief, Changiz Khan, whose broad empire extended from the wall of China westward to the Yolga, began an Indian invasion a.d. 1217, but was stopped by the Indus, and never reached Delhi. Tamerlane (Timur Lene) invaded India, reaching Delhi in 1398. Pope, " Text-book of Indian History," pp. 50 if. INDIA IN HISTORY. 49 HINDU CARVING— BLOODTHIRSTY GOD BHAIRUB. His massacre of the population of Delhi is one of the most cruel and bloody deeds even in the dark annals of Indian war- fare. Among the characteristics of this period was the light in which each invader looked upon the rule founded by his prede- cessor. ]STo sooner was one invading dynasty founded than it became a bitter struggle to contend, on the one hand, against the native Hindu population and patriotic chiefs, and, on the other, against other invaders, who came in from the northwest, 4 50 INDIRA. TAMERLANE. and proposed to take possession of the country and occupy the throne. Delhi or Agra was always regarded as the one object of conquest. Either, as the case might be, was the royal city, and he who took either Delhi or Agra was conqueror and ruler. Thus Delhi or Agra was the seat of government for three hundred and twenty years, or from 1206 to 1526. Further, while some of the rulers were revengeful and blood- thirsty, others were humane, fond of learning, and promoted the arts of peace. But the latter class was small. The peaceful ruler was only an occasional star in the black and ill-boding Indian firmament. As the throne was generally won by blood, it was necessary to retain it by the same means. "Women often played an important part, as they have always done in Oriental life, whether in camp or court. With all the subjection of woman by the Quran, the Mohammedan conquer- ors found all their courage and ingenuity taxed to outwit the counter - schemes of gifted women. Only once, however, did a woman reach the throne of Delhi, and rule in her own name. This was Eaziya, who reigned from a.d. 1236 to 1239. She was clad in tunic and cap, like a man, and daily sat on her throne, and administered justice to all who applied for it. A chief re- belled against her rule, defeated her in battle, and took her pris- oner. But she conquered him at last by winning his affections and marrying him. A rebellion of her nobles, however, put an end to the joint-rule of herself and her husband.* X. — The Mogul Emperoks. a.d. 1524-1857. The Mogul empire furnishes the most romantic and dazzling picture in the history of Asiatic dominion. Six of the rulers were among the most gifted of any land who ever held a sceptre. For many centuries the supreme effort had been to retain the rule won by violence. Even after the Mogul domination had Pope, " Text-book of Indian History," p. 66. INDIA IN HISTORY. . 51 begun, the struggle for the displacement of the emperor was of- ten violent and unnatural. The rebellion of the son against his father, and the seizing upon the throne, and the imprison- ment of the father in a palace, were characteristics of this won- derful dynasty. The history of the Mogul empire consists of two general pe- riods. The former extends from the conquest of Lahor by Babar, a.d. 1526, to the beginning of the decline, a.d. 1707. This was the brilliant period of rise, expansion, and splendor. The second period consists of a steady and fatal decadence, from a.d. 1707 to a.d. 1857. Babar, the founder of the Mogul empire, was, on his father's side, the sixth in descent from Tamerlane the Tartar, and, on his mother's side, from a Mogul connected with the tribe of Changiz Khan. His real name was Zahir-ud- din -Mohammed — "The Light of the Faith." He assumed the title of Padshah, a Persian word signifying king. This term became the permanent title of the Mogul emperors. So soon as he had developed his mar- vellous qualities as a warrior he was called Babar, the Lion — the name by which he has always been known in histor} T . He suc- ceeded his father as king of Ferghana, on the Jaxartes, and when forty-four years old, or a.d. 1526, he came down into India at the head of his mighty hosts — " Like Indus, through the mountains came down the Muslim ranks, And town-walls fell before them as flooded river-banks." The Great Mogul Emperors. A.I>. I. Babar . . .' 1536-1530. II. Humayun 1530-1556. III. Akbar . 1556-1605. • IV. Jahangir 1605-1627. V. Shah Jahan 1637-1658. VI. Aurangzeb (or Alamgir I.) . 1658-1707. The Lesser Mogul Emperors. A.T>. VII. Shah Alam 1 1707-1712. VIII. Jahandar Shah 1712-1713. IX. Farukhshir 1713-1719. X. Rafl-ud-darajat . . 1719-Feb. XI. Rafi-ud-daula 1719-May. XII. Mohammed Shah 1719-1748. 52 INDIRA. A.I). XIII. Ahmad Shah 1748-1754. XIV. Alamgirll 1754-1759. XV. Shah Alam II 1759-1806. XVI. Akhar II 1806-1837. XVII. Mohammed Bahadur 1837-1857. These two groups of Mogul' emperors differ from each other in all the great qualities which distinguish the wise and mighty ruler from the weak and cruel occupant of the throne. While the first six were distinguished for great ability as military lead- ers and civil administrators, the last eleven, with rare exceptions, were marked by all the inferior characteristics of a declining imperial line. A striking parallel in European history is furnished in the Carlovingian dynasty. Pepin, who laid the foundation of the broad Frankish empire, may be properly compared with Babar, the founder of the Mogul empire. Charlemagne, the son of Pepin, has his parallel in Akbar, whose reign was by far the most brilliant of all the Mogul rulers. The Mogul line, how- ever, continued strong, and worthy of its founder, much longer than the Carlovingian. The three successors of Akbar were great rulers, while those of Charlemagne declined in mental quality and moral force until they became only impotent and formal instruments of government, always at the mercy of the Papacy or intriguing courtiers. When the brilliant reign of the six Mogul rulers terminated with Aurangzeb, and the new and feebler group began with Shah Alam I., the Mogul empire was strikingly similar to that of the Frankish empire under Oharles the Fat. With the Mogul empire as with the Frankish, it was only a question of time when the great fabric, created and con- solidated by genius, should fall to pieces through weakness in the representative of the government. The aggregate reigns of the greater Mogul emperors amounted to one hundred and eighty-three years. In all the history of hereditary rule there is no instance where a reigning family possessed its original strong qualities during such a lengthy pe- riod. There are instances where a family has been represented by several richly endowed members. The house of Napoleon Buonaparte is remarkable for the large number of gifted mem- bers. American history, as is proved by the family of John INDIA IN HISTORY. 53 Adams, is not without similar illustrations. But the great Mogul dynasty founded by Babar has no equal in the annals of men in the rare combination of long reigns and capable rulers. These men retained many of the rude and fierce qualities which dis- tinguished the family while yet obscure, far beyond the north- western boundary of India. They never became thoroughly Indian. But some of them acquired strong Indian tastes, and all learned how to govern the Indian mind, and attach soldiers to them by ties stronger than life itself. The colors in this wonderful picture of Mogul rule are very vivid. The conquests take the first place. When the. central government was established in Delhi and Agra, each empe- ror endeavored to rule over a realm larger than that of his father. ]STo danger was too great for an emperor to engage in. Even single combat was not shunned. The leading of a forlorn hope was the pastime of a Mogul emperor. One, for ex- ample, at the head of a desperate force of three hundred, faced a strong body of hostile troops, fought like a lion, gained a brill- iant victory, and saved his army and his empire. All the six great Mogul emperors were fearless on the battle- field. Such an example was of incalculable influence over an army. The soldiers of each Mogul emperor acquired a marvellous fear- lessness, and gained the popular fame of invincibility. Wherever the Mogul rulers went they carried victory with them. Wot sat- isfied with conquering all the foes along the valley of the Jamna and the Ganges, they became masters of the northern half of India. The} 7 even looked beyond, for victory in the south. They crossed the midway barrier of the Yindhya Mountains, burst down into the plains of the southern half of the inverted Indian pyramid, and swept all opposition before them. Some of the Hindu thrones, which had defied all enemies from time imme- morial, now fell before them like creations of a clay. In due time all India, with merely nominal exceptions, lay in their power. From the vale of Kashmir in the north to Mysore in the south, they ruled with skill and a firm grasp. The waters of the Bay of Bengal washed their eastern boundary, while the surf of the Indian Ocean beat against their western coast. Foreign rulers heard of the splendor of the Mogul court, and sent nobles as ambassadors, with rich gifts and long-drawn flatteries. 54 INDIKA. The way the Mogul rulers governed their remote possessions was peculiar, though a wise, and perhaps the only successful method. They placed governors or princes in possession of the tributary thrones, and gave them almost supreme power. An- nual tribute had to be levied for the general treasury. But frequently the native prince would rebel, and, at the head of a large army, assert his independence. Then the Mogul army was needed to put an end to the mutiny. The emperors, therefore, were nearly always on the march. Their chief palace was the tent, far remote from the jewelled walls of the palaces of Delhi and Agra. The real court, therefore, like that of Caesar, Constantine, Charlemagne, and, to some extent, of Charles Y., was not in set- tled capitals, but itinerant, on the battle-field or the line of the long and hazardous march. The constant study was either to crush a rebellious army or to add a new province to the great empire. While war was the chief occupation of the six great Mogul emperors, it was far from being all. Akbar was fond of litera- ture, understood Sanskrit, and undertook literary enterprises. He openly expressed profound sympathy with other faiths be- sides the Mohammedan. He founded a new and second Moham- medanism, which he called the " Divine Faith." He studied Hindu works of science and religion, and took pleasure in dis- cussions between Brahman priests, Mohammedan teachers, Sikh gurus, and Eoman Catholic priests. In these scientific and lat- itudinarian tastes Jahangir was a devoted imitator. He was an Oriental Frederick the Great. He published his own memoirs.* At his court he gave cordial welcome to scholars at home and of foreign lands, and was as generous in his patronage of relig- ions as of the sciences and arts. By some he is supposed to have been as much a Christian as a Mohammedan. He carried a ro- sary ornamented with figures of Christ and the Virgin, and per- mitted two of his nephews to espouse the Christian faith. Prob- ably neither faith gave him great concern, except as a helpful instrument for government or conquest. Both Agra and Delhi were distinguished as centres, of learning and art. The great observatory near Delhi is a present witness to the profound attention given to astronomy. * "Memoirs of the Emperor Jahangir, written by himself, and translated from a Persian manuscript by Major David Price." London, 1824; m INDIA IN HISTORY. 57 The most enduring effect of the Mogul rule is to be found in the architectural monuments still existing in the northern half of India, and to some extent in the Nizam's dominions in the south. The Taj Mahal, built by Shah Jahan, at Agra, on the banks of the Jamna, is not only the most splendid mausoleum in existence, but the most beautiful structure in the world. The Pearl Mosque, by the same emperor, is a house of worship, in white marble, which is not surpassed in the beauty of its pro- portions and the skill of its workmanship by any religious edi- fice known to architecture. The Great Mosque of Delhi is a wonder in stone, distinguished for the boldness of its plan, the splendor of its material, and the vastness of its proportions. The Palace of Delhi, with its Peacock Throne and far-reaching HINDU GOLDSMITH. courts, its baths and fountains, its surrounding buildings in mar- ble and other fine stone, is still the wonder of India. No one can be said to have seen India unless he has entered the majestic portal of that palace and lingered amid its blaze of Oriental glory in marble softened by arabesques of precious stones. Beyond the magnificent architectural remains, the permanent effects of the Mogul rule are few. No appreciable impression was made on the scientific status of the people. There does not seem to have been an increase of taste for popular education. Great schools do not appear to have been organized. Learning was regarded rather as the ornament of the court than a benef- icent means for the elevation and development of the millions. The great body of the people never saw in these Mohammedan 4—2 58 INDIRA. rulers, their armies, or their courtiers qualities sufficiently ad- mirable to make them prefer to renounce their faith and adopt that of their conquerors. The Hindu population never fell to the small number of the Mohammedan, and to this day for every four Hindus there is but one Mohammedan. Aurangzeb, the last of the great emperors, left an empire which no ordinary hand could rule. The old Hindu spirit was discov- ering a new opportunity for reassertion/and the bonds which held the empire together were growing looser and feebler every day. Six of the eleven emperors succeeding Aurangzeb were powerless in the hands of a general, Zulfikar-Khan, while the remaining five were the mere puppets of schemers. The empire was now only a name. Long after England conquered India she permitted the descendants of the Moguls to retain a nominal sovereignty over the country. The last scion of this degenerated line took part with the Sepoys in the mutiny of 1857. When England crushed out the mutiny, this feeble rem- nant of a once proud dynasty sat a prisoner at Delhi, within the palace walls of his mighty ancestors, to receive sentence of ban- ishment. He died in Eangoon, on November 11, 1862, and was buried on the day of his death. The Mohammedans, with all their pride of history and faith, paid no attention to the event. XI. — The Marhattas. a.d. 1650-1818. In the year 1577 there was, in the service of the Murteza Nizam Shah I., a native prince by the name of Maloji. He was com- mander of a body of cavalry. He had a certain prestige among his associates, because he was a scion of the ancient family of Bhonsla, which had descended from the royal house of Udipur. This man was the ancestor of the line of great Marhatta leaders, who won some of the most remarkable battles in the history of the world, who founded a broad but unsteady kingdom on the ruins of the Mogul empire, and who were the most violent and intrepid of all the enemies whom England had to conquer on its thorny path to the dominion of India. The Mogul empire re- ceived its death-blow from the intrepid and revengeful warriors whom the descendants of Maloji awoke as by the wand of a magician. Who were the Marhattas, and what was their signifi- INDIA IN HISTORY. 61 cance in history ? They represented the elder Hindu race, ground down by the long dominion of the Mogul rulers. It now reasserted itself, and determined to break the power of their empire. It was the old patriotic fervor again flashing out after the long darkness. The name of the Marhattas is derived from the country where they arose— Maharashtra, the Great Kingdom. It comprises the hilly re- gion of Central India, extending from Nagpur, in the east, to the western coast, and running along the coast from Cambray down to Goa. Never did a more rugged race of warriors start out in search of thrones. In the early Mohammedan invasions they fought, in an obscure way, against the foreigners. But later, when the Mohammedans be- ROBBEK CHIEP KACHAR . came rulers of North India, the Ma- rhattas became brave soldiers in their armies and wise civilians in the administration of the government. Shahji, the son of Maloji, was born a.d. 1627. He was the real founder of the Great Marhatta power. He distinguished himself by brilliant achievements on many fields of battle. He prepared the way for the wonderful military triumphs of Sivaji, one of the greatest warriors of history. The career of Sivaji abounds in romance. Through the quiet teaching of a Hindu preceptor, his mind became early imbued with a desire to drive the Mohammedans out of India. He took delight in the mythol- ogy of his people, and regarded himself of royal blood and wor- thy of a great throne. His imagination revelled in the prospect of a mighty empire. He was not taught the refinements of even a general education, and never learned to write his name. A firm faith in his own religion, and an intimate knowledge of all the resources of Oriental warfare, were his sole acquirements when, with a fearless spirit, he went forth for empire. When only nineteen years of age he captured the hill-fort of Tornea, near Puna, and thenceforward war to the knife was his meat and drink. Sivaji was outwardly friendly to the Mogul emperor, but 62 INDIRA. sought the first opportunity to betray his interests. In his march to power, no falsehood or treachery was too base for him, if he could gain new territory. While his own hands were red with the blood of his enemies, and he did not hesitate to slaughter a strong foe in private, he was humane to his captives taken in war. His method in warfare was that of the freebooter. He stands out as the greatest raider of whom we have any account in history. He had a large army at com- mand, which burst down from its retreat in the Western Ghats, crushed proud and victorious foes, captured large booty, lied AN OUTCAST H IN DU, quickly back ™ in and waite d its time BEKAK. ^ J ° ' for another destructive demonstration. His soldiers were planters in seed-time ; then they left for bloody warfare, and only came back to be reapers in harvest. At all other times they were on horseback, with deadly weapons, ready for any daring enterprise. Sivaji assumed the title of Kaja, or King, in 1664. In the following year he joined the Mogul armies against the inde- pendent state of Bijapur, but afterwards rebelled, and gained new power by victories in the Karnatic* He was fearless in battle,, and a master in Indian subterfuges. No scheme was too intricate to escape his adroitness. For example, he secured admittance to the house of his enemy, Shayistah Khan, by a mock marriage procession. But his turn came at last to lose. The fortunes of war turned against him. He died a.d. 1680. With the death of Sivaji, and that of his feeble son Sambhaji, the line of Marhatta kings died out. But the Marhatta power still continued its warfare for dominion. The line of Sivaji was succeeded in 1718 by the Peshwas, an hereditary office originat- ing with an able Brahman minister of the court of Sambhaji. The Peshwas now began to organize and build up the Marhatta confederacy, with Puna as the capital. Great aggressive wars were carried on, and, of all the forces which triumphed over the decaying Mogul empire, the five Marhatta powers, with the Peshwa at their head, were the most conspicuous gainers. * Mackenzie, " Romantic Land of Hind," p. 257. INDIA IN HISTORY. 63 The English first came into conflict with the Marhattas in 1775, when a war was waged with them for seven years. The Marhattas had an intense hatred of the English, and seemed to regard them as their powerful competitors for the control and government of India. They had with them, as their allies, the great Haidar Ali and the Nizam. Under the wise administra- tion and careful planning of Warren Hastings, the English, while not directly victorious, were saved from hopeless disaster. The Treaty of Salbai was acceptable to all parties, for all alike were glad to rest from arms. But the Marhattas were steadily gaining, and during the last quarter of the eighteenth century they made great advances. By the beginning of the nineteenth century the Marhatta con- federacy numbered forty millions of citizens, and extended from Delhi in the north to the Kaveri in the south. It possessed an army of three hundred thousand men, unsurpassed for daring in the annals of warfare. The French combined their interests with the Marhattas, believing this to be the best way of destroy- ing the English domination in India. It required four great wars, covering a period of forty-four years, or down to 1819, for the English to completely conquer and possess the Marhatta country. Lord Wellesley, Warren Hastings, and Generals Lake, Munro, and Pritzler immortalized themselves, and reflected new glory on the English name, by the victorious part they took in this great and triumphant struggle. Almost all traces of the Marhatta rulers have passed away. In Gwalior, Indore, and Baroda the only scions of this once great power now remain. They rule by native princes with only the semblance of authority, but are closely watched by English Residents, and are harmless. Never did a power which had arisen to such great possessions, or had achieved such memorable victo- ries, and presented such able chiefs, decline and die with so few traces of moral greatness. Their one great aim was conquest, plunder, and the Mogul thrones. Not one Marhatta ruler can be' found who possessed those high moral qualities which took pleas- ure in educating, refining, and making happy the people. One has only to see the condition of India — a poor suffering prisoner in the hands of a bloodthirsty army of freebooters, to measure both the timeliness and the beneficence of the English coming. 64 INDIKA. XII. — The Europeans in India. THE PORTUGUESE. For many centuries there was but little intercourse between India and Europe. While the invasion of Alexander the Great had awakened in Greece, and in the more advanced European centres west of Greece, an interest in the farther East, this in- terest had long since died out. The collapse of the Greek Re- publics and the Roman Empire made India a sealed book to Europe until the revival of commerce towards the close of the Middle Ages. The first direction in which this new spirit of discovery and commerce manifested itself was the search for India by an ocean pathway. Columbus had no other thought, when he lost sio-ht of the coast of Spain, than to reach India by a westward course. He even carried with him a letter to the great Khan of Tartary. Indeed, Columbus died with the full belief that the new land he had discovered was the East Indies, which he had set out to reach. The first traveller in modern times to penetrate India was the celebrated Yenetian Marco Polo, whose experiences there excited universal 'attention in Europe. The Portuguese, however, were the first modern discoverers both to reach India and to take possession of a portion of the country. No sooner had Portugal risen to great importance as a nation than it took a profound interest in the discovery of distant lands. Prince Henry, son of John I. of Portugal, and his queen, the English princess Blanche of Lancaster, lived on the coast, that they might see the outgoing fleets. Henry promoted enterprises for distant seas, and of him it has been sung, " The Genius, then, Of Navigation, that in hopeless sloth Had slumbered on the vast Atlantic deep For idle ages, starting, heard at last The Lusitanian Prince, who, heaven-inspired To love of useful glory, roused mankind, And in unbounded commerce mixed the world." Madeira was discovered in 1420, the Cape de Yerde Islands INDIA IN HISTORY. 65 in 1460, and the Cape of Good Hope in 1486. The Portuguese were thus slowly finding their way down the coast of Africa, and getting ready to reach the distant shore of India. This great end was reached by Vasco da Gama, in 1198, when he dropped anchor at Calicut, on ,the southwestern coast., He was the discoverer of a sea-route to India around the African con- tinent. This one act put the whole trade between Europe and the East into the hands of the Portuguese, who retained it a long time.* Cabral arrived in 1500. In 1503 Alfonso Albuquerque, the greatest name connected with the Portuguese rule in India, arrived at the head of three expeditions. His mind was less devoted to commerce than to conquest. f Two years later, Fran- cisco da Almeida arrived, with a large fleet and fifteen thousand men under his command. He was the first Portuguese Governor- General and Yiceroy of India. From a.d. 1500 to 1600, the Portuguese had the undisputed right of European trade with India. They had stations extending from Ormuz, at the Per- sian Gulf, all the way down the Indian coast to Ceylon, and far across to Malacca and the adjacent islands. They had thirty factories, and a coast-line of twelve thousand miles. Their ves- sels plied through all the neighboring seas. Their soldiers were famed for bravery and skill. Their Jesuit missions, with Francis Xavier at their head, achieved a record which made them the pride of Rome and of every true Roman Catholic throughout the world. Towards the latter part of the sixteenth century, or in 1580, the Portuguese kingdom was united with that of Spain, and Spanish interests now predominated. Portugal lost abroad as well as at home. Through the English and the Dutch, who were now in India, and carrying on an extensive trade, the Portu- guese trade declined. All that now remains of Portuguese power in India are Goa, Daman, and Diu, with a population of half a million, and a ter- ritory of four hundred square miles. Nearly all the Portuguese are of mixed blood, half Indian and half Portuguese. About * Lethbridge, " History of India," pp. 245 ff. t Macpherson, " The History of European Commerce with India," p. 24. London, 1812. 5 66 INDIRA. twenty thousand of these half-breeds are in Bengal, and thirty thousand in Bombay and the environs. THE DUTCH. The Dutch followed the Portuguese to India. So soon as Holland threw off the Spanish yoke her people turned their attention to maritime discovery, and commerce with remote lands. They endeavored to find a way to India by sailing around the northern coasts of Asia and Europe. Failing here, they tried the route around Africa. Houtman was the first Dutchman to reach the Eastern seas, a.d. 1594. Commercial relations were established with the Archipelago. Collision with the Portuguese soon took place, and the Dutch were everywhere masters. They expelled the Portuguese from the Molucca Isl- ands. This brought on a war between the two nations. The Dutch were victorious. They expelled the Portuguese from Amboyna and Tidor in 1605, and, until superseded by the Eng- lish, controlled the commerce of the Eastern seas. In 1610 the Dutch founded the colony of Batavia ; in 1610 they drove the Portuguese out of Malacca and took possession of it ; in 1656 they took Ceylon from the same rulers, and became masters of a rich trade with that island ; and in 1660 they took Nagapa- tarn from the Portuguese, and established an important settle- ment there. The other Dutch settlements in India were at Suclras, Pulicat, and Bimlipatam, all of which fell into English hands before the close of the eighteenth century. THE DANES. The Danes possessed two settlements in India, both of w T hich have become immortal in the missionary history of the world. One of these was Tranquebar, in South India, and the other was Serampore. Tranquebar has become famous throughout the world as the most thoroughly Christianized territory in India. Here labored the first missionaries to India — Ziegenbalg, from 1706 to 1719, and Fabricius, from 1739 to 1791. Schwartz, also, made Tranquebar his home for eleven years. Serampore, in the north, became the centre of the gigantic operations of Carey, Marshman, and Ward. Both these settlements were sold to the English i n 1815. INDIA m HISTORY. 67 THE FRENCH. The French organized East India Companies as early as 1604. But they had their eye on India at a much earlier date. From the fourteenth century they had dared to roam over all known seas. In 1365 the people of Dieppe had establishments in Sen- egal and on the coast of Guinea. Canada, Brazil, and India fol- lowed in rapid succession. Colbert was largely instrumental in promoting settlements in India. Mazarin, when about to die, said to Louis XIV. : "Sire, I owe you everything, but I acquit myself fully by leaving you Colbert."* It can be truthfully said that Richelieu and Colbert directed the splendid colonial enterprises of Louis XIV. French interest in India was probably augmented by the travels of Tavernier, a jeweller of Paris, who was born in 1605. He made no less than six journeys to India for the purchase of precious stones, and published interesting accounts of his observations, f The first important French settlement in India was at Surat, a little north of Bombay. This was the humble beginning of a scheme which developed into a gigantic French undertaking for the establishment of an Indian empire. We next hear of the French in the south, where they captured two settlements from the Dutch, and built the important city of Pondicherri. The Dutch, however, captured all three places, but lost them again by the Peace of Ryswick, in 1697, when the settlements were restored to the French. The two greatest names in connection with the French rule in India were Bourdonnais and Dupleix. The former was master of the naval forces, while Dupleix commanded the land troops. Dupleix was the first to see that India could be conquered only by domestic dissension. He saw that there was no unity, and that to array the native kingdoms still further against each other was the key to the conquest of the whole country. $ Clive, later, caught Dupleix's secret, practised upon it, and by it gave India to Britain. * Henry Bicmne, "Dupleix," p. 3. Paris, 1881. t Ball, "The Diamonds, Coal, and Gold of India," p. 2. X Holmes, "A History of the Indian Mutiny," p. 3. London, 1883. 68 INDIKA. There was no harmony between Dupleix and Bourdonnais. Each achieved great victories, but neither utilized the genius or success of the other. They met, on July 8th, 1746, and Bourdon- nais addressed these words to Dupleix : " We ought to regard one another as equally interested in the progress of events, and to work in concert. For my part, sir, I devote myself to you beforehand, and swear to you a perfect confidence." "Whichever was to blame, the result was no " concert." Ma- dras was captured from the English by the Erench, but Bourdon- nais afterwards allowed them to ransom it by paying a large price. The great French opportunity was thus lost. The Eng- lish reaped every advantage. Bourdonnais returned to France, was regarded as a traitor, was thrown into the Bastille for three years, and died in 1753 of a broken heart. Dupleix now remained in India, and was supreme in the man- agement of French interests. He enjoyed temporary success. Madras was recaptured, and the French flag floated again from Fort St. George. The name of Dupleix became renowned in India and throughout Europe. But Europe had something tp say. The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle restored the new French pos- sessions to England, and Dupleix was again compelled to adopt new measures to bring back French prestige throughout India. Having early learned the art of arraying the Indian princes against one another, he now again exercised his skill in this difficult department. He espoused the cause of one chief against another, put upon the throne only those whom he could control, and became the king-making Warwick of all India. The troops of France fought side by side with Indian troops, and always the outcome was new territory to the French. The French party was triumphant at nearly every court. But after 1751 a great change took place in the cause which Dupleix was defending. Lawrence had charge of the English forces, but his great ex- ecutive officer was Clive. The two worked in perfect harmony. Wherever the English fought they won. They had, indeed, well learned from the French how to manage the natives of India. The second siege of Trichinopoli, in 1752, where the English were victors, terminated the career of Dupleix. He left India for France in 1754. He died in poverty, and without honor, in Paris, in 1764. INDIA IN HISTORY. 69 The French cause was continued with persistence by Lally, who arrived in 1758. But it was too late, even had he possessed the qualities for successful warfare. The English put an end to all hope of French dominion in India by their victory at Wande- wash, near Madras, in 1759. Lally returned to France, and was beheaded in 1766. Three years afterwards the French East India Company came to an end. THE ENGLISH. "While India was originally entered by the English for com- mercial purposes only, warfare of the most heroic and devastat- ing character has been necessary to gain and to hold the country. Malleson's estimate is low, that from 1746 to 1849 England has fought twelve decisive battles in order to win and to hold India. The great stages of English supremacy in India are the following : I. a.d. 1600-1746. — The first interest awakened in England concerning India seems to have arisen from Thomas Stevens, of New College, Oxford, who went to Goa in 1597, and whose trav- els were afterwards published in England. Other travellers fol- lowed him, such as Storey, Newberry, Leedes, and Fitch. These men carried a letter from Queen Elizabeth to the Mogul em- peror, Akbar. The first practical effect of the reports concern- ing India took shape in the British East India Company, which was incorporated by Queen Elizabeth on the last day of the six- teenth century, or December 31st, 1600. For nearly a century and a half, or from 1600 down to 1742, we find this great Com- pany gradually assuming larger proportions, getting important concessions from the native rulers, growing wealthy, raising an army to defend its commercial interests, acquiring large territo- rial possessions, and, in wisdom and enterprise, far surpassing all other European claimants for supremacy in India. The East India Company was really a nation, without the name or the formality. II. a.d.- 1746-1759. — This was the period of English struggle and final triumph. The time was brief, but it was occupied in bloody and bitter warfare. The southern half of India was one great battle-field. The French and English were the leading contestants, and the conflicting interests of native princes were used by each of the foreign powers only to aid its own cause. England's triumph left the southern half of India in her posses- 70 INDIKA. sion. The scene of war changed, during the last years, to the north. Clive, who had saved the south, returned from England to save the north. Four other great names were associated with him in giving final triumph to English arms and administration — Watson, Coote, Forde, and Warren Hastings. The Black Hole tragedy, in Calcutta, awakened the wrath of Clive and all the English to such an extent that bitter vengeance was sworn. This was in 1756. The battle of Plassey was fought June 23d of the following year. The Indian chief, Siraj ud Daula, had 68,000 soldiers, and an immense train of artillery. Clive had but 900 European troops, 2100 Sepoys, a few Portuguese, and only ten pieces of artillery. He called a council of war. Thirteen of his officers voted against a battle, and seven for it. Clive withdrew to a grove near by, reflected on the emergency, threw the judgment of the council to the winds, and fought and won Plassey, the most momentous of all the struggles of England for rule in India. Many thousands of native troops were slain, but the English loss was only twenty- two killed and fifty wounded. This battle gave northern India, and therefore all India, to the British crown. III. a.d. 1759-1818. — Daring this period the English were engaged with frequent hostile forces of the native troops. The Marhattas more than once threatened the English supremacy. Even a more difficult task was the organization of the civil ad- ministration. The East India Company was the actual govern- ment. England, as a government, did little more than hold the Company to a strict accountability. In 1774 a thorough change was made in the general admin- istration. Hitherto the governments of Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta had been independent presidencies. But in 1773 the Regulating Act was adopted, by which a governor-general was appointed for all India, and the three presidencies were united by a Supreme Council and by a Court of Judicature. This new arrangement for the civil government of India has continued, with minor changes, down to the present time. The ecclesias- tical establishment in India was organized in 1813, by which a bishop of Calcutta was appointed, with an archdeacon, and later a bishop, in the capital of each presidency. Middleton was the first bishop, and Heber, Wilson, and Cotton were his worthy successors. INDIA IN HISTORY. 71 IV. a.d. 1818-1857. — The supremacy of England was now apparently complete. But there were three important require- ments on which the permanence of English rule depended. The first was the safe and wise introduction of reforms ; the second was the annexation of contiguous territory and the absorption WARREN HASTINGS. of its threatening population into submissive subjects ; and the third was the ability to conquer one of the most appalling and widespread mutinies known in modern times. All these require- ments were fully met by the wisdom, justice, and unsurpassed heroism of the statesmen and the soldiers who represented Eng- 72 INDIKA. land in the administration and authority of her Indian affairs. During this period of about forty years the army in India was engaged in no less than six military expeditions, which, in sev- eral instances, assumed the magnitude of formal warfare. The eastern frontier was threatened by the Burmese demand, in 1818, for the cession of Chittagong, Murshidabad, and Dacca. The result was a war, which began in 1824, and was successfully terminated in 1826 by the cession of an important part of Bur- mese territory to England, and the pledge of the Burmese gov- ernment " to maintain the relations of amity and peace between the two nations." In 1852-53 a second war with Burma was carried on, which resulted in the firm establishment of British power over, prac- tically, the whole of Bur- ma. Since then, in 1887, a third war with Burma has been waged, by which the immense territory of Burma has been formally annexed. England has thus become practically the ruler of India to the Chinese frontier. A war w T ith Bhartpur was con- ducted in 1826, the result of which was a complete success. Sind, a depend- ency of Kabul, "was con- quered in 1843 by Sir Charles Napier. The Amirs, who had gov- erned it, were brought as exiles to Benares, and put on a pension. The valley of the Indus was now in the full possession of the English. The war for Sind, however, reflects no credit on the English name. " The feeling then pre- vailed," says Pope, " and posterity will deliberately confirm the opinion, that the war was unrighteous. It is the one annexation upon which the English nation can look with no satisfaction." * * " Text-book of Indian History," p. 386. FISHERMAN, SUNNI MUSSULMAN, SIND. INDIA IN HISTORY. 73 It became apparent that the great gateway through Afghan- istan must be kept secure against invasion. Russia was plan- ning, by interference with the native populations, and holding them in sympathy, against English security in India. In 184-5 the first Panjab war broke out, and in 1848 the second. The result of the bitter conflict was favorable to England, and in 1818 the Panjab, which has ever since formed the extreme north- western province of British India, was annexed. It is difficult to measure the magnitude of this brief period of warfare. It was war to the knife. The natives showed no mercy whenever they had the English at advantage. But the English were equally brave and daring, while their experience of over a century in combating native troops gave them an acquaintance with their methods which proved of infinite aid. In the short space of three years, 1813-4:6, the English fought not less than eight great battles, and completely annihilated the three armies of Sind, Gwalior, and the Panjab, numbering 120,000 men. Oudh, a native state which had been under English guardianship since 1801, was annexed, by direct order from the home government, in 1856. This whole period was in- terrupted by few military reverses, while such advances were made as caused the British power to be an object of dread by every native prince, either within or without the boundary-lines of British India. V. The Mutiny. — So rapid and profound had been the recent advancement of the British rule in India, that it became clear to the native mind that unless some great and sudden method of resistance should be adopted, it would soon be too late for the natives to regain any control over the country. The mutiny of 1857 was the practical outcome of this widespread apprehension. No sufficient cause for it can be found in the English dealing with the natives. The lenient spirit had increased steadily. The governors - general had been considerate. The argument that native officers and privates had, in some instances, been under- paid, was only a pretext. The real cause was the determination of the natives, strengthened and inflamed by the remaining scions of the old princely and royal families, to overthrow the suprem- acy of England, and re-establish the native power. Had they succeeded, it is safe to say that India would to-day be little bet- ter than what it was during the Marhatta carnival of blood. 74 INDIRA. One day in January, 1857, a Laskar in Calcutta asked a Sepoy to give him a drink out of his lota, or water-cup.* The Sepoy was of high caste, and refused indignantly to grant the request, since to allow low-caste lips to touch his cup would violate the traditions and prejudices of his caste. When the Laskar saw this he replied that the British government was at that time making cartridges of the grease of cows and hogs, and that na- tive lips would have to be polluted by biting off the ends of the cartridges when loading their English guns. The soldier was still more indignant. He told this piece of news — whether true or not is not known — to others, and it soon spread into far circles. That there was force in this argument of the greased cartridges being an offence to the caste prejudice of the Hindus, can be seen in the later fact that, in a regiment of native troops, out of ninety men only five would touch the cartridges.f A peculiar system of correspondence was adopted. A soldier was sent to a military station with a lotus-flower in his hand. This he presented to the chief native officer, who in turn pre- sented it to a soldier. This soldier handed it to another, and this one to a third, until every soldier had held it in his hand. The last soldier to receive and hold it took it to the next station, where the same process was gone through. There was profound silence. But all understood the deep and dreadful meaning. The significance was death to every Englishman. The way of reaching the non-military masses was by sending out six little cakes of unleavened bread, called chapatties, to the chief man of a village.;}: He received them, and sent out six others to the chief man of the next village. But little, if any- thing, was said. Yet here, too, every one understood the pro- found meaning — a great struggle was about to come, and every native must do his duty. The religious 'element was aroused. Priests went through the country, quietly preaching a crusade against the English rulers. There were three stages in the mutiny. The first was the time of doubt, which lasted from the outbreak at Berhampur, in March, 1857, to the siege of Delhi. The second was the decisive * Holmes, "A History of the Indian Mutiny," pp. 81, 82. f " Parliament Papers," vol. xxv., p. 333. 1859. I " Story of tlie Indian Mutiny," p. 21. INDIA IN HISTORY. 75 event, the siege of Delhi, in September, 1857. The third was the conquest of the non-military population, in the province of Oudh, closing in January, 1859. < The whole history of warfare and insurrection does not pre- sent a picture of more bloodthirsty and cruel deeds on the one hand, and of more intrepid bravery and innocent suffering on the other, than in this brief rebellion of the natives of India against their English rulers. The war was confined chiefly to the northern half of the Indian triangle. But there was unrest in every part of the country. The English did not know whom to trust. "War was in the air, from the mountains all the way down to the Cape. Over the northern half of India the armies of the insurgents swept like a besom of destruction. They held in their hand* the very rifles which had been given them, and whose use had been taught them, by the English. From Cal- cutta in the east to Lahor in the west, the tide of warfare ebbed and flowed with varying success. The three hot centres of the mutiny were Cawnpore, Lucknow, and Delhi. Nana Sahib was the leader of the mutineers, and Sir John Lawrence, Sir Henry Lawrence, Sir Henry Havelock, Sir Colin Campbell, Sir James Outram, and General Neill were the lead- ers of the British forces. The native forces massacred, in cold blood, men, women, and children. At Cawnpore the butchery of the little English contingent, with the families, surpasses all power of descrip- tion. At Lucknow the Eng- lish were besieged in the Residency, and every day they were dying from hun- ger, stifling heat, and the shot of the enemy. Havelock has- tened to the rescue. He and Sir James Outram entered the city with but two thousand men, while the enemy num- bered fifty thousand.* Luck- STATUE OF SIR JAMES OUTRAM. * Dutt, " Historical Studies," vol. ii., p. 393. 76 INBIKA. now was saved, but the cemetery of the Residency tells the sad story of the enormous number of the English who died during the struggle. Havelock died of d}-sentery in November, 1857, and his body lies in a garden near where he gave his life to his country. He met death with that Christian confidence and grandeur which had distinguished his remarkable career. He lay upon a rude bed, on the ground, in his tent, ministered to by his devoted son only. Among his last words were : " I die happy and contented. I have for forty years so ruled my life that when death came I might face it without fear." Of him it was said at Eangoon, by Campbell, the general com- manding, when informed that the enemy was approaching one of the English posts : " Call out Havelock's saints ; they are never drunk, and he is always ready." * For death, too, Havelock was ready. Taking his whole career together, no name stands higher on the long roll of England's great commanders than that of Havelock. As a Christian sol- dier, he shares with Gordon the highest place in the group of men who, in the nineteenth century, have reflected honor on the English name by a rare combination of religious fervor and martial daring. Several important results were reached by the suppression. of the great mutiny. One was the termination of the complicated relations between the English government and the East India Company. The last renewal of the charter granted by Parlia- ment was in 1853, for only such period as the government might see fit. The number of directors was reduced, their patronage for appointments to the civil service was taken away, and ap- pointments for offices were henceforth made dependent upon the principle of open competition. f In 1858, however, Parliament transferred, after long debate, the whole administration of India to the Crown, and the East India Company ceased to exist. A second great result was, that England learned by the mutiny that her government of India was henceforth to depend on Christian principles. There was no longer any public sympathy * Holmes, " A History of the Indian Mutiny," p. 424. t Hunter, " Short History of the Indkn People," p. 211. INDIA IN HISTORY. 77 with the false religious traditions and prejudices of the natives. The earnest Christian spirit of Havelook and the Lawrences convinced the world that the highest military quality is consist- ent with a deep religious experience. The patriotic spirit of THE RESIDENCY AT LTJCKNOW. the missionaries in this critical time was remarkable. The mas- sacre of missionaries and their families was a part of the great price which England paid for her complete victory over the mutineers. A third great result attained by the suppression of the mu- 78 INBIKA. tiny was the profound and universal conviction among all the natives that all further attempts to conquer England in India were out of the question. The mutiny had been made with unsurpassed energy, and it had utterly failed. No one of judg- ment in India now imagines that another effort for independence can ever be made, even under the most favorable circumstances. VI. The Queen's Proclamation, on assuming the government of India, was issued November 1, 1858. It has been called the Magna Charta of Indian rights. Complete amnesty was granted to all inhabitants of the country, except those who had taken direct part in the murder of English people. These few words are sufficient to declare the spirit of the entire proclamation : "We hold ourselves bound to the natives of our Indian terri- tories by the same obligations of duty which bind us to all our other subjects." For the princes who had remained firm to England during the mutiny the Order of the Star of British India was instituted, and many natives were rewarded in its different grades. The Sanad, or Patent of Nobility, was issued, by which the one hundred and fifty-three feudatories of Britain in India were con- stituted nobles of the British empire. The great representative of English authority at this time was Lord Canning, the first viceroy. His measures were of the most conciliatory character. He was much abused by the large Eng- lish element who advocated retaliatory measures, and the sobri- quet of "Clemency Canning" was a favorite term. But his unpopularity lasted for a brief season only. The true judgment of history is that but for the very course which he adopted the peaceful government of the millions of India, from that time to the present, could never have been achieved. VII. Subsequent Events. — Since the mutiny the development of the administration of the government has been wise and rapid. Nothing seems to have been neglected to cement the different parts of the country and to elevate the condition of the people, excepting only the treatment of the questions of opium and in- toxicating liquors. Queen Victoria was declared Empress of India by the special management of Lord Beacon sfield, the premier of the time. Lord Kipon, the viceroy from 1880 to 1883, attempted a series of reforms calculated to give larger liberty to the native aspirations. The repeal of the Vernacular INDIA IN HISTORY. 79 Press Act removed the last restraints on the free discussion of public questions.* Lord Eipon's scheme of local self - govern- ment has opened the way for a new era of political life to the natives of the country, while his appointment of an Education THE MEMORIAL WELL AT CAWNPORE. Commission has resulted in a great advance of popular educa- tion. Lord Bipon, though a Roman Catholic, enjoyed the favor and confidence of the whole bodv of Protestant missionaries. * Hunter, "Brief History of the Indian People," p. 216. 80 INBIKA. The natives regard his administration as peculiarly favorable to them, and showed their appreciation of his services by popular demonstrations of remarkable magnitude and heartiness. The administration of his successor, Lord Dufferin, which lasted from 1885 to 1888, was wisely conducted. Its most important polit- ical event was the accession of Burma to the empire of India. But the most far-reaching event was the founding of a movement by the Countess Dufferin for the supply of Medical Aid to the Women of India. MARCO POLO. CHAPTER VII. THE NATURAL DIVISIONS OF INDIA. India is known to its inhabitants, not as India, but as Bharata- varsha, or Land of King Bharata, the great ancient ruler of the Lunar dynasty.* It is mentioned in the Book of Esther as one of the one hundred and twenty-seven provinces of the son of SOPOR, HIMALAYAS IN THE BACKGROUND. Darius Hystaspes. It is cut off from the great central zone of Asia by the Himalaya Mountains, or Abodes of Snow. This range extends a distance of fifteen hundred miles, and has an unbroken water-shed of eighteen thousand feet in height, extend- * Dutt, " Historical Studies and Recreations," vol. i.. p. 34. 82 INDIRA. ing from the gorge of the Brahmaputra in the east to the gorge of the Indus in the west.* The width of the Himalaya range is enormous. This mountain region far excels in size the whole Alpine range. The entire width of the Alps, measured from Lake Thun to the plains of Lombardy, is about seventy -five miles, while a line drawn across the Himalayas, from Simla due north, measures four hundred miles, f It has been truly said that "along the entire range of the Himalaya there are valleys into which the w T hole Alps might be cast without producing any result that would be discernible at a distance of ten or fifteen miles." Here rise great mountain sys- tems, now culminating in peaks higher than any thus far known to men, and now extending in great snowy lines, with immense glaciers stretching down in all directions. Mount Everest rises 29,002 feet above the sea, or 12,000 feet higher than Mont Blanc. Three other Himalayan peaks are nearly as high — Kinchinjinga (28,156 feet), Chumalhari (23,929), and Dhawalagiri (26,826). General Strachey declares his expectation that many mountain- peaks will be found which will measure between 25,000 and 30,000 feet, and that some peaks will be discovered w T hich will measure more than 30,000 feet in height. The Himalayan Mountain region furnishes the water supply for India and Burma. The streams pour out from the glaciers, and, gathering strength from many mountain tributaries, roll down from the lofty heights at from eight hundred to twelve hundred and fifty feet of descent per mile. Beyond the snowy crests of the Himalayas lie the broad plateau and the chain of Kuen-luns, running parallel with the Himalayas, which separate Tibet from India. The Himalayas and the Kuen-luns, with the table-land between, form one gigantic mountain system, of an average width of five hundred miles and two thousand miles in length. Such an immense mountain region has no equal on the face of the earth. Few of the peaks have been ascended, while many of the valleys have never been trodden by human feet. Here rise not only all the great rivers of India, but of all Asia. The rivers which run through the Chinese empire and Burma rise in the east, while the rivers of India, and, to some extent, of Persia, rise in the central and western regions. Smith, " The Geography of British India," pp. 1 ff. t Ibid., p. 20. THE NATURAL DIVISIONS OF INDIA. KOTTIAR, CEYLON. South of this great range lies British India. It covers an area of 1,577,698 square miles, and supports a population of over 250,000,000 people. The distance from the Himalayas down to Cape Comorin is about the same as from Iceland to Spain. The distance from Bombay to Calcutta is the same as from Lon- don to Naples. The following table, from Behm and De Stein's statistics, will show the relation of the population and area of British India to other large countries : Square Miles. Square Kilometres. Population. British Empire British Indian Empire. . . . Chinese Empire , Tibet and E. Turkestan. . . Russian Empire Turkish Empire United States, N. A , Netherlands, with N. India Persia 8,036,007 1,494,310 1,609,876 4,725,500 8,281,200 2,494,520 3,708,976 '679,378 658,828 20,090,019 3,845,186 4,024,690 11,813,750 21,703,002 6,236,300 9,272,448 1,985,183 1,647,070 303,512,568 253,140,886 280,000,000 (estimated) 29,800,000 88,018,530 23,119,800 50.438,960 27,320,469 4,400,400 84 INDIRA. The following table will furnish a picture of the kingdoms and republics of Europe, contrasted with the great provinces and states of India : Bengal Assam British Burma . . . Andaman Islands N. W. Province, with Oudh. .. Panjab Bombay Ajmir Baroda Rajputana Central India . . . Central Province Berar Haidarabad Madias Kurg Mysore Square Miles. 203,437 55,384 87,220 3,285 111,086 221,749 191,847 2,710 4,399 130,994 89,098 113,042 17,728 80,000 150,248 1,583 30,500 Population. I Population. 69,133,619 4,908,276 3,736,771 30,000 44,851,542 22,712,120 23,396,045 460,722 2,154,469 11,005,512 9,200,881 11,505,149 2,672,673 9,167,789 33,840,617 178,302 4,186,399 37,672,000 25,968,286 29,702,656 150,000 28,437,091 37,839,427 20,974,411 936,340 1,506,531 27,278,911 29,702,656 28,437,091 2,846,102 29,702,656 16,625,860 349,367 3,734,370 Square Miles. 204,177 58,320 89,005 4,200 114,296 240,942 219,260 2,866 5,851 137,066 89,005 114,296 15,992 89,005 182,750 1,526 30,685 Europe. France. j England and ( Wales. Great Britain. Cyprus. Italy. Austria-Hungary. Spain and Por- tugal. Hesse. Baden. Prussia. Great Britain. Italy. Switzerland. Great Britain. Spain. Brunswick. Scotland. Beginning with the base of the Himalaya Mountains and look- ing southward, we have three distinct ranges of mountains dis- tributed through India. One is the great Yindhya, or " Hunter " range. It runs six hundred miles from east to west, or from Keesuach to Sasseram ; and three hundred miles from north to south, or from Agra to Hoshangabad. This immense Yindhya plateau separates the great valley of the Ganges from the Dekhan. It is the, " middle land " of the Aryan conquerors, and it is here, in the jungles and mountain fastnesses, that are still preserved the most undisturbed specimens of the pre -Aryan races. The aboriginal tongues are still heard here, and we can well imagine that, with the exception of some Sanskrit words and an element which has dropped in from the surrounding ver- naculars, one can still hear the same speech which was spoken by the inhabitants of India long before an Aryan had found his way down through the Afghan passes, or a single line of a Yeda had been chanted along the valley of the Ganges. The Satpura, or " Seven Towers " range, lies south of the THE NATURAL DIVISIONS OF INDIA. 85 Vindhya, and runs parallel to it, extending six hundred miles westward to the Arabian Sea, and having a width of one hun- dred miles. But the most important range of mountains south of the Himalayas is the Sahyadri, or Western Ghats. They run along the western coast from, the Tapti Biver to Cape Comorin, a dis- tance of one thousand miles. They are intersected by passes, which, seen from the coast, present the appearance of a sierra or comb. The eastern coast is flat, and the western is elevated. Every important rivor, therefore, rising in the heart of India is thrown eastward, and empties into the Bay of Bengal. The average height of this range is three thousand feet. There are variations in the general direction. While the general trend is along the coast, there are scarps in different directions, and now and then lofty cones, which shoot up almost perpendicularly from the plain. Along the east coast there are occasional eleva- tions, but not enough to affect the general geological character of the country. Each section of India has a mountain region for a refuge for Europeans during the summer. The plateau of Puna furnishes a delightful summer resort for the citizens of Bombay. The southern people have only to betake themselves to the plateau and ridges of Mysore and the Nilgiris for a cool and bracing atmosphere. Those living along the valleys of the Jamna and the Ganges, and elsewhere in the north, can find refuge from the heat by going to the Vindhya range, or, which is best of all, by going to the many resorts in the Himalaya Mountains. Simla, because of its being the summer resort of the. viceroy and his council and court, is the most fashionable of all the summer- ing places, and, while Calcutta is nominally the capital, it can really boast of the honor for only about four months of the year, while Simla possesses it the remaining eight months. India is really governed from this magnificent summer retreat. The rivers of India are among the most remarkable in the world. We begin with the eastern or Burmese group. The Ira- wadi has two sources in the Himalayas, separated by a clay's journey. This river is a mile broad while yet eight hundred miles from the sea. It divides into two rivers before it reaches the Bay of Bengal. The Tsit-Toung (Sittang) has a breadth, in the Shwe-gyeen district, of from seven to eight miles, but nar- 6* 86 INDIRA. rows again before reaching the Bay of Bengal. It drains an area of twenty-two thousand square miles. The Salween is a narrow and rapid stream, flowing south of the Chinese province of Yunan. The Brahmaputra, or " Son of Brahma," rises in the great Tibetan table-land, and flows a distance of 1800 miles, finally emptying into the Bay of Bengal at its head. The basin which it drains has an area of 361,200 square miles. It is navigable a distance of eight hundred miles from the sea, and in volume, agricultural facilities, and commercial advantages it ranks next to the Ganges and the Indus, as the third Indian river in value to the empire. The Ganges, " The River," is eldest daughter of Himavat, " The Lord of Snow." It is the sacred river of the Hindus, who call it " Mother Ganga." Yenerable temples mark its rise among the glaciers of the Himalayas, and keep guard along its banks until it pours its vast waters into the Bay of Bengal. Its main course is 1680 miles in length. It loses its identity before reaching the sea. It begins to form its great delta while yet 240 miles from the sea. It divides into the Megua and the Hugh rivers, through which it passes its vast volume of water to the sea. The fertilizing power of this one river, and its relation to the life and commerce of India, beggars all description. It has no parallel in the world's life-bearing streams. " From the source of the Ganges in the Himalayas," says F. G. Carpenter, " to its mouth in the Bay of Bengal, it has a fall of more than two and one half miles, and as a fertilizing bearer it surpasses any river on the face of the globe. Egypt is the gift of the Nile. You could lose Egypt in these plains, which are the gift of the Ganges. The mighty Nile, with its unknown source, does not carry down as much water as this holy river of the Hindus, and its maximum discharge, at a distance of 400 miles from the sea, with many of its tributaries yet to hear from, is one third greater than that of the Mississippi. "Where the Ganges rises, bursting forth from a Himalayan glacier, it is 27 feet wide. It falls 3500 feet in the first ten miles of its course, and it has an average depth of 35 feet 500 miles from its mouth. Its delta is as wide as the distance from. New York to "Washington, and hundreds of mouths run from this width back into a sort of a parallelogram for 200 miles more, where they unite. The water of the Bay of Bengal is discolored for miles by the mud THE NATURAL DIVISIONS OF INDIA. 89 brought down by the Ganges, and the whole country is fertil- ized by it. "The water is the color and thickness of pea-soup, and the silt or mud is so rich that these vast plains use no other fertilizer. The crops are harvested by pulling the stalks out of the ground. No cows or horses are allowed to pasture in the fields, and their droppings are mixed with straw and mud, and then dried and used as fuel. In this Ganges valley Nature is always giving, but never getting. Every atom of natural fertilizer save this Ganges silt is taken from the soil. Still the land is as rich as guano, and it produces from two to four crops every year. About Calcutta the alluvial deposit is 400 feet deep, and an ex- periment was lately made to get to the end of it. A well was sunk, but at the distance of 481 feet the auger broke. At this point the end of this rich soil had not been reached. " The amount of fertilizing material brought down by the Ganges has been lately estimated, and scientific investigation shows that some distance above the point where it unites with the Brahmaputra its yearly burden is the enormous amount of 355,000,000 tons. A thousand-ton, ship is by no means small, and a fleet of 350,000 such ships could not carry this burden. The average freight-car is thirty-four feet long, and it takes a strong car to carry fifty tons. Suppose our freight-cars to be each sixteen feet longer than they are. Load upon each car fifty tons of this fertilizing mud, and it would take a train of more than seven million such cars to carry the yearly fertilizing output of this great river. If these cars were on a single track, the track would have to be 67,400 miles long. It would reach twice around the earth, and leave enough cars over to run two continuous trains through the centre. The most of this silt comes down during four months of the year, and if there were, daily fleets of 2000 ships, each containing 1400 tons of mud, dur- ing these four months they would just carry it. " But this is the work of the Ganges alone. It is five times as much as is carried by the Mississippi to the Gulf ; and farther down the river, where the great Brahmaputra joins it and flows out into its hundred mouths, the silt output is still greater. Dur- ing the rainy season alone the river here carries out enough silt to load 13,000 ships, with 1400 tons each, every day for four months. During this rainy season this w T hole delta of the Gan- ges is covered with water to the. extent of about thirty feet. 90 INDIEA. You see only the tops of trees, and the villages which are built upon the hills, and the river farther up the country is diverted by canals from its course to every part of these vast plains. The best of the wheat is irrigated, and the water, being allowed to lie upon the land, drops this fertilizer and enriches it." * The Indus, or Abba Sin, " Father of Rivers," rises in the same great general Tibeto-Himalayan range. It has a course of 1802 miles, and empties into the Arabian Sea. The great Five Rivers — the Jhelam, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Satlej — pour their waters into the Indus. The Indus has brought fertility to a vast sandy region, and has created the province of Sind as completely as the Nile has produced Lower Egypt. Its mouths are numerous, and frequently change. They extend a distance of 120 miles along the coast. We now come to the rivers which run through the centre and southern part of India, and which take their rise in the central and southern mountains. The Narbada separates Hindustan proper from the Dekhan. It is fed mainly by tributaries from the southern side of the Vindhya range, drains a basin of 36,400 square miles, and empties into the Arabian Sea north of Bombay. The Tapti runs parallel to the Narbada, drains an area of 30,000 square miles, and can boast of one hundred and eight sacred shrines along its banks. The Mahanadi, or " Great River," runs through the Central Province, and empties into the Bay of Ben- gal, having a drainage basin of 43,800 square miles. The Goda- vari rises within fifty miles of the Indian Ocean, and runs east- ward across the peninsula, and empties into the Bay of Bengal. The Kistna, or Krishna, runs in the same general direction, and also empties into the Bay of Bengal. It has a drainage of 94,500 square miles. The Kaveri also crosses the peninsula eastward, drains an area of 28,000 square miles, and empties by two mouths into the Bay of Bengal. f There are but few lakes in India proper. But there are many, which are very beautiful, in the Tibeto-Himalayan plateau. Among these are Manasaraur and Rahhas Tal. On the Pamir steppe, or " Roof of the World," is Pamir, or Yictoria Lake. It is fourteen miles long, and gives birth to the Oxus River, flow- * Correspondence of the New York Times (June, 1889). tMedlicott and Blanford, " A Manual of the Geology of India," p. iii. THE NATURAL DIVISIONS OF INDIA. 91 ing westward, and to the Aksu, which flows eastward. Pang- king is a series of saline lakes which extend a distance of one hundred miles. The Runn of Kutch is a great salt marsh of about 9000 square miles in area, and is one of the chief sources of the salt supply of India. Palti, Chonito-Dong, Dalguchu, Tengri-nor, Bulcho, and Koko-nor, " Blue Sea," are all situated in the north- ern Himalayan plateau. In the southern Himalayan plateau are A SALT-WELL, KUTCH. the beautiful Kashmir lakes, Srinagar and Manasbal, and Eular, Konsa Nag, ISTaini Tal, the Six Lakes of Sikkim, Sambhar, Lonar, Nakhi Talao, Amber, Nal, Chitka, Kolar, and Pulikat. Many of the tanks, receiving the waters from rivers and rainfalls, are so large as to compare favorably with natural lakes. The great tank at Haidarabad, in the Dekhan, would be readily taken in America for a natural lake. CHAPTER VIII. ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE.— MINERALS. India comprises all climates. The uplands along the base of the Himalayas remind one of the temperate regions of Europe and the United States, while the southern part of the peninsula is as thoroughly tropical and luxuriant as the West Indies or the Molucca Islands. The animal life derives its varied forms from the many Indian climates. In Zerai and Assam the elephant still runs wild.* The dense jungles are their favorite home. The wild elephants are caught and tamed, and used for bearing bur- dens or adding to the dignity of petty chiefs or the Anglo-Indian nabob. In the old sculptures there can be seen magnificent ele- phants forming an important part in imperial processions. The same fondness for elephantine display still exists in India. On great occasions a line of elephants, richly caparisoned in purple and gold, is still considered a necessary factor in a vice-regal or princely procession. The lion, long the king of the Indian forest, is now rapidly dis- appearing. The south is still the home of the tiger. This ani- mal is getting more timid of late, because of the inroads made upon his species by English sportsmen and because of the progress of agriculture ; but the species known as the " man- eater " is still dreaded, because of his terrible ferocity Hunter gives the following account of the depredations of four of these animals : In three years one man-eater killed 108 people ; another destroyed 80 people in one year ; another was the dreaded pest of 30 villages ; while a fourth, in 1869, killed 127 people, and for many weeks closed up a great road to all travel. Chamois, chevreuils, bears, wild dogs, wolves, and other ani- mals of this class, are to be found in the north, and to some extent in all parts of India. The panther, hyena, jackal, croco- * Le Bon, " Civilization of India," pp. 57-68. DISTRIBUTION OP FOREST TREES NOTEt— Forests In Natlue States are not completely represented. > QMaldivels. I 1 )' W ft" QuilonV* L^/ty^fo vbLSh VOlv/o Palamcottah JTV Trivandrun^^fej: £ JcEYLO JStf^Ss, ■$> IftPutlam, C .Co^ or &A bought up, according to their good- ness and weight." * The pearl fishing of Tutikorin has now passed away, because the oysters, except of an inferior kind, no longer grow along the coast. Pearl oysters still grow on the Singhalese coast, but if a tourist wishes to buy pearls, and be sure of what he is getting, he should not select Colombo, but some place in Europe or the United States, for his purchases. Tutikorin was my nearest point for finding a railroad and taking a train for a visit to some of the most ancient and cele- bratecl Indian temples. The Nerbudda was about to sail for Tutikorin, and I took passage by her from Colombo in the afternoon. The sea was high, and we were in the region of sunken reefs and many a shipwreck. People avoid this route, so far as they can, but this was my only opportunity to visit the region south of Madras. On the day following the departure from Colombo we came in sight of the Indian coast. Off in the distance there lay the wreck of a magnificent steamer. She had run on a hidden reef some months before, and was now forsaken, and would in time disappear beneath the waves of this treacherous sea. " How shall we land V " Oh," replied the captain, " we shall not venture much far- ther in. We shall soon cast anchor, and the little launch will come out and take you all ashore." This was no pleasant news. I had never seen, in all the East, a launch that I would be willing to trust myself to in such a heavy sea and at such a distance from the shore. We dropped anchor eight miles from the coast. By and by we saw a little *Kerr, " Voyages and Tramps," vol. viii. THE PEARL FISHERY.— MADURA AND ITS TEMPLE. 275 bobbing speck — the launch in question — emerging from a tongue of land beyond which Tutikorin lay along the coast. It was coming out for us. As it came clearly into view I could see its tossings more clearly. By and by the dwarf came up to our side, and was fastened to the Nerbudda. We had many passen- gers, mostly natives, who were scattered over our deck in hetero- geneous masses. They, too, wanted to land, and meant to take the launch as well as ourselves. The officers had little control over them. They dropped down rapidly into the launch, and seemed to me to fill every part of the frail craft. I must either follow them or depart with the steamer in a different direction, and thus spoil all my plans. I took the risk, and went down the rickety stepway into the launch. We were soon cast loose, and bobbing and rolling up and down in the wild waters. We passed near the great wreck, and moved on towards the land. Those were eight venturesome miles. There was' no room for a comfortable seat, and I there- fore had to stand and hang on by any support within reach. By and by we came within the lee of the land, and the water grew smooth. In due time we landed. The question now was, when was the train to leave — the only one in twenty-four hours ? " Immediately," said the captain of the diminutive launch. I was one of the first to step ashore. Two hulls caught up my luggage, and hastened towards the railway station. But I had the disappointment of seeing the train move out just as I reached the station. I was too late. Therefore I had to adjust myself to a halt of twenty-four hours. I found a humble hotel, where I took a bath, and made myself as comfortable as the circum- stances would admit. In the afternoon I strolled through the bazar, and visited one of the Jesuit churches — one of the many planted, either directly or indirectly, through the labors of Xavier around this coast. When I was buying my ticket the next morning for Madura, the station agent was kind enough to say : "Don't you know there is cholera in Madura?" " What, real Asiatic cholera ?" " It's real Asiatic cholera, and nothing else," he answered. " I have not heard it before," I replied. " I landed only yes- terday from the steamer Nerbudda, and have had no news. of any kind. Many deaths V 276 INDIRA. " Oh, no. Nothing compared with last year. Five thousand died during the season. Only about ten die a day just now, and we don't consider that anything." I mused a moment on the mortality of ten cholera patients a day in a place of fifty thousand, and then asked : " Do you think it safe to go ?" " I can't answer that. It all depends." Two facts now came to my relief. One was, that few people in India think cholera contagious. There are no separate hospi- tals for such cases, cholera patients being put in the same wards with patients suffering from fever and other diseases. The other fact was, that two weeks before, when I was in Puna, there had been a cholera case in the native bazar, and yet I had a most pleasant ride through that part of the city, and had suffered no harm, and saw no alarm anywhere. The truth is, nobody thinks of cholera as any more likely to happen than any mild disease. Dr. "Waugh told me afterwards that cholera prevailed more or less in all Indian towns, but that nobody minded it. It might be next door, but it frightened no one. It is very necessary to watch its beginning, and then manage it, as you can, with care and caution. Another is, to take care of one's diet. This must be said, however, that when cholera does come, and its first stage is neglected, the collapse is very sudden. Taking all things together, it did not seem much of a risk to spend my intervening clay, before meeting an engagement , at Bangalore, in Mysore, in making a halt in Madura, and using my only opportunity to see the famous pagoda, or temple, there — the largest, not only in India, but in the world. The Temple of Maduka. . Long before reaching Madura one can see the great towers which rise above the pagoda, and dominate not alone the city, but the whole surrounding country. In many of the Indian cities the temple is in the suburbs, and even completely alone in the country, having been left by the population drifting far out in other directions. But this is not the case in Madura. The pagoda is in the very heart of the old city. The bazars lead directly towards it, and overflow into it. It is the city in minia- ture, with its dirt, ill odors, poverty, wealth, superstition, and in- famous idolatry. All the surging tide of tradesmen flows tow- THE PEARL FISHERY.— MADURA AND ITS TEMPLE. 277 ards and about it. ~No adequate conception of an Indian temple can be formed from any European illustration of sacred places. Perhaps the Troi'tska Monastery in Russia, where many cathe- drals are grouped around one central sacred place, making the whole a very Canterbury, is as near an approach to an Indian temple and its spaces as can be found anywhere west of Asia. While the object which gives Madura its chief celebrity in these modern days is its vast temple, in the ancient times its TEMPLE AND ROYAL SEPULCHRE, MADURA. university was its grand at- traction. Its fame as a seat of learning spread far and wide. I doubt not that its lecture - halls at- tracted students from all parts of the Oriental world. The heritage of the city was a rich grouping of intellectual, political, and social power ; for Madura was none other than the capital of the kingdom described by Ptolemy as the Regio Pandionis. In the third century the university shone as the literary centre of all India. From that time on, for ten centuries, or until the thirteenth, when the 278 INDIRA. Persian Mohammedans invaded India, and Delhi became a com- petitor, the university of Madura reigned without a rival as the most splendid seat of Hindu science. From the meridian of Madura the longitude in Hindu geography was calculated, as in English geography the longitude is determined from Green- wich. The examinations required to enter the university were rigid. A broad system of popular education prevailed, and the late Mr. Bell's effort to establish education for the native masses was only a revival of a long-forgotten Hindu law. In those days every Hindu parent took his child to school when five years of age. This regulation seems to have been not only a law, but so deeply fixed as a duty, that the Hindu associated with it certain relig- ious observances. A ceremony was used in introducing the boy to his schoolmaster and the other scholars. His name was pub- licly recorded. A prayer was publicly offered to the image of Ganesh, the Hindu god of wisdom, imploring his help to enable the child to grow in wisdom.* The girls had all the privileges of the bo} 7 s. No social barrier stood in anybody's way of getting a university education. Caste, with its later iron rules, never entered the portals of the Madura university. The degraded pariah had equal privileges with the first-born son of a prince. One day a pariah and his sister ap- plied for admission, and they were both received. Time brought great changes with the two. The man became the president of the university, and is known to posterity as the learned Tiru Valluvan. He retained the president's chair until his death, and became the author of the " Kural," a poem still held in high es- teem by all Hindus. This work contains his thirteen hundred aphorisms, and is the oldest, as it is the most revered, work in the Tamil language, f It is a moral and didactic poem, abound- ing in beautiful and true sentiments. A standard edition of the "Kural," with English translation, grammatical analysis, and critical commentary, has lately been published in Madras. This edition, a high compliment to a pagan masterpiece, is the work of a native Christian minister. Tiru Yalluvan's sister vied in progress with her brother. She * " The Oriental Annual," 1836, pp. 29 ff. f Markham, " Travels in Peru and India," p. 416. THE PEARL FISHERY.— MADURA AND ITS TEMPLE. 279 is known as the renowned Avvei, a celebrated poetess in Tamil verse. All traces of the university are now gone. The pagoda, or temple, is the great object of interest. There are conflicting opinions as to its antiquity. It is probable that the place itself was regarded sacred, and was the site of a temple long before a city was built here, and that the city grew out of the temple, and all about it. The immense structure gives clear evidence of its own antiquity. It was built in the third century before the Christian era, by King Kula Shekhara. It is evidently a case where this city, the capital of a large territory, has sprung into life from religious associations. Some parts of the pagoda are modern, and were built by Tirumal Kayak, in the first half of the seventeenth century. But one can easily distinguish the newer from the older. The effect, throughout, is one of great and undisturbed antiquity. The pagoda space is an immense parallelogram, extending 744 feet from east to west, and 847 feet from north to south. The area is enclosed by a light wall, flanked at various points by nine colossal towers. These towers are of peculiar structure, all after the same model, and so disposed towards each other as to form a symmetrical combination. Each constitutes a gateway for entrance from different sides of the wall. As you enter you find yourself passing through a great open corridor. The go- pura is shaped like a tent, and on every side is ornamented with carvings. These represent the fabulous doings of the god Siva and his wife Minakshi, and ascend in lessening rows, or stories, until the apex is reached, which is sharp and curved, and re- minds one of the general form of an old Eoman galley. The colors of these gopuras are very rich, and, in the case of several, shine like fine tiling, or even gay enamel. The blue is espe- cially rich, and is fairly dazzling in the bright sunlight. While Siva is the god to whom the temple is supposed to have been dedicated, the more frequent representations of his wife, Minak- shi, prove her to have been the favorite of the people. The Scene in the Madura Temple. Two gopuras constitute the great entrances. Through one of these I went, followed by a crowd of about fifty ill-clad beg- gars. They held high carnival as they passed around and against 280 INDIRA. me, and called for alms. I noticed many sleepers in the darker corners, in various parts of the temple spaces. They lie in every position. It seems a habit of the Maduran, when he gets thor- oughly tired in his tent, or in the bazar, to drop into this temple and fall down for a good nap at the feet of Siva or some other idol, for Madura is a spot which for ages has been held strangely sacred by the Hindu worshipper. Having passed through the gopura, and completed the passage of the great corridor, one sees just the beginnings of this wonderful temple. There stretch out before you great reaches of passages and halls, and, still farther, corridors in all possible directions. But for my safe guide, who added to his other duties the good one of keeping off the crowd of ragged and starving and ill-smelling beggars with a stout bamboo rod, I should have lost my way at once. At your right you see an immense hall, the Hall of One Thou- sand Columns, which extends far away until it is lost in dark and distant spaces. But, beyond it — for I came back that way — there is a special temple sacred to the ruling god, Siva. At your left are vendors of images, sweetmeats, toys, and various other articles, which, for some reason, are permitted to be sold within the sacred walls. The men who sell them are squatted over the floor on mats of palm, with their wares about them. Think of a seller of small wares, in a temple, sitting or standing, with his goods arranged on a counter or row of shelves ! Such a thing would be with us preposterous beyond measure. The drift is downward. No Hindu will stand if he can possibly drop on the floor. He doubles up his legs under him. That is his normal position. He may be talking with you this moment, and as much interested in standing or walking as any one. But a sud- den change comes over him. Down he drops, and no boy ever closed the two blades of a jack-knife more quickly than the Hindu doubles himself up, either on the temple floor, or at the side of the street, or in his own doorway. And there he can sit by the hour, nay, the whole day, and be as calm as the se- rene face of Buddha himself. Perhaps these sellers in the Madura pagoda have some ances- tral claim on the favor of the authorities, by which they receive the privilege of spreading out their wares in the holy place. Over your head there flies about a flock of cloves. They are sa- cred, and woe to the hand that would hurt a feather on their THE PEARL FISHERY.— MADURA AND ITS TEMPLE. 281 sweet heads ! The worshippers feed them. It is a sacred priv- ilege. Yonder, to your left, three sacred elephants are feeding, and frisking their trunks about as if they really knew that they were picking up great wisps of straw and hay within the Hin- du's holy place. But I must hasten, or their priestly keepers will loosen the chains of one of them in a trice, and have the mammoth dropping down on all fours, and pulling me up on his back, to take an elephant ride through this labyrinth of marvels. Imagine the absurd- ity of an elephant ride on a temple floor ! Yet that is what you can do here, and take a long promenade, and never have him repeat his pathway. But by going through this first door- way I get away from the ven- dors and the importuning ele- phants, and pass out of sight of the Hall of a Thousand Col- umns and its great, intermina- ble spaces. Here one is in a corridor nearly two hundred feet long, with pillars groaning beneath a wealth of sculptured images. ISTow comes a brazen door. The frame is vast and heavy, and is entirely surrounded with brazen lamps, all of which are lighted during the Tailot- sava, " the oil festival." Monier Williams happened to visit the Madura pagoda at the time of the " oil festival," and thus describes the wretched scene : " A coarse image of the goddess Minakshi, profusely decorated DETAIL OF A PILLAR OF THE HALL CALLED PUTHU MUNTAPAM, MA- DURA. 282 INDIRA. with jewels, and having a high head-dress of hair, was carried in the centre of a long procession on a canopied throne, borne by eight Brahmans, to a platform in the magnificent hall, oppo- site the temple. There the ceremony of undressing the idol, removing its ornaments, anointing its head with oil, bathing, redecorating, and redressing it was gone through, amid shouting, singing, beating of tom-toms, waving of lights and cowries, ring- ing of bells, and deafening discord from forty or fifty so-called musical instruments, each played by a man who did his best to overpower the sound of all the others combined. At the head of the procession was borne an image of Ganesh. Then followed three elephants, a long line of priests, musicians, attendants bear- ing cowries and umbrellas, with a troop of dancing-girls bring- ing up the rear. " No sight I witnessed in India made me more sick at heart than this. It presented a sad example of the utterly debasing character of the idolatry which, notwithstanding the counter- acting influences of education and Christianity, still enslaves the masses of the population, deadening their intellects, corrupt- ing their imaginations, warping their affections, perverting their consciences, and disfiguring the fair soil of a beautiful country with hideous usages and practices unsanctioned by even their own minds and works." * You are now introduced into a darker corridor, and then again into a broad and pillared space, where the columns are sculpt- ured, being cut through and through into figures of dancing gods, like Krishna when he played his flute to the shepherds. You now look out upon a little sheet of water with a miniature temple in the middle of it. This is the Lake of the Golden Lilies. Near by it is the little chapel where Queen Mangam- mal's subjects starved her to death in 1706, having placed food so near that she could see and smell it, but not taste it. We now enter another department of the temple ; above there are stone images, up around the pillars, in all corners, and hanging down over you wherever you go near walls or archways. These images are not grave and majestic, but, in the main, grotesque, bacchanalian, in fantastic attitudes, and often combining the bodies of man and beast. They represent, for the most part, * " Religious Thought and Life in India," part i., pp. 442, 443. THE PEARL FISHERY.— MADURA AND ITS TEMPLE. 283 the escapades of Siva. Every now and then one comes to a shrine where worshippers lie prostrate before it, and remain mo- tionless for a long time. No one knows how long it has taken these poor dusty pilgrims to reach this sacred place. Perhaps they have been three months on the journey. They come from the very base of the Himalayas or the borders of Tibet, and, now that they have reached the end of their pilgrimage, would die with a happy heart. There are several gold-plated images, veiled from view, which represent the god Siva or his wife in some part of their marvellous career. The representations in stone, both of men and the brute world, are frequent every- where. Elephants, horses, cattle, and every kind of animal held sacred in the Hindu mythology, are cut out of stone, and made to portray the supposed divine attributes of Siva and his wife. Here, too, are the very vehanas, or great chariots, plated with gold, in which the god and his wife are taken out on special days in the year to ride. Besides these, there are silver litters, which serve the same divine purpose on other days. One grows weary of the procession of splendid but gross images and idols in this vast space. Now you are out for a time in the open air, where a vacancy has been left in the roof, and the beautiful sky throws down its blessed sunlight upon this terrible picture of idolatry. But very soon you are brought again under the shadowing and lofty ceiling, and, before you are aware of it, you are almost lost in a dark labyrinth of sculpt- ured pillars, black idols in gold wrappings, dusty and absorbed pilgrims, cheerful doves, and the constant crowd of men and boys who follow you, either to sell you their sweets, or beg for your loose pice. All at once you come out from a corridor to the marble steps of a miniature lake. Be careful now. Only the real Hindu dares to step down into its waters. For every drop is sacred, and must touch only the skin of Siva's chil- dren. Over the calm surface the towers stand as gay sentinels, from century to century. Turning again, you must look care- fully, or you will tread upon a sleeping form, which has dropped in from the hot air and let fall its burden, and eaten its rice, and now rests an hour. There is a mother, with a nose-ring so large that it hangs down over her mouth, and she must eat through it or starve. Her ankles are encircled by heavy silver anklets, cut like serpents. Her toes are glittering with jewelled rings. 284 INDIRA. She has led her child up before an image of Siva's wife, and is explaining what it all means. Poor woman ! Little she knows the truth. The One Name above all others she has never once heard. Here is a dwarf, who stands beside a shrine, and holds out his withered hand for an anna. Here, in a place where the statuary has given way to the wear of ages, are work- ers in stone, who are making new pillars, with sculptured flut- ings, to take the place of the old. All the work, every stroke of mallet and chisel, must be done right here, where everything is holy, and Siva smiles calmly down upon the labor. After inspecting the temple, I went to the great hall which Tirumal Nayak, the builder of the modern parts of the ]3agoda, also built. He reigned from 1621 to 1657^ The hall was erected by him as a temporary lodging-place for Ganesh, the chief idol of the temple, which was taken hither from the tem- ple each year for ten days. The hall measures three hundred and thirty-three feet in length, and one hundred and five in width. It required twenty-two years to build it, and cost five millions of dollars. The gate tower has door-posts of single blocks of granite sixty feet high. In this great pillared hall there are statues of the king and his six wives. When this won- derful structure was finished, the king conducted his queen, a princess of the house of Tanjor, to see it and admire its splendor. " Has your father," asked he, " of whose greatness you so often tell me, any building in his dominions like this ?" " Like this !" exclaimed the queen ; k ' why, the sheds in which he keeps his cattle are finer." The king threw his dagger at his wife. It hit her in the hip, and caused her death.* The palace of Tirumal Nayak, at Madura, stands among the foremost in massive grandeur among the royal residences of India. Some of its great courts are now used for offices of administration and law. The vast corridors, the wonderful domes, the rich carving in stone, combine to make this building one of the most remarkable pieces of architecture in existence.! * Russell, "The Prince of Wales's Tour: a Diary in India." New York ed. (1874), p. 274. t Temple gives it the first rank (" India in 1880," p. 38). Fergusson, in "History of Architecture," presents an account of this palace, p. 381. THE PEARL FISHERY.— MADURA AND ITS TEMPLE. 285 Over the great chamber which is supposed to have been Tiru- mal's bedroom there are four holes through the roof. Through these are said to have been suspended four hooks, which sup- ported Tirumal's cot. One large hole is alleged to have been made by a thief, through which he descended on the chain sup- porting one corner of the king's bed, and stole the crown jewels. Tirumal, as the story runs, offered an hereditary estate to the thief if he would come, voluntarily, and restore the jewels, add- ing that no questions should be asked. The thief appeared, and restored the jewels. The king asked no questions, but — decapi- tated the thief. If such were the habits of one king, what must have been those of many others of that long unbroken line of one hundred and sixteen Madura kings, extending from the fourth century before our era down to modern times ! SAKASWATI. CHAPTER XXYIII. THE TEMPLE FORTRESS OF TRICHINOPOLI. From Madura I took the train for Trichinopoli. Throughout this whole southern portion of India there are abrupt hills, which rise almost perpendicularly from the plains. These peaks, like those near Haidarabad, are not wooded mountains, but bare rocks, and sometimes single boulders, of immense size, and standing on end. They are the offshoots of the ISTilgiri Hills. Tall shrines they are, Nature's great sentinels, keeping watch over Southern India. They have been used from time immemorial by robbers and war- riors for keeping in awe the surrounding country. In the far- back, barbaric days, the kings built their houses upon them, which, as with the castles on the Rhine and Danube, served the double purpose of palace and fortress. Each of these great hills has a history, if one only knew it, which combines all the features of an Indian Iliad. Sometimes the top is so shaped that it is difficult to ascend it, much more to build upon it. Besides, there is often, in addition to the fortress, a diminutive temple, with a passage up to it, grooved out of the solid granite. In India, the combination, under the same roof, of the temple and the secular building is not infrequent. It seems to have been the original purpose, in the remote Hindu days, to give sanctity to a stronghold by combining with the place a temple. He has a keen eye who can tell, in such a case, where the secular ends and the sacred begins. Here in Trichinopoli, the temple forms a brotherhood with a great fortress. The whole group is at once the abode of old-time warriors and imaginary deities. How could a king give up a fort where the most sacred associations were combined with every atom of the glistening rock beneath? All the early record is gone with the flood of faded memories which the new age has swept away. In the case of Trichinopoli, only the story since the first half of the eighteenth century is known, and that is THE TEMPLE-FORTRESS OF TRICHINOPOLI. 287 written in blood. The magnificent site of the fortress has been its fatal endowment. Not even the sacred character of the tem- ple, which is a vital part of the whole vast structure, has made an arrow or cannon shot the less. The Hill. The hill of Trichinopoli. on which the great fortress stands, is the highest, most picturesque, and most associated with im- portant historical events, of any abrupt hill in Southern India. Around it many a great army has battled for dominion long before the Portuguese and later Europeans dared to touch foot upon the fields of Hindustan. Many of these contests between the native warring tribes having passed into oblivion, the broken sculptures in the temple that clings about the fort are the only pens which describe the narrative of the hot battles in the dis- tant days. When the Europeans came, and began to contend for the mastery of India, one of the first things they did was to choose sides between contending Indian armies, led by brave kings and nawab-s. and between the two to walk into possession and power. The land lying at the base of Trichinopoli was con- tested for many times before Clive appeared upon the scene. In fact, the whole history of the place is a story of unbroken warfare, from 1736 down to 1801, when the French and natives marched down and the English marched up. This place was next in im- portance to Madras, as a strategic point towards the final occu- pation of the country by the English. Clive saw this, and while Major Lawrence was really the immediate commander, it was owing to Clive's desperate bravery and unwearied diligence that the French were defeated here, and the entire country, save a few still lingering French spots, became an English possession. The victory of Trichinopoli made possible the victory of Plassey. Trichinopoli was a necessity to the English possession of all Southern India. In the midst of this plain, with its rapid river and the thick jungle along its banks, and these venerable tem- ples, which might be counted by the score. Lawrence and Clive solved the problem of English rule in the Eastern world. "With- out the combinations and triumphs south of Madras, it would not have been within the range of possibility to establish the rule of the Saxon either in the Xorth or the South. As one leaves the plain and begins the ascent of the hill, he 288 INDIKA. passes, on the left, the Tappe Kulam, a great tank of about two hundred and fifty feet square. It is of stone, and is sur- rounded with houses. In the centre is a beautiful miniature temple. In one of the houses on the border of the tank Clive lived when engaged in military operations here. At the door of the particular one which is supposed by several to have been his residence are two kneeling elephants, cut in stone, each over five feet high. This may have been, at one time, a Hindu temple. Nothing is wanting to this immense fortress, either for nature or art, to make it impregnable. First of all is the immense moat, thirty feet wide and twelve feet deep, which surrounds the outer wall. Then comes the wall itself, which extends two thousand yards from east to west and twelve hundred yards from north to south. This wall is eighteen feet high, five feet thick, and is flanked by great round towers. Then comes an open space of twenty-five feet in width. After this we have a second wall, running exactly parallel with the outer one, and protecting the fortress in all directions. On the inner wall the greatest de- pendence was placed. It was built to resist any force that might get through or over the outer one. This inner wall is thirty feet high, and of great width at the base. It grows narrower as it ascends, but its top is ten feet broad, the parapet being of solid stones. There are loopholes for guns on every side. Every foot of the way, from the bank of the Kaveri Eiver below to the very corner of this marvellous fortress, has been hotly contested. No historian can tell the full story of the blood that has been shed and the races that have fought upon this very spot. Let us review a few of these deadly passages at arms within the last one hundred and fifty years. In the year 1736 the widow of the late reigning raja admitted a few soldiers into the fortress, in order to pay over a little tribute, which they were collecting from various parts of the Karnatic. They seized the place, and the queen was made prisoner. Soon the tide turned, and the Mar- hattas captured the place in 1740, and killed Dost Ali. Within ten years both the French and the English appeared upon the scene, and now it was a conflict between native rulers and for- eign invaders. It long lay in doubt which native prince would come out best, or which people, the English or the French, would go down in the general crash. The English took sides with the Marhattas, and the French allied themselves with the rulers of THE TEMPLE-FORTRESS OF TRICHINOPOLI. 289 the Karnatic, whose army was led by Chanda Sahib. In 1752 Major Lawrence, who led the English and the Marhattas, de- feated the French and the Karnatic troops, and marched up the hill and took their quarters in the fortress. But the fighting was not over.. The Karnatic soldiers and the French still lay near. Clive, who was Lawrence's best fighter, went off with a body of troops to deal another blow to the ene- my. He was shot, but not fatally ; and though he lost much blood, he was not too weak to give orders, to capture prisoners, and to secure a decisive victory to the English arms. But it was of short duration. The French had skilfully formed an alliance with the Marhattas. But Lawrence, with Clive as his powerful helper, defeated them all in 1753. Soon, however, affairs took an adverse turn. The native princes and their army, who to-day TEMPLE- CASTLE, TRICHINOPOLI. fought side by side with the English, turned against them the next day, and fought with the French. Hardly a week passed in which the contestants did not change about in one way or another. The fortress of Trichinopoli was generally the cen- tre of the operations. The army was always victorious which could win this great height. The first victory, however, lay with the English. The Nawabs of the Karnatic, who had for- feited their claim to English sympathy because of their final alle- giance to the French, had to give up their great fortress in 1801. Since this time the Union Jack of England has floated from its lofty granite crest. The temple fortress of Trichinopoli has a double dedication to the god Siva and the fortunes of war. 19 290 1NDIKA. The Ascent to the Temple. The entrance is through a great and high gateway of carved and polished stone. One must look high, and not hurry, if he would enjoy the rich carving of this magnificent entrance. The doors are gone now. The ill fortunes of war have shattered them, no doubt, and only the broad passage through the great doorway itself is all that speaks of the immense doors through which conquering and conquered kings have many a time passed in procession. There is not a stone beneath one's feet that has not fairly swum in the blood of Indians long before any stranger from Europe arrived and contended for the wealth of the price- less land. The doorway is covered with immense slabs of solid stone. On either side are pillars, each one a single stone of eight- een feet in height. They are of no architecture known to Eu- rope, but belong to the early Jain style, where the capitals abound in lions and other animals. We are now in a covered passage, broad, lofty, impressive. It is vaulted with great solid stones, laid across from side to side, and we can see them in all their massiveness. We come next to the forecourt of the temple of Siva. It is now sadly neglected, and there is but little evi- dence of worship ; but on days sacred to the gods Siva, Parvati, Ganesh, and Subramanya their images are taken out, a proces- sion is formed, and various rites are celebrated, as from time immemorial. I now passed through the forecourt of the temple, and, look- ing out in front, could see a great flight of broad steps, which rise far out in advance, until the steps and the lofty ceiling merge into each other. I knew the steps continued, but could not see how far. The vista darkens out in front and above. In 1849 there was an accident here. There had gathered a multi- tude from all parts of the country to worship Ganesh on the day sacred to him. From some cause the dense throng became frightened, and lost all control of itself, and the people tumbled down the great stone steps, one over another, and became a tangled and crushed helpless mass. When relief came, five hun- dred dead bodies were taken out of this great passageway. The ascent of this stairway is not easy. The steps are high, and their inclination is abrupt, and they are two hundred and ninety in number. They are painted in red and white stripes. The THE TEMPLE-FORTRESS OF TRICHINOPOLI. 291 impression which one has, as he ascends them, is that he is pass- ing up through a solid rock. He is, in fact, climbing a great hill, beneath an ascending archway, over great stone stairways, with only now and then a landing. Up again I had to go, and still keep going, and wondered when the end would come, and I could see the bright blaze of the Indian sunlight again. I had had no such sensation since, years ago, I climbed slowly up through the secret stairway cut through the solid rock of Sor- rento, from the shore of the Mediterranean to the house on the cliff in which Tasso had lived, and from which one sees Capri, Ischia, Castelamare, and all the enchantments of the Bay of Naples. This great passageway served two purposes. It was once the entrance into the temple, and the only pass by which an army could ascend to the fort which crowns the crest of the colossal boulder of Trichinopoli. At last we came to a halting-place. Here was a temple. It is not spacious, but abounds in images of the Hindu gods and other symbols of false worship. The altar was covered with offerings of rice and yellow flowers. I now turned to the right and came out into the free air once more. I was now where man never built or carved an image from stone. I stood on the solid, native rock, towards whose bald and flinty face I had been all the time toiling, and yet hardly know- ing it. But I had still a higher point to reach. Fifty-seven gentle steps have been cleft from the bold surface of the rock to prevent the feet from slipping and the wind from whisking one away. It is no easy thing to walk up them. I would much sooner try my chances again by a climb up Mt. Washington, from the side of the Crawford House, and lie flat on the boul- ders when the wind is high. There would at least be some chance of finding one's self again, should the wind pick one up and waft him away. But to slip here, on the rock of Trichi- nopoli, brings one down — where shall 1 say ? On the roof of some far-down shrine, or, more likely, on some uncovered peak of the lower rocks, or, most likely, into some green-covered and slimy tank, with its sleepy fish and lazy bathers, and which has not been cleaned out since Clive's besom swept all India. What with the fiercely blowing wind and the direct and intense heat of the Indian sun, although in mid-December, I hardly knew 292 INDIKA. what to do. But my umbrella had to come down lest it might waft me away. I stopped to catch breath and a new foothold, and then started for the farther way. A slippery path was this, but I was thinking what it must have been when it was drenched in blood, and the living and the dead were hurled from this awful height, when Saxon and Indian struggled, hand to hand, and inch by inch, on this awful Hindu rock, and helped to decide the fate of all India for all time. There is no spot in all this wearying upward path, either over the lower stones which man has lifted into place for worship or over the firmer ones which nature has reared into higher service, which has not been contested for by hot blood and beneath a blazing sky and merciless sun. Just now, when I was comforting myself with the thought that I had about reached the top of the temple fort, I discovered that I had only made a turn in the rocky path. I had yet to enter a deep staircase, cut into the solid rock, and consisting of twenty-six more steps. Up these I went, and, crowning the whole, there was still the Mandapam ; and failing in reaching it, and taking refuge from the heat and the wind beneath its can- opy, I was glad to rest awhile, and let my turbaned guide drop down in a corner and catch a nap, and wait my time. He was losing nothing by the stay. Few people, I was told, ever came to the fort to ascend it. They knew the fatigue too well. Hap- pily, I was ignorant of the ordeal. But one thing no one could know who had not ascended the highest point — namely, the wonderful view of the surrounding country. The eye ranges over an immense expanse, some fifty or sixty miles in diameter. Here lay at my feet the hottest battle- field of Southern India. On every hand the Indian tribes, with the French and English, as later and upstart combatants, have struggled for the possession of the whole country from Madras down to Cape Comorin. The plain of Trichinopoli is even, and only broken near at hand by the abrupt hills which rise like cones from the surface. The Golden Rock stands out like a great pillar against the south- ern sky. Eastward are the French Rocks, once a bulwark of the French in the last century, when they hoped to save India to their rule. Out towards the north, like a thread of silver, sweeps and curves the Kaveri River on its way to lose itself in the Bay THE TEMPLE-FORTRESS OF TRIGHINOPOLI. 293 of Bengal. Along its banks is the sacred island of Srirangam, with bright pagodas shimmering in the blazing sunlight, through the dense jungle that enwraps all the works of man. Away to the northwest is the Tele Malai mountain range, rising two thou- sand feet above the plain, while far off to the north, as the crow flies, the Kale Malai Mountains tower four thousand feet. To the east the Pache Hills bound the wonderful horizon. There is, then, on nearly every side, a framework of hills, varied and broken, yet blue and picturesque. Within this setting there is the city of Trichinopoli, with temples standing over all the plain, towering trees, old forts, a winding river, many small streams, dismantled forts, patches of thick jungle, villages by the score, and many wayside shrines. You are in a new world. The Orient is everywhere prom- inent. But it must not be forgotten that the Englishman is here. Out on the Bay of Bengal, to the east, his steamers glide through the waters. Yonder, like a spider's thread, his tele- graph runs, all the way from Ceylon to Calcutta, and, for that matter, to Westminster Hall. Away off in the distance, in that cheerful compound, there is a newspaper, published by him, and in his own language, and for his own people. Down that nar- row lane, as you can plainly see with your glass, is a company of red-coats, who do not know the Hindustani, except to give orders to their servants and soldiers. Theirs is the Queen's Eng- lish, and nothing else. They live in India to keep the country in English safety. The conquered Hindus are their hewers of wood and drawers of water. Then the presence of the English- man means more than the mere soldier. He stands out in front of the missionary and the missionary's Bible, and none dare touch either. Verily, the times are changed wonderfully since Judson was not permitted to stay in Calcutta and preach the Gospel for fear of disturbing Hindu prejudice. Well for the world he did not ! He went across the Bay of Bengal, unrolled his flag, and hence the Burmese Christianity of all time to come. CHAPTEK XXIX. THE SRIRANGAM TEMPLE. Feom the great Temple Fort of Trichinopoli I drove three miles to the Srirangam temple. In India some pleasing myth generally underlies the ancient temple. That which gave rise to this wonderful structure of Srirangam may be taken as an illustration of the whole class. Kama had a powerful chief, Yib- hishana by name, who lived in Ceylon, but had been long from home, and was now about to return. As a parting gift, and in recognition of his great services, Kama presented him with a golden image of Vishnu. The only instruction was, not to lay it down until he reached home. But the journey was long, and Vibhishana must have some rest by the way. Besides, he could not think of passing the great sacred tank of Srirangam without bathing. So he handed over the precious idol to an attendant, charging him to hold it upright, and by no means to let it leave his hand. But the idol was heavy, and its owner was long in the bath, and hence the follower let it rest upon the earth a moment. It was too late. The image could not be raised by both hands. There was not power enough even in Vibhishana's hands to stir it a hair's-breadth. Hence a shrine had to be built over it, and a great temple, and finally a group of temples, whose fame has gone out into all the Brahman world. The general design of the immense structure is to repeat in stone, for human view, the Yaikuntha, or seven series of quadrangular courts which consti- tute the heaven of "Vishnu. I was a little disturbed by the cabman bringing his horses to a sudden stop ; but I soon found that all vehicles must stand far outside of the innermost temple. It was clear that to walk through the great spaces would require much time and no little exertion beneath the blazing Indian sun, whose rigor I had re- cently tested by my climb to the summit of Trichinopoli. I passed through an immense gopura, or towered gateway, each side of THE SRIRANQAM TEMPLE. 295 which is lined with pillars. Everywhere I was struck with the magnitude of the stones and the minuteness of the carvings. Many stones are forty feet high. The roof of the high tower consists of horizontal slabs of fabulous size and weight. Having gone through several of these gopuras, and examined many carv- ings, each differing from all the rest, I reached a stairway, by which I ascended to the flat roof of the principal temple, and walked all over it. Here, for the first time, I could see the plan of this wonderful structure. First of all is the great outer wall, which encloses a space no less than 2475 feet wide and 2880 feet long. Outside of this the profane city lies, with its homes, bazars, industries, poverty, pollution, and whatever else enters into the curious make-up of a great Indian city. Inside this wall there are tem- ples, towers, and halls of all sizes, from the little secluded spot where only a dozen can conveniently bow to Vishnu to the great Hall of a Thousand Columns. But there is a singular order. "Within the outer wall, after a due interval of a broad way, there comes a second, and then a third wall, until you reach the most holy place. Each square is entered by four lofty gateways, whose ceiling is painted in bright colors, and whose outer towers rise, in the shape of a pyramid, to a height overlooking the entire group of buildings, and visible at a great distance before reaching the city. Every step, from the outermost to the innermost wall, is towards the holy of holies. Every new quadrangle brings into view some new group of sculptured marvels — all minute, barbaric, combining the brute and the human form in various ways, and all representing the legendary deeds of Vishnu. When you have entered the innermost enclosure, you stand near the holy of holies. This is the last spot where any but a Hindu may stand. Not knowing the limit of the proprieties, I stepped beyond the proper line, and was immediately obstructed by a crowd of ill-kempt Hindus. The idol crown is covered with diamonds, while emeralds and rubies abound in great number. There are idols of gold, covered with jewels. Even the toes are set off with rings of gold studded with precious stones. There are, also, chains of gold, which have the peculiarity that they are as flexible as cord, an art of working gold long practised in this venerable city as a special industry. There is also a large bowl of solid gold, besides long chains of gold coins. 296 INDIKA. Perhaps the most remarkable carvings are in the Hall of One Thousand Columns. Each column is a monolith eighteen feet high. Here is a single row of pillars, a front row, where the statuary is so combined with the pillar that it is the pillar itself. For example, here is a column in the shape of a horseman. His horse is rearing, being frightened by a tiger. This tiger is a savage beast, rampant, and attacking both rider and horse. The horseman, who is a hunter withal, is thrusting his spear into the very vitals of the tiger. Besides these figures, there are also men on foot, the attendants of the divine rider, who have shorter weap- ons, and are stabbing the tiger with great impetuosity. Now all these figures are combined into a single pillar. The whole is a colossal piece of open-work. Think of what must be the effect of a whole row of such marvels. There is not a particle of relief. Each detail is a reproduction of the living form. It is like witnessing a great hunting-scene in a Singhalese jungle. Then, too, each column differs from all the rest. For it is a characteristic of Hindu art to repeat nothing. Each of these figures relates to the legendary history of Yishnu, and is mi- nutely described in the Yedas. It was never meant that all within the great outer wall should be silent, and only belong to the temple service. On the con- trary, while all within that enclosure is strictly sacred, there is really a town, if not a veritable city, within the wall. But all must be sacred. Here are priests in great number, whose offices relate not only to the service, but to keeping the building in or- der. They are of all grades, from the highest Brahmans, spring- ing from the brain of Brahma, to the lowest sweepers, each order being defined from ancient times, and sacredly preserved. They all sleep within the wall, and gather sanctity from their duties. Besides these there are other classes, writers and what not, who have something to do with the temple, and whose services are paid for out of the old endowments. The dancing-girls live here. They, too, are very liberally paid out of the same endowment. Their very costume, and their golden bangles, anklets, necklaces, toe-rings, and other ornaments, some of which have the addition of precious stones, tell the story of the wealth by which they are supported. Monier Williams relates that one of the Tanjor girls informed him that she had been recently robbed of jewels valued at twenty-five thousand rupees. Here, too, are the sacred THE SRIRANGAM TEMPLE. 297 elephants, which must not eat a single straw that is not sacred to the worship of the divine Vishnu. Great, sleek fellows they are. They are taught all manner of priestly tricks, even to the deft putting out of the trunk to take a two-anna piece. These buildings have not grown suddenly to their present num- ber or proportions. They have been added from time to time, according to gifts from far and near. The fame of Vishnu is as wide as the Brahman faith, and that an image once belonging to him should exist has attracted generous sacrifices from the pious during many centuries. The poor, who could give but few rupees, have had single carvings made here, as their sacri- fice. The rich have filled a hall with sculptured pillars, and so paid the price of some great sinning. Kings have reared walls or towers, or caused' a series of statues to be erected, and thus have quieted their conscience after many a score of black crimes. Queens and fair ladies of distant courts, in those barbaric days before a Portuguese dared to turn his pinnace towards India's coral strand, took off their brightest diamonds and most dazzling amethysts, and bore them, in person, long distances, and, on bend- ed knees, presented them as offerings to the image itself, for its crown or its robe or ornaments. "When the fitful life was about to end, many a niggardly hand relaxed its grasp upon its gold, and spent the last da} T s on earth in finding the way to Sriran- gam, and laying on- Vishnu's altar a gift of treasure and flow- ers for rearing a sculptured colonnade, or endowing the support of a dozen dancing-girls for the temple, or even adding another temple to the already tangled and crowded group. " No sight," says Williams, " is to be seen in any part of India that can at all compare with the unique effect produced by its series of seven quadrangular enclosures formed by seven squares of massive walls, one within the other — every square pierced by pyramidal towers rivalling in altitude the adjacent rock of Trichinopoli. The idea is, that each investing square of walls shall form courts of increasing sanctity, which shall conduct the worshipper by regular gradations to a central holy of holies of unique shape and proportions. In fact, the entire fabric of shrines, edifices, towers, and enclosures is supposed to be a ter- restrial counterpart of Vishnu's heaven (Vaikuntha), to which his votaries are destined to be transported." * * "Religious Thought and Life in India," p. 448. 298 INDIRA. There are seasons when long pilgrimages are made to the Sri- rangam temple. The fame of its image is so far-spread and so deeply seated that many thousands come from every quarter of India, and even from British Burma, to fall in reverent adora- tion before the recumbent image of Vishnu. The great day of the year is the 27th of December. If the pilgrim has reached the temple on this day he may count him- self privileged far beyond his fellows in all the Hindu world. As he enters the great outer gateway he begins to be affected by the splendor of the scene. Then he advances, and passes through another, and still another, until he is fairly overwhelmed by what his eyes behold. He finally reaches the innermost ady- tum. This is Heaven's Gate, and he is there on the only day of the year when even the priestly hands of the highest Brahmans may open it. This must be done, too, at four o'clock in the morning, long before the dawn has shot across the Bay of Ben- gal, or smitten the gay enamel on the lofty gopuras. The re- cumbent image of Vishnu must not be disturbed. Nor could it be, according to Brahman faith. But in these lands there is always an easy way to get out of an impossibility. Another image can be made ; and there is enough wealth in the hands of dying misers and cut-throats to cover it over with priceless gems. So that image, when once the narrow portal is unlocked, is borne out by the priests, and held aloft for the multitude to behold. Every foot-sore pilgrim of the fifty thousand, or possibly a hundred thousand, is now happy. It is his first glimpse of Heav- en ; for has he not entered the Gate ? Just behind the great image there are eighteen other images, of Vaishnava saints, brought along by the priests. Then come the priests, in great number, chanting in wild and plaintive notes the old hymns of the Vedas. With the chanting is the tumultuous music of the sacred bands, which have come from distant shrines to help their brothers here to swell the welcome of heavenly minstrelsy. The celebration being constantly varied in scenic display, the atten- tion of the pilgrims is intense throughout. Some are very aged. Others have come with life just opening before them. But all have the same poor belief — this is heaven on earth to every worshipper. His sins of the past are all gone. He has bathed in the sacred tank of Srirangam, and gone through the narrow THE SRIRANGAM TEMPLE. 299 portal with his gift to the priests and offerings to the idol, and may now go down into his own grave, or back into the sinning world, or let the car of Jagannath roll over his prostrate body. It is all the same. He has even already passed through Heav- en's Gate, and beheld with his own poor, human eyes, the Heav- en of Vishnu. AFTABA (WATER-VESSEL) SIYAH KALAMKART, MORADABAD. CHAPTEK XXX. A RUN INTO MYSORE. Several friends stood on the platform to give me a cordial greeting as the train entered the Bangalore station. Bangalore is the capital of the province of Mysore, a large district con- stituting the intermediate land between the Bombay Presidency of the northwest and the Madras Presidency of the southeast. One finds here, as everywhere in India, the traces of terrible havoc. Cornwallis, who gained in India the prestige he lost by his surrender of the American colonies to Washington at Yorktown, fought bravely in this period. But, long before his day, the struggles between native princes had been of the most deadly character, and the cruelties in time of peace had been of the most refined and secret type. Mysore, in its general grouping, belongs to the Madras Presidency. It owes its name to Mahesh-asura, the buffalo -headed demon slain by the consent of Siva, the tutelary deity of the royal family of the province. In the time of the old Mogul rule in the north, a brahman of my- permission was given by the court of Aurang- zeb to Chikka Deva, the Mysore chief, to hold sway alone and to sit on an ivory throne. The greatest native fighter, however, of this region was Haidar Ali, who rose from the humblest station, filled all India with the fame of his deeds, and was the most powerful of all the native chiefs with whom the Eng- lish had to contend in their contest for India. He passed rapid- ly from one country to another, until he had brought Mysore under his dominion. He allied himself with the French, in the hope of defeating the English. But the latter, conquering both, succeeded in bringing Mysore into subjection. Its present na- tive Maharajah is permitted to rule on precisely the same plan A BUN INTO MYSORE. 303 as the Nizam, farther north, because of the friendly relation of the dynasty to the English government during the mutiny of 1857. Mysore is distinguished for its immense forests, which have long been infested with furious wild beasts. A lady, long resi- dent in India, told me that in her childhood her father had a coffee plantation here, and the family were often compelled to ascend trees at night, where hammocks were swung and other precautionary arrangements made for a safe night's lodging, because of the dangerous wild beasts. The Macaulay family had its representative here. Dr. Macaulay, an uncle of the historian, was a physician in the region, and shared with the other Anglo-In- dians the dan- gers and trials of the wild life of the country. Rice thus de- scribes one of these Mysore forests: "Trees of the largest size stand thick- ly together over miles, their trunks entwin- ed with creep- ers of huge dimensions, their massive arms decked with a thousand bright - blossoming orchids. Birds of rare plumage flit from bough to bough ; from the thick woods, which abrupt- ly terminate on verdant swards, bison issue forth in the early morn and afternoon to browse on the rich herbage, while large herds of elk pass rapidly across the hill-sides ; packs of wild clogs cross the path, hunting in company, and the tiger is not far off, for the warning boom of the great langur monkey is heard from the lofty trees. The view from the head of the descent to the Falls of Gersoppa is one of the finest pieces of scenery in the world." ROLLING TEA. 304 INDIRA. There is no better picture of the English transformation in India than Mysore presents. As one now rides through Ban- galore, for example, he sees the many evidences of a beautiful and growing Christian civilization. Large and highly orna- mented compounds, in the midst of each a delightful English home, surround the entire place. The spaces are broad, as one might well imagine, for the site of the entire city. English and native, it is thirteen square miles, or about the area of London. It stands three thousand feet above the sea-level, and from any exposed point the views are very picturesque. Bangalore is the centre of a system of very successful mis- sionary operations. The Mohammedan population is scanty, and the Hindu numbers about ninety-five per cent. The Wes- leyan missions are prosperous. I made a call on the Rev. Mr. Hudson, the superintendent, and found him a most courteous Christian gentleman, thoroughly acquainted with the whole field, and wisely adapting his methods to conquer rapidly the dying faiths of this polyglot native population. The Rev. William Arthur, of England, author of " The Tongue of Fire," was in early life a zealous missionary in this country. His " Mission to Mysore" is one of the most accurate and suggest- ive accounts of Christian work in any land, and has done much to reveal to English Christians the need of increased attention to missionary operations in India. There is probably no mis- sionary now laboring in Mysore who is more successful than the Rev. Henry Haigh. I had the pleasure of meeting him just before I sailed from Bombay, and conferring with him as to his work. He is an eloquent preacher, a cultivated gentleman, and is devoted to India as a field for evangelistic work. He was good enough to come out to the steamer Siam when I was about sailing, and his hand was one of the last I grasped before losing sight of the India coast. An American Hero. Six years ago, while spending a Sunday in the town of Berea, Ohio, I made a call upon an aged man and his wife, who lived in great simplicity, and who denied themselves a luxurious home that they might give their wealth to Christian purposes. Yet his generous hand had founded the Baldwin University in Berea, had built up the La Teche schools on the banks of the A RUN INTO MYSORE. 305 Red River, in Louisiana, and here, in Bangalore, had founded the beautiful Baldwin schools. Broad is the empire over which the generous heart waves its sceptre of fine gold. As I went from one room to another of these schools, and saw the children who were being moulded into a symmetrical and elevated life by their instrumentality, under the care of the Eev. Mr. Richards, I could not help thinking of the vast good which the plain man of Berea was doing on the other side of the planet. He has since gone to his reward, but the harvest from his good deeds has only just begun. Mr. Richards accompanied me to the large and handsome buildings where some of his own students, with many others, were about to pass their examination for ftF|fj±fI±tf^= entrance into the Madras University. That fine institution has arrangements for its examinations throughout the pres- idency and in My- sore by which stu- dents passing in the schools through which they have gone can enter the University without further formalities. The examination day, December 1, 1884, was a fete day among the schools of Bangalore. On entering the large grounds sur- rounding the handsome Central School building, young ladies, in holiday attire, were promenading among the palms and flow- ers. Young men were in groups. All were intent upon the coming ordeal. They all had the air of young people who had done their work well, and were only waiting for the bell to ring them to their desks. The examinations were conducted in writ- ing, with a paper for each student. I have before me a copy of these papers, which would serve well to stand beside similar papers for entrance into any university. Map-drawing, physical geography, Indian history, physics, Latin composition, English 20 DRYING TEA. 306 INDIRA. history, and other topics had to be treated at sight by the stu- dents. Here is a specimen of poetry, " Sunset at Benares," which had to be paraphrased : " The shades of evening veil the lofty spires Of Kasi's gilded shrines ! A twilight haze The calm scene shrouds. The weary boatmen raise Along the dusky shore their crimson fires, That tinge the circling groups. As day retires The lone and long-deserted maiden strays By Gunga's stream, where float the feeble rays Of her pale lamp — but lo ! the light expires ! Alas! how cheerless now the mourner's breast, For life hath not one charm. Her tears deplore The fond youth's early doom, and never more Shall Hope's sweet vision yield her spirit rest ! The cold wave quenched the flame, an omen dread, The maiden dare not question — he is dead." I visited a tea-drying establishment, for this is one centre of the important tea industry of the whole country. India is con- stantly increasing her culture of tea, and the English here re- gard it as superior to that of China. The machinery is very elaborate, and many hands are employed in the Bangalore house. The great garden of Bangalore is a very attractive object. It covers a great space, and requires a long, time to examine any one of its chief departments. One finds nowhere in the world, perhaps, such an endless variety of orchids as here. They have been caught up in the jungles, brought to this place, and developed into exquisite colors. From here they are sent out into all lands. The palms, and all the larger and smaller shrub- bery known to the endless Indian flora, can be seen here, until one wearies at the very wealth of color and perfume. The scent of the roses on that December morning burdened the air. In this garden there is a department for seeds. Indeed, it is the chief point of distribution of flower-seeds throughout India. The superintendent was kind enough to place in my hands about forty varieties, for distribution to American friends. My guide-book had told me that the Maharajah's palace was not open to the public. But I had long since learned to take nothing for granted in travelling, and I found by experiment A RUN INTO MYSORE. 30T here that an application for admission was all that was needed to open the front portal and all the halls for a leisurely inspec- tion. This is a new building, of great dimensions, and of fine architectural proportions. It would be an ornament anywhere in London, and would throw Buckingham Palace quite into the shade. There are but few traces of Indian furnishing, and none of Indian architecture. The native princes are quite in love with everything English. Nowadays, when they build a palace and furnish it, they forsake Hindu models. The new Bangalore palace has carpets from France and England, heavy furniture from London, decorations by European artists, and the more ornamental furniture from Paris. The outlook from the great DESPATCHING TEA BY CART TO THE RAILROAD. central tower is broad and enchantingly beautiful. Each of the lofty heights in the far distance has its own story of adventure and of final English triumph, while the plains below are full of the evidences of those fine agricultural operations which the English are everywhere introducing into India. The English- man in India has solved one problem well — what next to do when he has put his sword into its sheath. He has gone to work to make the people like himself, and their land like his own England. The Bangalore Museum is very rich in memorials of the for- mer times in Mysore. No attempt has been made to make it tell the story of general- Indian history. Here are slabs from 308 INDIRA. ancient palaces, one from Tipu's, in particular, with its twelve suggestive Persian distichs. Many of these slabs are of great size, and their still perfect carvings make them precious remind- ers of times before the Englishman had landed in India. There are fine geological specimens, an ornithological department, and a most interesting series of industrial products. Among the most attractive objects were the great copper plates whereon laws and sacred writings had been engraved long before the age of books. Nowhere in India did I see such perfect speci- mens of the early metallic books of India as here in Bangalore. The Old 'Fort. The Old Fort, where palace and fortress once stood together, is now a complete ruin. Its history is that of old Mysore under barbaric native rule. Here are great earthworks ; battered walls ; massive towers in decay ; audience-halls, now vacated save by the bats, moles, and the intruding tendrils of immense creepers ; tanks where the ladies of the court used to while away the languid hours in fishing; rickety balconies, where kings were wont to sit in state, and were fanned by gayly dressed and nodding servants ; banqueting-halls, now silent and filled with offensive odors; and, last of all, the prisons where' Tipu and his predecessors used to confine their unfortunate criminals, while out in front of the largest balcony stretched the broad space where the poor unfortunates were executed, as a special pastime for the brilliant court. This fort received its fatal blow in 1791, when Cornwallis captured both palace and prison. There are several beautiful churches in Bangalore. In one of them, All-Saints', there are many tablets to officers and to members of English families residing in Bangalore. The Methodist Episcopal Church has two houses of worship in Bangalore. In one of them we held an evening service. After the service my friends accompanied me to the train. The next morning I came once more in sight of the palms of Madras. CHAPTER XXXI. THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS IN INDIA. Theke are three well-defined stages of evangelization in India.* The first was the propagation of the gospel during the apostolic period of the Christian Church. The second dates from the Portuguese invasion. Only five years after the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, after re- ceiving absolution for himself and his crew, as though they were all going to die, set sail from the Tagus to find a new way to the Indies. Columbus had failed to find a western path ; Yasco da Gama would see what he could do towards finding an eastern. Ten months afterwards he cast anchor off Calicut, and planted the Portuguese flag on Indian soil. This was the beginning of the long chapter of the Portuguese in India. The third stage of Indian evangelization was in the early part of the eighteenth century, and was inaugurated by the Danes in the interest of the Protestant Church. This Danish movement was the first Protestant mission, not only to India, but to any pagan country. There is abundant ground for supposing that the gospel reached India during the most primitive period of the Christian Church. An early tradition declares that the apostle Thomas founded the first society on the coast of Malabar, and was martyred at a place called Mailapur. Pantaenus, Dorotheus, Hippolytus, Philostorgius, Gregory Nazianzen, Jerome, Theodoret, and Greg- ory of Tours, authors covering the period from a.d. 190 to 595, attribute the spread of the gospel to India directly to the labors of that apostle. This early testimony has later support. Those modern travellers to India who long preceded the founding of the Jesuit order and the coming of Xavier to Goa declare that they found a Christian Church existing on the Coromandel coast, and that its members believed Thomas to have been its founder. * Hoffmann, "Die Epochen der Kirchengeschichte Indiens," Berlin, 1853. 20* 310 INDIRA. Marco Polo, in 1220, says that both Christians and Saracens held Thomas in great reverence, and made pilgrimages to Maaba, the province in which his body was supposed to be interred.* In more recent times such careful travellers as Buchanan and Bishop Heber favor the view that prevailed throughout the entire early period of the Church, and which has a strong support in the existing Christian societies, that the apostle Thomas was the first preacher of the gospel in the Hindu peninsula. Heber says, " I see no good reason for doubting ; there is as fair historical evidence as the case requires that Saint Thomas preached the gospel in India and was martyred at a place called Mailapur.f Buchanan says that " we have as good authority for believing that the apostle Thomas died in India as that the apostle Peter died in Rome." % The most valuable of all authorities for this view is in the statement of Professor Wilson, who says that " we need not be much at a loss for its identification [Mihilaropya with Mailapur], as the name approaches sufficiently to Mihilapur, Meliapura St. Thome, where our records indicate a city of some consequence, in the beginning of the Christian era, as the scene of the labors and martyrdom of Saint Thomas, occurrences very far from in- validated by any arguments yet advanced against the truth of the tradition." | If one takes all the evidence into considera- tion, the balance seems to be in favor of a very early Christian Church in India, and of the apostle Thomas as its founder. There is nothing improbable in this conclusion. The means of locomotion in the time of the Roman Empire were not unfa- vorable to long journeys. Life was quite as secure as in recent days. Paul was much safer in his journeys through Asia Minor than any European traveller would be to-day. When the per- secution broke out in Jerusalem, and the Christians were, com- pelled to leave, it would not be unreasonable that the apostles should distribute the accessible territory among themselves. If to Thomas was assigned Persia, it would only be a question of months when he could reach there ; and, having organized the Persian Church, it would require but a short time to go farther, * Book iii., ch. xviii. f " Journal," vol. Hi., p. 212, 4th ed. \ " Christian Researches," p. 134, 5th ed. || "Transactions of the Royal Archaeological Society," vol. i., p. 161. THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS IN INDIA. 311 following the drift of commerce, and come southward to the head of the Persian Gulf, and find his way far down the Indian SANDSTOKE DOORWAY, MULTAK. coast. Such a journey would not be more difficult than Bur- ton's in Arabia, or Yambery's in the uplands of Northern Asia, or Thomas Coryat's walk, in the seventeenth century, all the 312 INDIKA. way from Jerusalem to Ajmir, and who spent but two pounds and ten shillings for the entire journey.* Whether Thomas was the founder of the Church in India or not, this remains certain— that by the time of the Council of JSTicaaa, in the year 325, Christianity had so far advanced as to be represented by a bishop in that most important conference of the early Church. The name of Johannes, Bishop of India Maxima and Persia, stands as one of the subscribers to the Nicene decrees. By whomsoever founded, Indian Christianity took the later Nestorian type. This was due to its relations with Persia, where the monophysite vagary carried the people with it. When the Mohammedan faith arose, and Christianity was swept away from Persia, the Indian Church was left to fight its battle alone, and the fact of the existence of Christianity in India passed away from the knowledge of the chroniclers of the Church. It was only when travellers of modern times penetrated India, and made re- port of what they saw, that the existence of Indian Christians became known. Is it any wonder that they should have lost nearly all traces of their original character? The real wonder is, that they have not been entirely obliterated. The condition of the Syrian Christians is very pitiable. They are superstitious, and have all the infirmities which have come from neglect for fifteen centuries. They have absorbed, uncon- sciously, many of the weaknesses of the false faiths which have surrounded them. For example, they are firm believers in as- trology. An astrologer lives in each village, and a horoscope is procured immediately on the occurrence of a birth. Regen- eration in baptism is firmly believed. A remarkable fondness for Scripture names is entertained — probabty an inheritance from the days of the origin of the community. The New Tes- tament names are preferred. But many are so altered from their original form as to be hardly recognizable. Peter, for instance, has become Poonen ; Joshua, Koshi ; Paul, Peili ; Zechariah, Tarien ; Alexander, Chandy ; and John, Lohanan.f * For an excellent summary of opinions on the apostolic founding of the Indian Church, see Kennett's " Thomas the Apostle of India," Madras, 1882. There is a unique and excellent bibliography of the subject on pp. 29-32. We also recommend, especially, Whitehouse, " Lingerings of Light in a Dark Land." London, 1873. t Mateer, "Native Life in Travancore," pp. 159, 160. CHAPTER XXXIL VOYAGE FROM MADRAS TO CALCUTTA. There is no direct line of travel along the eastern coast of India. The land lies low, and is swept by frequent storms. The towns are small, and the industries and products are not sufficiently large to warrant the frequent halting of steamers at any point. This section alone, of all India, is still largely un- changed by modern civilization. The railway line to Calcutta runs nearly back to Bombay, and then strikes eastward to the terminus at Calcutta. I found a comfortable room on the steamer, and several Ameri- can passengers. One of the more noticeable gentlemen was the brother of the Bishop of Ceylon. I had been informed, in Co- lombo, of an amusing incident connected with the bishop's ad- ministration. Ceylon, like India, has its State Church Estab- lishment — the Church of England. When the present bishop entered upon his duties in the Ceylonese diocese he determined to limit the pretty active operations of the Church Missionary Society, and such other societies of the Church of England as ask but few questions of the bishops, but go on zealously with their evangelistic operations. The Singhalese bishop, I was told, was not pleased with what he saw in his new diocese, and, wherever he could, he quietly disposed of some of the parish clergymen, and all others who could not be controlled, and he put in their places men of his own choice. No little friction was excited, but there was no help except in submission. The already mooted question of the disestablishment of the State Church in Ceylon now received new attention. It was rumored that even the governor favored the measure. The bishop was alarmed, and called upon the governor, when substantially the following brief conversation followed : " I understand you are favoring the disestablishment of the Church of England in Ceylon," said the worthy bishop. 314 INDIKA. " Why should it not be done ?" was the laconic reply. " Reason enough. Do you not see that many of the older parochial incumbents would be thrown out of their livings \ It would be a very hard procedure to turn adrift men who have been spending many years in the island, and have done import- ant service to the Church. It would be unmerciful." " Oh, I don't think," responded the governor, " that any large BLACK PAGODA, KANARAK. class of these worthy people would be affected by the measure. You have already gotten rid of very many of them, and those remaining are so few that the evil would not be widespread." The established Church of India arose out of the ecclesiastical arrangements of the East India Company, which supplied a few chaplains for important points. Of this number was the im- VOYAGE FROM MADRAS TO CALCUTTA. 315 mortal Henry Martyn, whose brief but brilliant life has been an inspiration for missionary effort throughout the Protestant world. Heber, Wilson, and others, who as bishops have represent- ed the Church of England in India, were men who combined great learning with rare wisdom in the prosecution of their work But, for that matter, many of the men who have served as mis' 316 INDIRA. sionaries in India, from whatever Protestant Church they have gone, have been examples of superior gifts and heroic endeavor. There is a Disestablishment Society in active operation in Cal- cutta. This is the outgrowth of a desire on the part of many to see the control of the Church by the government terminated. Both natives and Europeans belong to it. The movement is the more important because, when successful, there will be an end to all gov- ernment complicity with the support of heathen temple service. Some of the governors-general have shown as much sympathy with the various religious bodies operating in India as with the Church of England itself . For example, about 1865, when Sir John Lawrence was governor-general (1863-69), and was at Simla, the summer capital, he saw a few plain Moravian missionaries who were at work in Tibet, far to the north, and were in Simla for a short time. He inquired carefully into their work, and asked them if they want- ed anything. Their answer was, " Candles." By his special order he had a great quantity made for them, and sent them to their re- mote mission in Tibet, a journey of thirteen days beyond Simla. The weather during my voyage to Calcutta was good, and in every way favorable to reading and writing. The passage lasted four days. When we came in sight of the lowlands at the mouth of the Ganges, which here takes the name of the Hugli, there was an unusual stir among both sailors and passengers. It was a question whether we could pass the bar, and especially the "James and Mary" shoals. Posts, on which the state of the tide could be seen by registers, gave us little encouragement. The fear was, that we should have to wait twelve hours below the city before ascending the river. But all would be well if we could only cross the " James and Mary." I was told that a vessel of the name of James and Mary had once been lost here, and had given its name to the bar. But another account of the origin is that of Hunter, who says that as in Hindi jal means water and mart means fatal, the two words mean the fatal water. One of the peculiarities of running on these shoals at the mouth of the Hugli is, that there is no hope of either the vessel or the people in it. The river bottom has the character of a quicksand, which, with the rapid current, whirls the vessel bot- tom upward. Everything disappears. When the County of Stirling was grounded on the Falta Sand, she disappeared in VOYAGE FROM MADRAS TO CALCUTTA. 317 eight minutes. The danger of grounding is all the greater from the frequent changes of the channel. The deep water of to-day may be shallow to-morrow. Hence the gauges of the tide are by no means reliable, except for a brief time. It is usual, when there is any fear of grounding, for the sailors to stand ready, axes in hand, to cut away the masts and rigging, and use other violent expedients to keep the vessel from turning bottom upward. I could not view the anxiety of our pilot and the MONOLITHS AT KANARAK. officers, and the readiness of the sailors for a casualty, without a degree of nervousness. There was no attempt on their part to conceal the danger of the moment. We crossed the " James and Mary" safely, however, but I was told with only an inch to spare. As you ascend the Hugli there are broad stretches of beauti- ful land, rich with the fertile soil brought down from the dis- 318 INDIKA. tant mountains. The currents have left these great patches, over which the keels used to plough their way. The plough- man still turns up the shanks of wrecked and forgotten vessels. This delta of the Ganges spreads out beyond all others in the world. It begins to form two hundred miles from the sea, and is twice as large as that of the Nile. The scene on nearing the dock in Calcutta is lively beyond description. Here are England and the East in strange inter- mixture. There is a broad space where carriages of all possible degrees of excellence and worthlessness are in waiting. The Calcutta papers had announced that our steamer was late, and would not be up until the next tide, but even this did not pre- vent many Anglo-Indians from coming down to greet their friends from dear England. My home during my stay in Cal- cutta was with the Eev. Dr. (now Bishop) J. M. Thoburn and his charming family, who gave me a cordial greeting and made every hour of my week beneath their hospitable roof a real delight. Here I received fresh news from my family in Geneva and a large supply of late American newspapers. I was put to work at once. On Saturday morning came a lecture, or expository Bible reading, in the church of which the Doctor was pastor. But my busy day was on Sunday. If I have ever done harder work in one day than on my Sunday in Calcutta, I cannot recall it. Christmas was near at hand. First of all, at 1 o'clock in the morning, came an address to the Sun- day-school. Then, at 8.30, came a sermon in the Dhurrum- tolla church, to the immense congregation which attended the ministry of Doctor Thoburn. At 4 p.m., I went to the Bengali service, Avhich was under the Doctor's general pastoral care. At 6.30 I preached again to the Dhurrumtolla congregation, and ordained two men to the ministry. At 8.30 I attended the Seaman's Bethel, which was one of the Doctor's agencies for reaching the large seafaring population of Calcutta. This was my fifth service for the day, with the thermometer among the nineties. In intellectual appearance, in culture, in a profound and breath- less interest in every part of the service, I have never seen this congregation in the Dhurrumtolla church surpassed. It is a busy street through the week— say, like Canal Street in New York, or Cheapside in London— and yet people in Calcutta make VOYAGE FROM MADRAS TO CALCUTTA. 319 no question as to where the church is which they wish to at- tend. The equipages before the church, at the time of the morning service, were so numerous as to make it difficult to cross the street from the parsonage. It is only in the United States that the drift of population empties a church in the busi- ness part of the city. Even in England, nobody cares that Saint Paul's is at the very heart of London trade, and that Pater- noster Kow empties into the churchyard, and that the entire ellipse is filled with small shops. The church is there, and that 320 INDIKA. is enough. It is precisely the same in India. It does not mat- ter if the church is in the midst of native houses and petty shops. It is the service of which the religious Anglo-Indians think, and no questions are asked as to where the church is situated. The lesson is one which we, in the United States, should learn, and be quick to put into practice. SILVER FILIGREE JEWELLERY OP CUTTACK, CHAPTEK XXXIII. LORD DUFFERIN IN CALCUTTA. The city was in great commotion for several days because of the approaching public entrance of Lord Dufferin as Governor- General of India. The Queen is called Empress ; but such is the power of the chief British civil officer that his word is really supreme. England rules India, not on the Thames, but on the Ganges. The Governors-General have been of two classes : those who THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL S LEVEE, GOVERNMENT HOUSE, CALCUTTA. have sympathized with the natives in their aspirations for a measure of self-government, and those who have favored the Anglo-British sentiment of keeping a firm hand on the natives, and giving the largest measure of power to the central British rule. Lord Eipon, who had just been recalled, was the favorite of the natives. He had done a great deal to strengthen their 21 322 INDIRA. hopes for a larger share in the government, and was regarded throughout the land as their friend and champion. When he was about to leave the country the native population of many cities turned out en masse to do him honor. Most flatter- ing addresses were made to him, valuable gifts were pre- sented, and every mark of high appreciation was bestowed upon him. I was expecting to find that Lord Ripon's having ceased to be a Protestant, and adopting the Roman Catholic faith, had pro- duced its effect upon the sympathy of the Protestants of India. But such was not the case. It was a serious question what kind of a Governor-General Lord Dufferin would prove. The natives were distrustful. They were going to wait before joining in the general jubilee. The British residents, therefore, had the ceremonies in their own hands. On the day when Lord Dufferin was publicly received I noticed a significant absence of native observers. The streets were filled with people. All the balconies along the thorough- fares where the procession moved were thronged. Flags, wreaths, flowers, and mottoes of every jubilant character ornamented the streets and squares. But it was largely the work of the English people. The natives were either absent or silent. The Governor- General and Lady Dufferin, with their family, were in open ba- rouches, while high officers, civil and military,, with a large detachment of soldiers as a brilliant escort, moved slowly along the chief streets of the city. It must be said of Lord Dufferin that all his expressions, in the many addresses which he made in various places during the early part of his incumbency, were very noncommittal on the one absorbing question as to which side he would favor — the British or the native. The wisdom of the Gladstone government in placing him in charge of the British interest in India has never been questioned. Lady Dufferin is a model Englishwoman. She has proved her sympathy with the suffering natives by special efforts for their relief. The family is a model of noble and pure English life. In Lord Dufferin' s rule no violence was done to the efforts of all Christians to advance the cause of the gospel throughout the country. I learned in Athens, later, a pleasant fact in illustration of «£* — LORD DUFFERIN IN CALCUTTA. 325 Lord Dufferin's accomplishments as a linguist. Dr. Schliemann informed me that he had in his possession a copy of an address in modern Greek delivered by Lord Dufferin in Athens, and composed by him for an important public occasion. I was as- sured that it was delivered by the speaker with great correct- ness, and without any help from his manuscript. ' ; , 'i i i ■ I " AFTABA (WATER-VESSEL), COPPER-TINNED, FROM PESHAWUR. CHAPTER XXXIY. PICTURES OF CALCUTTA, I had no little difficulty in securing permission to visit the Government House. The American Consul told me plainly that he had little hope of obtaining the permit, and I thought him disinclined to make even an effort. But a merchant, Mr. Fred. W. May, informed me that he believed it possible, and without further trouble to the American representative. He invited me to accompany him directly thither. We were met at the portal by a guard, who promptly gave us permission to enter the ante- room. Here a Eurasian member of the household arranged a time for us to come again, and receive a reply to our application. At four o'clock we returned, and were at once admitted to see every part of the palace of the Governor-General. The building stands in the midst of a beautiful space, half gar- den and half park, of six acres in size. Its foundation was laid by Lord Wellington, in 1799. It is of immense size, with great colonnades and lofty stepways on each side. Of the general proportions of the interior halls and chambers one can easily judge from the size of the breakfast-room alone, which is thirty- two feet wide and one hundred and fourteen feet long. The w T alls are richl} 7 ornamented with portraits, while busts are lodged here and there in convenient nooks. The statue of Wellesley, who was Governor-General from 1798 to 1805, greets the visitor immediately on entering. There are statues and busts of many others of the past representatives of English power in India, such as Lord Cornwallis, Warren Hastings, Lord Teignmouth, the Earl of Minto, the Earl of Ellenborough, Yiscount Hardinge, and the Earl of Elgin. The Queen's picture is in the throne-room. In the middle of this central spot of English power in Asia there is a most signif- icant object. It is the gilded chair of the conquered Tipu. Por- traits of many native princes of the past days hang upon the ""•*« I PICTURES OF CALCUTTA. 329 walls. From one of the windows I saw Lord Dufferin, engaged, with a few friends, under the ample fronds of palms, in a lively game of lawn-tennis, the favorite game of the English all over India. The most interesting church in Calcutta is St. Paul's Cathe- dral. It is a modern building, begun about fifty years ago, and of the Gothic style, with adaptations to the Indian climate. In- cluding the buttresses, its length is two hundred and forty-seven feet. It stands in the midst of a beautiful lawn, where tropical trees and a rich variety of flowering plants make a most charm- ing picture. Here, at every step along the nave, are all the evi- dences of true English affection on the one hand, and, on the EAST GATE, GOVERNMENT HOUSE, CALCUTTA. other, of England's undying memory of her sons who have fallen in her service under the Indian sky. Memorial tablets, of all sizes, and executed with exquisite art, abound on either hand. Here are tablets to Sir Henry Lawrence, Bruce, Goodricke, Earl Canning — who died in London in 1862, four months after leaving India — Agnew, Anderson, and many others. Everywhere one is reminded of the sad fate of whole families during the Mutiny. For example, here is a tablet to Captain Gowan. His remains, with those of his wife and infant son, all butchered by the mu- tineers, lie here in a common grave. I was greatly interested in the magnificent library of the late Bishop Wilson. It is located over the porch, and was presented 330 INDIKA. by the bishop to the public. But little use, however, seems to be made of it now. It is probably open only to members of the parish, and must be consulted on the spot. It contains many works of general interest, to which few accessions appear to have been made in the last two or three decades. It is rich in Oriental authorities, and especially in the languages and litera- ture pertaining to the country. It is- well classified, and in bind- ings and general appearance is the best preserved of any library which I saw in India. But all libraries have a hard fate in this climate. The white ants burrow into the choicest books, and have to be hunted down and destroyed without mercy. They honeycomb any literary treasure, and leave it standing a mere shell.' They will also nibble off the coloring on the linen covers, and leave them as white as before they went to the dyers. I brought from India a work, once blue, whose back had been so industriously eaten by these insects that it would be difficult to tell what had been the original color. The Madras climate is most severe of all on books. A gentleman there, who was going to leave the country for England, told me that he would not dare to leave his books on the shelves, for the dampness alone, in the rainy season, would ruin them. The ants would destroy what the mildew might spare. He had but one thing to do— pack his books in air-tight boxes, and leave them in as dry a spot as he could find. In the two bookstores in Madras which I visited I noticed that nearly all the works, excepting only the most recent arrivals, had been foxed throughout by the all-pervading moisture. Bishop Wilson's library is only one of many which one finds in India. The English houses abound in rich and rare works. At Mackenzie's auction-rooms, in Calcutta, there are often sold very rare literary treasures. T wo of these, works of great worth, were bought by Mr. Fred. "W. May, and given to me for the library of the Drew Theological Seminary. Private libraries have been brought over from England with the owners from the early days of the East India Company ; and while some have been scattered, many remain, and the number is enlarged by new arrivals. The Anglo-Indians are readers, and great lovers of -literature. Pub- lic libraries are founded which would do honor to a large English city. For example, the library of the Bombay Asiatic Society, which was founded by Sir James Mackintosh, contains 100,000 volumes. Home of Keshttb Chunder Sen. The home of the late Keshub Chunder Sen is a centre of great interest to every student of the revolt of the native Hindu mind against the old polythe- ism. I found no difficul- ty in gaining admission to the Lily Cottage. This was the residence of Ke- shub Chunder Sen, the late founder of this most recent approach of Hindu paganism towards Chris- tianity. His son, a hand- some and intelligent young man, admitted me on presentation of my card. The Lily Cot- tage is a quiet and beautiful home. An BIRD-HOUSE. 332 INDIRA. open sward, all smiling with flowers, surrounds it. In the ground floor there is the publishing - house, where the mas- ter's books are for sale, and where accounts are kept. The printing-office is in a low building, apart from the residence. The walls of the hall and stairway are hung with pictures. Then, on reaching the second floor, there are still others. They had been collected by Keshub Chunder Sen himself, as orna- ments to his cottage. Not one among the number showed the least sympathy of the seer with the Hindu faiths. They were simple engravings, or prints in cheap colors, and all of them the outgrowth of Christian thought. Here, for instance, were Cruik- shank's familiar engraving of the " Evils of Intemperance ;" an- other, of " Sir Joshua Keynolds and his Friends ;" and in the middle of the wall of the principal room a picture of Jesus. In many places, on the tables and in the corners, were souvenirs of travel, which the careful hand and quick eye of the master had caught up as adornments for his home. On my saying to the son that I supposed the work of his fa- ' ther would be continued by him, he answered, sorrowfully, " All we can do." He led me into the room which Keshub Chunder . Sen's mother had occupied, and where she breathed her last. The grandson informed me that it was his father's favorite place in the house. I might have known it without his telling me ; for the Hindu reveres his mother until the day of her death, and then she is his patron saint. During life she never ceases to be a mother, whatever the station to which her son advances or the age which he reaches. When she dies, hers is the only image that remains undisturbed for all the years in the innermost sanc- tuary of his heart. In a letter written by Keshub Chunder Sen to Max Miiller on the death of the latter's mother, he thus speaks of a mother : " Who on earth so good as a mother ? We in India regard our parents, and especially the mother, as sakshat prat- yalshadevata / .... a mother's love who can repay ? A moth- er's memory no loyal son can forget. Alive or dead, we honor and revere her spirit." * The room in which Keshub Chunder Sen died remains just as it was when his spirit left its tabernacle. No hand is allowed to touch his books or little pocket possessions and trinkets. * Max Miiller, " Biographical Essays," p. 145. PICTURES OF CALCUTTA. 335 Every one of the family who enters must step as carefully as though he were entering a holy place. The remains of the mas- ter lie in the trim yard, and are guarded by beautiful flowering plants. A NATIVE BUNGALOW, CALCUTTA. CHAPTEE XXXV. FORT WILLIAM AND THE BLACK HOLE. Foet William formerly stood on the spot where the pres- ent post-office building is, but, after the battle of Plassey, Clive thought best to remove it to the river-bank. The new structure, an irregular octagon, was finished in 1773. It is of great strength, and is surrounded on the land side by a wide and deep fosse, which can be flooded immediately from the Hugli in case of need. The six hundred guns, and ca- pacity to hold ten thousand men, make the Fort a most for- midable place of defence for the city. In connection with it are St. Peter's Church (Church of England), St. Patrick's Chapel (Eoman Catholic), the Soldiers' Institution and Garri- son School, the Arsenal, and the Military Prison. Since Clive's day but little has been needed to preserve the strength of this great fortification, except to continue the plan which he made. Of all the military reminders of the time of Clive, the Black Hole is the most memorable. Until very recently, the exact site of this place was not known to any one. The very traces above ground had been so thoroughly obliterated that noth- ing was left on which to base a plausible conjecture. I was informed by the postmaster of Calcutta that, in making ex- cavations beneath the post-office, in 1882, the masons had come across the precise walls which enclosed the famous prison. There is now a small square, of dark stone, beside the right- hand wall of the post-office, as you stand in front of it, which covers the precise spot. There is a monument near by, which, including base and obelisk, is forty-seven feet high, and bears on one side the names of many of the one hundred and twenty- three Englishmen who were suffocated in this wretched place on the night of June 20, 1756, and, on the other, the English FOET WILLIAM AND THE BLACK HOLE. 337 revenge which became the sequel. The latter inscription reads as follows : " This horrid act of violence was as amply, as deservedly revenged on Sira- ju'd Daulah, by His Majesty's arms, under the conduct of Vice- Admiral Wat- son and Colonel Clive, Anno 1757." Here, on this little spot, was perpetrated the foul crime upon innocent Englishmen which awakened Olive's wrath, nerved him to make one final effort for English supremacy in India, and which resulted in the decisive battle of Plassey. This wretched den, the famous Black Hole, was but eighteen feet square, with only very small openings for light and air. Only twenty-three of the prisoners were found alive the next morning. BOATS AT LOW TIDE ON THE HUGLI KIVER. 22 CHAPTEE XXXVI. A EAJAH'S HOME.— THE BOTANIC GARDENS. When I was finishing a busy day, in company with Mr. May, we stopped at the house of a rajah, on a side of Calcutta which I had not visited before, and quite removed from the English residences and places of business. The magnificent home of a' native Hindu prince is always a place of interest. The fact that such a thing exists, is of itself remarkable. The English have had matters their own way, and, like Clive, could easily have absorbed all the wealth of the country. On the contrary, they have been just and moderate. Many of the native noble families are to-day drawing large pensions from the general treas- ury. Every now and then one comes across a scion of one of these old Indian noble or royal families, whose wealth is very great, and seems to have been undiminished by all the political convulsions of his country. The English respect for native rights in India is one of the most remarkable illustrations of political justice in history. It is as far above modern Spain's treatment of her colonial possessions, or ancient Rome's procedure in relation to her conquered provinces, as Christianity is above and beyond either ancient or modern paganism. Of this rajah's home in Calcutta, I found no mention in the guide-books, and should not have known of its existence but for the knowledge which Mr. May had of every part of the city. The entrance from the street is large, and unguarded by serv- ants. There is a large circular court, with a pond for marine fowls and fishes. In the trees there are parrots and other tame birds, of gay plumage and in great numbers. In cages there are wilder birds, but all rare, lazy, and very beautiful. Os- triches and pea-fowls saunter about the grounds in their own leisurely way, and with something of an observant air. None seemed to be disturbed by our approach. The Hindu kind- ness to animals gets them, everywhere, into quiet habits A RAJAH'S HOME.— THE BOTANIC GARDENS. 339 and a sense of safety. Children are not permitted to disturb them. Our cards at the door of the great mansion secured us prompt admission. The furniture was rich, and mostly in European style, but there were some old pieces of elaborate Indian work- manship. Marble ornaments, rich floors, finely wrought wain- scoting, and tall mirrors were on every hand. The rooms were in part in suites, and in part located singly, as quiet nooks for conversation and retirement. Some of the larger halls and chambers were in process of new decoration. In India much of the work of embellishing, and even of the more solid decoration in stone, is done by artists who come to the house, and do not labor in the distant workshops. The marble-cut- ters, instead of finishing their objects aw T ay from the house, do it on the spot where they are to be used. It is no short task, theref ore,to put a native house in order in In- d i a. Wood and stone are brought to the place in the rough, and the workmen carry out their plans under the eye of the owner of the house. In this rajah's house was all the litter of a great Florentine marble workshop, and yet the finished rooms were kept as clean and neat as though no chip had ever fallen from a block of stone. Here was work going on in fine mosaic, the artists, no doubt, having come from Agra for the special purpose. Then for the other kinds of stone-work there were workmen who had probably come from Italy on the special SPINNING. 340 INDIKA. errand, and would only return after many months, or even years, when the contract should be completed. There were many servants and overseers, some of them clad in picturesque Oriental costume. The grandson of the rajah, a courtly young gentleman, con- versed with us a few minutes, and then withdrew. The intel- ligent attendant who had received us at first was in no haste, but gave us ample time to examine this immense building, with all its appointments, and the surrounding grounds. On leaving the place, with its quiet and splendor, and entering again the busy native street, it seemed as though I had been in a different land, so near are the old and the new in India. One thing astonished me — the apparent modesty of the wealthy native. If he had an ostentatious spirit, it was hard to detect it. He said nothing in praise of his rare birds, or fine mosaics, vast halls, or the immense boa-constrictors, which wind about or sleep in the meadow behind the close wire fence. He simply stood at a distance, or left a servant with us, and only bowed his head in acknowledgment of any words of apprecia- tion we might say concerning any beautiful or surprising col- lection. My last day in Calcutta gave me an opportunity to run some risk, and to hurry to such an extent as no one ought to think of beneath the Indian sky. The ladies of the families of the Kev. Dr. Thoburn and Mr. May had arranged for an excursion to the Botanical Gardens, on the west bank of the river. The ride was a long one, and to return in time to catch the only train for Serampore and get back from the latter place on the same day was no easy task. But the attempt had to be made. These gardens are the finest for botanical purposes in India. They were laid out a century ago, and have been superintended by accomplished botanists ever since. They cover nearly three hundred acres, and abound in all the trees and plants, arranged scientifically, known to the tropical climates. Every step is a surprise. On entering, an avenue of Palmyra palms runs off to the right, while opposite to it is another of mahogany-trees. The broad main drive takes one past a group of casuarina-trees, up whose trunks are fine specimens of climbing palms, and then into the Palmetum, or palm plantation. Then come the won- derfully beautiful flower-garden and the orchid-houses. A RAJAH'S HOME.— THE BOTANIC GARDENS. 341 The road now ascends. Far ahead, where it seemed to termi- nate, I observed a tall, wide, and graceful group of what ap- peared to be independent trees. My friends said nothing as to what the group really was until we were just upon it. They had an object, I suppose — to surprise an unwitting stranger. A SERPENT-CHARMER. It was not many trees, but one, the Great Banyan Tree, or Ficus Indica. No banyan in India approaches this one in size. Here was a central trunk, fifty-one feet in girth, which had shot itself high up into the air, while its branches had drooped to the ground and taken root, each one becoming itself a trunk. 342 INDIRA. There are one hundred and seventy of these smaller trunks, many of which have grown into large size. The process of culti- vating this tendency of the banyan to multiply itself is highly interesting. A slender root-like shoot is thrown out from the lower side of one of the branches, and grows rapidly downward. Its lower end terminates in a small tuft of delicate rootlets, ready to strike into the ground as soon as they reach it, but at the same time presenting a tempting morsel to any goat which may pass under the tree. For the double purpose of protecting from the goats the slender stem which is to develop into a huge trunk in a few years, and also of encouraging its growth, it is encased in hollow bamboo and fastened to the ground. It very quickly finds its way down the dark little cavity in the bamboo, and when once it becomes rooted in the earth its career is fairly begun, and it becomes the one hundred and seventy-first trunk in the vast system called the banyan-tree ! All the falling leaves of the great banyan had been gathered up. Not a waste branch was to be found, and the whole area of eight hundred feet in circumference was as clean as a sward in the Central Park. One can walk about among these pillars without bending his head to escape drooping branches, while the arches above consist of as graceful curves as were ever left by the hand of Erwin of Steinbach. To reach Serampore, we had to drive hastily through the gardens and take the shortest road back to the railway station. Now running against heavily laden carts, now against a slow-going wagon, and now rubbing up against a quiet knot of scantily clad natives, there was no telling what would be the result. But our Hindu coachman was equal to his task. ~No violent Russian driver could surpass him in speed. We reached the train in time, and were now gliding along the banks of the Hugli towards Serampore, my last excursion in Calcutta. Giamcla) npoJL. yCZJ-- ;it&^» 422 INDIRA. " Strangest of all, it has dissipated the formidable organiza- tion which for a long period confronted Brahmanism, and intro- duced doctrines subversive of sacerdotalism. It has artfully adopted Buddhism, and gradually superseded that competing system by drawing its adherents within the pale of its own com- munion. In this complex quality of Hinduism one can easily see an element of both strength and weakness. The Hindu be- liever can change his method of defence with all the expertness and suppleness of an acrobat. Beaten on one line, he can be- take himself to another. If he tire of one series of beliefs, he may find rest under another. His system has all the advantage of a banyan-tree. If a little too much exposed to the sun beside one trunk, he can betake himself to another, for the light and shade are constantly changing with the circuit of the sun. On the other hand, as a resisting force, Hinduism has all the serious disadvantage of a want of unity. Its forces are everywhere di- vided. Some of its adherents stand at opposite poles. There is a large body of Hindus at the present time who have no faith whatever in their own system. They expect it to die, and know that the hour of death is only a question of time. This want of solidarity and unity will account in a measure for the success of Christian missions among the Hindus. The harvest has been far greater than among the Mohammedans, whose system has the one advantage of unity." * The division of the Hindus into castes is endless. The writers on the subject get lost in the mazes of its enumeration. Dr. "Wilson, of Bombay, only carried his work on "Caste" to two volumes, when he was interrupted by death, and then had not exhausted his description of one caste. Sherring declares that under the general Brahman caste there are eighteen hundred and eighty-six separate subdivisions. But the caste system, as now existing, is no part of the ancient Aryan civilization. The Vedas never taught it.f IV. — Jainism. The Jain system stands midway between Buddhism and Brah- manism. It originated about a.d. 600, and declined after a.d. * Monier Williams, " Religious Life and Thought in India," pp. 57, 58. t Wilson, "Indian Caste," vol. ii. p. 116. THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. 423 CAR, SIXTY FEET HIGH, USED FOR THE BRAHMA FESTIVAL, CONJEVERAM. (DRAWN BY THREE THOUSAND MEN.) 1200. It seems to have arisen out of a spirit of accommodation, by which a common ground of harmony could be arrived at. It was formerly believed to be an offshoot of Buddhism, but it is now proven to have been of independent origin.* The Jains * Kaye, " Christianity in India," p. 125. 424 INBIKA. lay great stress on certain saints, whom they advance to an im- portance even superior to their gods. They retain the Brahman arrangement of caste. Their chief saints are twenty -four in num- ber, and are called Tirthankaras. These, by their self-discipline, have crossed the ocean of human existence, and belong to a rank superior to the gods. The principal territory in which the Jains have prevailed has been Gujerat and Kanara.* In the eleventh century they were persecuted in Madura, their leaders impaled, and the re- ligion in that locality finally broken up by Kuna Pandiyor. They are to be found, however, here and there in many parts of the country. They have always been distinguished for their lit- erary taste. Some of the richest contributions to Tamil litera- ture have been the work of Jain writers. That language owes a large measure of its refined quality to Jain authors. On the general religious life of the country, however, the Jains have been of little influence, and have always occupied the place of an obscure, but most highly respectable, sect. They are not confined to any one locality, but are scattered all over the country as merchants, ship-owners, goldsmiths, and other tradesmen. f " The Jains possess," says Temple, " many fine structures in different parts of India. The adherents of the Jain faith occupy the summits of the forest-clad Parasnath, which overlooks the plains of western Bengal, and of Abu, which stands as a lofty outwork of the Aravalli range. Their religious stronghold in the present time is on the heights of the solitary Satrunj Mountain, near Palitana, in the peninsula of Kathiawar. The numerous cupolas, obelisks, and spires, often bright with the whitest mar- ble, seem to pierce the sky. The shrines are laden with the weight of gorgeous offerings, sent by the wealthy members of the sect from almost every populous city in the empire. From the terraces of the edifices, half temples, half fortresses, is to be seen an extensive view of the rich plains, once studded with historic cities, of which the names alone survive, even the sites being untraceable." \ * Pope, "Text-Book of Indian History," pp. 41, 42. f For an excellent account of the Jains, see Pocoke, " India in Greece," Ap- pendix, p. 370 ff. % Temple, "India in 1880," p. 31. THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. 425 V. — Mohammedanism. The religion of Mohammed was introduced into India by mili- tary force. Very shortly after the conquest of Arabia, and the adoption of the Quran as the scriptures of Mohammed, the zeal- ous advocates of the new faith looked towards India as a fit field not only for the propagation of the faith, but for political em- pire. The establishment of the great Mogul empire was the practical instalment of the Mohammedan faith as the great re- ligion of the country. But no measures were adopted for the suppression of the Hindu worship. The temples were profaned, and much violence shown during the period of conquest, but the existing religions were tolerated. At no time was there any great break-up of the Hindu worship. The prevalence of Mo- hammedanism never existed apart from political power. Wher- ever a Mohammedan prince ruled, his religion was supported, and gained a measure of strength. But the religion has never gained a strength commensurate with the political importance of Mohammedan rule in India. At the present time there is about one Mohammedan to every five Hindus. The Moham- medans are at the present time more difficult to reach by Prot- estant effort than any other class of Indian people. VI.— The Sikhs. This sect arose from a disposition to harmonize Mohammedan- ism and Brahmanism. It was founded by ISTanak, who was born near Lahore in the year 1469, and died in 1538. He was origi- nally a Hindu, but renounced idolatry, and his " idea was to bring about a union between Hindus and Mohammedans on the com- mon ground of a belief in one God." The elements of his faith are to be found in the teachings of Kabir, whose fundamental thought was the unity of God, and that every man should sub- mit himself to a spiritual guide (Guru), and remain in complete subjection to him through his whole life. Nanak developed the fundamental principles of Kabir's system, and his followers called themselves Sikhs, or " Disciples," in acknowledgment of their dependence on their pastors or Gurus.* So soon as one looks closely into Nanak's principles, it becomes clear that they were * Monier Williams, " Religious Thought and Life in India," p. 158 ff. 426 INDIRA. more pantheistic than monotheistic. Brahma, called by the special name of Hari (same as Vishjiu), is the author of all being. He does not create, but evolves out of himself. He is thus an expansive force, and the expansions are really manifestations and essences of himself. ISTanak was the first great Guru of the Sikh sect, and he was succeeded by nine others. These ten Gurus gave firmness and power to the entire sect, each Guru adding some new force and giving some new direction to the strange sect. A remarkable change occurred within the close body of the Sikhs. From be- ing a merely religious communion, whose home was in the ex- treme northwest of India, they developed a singular capacity for organization, social power, and military strength. The Mogul emperors became alarmed. The Sikhs had been in the most friendly relation with the Mohammedan rulers, and it was known that the cardinal principle of the Moslem faith was also claimed to be theirs — namely, the divine unity. But no sooner did the Sikhs begin to organize as a strong military body than the Mogul empire regarded them as seditious, and sought to sup- press them. The most bitter hostility now prevailed. The Mo- gul soldiers were used to conquer and scatter them. But it was of no avail. The Sikhs lived on, and fattened on the decaying carcass of the Mogul empire. The fourth Guru, Ram-das, saw the necessity of a religious centre, and purchased the tank called Amritsar, or Lake of Nectar. Here he taught the Sikh doctrines, and attracted large throngs of devout followers. Later, Amritsar developed into a city, and the Golden Temple in the tank or lake became the sacred altar of the Sikh community. Arjun, the fifth Guru, compiled the first Sikh bible — the Granth, or Book. The ninth Guru, Teg -Bahadur, developed remarkable military qualities. The Mogul emperor, Aurangzeb, saw his power, captured him, and so tortured him that the Guru persuaded a fellow-captive to put an end to his sufferings. But the emperor failed to over- power the sect. It became more bitter than ever. The tenth Guru was Govind-Singh, the son of the ninth Guru. This man became a great military leader. He gave to the whole Sikh sect a martial quality. He converted it into a vast and fearless army. He resolved on national independence. He abolished caste, and declared the perfect equality of all men. THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. 42? He adopted certain regulations for the uniting of his people into a solid military force. He added the name Singh (Lion) to their other names ; the hair must be worn long ; a sword, in token of perpetual hostility to the Mussulmans, must always be carried ; they must wear short trousers, and never use tobacco ; each dis- ciple must be admitted by a certain baptismal rite called Pahul ; and an oath must be taken never to mix with certain excommu- nicated persons, nor worship idols, nor bow to any person except a Sikh Guru, and never to turn his back upon a foe.* War became the one passion and employment of the Sikhs. NAEENDRA TANK, PtTRI. They acquired territory, and in time the whole Panjab came under their dominion. As the Mogul empire declined they rose in power. JSTo braver soldiers ever fought on an Indian battle- field. Their weapons, to this day, are among the most formida- ble implements of warfare ever forged. The weapons of the Gurus were believed to be holy, and were even worshipped. Under the tenth Guru the sect assumed a decidedly Hindu coloring. Many of the Sikhs of this day adopt caste, wear the Brahminical thread, keep Hindu festivals, observe Hindu * For an excellent account of the Sikhs, see Ludlow, " British India," Ap- pendix C, vol. i. pp. 296 ff. 428 INDIEA. ceremonials, and even present offerings to idols in Hindu temples.* As the English gained power elsewhere in India, it was essen- tial that the Panjab be conquered and occupied, as it controlled the Afghan passes into India. The Sikhs had long held that province with an iron hand. The way they treated invaders was a warning to all who might be rash enough to engage in the same venture. In 1751 it had been separated from the Mo- gul empire, and conducted its affairs according to its own will. The name Sikh was synonymous with a brave and victorious sol- dier. The English came into conflict with the Sikhs in 1808, but the latter were not thoroughly conquered, and the Panjab added to the British dominions in India, until 1849. The wars for the possession of the Panjab were very costly, in life and treasure, to the English. The great final conflict for the possession of the Panjab was fought between the English and the Sikhs at Gujerat, near Na- zirabad, the scene of the victory of Alexander the Great over Porus. The Sikhs had risked everything on this one battle, and they lost all. Among the great spoils in this final battle was the Koh-i-nur — Hill of Light — then the largest diamond in the world. It had passed from one Sikh ruler to another, after a long his- tory of inheritance. Now it is a part of the royal regalia of England, and is worn in a brooch by Queen Victoria at her levees. It has been so cut down that now it is the fifth in size, though far the most brilliant. VII. — The Eeligions of the Hill Tribes. The Hill Tribes of India practise a worship of the grossest character. Some of them are so degraded as to have almost no religion at all, while others make a near approach to either the Hindu, Mohammedan, or Buddhist faith, and still others com- bine certain parts of both Hinduism and Mohammedanism. In many cases it may be said that these aboriginal tribes present as striking a contrast with the great religions of India — Hindu- ism and Mohammedanism — as the faith of the American Indians with the Christianity of their European conquerors. Of the tribes of the Central Provinces the Khonds are the chief. * Monier Williams, " Religious Thought and Life in India," pp. 177, 178. THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. 429 They are of very ancient origin, as their name is mentioned in the Puranas.* Some of the Khonds have become mixed with the surrounding people, but there is a large class of unmixed Khonds. PRINCIPAL GROTTO OF KANHERI. These worship a common deity called Burra Deo, or other names, which is believed to be a representation of the sun. In former * Rowney, " The Wild Tribes of India," pp. 2, 14 ff. 430 INDIRA. times human sacrifices were offered to him, but more recently the sacrifice is an image made with straw or other similar ma- terials. Other deities venerated by them are representations of the moon and stars. But there are no temples, the places of worship being spaces in the open air, enclosed by circular walls of loose stone, while the objects worshipped are represented by two or three large stones stuck upright and smeared with oil. The Bhils worship objects representing the sun and moon. They adore their ancestors, the tiger, and the infernal spirits. The faith of the Kolis is a very near approach to Hinduism. The Kattis rec- ognize the sun as their chief divinity, their worship consisting of simply looking at the sun and invoking his favor. The Kols, who live in Bengal, believe in a supreme being named Sing Bonga, who is represented by the sun. The moon is believed to be his wife, and the stars his daughters. There is a large number of local and sylvan gods, but no images are made of them, neither is there any worship beyond sacrifices. The Sontals also worship the sun-god, and venerate the spirit of Bora Manjee, a deceased and canonized chief. The Bagh-Bhoot, or tiger-spirit, is another object of reverence, and several tribes worship the living tiger. The Oraons recognize the sun as their supreme deity, but do not pray to him, on the ground that he does not send evil. Ghosts, sorceries, and witchcrafts, as with most of the wild tribes, are a part of the popular faith. The Pahariahs, while believing in a sun-god as the supreme being, accept individual tutelary deities. They believe in a future state and transmigration of souls. In the Madras Presidency the Khonds are a leading native race. They worship the sun and the earth, as well as subor- dinate deities — such as rain, spring, wealth, the chase, war, boundaries, and judgment. The Todas worship a god who is represented by a rude stone. Of the Niadis the only thing known of their religion is that they sacrifice to a female spirit yearly. In the Northwest Provinces are the Limbus, who affect the Hinduism of the Nepal, but really have their own gods and goddesses, and a supreme deity. The Bhutias are for the most part followers of Buddha, or the Llama. In the North- eastern Provinces are the Abors, who worship sylvan deities ; the Khamptis, who are Buddhists ; and the Nagas, who worship a plurality of deities. THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. 431 Missionary labor has already been inaugurated among the Hill Tribes, and with good success. The Santals and Kols have been a special object of labor by German missionaries. Henry Baker has labored among the Hill-men in Travancore, where there is now a community of two thousand Aryan Christians.* The Oraons have been successfully reached. As long ago as 1871 there were twenty-one thousand Christians among them.f * Mateer, " Native Life in Travancore," p. 79. t Caldwell, "The Languages of India," p. 7. SACRIFICIAL SPOON, OLD BRASS, HINDU. CHAPTER XLYIL PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN INDIA. "While India has attracted the commercial and military spirit of the West, its great spiritual needs have not been less potent in attracting the evangelist. The beginning was simple and obscure, but abundant in faith and sacrifice. ZlEGENBALG AND PlUTSCHAU. Tranquebar, a little town 180 miles south of Madras, was the cradle of Protestant missions in the Orient. That the mission- aries from Denmark began their magnificent work here belongs to the region of religious romance. On July 9, 1706, Ziegenbalg" and Plutschau landed here. Why should they come to this ob- scure and insignificant place ? Simply because Tranquebar was a little possession of Denmark. It became a Danish settlement through the accident of a shipwreck. In 1618 Rolant Crape, the captain of a Danish East India ship, was shipwrecked here. The King of Tanjor saw in this accident an advantage. Be- lieving it to be a good opportunity to show a kindness to the Danes, he made over the town of Tranquebar to Crape, and the Danish flag floated over the little fort of Tranquebar. Frederick IV., the Danish king, instructed his court preacher, Dr. Lutkens, to take measures for sending out missionaries to Tranquebar, which early grew into an important colony. Bartholomew Zie- genbalg and Henry Plutschau, who had been students in the University of Halle, were summoned to the Danish court, and received directions concerning their work. They sailed in the Sophia Hedwick on November 29, 1705, and arrived at Tranque- bar July 9, 1706. Contrary to all expectation, their reception was far from cordial. The opposition did not come from the natives, but from the Danish colonists. The latter told the mis- sionaries that there was no possibility of their succeeding. This seems to have been a hope rather than a belief. The colonists PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN INDIA. 433 wanted no missionaries. They gave the two missionaries no re- ception into a house, but left them all day in the tropical sun, first outside the town gates and then in the market-place. But Altrup, the secretary of the colony, afterwards secured them a . lodging-place in his father-in-law's house. The missionaries immediately began to learn Tamil and Portu- guese. In five years Ziegenbalg finished the ]STew Testament in CREMATION-GROUND AND SACRED SHRINES OF PASHTJPATI. Tamil. By 1719, the year of his death, he had translated the Old Testament as far as Kuth. Schultz, who arrived the same year, resumed the work and finished it. This man went to Madras and translated the whole Bible into Hindustani.* The first converts in Tranquebar were five slaves. These were bap- tized in May, 1707. Then came schools and churches. Such Badley, " Indian Missionary Directory," 3d ed. Calcutta, 1886. 28 434 INDIRA. ' was the beginning of the Protestant efforts for the evangeliza- tion of India.* Schwarz. Schwarz, who was destined to prove an inspiration to the cause of missions the world over, arrived in Southern India in 1759, and, without waiting for a critical knowledge of the Tamil, began at once with a few words and in broken speech. Between the beginning of his work and the end there lay a period of forty-eight beautiful and consecrated years. If we consider all the qualities which constitute a sublime missionary life, the ca- reer of this man is almost without a parallel in missionary his- tory. In calm and patient labor, in the confidence which he in- spired among even the heathen who refused his message, and in the results of his work, he stands first in the lengthening cata- logue of immortal missionaries. With the death of Schwarz, in 1798, the first period of Prot- estant missions came to an end. The difficulties had been nu- merous, and of such magnitude as to terrify any spirits less brave than the heroes who made the first Protestant attack upon the dense mass of Hindu paganism. Carey, Marshman, and "Ward. Kiernander, the first Protestant missionary in Bengal, was invited thither by Clive. But the arrival of William Carey in Calcutta, in 1793, began a new era, not alone in Indian missions, but in the history of universal evangelization. He was joined afterwards by Marshman and Ward, and the three planned for the occupation of all Northern India. Frederick VI., King of Denmark, sent word to them that he had taken their new col- lege under his special protection, and expressed his great pleasure at the settlement of the missionaries in Serampore. The forces of this mission radiated in all directions. The British government in India, with the Marquis of Wellesley at the head, was fearful of the Serampore press. It was thought that it would breed treason to the state, and orders were given for its suppression. But the objections were finally overcome, and the missionary work proceeded without embarrassment. * Baclley, article in Central Christian Advocate, June 25, 1887. PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN INDIA. 435 Martyn. Henry Martyn, a chaplain of the East India Company, ar- rived in 1806, and began his brief but remarkable career in the valley of the Ganges. His success in philological achievements are, perhaps, without an equal. In less than two years after his arrival he had translated the New Testament into Hindustani, written a commentary in the same language on our Lord's para- bles, and begun a Persian translation of the New Testament. He was consumed by his passionate zeal for souls. He died in 1812, at the age of thirty-one, at Tokat, Asia Minor, on his way home from Persia to England. His body lies where he died, and his tombstone bears the following inscription, written by Lord Macaulay : " Here Martyn lies ! In manhood's early bloom The Christian found a Pagan tomb ; Religion, sorrowing o'er her favorite son, Points to the glorious trophies which he won — Eternal trophies, not with slaughter red, Not stained with tears of hopeless captives shed, But trophies of the Cross; for that dear Name Thro' every form of clanger, death, and shame, Onward he journeyed to a happier shore, "Where danger, death, and shame are known no more." Martyn left behind an example which has been a singular force in leading many, in both England and America, to enter upon the missionary career. Judson and Newell. In 1812 two American missionaries, Judson and Newell, ar- rived in Calcutta. The British government, which had not yet learned that the Christian religion was a greater force to pre- serve India to England than the army itself, ordered their ex- pulsion from the country. They were, however, permitted to go to Mauritius. After 1813, there were no further expulsions of missionaries. In due time we find Judson in Burma, begin- ning that career of patient and unremitting labor which has made his name illustrious in the annals of the Church universal. "With the year 1830 the period of missionary limitations in India came to an end. The Bishop's College in Calcutta and the Bap- 436 INDIKA. tist College in Serampore had been doing invaluable work, each in its own way, towards translating the Scriptures, establishing schools, and building up a Christian life among the native popu- lations. The British government had learned that its interests in India lay in the same path with the evangelization of the country. Duff. Alexander Duff, a young man fresh from the University of Edinburgh, arrived in Calcutta, and immediately began to labor. He conceived the idea that there were still too many concessions to paganism in the old methods, and that the proper way to pro- ceed was to make a new and public departure in the interests of a broad and thorough evangelization of India. He held that the native languages were too much used, and, therefore, that the natives should be taught English, and that it should be the fun- damental tongue in teaching them. He opened his college in July, 1830, and boldly declared his policy — all the classes must be taught English, and the Scriptures must be taught daily, an hour, in the same tongue. It was a new measure, and shocked even missionary sensibilities. The learned Hindus resisted the measure. But Duff would not retrace his steps. All who came to his college must submit to his regulations. He began with five young men, but before the end of the first week he had over three hundred applications for admission.* His triumph was complete. The English government can never raise a monu- ment high enough to Duff's memory, for to him mainly belongs the honor of securing the benefits of an English education to natives attending government schools. Duff's career in India was remarkable. He had the daring of a great leader. He made several visits to Scotland and one to the United States. His eloquence, zeal, and thorough knowledge of pagan conditions in India made him irresistible in his plea for increased devotion to the cause of the evangelization of the heathen. He was the Peter the Hermit of our century. But there was this difference — Duff's crusade belongs to the high realm of permanent triumphs. Results of Missionary Work. The following may be regarded as an approximate result * Sherring, "History of Protestant Missions in India," p. 106. PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN INDIA. 437 of missionary labors in India. The Rev. Dr. B. H. Badley, of Lucknow, is the leading authority on the statistics of missionary labor, and from, his careful hand we derive our numerical state- ment.* There are thirty-six different missionary societies en- gaged in work in India. In addition to these there are at least ten private agencies. No. Names of Societies and Missions. Began work India. feS Native Christians. Commu- nicants. Baptist Missionary Society London " " American Board ^ Church Missionary Society Gospel Propagation Society Wesleyan Missionary Society General Baptist Missionary Society Church of Scotland Mission Free Church of Scotland Mission American Presbyterian Mission Basel Missionary Society American Baptist Missionary Union American Free Baptist Mission Gossner's Missionary Society Leipzig Missionary Society Irish Presbyterian Mission Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Mission. . . . American Evangelic Lutheran Mission.. . American Reformed Mission Moravian Mission American Umited Presbyterian Mission. . Methodist Episcopal Church Mission. . . . United Presbyterian (Scotland) Mission . Danish Lutheran Mission Presbyterian Church of England Mission . Hermannsburg Lutheran Mission Friends' F. M. Association " Indian Home Mission Canadian Baptist Mission German Evangelist Mission (U. S. A.). . . Scotch Episcopal Church Mission Orig. Secession Church of Scotland Miss'n. Canadian Presbyterian Mission Swedish Evangelical Mission American Free Methodist Mission Disciples of Christ Mission Private and other Missions 1793 1798 1813 1814 1817 1817 1822 1828 1828 1834 1834 1836 1836 1840 1841 1841 1841 1842 1853 1854 1855 1856 1860 1861 1862 1866 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1872 1877 1877 1880 1883 43 47 24 115 53 44 8 17 32 36 79 27 6 17 25 10 8 10 72 16 6 1 11 3 5 9 •4 1 5 8 1 3 26 50 44 37 132 71 9 9 3 10 12 10 55 4 11 12 4 4 3 36 1 10,000 55,029 14,475 101,333 90,888 4,200 3,393 1,306 1,598 1,743 8,513 64,500 1,085 32,000 13,589 1,418 3,719 9,360 5,437 36 3,245 8,604 960 481 34 800 36 4,273 4,500 530 28 53 126 34 2,421 Total . Increase since 1881. 791 133 530 69 449,755 32,383 4,000 6,221 4,626 23,289 21,996 1,800 1,259 396 1,527 1,000 4,445 28,127 558 12,131 4,130 302 852 3,842 1,610 11 2,176 5,486 441 80 15 300 18 3,500 1,870 234 1,152 137,504 24,179 Including Burma and Ceylon the present number of foreign missionaries is 887 compared with 730 in 1881 ; foreign ordained agents, 768, against 674 in 1881. Travancore surpasses all other * "Indian Missionary Directory," Lucknow and New York, 438 INDIRA. parts of India in missionary advance : out of a total population of 2,311,379 more than one fourth, 577,844, are Christians.* Of the 791 foreign missionaries, 42 are sons (or grandsons) of missionaries, born in India ; 25 of these are connected with American societies. The nationalities of the others are as fol- lows : England 275 Scotland 78 Ireland 17 Wales 11 Canada 23—404 United States 139 Germany 128 Switzerland 18 Sweden 11 Denmark 9 Others 40 Sons 42 Total 791 So far as ascertained (for even missionaries sometimes fail to answer circulars of inquiry), the American missionaries represent, as to nativity, the following states : Ohio, 19 ; New York, 16 ; Pennsylvania, 15 ; Massachusetts, 7 ; New Jersey, 7 ; Indiana, 6 ; Illinois, 7 ; Connecticut, 5 ; Maine, 4 ; Vermont, 3 ; West Vir- ginia, 3 ; Iowa, 2 ; Wisconsin, 2 ; Kentucky, 2 ; New Hampshire, 2 ; Michigan, 2 ; Tennessee, 1 ; Minnesota, 1 ; Missouri, 1 ; Cali- fornia, 1 ; others, 33. The years of service of the foreigu missionaries are as follows : Under 10 years 393 From 10 to 20 years 231 From 20 to 30 " 114 From 30 to 40 " 42 From 40 to 45 " 5 From 45 to 50 " 4 Over 50 " 2 Total -791 The veterans who have given upward of fifty years to India are the Rev. Geo. Pearce, of the English Baptists, who arrived * Mateer, "Native Life in Travancore," p. 25. PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN INDIA. 439 in India in October, 1826, and is now living at Ootacamund, in South India, and the Kev. John Newton, of the American Pres- byterian Mission, who was born in New Jersey in 1810, and A K.ULI WOMAN, CALCUTTA. arrived at Calcutta in February, 1835. Mr. Newton has spent most of the time at Lahor, his present station. Four sons, born 440 INDIKA. * in India and educated in America* (studying theology where their father did, at Allegheny, Pa.), have returned to India as missionaries. One has passed aAvay to his reward ; the others are still in the field. Ceylon. Number of stations (1881), 716 ; foreign ordained agents, 658 ; native ordained agents, 674 ; foreign lay preachers, 79 ; native lay preachers, 2988 ; churches or congregations, 4538 ; native Christians, 528,590; communicants, 145,097; contributions (ru- pees), 228,517 ; teachers, native Christian, 4345 ; teachers, non- Christian, 2539 ; theological and training students, 1377 ; Anglo vernacular schools, 472 ; Anglo vernacular pupils, 50,203 ; ver- nacular schools, 3703 ; pupils, 117,418. Woman's work : Foreign and Eurasian female agents, 541 ; native Christian female agents, 1944 ; boarding-schools for girls, 171; boarding pupils, 6983; day schools for girls, 1281; day pupils, girls, 49,550. Zenanas : Houses, 9566 ; pupils, 9228 ; total pupils, male and female (excluding Sunday-schools), 234,759 ; Sunday-school schol- ars, 83,321-f This is an excellent showing, and represents an amount of faith and vigor which no imagination may depict. Between Ziegenbalg's arrival in Southern India and the present vast net- work of missions now extending over the country, there lies a period of less than two centuries of consecrated labor. The tri- umph is great, and there is abundant ground for encouragement that the time is not far distant when the gospel will reach every part of India. Dearth of Missionary Labor. There is danger, however, that these great achievements be overestimated. There are immense stretches of Indian territory which have not been reached, or, if reached at all, have been but scantily cultivated. We may take some examples in Bengal. Up to 1881 the district of Unao, with nine hundred thousand people, had never a missionary. The district of Burdwan, a * See article in the Independent (New York), Oct. 28, 1886. f Cf. " Statistical Tables of Protestant Missions in India, Burma, and Cey- lon," for 1881. Calcutta, 1882. Baptist Missionary Society Basel " " Christian Vernacular Education Society v Church Missionary Society C " of Scotland " Danish Lutheran ' English Presbyterian Society Female Education " Free Church of Scotland Society F General Baptist Society G Gossner's Missionary Society R Hermannsburg Missionary Society H Indian Normal School Z Society. Irish Presbyterian Society 15- i ' Leipzig Lutheran Society z London Missionary Society . . .>. L Moravian Missionary Society M Scottish Original Secession Society Q Society for Propagation of Gospel S Friends Missionary Society Y Swedish Lutheran Society X United Presbyterian Society U Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Society — "Wesleyan Missionai-y Society W Private and Local Societies, etc P Indian Home Mission-Santals San AMERICAN SOCIETIES. Baptist Missionary Union B American Board R Canadian Baptist Mission C " Presbyterian Mission K Free Baptist Mission _F German Evangelical Mission G Lutheran Mission z Methodist Episcopal Church M Presbyterian Church P Reformed Church ( Arcot) A United Presbyterian Church u Zenana Mission 2 Disciples of Christ d WC ulturajS CBaddegam^ Point ^ ^aj&e PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN INDIA. 441 hundred miles from Calcutta, on the East India Railway, con- tains an area of three thousand five hundred square miles, with one and a half millions of people. There is one missionary with nine Christian helpers. The Church has twenty-eight communi- cants. This district has been occupied by the Church Missionary Society since 1816. The adjoining district of Bancoora contains about half a mill- ion of people. It has one missionary with ten Christian helpers. There are ten communicants. This district has been occupied by the Wesleyan Missionary Society since 1870. The district of Beerbhoom contains half a million of people, and has only three missionaries with nine Christian helpers. There are sixty -eight communicants. This district has been occupied by the Baptist Missionary Society since 1815. The district of Moorshedabad contains about a million of people, and has only three missionaries with four Christian helpers. There are eighteen communicants. This district has been occupied by the London Missionary Society since 1824. The missionary workers are mainly occupied in Berhampur, with its population of twenty-seven thousand. But this district contains, besides Berhampur, one city with forty-six thousand persons, two towns with more than ten thousand, ten towns with over three thousand, fifteen villages with over two thou- sand, one hundred and forty-eight villages with over one thou- sand, five hundred and forty-seven villages with over five hun- dred, one thousand three hundred and seventy-three villages with over two hundred, and one thousand six hundred and fifty- four villages with less than two hundred inhabitants. This dis- trict, with its three thousand seven hundred and fifty-three towns and villages, is an occupied district, and has been so since 1824. Jessor, containing four thousand two hundred and forty-seven towns and villages, has one missionary and five Christian help- ers. Rangpur, containing four thousand two hundred and six towns and villages, has one missionary and four Christian help- ers. Rajeshaye, containing four thousand two hundred and twenty-eight towns and villages, has only one missionary and seven Christian helpers. It would seem that some such results as the following would indicate either an insufficient force or a providential indication to move out and permit other societies to enter. One district, 442 INBIKA. with one million five hundred thousand people, has been occu- pied sixty-nine years, and the result is only thirty-five communi- cants. Another, with three missionaries, after seventy years, presents to-day but sixty-eight communicants. Another, with a million inhabitants, and three missionaries, presents but eighteen converts, after sixty-one years of labor. Besides these feebly occupied districts, there are others, great and populous, without a single preacher. In British India the whole land is divided for administrative purposes into divisions and districts. A district usually contains from half a million to a million and a half inhabitants. In Oudh the districts average nine hundred thousand each ; in Rohilcund, a little less. Now, taking the several governments, we have the following districts in which there are no missions : Bengal, 10 ; Northern Provinces, 8 ; Panjab, 9 ; Bombay, 6 ; Central Provinces, 4. To specify : Malda contains half a million of people, but has no missionary; Bagura has half a million, but no missionary; Pubna has nearly a million people, living in two thousand seven hundred and ninety-two towns and villages, but there is no mis- sionary. These three districts, containing two millions of peo- ple, are but samples of many vast populous unworked districts throughout India. Let this, however, be noted : Here are three districts containing two millions of people, within a day's jour- ney of Calcutta, in which no Church in all Christendom has a single missionary. With such a picture, are not the laborers lamentably few ? Fokms of Missionary Work. It is difficult to enumerate the various forms of missionary operations. They are constantly increasing with the expanding work itself. The following may be regarded as the principal : 1. Schools. 2. Sunday-schools. 3. Preaching in churches. 4. Preaching in bazars and melas. 5. Bible translation and distribution. 6. The press — books, tracts, periodicals. 7. Training native Christians, industrial schools, agricultural projects. 8. Training native ministry, including selection, pay, testing character. PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN INDIA. 443 9. Woman's work. This is of broad scope, and has many branches of opera- tion. 10. Medical work. 11. Apologetic instrumentalities: to meet present flank movements of the Somajes. All Doors Open. India is now open to missionary work. All the Indian gates are down; the bars are shattered into small fragments ; the locks are ground into fine dust. Every stream sings a wel- come to the evangelist of peace. The King of Na- tions is entering. SHRINE AND TOMBS OF SWAMBHTTNATH. "... High as the herald star which fades in floods Of silver, warming into pale gold, caught By topmost clouds, and flaming on their rims To fervent glow, flushed from the brink With saffron, scarlet, crimson, amethyst ; 444 INDIRA. Whereat the sky burns splendid to the blue, And, robed in raiment of glad light, the King Of life and glory cometh !" * The missionary often works on blindly, and his environment often leads him to disparage his own achievements. The late Rev. George Bowen, of Bombay, declared to Dr. Norman Mc- Leod that in twenty-five years he had not made one convert to Christianity. But little he knew of his own great work. His " Guardian" was performing a service which was beyond calcu- lation. From his great work, and his own spotless example, there will be harvests in the centuries to come. One of the most significant signs of the Indian times lies in the fact that since the mutiny of 1857 England has learned that the Christian religion is the real, and only, basis of a permanent tenure of the country. In 1862 Lord Palmerston paid a tribute to the loyalty to the British government of the native Chris- tians of India, and added : " It is not only our duty, but it is our interest to promote the diffusion of Christianity, as far as possi- ble, through the whole length and breadth of India." The re- port of the Secretary of State and Council of India, 1871-72, says : " The government of India cannot but acknowledge the great obligations under which it is laid by the benevolent exer- tions made by missionaries, whose blameless example and self- denying labors are infusing new vigor into the stereotyped life of the great populations placed under English rule, and are pre- paring them to be in every way better men and better citizens of the great empire in which they dwell." There will be no lower attitude occupied by the government than is expressed in these strong words. ]STo missionary will ever again be warned off, as Judson was, from an Indian port. * Edwin Arnold, "The Light of Asia," p. 113 (Lond. ed.). CHAPTER XLVIII. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH IN INDIA. In 1497 Yasco da Gama, after receiving absolution for himself and his crew, set sail from the Tagus, to find a new way to the Indies. Columbus had failed to find a western path ; Yasco da Gama would see what he could do to find an eastern. Ten months afterwards he cast anchor off Calicut, and planted the Portuguese flag on Indian soil. Suddenly India presented itself as an inviting field for Roman Catholicism. Francis Xavier conceived the idea of converting to Christianity the Indian world. On May 6, 1542, he stepped ashore at Goa, and began those extraordinary labors which have made his name the synonym of heroism in all the communions of the Christian world. Even on shipboard he began his work of self-sacrifice. " He pillowed his head," says Kaye, " upon a coil of ropes, and ate what the sailors discarded, but there was not a seaman in that laboring vessel, there was not a soldier in that crowded troop-ship, who did not inwardly recognize the soul that glowed beneath those squalid garments. No outward humiliation could conceal that knightly spirit ; no sickness and suffering could quench the fire of that ardent genius." * He made Goa his centre of operations, but visited various parts of the western and southern coasts of the peninsula. His method of work was simple, but very effec- tive. His plan, as described by himself, was as follows : " I have begun to go through all the villages of this coast, with bell in hand, collecting together a large concourse both of boys and men. Bringing them twice a day into a convenient place, I give them Christian instruction. The boys, in the space of a month, have committed all to memory beautifully. Then I told them to teach what they had learned to their parents, household, and neighbors. On Sundays I called together the men and * "Christianity in India," p. 17. 446 INDIKA. women, boys and girls, into a sacred edifice. They came to- gether with great alacrity, and with an ardent desire to hear. Then I began with the Confession of the Holy Trinity, the Lord's Prayer, the Angelic Salutation, the Apostles' Creed, pro- nouncing them in their own language with a clear voice. All followed me in the repetition, in which they take an uncommon pleasure. Then I went through the Creed alone, pausing upon each article, asking whether they believed without any doubt. All in an equally confident tone, with their hand in the form of a cross on their breasts, affirmed that they truly believed it." Xavier carried the Gospel, as he believed it, to the wildest tribes. Bercastel says, that by the year 1551 the number of converts along the fishing coast amounted to five hundred thou- sand.* ' In 1560 the Inquisition was established in Goa, and all the detailed arrangements for enforcing obedience to the decrees of the Church which were employed in Spain and Italy, such as inquisitors, qualificators, familiars, and jailers, were repeated on the far-off shore of India. For three centuries and a half the Roman Catholic Church has been at work in India. A schism occurred, called the " Goa Schism," which long interfered with all positive advance. But that is now removed, and the Roman Catholic Church may be regarded as a unit in its system of work. The whole of British India is divided into vicariates apostolic, each vicariate being under a vicar apostolic, who is also a bishop in "countries of the unbelieving." For example, the vicar apostolic of Madras is bishop of Thermopylae. Catechists are placed over large con- gregations which have no priest, who read prayers in the morn- ing and evening, and conduct Sabbath services. When the cate- chist is ill, the people choose one of their own number to read. Great attention is given to girls' schools. These are estab- lished throughout the country, and the education is conducted in a thorough manner. These schools have been so successful as to make important inroads on European and Eurasian fami- lies. Orphanages are established in many places, and agents go through the country for the purpose of securing places for those who are without any help. Higher education is cultivated. There are two very fine colleges in Calcutta and Bombay. The * " Lettres Eclifiantes et Curieuses," ix. 308. SECTAEIAL MARKS. V A V S 1.0 o UJ V w y /5 u /6 u' : ur y ® o jlfik A a s 3E F=Fq i/ ^e HK hh t- tfi 7"^t^^cc- : f^/sp'7, A SOMAJ NOTICE. — FAC-SIMILE OF KESHTJB CHUNDER SEN S HANDWRITING. there are, for us they are givers of ease ; and for those who are injurious, evil, and our enemies ; and with what injurious ones we keep hatred, for them they are injurious." Far journeys were known — so says the founder of the Arya Somaj — to the primeval teachers of his faith. In the chapter " Concerning Travel," in the " Satyarth Pra- kash," Dayanand says that the Munis and Rishis and others used to travel in foreign countries. Yiyash Muni, who lived five thousand years ago, and translated the Yedas, and his son Sukhdev, and their disciples, went to Patal — that is, America — 500 INDIRA. and dwelt there ! One day the son asked the father for knowl- edge, and received for answer that he must go to Hindustan and ask the rajah. It is related that Krishna went to America and brought back Udalak Muni, to the sacrifice prepared by Rajah Udhistir. At another time an Indian rajah went to America, fought and overcame the American rajah, who gave his daughter in marriage to the conqueror. Dayanand declares that all the English knowledge of the railway, the steamship, fire-arms, and the telegraph has come from the Yedas, and that the English have only developed this knowledge received from the Aryan Yedas. In his chapter on " The Science of Travelling," * he holds " this science of rapid transit in the sea, on the earth, and in the sky as taught in the Yedas." He says : " Whatever man is a desirer of excellent knowledge, and of gold, and of other things from which his nourishment and pleasure arise, he may fulfil his desire for the acquisition and enjoyment of that wealth and suc- cess by means of the things that are written further on. Who- ever, having made various kinds of steamships of gold, silver, copper, brass, iron, wood, and other things, and having added fire, air, water, as wanted, and having filled up with cargo for merchandise, comes and goes in the sea and rivers, then there is increase in his wealth and other things. Whoever spends his manhood in this way acquires these things, and cares for them, and will not die in misery. For he, being in full manhood, is not slothful." f Dayanand explains that the vehicles for rapid transit are of three kinds — for travel on land, in the sea, in the sky. Now Dayanand says that Ashwi, found in the Yedas, means the mo- tive-power for all these vehicles ! It is either fire, flame, water, wood, metals, horses, lightning, air, earth, day, night, sun, or moon ! Therefore, we have the railway-car, the telegraph, the universal application of steam for " travelling." The same apos- tle of modern Hinduism finds in the Yedas a description of the division of the Indian railway carriage into six compartments ; the speed with which it is drawn ; the machinery for drawing and backing a train. He even describes a sky-vehicle. It is to rest on twelve pillars, must have machinery in sixty parts, which * "Rig Vedadi Bhashya Bhurnika," pp. 191-200. t Formah, " The Arya Somaj," pp. 50 ff. SIGNIFICANCE OF REFORM A TOR Y MO VEMENT8. 501 must be fastened by three hundred large nails or screws. If, therefore, we are destined to be blessed with comfortable and safe flying -machines, the quick-witted Arya will be ready to say, " Did we not tell you so ? Lo, it lies in the Yedas of our ancestors." The Hindus not affected with the theistic heresy of the Soma- jes go further than Dayanand or any of the Brahmists. They hold not only that the Vedas contain prophecies of all modern inventions and discoveries, but that Brahma is a being of vari- ous incarnations. The application of steam is a recent incarna- tion, and therefore is a part of the Hindu system. When the rail- ways were introduced into India the high-caste Brahmans would not ride on them. To travel in contact with one of lower caste, and especially with foreigners, was regarded as a mortal sin. The difficulty was great. The pundits rolled their eyes in ec- static wonder. The waiting for reply was intense. At last it came, substantially as follows : " The Yedas prophesied the rail- way. Brahma has undergone a new, blissful incarnation. Hurry up! Get aboard." Therefore the most exclusive Hindu can now crowd into any railway of India or Burma, and from Bom- bay to Mandalay can coolly take his tramway ticket from the dog-paw of an Englishman or an American. Taking the theistic movement, prompted by the four great Somajes, as a whole, it must be admitted that the missionaries are seriously divided in their estimate of it. Some regard it as a great evil, promising no good. But there are others who take a more hopeful view. They can see. in the three progressive So- majes, especially, some elements of advantage to the good cause of the Gospel. The Kev. Mr. Keelcl finds in even the grossest and worst Somaj, the Arya, some indications of help to Chris- tian work. I believe the latter class are correct, and for the fol- lowing reasons : 1. Everything which tends to break up the solidarity of the polytheistic mass of the Hindu faith must be advantageous to the spread of the Gospel. The whole history of the territorial expansion of Christianity shows that every disintegrating factor proved a blessing. It caused weakness, a loss of confidence, a fear that Christianity would find an entrance wherever an open door was left. 2. The reforms at which the four Somajes have aimed are not 502 INDIRA. only in harmony with missionary work, but actually parts of regular missionary operation. The education of girls, temper- ance, opposition to child-marriage, the founding of schools, and the printing of books and newspapers are alike parts of Chris- tian enterprise and the theistic machinery. 3. The many discussions and publications of the preachers of the Somajes relate to European topics, and familiarize the native mind with the advance of Christian nations. Every new piece of information concerning any part of the Christian world, every recognition of a direct or indirect triumph of the Gospel, is only a new reminder of what the human mind achieves when blessed with the light of the Gospel. 4. The forms of service in all the Somajes are merely feeble imitations of Christian worship. Many natives who attend the theistic service see a world-wide difference between it and the idolatrous temple - service, and, being accustomed to the new order, can never again feel at home in an idolatrous temple. The estrangement is final and complete. 5. Through the emphasis of the Somajes on the Yedas it will yet appear to the whole Hindu mind that the Yedas are empty fables, and deserve to stand beside the myths of Hesiod and the visions of Mohammed. The awe with which the typ- ical Hindu regards the Yedas is amazing. The Yedas are in Sanskrit, and not one learned Hindu teacher in a hundred knows that language. It is to him what the Greek and Latin are to the Englishman and American. Those who translate it, as Dayanand and others, do as they please with it. They make its ashwi mean steam, and its patal mean America, and the poor uneducated native must believe it. But others are trans- lating the Yedas, and showing that even the Hindu translators have been only playing on the blind credulity of the natives. Amazing progress has been made by the missionaries, since the rise of the Somajes, in unfolding the true meaning of the Yedas. Dr. Martyn Clark, of the Church Missionary Society, has published, at Lahor, a most valuable series of pamphlets on the "Principles and Teaching of the Arya Somaj," in which he shows, by exact reproduction of the language of the Yedas, that the Arya Somaj cannot find authority for its principles in them, but that they teach idolatry and many of the grosser forms of the present polytheistic worship in SIGNIFICANCE OF REFORMATOBY MOVEMENTS. 503 India.* Is he not right? Is it not safe to judge the tree by the fruit ? Every temple in India is the natural child of the Yedas. Hence, by going back to them, it is only a return to the corrupt fountain of a corrupt faith. Had the Arya Somaj done nothing else than to bring the missionaries now laboring in India to take up the Yedas for a new study, not because they are a Sanskrit classic, but because of their theological absurdi- ties, and subject them to the burning lens of Christian exami- nation, its indirect and undesigned service would have been incalculable. 6. All the Somajes repudiate the temple. They build their own prayer-houses, or churches. Now the very sight of these new edifices is a reminder to every native passer-by that here is a structure in opposition to the temple. It is a drawn sword against the faith which underlies the Golden Temple of Amrit- sar and the holiest fanes of Benares. 7. The divergences among the Somajes are an open declara- tion of the fruitless search for unity even in a return to the Vedas. There are minor divisions among even members of the same order. When the leading teacher dies the Somaj is lost for a time. When Ch under Sen departed his Somaj lost all ag- gressive power. Since Dayanand's death some of his followers declare that he has come to life again. At this time there is a serious division among the Aryas on this very ground. The attacks of these Aryas on Christianity are becoming so violent as to affect even the persons of missionaries. They have stirred up mobs, who have assailed and beaten Christians. In Lucknow they have abused also the Mohammedans. Strange to say, the latter are now joining hands with the Christians against their persecutors, and say to the Aryan preachers, " You may speak * Some of Dr. Clark's lectures are fine specimens of critical skill. Among them are the following: "The Origin and Age of the Vedas," "The Justice of God," "The Nature of God," "The Knowledge of God," and "The Vedic Doctrine of Sacrifice." All these are published in Lahore, and the first four in a second edition. These little works, unfolding the inner absurdities of the Vedas, and the absolute antagonism of them to the very doctrines which the Brahmas would draw from them, would be good reading for some of the English and American admirers of the early sacred literature of India, who profess to find in the Vedas a very fine, and about equal, companion- work to that other Oriental work, the Old Testament. 504 INDIRA. against Christians as much as you like, but not against Christ ; we hold him a sinless prophet, and when you attack him you will have us as well as the Christians to oppose." * 8. The brotherhood of man preached by all the Somajes is an axe laid at the root of the old Brahmic tree. All the apostles of the four theistic societies declare relentless war against the despotic cruelty of the caste system. Every word spoken against this monster must, in the end, be helpful to the Gospel. 9. The public advocacy of the moral element in education in the government schools by the Somajes is in the very line of missionary operation. In a recent very able article on " Moral Education for Young India," in the Calcutta Review, by T. J. Scott, D.D., we find copious extracts from the Liberal and New Dispensation and the Arya Patrika, in which the government is severely attacked, not only for allowing infidel writings from Europe to be used in the schools, but for the general want of thorough ethical culture. Surely, it is no little significant that the leaders of the new Hinduism should advocate the introduc- tion of the best ethical writings of Europe in the schools of India. It must not be forgotten that the first stages of a movement of this radical character do not furnish the best opportunity for safe judgment as to final effect. When the Somajes shall have gained a larger following, and theism shall have become the cen- tral dogma of multitudes now in idolatrous bondage, it may come to the light that the Gospel shall reap a rich harvest among them. The theists have turned their backs upon the old faith. They do not incline to enter the Christian temple ; but many of them are slowly advancing towards the outer court. Like Plato, Seneca, and Epictetus, they are unconscious searchers for the true light. * Rev. B. H. Badley, D.D., in letter from India. CHAPTER LYI. THE OPIUM CURSE IN INDIA. There is moving along the quay at Calcutta a long train of wagons, drawn by toiling, puffing bullocks. I am belated a little, and must hurry for the train, to spend my only day at Serampore. Our driver pushes his horses to their best, to get in advance of the line of wagons. By and by we pass them all, though the process has been slow. The wagons are evidently laden with the same ware, and are destined for the same point. Each is piled up with chests, all of equal size and appearance. They are on the way to the customs, to be inspected or to be shipped directly to China or other countries. "What are the contents of those heavy chests? Each chest contains 133| pounds of opium. The Queen's government for India pro- duces every pound. It provides the land, lends the money to the cultivator, receives and stores the whole amount, auctions it off at periodical sales in Calcutta to merchants who send it to them, and puts the profits in its own treasury.* Has England ever made a greater contribution to the world's wretchedness ? Formerly her opium went to China alone ; now it girdles the world with a zone of sorrows. She even gives opium to her London children in Godfrey's Cordial, and to her invalids in Bauley's Sedative Liquor and Jeremy's Sedative Solution, f The traffic in opium is the darkest blot on the page of Anglo- Saxon history in India. The more carefully we inquire into the methods by which the English took sole charge of the culture of the poppy plant, made a complete monopoly of the drug ex- pressed from it, and then smuggled it into China, until they compelled that country to admit it as a legal import, the more * " Traffic in and Use of Opium," p. 5. , 1882. t Drury, " Useful Plants of India," p. 330. London, 1876. 506 INDIRA. surely is the conclusion reached that the whole transaction is devoid of a single mitigating circumstance. It must forever stand as a terrible crime against Christian civilization. History of the Teaffic. There have been three stages in the development of the opium evil in India. The first was the farming out the culture of the poppy to the highest bidder. The second was the smuggling of the opium into Chinese ports against the most rigorous Chinese laws, and even the death penalty for violation. The third was the downright compulsion of China to open her ports to the introduction of opium from India. These facts seem incredible, and yet each is sup- ported by the clearest and most posi- tive proof. "When the English went to India first, in the seventeenth century, they found that the culture of the poppy was largely a monopoly of the native Mogul princes. There is no doubt that the Mohammedans brought it with them from Arabia, and estab- lished it in India at about the same time that they began their memorable conquests in the valleys of the Indus and the Ganges. This early attach- ment of the Arab to opium accounts for the larger use of it by the Mo- hammedans of India than by the Hindus. Possibly, as the Mohammedan is interdicted by the Quran from the use of ardent spirits, he rejoices in finding full compensation in the use of opium. The East India Com- pany was not slow to perceive the chances for gain. It applied itself with consummate tact to the most direct methods of amass- ing wealth. They were careful to study the native usages, and, wherever it was possible to make them serve their purpose, to appropriate them. They no sooner saw that the culture of the poppy was already a native monopoly than they began to study the propriety of securing the same advantage. There was, how- THE POPPY PLANT. THE OPIUM CURSE IN INDIA. 507 ever, some degree of caution at first. Not the Company as such, but some of the officers, on their own account, were the first Englishmen who cultivated the poppy and made money out of the opium from it. These were social servants in the Patna Factory.* The opium bait was attractive. Why could not a company do what some of its agents were doing? If there was money to be made from the poppy, why should it not be done in a broad and public way? No moderate opportunities must be lost. The Englishman was in India for the purpose of trade only. Probably not one of the early English navigators or traders ever thought of the permanent occupation and posses- sion of a foot of Indian territory. The whole curse of the Anglo- Saxon's planting of the poppy and cultivating it, and first smug- gling it into China, and then forcing it upon the same country, grew with the opportunity. It was a terrible temptation, and was not resisted. But this must be said, that the latest chapter in England's encouragement of the opium trade is a natural result of the first tampering with the crime. The great wrong lay far back, with a few persons. History will take its deep revenge. Millions must sometimes pay the penalty for the far- back crimes of a few dozens, and many years of sorrow become the price for the crime of an hour. The Trade in the East India Company's Hands. The East India Company took the trade in opium out of the hands of the few civil servants of the Patna Factory, and used the proceeds to buy goods. But how should the Company make the wisest use of the new source of trade ? What means would be' the best to yield the largest revenue ? It was a new matter, and required tentative measures. In 1773, the East India Company took the opium monopoly entirely out of the hands of the Patna Council, and leased the whole business to two natives for a fixed sum. It was found that the revenue was not satisfactory. Good husbandmen as the natives of India were, it was not clear that they could make the best return. The opium monopoly was put up at public auction. It must have been a wonderful scene when the public crier announced for the first time in * " Reports of the House of Commons," 1783, vol. i. p. 70. 508 INDIKA. India the sale of the opium monopoly. The natives, no doubt, supposed that they could get the largest return from a plant with which they were familiar. They, of course, were on hand to bid for the monopoly. But the Anglo-Saxon was there too. He had calculated his chances. He knew just what he could do. He knew how much he would have to pay the natives to work for him ; how many acres he would put in poppies ; and how much of the drug he could reap for his harvest. So he bid against the native. The native became frightened at the bold- ness of his competitor. The Englishman outbid him. The native retired forever from his place as the manager of the opium culture of India, and the Englishman took his place. The stranger from a Christian land was to control the poppy and its poison, and get all the profit from the trade, while the native henceforth was to do all the heavy work of its cultivation. Now it was intended by the East India Company that the opium monopoly should be continually sold at auction. For what purpose ? They openly declared that they sold the monop- oly to the highest bidder because this would correct an evil growing out of the monopoly. It would "prevent the British contractor from becoming doubly terrible to the natives when they should see that his contract was in effect a grant." * Here, then, was the comfort which came to the Company. They were not selling the monopoly of the opium production of India to the highest bidder. They were only making a grant ! But the auction method was not satisfactory. A new plan was adopted. The directors of the East India Company did, indeed, require that competition should be used ; but the local government at Calcutta disobeyed the orders, and, with Warren Hastings at the head, in 1776, farmed out the monopoly directly to an Englishman by the name of McKenzie. The Company could cancel the arrangement with McKenzie, but they never did it. They contented themselves with reprimanding Hastings, the G-overnor-General, and his Council. Hastings had in his family one Sullivan, and it was important that this individual should be put in possession of funds. The method adopted to bring about this desirable result was successful. "When the three years' contract with McKenzie for the opium monopoly * Cf. "The Poppy Plague," p. 32. London, 1876. THE OPIUM CURSE IN INDIA. 509 had expired, this Sullivan became the fortunate possessor of it. There was no competition on his part. He did not need to trouble himself to propose to take it. He simply received the offer of it. He then sold his contract outright to a Mr. Benn, and he in turn to a Mr. Young. It is no wonder that the Com- mittee in the House of Commons came to the conclusion that the contract was given to Sullivan for no other purpose than to supply him with a sum of money.* With the taking of the poppy culture out of native hands, and the control of the monopoly in opium by the East India Company, the first chapter in the history of the great crime ends. Opium Fokced* on China. The next chapter is brief. It is the story of India, under English rule, getting such complete control of the opium trade as to regard it no longer as an article of merchandise, but of great revenue. The India market, however, was too narrow for such a result. It is clear that larger tracts of land were put under the cultivation of the poppy, and the consumption at home was not sufficient to exhaust the supply. But the genius of War- ren Hastings was equal to even this emergency. The opium of the East India Company must be disposed of at all hazards. There had been already a small opium trade carried on between India and China, probably overland, through the passes of the Himalayas. The first supplies had been taken probably about the end of the seventeenth century, f But to Hastings belongs the rare honor of doing away with this slow method. He char- tered a vessel, with the concurrence of his Council, for carrying opium to foreign ports, and especially to China. A small trade in the commodity had been carried on with Batavia, but the Dutch War had put an end to the market there. A new market must be found, and China solved the problem. But one vessel was not enough. Neither must the method be a mere incident. There must be a system. The outcome was, that the trade in opium to Chinese ports was undertaken by the government of British India. The first contract is a curiosity. Colonel Wat- son, an Englishman, was to carry the first regular shipload of * Cf. " The Poppy Plague," p. 35. London, 1876. t Ibid., p. 37. 510 INBIKA. opium. His vessel bore the appropriate name of the Nonsuch. He needed guns to protect his vessel, for opium was contraband in every Chinese port. The British government in India cast some cannon for the special purpose, while others were brought from Madras, a distance of seven hundred miles. Soldiers and medical stores were also supplied. Then came other ships. Now, the iniquity of this beginning of the opium trade with China lies in the fact that it was purely a smuggling operation. China was doing all in her power to prevent opium entering the country. Her rulers and their advisers were resorting to all pos- sible measures to keep the drug away from the people. It would seem that the men who represented the Chinese government could foresee, a century ago, the evils which China must cer- tainly suffer should her people become cor- rupted by the use of opium. They declared that none of it should cross the frontier. Severe penalties were visited upon any vio- lator. These penalties were increased from time to time. The whole power of the gov- ernment was used to keep opium out of the country. Yet the English in India kept on sending it. the poppy capsum In all English history there is not a more after the petals re pulsive picture than that of the receiving- ^sions A ha E ve been ships lying at Lin-tin as late as 1834. The made. Chinese succeeded in driving away the British trade in opium from Macao, and so the dealers drifted down to the mouth of Canton Eiver, and anchored among the islands. Their vessels were safe here. They were well armed, and could resist attack from the Chinese, and could smuggle opium into the country. Thus Lin-tin became the depot of the opium trade for all China. The English traders from India were trying to get opium into the country, and the Chinese doing their utmost to keep it out. And this became an affair of years. The clipper ships which brought the opium for China from Calcutta were the fastest on the Eastern seas. By the year 1834 the annual amount of opium brought from Calcutta had gone up from five thousand to twenty thousand chests. Meanwhile other ports for the enforced entrance of opium were established along the Chinese coast. The trade THE OPIUM CURSE IN INDIA. 511 between India and China was confined largely to opium, and all the while China was fighting to keep it out. As a specimen of the large profit arising from the trade, a Mr. Innes, in 1831, dis- posed of three hundred and thirty thousand dollars' worth in one voyage. But Mr. Majoribanks, in the following year, was less successful. He took opium to new Chinese ports, but the peo- ple knew nothing of the drug, and refused to buy. The venture proved a failure.* Such was the persistence with which the English in India carried on the work of forcing opium upon the Chinese. It must be admitted that the government in Calcutta made its deliverance on the illicit character of the trade in opium with China. Here is what the directors said in 1787 : " It is beneath the Company to be engaged in such a clandestine trade; we, therefore, hereby positively prohibit any more opium being sent to China on the Company's account." This sounds well enough. But Warren Hastings went on with his measures, and the Com- pany, while now and then issuing strong decrees against the illicit trade, continued to enlarge the cultivation of the poppy at home and the trade in opium abroad. America's Share in the Crime. But Americans are not without blame. The young and grow- ing commercial spirit of the United States reached as far as those Eastern seas. The Chinese government published an edict in 1821, in which it gave an account of the recent seizure of the cargoes of one American and three English vessels at Canton for introducing opium in violation of the Chinese laws. One half of the cargoes of the vessels was confiscated as penalty. The Viceroy of Canton, finding that this seizure was a great affliction to merchants, remitted the penalty, but forbade the selling of the cargoes and the carrying away of any tea or rhu- barb. Besides, a memorandum of these ships and their mer- chants was made, and they were prohibited forever from com- ing to Canton for trade, f Here, then, we have the picture of England and the United States combining to force opium upon China. * "The Poppy Plague," p. 55. t Niles, Register, December 21, 1822. 512 INDIRA. In 1886 we find the first attempt made by a Chinese official to secure the legal entry of opium from India into China. Heu Naetse memorialized the Emperor to admit opium under a duty. His plea was that the imperial revenue would be enriched. But a member of the Imperial Council, Choo Tsun, opposed the prop- osition. The result was a vote of the Emperor's Council in favor of renewing the measures to keep opium out of the country. Violence against the illicit trade was resorted to. The opium ships were driven from Lin-tin in 1837. The emperor kept a close watch on his officers, and used all possible measures to keep out of the country the opium brought by English ships from India. The final stage in the relation of the English government to the enforcement of opium upon China was brought about by war. It grew out of the death of a Chinaman in a quarrel with some English and American seamen. The Chinese felt aggrieved, and cut off supplies of food. Captain Elliot, of whom Gladstone said, in the House of Commons, that " he had completely identi- fied himself with the contraband traffic in opium," began the war by firing the first shot. In 1840 a British fleet arrived, un- der Sir Gordon Bremer. The war continued nearly three years. England conquered, and the treaty of peace which she compelled was based on the following hard conditions : The payment to England of a vast indemnity within three years for meeting the expense of the war, the opening of five ports to British trade, and the ceding of the island of Hong Kong to the British Crown.* The Chinese did all in their power to secure in this treaty the prohibition of the opium traffic. But the English would not con- sent. They wanted the opium trade to go on as before. The wicked trade promised too much gold to the Indian treasury to be sacrificed. Lord Palmerston put the matter on new grounds. Instead of demanding that opium be admitted to Chinese ports, he said he would leave it as a free-will offering from China. " Her Majesty's government make no demand in regard to this matter; for they have no right to do so." But the argument was unavailing. The Chinese Emperor would not yield. Opi- um, with all the humiliation and weakness of defeat upon China, was to be kept out of the country. All through the war opium * " The Poppy Plague," pp. 75 ff. THE OPIUM CURSE IN INDIA. 513 had been introduced into China, and large profits made by the sales. But the Chinese convicted of dealing in the drug, or even using it, were severely punished. In Canton the violators could be seen in gangs of forty or fifty, with shackles on their hands and feet. It was, indeed, death for a Chinaman to trade in opi- um. But the merchants of India, and the government as well, were providing fresh supplies all the time.* But one more war was needed to throw China open to the opium curse. The pretext soon came. A Chinese vessel had bought of the local British government at Hong Kong the right to carry the British flag. The Chinese officials knew she was o o o P4 SO ■a 8 p ^ o o fi CO *§§ s $ POVERTY OF INDIA. 551 through life with too little food. This is probably a low esti- mate of the number. Sir Charles Elliot, Chief Commissioner of Assam, says : " I do not hesitate to say that half of our agri- cultural population never know from year's end to year's end what it is to have their hunger satisfied." Some of the causes of this extreme poverty of the millions of India are not difficult to discover. The history of the country, until the English became the rulers, has been one long warfare. The highest use of the citizen was estimated to be in the ratio of his capacity to bear arms. To build up the individual man ; to find employment for him; to see that he supported his family; and to secure his prosperity, as the highest function of the ruler, was never taken into the account. How many men could the leader kill in battle was the important question. The business of the average Hindu and Mohammedan was the use of deadly weapons. When great battle-fields, as Panipat more than once, were covered with many thousands of the slain, this was re- garded only as the price which had to be paid in order to go into the next war with greater advantage and brighter hope of victory. Much of the money belonging to the State was in the form of jewels or precious metals. These were stored in great sub- terranean vaults, as in Golconda, drawing no interest, and to be used only in organizing great schemes of new warfare. They were as useless as the surplus in the United States Treasury, and the ground of less political wrangle. The knowledge of the amount and place of concealment of these treasures was known to only the ruler, and a very few of his most trustworthy coun- sellors. When the ill fortunes of war brought out this stored wealth, the great amount of it surprised the conqueror. Clive must have been astounded at what his eyes saw, when he tri- umphed over the native kings. Nana Sahib's wealth was meas- ured only by the cart-loads. Only within a couple of years great stores of treasure have been discovered beneath the ground in the palace of Gwalior. The treasures of the Marhattas, the highway-robbers of the late Indian history, almost defy our pow- ers of credence. In addition to the countless wealth already brought to light, we can safely take for granted that the amount still concealed is immense. Sir Henry Maine finds the great cause of India's present pov- 552 INDIKA. erty in these concealed treasures. He says : " The true secret of •the poverty of India, from which she is slowly recovering, I take to be the desolation caused by the war and brigandage of about two thousand several chiefs, while the Mogul dominion was dis- solving. I think India during the reign of Akbar and Jahan- gir was probably as rich as the Western World thought, but its carefully hoarded capital was destroyed in the same way as the accumulations of the Koman Empire." Sir Richard Temple con- firms this judgment. " The historical accounts of the plunder, realized after military or political catastrophes, may seem fabu- lous, but are nevertheless well founded, despite rhetorical exag- geration. There never has been a country where wealth was so much concentrated, or so little diffused, as the historic India. Hence the traditional ideas of Eastern wealth have indefinitely exceeded the reality. Besides these central accumulations of goods and property, there must have been much wealth col- lected in divers lesser places. No economist can study the story of the Marhatta conquests, wherein statecraft was chiefly devoted to the organization of plunder with unparalleled skill and audacity, without wondering how the country could have endured visitations so long protracted and so oft repeated. Here is proof, however, of the national habit of collecting, hoarding, and secreting property. Descriptions of accumulated wealth occur in the histories of the wars of the present generation ; for example, the verified accounts of prize at Haidarabad, in Sind, in 1842, at Delhi, Lucknow, Kirwi, and other places during the war of the mutinies. During many years past, even up to this very day, the dacoities, or gang-robberies, which occasionally break out, tell the same tale of wealth collected in rural as well as urban homes, to an amount which might not otherwise have been suspected." ISTow what do these hidden stores of precious stones and gold and silver prove ? That the governments of India regarded con- centrated capital as the real possession of the State, and not as properly the distributed possession of the individual subject. To acquire sufficient property, under the Mogul rule, to live in ease and comfort, without being in some way connected with the court, must have been next to impossible. The same may be said to apply to the Hindu courts existing before the Mogul rulers. War was the normal condition of the countries gov- POVERTY OF INDIA. 553 erned. The wealth of the land was really poured into the gen- eral treasury. The Hindu subject was only a machine for money-getting in the scanty periods of peace and money-snatch- ing in the general time of war. Other causes are clear enough. Among these is the great amount of wealth bestowed on the construction of places of worship. Then, the mosques and temples once built, the service in them was supported by great endowments. Further, the rev- enue applied to the support of the rulers was immense. There seems to have been no limit. Each ruler was only one man in the midst of a great horde of military chiefs, nobles, courtiers, and counsellors. All these grew fat from the public treasury. Palaces abounded. No caprice of the ruler or his friends was left ungratified. The nation was fairly exhausted to satisfy every lust. Even death put no stop to the certain and steady current of the people's earnings into the vaults of the palace. Tombs in memory of the dead were built, some of them by en- forced labor, which were equalled only by the palaces of the living. No Roman emperor was ever honored with such tombs as were erected to some of the Mogul rulers. The Taj Mahal, erected to the memory of an empress, whether estimated by the wealth of its materials or the labor expended in rearing it, sur- passes by far any known tomb in memory of a Caesar. Now these causes of India's poverty are slowly passing away. The government is economically administered. The earnings of the people are not spent on the construction of places of false worship, or for the support of the service in them. The inter- ests of the native millions are steadily kept in view, and honesty characterizes every part of the management of the affairs of the empire. The greatest present cause of poverty is to be found in the need of a sufficient and proper cultivation of the soil. India possesses all the needful climates. Her soil is rich. Much of it is still virgin soil, despite the many millions of the people. Take the presidency of Madras as an example. The arable area in that one presidency is 72,858,000 acres ; but the portion which is actually cultivated is only 26,580,000. The rest is poramhoke, or uncultivated land. Of the land under cultivation only twenty per cent, is irrigated. " The unirrigated and dry land is eighty per cent. Of the latter, a very large part consists of 554 INDIRA. the worst of soils. The tillage on these soils is also very poor. Our native plough stirs, but does not overturn the soil, and sel- dom penetrates to a greater depth than three inches. There is also no such thing as after-cultivation, or hoeing. As to our irrigated land while it is under crops, it receives very little at- tention beyond watering and weeding." * In addition to the small amount of cultivated land all over India, compared with land which could be cultivated, we must not forget that down to this day there is no science of agricul- ture throughout the country. There has really been no oppor- tunity to develop such a science. Long periods of peace, secu- rity of person and crops, and a ready market, are all great boons which India, with all her treasures, has not yet possessed. Even the English have not, as yet, had the opportunity to do this im- portant work. Their mission so far has been to acquire, solidify, and prepare for a great future this immense people. Even the elementary work of rotating crops has never been understood by the natives. The most which the India farmers understood, just here, is " the general principle that the soil should not be ex- hausted, but beyond allowing the land to be fallow, and raising during a portion of the year some vegetables from an insignifi- cant area, they know of no established and scientific sj'stem of rotating the crops." The attention of the government, and of the English people resident in India not connected with the government, but in sympathy with the development of all the material interests of the land, is now being devoted to the need of a larger area un- der cultivation, of a better understanding of agriculture as a science, and of better agricultural machinery and methods. Agricultural schools and colleges are springing up. In Madras the Saidapet College of Agriculture, and the Government Ex- perimental Farm connected with it, are good beginnings. An excellent agricultural journal is published by the students of the Saidapet College. Constant progress will be made in develop- ing, not only the productiveness of the soil and the enlargement of its area, but a taste for agriculture and a knowledge of its * K. Sundararaman, article on " The Poverty of India," in Christian College Magazine, Madras, October, 1887. We acknowledge with pleasure our obliga- tion to this paper, by a well-informed native writer, for important information on this interesting theme. POVERTY OF INDIA. 555 laws. The government has given abundant proof that it has its eye on this great source of national prosperity, and will spare no needful outlay for the attainment of its object.* One of the means employed by the government to cultivate a taste for better agricultural methods among the natives is the agricultural exhibition. One recently held in Kathiawar, inau- gurated by Colonel Nutt, was very successful. It was the eighth time a similar exhibition had been held in the same place, but was of larger scope than any preceding one. English residents, native chiefs, and large numbers of the general population were in attendance. There were exhibits of horses, cattle, sheep, and other animals, besides fruits, grains, manufactures, and an impor- tant collection of articles made by women. Lectures on agri- cultural subjects were delivered at stated times on each of the three days that the exhibition lasted. A series of ploughing- matches concluded the exhibition. Much is to be done for the natives in correcting false ideas of wealth and many wrong social ways. For example, when a marriage ceremony takes place, the family of the bride will spend an amount of money out of all proportion to its means. The Nach girl or the musician must be paid for, an extravagant amount of silks and of other valuable cloths is bought, and many jewels are purchased. The father of, a bride contracts a large debt for a marriage ceremony. The passion for acquiring jewels, instead of available property, seems to continue. It is probably an inheritance from the ear- lier generations of the unsettled times. " I maintain," says Sun- dararaman, " that in every family in this country there is a dis- proportionate amount of the fortune of the family locked up in the form of jewels. There are families which can boast of 50,000 rupees worth of jewels, and often this amount is exceeded. It is a very ordinary thing that over a third of the possessions of a family which has an estate of 10,000 or 15,000 rupees should be locked up in jewels. Even in the poorest families, there ex- ists this disproportion of jewels to possessions. When Messrs. Orr & Sons put forth their advertisements in the Hindu re- garding Hindu ornaments, they are said to have realized in the very first month a sale of over 20,000 rupees." * On the special pains taken by the government to improve the agriculture of India, see Encyclopaedia Britanniea (9th Edinb. ed.), vol. xii. p. 752. 556 INDIKA. The native of India has arrived at one great idea — that he can invest nowadays with comparative safety. There is no ra- pacious ruler to snatch away his earnings. He is beginning to lay up a little. Immense treasure, in small amounts, is now transmitted between natives by the post-office. Investments are constantly increasing. Many of the natives are taking shares, with the English, in the establishment of commercial enterprises. Some of the ancestral industries are reviving, and adapting themselves to the new mechanical contrivances for larger production. The increase of the foreign trade reveals a large development of native as well as foreign industry and enterprise. Thirty-three years ago the foreign trade of India amounted to only $250,000,000. Now it amounts to $700,000,000, the export trade of which amounts to $400,000,000. With the growth of agriculture, the enlargement of the earlier industries, the improvement of business habits, and the development of a commercial taste, the imports will be less needed. Why should India import cottons from Manchester, or cutlery from Sheffield, or pottery from Staffordshire? She was producing all these wares in great beauty and fineness when the Briton was dancing in savage glee around the rude circle of Stonehenge. She can do it again, though the Briton has gone to Westminster, and has produced Hampden, Shakespeare, Bacon, and Milton, and new civilizations beyond many seas. CARVLNG ON THE BUDDHIST TOWER AT SARNATH. : _J CHAPTEK LXI. BENARES THE HOLY CITY.-MORNING SCENE ALONG THE GANGES. " Are you going to Benares ?" and " Have you been to Be- nares ?" are questions one often hears during his tour in India. The Anglo-Indian never thinks you have seen the country well unless you have cast your shadow upon the holy Ganges at Benares. This city is the central sanctuary of all Hindu worship, the metropolis of Hindu trade, and the fountain-head of Hindu learning. In tender associations to the Hindu mind, no spot approaches it. To have been born in Benares is a life -long blessing, and to die on the bank of the Ganges is the highest aspiration alike of prince and peasant. If a Brahman in any part of India has seen the Monkey Temple, or the Golden Tem- ple, and laved in the Ganges at Benares, he is ever afterwards more highly esteemed by his townsmen, while it is a glad day in any rajah's palace, wherever he may live, when a new cask of water from the far-off sacred river is announced. The Origin or Benares. No one has determined the time of the origin of Benares. It was some time during the period when the Aryans held full sway in the country, and before any of the present faiths had been dreamed out. It first appears as a great Indian centre, but of the stages through which it passed we know nothing. It was over six centuries before our era, or 638 b.c, when Sakya Muni halted here, on his way from Gaya, and expounded his religion. Even then Benares was probably the home of a very busy popula- tion, or there would have been no attraction to that reformer to begin his work here. The great writers of the Hindus here wrote their works, and from this sacred centre sent them out on their mission to the Hindu world. JSTo success could be hoped for if 560 INDIRA. their thoughts did not first find expression under the same sun which smiled upon Benares. The Brahmans do not like the name Benares, which Wilson, in his Sanskrit Dictionary, says has the meaning of " best water." They call their holy city Kasi, the Magnificent, for such it is in all their thoughts. A cheap little guide to the city in Hindu- stani, for sale by any little knot of Hindus, and written by a priest, gives in grave language the reason why Benares is the most sacred place in the world. " It is commonly thought by Christians, Mohammedans, and others who are unacquainted with the truth, that this holy city of Kasi rests upon a portion of the earth. But such an opinion is altogether erroneous, as it has been revealed to us by the gods, and as our senses are at times permitted to discover. The world itself, since the days of its creation, has remained supported upon the thousand heads of the serpent Ananta (eternity), and so it will continue to be upheld until the command of Brahma shall be proclaimed for it to be forever enveloped in the evils of that interminable deity. Now, when the judgment takes place, the city of Kasi, with a circumference of ten miles from its centre, will alone remain firm. For it rests upon the heads of Ananta, but is fixed upon the three points of the trident of Shiv, or Mahaclev, to whose care it will be intrusted. All who now die within its walls are blessed, and those who are found within it on that eventful clay shall be blessed a thousandfold. Ages before the Mohammedan conquest of this city by the Sul- tan Mohammed, which happened in the seventh century ; ages before it was made subservient to the Patans, which was a hun- dred centuries earlier ; ages before Kasi was the second capital of the Hindu kingdom of Kanauj, which was the case a hun- dred centuries before that ; ages before history has any record, Shiv built this wonderful city— of the purest gold, and all its temples of precious stones. But, alas ! the iniquity of man con- taminates and destroys the beauty of everything divine. In con- sequence of the heinous sins of the people, the precious materials of this sacred place were deteriorated, and eventually changed into stone, by permission of the founder Shiv. . . . Lately, the excesses and wickedness of the inhabitants are again increasing, and now the indignant Shiv is beginning to .display his anger by turning the stone edifices into huts of mud and thatch." BENARES THE HOLT CITY. 563 This is the Brahman's conception of Benares. It is the city of his faith. Its vilest waters, its most malarious sinks, its de- caying weeds, are alike sweet and dear to him. I had ample time for my visit to this most remarkable place. Dr. Lazarus met me at the station, and entertained me at his beautiful home. His cultivated wife and daughters made my visit delightful as it passed, and charming as a memory. They took me to all the points of interest, introduced me to persons whom it was a pleasure to know and now to remember, and accompanied me to the station, when leaving for Allahabad. Mokning Scene Along the Ganges. No scene in Benares can equal the strange panorama presented by the bank of the Ganges in early morning. Our choti hazari was. finished betimes, and we drove off through the English can- tonment, then into the narrow streets of the dense native city, and came to a halt on the bank of the smiling and busy river. Here we took a little boat, and ascended the deck, where we found chairs. The rowers barely touched the water. We sim- ply glided slowly along with the current. It was the time of devotion. There are stairways at frequent intervals, leading from the water's edge up to the temple portals. The multitude are already out, bathing or getting ready to bathe, or robing themselves again, the bath being finished. There must be several thousands in all. Some are far out in the wa- ter, their heads just above the surface of the sacred stream, and their eyes fixed upon the eastern sky. They do not move a muscle, but are lost in meditation. JSTo stranger's face or sud- den splash has any effect upon them. They are as fixed as the sacred pipul- trees upon the banks. Others have their holy Vedas before them, and slowly turn the worn leaves. Their faces wear a pleased expression, as though they know the prom- ises are fulfilled now and here. Others recline upon the step- ways up the ghats, the bright sun pouring its welcome heat upon their bared heads. Many are pilgrims, and their joy is great, as they walk out into the sacred stream, and halt, and put their heads beneath its surface, for the first and only time, after the pilgrimage of perhaps a thousand miles. Not a few, perhaps, of these have measured the whole distance of their wan- dering by their own bodies, their method being to lie upon the 564 INDIRA. ground, stretch out the hand as far as possible, mark the spot which it can reach, and then get up, put their feet at that place, lie down again, and so repeat the measurement. A great many of the bathers have brass water-jars with them, which they fill for use through the day, if living in Benares, or, in case they live at a distance, for carrying to their far-off homes. Every minute presents a new scene. Here, at an open space, is the expiring fire where a body had been burned, and the lit- tle mound of pale ashes in the centre is all that is left of the beloved. The portals of temples on the river front are filled with outgoing or incoming worshippers. Occasionally a splen- did private home conies into view — a Hindu prince's house, which he has bought, and is now occupying, until the silver cord shall be loosed. The Brahman who dies on the banks of the Ganges has the shortest path to heaven. Sacred bulls roam everywhere, no hand injuring one of them, and all of them fed by reverent Hindus. They can stop and munch at anybody's strawpile or doorway, and are always wel- come guests. Many people are eating their simple morning meal, as though this place, by the river-bank, makes holy any dish. Priests are to be seen in the midst of the multitude. It is said that out of the total population of 600,000 in Benares, 80,000 are officiating Brahman priests. The fakir is the most ostentatious of the priestly class. He sits by the roadside, covers himself with dirt, lives on alms, mumbles his prayers, and holds his face towards the blazing sun. Here, on the bank of the Ganges, is many a fakir. They lean on the incline of the ghats, and are well out in the water, or rest on a boatside, and seem lost in contemplation. Their faces are seldom cheerful. They are pictures of filth and despair. The women of the upper Hindu classes are not to be seen just now. They have all gone home. They left their houses early in the morning, say at four, were borne in palanquins to the bank, entered their richly ornamented boat, and were rowed out in the middle of the stream. The boat, by a peculiar construction, has a lattice-work for the water to run through. The bottom is firm, and here they take their bath, unobserved by any eyes, and are speedily rowed back to their palanquins, and are borne homeward by fleet-footed kulis. But not all the rich are thus early. Some have only just ar- BEWARES THE HOLY CITY. 565 rivecl, and. will soon be off again. Their journey has been long and painful. The rest of life, they know, is short. But it must be sweetened by a bath in the sacred river, and sacrifices of flowers in the temples of Benares. The joy which overspreads many a face, as the holy water laves it for the first time, can ELEVATION OF TEMPLE OP VISHWESHWAR AT BENARES. be seen in a moment. It is the fulfilment of the hopes of a life- time. Is the water cold % Yes. I could not endure the shock three minutes, yet these people seem to be accustomed to it. However, there is many a trembling form. It is the religious associations which make all pain an ecstasy. 566 INDIKA. . Infanticide. In former times the drowning of female children was a com- mon incident in this busy morning scene. The following picture is true to history : " Zeida hath laid her basket down, Her offering to the sacred river; No tears even yet her eye doth own, But every feeble limb doth quiver ; " And sobs each like a dying gasp, Burst from that agonized breast, To which, with strong and straining clasp, The hapless babe is pressed. " A smile across its features plays Unconsciously — and now another, Answering the miserable gaze Of that most wretched mother." " A thrill of anguish shook her frame, Then a brief frenzy o'er her came, The thin veil from her head she tore, And the poor infant round and round In the soft gauzy folds she wound, That soon its struggles might be o'er. "And witli quick steps, though each one sank, In the green, oozy river bank, Down among the reeds she cowered. There gently laid the fated child, And, o'er it, from her basket, piled Green leaves, and blossoms showered, Then pressing both hands to her head, As if in agony of fear Its dying shriek to hear, Nerved by despair, with frenzied speed she fled." Drifting with the Ganges. We halt now and then, to take in more fully the strange morning scene in the Ganges at Benares. Palaces, bearing the names of all the principal native rulers, line the bank. Towers, lattices, porticoes, spires, and minarets, of all colors, form a match- BENARES THE HOLT CITY. 567 less panorama of Oriental splendor.* Every moment the pano- rama shifts. But in each case there is animation. The scenes upon the forty-seven step ways, or ghats, which lead up from the river's edge to the terrace along the upper bank, are at once WtfPZfz, A WINDOW IN BENARES. bewildering and revolting. One face I can never forget — an aged man, absorbed, with eyes fixed -upon the sun, as though hoping that he might be wafted that moment from the Ganges to the celestial city. Brahmanism and Mohammedanism exist * Temple, " India in 1880," p. 35. 568 INDIRA. side by side here. We drift with the current until we come opposite the tall minaret built by the great Aurangzeb. "When the Mohammedans captured Benares, three centuries ago, they mutilated many of the temples, but did not prohibit Hindu worship. Their policy in India was more liberal, per- haps, than on any other conquered field. While permitting many of the Hindu temples to stand, they planted their own mosques, and reared their minarets, in close proximity. The mosque and minarets of Aurangzeb, on the bank of the Ganges, at Benares, however, stand on the site of a temple of Mahadev, or Shiv, or, as he is commonly called, Siva. Yiew from a Minaret. The minarets are of singularly graceful proportions, and no view of the busy scene along this river in early morning is com- plete which does not include the prospect from the balcony at the top of one of them. We turn towards the bank, step ashore, pick our way through the busy bathers, and ascend the one hundred and twenty steps of the ghat to the platform of the mosque. Sacred bulls crowd about us, as though the lords of this creation. Dogs, too, abound, and are sure of their rights. They are a mangy herd, and I took pains to keep as far from them as possible. The ascent to the top of the minaret is by a stairway, which, with the steps up the ghat, makes the whole distance from the surface of the river to the balcony of the minaret two hundred and fifty feet. The air within the minaret is stifling, and I am very glad to reach the balcony and feast my eyes upon this wonderful picture. Benares lies at my feet. The green and smiling English part of the city stretches like a horseshoe about it, each end resting upon the bank of the Ganges. Far out in the country the fields are beautiful and of varied colors. The curves of the river, above and below, are exceedingly graceful. All along the bank, at my feet, there is a world of life and variety — people from all Hindustan wading, floating, or resting in the water, or scattered up and down the stepways of the ghats. Temples of all sizes now come out into new splendor within the native city. The nar- row streets run in all possible directions, without the least re- gard to angles or points of the compass. CHAPTER LXIL A RIDE THROUGH BENARES. At the foot of the minaret we found our carriage in waiting, and began to thread our way through the street of the brass - workers to the Golden Temple. It is dedicated to Shiv, the poison god, because Shiv swallowed the poison when the gods churned the ocean. The temple is a square, with three towers above it, a dome at each of the three corners. The towers are of stone, over which are copper plates, and over these again are gold plates, the latter giving the name to the temple. The quadrangle, constituting the temple proper, is thronged with worshippers. The "Well of Knowledge. Near by is the celebrated "Well of Knowledge. Here Shiv is supposed to reside. The stench of this well is intolerable. There is a shop near by where flowers are sold for offerings to the god. Every worshipper buys some of them, and comes to the well and casts them in. Then there are others constantly standing about the well, drinking the filthy water, as though it were nectar. The flowers fall into the well, and there de- compose, and the water is thus made filthy and poisonous. It is surprising that such Avater does not produce almost instant death. Pilgrims come and go all the while, but no pilgrimage to Benares the Sacred is complete without at least one precious draught from the Well of Knowledge. There are natives beat- ing gongs near by ; fakirs lounging about, covered with dirt ; begging monks of all ages ; and a throng of pilgrims, constantly walking over the wet quadrangle to the holy well, drinking, dropping their coins, casting in flowers, and then moving slowly off, as if they had had one view of the eternal city, and must now go out into the gross world again. For offence to all the senses, I never saw a scene equalling this. I became faint be- 570 INDIKA. cause of the dense and corrupt odors of the spot, and we hur- ried away. A common object of attention is the sacred cow. Here and there one moves along, stops at a bazar front, and gets some food, none daring to deny the intruder a wisp of straw or hay. The bull, throughout Bengal, bears heavy burdens, but his life is held to be sacred. Observant travellers claim that the na- SCRAMBLING FOR PEAS. tives feed him sparingly, and yet get all the labor out of him possible, without endangering his life.* We drive next to the Monkey Temple. Here is a place where the monkeys are the principal object of interest. "We have no sooner come to a halt than they slip softly out from their places of concealment behind trees or houses, and leap gleefully Jacolliot, " Voyage au Pays cles Fakirs, Charrneurs," p. 124. Paris, 1881. A RIDE THROUGH BEWARES. 571 about. They are in great numbers, and appear to expect some- thing to eat. However, as we are only Christians, we have failed to supply ourselves with provisions for the filthy but sacred brutes. Many of the monkeys live in the hollow of an old tree near the temple. They scamper about all parts of the temple spaces, and appear to have undisturbed access to the whole consecrated place. While Benares is the centre of Hindu worship, it early became a field for Christian missions and education. I have nowhere seen a more beautiful school for native girls than here. Mrs. Lazarus was acquainted with the ladies in charge, and I had the opportunity to visit all departments of it. The girls range from about three to eighteen years of age, and are all, to the number of five hundred, instructed in the various branches of an English Christian education. The ornamental work, such as embroidery, is beautifully executed. This school occupies a large building in the heart of the native city. Between that on the one hand, and the offensive temple service on the other, it is not difficult to tell which will win in the long race of the future. Queen's College. Queen's College is a fine institution, founded in 1847, in part by private subscription and in part by government aid. It is well located, in a broad open space, and its appointments are comfortable and attractive. The lecture - rooms, library, and archaeological collection compare favorably with any institu- tion of similar grade in England or America. Old Sarnath. If we do not know the age of Benares, how shall we arrive at that of the city which preceded it ? About four miles in the country from the city of to-day there are remains of two great towers, whose mode of construction and general shape prove them to be memorials of a time long anterior to any of the most ancient structures which have thus far been discovered in Be- nares. The group of houses hear which they stand is called Sarnath, and a drive thither occupied an afternoon. Here Miss Lazarus was my wise and patient guide. Long before we reached the place the higher of these towers stood out prominently, and when we came in full view of it, and rested within its shadow, it 572 INDIKA. was clear, from the remarkable belts of carving, that we were in the presence of one of the oldest memorials in all India. Here, in this ancient Sarnath, we came across the traces of the Buddhism of the India of the distant times. This was the Deer Park at which Buddha arrived on leaving Gaya, and, at- taining to Buddhahood, where he began his public ministry. The great tower was designed to commemorate some act, or a spot, to which special sanctity was attached at the time, but of which there is now no record. It was originally of immense size, and ornamented with great care. Whether it was part of a great building, whose traces are now entirely gone, no one knows. But this much remains — an immense tower, one hun- dred and twenty-eight feet above the plain, with a diameter of ninety-three feet. The lower part is of stone, and the upper of brick. There are broad faces around the lower part, in which are niches, where images of Buddha probably stood. Around the whole are fillets, of singularly beautiful and symmetrical patterns. These fillets are worthy of the closest study. The very sections which make up one fillet repeatedly change, and yet so closely do the two which join resemble each other that one barely observes the transition. The patterns belong to a very remote period, and will, in time, help towards the determining of the exact age of the tower. The upper part of the tower was either never finished, or has been injured, and so long ago that it has the appearance of a great structure falling to pieces of itself. The Chinese Buddhist pilgrims of the fourth and seventh cen- turies visited Sarnath, and described the two towers, but with- out throwing light on the purpose of either. The later of the pilgrims states that the kingdom of Varakasi, or Benares, was six hundred and sixty-seven miles in circumference ; that in the city there were thirty Buddhist monasteries, which supported three thousand monks ; that the great tower was built by Asoka ; that the Deer Park monastery was divided into eight parts, and contained palaces ; that each of the niches in the tower held a statue of Buddha in embossed gold ; that west of this was the tank where Buddha bathed ; and that, farther along, was the tank where he washed his monk's water-pot ; and, still farther, the one where he washed his clothes. We went within the wall enclosing the ancient monastery, A BIDE THROUGH BENARES. 573 and examined every part. From there we proceeded to the smaller of the two towers, and clambered up the elevation on which it stands, and then to the top of the structure itself. The BUDDHIST TOWEB AT SARNATH, NEAR BENARES. view of the beautiful country, and the city in the distance, was charming. The ride home through the English cantonment was delightful, and a fit close to my busiest day in Benares the Sacred. CHAPTEK LXIII. A HALT AT ALLAHABAD. Mr. Howard, an advocate of Allahabad, accompanied me to the chief points of interest in that " Holy City." That gentle- man had come to India when a very young man, and was in Allahabad when the mutiny broke out. He was one of the many civilians who saw the danger, shouldered his musket, and did excellent service until the mutiny was conquered. It was a rare pleasure to have the society of a gentleman of such varied culture, and especially of such intimate acquaintance with the historical associations of the city and its fortifications. The Allahabad of to-day is, in the Indian sense, a new city. About three centuries ago Akbar, greatest of the Moguls, founded both the city and fort. But this was by no means the first Al- lahabad. Here the Jamna and the Ganges form a junction. Each is a large river before the two unite. After the union the Jamna loses its name in that of the Ganges, and the great stream moves on with a majesty and power impressive in the extreme. There is no place in the whole length of the wonder- ful river to which such large bodies of pilgrims resort as on the plain outside the city where the rivers unite. A bath here has a peculiar sanctity, and must have had long before the Moham- medans crossed the Indus for the conquest of the region watered by the Indus and the Ganges. If we look at the commanding location, the advantages for defence, and the delightful atmosphere, this must have been one of the earliest places in India to attract a population and to grow into a commercial centre. It first comes into notice in the third century before the Christian era, when Megasthenes, the Greek tourist, visited it. That industrious Chinese pilgrim, Hiouen Tsang, also visited the place, and makes mention of it in his travels. The old city was, perhaps next to Benares, the most sacred to the Brahman mind of any place in India. The pecul- A HALT AT ALLAHABAD. 575 iar ground of the sanctity was that Brahma here made sacri- fices of the horse in memory of his having recovered the four Vedas from Shankhasur. When Akbar conquered the place, every attempt was made to give a Mohammedan color to the new city which arose upon the old. But the change of masters has made little change in faith. Of the one hundred and fifty thousand people, one hundred thousand are Hindus. The sacred tongue of land where the two rivers combine is hallowed, and will remain so until the Brahman faith floats awav THE MAGH MELA, OR ANNUAL PAIR, AT ALLAHABAD. before the Christian cross. It is estimated that at the Magh Mela, a religious fair, not less than from half a million to one million devout Hindus come from every part of the country to see it. Many people die on the way ; others die while encamped on the plain, and still others on the way home. Here I encountered the first strong reminders of the great mutiny of 1856 and 1857. Benares felt the shock, but did not suffer materially. What was the cause of the great difference between the places which suffered and those which did not? Why did not Benares and Allahabad run with blood, as did 576 INDIKA. Cawnpore and Lucknow, and, longest of all, Delhi ? It was a twofold cause — generals, on the one hand, and English faith or no faith in the native soldiers, on the other. Wherever a general re- lied solely on the loyalty of the native troops, they betrayed him, and slew him and his countrymen. Wherever the general dis- trusted them, and had them so officered and distributed, and so armed that their ammunition and arms could be taken from them, he was master of the situation, and little or no blood was shed. Because Wheeler, in Cawnpore, placed full confidence in his sepoys, not only did he fall, but the city was converted into a butcher's pen, at the mercy of Nana Sahib. Allahabad came very near being a scene of like bloodshed. A mere incident saved the day. Captain Plunkett believed in the native sol- diers, and allowed them their guns. But Captain Birch begged Colonel Simpson to reclaim the guns, as they were wanted in the fort. The sepoys refused to allow the guns to be brought to the fort, and were making off with them. Then the Oudh cavalry, also natives, were ordered to stop them ; but the cavalry sided with the sepoys. This was a fearful crisis. Shots were fired ; fifteen English officers fell, and confusion reigned supreme. Off in the fort there was a body of Sikh soldiers. These Sikhs had been con- quered in the northwest by England, and some were now em- ployed as soldiers. It was a question what they would do. It was feared they would join the sepoys and the Oudh cavalry. But to the surprise of all, they did no such thing. Their officer, an Englishman named Brasyer, had their affections, and he drew up his stalwart Sikhs, and had them ready tofire. The sepoys were ordered to give up their guns. They wavered a moment. The pause was fatal to them. They began to fear the levelled muskets of the Sikhs. They surrendered their guns, and Alla- habad was saved to the English. Meanwhile the jails had been opened by some sepoys, and out came the convicts, with clanking chains, which the natives could not unlock. These people went from one English house to another, and set fire to them, and caught every English man, woman, or child they could find, and then cut them to pieces and cast them into the- flames. It was pandemonium. But it lasted only a short time. The victory had been won at the fort, and to the small band of English soldiers and Sikhs now came A HALT AT ALLAHABAD. 577 the brave volunteers of Allahabad. Englishmen who were only civilians, but who kept guard at the fort night and day, had learned in a few days how to use arms of every size. The tri- umph of the English at Allahabad constitutes one of the bright- est pages in the history of British heroism in that land. Mr. Howard conducted me to the esplanade of the fort, where I enjoyed a charming view of the country for many miles, and where I could see at my left the confluence of the Jamna and the Ganges. The dark water of the former is soon lost in the light water of the latter. The Ganges, after receiving the Jam- na, is one mile and a half in width. There are many places at the fort where I could walk, and enjoy a different view at each point. The terraces, towers, double walls, parade-ground, and comfortable officers' quarters form a most pleasing picture of a life far different from that which ruled here in the old times, when Akbar reared the fort, and, later, when the Emperor Ja- hangir had his palace here, and dispensed rude justice amid all the splendor of a Mogul court. The Asoka Pillar is one of the most interesting historical monuments in India. It represents a class, now almost gone, of finely polished shafts, of granite or other durable stone, which date back nearly to the beginning of the Christian era. They contained Asoka's edicts, and were set up in various places throughout the country, as convenient means for promulgating laws. But when the land was overrun by new conquerors, the latter made use of the vacant faces of the pillar to record their own triumphs. This pillar in Allahabad is the best preserved, and by far the finest, which I saw in India. Generally, the Asoka pillars are in several fragments, and, though erect, are supported and braced by iron bands. In the present case, after the inscription of Asoka there is another by Chandra Gupta, and still another by the Emperor Jahangir. This last is a rec- ord of the date of the emperor's accession to the Mogul throne. When near the Pillar of Asoka we visited the celebrated Akshai Bar, or Imperishable Fig-Tree. We descended a TeJ^r steps, and found ourselves in an underground passage. After going thirty-five feet in one direction, the chamber makes a turn to the left, and extends thirty feet farther. Here, in the dark- ness of this place — and it is as hot as it is dark — there is the trunk of a fig-tree, which has neither roots nor branches, and 37 578 INDIKA. yet throws out leaves. This is owing to the moisture which prevails in the place, and so long as any sap remains in the log there is an occasional appearance of leaves. The Hindus have a rare gift for turning any phenomenon into religious uses. So they have made a most holy sanctuary of the place where this worthless object is. The hundreds of thousands who come to the Mela every year must, of course, see the Akshai Bar before going home, and bring offerings to Shiv, whose statue is in the middle of the cave. When the log of the fig-tree gets dry, and can produce no more leaves, it is secretly removed, and another immediately substituted for it. s»^ BAITING THE TIGER. orous campaign in Parthia, make us believe that his eye was on India, and nothing nearer, before he said on his last field, " Thou, O Galilean, has conquered, after all !" The Panjab is Alexander's land. He had studied every part of it, and then reached it, at the head of his victorious army. Right where I am now writing his hosts marched by, and hoped to stay, and bequeath these rich fields to a Greek posterity. He found dynasties, old and strong before his own Macedonia had acquired a place on the world's map, and before the first stones of Priam's 42* 662 INDIRA. Troy had been laid. Some of the kings of the region, with true Oriental suppleness, gave him a flattering welcome, and in Taxila, which still bears the same name it did twenty-three centuries ago, when he pitched his silken tent here, the kindly descend- ants of the old Turanian founders gave him a feast which lasted three full days. Alexander found the Aryans in full force in his forward march, ruling proudly and strongly, and having the same customs, and wearing turn-up shoes and loose robes of pre- cisely the same style as the men and women who now move up and down these streets of Lahor, before my window. The Aryans had ruled in this country, on both sides of his pathway, almost as long before Alexander's day as he lived before ours. He found them just as determined to hold their own as the Eng- lish have found their descendants, to their great cost, in these two latest centuries. Long before reaching Lahor I could see the majestic outline of the Kashmir Mountains. They were as white as Mount Blanc's southern shoulder, over which I had climbed, in the far- back student days, from Aosta and Courmajeur. The Kashmir- ian panorama changed every few minutes, as our train moved along the curves. I was thinking of the romance of the region. Here it was that Lalla Rookh was borne tenderly to her new home, from her Delhi palace to the hanging gardens in the Yale of Kashmir the Blest. Here the English had gone up many a time into Afghanistan, to keep open the pathway to India, and shut out forever the Russian. Her diplomats and soldiers had played many a shrewd game, and hundreds of Anglo-Saxon nobles, nursed in English homes, had fallen by rude Afghan hands, and been left to bleach upon the plain. Take Arthur Conolly as an illustration — living, and likely tor- tured down to the convulsions of death, in the filthy court of a Kabul prison. I do not know a more affecting piece of bibliographical ro- mance than that of his prayer-book, which he used in his last days, and whose story I have just come across in this very re- gion. One day a prayer-book was found either by General Skobeleff, of Russia, or by a man who afterwards gave it to him. This was in Afghanistan. The book contained many of Conolly 's notes, all along its margins, in careful writing. Skobeleff took pains to preserve the volume, and presented it to the Lon- A TOUR INTO THE PAN JAB. 663 don Geographical Society. The Society found its associations to be personal rather than general, and handed it back to its Rus- sian owner. He then took care to learn of the kinspeople of Con- oily, and so, one morning, in London, the book was handed to the servant, who answered the door-bell of Conolly's surviving sister. Think of the feelings of that sister, when she opened the precious packet and saw her dead brothers prayer-book ! It had been twenty years since his dying hand had written his notes, and his spirit had gone up from an Afghan gibbet to its crown and joy. All these years his volume had wandered from one far-off bazar and owner to another. We talk often of the mortality of books. Is not their longevity a much more wondrous thing ? BRINGING HOilE THE GAME. CHAPTEE LXXYI. LAHOR— THE PANJAB CAPITAL. No historian has been rash enough to fix a positive date for the foundation of Lahor. Its antiquity goes beyond all the records. One city after another has arisen on the ruins of its predecessor, and out yonder, under the ripe harvests, the old foundations are found in perplexing number. There cannot have been less than four Lahors, that of to-day being a mere parvenu growth, hardly older than four centuries ; but still pre- serving the rich memorials of the rule and splendor of the Mogul conquerors. The first Lahor was probably an old city when Hiouen Thsang, the Chinese pilgrim, visited it, in the seventh century of our era. Hindu tradition, true to its habits, makes its origin divine, and declares that Loh, the elder son of Rama, was its founder. Its former grandeur was famed throughout the East. As one of the splendid capitals in early India, its name was known everywhere. Four centuries ago, Abu'l Fazl declared of it that it was "the resort of all nations." Shiraz and Isfahan were famous in the days of the undisputed sway of the Moguls, and yet a proverb of the day ran in this wise : " If Shiraz and Isfahan were united, they would not make one La- hor." Its fame had reached across both continents, and Milton found it in the old books, and so made wise use of it in his verse. Ptolemy, in his geography (about a.d. 150), mentions a city along the banks of the Ravi, which is identified as Lahor, an identification the more striking because of the recent discovery of Aurakatis, also mentioned by him, about twenty miles from the present Lahor. Lahor, as. we see it to-day, is about the size of Cincinnati. Its wonderful architecture is of Mogul origin, and therefore com- paratively recent. It was a great imperial city, and then guarded well the pathway from Afghanistan down into the valley of the Ganges. It is the Nuremberg of India. The great walls ^J -. 'jSLiE__: I J^Jeiai LABOR— THE PANJAB CAPITAL. 667 still surround it, and bristle with reminders of the great battles which were fought to their bitterest end on the historical plain of the Ravi. The tomb of Anar Kali, " Pomegranate Blossom," is a beauti- ful memorial of the great Akbar's reign. It was erected in memory of the favorite woman of his court, and is remarkable for the magnificence of its sarcophagus. The English seldom change a Hindu ruin to other purposes. But here is an exception. They have actually converted this magnificent tomb into a little church, and banished to a dark closet, frequented by bats, the sarcophagus, " whose exquisitely formed words surpass anything of the kind in India." On the face and sides of the sarcophagus are inscribed ninety -nine names of God. The Shalamak Gakdens. One night the Mogul emperor, Shah Jahan, had a dream of a garden like that of Paradise. He summoned his artists, repeated his dream of rare flowers, rich fruits, marble fountains, and cool pavilions ; and ordered his visionary garden to be made a reality. The result was the Shalamar Gardens, which were laid out in seven divisions, representing the seven degrees of the Paradise of Islam. Of the seven only two remain, and they cover an area of eighty acres. Here are flowers, fruits, cascades, beauti- ful resting-places, terraces, and all the marvels of an Indian gar- den.* A tank is in the centre of the floral paradise. There are one hundred fountains in the first division of the garden, and two hundred rising from the tank itself. In the centre of the tank, or artificial lake, there is an islet, which is approached by a pas- sage way. On entering the portals of the great fort of Lahor, I found myself within an immense court, which is beautified by a splendid palace and a mosque of wonderful proportions. I saw no palace in India where it was so easy to identify each part, and its purpose, as here. In one place is the Takhtgah, or "Throne Place," where Akbar sat. In another is a clump of trees, where once stood the tomb of the holy man who used to warn the great emperor that he was mortal. Elsewhere there is the spot where the emperor heard his Arzbegi read the petitions of his people. * Cf. F. D. Newhouse, Letters in Western Christian Advocate (Cincinnati). 668 INDIRA. Here is a rich marble pavilion on which a whole fortune of nine lacs was spent. But these scenes of splendor are wearying. One wanders through stately halls and lettered corridors, and out on verandas and balconies, until wearied with the splendor of this greatest palace of Labor. English soldiers keep faithful guard over all. They have not the bearing of strangers, but are as deliberate and composed as if they were sauntering along the Thames embankment. The Museum. Some years ago an exhibition was held in Lahor, to which objects were sent from all parts of the country, in order to throw light upon the history, industries, and general life of the entire northwestern part of India. When the exhibition was over, a permanent museum in Lahore sprang out of it, many of the ex- hibits having been retained for that purpose. The result is a precious collection of Indian antiquities. The one in the South Kensington Museum is a mere toy-shop compared to this. While there are some collections in India which are larger, so far as natural history is concerned, there is probably not one which re- veals so fully the India of the elder days, when its Oriental life was not disturbed by the intruding Portuguese or Frenchman or Englishman. Here, for example, is a stone with an inscrip- tion of the time of King Gondophares, two thousand years ago. Then there are pediments of pillars from a building of the an- cient Taxila sculptures from the Usufzai country, where one sees the Greek influence of twenty-two centuries ago — such as the Phrygian cap and Macedonian cloak. There are many coins, gathered hereabout, dating precisely from Alexander's day. Each city in the Northwest- seems to have had its special industry, and in this museum they are all represented. Here are the damascened pottery of Gujerat and Sialkot, the vitreous enamel of Bhawalpur, the copper-engraved work of Kashmir, and the perforated metal work of Delhi. Then we have the gold and silk embroidery of Amritsar, and the coarse cloths of Kabul. An entire department is assigned to agricul- ture and the mechanical implements of the ruder India. The type of plough is here which the Indians were using in the val- ley of the Indus before Philip threatened Athens or Alexander was born. The kind of rope, the awkward rakes and hoes and LAHOR—THE PAN JAB CAPITAL. 669 pruning-knives, such as were in use before Alexander reached India, are here to be seen. Here is the floss-silk embroidery, on long curtains, literally covered with little mirrors, such as were used in the imperial halls of the Mogul palaces, and are still woven in the primitive looms of Amritsar. Here is rough paper, made of bamboo and the bark of trees, just such as merchants wrote their letters on, and sent them by swift couriers up and down the valley of the Euphrates, many a long century ago. Here are monumental tablets, with worn in- scriptions, reared by kings whose very names are forgotten in the rapid march towards the newer and the more practical. Here is a warrior's freak. It is a sword, with open steel handle, richly inlaid with gold and silver. It has a long hilt, and up and down its length run beautiful grooves, into which loose pearls are let, which glided back and forth as the sword was handled. But here in rich and great Labor there is no dearth of emeralds, pearls, and diamonds. They were the playthings of kings and their wives. Special emissaries were sent out on long missions to search the world for the best. Many a life was wasted in the quest, and many a province was lost and won when the stake was one woman and a handful of diamonds. HINDU POTTER, LAHOR. CHAPTEK LXXVIL THE GOLDEN TEMPLE OF AMRITSAR. We were met at the Amritsar station by a Christian native, the Padre Rajib Ali. He is a fine illustration of the power of Christianity to gather grand trophies from any false faith. He was formerly a Sikh, and a firm believer in the teachings of the Sikh Gurus. He came in contact with the Gospel, however, and resolved to accept it. He made public profession of the Chris- tian faith, and was baptized by the Rev. Mr. Knowles. He now edits a Christian paper, which is doing excellent service in prop- agating the gospel among the Sikh people. The padre is tall, grave, serene, and in personal appearance as fine a specimen of the physical man as I have ever seen. We were to see nothing in Amritsar until we had taken tiffin. This must be in the good padre's own house. His wife and daughter were in Calcutta, and we saw only his beautiful niece. Amritsar, with its 134,000 people, and its important silk in- dustry, is the most populous and wealthy city of the Panjab. Its chief interest lies in its religious associations. It is the cen- tre of the Sikh faith, and has been the Jerusalem of the Sikhs from the time of the founding of their bizarre creed, in the year 1574. The Sikhs are a protest against' the Hindu faiths. They start out with the idea that all idolatry is a crime, and for three centuries have stood up as strong foes of all the forms of Indian polytheism. Their Guru, or religious teacher, was Ram Das, and he was permitted by the Mogul emperor Akbar to found a city on this site. Hence, from here, as a sacred centre, the whole faith has grown, and Amritsar has become the shrine and glory of the Sikhs, wherever they are. Special ceremonies are employed to admit into the mysteries of the Sikh religion. Some of the Sikhs do not seem to care whether their children are admitted or not. There is certainly no increase of adherents, and the probability is that the body is THE GOLDEN TEMPLE OF AMRITSAR. 671 declining, and that the faith is cherished chiefly as a magnificent and precious treasure, more valuable as a memory than as a source of future strength. It is associated with the military splendor of the Sikh dominion in the Panjab.* At the outer court we were invited to a seat beneath a tree. A servant of the temple came with slippers in hand for visitors. I had no hesitation in making the change, but was glad enough, after walking an hour in his bright slippers, on cold stone, to get back to shoes. One enters the sacred enclosure through the great gateway. Here, in an upper room, are kept the immense weap- ons which belonged to the Sikh chiefs when they were making warfare against the English for their faith and a home. These weapons are as ponderous as the heavy arms in "Warwick Castle. "What a story could these terrible instruments of death tell if they only had tongues ! One can read in a nation's weapons the story of its life and work. "When the English came, and the Sikhs needed to be conquered too, it was the most violent conflict which India had witnessed since the days of Clive and his French opponents. It was a hand-to-hand encounter. The end was a compromise. Then came an alliance, but, of course, with the English at the head of the government. The Sikhs were left, however, with a meas- ure of local rule, and with all their religious privileges undis- turbed. No wonder these Sikhs have put their death-dealing weapons in the gateway which leads to their sacred shrine. Theirs was the glory of steel. Out of the keen blade and heavy broad-axe they rose to existence and fame. Every page of their history is red with blood. But we are only at the gate of the Temple of Gold. The scene is dazzling in this bright Oriental sun. The tessellated marble floor is cold to our slippered feet. The air is fragrant with many rich perfumes. The artificial and rectangular lake, in the midst of which the temple stands, reflects the images of the gnarled and ancient trees which surround it, while the houses send down their shadows in brotherly and fantastic combina- tions. The gate moves slowly back upon its hinges, and we make our slippered steps over the graceful marble bridge tow- * Temple, "India in 1880,' 1 pp. 117, 120. 672 INDIRA. ards the Golden Temple, which stands upon a platform in the middle of the miniature lake. And here we pause. This lake, according to the Sikh faith, is the ^ool of Immor- tality. He who looks upon it lives. But he who bathes in it enters the Sikh paradise. Wherever a Sikh lives, and whatever sorrow he has passed through, a sweet and holy calm comes over his troubled soul the moment he sees this silver surface, and be- neath it views the shadowy gold of his temple roof. The lake is kept free from all impurities. It extends in all directions five hundred and thirty feet. It is surrounded by a marble pavement, twenty-four feet wide, and tessellated, the ground stone being of white marble, but varied with other marbles of alternate black and brown. All these marbles are brought from the far-off quarries of Jaipur. Along this rich and spotless margin there grow trees, beneath whose shade many a worshipper lies, or sits, as his humor pleases him. It is difficult to tell in some cases whether he sleeps or wakes. His face, in every instance, is a picture of calm joy. If asleep, he knows be- fore he lost himself that he is near his sacred flood. If awake, he thinks of the Sikh heaven, where even the Golden Temple of Amritsar will be nothing compared to its great glory. On the outer margin of this surrounding marble pavement are charmed houses. Not every one may live here. The price of a house on the border of the Pool of Immortality is fabulously high. These houses have a style of their own, an individuality of taste being observed in the architecture of them all. They are kept scru- pulously neat, servants watch the front at all times, lest some- thing lie there which would disturb the sanctity of the environ- ment. They are the homes of the Sikh nobility and chiefs, who come here from all parts to worship and to live. I suppose that, like the Hindus in Benares, it is the dream of their life to die within sight of the glittering roof of the Temple of Gold. We now stand before the sacred shrine of the Sikhs. There are no images, not a single symbol of idolatry. The chief priest is seated on a rug of gold embroidery. He hands us each an orange, which it would not be courtesy to refuse. We ask him if we may see his sacred book — a copy of the Granth. With great courtesy he reaches beneath the low desk before him and draws out a package wrapped about with rich cloths. The sa- cred manuscript is unfolded, and he begins to read. The page 'I ., , " [ Mj ,: } i W\ jp|| --'Wk&- THE GOLDEN TEMPLE OF AMRLT8AB. 675 is beautiful. The volume is kept with most religious care, and after a brief reading from only one page the priest wraps it up again in the cloths and puts it away in its usual place. On another side of the main temple space, only a few feet from the chief priest, are the chanters, who sing the praises of the Sikh faith. Here are two expressions we heard : " The Hindu worships idols, and Therefore he is in error; The Mohammedan worships The prophet, and therefore he Is a false worshipper." Then come many expressions descriptive of the attributes of the one and universal God. This chanting goes on all day. When one class get weary others take their place. Pilgrims come and go all the time. I noticed the rapt attention of some who had newly arrived. Their faces glowed with joy and be- wilderment. Theirs had been a long desire. Now, at last, they see — perhaps for the first and the last time — the Golden Temple, of whose great glories they had heard from infancy. They fall flat upon their faces before they have fairly come within the shadow of the central hall, and lie motionless until reminded there is a nearer view and more to see and hear. The ornamentation of the Golden Temple is exceedingly rich. There is no image of beast or bird. But the figures are taken from the forest and the garden — flowers and vines playing the chief part. Gold is the ruling color. It is laid on heavily. There are other colors, however, but of a deep, rich, and mellow shade, to harmonize with the gold and the sacred associations of the structure. We ascend to the next floor, w 7 here we come to a corridor, which extends completely around the temple. Here we look out upon the beautiful lake, and then at the high gate- way, and the precious little connecting bridge, and the white and trim houses, with their venerable trees and marble pavements in front. It is a sight which has no parallel. All the sides of this Golden Temple are covered w T ith richly painted verses from the sacred Granth. The temple is itself a book. I suppose there is not a word in the sacred volume which is not repeated here, in some part of this sacred structure. Why is this the Golden Temple ? And why, when you once 676 INDIKA. see it, does it remain a perpetual vision in your memory ? First of all, because its upper roof is covered with a heavy plating of the finest gold. The elements have no power over it. There it has been shining on, from century to century, ever since 1581, the blazing sun reflecting its glory in the lake, and throwing its golden light fully on the eye of the pilgrim. The roof itself is broken into several, there being first of all a central one, and then about it a number of others. The upper corridors and balconies have their roofs, the whole forming a BEATEN WOKK IN COPPER FOR THE "GOLDEN TEMPLE," AMRITSAR. harmonious cluster about the one which covers the nave of the temple. There is, therefore, such a combination of golden sur- faces of the varied roofs that the sun's reflection is intense. The result is an effect on the eye which, once seen, is never forgot- ten. The broad walls, and even the sides of the stairways, have the same rich shading which makes the Golden Temple of Am- ritsar one of the most harmonious architectural creations in India or the world. It is not of large size. But one must always take architecture in its combinations. "With the gateway, the bridge, THE GOLDEN TEMPLE OF AMRLTSAB. 677 the lake, the surrounding houses, and the gnarled trees, the whole becomes more than a memory. It is henceforth a part of one's very self. SILVER NECK ORNAMENT, SIND. CHAPTER LXXVIII. THE MOHAMMEDAN COLLEGE AT ALIGARH. The Mohammedan is fixed. He is hard to reach. He makes no promises. The Hindu is pliable, and is ready for change. Knowing this difference in the races, I was quite well prepared for Hindu adaptations of English methods. But I was ill pre- pared for a formal, thorough, and elaborate grafting of English ideas on a Mohammedan stem. Of late years the Hindus have been getting ahead of the Mohammedans. The Hindu youths have surpassed the Mohammedan m all the competitive exami- nations, and are crowding them out. This fact has given rise to the impression now prevailing, that the Mohammedans are declining in wealth and numbers, while the Hindus are advancing. This, as much as anything else, has led Mohammedan thinkers to adopt reformatory methods to elevate their young people, and to adapt Islam to modern conditions.* I had heard of the celebrated ^Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College in Aligarh, and was anxious to see it. By cutting off an hour here and another there, and doing an improper amount of early rising and night riding, I gained a half-day, and spent it here. This institution is an educational phenomenon. It is more — it marks a new epoch in the history of Islam. It is a great edu- cational establishment, which has grown out of the brain of one man, Sayad Ahmad Bahadur, a learned and venerable Moham- medan. Much care was taken by him in paving the way for the institution. In 1870 a committee was formed for the diffu- sion and advancement of learning among Mohammedans of In- dia. They offered three prizes for the best essays on the subject, and the result was to adopt a proposal for a college. Its aim was declared to be the popularization of the study of European * Temple, " India in 1880," p. 113. THE MOHAMMEDAN COLLEGE AT ALIGARH 679 science and literature among the Mohammedans in general and among the higher classes of the Mohammedans in particular, and to form a class. Say ad Ahmad differs essentially from some of his co-religion- ists. He regards Mohammed as only a man, with many infir- mities and no superhuman inspiration. Perhaps, if closely ques- tioned, he would make still further admissions. But when a Mohammedan once concedes that Mohammed was fallible, he brings down the Quran from its lofty place of indisputable truth, and reduces it to a purely human book. He may have nothing to say as to the Quran, but his view of the writer must disturb also the sacred character of his writings. This learned and very highly esteemed man conceived the idea that Mohammedanism, in its present exclusive shape, has no future. It is fated, and deserves to die, if it will not undergo modern renewals. There is enough in it to save it, but the Eng- lish ideas must be taken on board. By this process only can the vessel float. Now, to bring this about, a central and strong educational institution, with a broad and thorough curriculum, must be founded. There must be no scanty giving. Moham- medans, and such only as have caught the breath of the nine- teenth century, must be invited to contribute to its endowment. In addition to giving largely of his own means, Sayad Ahmad went south to the Nizam's dominions, and secured large gifts from the Nizam and his prime -minister, the celebrated Salar Jang. He also took upon himself the great burden of securing means from English gentlemen. He made no secret of his pur- pose. He wanted a great college established for the education of Mohammedan young men the world over. He travelled by night and day. He threw his entire time and wonderful energy into the undertaking. The result is the present large college in Aligarh. Sayad Ahmad wished no honors for himself. But he did desire to see his work a success. I had the pleasure of an introduc- tion to him, in his own rooms, in the main college building-. Here he lives, in the midst of the buildings which his own energy has reared, and in constant sight of the many young men who have come from every quarter of the Mohammedan world to secure an education. He is advanced in age. His face is a pict- ure of benignity and manly vigor at seventy-five. His beard is 680 INDIKA. long and snowy white. In manner he is gentle and courteous. In speech he is deliberate, but not slow. He has been prompted by a desire to elevate his co-religionists of the Mohammedan faith, and, now that the work is well begun, he is spending his last years in handsome rooms in the main building, and holds merely a nominal official position, as honorary secretary and member of the managing committee. The real basis of existence of the college is the Mohammedan disinclination to attend the government institutions. The Hindus have not been opposed to the national schools, and are to be found in all the classes. They had been conquered by the Mo- hammedans, and were as willing to study English and such sciences as the English conquerors of the Mohammedans had brought with them, as to study Arabic or Persian. " The change of rulers made no difference to them, and they took to English as their ancestors had taken to Persian. But the Mussulman, who, notwithstanding the downfall of his race, had still sparks of ancestral pride in his bosom, looked with contempt upon the literature of a foreign race, opposed all reform, and ignorance contributed to encourage him in his opposition. He obstinately declined either to learn the English language or modern sciences, still looked up with veneration to those mysterious volumes which contained the learning of his forefathers, and reconciled himself to his position by a firm belief in predestination. The result was a great political evil. A large number of Hindus had acquired a knowledge of the English language and thus kept pace with the times, and some of them rose to the highest offices under the English government. The Mohammedans, on the contrary, remained stagnant, remembered with pain and sorrow the past power and prestige of their race, and still con- tinued to worship the learning contained in Arabic and Persian literature. The surrounding circumstances grew too powerful for them, and they gradually sank in ignorance, poverty, and degradation." * Here lies the whole secret of the distancing of the Moham- medan in India by the conquered Hindu. It is the old story of the final triumph of the conquered. In 1877 the foundation-stone of the Aligarh College was laid * The Pioneer, Allahabad, Sept. 4, 1875, THE MOHAMMEDAN COLLEGE AT ALLGABH. 681 by Lord Lytton, Governor-General of India. In 1878 all the classes were in full operation. The college was affiliated to the Calcutta University up to the First Arts standard in the same year ; to the B.A. standard in 1881 ; and in Law, in 1883. In addition to buildings, extensive grounds, scientific apparatus, and other general needs, it was supposed that five hundred thousand pounds would be needed to furnish an income for providing for the teaching staff and other current expenses. This sum, I imagine, has been either fully raised, or so nearly that no anxiety is felt for the future of the institution. There are two departments to the college — preparatory and scientific. There are eighty scholarships, tenable for one year, and yet open for re-competition. They range from fifty to one hundred and twenty dollars in value. There are separate studies for the two Mohammedan sects — the Sunnis and the Shiahs. There are also thirty fellowships, which are conferred on the best of the honor men. The annual value of the fellowship is two hundred and forty dollars, and it is tenable for seven years. There are singular adaptations to the native mind, such as the cooking and eating regulations of caste, and the muezzins, or Friday calls to prayer. The Shi ah dons will go to mosque three times a day ; while the Sunni dons will not eat at the feet of an imam, or preacher, who knows the Quran by heart. But these requirements are only for Mohammedan students. There are Hindus and a few Christians in attendance, and for them all the honors and emoluments of the college are as fully open as for the Mohammedans. The management of the college rests on four committees — on instruction in languages and secular learning, on Sunni theology, on Shiah theology, and the managing committee, on which last rests the internal management of the college and boarding-house. On April 1, 1884, there were two hundred and seventy-two stu- dents in attendance. Of these, two hundred and one were Mo- hammedans, seventy Hindus, and one native Christian. Nearly all of the students are boarders. The examinations are semi- annual. Five students have already gone to England, and are in the two great universities, having finished the full course at Aligarh. There are twenty-four persons in the board of instruction. The principal, Mr. Theodore Beck, is an Oxonian. He was very 682 INDIKA. courteous, and accompanied me over the grounds, and into the students' rooms and the boarding-halls, and explained all the details of the institution. The salaries range from ten rupees, or four dollars, to six hundred and fifty per month. Principal Beck receives the latter amount, besides ample apartments. The income for 1883, from all sources, was nearly twenty thousand dollars. The annual cost of a student in the college classes, in- cluding board, is about two hundred and fifty dollars per year. For all other classes the cost is far below this figure. There is a small sum which each boarder must pay for medical treatment, ranging from two dollars and a half to nine dollars, according to the grade of class. The students come from every Mohammedan quarter. The valley of the Ganges furnishes the largest proportion, for here are the descendants of the Mohammedan populations which were built up by the Mogul emperors, on their invasion of the coun- try. Then many students come from Southern India, the Nizam's dominions. But the territory lying between India and Europe is not without its representative. One student gives his resi- dence as Constantinople. I saw a number of the students, and had the opportunity of conversing with them. An air of cheer- fulness pervades the college. Chance led me to make inquiries of one, who was crossing the compound, as to where the prin- cipal's house was. He was very attentive, conducted me to the principal, and on the way explained, from a student's point of view, many things which I could not hope to learn from any officer. After leaving me at the door of the principal, that gen- tleman told me that my guide was the son of a Mohammedan prince, and a most worthy and industrious student. There was nothing in his manner or costume to indicate his princely be- longings. But that is precisely what might be expected. The search for knowledge is a republican process, in whatever land one sees it. I was greatly pleased with one feature of the Aligarh College. There is no concealment of the financial or other matters relating to its condition. The " Keport of the Progress of Education in the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh" is the finest specimen of a financial statement, combined with minute data concerning the courses of study, which I have seen any- where. It would be an excellent model for some of our Ameri- THE MOHAMMEDAN COLLEGE AT ALLGABH. 683 can treasurers and other officers of colleges and universities, who imagine that the public have nothing to do with the details of financial management. Let the public know where money for a school comes from, and whither it goes, and they will intrust it with more. One of the curses of educational management in the United States has been its financial concealments. While the general tendency of such schools as the Aligarh College is elevating in a moral sense, it is far .removed from any. Christian element. The Literary Club at Aligarh was founded by Say ad Ahmad. It was established originally by him at Ghazipur in 1864, and in 1866 was removed to its present habitat. Its theology consists mainly of negations, and is a curi- ous medley : miracles are denied ; the deluge never took place ; all pilgrimages, except to London, Paris, or New York, are useless ; bleeding animals should not be used for food, strangled animals being preferred, as the blood can then be eaten ; polygamy is proper ; resurrection is natural ; there is no Mohammedan or any other heaven or hell, or a personal devil.* The principal, from my conversation with him, led me to infer that Biblical teaching has no place whatever. There is but one Christian in the whole body of students. It is a question whether this is the result or the cause of the absence of the Bible. But the Mohammedans and Hindus can, alike, see that the college itself is a concession to Christian ideas. It was organized on purpose to introduce modern Europe into the heart of old and dead Asia. The newest ideas from the Tyndall and Huxley laboratory will, of course, come to the Aligarh College, but there will be many who will ask, " What but Christianity gave England its quickened thought ?" . It is a question of only a few years when all the great schools, of every name, in India, will have a Christian basis. The press- ure from the missionary institutions is already very strong, and is increasing constantly. The time is sure to come when from the India to which England has borne her gospel and constitu- tion will come strong arguments for the Christian faith, to coun- teract some of the false teachings which are ever reappearing in Christian lands. * For an excellent description of Sayad Ahmad, and the general influence of his system, see article in Methodist Review, January, 1891, by the Kev. Henry Mansell, D.D. CHAPTEE LXXIX. THE RUINS OF FATHPUR SIKRI. The great Akbar pitched his tent for the night at the base of a lofty rock, which overlooked a stretch of country little less than fifty miles in diameter. This was in the year 1569, when he was returning from his triumph, over the revolting Uzbeg nobles. His empress was with him. The night became a day, and many. On the crest of the lofty hill there lived fakir Se- lim, who called himself also " Chisti," in honor of his spiritual father, a native of the Persian village of Chist. Akbar took such pleasure in the fakir's society that he allowed himself to be persuaded to make the hill his home, and rear, upon it, and all about it, palaces and mosques, and all the splendid structures which entered into the dream and state of an Oriental sovereign. Here a son was born to him, who took his place in history as the illustrious Jahangir. It is not surprising that Akbar and his empress loved this beautiful hill, and began to plan for its per- manent occupation. The holy man had revealed to them the divine purpose, that it should become an imperial residence. When the Mogul ruler and his empress began to breathe the de- lightful air, and witness the beautiful landscape on every side, we may well imagine that they took pleasure in every plan for carrying out their ideal of a favorite and enduring home for themselves and their descendants. The result of Akbar's plans is the Fathpur Sikri of history. To-day this city is as dead as Babylon. Yet it is safe to say that not in India, nor in any land, is there a more complete pict- ure of royal splendor three centuries ago than one can now see in this magnificent city of death and the dead. The ride to Fathpur Sikri from Agra is over a good carriage- road of twenty-two miles. My companions for the day were Mrs. P. T. Wilson, and a young friend of hers, a lady recently ar- rived from England. On the way out we passed the gardens of THE RUINS OF FATHPUB SIKRI. 685 the Begum Samru, or, rather, of her husband, the German Wal- ter Bernhardt, who died in 1778. This Samru was a desperate woman. She possessed the vices and desperate energy of the Oriental princess, and, to atone for her crimes, gave large sums of money for the founding of schools and a church. Near the garden is a cemetery, where the wife of the Emperor Jahangir was buried. Her tomb is a mere heap of ruins. The gardens were the scene of a terrible engagement between the English and the mutineers in July, 1857. The English were worsted in the fight, but the mutineers gained no permanent advantage, CHIEF MOSQUE OP FATHPUR SIKRI. (From Verestchagin.) for, with their usual want of leadership, they failed to follow up their victory. All along the road, on either side, there .are beautiful trees and a finely cultivated countr} 7 . The ground begins to ascend, and in the distance the great wall of Fathpur Sikri winds about the base of the palace hill, and climbs gently up its side. This wall was built by Akbar around three sides of his beautiful city of palaces. The fourth side seems to have been devoted in part to an immense body of water, where there was an abundance of 686 INDIRA. fish, the catching of which was always a great amusement of the ladies and other members of the Mogul household. But there is no water now, and one sees only the general outline of the fishing-tank. The city wall, however, still stands. No city, not even Constantinople itself, has preserved a better wall than this dead capital presents to-day. Even the coping, with its per- pendicular slits, where guns could rest, is entire for many a long reach. The city, as such, is nowhere to be seen. It is gone, and its site is occupied by fields and orchards and gardens. But the great imperial buildings which covered the hill still stand in silent splendor. One can see just where this city of palaces and of mosques once stood. It was all within the wall, one gate of which is three miles from the opposite gate. The city, then, was about three miles in diameter, with its outlying suburbs of lowly houses for the rude country folk. Heber recalls the re- semblance of the wall to that of Oxford.* But he adds that, when looking at the magnificent quadrangle of the present Fathpur Sikri, measuring five hundred feet square, in size, ma- jestic proportions, and in beauty of architecture, there is nothing whatever in Oxford comparable to it. "With wonderful energy the Emperor Akbar, in the intervals of his wars, built up house after house, until many an acre was covered with palaces and mosques, and every other building that could add to the splendor of his name and power. His empress, his daughter, his two learned friends, must each have a palace and a court. There must be stables for his elephants and camels. When his favorites died, there must be mausolea of untold magnificence reared to their memory. Even to his favorite elephant there must be reared a memorial pillar, which stands to this day complete. For fifty years this imperial city was the centre of Mogul power. Its name was the synonym of all that was splendid throughout the Oriental world. From its palace walls there rode messengers with imperial edicts which caused men to tremble from the vale of Kashmir down to the Yindhya Moun- tains and from Arabia to Burma. But the life of this wonder- ful imperial city was short. Whether it was the want of water, or the fakir's revelation that the emperor must not build a fort, * " Narrative of Journey through Upper Provinces of India," Lond. ed., 1844, vol. ii. p. 14. THE RUINS OF FATHPUR SIERI. 687 or that some unaccountable caprice seized Akbar's mind, we do not know. At any rate, within fifty years from the time when Akbar pitched his tent at the base of the hill, and began the city, it was a hopeless ruin, and even Akbar himself left it, and made Agra his capital. Its mission had been fulfilled. Death had settled in it. During the reign of Jahangir, the successor of Akbar, the city was declared by Finch, the traveller who visited it, as even thus early, " desolate, lying like a waste desert, and very dangerous to pass through in the night." On reaching Fathpur Sikri from the Agra side, you enter through a magnificent gateway. The pavement is still smooth, from the wheels of three centuries ago. But there are no swordsmen to guard the gateway, and call out for a permit to enter the imperial portal. Only a few quiet vultures sit with folded wings and dull eyes, and look down upon the stranger. More splendid scenes their ancestors could look upon, in the cen- turies gone by, as couriers rode rapidly back and forth, and great pageants moved across the flint-paved courts below, when the multitudes went wild with joy. We drove across the first court, turned somewhat to the left, and halted in the space before the Daftar.Khana, the record-office of Akbar, and now the bungalow for the entertainment of travellers. To make even a hurried circuit of the buildings requires several hours. All the edifices are kept in excellent condition. The government has a good force of servants here, and they are under careful supervision. Wherever there is danger of a falling pillar, or any damage from time, or any other cause, the defect is immediately attended to. The courts and pave- ments are neatly swept. All the grounds are neat and clean. The structures are of red stone. The geologist would probably call it sandstone, but some of it is of such fine quality that it ad- mits of a polish almost as finished as that of syenite. While the prevailing color is red, there is a variety of rich shades. The Indian climate is withering to the human body, but is kindly to the stone buildings. Nowhere have I ever seen more beautiful creations, which have escaped the ravages of both climate and warfare, than these immense buildings at Fathpur Sikri. When the emperor ceased to inhabit them, there was no further ground for a city. Its work was done. And in all the wars since then there was nothing to attract an army. It is not likely that a 688 INDIKA. single shot of stone or iron has been hurled against wall or mosque or palace in Fathpur Sikri for three hundred years. We took the buildings which lay nearest, and went through one after another, with not much regard to my guide-book or the venerable priest of the place who serves as cicerone. Akbar's khwab-gah, or sleeping-apartment, is reached by a stairway. It is a small room, only fifteen feet square, and is entered by a door on each of the four sides. Over the doors there are still legible the Persian inscriptions, beneath which the great king went to reach his sleeping-place. Great corridors run along each side of the building. But it is evident that they were only designed as places of promenade for the emperor and whoever might be per- mitted to approach his residence. Here one sees the ideal of an Oriental despot's residence. There must be, not one roof, be- neath which the whole court should reside, but many houses, separated by courts and colonnades and gardens and groves and fountains. There must be plenty of space. There should be no intrusion when one wished to be alone. Each empress and fa- vorite councillor had a separate establishment. Then, even for the officers of the emperor, there must needs be a separate palace. If he slept in one place he must dispense justice in another, and hold council in still another, and worshij) in a fourth, and bathe in a fifth, and meet his friends socially in a sixth. There must, by all means, be no monotony. ]STear one of the palaces there is a large court, two hundred and ten feet long by one hundred and twenty feet broad, which is called the Pachesi, from its resemblance to a pachesi-board, the stones being so placed in colors that the Indian game of that name could be played there. One of the most elaborately carved palaces is that of Akbar's Turkish wife — for he was cosmopoli- tan in his selections — having a Hindu, a Turkish, and, it is be- lieved by some, also a Christian wife. The pillars surrounding the palaces of the Turkish wife are both double and single, the corner columns of the outer being double, while the inner are single. There is no space which is not carved with rare and beautiful figures. The designs are of fruits and flowers, and therein are seen grapes, pomegranates, vines of all kinds, indeed, every fruit and flower known to the tropical world. These are carved with great delicacy, in relief, upon the solid stone. There is variety of design everywhere. Few pillars are alike. THE RUINS OF FATHPUE SIKRI. 689 The. sculptor gave a touch to one which he did not to another. The roof of the palace consists entirely of stone slabs, which pro- ject downwards, and extend far out beyond the walls. They thus form a screen from the sun. On looking up, on the under side of these projecting slabs which form the eaves of the palace, one finds that every inch is delicately carved. The figures are as finely cut, and in almost as good preservation, as the day when Akbar's artists took down their mallets and chisels from this finished £em. HOUSE OP BABUL, IN FATHPUR SIKRI. (From "Veres tchagiii.) On entering the palace the scene almost defies one's vision. Each wall is a study in itself. It is carved from floor to ceiling, while the ceiling itself is of solid stone slabs, and all their sur- face is covered by rich carvings in bold and beautiful relief. The whole palace, which really consists of but a single room, is a per- fect gem of sculpture. But now it is only a desert place. Its most frequent visitor is the Christian missionary. 44 CHAPTER LXXX. THE PALACES OF GWALIOR. Gwalior, as an illustration of the ancient Jain worship and architecture, is the most interesting city in existence. It lies at a distance from all the regular railway lines. The most conve- nient point for a visit is Agra, from which a slow and poorly managed branch road, of sixty miles in length, goes almost to the base of the great acropolis. On that lofty height the pal- aces and temples of Gwalior stand in all the eloquence of sculpt- ured stone. To the student of Indian history this place has a world of meaning. Out of the level plain there rises abruptly > this bold hill of about two miles long and an average width of a quarter of a mile. On one side the red sandstone cliffs are almost perpendicular. The surface of the great hill has been scarped in the long-gone ages, to make it the shapely pedestal for palace, temple, and troops. No large city ever shone here in the early sunlight. Only the royal, priestly, and military classes might live, in indescribable splendor, on this great height. The city of Gwalior lay below, just under the shadow of the beetling cliffs. There is still a city down there, while the mas- ters live above, and look off on the charming landscape. But this time it is not the old Mogul masters. The English are here, and rule all. The smooth throats of their guns, which look over the long parapets of this wonderful acropolis, are of such iron eloquence that no disturbance ever occurs among the native thou- sands who sleep beneath them. The mutiny of 1856 ran wild in Gwalior. It had a long and tenacious life. Perhaps it was the incomparable character of the fortress ; or, possibly, the peculiarly hostile spirit of the na- tive population, that accounts for the malignity of the opposition to English rule. But this much is certain, that long after Agra had surrendered, and even after the Delhi gate had been assaulted and battered to pieces, and the brave English troops rested not THE PALACES OF GWALIOB. 693 until they reached the Mogul's palace, and feasted their eyes once more on the Peacock Throne, Gwalior still defied English arms, and even threatened to turn the tide in favor of the Sepoys. The little Presbyterian church in the plain below, about three miles from the base of the Gwalior height, contains tablets in memory of the butchered British soldiers. Then, at various points, there are three other cemeteries, all of which abound in little mounds, with memorial tablets, where the dust of slaugh- tered English soldiers rests. For the deliberate planning of the destruction of British rule, and for prompt and desperate meas- ures to make the plan successful, no place in India surpassed Gwalior. It was a military centre for English troops, and yet so adroit was the scheme, and so well disguised was every rebel- lious measure, that the mutiny here was as sudden as a clap of thunder in a clear sky. I left my luggage in the dak bungalow in Morar, and drove across the plain to the city of Gwalior. The natives are a curious folk. Some of them are adherents of the old Jain faith, which is now declining, like all the other lesser false religions of India. It has many points of resem- blance to Hinduism. It has its saints, looks forward to simple repose as the bliss of the future, and has such respect for animal life that it will not harm even the vilest reptile. Some of the Jain people, living in Rajputana, Gujerat, and Cutch, are among- the most active and successful business men of India.* Dirt prevails on every hand in the town below. The people, seeing I was a stranger, and from the West, were not very civil, and were little disposed to answer questions. I secured a guide, however, and began to climb the hill. No warder stands at the old gateway. The massive entrance is now as free as the very air. But one can see that the place had been carefully guarded in the old times. "Whatever might be the force, it does not seem possible that these great gates could ever have been battered down. Yet the hour did come when even they yielded to Brit- ish pressure. One gate, however, did not satisfy the sense of Mogul security. Should one be forced open, there must be still another beyond, with its bronzed keepers, to keep back the in- trusive force. But should this yield, what then ? Farther along * Temple, " India in 1880," p. 119. 4dt* 694 INDIRA. there was still another, and another, to the number of six in all — to guard the approach to the august king and fabulous treasure and awful temple. I had never seen any parallel in India to this wonderful posi- tion. In addition to what nature had done, the lords of this great rock had shaved it and grooved it and perforated it to such an extent that it seemed to be a very part of the firm earth. It is India's Ehrenbreitstein. In the elder days the ascent was by steps, cut in stone, with horizontal resting-spaces between its' flights. But in later times these steps have been removed, so that the ascent is now by an inclined plane. The constant climbing is no easy task, especially when one remembers that the sun shines all the year round on this great boulder, and so heats it that the reflected heat from the rock adds terribly to the di- rect rays of the sun. I was amazed at one feature of this ascent. There are altars, and in one case a temple, hewn out of the solid stone. In the temple are altars and images carved with great care, and grown old and worn by the long roll and grinding of the wasting ages. The entrance to some of the altars is easy enough, only the deflec- tion of a few steps from the main road being needed to reach their curious portals. But less easy is the way to others. I turned from the general road and followed little grooves in the side of the rocky hill, and crossed shaky and labyrinthine foot- bridges, and by and by reached the curious excavations where people worshipped in ages long since gone. Each one of these cave-altars has its sacred associations, its special deity to guard it, and its long and marvellous history. Flowers lie upon the pathway and on the sanctuary, which show how strong the hold of the past is on the pagan people of the present. The temple bears the name of the Shrine of the Four-Armed, having the date Samvat 933, which is equivalent to a.d. 876. There are colossal carvings along the side of the rock, some of single figures and others of groups, but all of hardly a later date than a thou- sand years ago. All are curious remnants of the Jain faith. When the climb to the top of the hill is nearly finished, the broad road by which one has come brings him directly up to the portal of an immense palace. You enter the curiously carved vestibule, and find yourself within the precincts of what must have been one of the most mag.nifioent palaces of ancient India. This, FACADE OF THE PALACE OF FAL, GWALIOR. THE PALACES OF GWALIOR. 697 however, is only one of six palaces. Their majestic and richly ornamented walls once adorned a good part of the whole plain of the acropolis. This lofty hill, with its foundations of firm rock, was too commanding and secure for one palace. Succes- sive dynasties saw in it the best place in all their realm for a res- idence, and here they lived and reared their families, and down this worn way they marched to foreign wars. The palaces are now in all stages of decrepitude and ruin. Here is the Man Palace, which hangs on the verge of the preci- pice. It is also called the Chit Mandir, or Painted Palace, for all along its facade there once ran rich tiles, which the artists of the Mogul era knew how to make to perfection. This is a pal- ace of grandeur and horrors. It is two stories below ground and two above. I was as curious to see the subterranean chambers as the upper. My guide was well acquainted with the place, and I was satisfied that he was giving me the full benefit of his knowledge. After completing the circuit of the first story below ground, I descended a gloomy, spiral stairway to the floor below. Every chamber had been cut out of the solid rock. All the foundations being of native stone, no hall or chamber could be made except by the pick. As to explosives, so far back was the time when these excavations were made that such a method of loosening native rock was not thought of. Indeed, gunpowder had, probably, not been invented at the time. In one of these lower chambers there is a central pillar of the native stone left by the diggers, which is exquis- itely carved, and from its capital beautiful archways shoot out to all the angles of the room. It has the appearance of a Gothic chapel, and yet its builders probably knew no more of the Gothic arch and its luxuriant floral wreath than of the Coliseum. This was probably a special dungeon for peculiarly dangerous state prisoners. It is now the home of bats and vermin. ]STo groan from these deep places could ever reach an ear above the ground. I was glad to get out of the awful place into India's dazzling sunlight. ]STow this one palace must have been a thing of marvellous beauty in its day. Its outer walls are so nearly complete that one can see precisely what they once were. Along the edge of the precipice the front wall runs three hundred feet, while the breadth of the palace is one hundred and sixty feet. But this 698 INDIRA. is no bare wall. It was of wild and varied beauty. From its windows the view upon the plain below was exceedingly be- witching. Little balconies of stone, finely carved and cut through into figures of delicate proportion, hung from the walls like jaunty tufts of richest lace. Here the members of the royal families, century after century, used to sit and catch the even- ing breath which always swept over this charming hill. The palace-wall has five round towers, with open domes for cupolas, and a battlement of open stone lattice-work running the whole length, and binding the towers into perfect union by the marble fringe. The rooms of this palace are as beautiful and rich as the outer adornments, and are arranged about two courts. It was a habit of the Gwalior kings, whenever they built another palace, either in honor of a new wife or a new victory, or as a pleasant investment of money taken from a decapitated prince or two, to connect the new palace with the old by long galleries. The space on the Gwalior acropolis was none too large, and galleries supplied in a measure the dearth of road- ways. There were many hundreds of people connected with each court, and we have only the palaces, the mere shells, to suggest the splendor in which they revelled. The Palace of Yikram lies between two other palaces, the Karan and the Man, and is connected with them by a narrow gallery of twelve hundred and ten feet in length. Over the great hall there rises a dome, whose support is furnished by eight springing ribs, four rising from pillars, and four from the angles of the building. The Shah Jahan palace also overhangs the cliff. Its proportions were vast enough to satisfy even a Mogul emperor, for it was over three hundred feet long, and nearly two hundred feet wide. These palaces represent all the stages in the glory and decline of wonderful Gwalior. When the cit} r at the base of the scarred and ornamental cliff arose, no historian can tell. But in the days when the palaces were in all their fresh and early beauty, the scene must have been bewildering. Here sat, in the cool stone jalousies, little groups of gay members of the court. Old warriors sauntered along the galleries, and told of battles won and of the capture of crowns whose gold frames were invisible beneath the banks of diamonds. All was quiet. . The emperor must not be disturbed. But when he had slept out and made THE PALACES OF GWALIOB. 699 his appearance, there was a hush and awe which pervaded every place in all these splendid dwellings. The more distant drill- ground was every day the scene of magnificent display, and here the emperor would come out and take a hasty glance. This was his bit of machinery, by which he gained his gold and con- quered provinces and chopped off royal heads. The morning sun blazed on these palaces, and the glare of the richly glazed tiles, whose figures revealed patterns long before grown old in Persia, was dazzling to every eye. The muezzin called to wor- ship from the lofty minaret near by, and for a time all was silent in court, on parade ground, and in the palace halls. Noth- ing disturbed the stillness of the hour but the constant splashing of the marble fountains. The air was filled with the perfume of rare flowers, which grew in plenty on open swards and hung in frames from many a courtier's window. This went on for long centuries, even before the Mohammedan broke in upon the royal silence here. Hindu kings had revelled in splendor on the acropolis of Gwalior. The place had grown from a wild waste, the lair of the tiger, the lion, and the boa, into a scene of splendor which vied even with the Fort and Taj of Agra, and the palaces of Delhi and Lahor. Three Asiatic authorities try to account for the origin of this weird place. The bard Kharg Eai, living in Shah Jahan's reign, says that the city at the base of the hill was founded thirty cen- turies before the Christian era. But the more likely time is that of Fazl Ali, adopted by Hiraman, Tieff enthaler, Wilford, and Cunningham, who place the date at b.c 275. The story of the foundation is that Suraj Sen, a Kachhwaha chief, who was a leper, and was out hunting, came upon this hill, and was very thirsty. A hermit, Gwalipa, gave him some water, which cured his leprosy. In return, the mighty hunter built here a fort and began his reign. The hermit gave him a new name, Suhan Pal, and told him that his dynasty should be on the throne as long as his descendants should be called Pal. This was the beginning of a line of eighty-three kings. But the eighty-fourth called himself Tej Kara, and so lost the kingdom. There are historical data of three dynasties— the Kachhwaha, the Parihara, and the Tomar. These were the Hindu rulers, but when the Moham- medan came and swept everything before him, Gwalior became a part of his possessions. It surrendered to the sultan Mahmud, 700 1NDIKA. a.d. 1023.* He converted the palaces into state prisons. But in time the old splendor revived, and Mogul palaces repeated in even greater magnificence the imperial homes of the Hindus in the zenith of their glory. The Marhattas afterwards captured Gwalior, and defied all invaders. * Meadows Taylor, "Student's History of India," p. 83. A PILGRIM CARRYING RELIGIOUS RELICS. CHAPTER LXXXI. THE TEMPLES OF GWALIOR. The wonderful temples on the Gwalior acropolis fully equal the palaces as memorials of a distant past. "Worship comes be- fore thrones. The temples of Gwalior point to a much earlier date than the oldest palaces. The latter are grouped within a comparatively narrow space, and when one has passed beyond them, still following the main road which runs along the crest of the acropolis, he comes within the reach of the old, old tem- ples. Everything reminds one of the gods. Here are eleven temples, which, like the palaces, are in all stages of decay. The Teli Mandir is a fair illustration of the way in which the English keep up -these priceless ruins. This temple is in the centre of the plateau, and is surrounded by a charming garden. I have nowhere seen a more beautiful suggestion of the Clugny Museum. Here, about the central structure, one does not find the venerable trees and the broken and picturesque surface which he sees in that calm and beautiful place in the heart of the Latin Quarter of Paris. But he has, in the Indian coun- terpart, great compensations. There are walks running out in various directions from the Teli Mandir, forming a piece of rich tracery, on which the eyes can feast for many an hour. The very vases at the angles, out of which grow plants of rare fra- grance and beauty, are themselves fragments of temple urns, or the richly carved capitals of palace or fane, hollowed out to re- ceive the burden of luxuriant flowers. Here is a Hindu goddess, converted into a standard for a rose to climb on. Then, all along the walks and out on the green sward, there are frag- ments of stone from the elder days, containing perfect inscrip- tions. Some of these tell-tale words recall times a thousand years ago, when the now ruling Englishmen was just emerging out of Saxon savagery. There are neat plates attached to every antique object, giving its name, origin, and the finder. Nearly 702 INBIKA. everything lying about this temple, in this picturesque way, has been gathered hereabouts, either on the plateau or around the base of the hill on which palace and temple once stood in all their wild splendor. It is worth a sail to India to see this pict- ure of fragments from ruins so arranged as to dazzle or enchant by their strange combinations. But the greatest of all the points of superiority of this Indian Clugny above the French lies°in the central edifice, the temple itself. It was never of vast dimensions. The taste of the age in which it was reared — say a.d. 800 — was not towards great spaces, but massive walls, minute sculpture, and prominent height. The Teli Mandir is only sixty feet square, with a rich projecting portico of eleven feet. But the walls, which incline inward as they ascend, rise to a height of eighty feet, and then meet at a ridge of thirty feet in length. The thickness of the walls, the sweep of the great arches, and the exact and endless sculpture, are simply overwhelming. You stand on the thresh- old and look out upon the surrounding garden, with its wealth of perfume and beauty, and ancient Hindu statuary of gods and men. Chains, hanging in graceful festoons from posts made of ancient pillars, guard all. The grounds, with their profusion of ruins and flowers, are a fit frame for such a picture as you are now to see. The doorway is thirty-five feet high, and the grave, calm god Garuda looks down in stone from the centre. The object of this temple, once dedicated to the worship of Vishnu, but since the fifteenth cen- tury sacred to Siva, seems to have been the embodiment of mirth. There, in relief upon the walls, are dancing and singing gods. The swaying palms in stone, the cheerful scroll-work, the thou- sand tricks of the long-dead sculptor, were all designed to add to the glory of this remarkable structure. No wood is to be seen now, and probably there never was a piece permitted to form a part of the permanent belongings of the temple. Only stone was worthy of the god. It must be such stone, too, as had a face hard enough to bear the images from nature, and the ruling creed which it was "supposed would last as long as India itself. Of all the temples, however, I was most impressed by the Sas- bahu and Sahasra-bahu, or the mother-in-law and daughter-in- law. They stand together near the edge of the cliff. They are THE TEMPLES OF GWALIOR. 705 sometimes called the " Temples of a Thousand Arms." One is larger than the other, and an inscription inside one of the porti- coes places the date at a.d. 1093. But who knows the date? This temple is probably a new one, on the site of an older, built when Time was young. The larger temple is one hundred feet long and sixty-three feet broad. The top is now gone. The present height is only seventy feet, but when in a perfect state it must have been one hundred. One gets lost in wonder as he stands in front of this strange building. The temples of South India appalled me by their great spaces, their glittering pagodas, their wandering elephants, their crowd of worshippers, and the wealth of the shrines. But there was no grandeur in the archi- tecture. The Gwalior temples are of a different order. The Mohammedan conquerors may have done some mutilation ; but they have been forbearing, after all. One can still see, from the majestic ruin, what the temple was in the days of its grandeur. There is no petty architecture, no poor material, no common device. On either side of the grand portal there are inscriptions dat- ing from the primitive Hindu period. Even the doorsteps have been cut into rich tracery, a fit entrance into the central hall of the sacred building. On either side of the steps leading up to the great platform on which the temple stands there are nine- teen figures, all in stone, asportce to the fane. The temple is in two stories. The main lower hall has four immense pillars, on which the upper story and the pyramid which constitutes the roof are supported. Now, when we remember that here, as in the Teli Mandir, there is not a particle of wood, that even the beams and girders and floors are of hewn stone, the size of these four central figures must be enormous. Yet the sculptor and the architect must combine their wisdom to soften down the massiveness. There must be no clumsy effect. Hence these pillars, which are rectangular — for there are no curves here — are divided into perpendicular lines of carvings. On each one of these are twenty rows of these rich figures, running all the way from floor to capital. I counted, on the four sides of one pillar alone, sixty independent figures. Around the walls are bands of stone figures, the whole forming a luxuriance of carving such as one could hardly find a parallel to, even in India. One wonders if, somewhere in this majestic temple, there is 45 706 INDIRA. not, by way of variety to the splendor, some calm and vacant space on pillar or wall. But no. There must be nothing lost. Each fragment of stone must tell its tale of faith and art. The spaces above are fairly alive with stone figures and rich carving. The ceiling of the lower story is concave, and is the interior of a vast dome. Now this dome is formed by belts of solid stone, the higher and narrower overlapping the lower and larger ones, until the highest point is reached. Each of these belts — and I counted twenty of them — is elaborately carved with figures, and done in the early period, when the Hindu imagination was wild- est and most wayward, and the artist's hand ran out without re- straint into the most ornate fields. Here, in the heart of the temple, is the adytum, and on the carved doorway which admits to it I counted no less than ninety-four figures. In number of designs, in minuteness of carving, and in delicacy of finish, they are a fitting culmination to this whole paradise of rare work in stone. The mouldings, on every side, combine both beauty and strength. They are rich and bold, and at the same time as delicate as a piece of Genoese silver filigree. All ideas of clumsiness, which came to my mind when I saw these temples first in the distance, had now disappeared. "What with the surfaces being filled with fig- ures, and the massive pillars containing many, so cut as to have a heightening effect, the result must have produced in every one who lingered in this abode of Hindu art the impression that he was in the midst of as graceful and symmetrical a structure as human feet could walk over. We now come to the third striking; feature of this wonderful place. There are two main roads which lead to the top of the acropolis. Suppose there was a road ascending from the city side of Athens directly to the top of the acropolis, about mid- way its length. The ascent would be difficult, and so the road would have to be grooved along the native wall. This road, with the one already on the opposite, or country side, and run- ning up where the Odeon is, would form a complete picture of the two roads which ascend to the plateau of the acropolis of Gwalior. Supposing we were to ascend the Athenian acropolis on the city side, and all along the road, cut deeply in the walls, were cave temples, where men worshipped when Hesiod had not yet touched his harp. This is a picture of the temple and altars THE TEMPLES OF OWALIOB. 707 along the road up which I had come to the top of the Gwalior acropolis. But what of the road on the other side ? Now came another revelation — colossal figures, cut out of the solid, native rock, and left here. Some were mutilated by the Mogul em- peror Babar, in the year 1527. But, for the most part, these figures still remain in their original completeness. I descended this road a long distance, and at every group of the immense figures I saw something new and entirely different from the rest. These sculptures, cut out of the native rock, have no parallel even in India, either in number, finish, or size. There are five groups of figures. There are niches cut out of the perpendicular face of the rock, directly below the sharp edge of the plateau, and the figures are left in the middle of the niches. The native stone was cut away, and thus the figure came to its shape. I could easily get down from the road, and climb up to the feet of the figure, and go behind it. In some cases there was a natural stone bridge left in front of the figure, about even with the chest. This, no doubt, furnished a convenient scaffolding for the sculp- tor, and now it is the visitor's only pathway, by which he can get within touch of the upper parts of the great figure, and, by comparison, appreciate the enormous size of all these carvings. There are twenty-one different recesses or cavities, in all of which the colossal figures still stand, either singly or in groups. I judge that there can hardly be less than seventy-five figures, of various sizes and s3^mbolism. They range all the way from seven feet to thirty-seven in height. The largest figures are in a sitting position. The inscriptions and accompanying emblems fix ex- actly not only the date of their origin, but their significance. They were all made in the latter half of the fifteenth century, and are representations of the great pontiffs of the Jain faith. With the figure of each pontiff there is a shell, a lotus, a bull, a wheel, a horse, a goat, an antelope, a lion, a crescent, or some similar object, which was the sacred sign of the pontiff. These symbols are cut with the figures, so that one can tell whom the figures represent — whether Adinath, Nemnath, Supadma, Chan- dra Prabha, Mahavira, Kantanath, or some other one of the Jain immortals. The whole face of this side of the great acropolis is indented with these spaces, which were laboriously executed as fit niches where the leaders of the Jain faith might be kept in perpet- ual memory. The execution was rude and ponderous, but one must 708 INDIRA. remember that for three centuries the storm of Mohammedan hate and the shocks of war have been beating about them. The wonder is, that even a single feature is left on one of these stone faces, and that the little bridges, whereon the sculptor stood, have not been knocked to pieces, to make complete the destruction of all memorials of the conquered race. Here, on this historical spot, where the English have dislodged the Mohammedan, just as the Mohammedan had dislodged the Hindu, and as the Hindu had dislodged the Aryan races, the latest of all this long line of conquerors are the only protectors of the great surviving memorials of all the former races. Every race but the Anglo-Saxon has been destructive. One has only to see the Aztec destruction by the Spaniards in Mexico, and the Portuguese in India, on the one hand, and the preservation by the English of the Hindu remains in India, to mark the differ- ence between the Saxon and the Latin. Had Clive never fought at Plassey, and Hastings never planned in Calcutta or Benares, there would be much less treasure for the antiquarian to-day. Throughout India the English government has paid great atten- tion to the care of the architectural treasures of all the provinces. Excavations have been made, old walls have been followed, tum- bling ruins have been supplied with braces and supports, and an air of brightness and comfort has been imparted to every part of the great structures. Conquered India owes to England the pres- ervation of her own best ruins. Often the English officers have had antiquarian tastes, and have not only carried out the orders of the government, but have given their work all the wisdom and inspiration which come from sympathy with the purpose. This has been manifestly the case with the Gwalior temples. It has been no slavish obedience to orders which has cleansed the buildings, and keeps them neat, and has surrounded them with gardens as rich as a piece of Teheran tapestry, but a cheer- ful seeking of the best ways to keep the treasures of the past, and let them have all the benefit of the sunlight of to-day. I lingered long beside the parapet of the wall which surrounds the acropolis of Gwalior. After wandering up one ascending road and down the other, and among the labyrinths, and out along the galleries of the palaces, and then loitering in the grand temples, I was glad to drop down in a little niche in the wall, and look off upon the enchanting valley with its lengthening THE TEMPLES OF GWALIOB. 709 evening shadows. It was near sunset, and the valley and the distant hills were all ablaze with the evening glow. When there is no rising haze from the valley, one can see the immense tem- ple of Sahamiya, thirty miles in the distance. Far away, too, *were the red hills of Dholpur, while near by, just at my feet, lay the busy Gwalior of to-day. The air was deliciously cool, and made one quite forget the heat and weariness of the day. My driver had been unwilling to come up through the old gateways and make the climb to the plateau, and was waiting at the foot of the hill. I had now to walk the entire length of the acrop- olis, and descend to the first gate, where I had left him. But the sun by this time was powerless, and the walking was no in- convenience. I dropped awhile into each convenient seat along the wall, and enjoyed the evening scene upon the valley below. Each little curve in the wall brought its changes, while the vary- ing glows of the sunset gave a wonderful coloring to the land- scape. I found, at last, m} T patien, driver. His horses, having had a long rest, now scampered swiftly down the historic hill, and over the streets of the modern town, and then out upon the country road. I reached Morar in due time, and found that in my absence other guests had arrived at the little dak bungalow. But my room, having been secured already, was at my service. I learned that a strong effort had been made to spirit it out of my possession, but the presence of a little baggage in it had probably availed as proof visible of its occupation by an earlier visitor. KING BIRD OF-PARADISE. CHAPTEE LXXXII. JAIPUR— A RAJPUT CAPITAL. On my way from the Northwest down to Bombay I had the opportunity of seeing traces of the old Rajputana civilization. The Rajput people resisted the Moguls with terrible earnestness, but in time were compelled to surrender. Jaipur, the modern Rajput capital, could only be enjoyed by giving it a full day. I was lodged in the dak bungalow, about a mile from the station, and had excellent accommodations. My first object was a drive into the city, and then a general survey of its exterior. For a regularity and breadth of streets, and for a modern and Occidental business air, I had seen noth- ing in India similar to this place. It seems to have taken its type from Europe, and yet one does not require long to see that, though the city is thrifty, and laid out after European models, the people who did it are thorough Orientals. The life is Hindu, though the home is Western. The books tell us that Jaipur was founded by the celebrated Maharajah Siwai Jai Singh II., in the year 1728. The modern date accounts well for the modern air. The truth is, the old Rajput life struck out upon a new line, and what was left of its wild and vicious nature, after the English had well overcome it, came from another place, dropped down here, built up Jaipur, and made it the capital of the Rajputana of these latest days. The Rajput wildness is everywhere apparent. Here, in the gardens of the native prince, is a vast tank, where lazy croco-' diles glide up to the surface and bask in the sun. The caged tigers are ferocious even for India. One great beast seemed so anxious to get a thrust at me that, in his frenzy, he caught the bars of his cage in his awful jaws, as if to tear them to pieces. The palace of the prince, or Maharajah, is unusually lofty, the structure evidently being modelled after English ideas. But the carrying out betrays the Indian workman. Rich halls, beau- JAIPUR— A RAJPUT CAPITAL. 713 tiful balconies, and such rugs as only Hindu fingers can weave abound everywhere. The audience-hall exceeds all other apart- ments in palatial splendor. It is broad, and constructed through- out of white marble. The same native taste is visible here as everywhere in India— love of beasts and all forms of animal life. But flowers are equally prominent. The Maharajah of Jaipur, like native princes everywhere in India, has a garden of such rare beauty as to bewilder any eye. It is half a mile long, and is adorned with fountains, graceful palms of almost every kind, and a wealth of plants at once rare, beautiful, and of finest perfumes. I took special pleasure in visiting a collection of industrial objects, illustrative of the special wares of Jaipur and other parts of Kajputana. But I was all the while intent on the ancient Amber — the renowned capital of this clan of the Eajput people. For this journey of five miles up a defile in the mountains the Eev. Dr. Humphrey had engaged two elephants early in the morning, and by noon we were informed that they were ready. We could go in carriages to Chandrabagh. Once there, we found our ele- phants in waiting for us. The howdah, adjusted to the back of my monster, was too loose for very comfortable locomotion. But I was informed that it could not turn over, and with that im- portant communication I had to be satisfied. The elephant is a docile walker. Your driver, while the beast lies flattened out and his riders are climbing up his sides, has perfect control of him. When the people are seated, and the driver would mount to his place above the neck, he simply puts his foot on the ear of the elephant, and with the next bound is in his position. Then the great piece of jelly begins to sway back and forth, and nothing but a firm grasp saves you from being thrown violently forward or backward, according to whether the monster is rising on his fore or hind legs. Then begins your regular motion. You hold on still, for you are not sure of your place. But after the waddling of, say, half a mile, and you get accustomed to the motion of your animal, and be- come interested in the strange sights which meet you in the world beneath, at every lunge of the elephant you get bolder, let go your grasp, and are ready to eat your lunch, or throw down pice to the moving crowd of native children, or read your guide-books. By the time I reached the palace gate I found 45— * 714 INDIRA. myself holding on to nothing, and riding with as little concern as if the animal were only a Cairene donkey. The road is lined with Hindu chapels, temples, and lowly dwellings. Everywhere there is a rich interlacing of shrubbery and trees. Two ancient forts, now in ruins, stand out to the left. They were probably the outer defences of the palace. But this is a mountain passage, and not wide. Hence resistance was easy enough. The Manta tank, with its lazy alligators, is on the left-hand side of the road. By and by we reached the old city of Amber. We were out of modern times, and suddenly thrust into the remote Kajputana past. Many a time the storms of war have swept this place and the mountain - sides. The stately palace crowns the top of the mountain. It consists of a group of buildings — all palaces. The city below might easily be taken, but so strong were the outer walls and great gates of this wonderful group of royal houses that the capture of them was a most difficult task. These buildings have run their race, and, now that the English influence is felt in Rajputana, the na- tive princes have ceased their fighting, and the ruler of Jaipur lives in quiet down in the new city. The old Amber palace owes its historical interest to the feuds and bloodshed of the eight centuries that lie beneath the leaning walls and waste of bygone architecture which rest on the lofty hill. The Rajputs are a peculiar people. If we except the savage hill-tribes, they are the nearest existing approach to the Aryan conquerors of the original tribes in the far-back ages. Seven centuries ago, when the Mohammedans of Persia pressed down upon India, and were, at last, successful in uprooting the old Hindu life, they found the Rajputs in possession of the whole of Northwestern India. The word Rajputana is not the name by which the natives call this broad territory. Their name is Rajasthan, or the Country of the Chiefs. These people ruled over a country stretching from the valley of the Indus eastward along the Ganges, and southward far down towards Central In- dia, and westward well in sight of the Indian Ocean. But they were not one people in rule. It was a confederacy of clans, similar to the Germans in the time of Caesar, and the Scots in the time of Bruce. The process was simple. The chief of a sept, or clan, reached his throne by killing others weaker than DETAILS OF ORNAMENTATION OP TEMPLE OP KHANDARIA, KHWAJRAO, SOUTH OP PANNA, IN BUNDELKHAND. JAIPUR— A RAJPUT CAPITAL. 71 Y himself. He was on guard all the time, lest a heavier axe might fell him. In time he acquired a reverence strong enough to have his son succeed him, provided there was gold enough to bribe every fighter into his interest. But what should be done if there should be three or four sons ? Only one could rule. Yet the rest must have a place. One would go in one direction, and another elsewhere, and begin the killing process. By and by there would be success, but often failure. In time, the great territory was overspread with these septs, where blood-letting was the order of the day. There was time to build splendid palaces and populous cities. But it was the interest of all to keep the septs rather small. Each knew that if one became too strong and large it would lead to the absorption of the rest. All the great cities of the Gangetic val- ley, and those far to the northwest, almost to the Afghan line of our day, were built up by the Rajputs, and occupied by one clan or another, as their capitals and commercial centres. But when the Mohammedans came with hot blood and furious speed, they swept the clans, one after another, before them, and drove them down to the centre of India, where they came to a halt, and made a second line of defence, because of the granite fast- nesses which they seized upon and where they built new capi- tals. Lyall says : " The first Mussulman invasions found Rajput dynasties ruling in all the chief cities of the North, and over the rich Gangetic plains eastward to the confines of modern Bengal — at Lahor, Delhi, Kanauj, and Ayodha. Out of these great cit- ies and fertile lands the Rajput chiefs were driven forth south- ward and westward into the central regions of India, where a more difficult country gave them a second line of defence against the foreigners. And this line the}^ have held not unsuccessfully up to the present." * But we have reached the bruised and battered gates of the Amber palace. We are now walking over the stones w T here kings and court- iers and soldiers had walked for many a century. The chief pal- ace was the home of the Minas clan. But this clan was in deadly feud with the Kachhwaha clan. Fortune turned in favor of the latter, and they drove out the Minas, and took their country * " Asiatic Studies," pp. 182, 183. 718 INDIRA. and the palace. This was in the year 1037, and for nearly seven centuries, or until 1728, the Kachhwaha Rajputs feasted here, and swept down the gorge and out into the plain, in bright steel armor, and brought back rich spoils from many a battle-field. But when at last the greatest of all the conquerors came, the Englishman, the Kachhwaha Rajput saw that his day of resist- ance was over. He now played the diplomat, and said, " Here is an enemy it is of no use to resist. We will be his friend." This logic was eas}^, cost no blood, and saved the Rajput throne. These Rajput princes are still in power — or the sem- blance of it — to the number of eighteen. There were twenty in all, but the English absorbed Ajmir and Mar war. The re- maining eighteen are separate and independent states, but under English protection, and with a watchful English Res- ident near by, in every case.* The Maharajah still comes up to the old palace on special occasions. In the great court across which we walked he sits in state at the Dashara feast. A regiment of soldiers stand around the court, and one hun- dred buffaloes and five hun- dred goats are slaughtered on the spot, as a sacrifice to Shila Devi. A flight of steps leads up to a public audience - hall, where there is a broad marble platform, whereon the august and scarred kings sat in ancient times. There are pillars at each end of the platform, and be- yond them small rooms, with lattices, behind which the ladies might sit and watch the court pageants. The roof is supported by two squares of pillars, numbering thirty in all. Some of the pillars are of the red stone from the mountains near by, but the rest are of white marble. We passed from one splendid hall to another, then up wind- ing stairways into other chambers, all decorated richly, in the A RAJPUT HINDU, FROM MARWAR. * Pope, " Text-Book of Indian History," p. 28. JAIPUR— A RAJPUT CAPITAL. 719 highest art known to the times. The Eajput, like all the Hin- dus, despised uniformity. Even his stairways must not be like each other. Little balconies must part company somewhere, if only in the unlikeness of a frail panel of filagree in marble. The usual Oriental fondness for minute mirrors is seen,- when little disks, no larger than a four-anna piece, are grouped into arches and backgrounds, and throw reflections in myriads on every eye. The Rajput had an eye to the picturesque. He was careful to have his windows so adjusted that the finest prospect could be enjoyed. From some of the balconies and windows in these palaces the prospect is wondrously beautiful. One can look down the gorge through which we had come, and see Jaipur spread out at its foot, and then the great plain sweeping far off into the distance, until it meets the horizon. All was peaceful enough now, but there had been times when anxious eyes looked out from these same windows for swift messengers, to bring news from the far-off battle-fields. The view of the mountain-peaks, in another direction, brought out what I could not hope to see from the back of my elephant- gray old towers here and there, on the hill-tops, which date from the feudal times of Rajputana. Each has its own story, but the most of them are lost to the memory of man. By descending the stairwa} r , and crossing the court, we came to the white marble walls of the Jai Mandir. The panels are profusely ornamented, some with mosaics and others with flowers in relief. The opposite palace is the Sukh Nawas, or Hall of Pleasure. Here is some of the trickery which was common in the elder days to take away the monotony of palace life. In a small and dark room, away from the more splendid halls, there is a painting of a goose and a space, made to represent a fire- place. It is not a fire-place, however, but only a channel for an artificial stream of water, which was made to flow at proper times. The doors are of sandal- wood, with inlaid figures in ivory. " The whole is a charming retreat in sultry weather," says East- wick. " The stream runs into an octagonal basin with fountains in the middle of the garden. The walls of this room and of the two vestibules are adorned with reliefs representing vases and urns for sprinkling rose-water, of various colors." * * " Handbook of Punjab," p. 150. 720 INDIRA. I went from one building to another, and everywhere there were memorials of former grandeur. The very baths, of finest marble, were still entire and of great splendor. Here, as the centuries went by, these palaces had echoed with the wail of woe and the shout of joy. All phases of human life had been enacted here. But now the halls are deserted, except by the curious visitor from across the sea, or the rarer visit of a Rajput prince. The luxuriant creepers climb about the walls, and thrust their fingers into every crevice, and far up to the gay balconies. Nature, the young and the enduring, dallies with the marble creations of man the pilgrim. We descended the last stone stairway, and found our elephants in waiting. Soon they dropped on their knees, and we climbed to our places on their backs, and were borne down the hill tow- ards our carriages. We were compelled to hurry, for our dinner was waiting for us at the dak bungalow. Even that had to be a hasty meal, for we must catch the evening train southward. We had no sooner reached our inn than we were beset by a crowd of vendors of garnets and other stones, both polished and in the rough. The mountains about Jaipur are very rich in such precious minerals. The articles consisted of cat's-eyes and other attractive stones, some of them solitaires and others arranged in strings, and as pins and rings. I saw two beautiful necklaces of light-colored garnets, which attracted my attention. They would just suit two little necks I knew of in Rome. The vendors saw that I was fascinated, threw their glittering wares into the carriage, now in rapid motion, and ran up for their money. Of course, I had to buy. CHAPTER LXXXIIL A DAY IN AJMIR. The Hindu city of Ajmir abounds in most interesting his- torical associations. Like Jaipur, it was once the capital of a Rajput clan, but has now lost its independence. ]No native Ma- harajah holds the semblance of a court. The origin of Ajmir belongs to the gray past. If one wishes to see a city which was already ancient when Mohammed was born, and where the Ar- yans had built and lived long before the Hindus had taken on their modern organization, let him come to Ajmir and drive through one of the five gateways which pierce the stone wall, and meander through its narrow streets, and see the quaint homes of the packed thousands. The city lies in. a plain. On a hill, rising abruptly from the plain, stands the celebrated fort Taragarh. This hill dominates the far outlying region. The temptation to build a fort on it was too strong to be resisted, and so firmly were its walls plant- ed, and so steadily did all the defences grow with the centuries, that the history of this single fort is almost an epitome of the complete story of the great confederation of Rajputana states. Whenever the invaders of India gained a new foothold, their ambition centred in this castellated height. Those who could capture and retain it might well expect to control the whole of Central India. When the Afghans, under their king, Shahab- ud-din, entered India, at the end of the twelfth century, they marched straight on towards Ajmir and captured the great fort. But it was recovered after a short time by the Rajputs. The Moguls captured it again, and held it firmly; and in the seventeenth century it took its place with Agra, Delhi, and La- hor, as an imperial residence. But the Rajputs, although con- quered, were not obliterated, and in the great collapse of the Mogul empire they took back their hill and its fort, which from time immemorial had been identified with the fortunes of their 46 722 INDIRA. fathers. But the Marhattas, the fierce people who were preying on the Mogul empire, could not bear to see this stony fortress in Rajput hands. Hence they made a bold strike for it, and won it. But the fortress, with the city of Ajmir, was ceded to the English by the conquered Marhatta chief Sindhia, on June 25, 1818. 'Now, from the lofty crest of the great fort the English flag floats. When Ajmir became an imperial residence of the Moguls, its power, already great, extended still more widely. The Rajputs are celebrated as the fiercest warriors of all India. Their deeds of heroism have gone into all Hindu literature and have floated into all the channels of Indian thought. For victory over ter- rible odds, and for ready death when the impossible could not be won, their fame is not surpassed by the prowess of Hermann of Germany or Harald the Fair- haired of Norway. Ajmir, when it fell at last into Mogul hands, received the special favor of the new chiefs. They seemed to regard it as their strongest point for defence on the southern side. The English caught knowledge of it, and to this far-off place James I. sent Sir Thomas Roe as embassador to the Mogul emperor, and to his account we are indebted for the many beautiful glimpses of the undisturbed Indian life of two centuries and a half ago. The Rajputs were no sooner conquered, and Ajmir captured, than the work of transformation began. The Mohammedan now busied himself to brush aside the Hindu life and especially the faith, and to establish here, on his southward march, all the splendor of mosque and service which he had left behind him in Persia first, and then in Labor, Delhi, and Agra. All that was needed in Ajmir was a good pretext for a magnificent mosque. This was furnished in the life and death of Khwaja Mayud-ud- din Sanjar Chisti. He was of saintly character, and died in a little chapel in the year 1235. Here on this spot must the great Ajmir mosque be reared. Temples there were already in great number, such as were built in the early days, when forced labor was the usage and the crime. But they were Hindu buildings, and could well be subsidized to add splendor and beauty to the mosque. The legend is, however, that the mosque was built miraculously, in two days and a half. Hence its name, Arhai din Ka Jhompra, or " Hut of Two Days and a Half." When a modern miracle is concerned, the question of materials is not im- THE PALACE OF THE SETHS, AJMIR. A DAY W AJMIB. 725 portant. The main hall of the mosque contains three hundred and forty -four pillars; and as they are nearly all of Hindu architecture, and have been introduced here from use else- BTTLLOCK FEEDING IN THE STREET. where, it is safe to accept Fergusson's opinion, that these pillars represent the spoils of not less than twenty or thirty Hindu temples. 726 INDIRA. In entering a mosque I have nowhere been met with so bitter and offensive a spirit as here. So repellent was the manner of my guide, and so threatening withal, that I not only feared that I would not be permitted to see the interior of the celebrated building, but that 1 might be treated with violence. Perhaps there were no officers near by, to watch the native insolence. "Whatever the cause, it gave me a fair opportunity to see what sort of a spirit the Mohammedan can manifest towards an Anglo- Saxon when he has the power. These precincts are peculiarly sacred, and I suppose that the memories of former Mogul splen- dor here are not forgotten by the half-robed worshippers in the Hut of Two Days and a Half. After putting on flannel slippers I ascended a flight of steps, and then passed through the " Heat Expanding,'' a lofty gateway of about one hundred feet high. This admits to a court, where, on the saint's anniversary day, the multitude are feasted. There are two great caldrons, which keep their place the year round. One of these holds 6400 lbs. of rice and 2400 lbs. of oil. To this are added raisins enough to give a flavor to the whole. The other caldron is filled with 3200 lbs. of rice, 1600 lbs. of sugar, and 480 lbs. of butter, with a proper proportion of raisins and lemons. On the day when the public feast is given, the entire court is filled with a multitude of people. The caldrons, how- ever, furnish a supply for all. The mosque is of less interest than the rich screen. This singular object is not only the glory of the court, but a gem of great renown throughout .the Mohammedan world. It consists of seven arches, the central one rising to a height of nearly sixty feet, and lateral ones of less dimensions. They form, together, a picture of wondrous beauty. The screen is of stone. There is a combination of Kufic and Tughra inscriptions, with architect- ural decorations, in such delicate and skilful ways that the scene is bewildering. The architect, who is supposed to be Altamsh, the builder of the great mosque in Delhi, has thrown such light and beauty into this picture in stone that it is a marvel of Mos- lem grandeur and Hindu wealth of ornamentation. Fergusson says : "As examples of surface decorations the two mosques of Altamsh, at Delhi and Ajmir, are probably unrivalled. Noth- ing in Cairo or in Persia is so exquisite in detail, and nothing in Spain or Syria can approach them for beauty of surface decora- A DAY IN AJMIB. 727 tion. Besides this they are unique. Nowhere else could it be possible to find Mohammedan largeness of conception combined with Hindu delicacy of ornamentation, carried out to the same extent and in the same manner." * ' I entered the great mosque by the majestic central arch. Here a most inspiring scene is presented to the eye. Pillars of the finest workmanship, and of all the Hindu orders, stand up to the right and left, and in front, and support a ceiling of recessed compartments, which add vastly to the grand effect. Cloisters stand back to the sides of the mosque. The ornamentation is of the finest kind known to the most glowing days of Hindu art. The work is as delicate as a cameo. No slip of the hammer or chisel can be found. It is all so deftly wrought by unerring hands, and with such overwhelming power, that one cannot help thanking the triumphant Moguls for preserving, though for a mosque, the forest of rich pillars which had been doing service in Hindu temples, probably, for a couple of centuries before the conquerors feasted on their beauty, and their strong will brought the beautiful sculptures into the new service. The variety of the designs in the figures on the pillars, but more especially in the recessed ceiling, is amazing. Nothing was allowed to be repeated. It must all be beautiful, but it must be a beauty from which di- versity dared not be absent. The spaces are enormous. The en- tire exterior dimensions are two hundred and fifty-nine feet by fifty-seven, while every art is employed to make the worshipper feel that he is in a much larger building than this. To ornament these great spaces, and give a rich decoration to the many pil- lars, was a triumph of the patience of genius for which even India, which surprises at every step, has few parallels. A loitering along the shore of the Pushka Lake, famous alike in Brahman, Rajput, and Mogul annals, and an evening service, with an interesting congregation, completed my day at Ajmir. The Rev. Mr. Hard, who was my companion during my stay in Ajmir, accompanied me to the railway station. The train ar- rived at a late hour in the night, and I was glad to find an empty compartment for my ride towards Ahmadabad. * "Hist. Architecture," p. 513. CHAPTER LXXXIY. AHMAD AB AD. I reached Ahmadabad early in the morning, and had ample opportunity to examine the city and its ancient buildings in the suburbs. About the latter half of the sixteenth century, Ahmadabad was one of the largest cities in Western India. In the splendor of its architecture and the wealth of its citizens, it was the Hindu Florence. From 1573 to 1600, it was " the handsomest town in Hindustan, perhaps in the world." Sir Thomas Eoe declared it " a goodly city as large as London." When the Mohammedan conquerors broke through the Indian gates, and reached this su- perb city, it is probable that they found a wealth of Hindu art, a finish and minuteness of decoration, and a breadth of architect- ural plan which had not met their gaze before. But nothing daunted, the Moguls began to convert this Hindu city into a Mohammedan metropolis. They reared mosques with a lavish use of gold, and with a boldness of design which it was hoped would far outshine the Hindu temples. In some instances, it seems, when the temple served for a good foun- dation, they reared their mosques and poised their graceful min- arets on the very site of the former places of worship, and made use of the rich patterns in wood and stone to complete the deco- rations in honor of Mohammed's faith. But in other cases they chose new places, and began on foundations quite their own. As a result, Ahmadabad is now a mixed city. The new and the old lie in closest brotherhood. The English rule has broad- ened some of the streets, and given a thrift and cleanliness which had not existed. But the two civilizations, Hindu and Moham- medan, are to be seen to-day in strange combinations. The waste of war has been slighter here than in most places which I have visited. The patient Hindu carver did his work so well that his Mohammedan conqueror was glad to spare it, and vex KANI SIPRI MOSQUE, AHMADABAD. AHMADABAD. f31 it into service for his mosque and private house. One beautiful house, therefore, is the creation of one race, while its neighbor may be that of another. I drove first into the suburbs, and halted at the tomb of Shah Alam. This man, who died in 1495, was the son of a Moham- medan saint, who arrived at great fame as the spiritual guide of Mohammed Begada. When he died no pains were spared to make his tomb a fit memorial of him. Even to this day it is an exquisite piece of sepulchral architecture. The tomb of Shah Alam is only one— his family lie about him, in a house which might well be called a palace of the dead. You stand upon a floor of alternate tiles of white and black marble, and look up to a dome whose under surface is radiant with gold and precious stones. There are, about one tomb, three double-sliding brass doors, each with three panels of close work, which are of such delicate workmanship that one might well imagine them made in some fabulous smithy, where the forgers had a delicacy of final touch not known to men. The frame in which the doors are set is of white marble, and this, with other marble supports, is inlaid with pearl. Such of the marble as serves for screens is also inlaid with pearl, and pierced with instruments so fine that the spaces left appear to be a piece of frail and delicate lace instead of stone. The tombs are divid- ed from each other by finely wrought screens, where the Hindu ornamentation seems to have been preferred to the Moslem. The tomb is really too small a thing for the typical Moham- medan to spend his time upon. He is a child of the desert, and must have great spaces about him. He is no lace-weaver. In threading a needle and making fine stitches, and forming close meshes with silk as fine as cobwebs, the Hindu is master. But the Mohammedan is a great architect. His sculpture has spread from the Ganges to the Pillars of Hercules, and has thrust some of its most notable qualities into both the Gothic and the Classic. He rears on a large scale. His majestic domes and towering minarets and bold arches prove him the man of great plans. The mosques of Ahmadabacl are of splendid proportions and exquisite finish. The Hani Sipri, which was built in 1431, is a piece of rich and imposing architecture. The two minarets, about fifty feet high, have zones of fine Hindu work, reaching from the pedestal to the topmost gallery. They stand out alone, as 732 INDIRA. warders to mosque and tomb. The stone lattice which encloses the tomb is composed of many patterns, each beautiful, and exe- cuted in the finest style. There is nothing in the elaborate wood- carvings of old Liibeck which exceeds the rich designs, wrought in stone, which one finds here. The most splendid mosque, however, is .the Jama Masjid. It was built soon after the Mohammedan conquest, and was de- signed to eclipse all other buildings in Ahmadabad. There is a corridor which has thirty-six pillars on each side. The facade to the mosque has a great central arch, and five smaller ones on each side, or eleven in all. The roof rises in one large central cupola, with fourteen cupolas grouped about it. The minarets were once large and imposing, but at least half of each has been thrown down by an earthquake. A forest of pillars, two hundred and sixty-four in all, rises at regular intervals, and supports the roof of graceful domes. Near the mosque, and within the spa- cious sacred enclosure, is the mausoleum of King Ahmad Shah. The beautiful portico, of eighteen pillars, is a fit introduction to this tomb of the founder of the mosque. Two other sarcophagi are near it. All of them are of finest "white marble, with re- liefs of Indian flora. Magnificent as all these sacred edifices are, the finest piece of work to be found in Ahmadabad is Sicli S'aid's mosque. One side of it forms part of the wall which includes the jail buildings of the city. The jail itself was not built for the purpose which it now serves. Once it was a palace, occupied by nobles from Delhi. Then it became an arsenal, and, last of all, the provincial jail. The mosque of Sidi S'aid was converted into an office, but the windows could not be allowed to remain open. They were, therefore, walled up. To this fact these five windows owe their preservation. They are of stone, and for minute and delicate work they are without an equal even in India. Fergusson says : " It would be difficult to excel the skill with which the vegeta- ble forms are conventionalized just to the extent required for the purpose. The equal spacing also of the subject by the three ordinary trees and four palms takes it out of the cate- gory of direct imitation, and renders it sufficiently structu- ral for its situation ; but perhaps the greatest skill is shown in the even manner in which the pattern is spread over the whole surface. There are some exquisite specimens of tracery - ' *■ ^j . , " f ' ,,r '^2SS" Jss Sfe^: f j - -...■-^--J "I v'< ''"" DETAIL OF RANI SIPRI MOSQUE, AHMAD ABAD. AHMADABAD. 735 in precious marbles at Agra and Delhi, but none quite equal to this." * I looked at these windows with amazement. Here is a great central tree of stone, with branches running out in greater and lesser curves, all graceful and some interlacing, until every part of the arch is filled with branch and leaf. Then, behind and of equal height, is a magnificent palm, at whose topmost frond there rests a piece resembling the front of a diadem. All this PERFORATED WINDOW, COPIED IN TEAK FROM THE WINDOW IN YELLOW SAND- STONE IN THE SIDI S'AID MOSQUE, AHMADABAD. is in stone. But the sunlight and the monsoons of the centuries have not injured it. Surely no chisel ever made rude stone re- late a more beautiful tale in stone than this. But everywhere in Ahmadabad one sees the minute splendor of the former times. Here, for example, is a private house where a balcony still stands which tells of the grand days. Some no- bleman lived here then, made rich because he had done much " History of Architecture," p. 533. Y36 INBIEA. slaying while on the conquering path from the Northwest. It is a massive bracket, stuck against the wall, and swelling out into beautiful framework and wall and pillars, and a fretted roof which hangs down and over the entire balcony, and terminates in a piece of as fine work in stone and wood as ever left the dark rooms of the weavers of Brussels lace. Sometimes a shop is entirely modern, excepting a finely carved door or window, which recites its idyl of the grand days when the Mogul had not yet heard of the barbarian from the little island in the North Sea. "Wherever one goes, it is the same — temple, mosque, and private dwelling, all telling the same story of the old splendor. There are single doors in Ahmadabad, where naked children play in filth, and where the battle of all the inmates is for bread, which would dazzle and bewilder the keenest searcher for the beautiful and rich in manual art. CARVING ON THE BUDDHIST TOWER, SARNATH. BALCONY IN AHMADABAD. CHAPTEB LXXXV. BASSEIN— A DEAD PORTUGUESE CITY. History. The story of the Portuguese in India is a touching bit of wild religious romance. It is now an old affair, its very memo- ries being almost blotted out by the large later drama of the Saxon conquests and the recent firm and wise rule. The Portu- guese went to India for wealth. The idea of general conquest was never fully in their mind. But no sooner had they gained a footing along the western coast, at Goa, Chaul, and Bassein, than the missionary idea even superseded the passion for gold. Francis Xavier determined to win for the Jesuits in this land what had been lost by the Beformation in the heart of Europe. The scope of his plans was broad, while his energy hesitated no more in the presence of the pagan millions of India than if they had been a few scores of Mexican Aztecs. When he gained per- mission from the pope to establish missions on the Indian coast, he meant to supply to the rest of his Church enough square roods to make full amends for those which Luther had torn from it in Central Europe. What was India in those days ? An unknown land. Its boundless jungles had not yet been disturbed by the gun and dog of the European hunter. There was native splendor beyond all conception of the Occidental world. The tribes could destroy each other, and the great nations of Europe knew nothing about it. The Mohammedan, after many centuries of desperate effort, had at last crossed the Indus, and swept down its valley and that of the Ganges, and filed over the table-land to the south of them, and reached the narrowing of the peninsula, and laved in the equatorial surf at Cape Comorim He built up the great Mogul empire, which was now beginning to show signs of decay. The Portuguese trader came during this stage of decadence. His 740 INDIRA. thought was for gold, and to take it back to Portugal and live behind his gilded jalousie in splendid idleness in his far-off Lisbon home. With him came the Jesuit missionary. Brazil is a strong American proof of how the two men combined for a complete conquest. Nay, there was sometimes added a third— the knight. Put these three together, and you have the whole secret of the Brazilian con quest. The same applies to the Spaniard in Mexico. The sailor, the soldier, and the priest, by a strong triple alliance, broke up the old life of the Aztec and the Inca, and built up that Spanish politico-ecclesiastical system which has only come to dissolution in our day. In the Indian case there were only two Portuguese characters, the sailor and the priest. The courtly knight— except Albuquerque and a few others — stayed away, except as governor and aide, to administer law in the name of the king. The romance was not wild enough to attract him. Goa was the great centre of this new Portuguese life in India. It lies about midway between the harbor of Bombay and Cape Comorin, and in the old days was a natural outlet for the pro- ductions of that broad and rich country which constitutes the Mysore. During the present century the railroad system of India has left Goa quite in the rear. It is a city of great ruins. It is only a memory. Just now, however, there are indications that the fine harbor will be utilized as a point of departure for a new railway for a new piercing of the Mysore. But if Goa rises as a commercial city once more, it will be at the expense of the great Portuguese memorials. The ruined cathedrals and monasteries must soon disappear. No one can now conceive the former importance of Goa as a great Jesuit capital. It was a Euro- pean fashion for long years to make rich gifts, from every part of the Roman Catholic world, to the institutions of Goa. Prince and peasant in Europe were induced to send thither their offer- ings, in the belief that nowhere was there a more promising field for the conversion of millions. One after another there arose in and about this vicinity buildings which would have adorned the broadest streets in Lisbon. Schools arose like mushrooms. Native children were gathered in from the outlying country, crucifixes hung about their necks, and they were taught the whole ceremonial of the mother Church. Students to a great number were in quick training for the priesthood. Xavier went BA88EIN—A DEAD PORTUGUESE CITY. 741 up the coast to Bassein, then down to the Cape, and up the coast of the Bay of Bengal, and, not satisfied with his Indian achieve- ments, went to China and Japan, and gathered in communicants by the same methods which he had adopted in Western India. A single sermon and a clash of water made the Hindu a Chris- tian — in name. The first collapse of Goa as a missionary centre came with the conquest of the Portuguese by natives. But there was still a hope that with the now rising French power in India there THE CITADEL GATE. might be a Eoman Catholic restoration, and a new field for Jes- uit operations. Yet France, while Romanist, nevertheless does not put her political machinery at the mercy of her priesthood. She lets her priests take care of the ecclesiastical life. Goa, in the case of final French occupation, might continue its work of propaganclism, but the Church would have to look after the work and foot all the bills. But the final collapse came when the battle of Plassey was fought, and Clive gave India to Eng- land. This sealed the fate of Goa. Its harbor now shelters 742 INDIKA. only an occasional ship. The streets are grass-grown. The once majestic churches are now piles of hopeless ruins. Bassein was to Northern India what Goa was to the south- ern region. Its field was even more promising, for the territory which it commanded was broader, and embraced the two great- est valleys of all Asia. Xavier had his keen eye upon it, and three times visited it, and kept up a correspondence with the ecclesiastical leaders of the place. He came in the wake of the founder of Bassein as a centre of Portuguese authority in India — Nuno da Cunha, who ruled here from 1529 to 1538, and whose praises were sung by Camoens : " Then the fierce Sampaio shall be succeeded by Cunha, who the helm long time shall wisely guide; The lofty towers of Chale [ChauTJ he shall raise on high, "While famous Dio shall tremble when by him tried. Strong Bacain [Bassein] shall not his artillery deny, But not without bloodshed ; Melic with humbled pride Shall see her superb palisades down-torn, And not less because the work of the sword shall mourn." * While Bassein was a commercial and political centre, and was held by Portuguese troops, and strongly fortified, it was still stronger as a base of ecclesiastical propagandism. The religious idea dominated over all. The absorption of all the hoarded wealth by the Church, and the city in which the Jesuits really subsidized the military power of the Portuguese in India to strengthen their position, form a most entertaining chapter in the Indo- European life of two centuries ago. Bassein is an island, hug- ging the shore closely, about thirty miles north of Bombay. The Portuguese fortified it by running a great wall around it, with towers and projections and all the appliances for long defence. It was honeycombed with secret chambers for stores in case of siege. From its parapets one could see at a great distance ves- sels approaching the coast, while from its peculiar relation to the land an enemy from the interior could be resisted with every hope of success. This island, with its bold headland, pushed its nose boldly out into the sea, tempted its owners to fortify it, build upon it, and prepare to hold it for all the ages to come. The relations of the Portuguese to the Mogul rulers of the •■ Lusiad," canto x., lxi. (Mitchell's version). BASSEIN— A DEAD PORTUGUESE CITY. 743 North were anything but fixed. But these rulers conceived the idea of using the Portuguese as allies against other intruders. Now friendly and now hostile, these Moguls, who sat on jewelled thrones and made the whole Eastern world tremble at the mere mention of their names, found it to their advantage, after long meditation, to have such daring sailors as the Portuguese in al- liance with them. The sailors could be carriers of their goods and the fruits of their soil to the Western markets. They could check the newly coming English too, who were just now exhibit- ing so decided a taste for Indian life and a suspicious love of Hindu adventure. Hence, when the Portuguese would build up Bassein, and make it a strong fortress for war and an ecclesias- tical centre in peace, the Moguls had little to fear. They let them go on without disturbance. In due time, however, the Marhattas appeared, and they saw no use for the Portuguese in India. They resolved on their departure, and hence conquered Bassein, in the year 1739, as the key to their whole position. The Portuguese had dominated there two hundred and ten years, but had now fired their last gun. The strife of the Marhattas with the English was long and bitter. They were at last con- quered, however, and, after holding Bassein seventy-nine years, surrendered it to the English in 1818, when it was incorporated with the Bombay presidency. Visit to the Ruins. I reached the railway station from Jaipur about three o'clock in the morning. There was not a place where I could find even fair accommodation for the rest of the night. In most of the Indian stations one can secure a room, where he may spread his bedding. But there was no room for a weary traveller this time. I was referred to a bungalow a few hundred yards from the station. On going there, and being shown the room, it had a woe-begone appearance, and was far from inviting to even the most sleepy occupant. There were too many crev- ices, and I feared insects large and small. I returned to the station, and half sat and half reclined until the broad daylight. After a frugal breakfast, I engaged a bullock-cart for the four miles and a half to old Bassein. There are no springs to the typical bullock-cart, and your best position is to sit on the bottom of the contrivance. My two 744 INDIRA. little bullocks started off in frisky style, and in an hour I was within the narrow and winding streets of the town which has grown up outside the old one, and yet must have had its begin- nings even during the existence of the original Bassein. The scenery from the station to Bassein proper is charming. Fields of rice and various other grains stretch out on either hand. Here and there was a pond, which was all radiant with the sacred lotus in full flower and fragrance. One of the most conspicuous objects on getting fairly into the village was a ruined church. Its walls and roof were entire, but it was in wretched condition. Its windows were a curiosity, the first I had seen in India where the panes were of the pearl oyster-shell, cut thin, and about an inch and a half square. This was the Portuguese window. The labor of making great windows of such small pieces of shell, neatly cut and smoothed, was immense. At least one half the light was obstructed by the shell-slats, and when one adds to this the wooden framing for the shells, there must have been a considerable addition to the semi - opaqueness. But then this is India, and it is always a study to keep out the glare of the sun. I soon left the town behind, and came upon rising ground by a winding road, through a thick grove of mango and peepul- trees. Off to the left stood the grim ruins of the old fort. I had now crossed the bridge, and so had passed upon the island of Bassein, which is about four miles long and two miles broad. This, nearly three centuries ago, was a very paradise of Portu- guese enterprise and luxury on the one hand, and of Jesuit worldly wisdom on the other. Kuins were now on either hand. It was hard to tell which destructive force had been the stronger — time, or the merciless Marhattas. Any way that I might turn brought me face to face with some vast ruined cathedral. Now. it was only the bare walls without ceiling or roof, and then I found myself walking over, the marble slabs, with nearly effaced inscriptions, which covered the dust of Portuguese ecclesiastics and hidalgos. The dead underlay the entire nave and choir of one church after another. Some of the towers leaned at threat- ening angles, and yet in several cases it seemed safe enough to climb to the top of the wall and overlook this weird scene of ruin. There were arches which rose in graceful curves from one side of the portal to the other. Yet, at the keystone, there BASSEIN—A DEAD PORTUGUESE CITY. 745 was often a depression which made it wise to get from beneath it. Occasionally, the central part of the wall had fallen out- right, and left the jagged ends of the ruin on either hand. Great pains had been taken to ornament the choir. Here was an elaborate sculpture, only fragments of which could be seen in scattered pedestals and capitals, and bits of the carved shafts. Where the walls had been less disturbed by the ravages of war and the elements there still remained tablets in mem- CATHEDRAL OF ST. JOSEPH. ory of ecclesiastic or civic officers whose lamp of life had died out here, far away from the dear Portugal which they left behind. The Cathedral of St. Joseph is one of the most nearly com- plete of all the old churches. The great square tower which forms the portal still stands, and has to this day its gallery at the top, and even the ornamental work about its balustrades. Over the entrance one reads, in Portuguese, the still perfect in- scription in stone : 746 INDIRA. "In the year 1601, being Archbishop Primate, the most Illustrious Sr. Dom Frei Aleixo de Menezes, and Vicar the Rev. Pedro Galvas Pereira, this Matriz was rebuilt." This tower is an inviting point for a curious ascent. Da Cunha in his History tells us that he tried it, but in finding two steps crumbling beneath his feet he was compelled to beat a hasty retreat. No ruin in Bassein gives one a fairer idea of the splendor of these edifices when the Portuguese held undis- puted sway here, and Goa and Bassein wrought hand in hand for bringing the millions of India beneath the Jesuit's crozier. Here were belfries which had sent out their sweet chimes over land and water in the days long gone by. Then there were lancet windows, calm side chapels, richly carved archways, and majestic pillars the entire length of the nave, all of such lavish wealth of sculpture and ornament as would have delighted Lis- bon itself. The rebuilder of this cathedral died in Goa ; but be- cause of his relation to Bassein his remains were transferred here, as we learn from the following inscription on a black tomb- stone in the chancel to the right of the high altar : "To this grave are transferred the bones of Pedro Galvao, Servant of the Lord, who managed and enlarged this temple. Died at Goa on the 19th of March of the year 1618." The Church of St. Antonio was in its time one of the most imposing of the entire group on the island of Bassein. It seems to have been built by Fra Antonio do Porto, who figured largely in the Jesuit operations for the conquest of India. He destroyed two hundred Hindu pagodas, built eleven churches, and con- verted ten thousand one hundred and fifty natives to Christian- ity. The Franciscan church, or monastery — for it seems to have combined the two qualities — was, however, the grandest of all these ecclesiastical structures. It divided with that of St. Francis, in Goa, the honor of having chief authority in India. Several other churches were affiliated with it. The lateral chap- els in the ruin are still to be recognized, and contain tombstones bearing the following touching inscriptions ; I. H. M. Counsellor, died on the 24th of August, 1558, and his wife, Dona Luiza da Silva, and of his heirs. BASSEIN—A DEAD PORTUGUESE CITY. 747 II. Here lies Dona Francisca da Miranda, wife of Manoel de Melo Perreira, Founder of this Chapel, and her daughter lues de Melo, and her grandson Luis de Melo. She died on 10th November, 1606. III. Grave of Dona Giomar da Aguiar, widow of Alvaro de Lemos. May he be with God ! Died on the 11th March of 96 [1596]. Hers and her sons. IV. This tombstone was placed by Dona Ira de Barredo for her Interment in the grave of her husband Antonio Tello de Menezes, who Died on the 26th October, 1676. This Grave was purchased by Manoel de Carvalhar Pereira and his heirs. Our Father. V. In the reign of the most high and puissant King D. Joao de Portugal III. of the name. When the Viceroy D. Alfonso de Noronha was governing India, Son of the Marquis of Villa Real, and when Francisco De Sa was Captain of this fortress and of the city of Bassein. This bastion was founded under the name of San Sebastian on the 22d February, In the year 1554. I was bewildered with this wonderful scene. From one view I went to another, expecting to find that in some cases at least these relics of the Portuguese past would repeat themselves. But in no instance was this the fact. Each had its well-defined individuality. Where a cathedral had a supporting monastery, the space covered by the latter, as with the Franciscan and Jes- uit monasteries, was at once imposing and immense. The old paths where the monks walked were quite obstructed by the 748 INDIRA. tangled creepers. Many walls had lost their perpendicular, and now and then had tumbled to the ground, but it was easy to see the entire outline. The sacred edifices were in all stages of decay. Some were such complete ruins that not even a memo- rial tablet was longer in place, but had tumbled into the mass of stones and been broken into small pieces. Even the palaces of the General of the ISTorth and the Captain of Bassein were utter wrecks, only the broken walls and bastions and trembling portals remaining to tell of the former splendor of the place, and its importance in the eye of Portugal and of the daring and never-resting Xavier. In one section my guide became doubtful of his way, and we proceeded with uncertainty. We were in a thick jungle, and could see only a short distance ahead of us. The path was over- grown, and I was intent on getting out of the tangled vegeta- tion. All at once we emerged into the clear sunshine, which revealed a great cathedral, far gone as to wall and campanile. I strolled along the old nave, looked at its displaced tablets, and clambered over the roots and knolls which surround its immense walls. One feature of this strange place surprised me more than any work of the Portuguese priest, governor, or factor. I mean the prodigies of vegetation. The custard-apple, the mango, and the peepul-tree grow here with a wild luxuriance which positively defies description. Just within the walls where Portuguese hidalgos sat with their wives and children, and listened to the gospel accord- ing to Rome, and made confession, amid all the wealth and pageantry for which the Portuguese rule in Bassein was famed, there now grow tall and heavy trees, their topmost boughs higher even than the walls, and hanging down the exterior of the walls, and meeting the branches of the trees of less sacred growth. Trees have taken root on the walls themselves, and in each side of the wall, and sent down their long roots into the crevices of the rocks and struck the earth, and then -twisted the very walls out of place, and grasped whole masses of solid rock, and now hold them in firm embrace. The creepers, not slender vines, but gigantic trees, have thrust their roots beneath the very walls of the cathedrals, and shot out their arms into the lancet win- dows, and gone up the sides of the campanile, and expanded BASSEIN-A DEAD PORTUGUESE CITY. 749 into broad umbrellas, which hang over every side of the carved balcony, as though to hide it from the glare of the sun. No woodman's axe is here. Nature, beneath this prodigal Indian sky, grows with a lavish and rapid splendor, and defies all the patience of the architect, and hides the finest toil of the sculptor's chisel. These vines spare nothing. Where the tree CHURCH OF THE FRANCISCANS. cannot penetrate the mass of rocks, its roots run down either side of bastion or wall until they reach the earth, and then pene- trate it with such force that the severest monsoons of May and summer do not destroy their perpendicular. These trees do not seem to die, but to live on and grow larger, and send out their branches with such a wild luxuriance that they enter any win- dow and climb over any precipice. Then, in addition to the trees of creeping proclivities, one sees 750 INDIRA. the cocoa-palm everywhere. It has no vines, but it still asserts its rights. It stands alone, and may grow beside a cathedral portal, and fan the archway with its bold fronds. The dead leaves lie in all directions, but they have only given place to still larger ones, which are beautiful and vigorous in their new growth. The smaller shrubbery is made up of many a species. It would require a very close examination of the botany of India to identify them. But here in Bassein they make a jungle such as I did not see even in Ceylon. The tendency everywhere, except with palms, is to vines. The strings from the trunks shoot off at all angles, catch upon larger shrubbery, grow into a tangled mass, and, instead of being stifled and coming to a halt, strike out again, find new holding-places, and grow into even larger masses. The soil becomes a thick mould, and is in- fested with any number of reptiles, which here in Bassein find only an occasional traveller to disturb their composure. Be- neath some of the cathedrals there are secret passages, and in their best days it is most likely that all the larger ones were connected by underground paths. One cannot help thinking, while wandering amid this scene of desolation, of the old Portuguese days. The Governor-Gen- eral of India, who lived here, was supported hj an immense salary. He had his rich retainers and numerous household, who lived in such splendor as none in Portugal besides the royal family had ever witnessed. Then the bells sent out their chimes from these many campaniles, and the congregations gathered for wor- ship, and all the elaborate ritual of Eomanism was conducted with a splendor and leisure quite in keeping with the hopes for the occupation, some day, of all India. The ladies, each with several attendants, coming from the splendid homes which sur- rounded Bassein on the water-front, were attired in the richest silks and adorned with the rarest jewels which the India of that day could supply. The music had lost none of its sweet melody by coming the long distance from Portugal. It was cultivated on Indian soil as a special agency for winning the Hindu to the new faith from the West. At a given time, once a year, the Passion Play attracted uni- versal attention. It was arranged in such a way as to appeal alike to the fears and hopes of the natives. Da Cunha thus gives the origin of it, as a means for impressing the Hindu mind, BASSEIN—A DEAD PORTUGUESE CITY. 751 and at the same time to animate the Portuguese residents to new consecration for the conversion of India's millions. He says : " The history of ' Santos Passos,' or ' Passion Play,' at Bassein, is extremely curious. It originated with the Jesuits. The ' Santos Passos ' were first performed in the church with the Jesuits' College of the Holy Faith at Goa, as a sequence to an event of religious revival in 1551, when the pope, in com- pliance with the request of St. Francis Xavier, granted a general jubilee for India, the first ever celebrated in this country. "A Jesuit by name of Gaspar Berzeo, then established a society MONASTERY OF THE JESUITS. of the so-called ' disciplinantes; whose business it was, while the preacher raised their religious emotions to the pitch of in- sanity, to chastise themselves with scourges which, in some in- stances, had little iron blades attached to them, so as to make incisions into the skin deep enough to allow the blood to flow. Sometimes the theopathy of the faithful, as is usually the case, was of so catching a nature that whole cono-reo-ations were found busy in the process of flogging themselves. In some in- stances the voice of the preacher, who had iu the meanwhile 752 INDIKA. worked himself up to a frenzy, was quite drowned in the whack and thwack of the lash and stripe. The hysteric penitents, of course, fainted ; but then there were the Jesuit brothers always ready by their side to help them into another room, where con- solations were liberally dispensed to them. The sermon of the Jesuit preacher was generally in the text, ' Multa flagella pec- catoris,' and at the end of it a crucifix was held out to the con- templation of the entranced congregation, when the hardy dis- ciplinantes began their work of self-torture. This enthusiasm, however, could not last long, and soon gave place to the so-called ' Santos Passos,' or ' Passion Play,' performed in successive stages in weekly parts during the course of Lent, which, having begun in the Jesuits' Church at Goa, spread, as if by infection, in a very short time to every Roman Catholic communion in India. It was brought first to Bassein by the Jesuit Fr. Melchior Nunes Barreto." * It is a curious question in ethnography, what has been the fate of the Portuguese descendants in India % The conversion to Christianity was never fundamental, and there is a much wider difference between the present race of Portuguese and the English Christians than between the native Hindus and the Por- tuguese. The Portuguese intermarried with natives, and in time almost all the Iberian characteristics of feature and form disappeared. The matter of faith and language alone re- mained. In the steamer by which I went from Colombo to Tutikorin. the whole deck was filled by these Portuguese Christians of to-day. I could not have discovered that they were Christians at all but from the crucifix which hung from their dirty necks. They had all the thriftlessness of the lower Hindu castes, and were ignorant in the extreme. Yet they were so-called Christians, and the direct offspring of the Portuguese missions planted by Francis Xavier around the In- dian coast, from Bassein in the northwest around to the Cape, and then nearly up to Madras on the Bay of Bengal. There are many of these Portuguese in Bombay, a race of themselves. All the waiters in the hotel where I lodged are of the same race. They are people who never rise above a very * Da Cimha, "Notes of the History and Antiquities of Cliaul and Bassein," pp. 249, 250. BASSEIN— A DEAD PORTUGUESE CITY. 753 low level. " They are extremely ignorant," says Da Cunha, " nor have they any talent worth developing for anything use- ful, except, perhaps, the lower walks of handicraft, such as car- pentry, cotton-weaving, or the curing of hams." From the day when Bassein was conquered, there has not been a single literary or scientific celebrity among them. The highest in the class are but clerks in English and Parsi offices, where they carry on the mechanical work of copying. Occasionally a pamphleteer or two put in their appearance, but their productions are written in excessively bad English or equally bad Portuguese. Of vernaculars, except, perhaps, a little colloquial corrupt dia- lect of the Marhatti, the present Portuguese know nothing, and appear to have renounced them from the day of their conversion to Christianity. These people are as much despised by the dominant race as by the Hindus. As for the moral character of the hybrid race, it may be summed up in the following dictum, which has been found true elsewhere — they have inherited the vices of both their parents, and the virtues of neither. There is no de- scendant of any high-class native among them. This fact is best proved by their physiognomy, which is, in short and gen- eral outline, a receding forehead, small eyes, prominent cheek- bones, nose sunk at the root of wide nostrils, large mouth, and thick lips. In the more depressed classes and those addicted to drink, the expression of the face is scowling and unsteady. Another proof of their low descent is the spite and hatred they bear from the very bottom of their heart against high-class na- tives, who, from their natural shrewdness and superior intellect, seem destined to domineer over them.* This unfavorable judgment applies with equal truth to the mon- grel population which live in tents outside the old wall of Bassein. It would be difficult to tell the Portuguese Christian from the na- tive Hindu. Their plane of life is quite the same. The Portuguese Roman Catholic here, and all over India, is a poor commentary on the character of the first converts under Xavier. They have churches here and there, but of such quality is their service that one finds it but little above the average Hindu worship. I ex- amined carefully one of their cathedrals now in use in Tutikorin. In tawdry adornment, in poor and gaudy appeals by glaring and * Da Cunha, " Notes," etc., pp. 250, 251. 48 754 INDIKA. coarse frescoes, and in the gross prominence given to the Virgin, I never saw, even in the obscurer parts of Italy, this so-called, sanctuary surpassed. The question forces itself upon one, as he walks away from the marvellous ruins of former Portuguese glory in Bassein : "What if those people were to-day dominant over the two hundred and fifty millions of India?" A strange Providence has ordered otherwise. Had the masters conducted themselves properly, and been fair types of the Christian colonist, there is no likelihood that they would have been disturbed. Their in- fluence would likely have extended throughout the great valleys of both the Ganges and the Indus. But neither Hindu nor Mo- hammedan could see unselfishness in their measures. Theirs were the greed for gold, pride for the Church; and a lust for hasty and numerous converts. Therefore, when the Marhattas conquered Bassein, and paved the way unwittingly for the final triumph of the English, they were only helping India to her certain Protestant destiny. FACADE OF A GROTTO OF KANHERI. CHAPTER LXXXVI. WHAT HAS ENGLAND DONE FOR INDIA?' English rule over India is not a case of hard conquest and commercial advantage. We think of Olive's terrible deeds and Burke's pictures of the crimes of Warren Hastings. We go still further back, and reflect upon the vicious parts of the pol- icy of the East India Company during its long history. We come down to the present, and* think of the. government com- plicity with the trade in opium and the manufacture of liquors. But there is a broader view, which we are compelled to take if we would justly compare the India of to-day with what it was two centuries and a half ago. Even after discounting the wrong- doing of every English officer and administrator in India, and the connivance of the government at idolatrous practices, there still remain incalculable advantages to the country, which must be placed to the credit and honor of the Anglo-Saxon in India. These advantages cannot be attributed to the natural develop- ment of the natives, to the constant pressure of European ideas, or to the general force of our modern civilization. They are the direct result of the conquest of the country by England and of her subsequent rule over it. First of all we must name the gradual unification of the coun- try. The picture of Germany before the war with Austria, in 1866, which was the first blow for unification, is only a faint European parallel to the divisions of India before the conquest of the country by English armies. It is the purest fiction that there were ancient dynasties, which the English broke up. The land was one great tangled skein of races, languages, and recent governments. ■ Century after century rolled by, and still the strife of war and bloodshed went on. Through the mountain gateways of the North there poured down daring armies into the plains of India, which showed no mercy, but swept away thrones and laws and cities, and ruled for a while, each being in time 756 INDIRA. displaced and ground into powder by its successor. For seven centuries these cruel invasions went on, and India lay at the mercy of the strongest. This process was in full force in the eighteenth century, when six invasions upon the peaceful people took place in twenty-three years.* On the first of these later invasions, in 1738, when the Afghan conquerors reached Delhi, men, women, and children were hacked to pieces in the streets. Mill, father of James Stuart Mill, and most philosophical of all the historians of India, says of this massacre in Delhi : " With the first light of the morning, the invading leader, Nadir, issued forth, and, dispersing bands of soldiers in every direction, ordered them to slaughter the inhabitants, without regard to age or sex, in every street or avenue in which the body of a murdered Per- sian should be found. From sunrise to midday the sabre raged ; and by that time not less than eight thousand were numbered with the dead. During the massacre and pillage the city was set on fire in several places." The history of the great Mogul empire is one uninterrupted chapter of bloodshed. At the death of the Emperor Aurangzeb, in 1707, it reached its final expansion. It had no power to preserve its vitality. It was a loose mass, ready for any strong hand to break it into pieces. Its spoils were fought over by Afghans, Jats, Sikhs, revolting viceroys, rebellious governors, and military adventurers at large, f The Marhattas were the strongest force. They poured down from the mountains on the western coast, and carried desolation before them. They spared neither sex nor age, and the terror of their name was felt by every native of the country from Bombay to Calcutta. Not only were the English the first strong hand which had the power to stay the tide of Marhatta desolation, but to close up the two northern gateways against further invasions. It was the peaceful termination of a current of incoming freebooters which goes back of Marhatta, Afghan, Mogul, and Persian invasion, to the remote mythical period, when the Aryan came down from the northern gate- ways, when " Parasurama cleared the earth twenty-one times of the Kshatriya caste, and filled five large lakes with their blood," * Murdoch, " India's Needs," pp. 13, 14 (from Hunter, " England's Work in India"). t Lyall, " Asiatic Studies," p. 189. WHAT HAS ENGLAND DONE FOR INDIA? 757 and when the great Indian epic, the Mahabharata, began to be woven, and to unfold its unparalleled tale of the strife of races and the death of nations. Even the sea contributed its invaders. Pirates from the Burmese coast crossed the Bay of Bengal, pressed up the rivers, and carried desolation and death to the people. On the western coast the piracy was still more terrible. Whole fleets plied along the shore of the Indian Ocean, and levied such extortions as enabled the wealthy rajahs to sustain luxurious courts by the gains.* The first and only force which arrested this struggle of ages in India has been England. The process of transition was long. Never has the Anglo-Saxon race had a more difficult problem to solve than, not merely to conquer, but to hold and set in motion the forces for a homogeneous Indian nation. The work was in rapid progress when the mutiny of 1857 broke out. This was the last disintegrating spasm. "When the English army con- quered the mutineers, a new bond, the strongest yet made, held the native races together. From that time to the present every step has been towards a united people. The old causes of in- ternal separation are constantly disappearing. The Indian is beginning to feel, for the first time, that he is not the member of a tribe, but of a race ; that he is not a soldier in sept, but a rightful owner of the broad soil ; that he is not the slave of a rajah, but the citizen of a nation. Crime is now rapidly decreasing. The frequent ebb and flow of conquest and oppression brought in a great amount of crime, which no laws could punish. The will of the ruler decided life and death. The laws themselves were the instruments of the strong to crush the weak. Even the sanctities of the Brahmic faith were utilized by wilder spirits to acquire gold by robbery and rapine. In India there were one hundred robber or " pred- atory" castes in the last century, f They were devoted to the worship of certain deities, and went out in bands, with a spear as their weapon. They attacked homes by night, and applied torture in case of resistance or concealment of treasure. Some- times the robbers assumed the proportions of an army, in which case there was no thought of territorial possession, but solely of getting possession of the wealth of others. The Pindaris had no * Hunter, "England's Work in India," p. 11. t Ibid., pp. 15, 16. 758 INDIKA. modest purpose, but went in hordes of twenty thousand horse- men, and spared no class. The Thags were professional mur- derers. They worshipped the goddess Kali, or Devi, and, until the English broke them up, had plied their fiendish craft for many centuries. Death was always their object. They must kill in order to rifle the body safely. They always claimed the protection of the goddess. They had their leaders, their f ormulas for admission into the murderous fraternity, and their watch- words. When once the crimes of Thagism were brought to the attention of the British government, the death-knell of the in- famy was struck. Lord William Bentinck put Colonel Sleeman in charge of the difficult task. This officer, with his assistants, completely fulfilled his mission, and brought Thagism to an end, which had existed and spread desolation in India for twenty centuries. Hunter thus describes his meeting with one of the last of this old robber fraternity : " Some time ago I was taken to visit the principal jail of the Indian provinces. At parting, when I was thanking the gov- ernor of the prison for all he had shown me, he exclaimed : " ' Ah, there is one thing more we must not forget to see.' " He took me to a well-ventilated, comfortable room in the jail hospital, where, lolling upon pillows, reclined a reverend, white-bearded man. " ' This,' he said, ' is the last of our thags. He alone survives of the batch which we received twenty-five years ago !' "I found that the miserable strangler had been for fifteen years enjoying himself in the hospital, the object of much solici- tude to the doctors, and his life carefully prolonged by medical comforts, as an interesting relic of the past." * Dacoity, or gang-robbery, was another form of crime which has required great energy on the part of the government to suppress. As late as 1879, in the Dekhan, it broke out with great violence, where the robbers sheltered themselves in the mountain fastnesses. Major Daniels, of the English army, dis- tinguished himself by his extraordinary labors for its suppres- sion. Sati, the crime of Hindu widows burning themselves on the funeral pyres of their husbands, was associated with the solemnities of the popular faith. To suppress the crime required * "England's Work in India," p. 19. WHAT HAS ENGLAND DONE FOR INDIA? 759 the greatest possible energy of the government. It is now en- tirely eradicated, not only in the country directly under English rule, but also in the native states. The inhuman crime of female infanticide, which has prevailed in India, has been very difficult to overcome, in spite of the pro- hibition of both the Quran and the Yedas. The Eajputs and the native tribes have been most addicted to it. The first attempt to suppress it was in the eighteenth century, by Jonathan Duncan and Major Walker. They have been followed by others in the present century. In 1853 Lord Lawrence held a durbar at Am- ritsar, where the feudatory chiefs of the Panjab and the trans- Satlej States signed an agreement engaging to expel from caste every one who committed infanticide, and to adopt fixed and moderate rates of marriage expenses. Unquestionably the great expense which the bride's father must incur has had much to do with the prevalence of infanticide. Take the Rajputs as an example. The father of the Rajput bride has had to make gifts of money, clothes, jewels, and sweetmeats to the bridegroom's relatives, and, when the wedding comes, to pay enormous fees to the Brahman priests and the bhats, or minstrels. In the case of some rajahs these expenses for having a daughter who became a bride have gone up to the enormous sum of one hundred thou- sand pounds sterling.* To guard against such heavy expenses, the father has been in the habit of putting the infant daughter to death by giving her a pill of tobacco and bhang, or smearing opium or the poisonous datura over the mother's breast. While the crime of infanticide has greatly decreased, the sta- tistics of population furnish some suspicious facts. There is not the slightest reason to suppose that the proportion of boys and girls should not be equal in India, as in other countries. Yet in Oudh the excess of boys is seven per cent., in Bombay eight per cent., in the Northwest Provinces twelve per cent., and in the Panjab sixteen per cent. In 1870 a law was passed re- quiring special police regulation for towns where, because of the disproportion between boys and girls, there was suspicion of the practice of infanticide. In one tribe of Meerut, for example, there were found eighty boys under twelve years of age to only # Smith, article in "Encycl. Brit.," vol. xiii. (9th ed.), p. 3. Bacon, "Ori- ental Annual," 1839, p. 92. 760 INDIKA. eight girls. In the Bengal population, the ratio is one hundred boys to eighty-seven girls. This disproportion is proof that, despite all the earnest measures of the government, the crime still prevails. But a great end has been gained in concealing the crime from the public gaze. The first step towards the extinction of a crime is its banishment into darkness. The English purpose to exter- minate infanticide is one of the many instances in which the Hindus owe to their conquerors a debt they can never pay, for teaching them the lesson of humanity to themselves. Child marriages are an evil which will still survive for some time. According to the census of 1881, the number of Brahman widows above nineteen years of age in all India was 54,000. There are 80,000 Brahman widows under thirty. Neither child widow nor adult can marry again. Nearly all the Brahman girls are married between seven and ten years of age. If this state of things exists in the one class of Brahmans, what must be the number of child- widows of all classes throughout India? But the native Hindu mind, and notably Sir T. Madava Eao, is be- ginning its protest against this domestic crime. In due time the government will remove the curse of compulsory widow- hood. In view of the stringency with which crime is punished in India, the number of offenders is constantly decreasing. Not- withstanding the increase of population, there were in 1882 twenty-five per cent, less prisoners in the jails of India than there were in 1867.* Even the native princes are watched, and England is careful to see that her feudatory rulers have no such power as was exercised before she entered India. For example, under Hindu and Mohammedan rule the native ruler could ap- propriate, if he chose, all the revenue for his personal enjoy- ment, and could take away the life, liberty, or property of any of his subjects. Under English rule this license no longer exists. The native prince is subjected to essentially the same righteous regulations which govern the territory directly under English rule. The salutary influence of the English government has even reached the evils existing among the aboriginal Hill Tribes. For example, it was found that, among this neglected class, the * Murdoch, "India's Needs," pp. 18, 19. WHAT HAS ENGLAND DONE FOB INDIA? 761 debtors were converted into slaves. This class was promptly released by government order. Another class of slaves consisted of persons who had been captured in war. These, too, were liberated by the English rulers." All India is now a neighborhood. The arrival of the English mail is anticipated almost to the hour. Quick transportation is everywhere the rule. Bishop Heber required six weeks to go from Calcutta to Dacca by boat. Now the same journey is made in twenty-four hours. He required nearly three months to go from Dacca to Allahabad, a distance of seven hundred miles. The same distance can now be covered by any one in three days, by steamer and railway, f He spent nearly half a year, or from June 15th to November 27th, in going from Calcutta to Almora : " Then on ! Then on ! where duty leads, My course be onward still ; O'er broad Hindostan's sultry mead, O'er bleak Almora's hill." » The same distance can now be travelled in four days. Sanitary measures have been adopted. Before the English supremacy there was no attention paid to the laws of health. The rulers and the nobles had immense wealth, and could live in luxury. For the life of the millions there was no thought. The two fundamental questions were, to get men for the army, and to grind out a revenue for the support of the government. Whether the people were comfortable or not, whether they were long-lived or not, were concerns left entirety to the people them- selves. When the English entered upon the rule of the coun- try, they looked after the sanitary condition of the humblest, and the increased longevity is the proof of the success of their efforts. The Sanitary Department is one of the distinct parts of the administration of the government. A sanitary commis- sioner is attached to each local government, and under him are several grades of medical officers. Above all these there is a general sanitary commissioner, connected with the general government, and to him sanitary reports must come from all parts of the empire. The three great cities of Calcutta, Ma- * Lewin, " The Wild Races of Southeastern India," pp. 87, 91. London, 1870. t Buckland, " Sketches of Social Life in India," p. 7. 762 INBIKA. dras, and Bombay are supplied with water-works, which in each case are triumphs of engineering skill and of care for dense populations. These water-works are equal to those of the great cities of Europe and America. The same care is taken for the supply of wholesome water in the smaller towns throughout the country.* Many millions of pounds sterling have been ex- pended on the sewage system — a problem hard to solve, especi- ally in such flat surfaces as Calcutta and Madras. The govern- ment has further shown its solicitude for the improvement of the health of the people by issuing small manuals on sanitary science for their use in schools, and for general circulation. In close relationship with this most praiseworthy care of the people by the government, the prevention and cure of disease must not be forgotten. The English, when they found them- selves permanent occupants and rulers of the country, had to deal with a great mass of people whose chief occupation had been to find rice enough to keep themselves alive. The national life during the Mogul rule, being one of warfare and perpetual alarm, no intelligent care was bestowed on the treatment of disease. Whenever a plague invaded the country it ran its race. The people were at its mercy. Millions were swept away by it. The proverb common in parts of India, that "a mother can never say she has a son until he has had the small-pox," carried with it a terrible truth. The ravages of this disease were ap- palling. It is still terribly devastating, many thousands dying annually from this one cause alone. The natives used to parry it somewhat by inoculation, and they still have a prejudice against vaccination. But the government prohibits inoculation, and requires vaccination, without cost to the people. It em- ploys vaccinators, and requires official returns for their work. Other diseases are watched carefully, and their violence brought to the minimum by the persevering efforts of the state. Wherever the popular worship is concerned, it is next to im- possible to guard the health and life of the people. For exam- ple, the many thousands who drink the sacred water from the Gyan Kup, or Well of Knowledge, in Benares, take into their bodies as corrupt a fluid as the idolatry or ingenuity of man could well compound. To make the people cease drinking the * Temple, "India in 1880," pp. 322 ff. WHAT HAS ENGLAND DONE FOB INDIA? 763 filthy water would be an assault on the faith of the people which would shake the empire to its foundations. But the time will come when even in India it will be proven, not only that " clean- liness is next to godliness," but that it is a part of that new god- liness which is sure to overspread the country. In order to mitigate the ravages of fever, the government has taken special pains to introduce quinine throughout the country. Plants have been brought from South America, and plantations are already producing supplies for the people. The price of quinine is very low throughout India. The liberty of the expression of opinion is now universal. The Bengali, fond of expression and of writing under the shadow of the Government House in Calcutta, -can write what he pleases about any officer in the land, from the humblest citizen to the governor-general himself. A national Congress has been formed by the natives for all India. It meets annually, and aims at still larger political lib- erty, and still further social reform. It has among its members Hindus, Mohammedans, and even native Christians. It does much talking, and declares for a national parliament, with In- dian representatives. This Congress is doing more than all other native forces to develop a national, but not disloyal, feeling among the native population. Literary societies and debating clubs are springing up in all the centres of population. The government watches all these evidences of native aspiration, and is gracious and patient in the extreme. Sometimes a stormy and fearless native makes a good point against the government, which, we may well suppose, is not forgotten, and in due time will bear good fruit. For example, Syed Mohammed Husain shows a glaring inconsistency in the matter of duties and home production, when he says : " We export wheat, and pay highly for making it into biscuits, vermicelli, and macaroni. We pro- duce sugar, and pay again for manufacturing loaf-sugar. We produce tobacco, and pay again for bird's-eye. We export hides, but pay again for saddles, harness, patent-leather, boots and shoes. For patent-leather we pay four or five times as much as we received originally for our hides." * * "Our Difficulties and our Wants in the Path of the Progress of India," p. 71. London, 1884. 764 INBIKA. India now sells far more than she buys. Every year the ex- port of her staples exceeds her imports by 21,000,000 pounds sterling. The old native rate of interest in the rural regions was 3T|- per cent. Now the native in the country, if he has land to pledge, can borrow at one third of that rate. Seven per cent, is regarded by the Calcutta merchant as a good in- vestment.* Many of the early industries, which existed when England took possession of the country, have been developed within the last few decades to remarkable proportions. The cotton of India being found inferior to that of the United States, the govern- ment has introduced American cotton-plants and American la- borers, and already India is becoming one of the greatest cotton-producing countries of the world. She is rapidly learn- ing the art of converting the fibre into woven fabric. A famil- iar picture still is the humble weaver, slowly working away with hands and feet at his primitive loom, which has probably undergone not the least change since the Kig Veda was first written on palm-leaves. But the English loom, and that carried by steam, is now taking the place of the few rough sticks and cords of the old household loom. The Indians are learning the secret which our "Western States have alread}^ learned— to save the cost of transportation by producing its own manufactures. I visited an immense cotton-factory in Cawnpore, where steam and all the improved machinery of Europe are used. Englishmen manage the business, but the natives perform the manual labor. ' The development of the natural resources of India by the English has been remarkable. Millions of arable acres have been added to the productive power of the soil. One section alone, 13,000 square miles in area, has been brought under the plough, and now produces 18,000,000 pounds sterling in cereals. The earth itself has been penetrated, and made to yield its hid- den wealth for the enrichment of the masses. Coal-beds have been discovered in "Western Bengal, in the Central Provinces, in the Panjab, and even in Burma. The coal-mining, though still in its infancy, already employs fifty thousand men, exclusive of their families, and Sir Kichard Temple reckons the total annual output of the colliers at a million of tons, f The coal imported * Hunter, " How India is Governed," p. 43. t " India in 1880," p. 303. WHAT HAS ENGLAND DONE FOR INDIA? 765 from England is six hundred thousand tons annually. But the native coal is continually taking the place of the English. Already the East Indian railway uses the Bengal coal, which costs but two rupees (eighty cents) per ton, w T hile the imported coal costs fifteen rupees (six dollars) per ton. Iron ore is found in several parts of the country, and in due time we may expect to hear of large smelting and foundry works. The diamonds of Bundel- khand, the pearl fisheries of Bahrein, the opals of Ajmir, and the rubies of Burma, will continue to supply in no small meas- ure the world's markets of precious stones. India is no longer the prey of Western ambitious powers. It is a solid part of the British possessions. It knows, because it sends its troops, that England cannot fight a battle in Europe without its help. The expansion of education among all classes of people, the physical care of the helpless classes, the subtle bond of the English language, the development of the soil, the utilizing of the mineral wealth, the opening of the country for the incoming of Western ideas, and, greater than all combined, the breaking down of all doors for the free spread of the Gospel, make the India of the last decade of the nineteenth century a perfect contrast with the India of the first decade of the eigh- teenth. England has never achieved grander victories on Wa- terloo or at Quebec than those which belong to her quiet and peaceful administration of India. The day has not yet dawned when it is possible to measure the whole magnitude of England's service to the millions of India. Generations must elapse before this can be done. When the hour does come, it will be seen that the Englishman has never been wiser or more humane on the Thames or the St. Lawrence than on the Ganges, the Indus, and the Godavari. The real fact is, not that he has con- quered the country, but that he has discovered it, and now governs it by as generous laws, and as even justice, as he rules over the millions within sight of his parliament at West- minster. " Is it no blessing," asks the Rev. George Bowen, for many years a resident in India and a careful observer of its develop- ment, " that the Hindu of to-day has a much grander and better world to look out upon than his father had ? The whole world, to his fathers, was Mlechcha, defiled, barbarous, beyond the pale of intercourse, abhorred even by the gods, who reserved their 766 INBIKA. incarnations and manifold favors for the people of this country. Now, the educated Hindu thinks it a privilege to visit the Oc- cident and become acquainted with the marvels of civilization and art. Once the sympathies of the Hindu were cabined, cribbed, confined, shrivelled up to the confines of his own caste ; now what is to hinder their expansion to the ends of the earth, and the comprehension of all nations in his fellow-feel- ing ?" * "We can hardly expect a Frenchman, with his memories of the great failure of France to acquire India, to be overjust to the English presence. Yet the following is the tribute which a French scholar pays to England in India : " Neither in the Yedic times, nor under the great Asoka, nor under the Moham- medan conquest, nor under the Moguls, all powerful as they were for a while, has India ever obeyed an authority so sweet, so intelligent, and so liberal." f Looking at the India of to-day, and comparing it with what it was before Yasco da Gama turned his vessels thither, and with what it was when Portuguese, Dutchmen, and Frenchmen contended for it, we may say with safety that England has been a blessing to the helpless continent. England has conquered India. But it has been less a conquest by steel and gunpowder than by all the great forces which constitute a Christian civili- zation. * Bombay Guardian. f Barth61emy St. Hilaire, " L'lnde Anglaise ; son £tat Actuel son Avenir," p. 154. APPENDIX APPENDIX. NO. I. PRINCIPAL DATES OF INDIAN HISTORY. I. — Prehistoric Period. B.O. 1600. Settlement of the Aryans in tract between Saraswati and Ghaggar rivers, one hundred miles northwest of Delhi. 1400. Arrangement of the Vedas by Vyasa. 1400-1300. War described in the Mahabharata. 1308. Invasion of India by Sesostris (mythical). 1200. Rama's Invasion of the Dekhan. 800. The date of the Institutes of Manu. 543. Death of Gautama, or Sakya Muni. II. — Semi-Historic Period. 518. Persian invasion under Darius Hystaspes. 500-400. Pandya kingdom of Madura founded. 330. Herat founded by Alexander the Great. 327. Invasion of India by Alexander the Great. 302. Mission of Megasthenes. 260-220. Asoka, the great patron of Buddhism. 104-76. Buddhistical books of Ceylon. 57. Era of Vikramaditya, King of Ujjain. A.D. 100. Sah Dynasty of Gujerat. 399. Travels ofFa-Hian. 629-645. Travels of Hiouen Tlisang. 800-1400. Puranas. 1009. Birth of Ramanuja. 1186-1206. Mohammed of Ghor. 1206-1288. First Slave Dynasty in Delhi. 1217. Chengiz Khan. First Mogul irruption. 1294. First Mohammedan invasion of the Dekhan. 1398. Timur (Tamerlane) in Delhi. Second great Mogul invasion. 49 770 APPENDIX. 1482. Baber. 1486. Bartholomew Diaz. 1498. Vasco da Gama. 1505-1508. Francisco Almeyda, first Portuguese viceroy. 1508-1515. Alfonso Albuquerque, second Portuguese viceroy. III. — Mogul Period. a.d. 1524-1857. 1524. Baber founds the great Mogul empire in India. He is the first of the six great Mogul emperors. 1527. Conquest of the Rajputs by the Moguls. 1530. Humayun, second great Mogul .emperor. 1540. Francis Xavier in India. 1542. Birth of Akbar. 1556. Accession of Akbar, the third Mogul emperor. Akbar's Conquests : 1567. He conquers his own feudatories. 1572. Subdues the Rajputs. 1573. Conquers Gujerat. 1586. He conquers Kashmir. 1592. Annexes Bengal, Behar, and Orissa. 1592. Conquers Sind. 1594. Conquers Afghanistan. 1580-1656. Downfall of the Portuguese. 1583. First English in India. 1594. The Dutch in India. 1600. Incorporation of the British East India Company. 1605. Accession of Jahangir, the fourth Mogul emperor. 1627. Accession of Shah Jahan, the fifth Mogul emperor. 1631. Portuguese driven out of Bengal. 1658. Aurangzeb, sixth Mogul emperor. 1664. The French in India. 1683-1707. Aurangzeb's war in the Dekhan. 1702. Birth of Haidar Ali, of Mysore. 1707. The Sikhs nearly exterminated. 1725. Birth of Robert Clive. 1732. Birth of Robert Hastings. 1744. Clive lands in India. IV. — The English Period. a.d. 1748-1889. 1748. Lawrence lands in India. 1756. Massacre of the Black Hole. 1757, Battle of Plassey, India secured to England. 1783. Peace of Versailles. Dutch possessions become English. 1786-1793. Cornwallis second governor-general. 1793. Lord Teignmouth third governor-general. APPENDIX. 771 1818. Death of Warren Hastings. 1840-1842. The Opium War. 1853. Opening of the first Indian railway. 1857. Sepoy Mutiny breaks out. 1858. The conquest of the Mutiny. India safe under the English crown. 1877. Queen Victoria is declared Empress of India.* V. — Governors and Governors-General op India under the East India Company, a.d. 1758-1858. 1758-1767. Lord Clive. 1767-1768. Harry Verelst. 1769-1771. John Cartier. 1772-1785. Warren Hastings. 1786-1793. Lord Cornwallis. 1793-1798. Lord Teignmouth. 1798-1805. Marquis Wellesley. 1805-1806. Lord Cornwallis (second term). 1806-1813. Lord Minto. 1813-1823. Marquis of Hastings (Earl Moira). 1823-1828. Earl Amherst. 1828-1835. Lord Bentinck. 1836-1842. Lord Auckland. 1842-1844. Lord Ellenbrough. 1844-1847. Lord Hardinge. 1848-1856. Earl of Dalhousie. 1856-1857. Earl Canning. VI. — Viceroys of India under the Crown. 1858-1861. Earl Canning. 1862-1863. Earl of Elgin. 1864-1869. Lord Lawrence. 1869-1872. Lord Mayo. 1872-1876. Lord Northbrook. 1876-1880. Lord Lytton. 1880-1885. Marquis of Ripon. 1885-1888. Lord Dufferin. 1888. Lord Lansdowne, present incumbent. * Graham is an excellent authority on the minute periods. See " Genealogical and Chronological Tables Illustrative of Indian History," 2d ed., London, 1880. •772 APPENDIX. 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The following tables present the extent to which the applicants for University degrees in the various provinces are distributed among the faiths of the whole country : BENGAL. Number of Can- didates. Number Passed. Religion. First Division. Second Division. Third Division. Total. Hindus 2812 205 109 > 46 4 152 7 25 2 1 381 35 22 3 8 6 263 9 3 7 6 796 Mohammedans 51 Christians 50 Others 16 3172 185 446 282 913 ASSAM. Hindus 88 6 5 6 15 1 14 2 1 35 3 Others 1 Total 99 6 16 17 39 NORTHWEST PROVINCES AND OUDH. 520 115 74 ' 6 17 6 13 8 2 93 20 13 9 1 56 12 4 166 Christians ' 38 30 Others 3 Total 715 38 127 72 237 RAJPUTANA. Hindus 20 5 2 — 6 2 1 — 6 Mohammedans 2 Others 1 Total 27 — 9 — 9 JAYPUR. Hindus 8 1 1 1 — 1 1 — 1 Mohammedans Christians Others 1 Total 11 — 2 — 2 1 Of these 16 were females s « 4 « 3 " 5 " 4 Of these 5 were females. 'Of these 19 were females. 6 " 1 was a female. 8 " 4 " 6 ll 1 l( 9 (l Q ll 778 APPENDIX. PANJAB. Number of Can- didates. Number Passed. Religion. First Division. Second Division. Third Division. Total. Hindus 27 10 28 J 2 3 4 1 2 9 5 1 3 2 9 3 16 Mohammedans Christians Total 67 7 12 9 28 CENTRAL PROVINCES. Hindus 167 11 10 2 12 1 1 28 3 3 1 19 1 1 59 5 Mohammedans Christians 5 Others I Total 190 14 35 21 70 CENTRAL INDIA STATES. Hindus 33 4 2 6 1 5 3 8 Mohammedans Christians 1 Others Total 45 1 5 3 9 BURMAH. Mohammedans 8 19 24 1 4 3 3 5 6 1 4 Christians 10 Others 9 Total 51 8 14 •1 23 CEYLON. 13 3 3 2 " 2 — 5 Others 2 Total 16 5 2 — 7 1 Of these 5 were females. 2 Of these 2 were females. APPENDIX. 779 5bit S3 § I * - O (6 s p *-• M CO l— i- 1 C — X CD CO 3 kd =\ p i-s CD •M o CT <^ O CD m £T c n> 2 < 13 ™ * &■ cr p 3 -a „. S g "-< =• C CD 3 K S. 3 (D 1 g. S » CD ET Mi £g 2- 2. 3 21 g 3 - S tr, 5 °" D St S. 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M^- .r 1 * P J.O ,5° tb 9 "h- 1 Ol to cc o H>- ba CO to oo OS CO OS >+- O o to -q o rr- ■^ »+*■ CO >K CO h-L "co rf* OS CO OS to to CT -1 -q to CO CO CO CO OD cc J3S JO JK ZJ1 31 _po p p p ys *co "cO "cO -q "to "#* CO to CTt CO to Cn Cl to o hf* o OS en cn OS cn 00 en to to ..fcB UT OS to cn M K* 00 00 "fe en CO <1 hK o -3 CO M _o OS "co OS o "en » K "*■ ^0 X "to th CD to -q —7 cc 00 -q ■CC to CO to hf* 00 cc "^ OS 10 CO CO fS en OS to OS M M CO CO CO Cl CO 00 O -q hK VC o >4- cc OC -q OS t+s o cn -3 ^K 1 CO fK O c" CO K 00. 00 Cl CO Cii IK O £) CO OS -q M l^- 3 d S p o ■ I— \ w O Kj 780 APPENDIX. NO. VII. OFFICIAL CENSUS OF THE TRADES AND OCCUPATIONS OF THE PEOPLE OF INDIA. Occupations. Officers of National Government Officers of Municipal, Local, and Village Government . . . Officers of Independent Government and States Army JSavy Clergymen, Ministers, Priests, Church and Temple Officers Lawyers, Stationers, and Law-Stamp Dealers Physicians, Surgeons, and Druggists Authors and Literary Persons Artists Musicians Actors Teachers Scientific Persons Wives of Specified Occupations Other Wives Engaged in Board and Lodgings Attendants (domestic servants) Mercantile Persons Other General Dealers Carriers on Railways Carriers on Roads Carriers on Canals and Rivers Carriers on Sea and Rivers. Engaged in Storage Messengers and Porters Agriculturists Horticulturists Persons engaged about Animals Workers in Books " Musical Instruments " Prints and Pictures " Carving and Figures " Tackle for Sports and Game " Designs, Models, and Dies " Watches and Philosophical Instruments. . . . " Surgical Instruments " Arms " Machines and Tools " Carriages " Harness Ships " Houses and Buildings " Furniture " Chemicals " Wool and Worsted Silk Males. Females. 580,185 6,352 791,379 17,764 133,285 865 311,070 1,682 300 — 601,164 94,251 31,628 10 113,579 75,239 32,177 3,464 10,347 584 187,695 19,631 58,807 40,381 166,356 4,345 11,494 127 — 471,774 — 3,321,366 27,970 14,515 2,149,629 651,965 983,869 1 24,409 8S6,149 286,464 61,031 1,157 635,482 13,770 322,688 2,877 104,237 574 64,667 2,157 174,598 15,063 19,210 15,866 166,355 54,448 754,512 235,830 19,384 127 3,146 568 1,005 79 15,338 4,463 4,101 1,283 819 16 2,963 57 1 > — 4,293 245 52,095 9,979 11,963 235 6,114 781 16,913 358 808,712 27,741 9,343 797 61,220 19,813 178,519 69,670 51,085 34,355 APPENDIX. 781 CENSUS OF TRADES AND OCCUPATIONS.— Continued. Occupations. Males. Females. Workers in Cotton and Flax " Mixed Materials " Dress " Hemp and other Fibrous Materials " Animal Food " Vegetable Food " Drinks and Stimulants " Grease, Grit, Bones, Horn, Ivory, Whale- ) bone, and Lace ) " Skins, Feathers, and Quills " Hair " Gums and Resins Wool " Bark and Pith " Bamboo, Cane, Rush, Straw, and Leaves. . . . " Paper Miners Workers in Coal " Stone-clay " Earthenware " Glass " Salt " Water " Gold, Silver, and Precious Stones " Copper " Tin and Quicksilver " Zinc " Lead and Antimony " Brass and other Mixed Metals " Iron and Steel Laborers and others (branch of labor undefined) Other Persons of Indefinite Occupation Persons of Rank and Property not returned under any ) Office or Occupation J Persons of no stated Occupation 2,607,579 52,286 2,082,191 108,729 640,521 1,445,916 708,699 37,107 263,056 943 489,618 235,318 3,092 403,375 7,670 3,428 2,602 667,286 569,128 32,841 63,011 227,673 459,157 11,019 10,419 ]39 992 123,165 454,555 7,248,491 426,109 48,262 48,794,195 2,877,876 52,621 733,089 164,867 449,205 1,719,513 204,331 70,889 48,559 344 273,169 179,560 68,550 277,375 1,410 549 1,161 354,721 259,839 11,904 23,922 198,758 13,799 461 461 32 155 6,605 18,806 5,244,206 33,873 13,109 !6,135,617 782 APPENDIX. NO. VIII. — BOOKS AND PERIODICALS PUBLISHED IN INDIA DURING THE YEAR 1886. [These tables are derived from selections from the Records of the Government of India, Home Department, No. ccxxxiii, Calcutta, 1887.] 1. BOMBAY. Subject. Original Works. Republi- cations. Trans- lations. Total. Arts First Edition. New Edition. 2 6 6 15 19 10 31 220 1 31 69 1 1 10 2 6 24 2 38 6 29 99 9 3 17 16 3 1 1 61 9 84 65 43 175 24 55 686 336 7 74 96 60 26 3 46 6 56 26 14 57 4 24 523 91 3 23 10. 28 12 2 3 1 16 9 12 61 4 2 33 16 3 1 28 12 Biographv Drama Fiction History Medicine Miscellaneous Poetry Politics Philosophy (including Mental and Moral ) Science) J Religion Science (Natural and other) Science (Mathematical and Mechanical) Voyages and Travels Total 925 201 412 266 1804 2. BENGAL (Books only). Subject. Books published in English and other European Languages. Books published in the Vernacu- lar Languages spoken in the Province. Books published in the Indian Classical Languages. Books pub- lished in more than one Language. 5 5 4 3 24 74 36 6 70 5 22 3 33 15 5 56 11 97 109 92 294 52 94 322 9 164 1 331 59 36 3 1 o — 11 5 Biography Drama Fiction History (includ. Geography) . Language 4 36 2 . 22 28 9 13 57 121 2 9 37 14 2 4 148 1 Law Medicine Miscellaneous Philosophy Poetry Politics Religion Science (Mathematical) Science (Natural and other) . Travels and Voyages 310 1730 193 338 Total 2571 APPENDIX. The distribution, according to language, is as follows : Uni-linguals 1960 Bi-linguals 331 Periodicals 280 Total 2571 783 This vast number of publications in the one Province of Bengal was issued in twelve languages : Arabic, Asamese, English, Hindi, Mussalmani, Bengali. Nepalese, Persian, Sanskrit, Sontali, Urdu, and Uriya. The number of separate books in English was 310, and the number of copies distributed 370,127. The number of books in other languages was 2261, and the number of copies distributed was 4,486,573. During 1886 there were published in Bengal 66 magazines and periodicals, 11 of which were in English, and 55 in other languages. 3. MADRAS (Books only). Description op Works. Books published in English and other European Languages. Books published in the Vernacu- lar Languages spoken in the Province. Books published in the Indian Classical Languages. Books pub- lished in more than one Language. Total. Original Works.. . Translations Republications . . . Total 141 14 29 241 76 301 24 41 49 2 12 455 92 383 184 618 65 63 930 4. PANJAB. Subject. Original Works. Republi- cations. Trans- lations. Total. Art First Edition. New Edition. 3 40 9 3 118 5 15 43 431 2 242 21 3 2 7 80 4 16 1 1 16 8 2 1 3 9 49 17 26 215 113 108 184 524 4 530 64 9 2 2 6 9 5 18 56 28 89 106 89 1 271 27 4 1 1 1 5 34 19 4 1 8 Biography Fiction Miscellaneous Philosophy (including Mental and Moral [ Science) ) Science (Mathematical and Mechanical) Total 712 73 935 138 1857 784 APPENDIX. 5. NORTHWEST PROVINCES AND OUDH. Fifteen hundred works of all classes were published during the year 1866. This was an increase of about sixteen per cent, on the number of publications in 1885, and of nearly one hundred per cent, on the number issued in 1884. More books were written in Urdu than in any other language. Hindi works were the next most numerous. After this come the English, which increased twenty-five per cent, over the issues of 1885. Among the more notable publi- cations is the translation in Urdu of an American lecture on Electrical Phys- iology. 6. CENTRAL PROVINCES. Here one work only, a volume of poetry, was published. 7. BURMA. Here 141 publications were registered during the year 1886. Of these 20 were in European languages, 111 vernacular, and 10 biglot. Under the head of Drama there were 23 works ; History, 5 ; Language, 21 ; Law, 1 ; Miscella- neous, 23; Poetry, 19 ; Religion, 48 ; and Science, 1. 8. ASSAM. In this province 11 books were published. 9. MYSORE. Here 117 works were published, of which 64 were in the Kannada vernacular. 10. BANGALORE. The total number published was 12. 11. H AID ARAB AD. Here were 17 works issued, 16 of winch were in the Marhatti language and 1 in the Marwari. One was on history, one on language, and the remainder miscellaneous. INDEX. Abdulla. Kntab Shah, Sultan, the tomb of, 200. Aborigines, the, differences between the ^Hindus and, 124. Adam's Bridge, 244. Adam's Peak, 244. Adi Brahmo Soiuaj, the, 477-480. Afghan, the, or Mohammedan dynas- ties, 47-50. Agonies of English style, 356-366. Agra, capital of the Afghan govern- ment, 50. Agra and the Taj Mahal, 622-634. Agriculture, the great need for, 553- 555. Ahmadabad, 728-736. Ajmir, a day in, 721-727. Akbar, religious and literary tastes of, 54, 497 ; tomb of, 634 ; and the fakir Selim, 684 ; aud his city of Fathpur Sikri, 684-689. Alam Bagh, 602. Alain, Shah, tomb of, 731. Alexander's campaign in India, 24, 27, 30, 42-44, 661, 662. Alexandra College, the, 141. Aligarh, the Mohammedan college at, 678-683. Allahabad, a halt at, 574-578. Alps, the, compared with the Himalayas, 82. Alumni, what becomes of the college? 386. Amber, the old Eajput capital, 713, 714, 717-720. Amritsar, the Golden Temple of, 670- 677. Anar Kali, tomb of, at Lahor, 667. Anglo -Indian, the, attachment of, to India, 14. Anglo-Saxon, the, in India, 31-34; close kinship of, to the Hindu, 50 33, 38; contrasted with the Latin, 708. Animals, wild, lives destroyed by, 94 ; in Mysore, 303. Apk£ Shara^b — Your Honor's Fire- water, 516-536. "Apostolic Durbar," the, 485. Arabi Pasha, a visit to, 258, 259. Arabian Sea, on the, 8, 9. Armor, buying specimens of, at Haidar- abad, 201, 202. Army, the, 108-111. Arrian, writings of. concerning India, 23, 24. Artists at work in house decoration, 339, 340. Arya Somaj, the, 489-494. Aryan languages, the, 344, 345, 350, 351. Aryans, the ancient and modern, 33, 34; conquest of Indiaby, 36-40 ; relations of, to the Sanskrit language, 350. Ascent, the, to the temple of Trichinop- oli, 290-293. Asoka, king of Behar, propagates Bud- dhism, 41, 42, 416-418 ; the Pillar of, 577. Association, the National, for Supply- ing Female Medical Aid to the Wom- en of India, 458-462. Automata for household amusement, 189-191. Aylmer, Eose Whitworth, attachment between, aud Landor, 405-407. Babar and his family, 51-53. Bactro-Greek kingdom overthrown by the Scythians, 45. Baggage, careful handling of, 211. Bailey, George, a hero of the mutiny, 595. Baldwin Schools, the, in Bangalore, 304. 305. Bangalore, 300, 304-308. 786 INDEX. Banyan Tree, the Great, 341, 342. Barrow, Rev. Mr., the home, hospitality, and work of, 216, 217 ; at the home of, 224-230. Bassein — a dead Portuguese city, 739- 754. Bathing in the Ganges, 563-565, 574. Bazars, the, of Haidarabad, 186, 201. Beadon Square meetings, Calcutta, 388. Bed for travelling, 206-209. Beilby, Miss, connection of, ■with the Countess Dufferin Fund, 454-456. Benares, the Holy City, 559-568 ; a ride | through, 569-573. Benevolence of Parsis, 141-143; of i Hindus and Mohammedans, 143. Bichauna, the, or travelling outfit, 206- [ 209, 219. Bishop of Ceylon, Church Missionary Society and the, 313, 314. Black Hole, Fort William and the, 336, 337. Blavatsky, Madame, and Colonel Olcott, 231-243. Bombay, 10-13 ; touches of its history, 15-22; first scenes in, 31; Parsis in, 134, 137-152; an excursion from, to Elephauta, 153-161; presidency, in- crease of education in, 375. Book, an odd, 357-362. Books, preservation of, from ants and climate, 330; circulation of, 610, 611. Bose, Ram Chandra, "Brahinanism" of, 366 ; description of Hindu writers by, 616, 617. Botanical Gardens, near Calcutta, 340- 342. Brahma, the eighth incarnation of, 210, 501. Brahmanism, 409-413; restoration of, in India, 418. Brahmans, the, supremacy of, 40, 41, 410 ; cave-temples of, at Elephauta, 157-160 ; sacred books of, 409-413. Brahmaputra, the, 86. Brabmo Somaj, the, 478, 480-486. British India, comparative area and population of, 83. Browning's, Mrs., lines to an island, 255. Buddhism in India, 413-420. Buddhist towers at Sarnatb, 571-573. Buddhists, the, religious supremacy of, 41, 42; the cave-temple of, at Karli, 162-172; in Ceylon, 250; reverence of, for the Temple of the Sacred Tooth, 268, 269. Burdwan, Hindu college at, 377, 378. Burma, wars of the English with, 72. Caine, Mr., temperance measures of, in House of Commons, 525, 530, 531. Calcutta, voyage from Madras to, 313- 320; Lord Dufferin in, 321-325 ; pict- ures of, 326-335 ; Fort William and the Black Hole of, 336, 337 ; a rajah's home at, 338-340 ; the Botanic Gar- dens near, 340-342 ; a centre of Hindu education, 376, 385 ; college alumni at, 385 ; newspapers of, 387 ; the Ar- menian school in, 402. Canals, 129-131. Canning, Lord, 78, 121. Cantonment, the, 214. Carey, Marshman, and Ward, 434, 463- 471. Carvings at Srirangam, 296 ; Farhpur Sikri, 688, 689 ; Gwalior, 705, 706. Caste, source of, 41 ; among the Hindus, 422 j war against, by the Somajes, 504. Catacomb, a great, at Golconda, 196. Cave-temples of Elephauta, 153-161; the one at Karli, 162-172. Cawnpore, Christmas in, 579-584 ; re- miuders of the massacre at, 585-591. Ceylon, 244-273; the Church of Eng- land in, 313, 314 ; statistics of mis- sions in, 440 ; acreage of crops in, 547. Chandra Gupta meets Alexauder, 27 ; alliance of, with Seleukos, 44. Changiz Khan, 48. Char Minar, the. of Haidarabad, 186- 189. Cheapness of liquor in price and qual- ity, 529, 530. Child marriage, 760. China, opium forced on, 509-513. Chitini, the, 273. Chota Nagpur, increase of drunkenness at, 534, 535. Choti-hazari, the, 227. Christian workers in Cawnpore, 579- 584. Christianity, founding, progress, and degeneracy of early, in India, 309- 312; India's debt to, 378, 379; rela- tion of, to the English tenure of the country, 444 ; opposition to, by edu- cated and sceptical natives, 241, 242, 472-476. Christinas in Cawnpore, 579-584. Chuuder Sen, Keshub, home of, 331- INDEX. 787 335 ; work of, 477, 478, 480-487 ; testi- mony of, on the increase of intem- perance, 526, 527. Church, pankhas in, 230. , Christian, founding of the, in In- dia, 309-312. of England, the, 108; in Ceylon, 313, 314. in India, connection of the, with the Persian Church, 312. , the Roman Catholic, in India, 445-450. , St. Mary's, at Madras, 218, 222. Churches, a lesson in the location of, 319, 320. Cinchona-tree, the, of Ceylon, 256, 259. City, the typical Indian, 212-214 ; the English part of, 214. Clive, Robert, defeats Marhattas and delivers Bombay, 18; wins Bengal at Plassey, 19, 222; wins Northern In- dia, 70 ; policy of, 113, 114, 221 ; con- test of, with Dnpleix, 220, 221 ; at Trichinopoli, 287, 288; effect of the Black Hole outrage upon, 336, 337. Coal measures, comparative area of, 103. Coals to an Indian Newcastle, 231-243. College, after the, what? 385-389; the, at Serampore, 466 ; the Mohamme- dan, at Aligarh, 678-683. Colleges in India, 380-386. Colombo by the Sea, 244-254; road from, to Kandy, 255-263 ; contrasted "with Kandy, 264. Columbus, purpose and belief of, 64. Congress, a National, for India,, 763. Conolly's, Arthur, prayer-hook, the ro- mance of, 662, 663. Cottons, production and manufacture of, 97. Council, the Supreme, 106; the Supreme Legislative, 106, 107. Crime in India, decrease of, 757-760. Croley, Henry, courtesy and influence of, 183, 195. Crows, the, of Madras, 225, 226. Cultivated land in Iudia, 546, 547. Dacca, the muslins of, 542. Dacoity, 758. Danes, the missions of the, 66, 432-434. Dasyus, the, 36, 40. Dayanand Sarasvati, 490, 495, 499-501. Dead, the Parsis' method of disposing of the, 148-151. Debendra Nath Tagore, 477, 479, 480, 482. Delhi, 49, 50 ; the great mosque and the palace of, 57 ; successive cities of, .213, 214; astrouomical observatory at, 367 ; the Mogul metropolis, 635t- 641; the elder, 642-651 ; in the mu- tiny, 655-657. Dialects of India, the, 343-346. Dinner in India, order and rules of, 228-230. Dionysius, description of India by, 24, 25. Disestablishment Society in Calcutta, the, 316. Distillation, early, 516, 517; of Indian liquors, 519-521. Diwan i Amm, the, at Delhi, 636, 637. Dog, prominence of the, in Zoroastrian- ism, 146, 147. Doves, sacred, in Madura, 280, 281. Dravidiau tribes, the, 36, 40; languages, 345. Duff, Alexander, educational policy of, 374 ; triumph of, 385 ; work of, 436. Dufferiu, Countess, 80, 322; Fund for Female Medical Aid, 454-462. Dufferin, Lord, 80, 106; in Calcutta, 321-325. Dnpleix and Bourdonnais, 67, 68. Dutch, the, follow and expel the Portu- guese, 66 ; in Ceylou, 246, 249, 266. East India Company, the, 16-18 ; great growth of, 69; extinction of, 76; rules of, 105; purchase of Madras by, 217 ; development of, 367, 368 ; skill of, in the selection of men, 391 ; and the opium traffic, 506-511. Eastwick, description of a Parsi bier by, 148. Education, 108, 367-389; at Madura University for girls and boys, 278; too secular, 476. Elephanta, a sail to the cave-temples of, 153-161. Elephants, 92; ride on, 183-192, 713, 714 ; sacred, in Madura, 281 ; at Srirangam, 297. England's rule of Iudia, 32, 755-766. English, the, in Iudia, 69-80, 293, 307, 368; wars of, with the Marhattas, 63 ; assisted iu war by the natives, 113-121 ; vices of, carried to the In- dians, 126 ; assisted by the Parsis, 136 ; memorials of, in Puna, 174 ; por- tion of cities used by, for homes, 214, 217 ; in Ceylon, 246, 249, 266 ; in Southern India, 287-289 ; language, 788 INDEX. words of, introduced into Indian dia- lects, 353 ; style, the agonies of, 356- 366; writers'in India, 390-408; re- . Tenge at Cawnpore, 588; preserva- tion of ruins by, 708. Europe, organized by the Aryan race, 38, 39. European railroads, extension of, to In- dia, 128, 129. Europeans in India, 23-30, 64-80 ; rela- tions of the Parsis with, 136, 137. Evangelization of the educated natives, 387-389. False faiths, the downward trend of, 162 ; unwise concessions to, by the government, 371, 372. Famine produced by opium culture, 513, 514. Famines of India, 537-539. Fathpur Sikri, the ruins of, 684-689. Feudal States, the, 113-121. "Filtration" scheme, the, 374. Finance, educational, a good example of, 682, 683. Fishery, the pearl, 273, 274. Flowers, culture of, 212, 226, 268. Forests, spoliation of, 97 ; in Mysore, 303. Fort, the old, at Puna, 174 ; of Gol- conda, 192-199 ; at Madras, 220, 222 ; at Bangalore, 308 ; William and the Black Hole, at Calcutta, 336, 337. Fortress, combination of, and temple, ' 286. ■ Fowler's, Bishop, description of the Singhalese palm, 101-103. Francis, Sir Philip, career of, 391-394. Franciscan Church, the, at Bassein, 746, 747. French, the, 63, 67-69 ; contest with, by the English, 68, 69, 220-222, 287-289; tribute to English rule, a, 766. Gama, Vasco da, discovers sea-route to India, 65, 309. I Ganges, the, 86-90; growths in the valley of, 97; canal, 130; the Delta of, 318 ; morning scene along, 563- 565; drifting with, 566-568; the charm of, 584. . Garden, a beautiful, 191 ; at Bangalore, 306 ; at the Taj Mahal, 627, 628, 631. Gardens, the Botanical, near Calcutta, 340-342 ; of Begum Samru, 684, 685. Gautama Buddha, 413-416. Ghats, the Western, 85. Golconda, 183 ; the fort and tombs of, 192-202. Gordon, the Bible of General, 2, 3. Government of India, 105-112; the, and education, 108, 373, 476 ; encour- ages the building of railroads, 127 ; builds canals for commerce and for irrigation, 129-131 ; owns telegraph, 131, 132; House, the, at Calcutta, 326; support of idol worship, 371, 372 ; of the universities, 384 ; support of the opium traffic, 505-515 ; and the liquor traffic, 521-526. Governors-General, two classes of, 321; • palace of, 326-329. Graeco-Bactrian kings invade India, 44. Grand, Madame, 394, 395. Granth, the, the sacred book of the Sikhs, 672, 675. Greece, early, as related to India, 23 ; parallelism between the philosophy of, and of India, 28 ; mythology of, and of India, 42. Greek records of India, 23, 24, 43 ; su- premacy in India, 42-44; coins found in India, 44. Greeks, influence of, on art and science of India, 44 ; assistance of, in the sculpturesofthecave-temples,159,160. Gurus, the, of the Sikhs, 425-427. Gwalior, the palaces of, 690-700; the temples of, 701-709. Gypsies, the, 126. Haidar Ali, 300. Haidarabad, the Nizam's, 178-182; an elephant ride in aud about, 183-191 ; historical connection of, with Gol- conda, 198. Hall, the, of One Thousand Columns, at Madura, 280 ; at Srirangam, 296 ; of Tirumal Nayak, 284 ; of Private Au- dience at Delhi, 637-640. Harbor of Colombo, 245, 246. Hardy's, Spence, "Eastern Mona- chism," 250, 270. Hastings, Warren, 63; literary ability of, 391, 392; quarrel of, with Sir. Philip Francis, 391, 393, 394; con- nection of, with the opium traffic, 508, 509, 511. Havelock, Henry, character and death of, 75-77 ; arrival of, at Lucknow, 599 ; tomb and military career of, 603, 604. Heber, Bishop, opinion of, concerning the apostle Thomas in India, 310. INDEX. 789 Hichy's Gazette, 398. Hill of Trichiuopoli, 287-293 ; Gwalior, 690, 694. Hill Tribes, the, the religion of, 428- 431. Himalaya Mountains, the, 81, 82. Hindi Catalogue, Kishore's, 608-610. Hinduism, 420-422 ; reformatory move- ments of, 477-504. Hindus, the, the arts and sciences of, 29, 30; supremacy of, 45-47; con- quered hut not converted by the Moguls, 58 : differences between, and the wild tribes, 124 ; hostility of, and the Mohammedans in Haidarabad, 180 ; tombs of wealthy, 199 ; crowds of, on trains, 210; opposition of, to thorough education, 368 ; the higher schools of, 376-379; Benares, the holy city of, 559-563 ; writers of, dreamy, 616, 617 ; in a Mohammedan college, 681. Hindustani, the, 344. Hodgson's, Mr. Richard, investigation of Theosophy, 239, 240. Hoi well, J. Z., studies and writings of, on India, 396, 397. Hotels of India, 214, 215. Humors of the Indian languages, 353- 355 " Hut of Two Days and a Half," 722- 727. Idolatry, debasing, at Madura, 282-284. Iudia, first view of the coast of, 10 ; Europeans in, 23-30, 64-80; mani- fold ownership of, 31, 32; extent of, 32, 83 ; in history, 32, 35-80 ; original inhabitants of, 35-37 ; the great in- vasions of, 37, 38 ; natural divisions of, 81-91 ; mountain systems of, 84, 85; summer resorts of, 85; rivers of, 85-90; lakes and tanks of, 90, 91; animal and vegetable life of, 92-103; minerals of, 103, 104, 764, 765 ; gov- ernment of, 105-112; the feudal states of, 113-121 ; the wild tribes of, 122- 126 ; railroads, canals, telegraphs, and postal system of, 127-133; the Parsis of, 134-152 ; ways of travel in, 203-215; Syrian Christians in, 309- 312; languages of, 343-346; battle of the English with the languages of, 347-352 ; humors of the languages of, 353-355 ; the universities of, 380- 384; English writers in, 390-408; re- ligious of, 409-431 ; the cradle of mis- sions in North, 463-465 ; the sceptical invasion of, 472-476; the Somajes of, 477-504 ; the opium curse of, 505-515 ; people of, temperate, 517-519; fam- ines of, 537-539; the industries of, 540 - 547 ; the poverty of, 548 - 556 ; current literature of, 612-618 ; Chris- tian literature in, 619-621 ; the path of conquest to, 658-662; what has England done for? 755-766. Iudo- American romance, an, 451-453. Indrapat, 650. Indus, the, 90. Industries, the Indian, 540-547; im- provements in, 764. Infanticide, 566, 759, 760. Insects, prevalence of and precautious against, 224, 225. Intemperance, iucrease of, 524-530; movements to arrest, 530-533; re- sults of, 533-536. Investments of the natives increasing, . 556. Irawadi, the, 85, 86. Iron Pillar, the, 650. Irrigation, 129-131 ; in Ceylon, 260. Jahan Numa, the, 189-191. Jahan, Shah, and the tomb of his wife, 625-632. Jahangir, a patron of literature, art, aud science, 54. Jai Singh, observatory of, 643. Jain worship, Gwalior an illustration of, 690-709 ; pontiffs, figures of, 707. Jainism, 422-424, 693. Jaipur, a Rajput capital, 710-720. Jama Masjid, of Delhi, 652-655; of Ahmadabad, 732. " James aud Mary" shoals, the, 316, 317. Jewels, concealed, 531, 552 ; the passion for, 555. Judson and Newell, 435, 436. Kabir, 496. Kachhwaha clan of Rajputs, the, 717, 718. Kanarese language, the, 345. Kandy, the enchanted road to, 255-263 ; and its wonders, 264-272. Karli, the cave-temple of, 162-172; the railway station at, 212. Kasi the Magnificent, 560. Keshnb Chunder Sen, a visit to the home of, 331-335 ; work of, 477, 478, 480-487; testimony of, on the in- crease of intemperance, 526, 527. 190 INDEX. Kbandala, 166. Khonds, the, 122, 125, 428-430. Kipling, Eudyarrl, 407, 408. Kishore, Newal, publishing house of, 604-611. Kob-i-nur, the, 428, 639. Kolasian tribes, 35, 123 ; languages, 345. Kuen-lun Mountains, the, 82. Kuli, Mohammed, tbe tomb of, 200. Kut Humi, 236. Kutab al Islam, 648-650. Kutab Minar, 644-647 ; the view from, 647, 648. Labor, four cities of, 214 ; the Panjab capital, 664, 669. Lake Region of England, the, Kandy a reminder of, 264. Land, cultivated, in India, 546, 547. Landor, Walter Savage, attachment and lines of, to Rose Aylmer, 405-407. Languages of India, the, 343-346 ; the battle of the English with, 347-352 ; humors of, 353-355. Letters from natives, in English, 363- 365 ; of Warren Hastings to his wife, 391. Library of Bishop Wilson, 329, 330; Bombay Asiatic Society, 330; at Kandy, 269, 270 ; at Serainpore, treasures of the, 467. Lily Cottage, 331-335. Liquor traffic, the government and the, 521-530. Liquors, the distillation of Indian, 519- 521. Literary Club at Aligarh, the, 683. Literature, the current, of India, 612- 618 ; Christian, in India, 619, 621. Lithographing in Lucknow, 606. London, the Arya Somaj in, 493, 494. Lucknow — the heart of the mutiny, 592- 596 ; memorials of the tnuti uy at, 597- 603. Macanlay, T. B., the uncle of, in Mysore, 303, 402; educational plan of, 372, 373; picture of Warren Hastings by, 392; connection of, with India, 401. Madras, irrigation in, 130; past and present, 216-223; university of, en- trance examination of, 305; voyage from, to Calcutta, 313-320. Madras Christian College Magazine, the exposure of Theosophy bv the, 234, 238, 239. Madrasi home, my, 224-230. Madura, cholera at, 275, 276; and its temple, 276-285. Mahabbarata, the, 41, 351. Maharaja, the palace of the, at Banga- lore, 306, 307; at Jaipur. 710, 713, 718. Maharaui, the, of Punna and Miss Beil- by, 454-457. Malayalam language, the, 345. Man Palace, the, or Chit Mandir, 697, 698. Manuscripts, the, of the Buddhist Li- brary, Kandy, 270. Marbles, 104. Marhattas, the, 58-63 ; seek to capture Bombay, 18; capital city of, Puna, 173-177; at Trichiuopoli* 288, 289. Marriage reform by the Brahmo Somaj, 481 ; by the Arya Somaj, 492 ; cere- mony, expense attending, 555, 759. Martyn, Henry, 435. Massacre, scene of the Cawnpore, 590, 591. Mather, Cotton, correspondence of, with Ziegenbalg, 451-453. Meals, time and courses of, in India, 227-230. Medical system, 112; aid, Countess Dufferin Fund for female, 454-462. Megasthenes, division of Indian castes by, 28. Memorial of the mutiny, near Delhi, 657. Military authorship of Anglo-Indiaus. 400. Minaret, view from a, in Benares, 568. Mineral wealth of India, 103, 104, 764, 765. Missionaries not disturbed by Theoso- phy, 243; philological labors of, 346, 352 ; influence of, upon popular edu- cation, 373, 374; of the Roman Cath- olic Church, 449, 450; relation of the National Association to, in medical work, 460, 461 ; a compliment to, from an enemy, 474. Missionary societies, aid of, in medical care, 112 ; Conference, Bombay, 1871, protest of, against government sup- port of idolatry, 371, 372; schools, government patronage of, 384 ; statis- tics of, 436-440 ; labor, dearth of, 440- 442. Missions, Protestant, in India. 432-444 ; the cradle of, in North India, 463-465. Mogul Empire, tbe, 47; Delhi, the me- tropolis of, 635-641; emperors, 50- INDEX. 791 58; patrons of art and literature, 54, 369 ; no popular educational effect from, 57, 58, 369, 370; conquest of the South by, 180, 181, 198, 199; chauge of residence of, 622 ; use made of the Portuguese by, 743. Mohammedanism, 425. Mohammedans in India, four classes of, 48; conquered by the Marhattas, 61 ; hated by the Hindus, 180, 181 ; oppo- sition of, to thorough education, 368 ; yielding to intemperance, 527 ; yield- ing to liberal ideas, 619; tbe college of, at Aligarb, 678-683; contrasted with tbe Hindus, 731. Monkey temple in Benares, 570, 571. Monotheism of tbe Parsis, 144 ; orig- inal, of the Hindus, 496. Mookerjee, Onocool Cbunder, Memoir of, 357-362. Moouligb t view of theTaj Mahal ,631, 632. Moorshedabad, district of, fewness of missions in, 441. Mosque, the Great, at Delhi, 652-655; at Ajmir, 722-727. Mountains of Ceylon, the, 244, 245. Mozumdar, Chandar, 484, 485. Miiller, Max, letter from Cbunder Sen to, on the death of bis mother, 332. Muir, Dr., conclusion of, on the original languages of India, 348-350. Museum, the, of Colombo, 250; Banga- lore, 307, 308 ; Labor, 668, 669. Mutiny, tbe, 73-78; reminders of, 575- 577 ; Lucknow — the heart of, 592- 596; memorials of, 597-603; Delhi in, 655-657. Mysore, a run into, 300-308. Nana Sahib, leader of tbe mutiny, 75; revenge of, 585 ; trick of, 586, 587 ; capture of the treasures of, 588-590. Napoleon, story of Princess Talleyrand by, 395. Narbada, tbe, 90. Native rulers, loyal, power of, 113-121 ; English respect for, 338 ; prejudice, concessions to, in education, 370; publishing-house, a, 604-611. Natives, educated, number and influ- ence of, 386, 387 ; attitude of, tow- ards their ancestral faith, 387; ef- forts of missionaries for, 387-389; sentiment and action of, for tem- perance, 531, 532. New Dispensation, the, 480-486. Nicholson, John, death of, at Delhi, 656. Night-travel, difficulties of, 206; ram- ble at Kandy, 268. Nile, the Ganges compared with the, 86. Nizam, tbe, 117, 118 ; tbe capital citv of, Hairlarabad, 178-182. Non-Aryan, the, tribes, 35-37, 125, 126; languages, 350, 351. " Oil festival " at Madura, 231, 282. Olcott, Colonel, and Madame Blavatsky, 231-243. Old, the, and the new, iu India, in con- trast, 160 ; seen in Puna, 173 ; from, to tbe new, 379 ; in Abniadabad, 728. Onocool Cbunder Mookerjee, Memoir of, 357-362. Opium curse of India, tbe, 505-515. Out-still system, tbe, 523-526. Pagoda, the, of Madura, 276-285. Pal Suhan, 679. Palaces of Gwalior, the, 690-700. Pali language, the, 348. Palm, varieties and uses of tbe, 98-103, 256. Palmer, Professor, the death of, 5. Palms of Ceylon, the, 256. Panjab, tbe, the settlement of, by the Aryans, 39 ; secured to England, 73, 428; University, 383, 384 ; a tour into, 658-683 ; capital— Labor, 664-669. Panklia, the, 230. Parsis, the, 134-152. Parvati, excursion to, from Puna, 174- 177. Passion Play, the, at Goa and Bassein, 750-752. Peacock throne, the, 638, 639. Pearl fishery, the, 273, 274. Pearl Mosque, the, 57, 633, 634, 640, 641. Permit, a royal, 183, 184. Persian empire, the, founded by Aryans, 38 ; Church, connection of the apostle Thomas with the, 310, 311. Pilgrims to the Madura temple, 283 ; Srirangam temple, 298, 299. Plassey, the battle of, 70, 111. Plea for high marks, a, 363. Pleader, a remarkable, 359, 360. Police, the, 111, 112. Polo, Marco, 64, 310. Pool of Immortality, the, 672. Popular education, the first step tow- ards, 373 ; two plans of, 374. Poppy, culture of the, 505-509, 513, 514. Porcelain tiling, wonderful coloring on, 200. 792 INDEX. Portuguese, the, in India, 15, 16, C4-66, 309; in Ceylon, 246, 249, 266; city, Bassein — a dead, 739-754. Postal system, the, 132, 133. Poverty of India, 548-556. Prayer of the Parsis, 145, 146. Pre-Aryan races, specimens of, in the Vindhya plateau, 84. Prince of Wales, effect of the tour of, 540, 541. Protestant missions, first, by Danes, 309 ; in India, 432-444. Psychical Research, the Society for, in Loudon, investigation of Theosophy by, 239-241. Publishing-house, a native, 604-611. Puna, the Marhatta capital, 173-177. Quadrangles, the seven, at Srirangam, 297. Queen's College, Benares, 571. Queen's Proclamation, the, 78. Queen Victoria, efforts of, in aid of the Countess Dutferiu Fund, 454-457. Railroads, 127-129, 209, 210. Railway travel, 203-214. Rajah, home of a, in Calcutta, 338- 340. Rajib Ali, Padre, 670. Rajput capital, a — Jaipur, 710-720. Rajputs, the, 714-718, 721, 722. Ramayana, the, 41, 351. Rammohun Roy, 477-479. Rani Sipri Mosque, 731, 732. Reading as a preventive of sea-sick- ness, 8. Red Sea, on the, 5, 6. Regulating Act, the, 70. Religions of India, the, 409-431. Religions significance of the reform- atory movements, 495-504. Residency at Lucknow, the, 597-599. Resident, the English, 118-121. " Rest houses," 214, 215. - Rice in Ceylon, 259-261. Rig Veda, the, 40. Ripon, Lord, plans of, for reform, 78- 80 ; popularity of, 321, 322. Roads, the wonderful, up Gwalior, 706, 707. Rocks, near Haidarabad, 179, 180. Roe, Sir Thomas, 390. Roman Catholic Church, the, in India, 445-450. Roman characters, increasing use of, in literature, 351, 352. Ruins of Fathpur Sikri, the, 684-689; Bassein, 739-754. Sacred Tooth of Buddha, temple of the, 266, 268, 270-272. Sadharan Brahmo Somaj, the, 486-489. Sahyadri Mountains, the, 85. Saint Joseph's Cathedral at Bassein, 745, 746. Salar Jang, Sir, the elder, 117, 118 ; the younger, 178, 179 ; a pass from, 184. Sanitarium for the poor Parsis, 142. Sauitary condition of India improving, 761-763. Sanskrit, the origin of, 39, 348 ; table of words from, compared with Zend, Greek, Latin, and English, 347 ; lit- erature of, 351. Saruath, old, 571-573. Sasbahu and Sahasra-bahu, 702-706. Sati, 758, 759. Satpura Mountains, the, 84, 85. Say ad Ahmad Bahadur, 678, 679, 683. Sceptical invasion of India, the, 472- 476. Schools, the higher Hindu, 376-379. Schwarz, 434. Screen of Altamsh, the, at Ajmir, 726, 727. Scythian invasion, the, 45. Secretary of State for India and the Council, 106. Sepoy mutiny, the, 73-78 ; change of government, a result of, 106. Serampore, 66, 463-471. Shahji, founder of the Marhattas, 61. Shalamar Gardens, the, 667. Sidi S'aid's mosque at Ahmadabad, 732. Sikaudarabad, English camp at, 118- 121. Sikandra Bagh in Lucknow, 601. Sikhs, the, 425-428 ; loyalty of, at Alla- habad, 576 ; and their temple at Am- ritsar, 670-677. Silt deposit of the Ganges, 86-90. Simla, the summer home of the viceroy, 85. Singhalese palms, the, 101-103, 256; • coast, pearls on the, 274. Sinnett, A. P., a disciple of Theosophy, 232. Siva, figures of, at Madura, 279, 283. Sivaji, the Marhatta warrior, 61, 62. Sivanath Sastri, statement of the mis- sion of the Sadharan Somaj by, 487. Sleeping accommodations, 209, 214, 215. INDEX. 793 Somajes of India, the, 477-494 ; the re- lation of, to Christianity, 498, 501- 504. "JSpicy breezes," a fact, 246. Srirangam temple, the, 294-299. Stones, precious, 103, 104, 272, 295; in the Taj Mahal, 629, 630, 632. Style, the agonies of English, 356-366. Sudder still system, 522. Sndras, the, 41. Suez, at, 3, 4 ; Gulf of, heat and scenery of, 5. Sultan, relation of, to Arabi Pasha, 254. Sunset at Gwalior, 709. Surat, French settlement at, 67 ; Parsis at, 137. Sutlej, the, on board, 4-14 ; Parsis on, 134, 145. Sympathy, a letter of, 363, 364. Syrian Christians in India, the, 309- 312. Taj Mahal, the, 57, 553 ; Agra and, 622- 634. Talleyrand, marriage of, with Madame Grand, 394, 395. Tamil language, the, 345; "Minor Poets," 370; publications in, 620. Tanks, great, 91. Taragarh, Fort, at Ajmir, 721, 722. Taylor, William, anecdote of, 210. Tea-drying at Bangalore, 306. Tea-gardens of Ceylon, 259. Tea-industry, injury to, by the liquor curse, 528. Teak, production and use of, 98. Telegraph system, the, 131, 132. Teli Maudir, 701, 702. Telugu language, the, 345. Temperance societies for India, 531, 532. Temple -fortress, the, of Trichinopoli, 286-293; the Golden, of Amritsar, 670-677. Temples at Parvati, 174-177 ; of Gwa- lior, 701-709. Thackeray, William Makepeace, con- nection of, with India, 402-404. Thags, the, 758. "Theistic Hymns" of the Arya Somaj, 493,494. Theistic reform movements, 477-504. Theosophical Society, the founding and rules of the, 231. Theosojihist, The, 232. Theosophy, the vagary of, 233-242. Thomas, the apostle, tradition of, 309- 312. Thousand Arms, the temple of a, 702- 706. Tibeto-Burmau tribes, 35. Tiffin, 228, 354. Tigers, 92. " Tipu's Lookout," 180. Tirumal Nayak, 279, 284, 285. Tombs of the kings at Golconda, 199- 201. Tooth of Buddha, the Sacred, temple of, 266, 268-272. Towers of Silence, the, 148. Trade, formal opening of, between Eng- land and India, 390, 391. Tranquebar, 66. Travel, methods of, improving, 128, 761 ; ways of Indian, 203-215. Tribes, native wild, grouped, 123. Trichinopoli, the temple - fortress of, 286-293. Trust as a college endowment, 469. Tntikorin, 273-276. Unification of India, the, by English rule, 755-757. Universities, degrees given by the, 374 ; the, of India, 380-384. University, the, of Madura, 277-279; of Aligarh. 376 ; the Calcutta, 377, 383. 385 ; the Panjab, 383, 384. Urdu, the, 344. Vedas, the, earlier and later, 40 ; Hindu respect for, 502. Vegetation, the wonderful, at Golconda, 196, 197, 201 ; of Ceylon, 255-262 ; at Basseiu, 748-750. Vepery, the English part of Madras, 217.' Viceroy, the, or Governor-General, 106. Vindhya^ Mountains, the, 84. Vines, the wonderful, of Ceylon, 262. Vishnu, temple of, at Srirangam, 294- 299. Vultures, the, of Bombay, 149-151. Walk, a, through old Serampore, 466- 471. Wall of Akbar, the, at Fathpur Sikri. 685, 686. War, the opium, 512, 513. Wars, the constant, in India, 172, 755- 757. Weaving, the art of, 542-546. Well of Knowledge, the, 569, 570, 762. Wellington, Lord, services of, in India, 19. 794 INDEX. Wesleyans, the, in Ceylon, 250 ; in My- sore, 304. Wheeler, General, at the tornb of, 591. William, Fort, and the Black Hole, 336, 337. Williams, Monier, on the Parsi method of disposing of their dead, 150, 151 ; description of the "oil festival" at the Madura temple by, 281, 282 ; de- scription of Hinduism by, 421, 422. Wilson, Bishop, library of, 329, 330. Windows, the five wonderful, of the Mosque of Sidi S'aid, 732-735; of pearl oyster-shells, 744. Woman's place in Indian letters, 618. Women of India, medical help for the, 454-462. Xavier, Francis, 445-450, 739-741 ; mod- ern offspring of the missions of, 752, 753. Yale, Elihu, governor of Madras, 222, 223. Zend-Avesta, the, 145, 146. Ziegenbalg,66; and Plutschan, 432, 433; letter of, to Cotton Mather, 451. Zoroaster, attachment of the Parsis to the religion of, 135 ; life of, 144. THE END. L'BRARY OF CONGRESS .0 029 897 584 1