! I I AUXILIARY EDUCATION ,fHE CARE AND TRAINING IQF BACKWARD CHILDREN I I i !j ! il = 'l l:i!,';i I. I I i'i ill'.'. n{ il (\\ i>: 1 R 3 •: M AEKr::N:E:i I III III I GopyiightN°_ COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT AUXILIARY EDUCATION ni )K ^ \ ^ \' AUXILIARY EDUCATION THE TRAINING OF BACKWARD CHILDREN TRANSLATED BY EMMA SYLVESTER, Pd. M. - Principal Public School No. 35, Manhattan, New York City From the German of Dr. B. Maemiel NEW YORK DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY 1909 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED, INCLUDING THAT OF TRANSLATION INTO FOREIGN LANGUAGES, INCLUDING THE SCANDINAVIAN COPYRIGHT, IQOg, BY DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY PUBLISHED, SEPTEMBER, IQOQ SEP 11 1909 DEDICATED TO W. REEST, LITT. D., PH. D. PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY AT JENA PREFACE The difficulties of making an adequate trans- lation of any text are too well understood and appreciated to need comment. In the following translation of Dr. Maennel's book, the aim has been to present the important thoughts of the original as closely as was consistent with their transfer from the German into the English language. The translator hereby acknowledges her indebt- edness to all who assisted by advice, encouragement, or by reading and criticism of the manuscript. The final chapter of the work in our own country was compiled from numerous sources. E. S. Jm/«/, 1909. vl3 CONTENTS I. History of the Rise and Development of Auxiliary Schools .... 3 II. Why Auxiliary Schools were Established . 23 III. What Plan Shall be Followed in Admitting Pupils to Auxiliary Schools, and What Pupils Shall Be Considered Eligible ? . 39 IV. The Parents, and the Environment of Aux- iliary School Pupils ( Before and During Attendance at School ) ... 70 V. The Health of Auxiliary School Pupils . 79 VI. The Auxiliary School Pupil and his Char- acteristic Traits .... 90 VII. The Auxiliary School Building . . .124 VIII. The Organization of an Auxiliary School and the Classification of Its Pupils . 128 IX. The Programme . . . . .133 X. The Course of Study . . . . 138 XI. Methods of Teaching . , , ,151 X AUXILIARY EDUCATION CHAPTER PAGE XII. Auxiliary School Discipline . . . 162 XIII. The Preparation of the Auxiliary School Pupil for the Church .... 171 XIV. The Relation of the State toward the Aux- iliary School ..... 176 XV. The Teaching Force of the Auxiliary School — - the Teachers and the Principal . 189 XVI. The Pedagogical Value of the Auxiliary School 198 XVII. The Education of Exceptional Children in the United States .... 200 Bibliography ...... 245 INTRODUCTION In the Preface of the German Edition, the author states that these lectures were delivered in the Ernst Abbe Volkhaus at Jena from August 10-14, 1904. They formed one of the so-called "vacation courses" given there. Upon invitation of the publishers — B. Teubner, Leipzig — these lectures are here presented to the general public in some- what enlarged form. The author hopes to impress his readers with the great need of work among defective pupils, not only for its influence on the theory and practice of child study and education, but also for its influence on the welfare of the people at large. He hopes, furthermore, to win for the cause such professional people as physicians, clergymen, and jurists, and indeed all those who possess the broader humani- tarian spirit. If he succeeds in this he feels that his work will not have been in vain. AUXILIARY EDUCATION AUXILIARY EDUCATION I HISTORY OF THE RISE AND DEVELOPMENT OF AUXILIARY SCHOOLS THE development of "auxiliary schools" for defective pupils may be traced to the middle years of the past century. These early beginnings were termed "additional" or "assist- ing" classes, and the first of these was established at Halle in Saxony. According to the minutes of a meeting of the school board held in Septem- ber, 1859, Mr. Haupt, principal of one of the schools, recommended the "formation of a sepa- rate or special class for defective pupils (num- bering seventeen), providing for about two hours of instruction daily." This recommenda- tion was carried into effect by the school author- ities ; a teacher from a regular school (Volksschule) was directed to give two hours instruction daily to those pupils who were not making satisfactory progress in the grades. It was some time before 3 4 AUXILIARY EDUCATION this plan found much favour; but in time pupils from various schools were gathered into one class and received twenty hours instruction per week. Still, we must concede to Principal Haupt the honour of having established the first auxil- iary class. (Principal Haupt died in 1904, after a long and eflScient service as councillor and school superintendent at Merseberg.) At Halle, in the meantime, the subject of auxiliary schools began to receive more careful attention, though, to be sure, it had been under- taken at first in a sort of half-hearted way, and with only practical ends in view; now the matter was given a more thorough and scientific founda- tion, and the principles underlying it received more careful attention and study. In 1863, K. F. Kern delivered a lecture before the pedagogical society at Leipzig, on the care and training of defective children. He recommended, nay urged, the establishment of special schools for pupils who were unable to keep pace with their fellows. In 1864, Th. Stotzner published the first pam- phlet bearing on the subject: "Schools for Defec- tive Children; A Plan for their Organization." The pamphlet contained an earnest appeal to all school authorities to establish schools for deficient pupils, especially in the larger cities. It was RISE AND DEVELOPMENT 5 hoped by that means of these schools those unfor- tunate children who so often become a burden to the community in which iliej live might be devel- oped into useful citizens. This was to be accom- plished with the aid of suitable teachers and a carefully adapted course of instruction. In 1865, at a meeting of the general German Teachers' Association held at Leipzig, Stotzner and Kern organized a society for the study of what may be termed pedagogical hygiene. In the same year, they established also a society for the study of the educational advancement of mentally deficient children, with headquarters at Hanover. This society, however, did not remain in existence very long. The Kern-Stotzner suggestions were carried into effect in Dresden long before they became opera- tive in Leipzig. In the former city an auxiliary class registering sixteen pupils was established as early as 1867. Other places, notably Gera and Elberfeld, followed in the seventies, Brunswick and Leipzig about 1881. Berlin took no part in the movement until 1898; in this year a num- ber of auxiliary or special classes were established for pupils who could not successfully carry out the regular course of instruction owing to physical or psychical defects. The special instruction aimed 6 AUXILIARY EDUCATION to advance these pupils so that they might later be admitted again into the regular grades; or, if this failed, to give them whatever preparation they were capable of receiving in order to fit them, as far as possible, for self-support. The oflBcial report of the city authorities (of Berlin) contains the following, in explanation of the city's failure to establish separate auxiliary schools: "A num- ber of cities and towns have established separate or special auxiliary schools; we have not done so for the following reasons: In the first place, the distances to and from the schools would be too great, in a large city like Berlin; secondly, the assignment of pupils to a special school would brand them as inferior — perhaps, in many cases, prematurely or without suflficient cause. We have therefore preferred to retain the pupil in his own school district; to place him in a class of small register, where he can receive more careful atten- tion and instruction. We purpose to bring him back into association with normal children as soon as possible — that is, we aim to replace special instruction by regular instruction at the earliest possible moment." In classes of this kind, the register does not exceed twelve pupils, and they receive twelve periods of instruction per week. Usually the pupils admitted to these special RISE AND DEVELOPMENT 7 classes are such as have attended the regular schools for a period of at least two years without making satisfactory progress. We must acknow- ledge, however, that our aim {i. e., that of returning pupils to regular instruction) has sel- dom been accomplished. In 1903, for example, there were 91 special classes in Berlin, with 755 boys and 547 girls; of this whole number, 36 boys and 29 girls were returned to the regular grades. As a result, Berlin finally established a system of special classes, based somewhat closely upon the plan of the previously organized auxil- iary schools of other German cities. In 1903, according to P. v. Gizycki, the 91 classes men- tioned above were distributed among some 41 different schools. The Prussian department of education has not taken kindly to the Berlin plan; on the contrary, it has advocated the plan fol- lowed at Halle, recognizing the need of auxiliary schools, rather than special classes. Under date of October 27, 1892, the Prussian minister of education criticizes somewhat severely the plan followed in certain cities with large school systems, i. e., the plan of the so-called " Abschluss- klassen" (finishing classes) intended for pupils who were unable to attain the standard set for nor- mal pupils in the Volksschulen, In November, 8 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 1892, these classes (Abschlussklassen) underwent an investigation, and, as a result, certain regula- tions were formulated, tending to establish impor- tant points concerning the further and more effec- tive development of auxiliary schools. One point deserves special mention here — the minister makes a careful distinction between children neglected at home, and those who are naturally deficient. Of the latter, only those "who, during at least two years' attendance at the Volksschule, have shown themselves incapable of attaining the standard set, are indicated as requiring special attention and instruction. These children must show, however, that they are capable of receiv- ing some degree of training. The advice and cooperation of a physician are shown to be of prime importance in deciding the question of assigning pupils to special classes, inasmuch as physical imperfections and previous illnesses often exert a strong influence on psychical devel- opment. The records of the development of individual pupils, when carefully made, have proved very useful." It was shown, in addition, that many of the larger cities now supply abundant means so that the register of auxiliary classes need not exceed twenty-five pupils. By means of an extra remun- RISE AND DEVELOPMENT 9 eration (in addition to the regular salary) excel- lent teachers of both sexes are secured for work in auxiliary schools and classes. These teachers are drawn from among the very best in the Volks- schulen. The designation auxiliary classes (Hilfs- klassen) for children of subnormal endowment is "regarded as the most appropriate, and is the one most frequently used — chiefly out of con- cern for the feelings of the parents of such children." The minister further recommends that the periods of instruction should not exceed half an hour in length; that the standard set be consider- ably lower than in corresponding classes for nor- mal children ; and finally, that the work assigned to the highest grade of the auxiliary school correspond roughly to that of about the middle grade of the regular Voiksschule course, and that in auxiliary classes, special stress be placed upon such sub- jects as will develop dexterity and practical skill. In April, 1901, the Prussian minister again enters the field with a detailed account of the then existing schools for subnormal children of school age. At that time, there were, in 42 cities, some 91 schools, containing 4,728 pupils distrib- uted among 233 classes. Concerning the ques- tion of the auxiliary school's need of a physician, 10 AUXILIARY EDUCATION the following statement is made: "Regular and periodic examinations by physicians are indispensable. Before the next report is made, I trust that every auxiliary school will have its own regular physician." Concerning the trans- fer of pupils from auxiliary schools to the regular schools, he says: "In certain places it is customary to transfer the older pupils from auxiliary classes into the lower grades of the Volksschule. Such transfers should never be made; the great dif- ference in age between pupils so transferred, and those of normal development, tends to produce and to enhance the very difficulties which the establishment of special classes aims to prevent; and the deficient pupils would soon be sent out of the schools inefficient as far as self-support is concerned." In short, the Prussian educational authorities have approved of what has been accomplished in the establishment of special classes for defectives, and have encouraged their further organization. (While this book was in press, another report has appeared under date of January 2, 1905; it points with approval to the fact that many changes suggested in former reports have been carried out.) The teachers in Prussian auxiliary schools are to be congratulated on the stand taken by their educational authori- RISE AND DEVELOPMENT 11 ties. The cause of auxiliary schools will prosper in Prussia because of this ; the authorities have shown that they have confidence in the insight and gener- osity of the larger communities, as well as in the zeal and devotion of those who labour for the cause of auxiliary schools. Such confidence will bring about better results than much legislation on the subject. So far as can be learned, the Prussian authorities have issued no regulations whatever; they have concerned themselves entirely with the gathering of information on the subject, and recommending for adoption those measures found most worthy. Other German states soon followed the lead of Prussia. According to a report published in the Schulblatt of Saxony in January, 1905, there were, at that time in 180 cities, some 492 classes for defective pupils, giving special instruc- tion to 5,868 boys and 4,753 girls. If we include the city of Berlin, we have 583 classes, with 6,623 boys and 5,300 girls. That a lively interest is manifested in this class of schools in Germany, is evidenced by the fact that the principals, teachers, and others interested in the work, are banding themselves together, form- ing various associations. In 1898, there was formed a national association of auxiliary schools, and 12 AUXILIARY EDUCATION Dr. Wehrhau, city superintendent at Hanover, was chosen president. In the smaller cities and towns, similar associations were formed. These serve to encourage and to stimulate to further service and study every one who joins them. Discussions on various topics related to the subject appear from time to time in the general pedagogical press, and in other publications devoted exclusively to auxiliary school affairs. Among the latter may be mentioned the proceed- ings of the national association, the Zeitschrift fiir die Behandlung Schwachsinniger und Epilep- tischer (dealing with the care and training of the feeble-minded and epileptics); the Kinderfehler^ a publication devoted exclusively to the question of the German auxiliary school movement; the Zeitschrift fiir pddagogische Psychologie und Pathologie; contributions from the fields of pedagogical psychology and pedagogy in general; the Hilfsschule, and the recently established EoSy a quarterly publication devoted to the science and treatment of abnormal children. In addition to these, there is an extensive collection of independent literature on closely related sub- jects — so extensive and so important, indeed, as to call for a reliable bibliography to serve as a guide. RISE AND DEVELOPMENT 13 The auxiliary school movement, if so it may be called, has recently gained a foothold in other countries beside Germany. According to the Zeitschrift fur Schulgesundheitspflege (a journal devoted to the consideration of school hygiene) a special school for defectives was considered in Austria in 1895. In accordance with the decree of a certain district school board in the city of Vienna, defective pupils were withdrawn from the Volksschulen and " burgher" schools and placed in separate classes for special instruction. Further- more, a special department of instruction was established to care for all defective children of school age. In 1902, an effort was made to bring about a closer connection between schools of this type, and to further the establishment of these schools in the cities, towns, and smaller com- munities. This was the aim of the "Association for the Care of the Feeble-minded," which also devotes itself to the care of defective children dis- missed from the auxiliary schools, and to such children as are in need of legal protection. On the whole, however, the organization of the work for the feeble-minded has made but little progress in Austria so far. "The total number of auxil- iary classes in all of Austria is less than half that in Hamburg alone. By far the greater number of 14 AUXILIARY EDUCATION such children are still left entirely without any instruction, or remain in the regular Volksschulen." In 1905 (according to Eos), Hungary became interested in the partially abnormal child, but to date little has been done in the matter of organ- izing special schools or classes, except, perhaps, at Budapest. It is to be hoped, however, that the Hungarian Commission of School Hygiene will soon direct its energies toward the organization of such schools; and that the excellent recommen- dations (submitted by its chairman. Dr. A. v. Naray, of Szabo) concerning the special scien- tific training of auxiliary school teachers, will produce the desired effect. Auxiliary schools have been in operation in Switzerland since 1888. Basel and Berne each claim the distinction of having been the pioneer in their establishment, but they did not long continue alone in the field. Their example was soon followed by other cities and towns, so that in 1903, we find at least 53 classes registering 1,096 pupils; 55 teachers (12 men, 43 women) were engaged in giving the necessary instruction. For the purpose of securing uniformity and system in the rapidly developing auxiliary school move- ment, the " Schweizerische Gemeinniitzige Ges- ellschaft" (Swiss Association for Furthering the RISE AND DEVELOPMENT 15 Public Welfare) established a special course for the training of auxiliary school teachers in 1898. The first of these courses was given in Zurich in the early part of the school year 1899-1900, and met with great success. Italy has no regular auxiliary classes as yet. In some of the larger Italian cities, however, back- ward pupils in the public schools are brought together and instructed by a woman teacher. In 1898, a national association for the care of feeble-minded children was organized. Among other things, this association recommended that instruction for the feeble-minded be given in special classes, in connection with the regular elementary schools. All pupils who were capable of receiving instruction at all {i. e., those not too far below the normal) were to be placed in separate classes to receive instruction suited to their needs and abilities. K. Richter states that in 1900, a sort of teachers' seminary was estab- lished in Rome; its object was to train teachers in the care and treatment of defectives. In 1899, Dr. Sante de Sanctis established inde- pendently a sort of ** asylum school," in Rome, for feeble-minded children of poor parents. The school is a sort of "day home," and accommodates about forty pupils. The preceptress (who was 16 AUXILIARY EDUCATION at one time an elementary school teacher) works under the direction of Dr. de Sanctis, who is an eminent psychiatrist. The teaching force consists of the preceptress, a teacher of music, a teacher of physical training, and a teacher whose duty it is to train the children to speak correctly; i. e., to correct the defects of speech so common among abnormal children. No regular system of studies is carried out, however, as is shown in the institu- tion's report of April 16, 1903; greater stress is laid on the medical and general educational phases than on the regular, formal, school training. It must be noted in passing, that much hard and persistent work must still be done before the aims of the national association can be realized even approximately, because in Italy compulsory atten- dance at the schools ends with the tenth year. The French have not yet been fully convinced of the need for, and value of, general treatment for feeble-minded children. The Parisian journal, Foi et Vie (November, 1904), calls attention to the fact that Seguin, Bost, and Bourneville made investigations respectively upon the mental, moral, and social capabilities of defectives in general; but aside from reports on the "medico-pedagogi- cal method" employed at Bicetre, near Paris, there is no general movement on behalf of defec- RISE AND DEVELOPMENT 17 lives in France. The author of the essay "Pour les enfants anormaux" (in Manuel general de V in- struction primaire, 1904), states: "The most auto- cratically governed countries of Europe have made provision for the instruction of the masses; in addition, they have provided schools for the ner- vous, the deaf and dumb, and even for the idiotic. With us, the opposite is true; though French scholars were the first to point the way toward improving the natural defects of development, we as a people have done nothing; and in many families, defective children are permitted to grow up as best they can. Poor creatures destined to enter the struggle for existence, entirely unprepared ! Russia has, so far, done little or nothing for defectives. An institution at St. Petersburg — maintained by a religious order, and under the patronage of the dowager empress — receives and instructs epileptic and idiotic children from poor homes. In the same city. Dr. Maljarewski has conducted a sort of medico-pedagogical institu- tion since 1882; Dr. Maljarewski receives only idiotic and feeble-minded children from the wealthier circles. The Swedish Teachers' Journal of December, 1904, states that "Stockholm will shortly estab- lish auxiliary classes in connection with the 18 AUXILIARY EDUCATION Volksschulen." Since 1900, the teachers of Stock- holm have been calling the attention of the authori- ties to those "abnormal children, who are handi- capped in their development," and even advised methods of instructmg such children. About the same time. Dr. G. Hellstrom showed that of the 25,089 pupils in the elementary schools of Stockholm, 87 (0.35 per cent.) were foolish, and 473 (1.88 per cent.) were backward. The authori- ties decided to organize auxiliary classes, whose register should not exceed twelve (12). Pupils admitted to these classes must have attended the regular schools from two to six terms without making satisfactory progress — and, further- more, a careful medical examination precedes and determines admission. Instruction, not to exceed four hours daily, is to be given by women teachers who volunteer to do the work. According to private information received by the author, auxiliary schools have been established at Christiania, Bergen, and Trondhjem in Norway, after the model of the German schools. Copen- hagen (Denmark) has supported an auxiliary school since 1900. Kinder jehler publishes an account of the auxiliary school systems of Holland and Belgium (1900) by Schenk, who states that these schools are successfully meeting the needs RISE AND DEVELOPMENT 19 of their pupils, especially on the part of the phy- sicians connected with them. England has developed an auxiliary school sys- tem, somewhat similar to that of Germany. A "permissive act" of 1899 places the matter entirely in the hands of the communities; these, at their discretion, adopt the regulations concerning auxil- iary schools. The English auxiliary school con- sists of one to three classes, with women teachers. The first of these was opened in London, in 1892; in 1903, there were sixty such schools with 3,063 pupils. This number, however, is wholly inade- quate, for within a short time, London will estab- lish almost as many more schools to accommodate altogether 5,000 pupils; London has, in reality, nearly 10,000 such children to care for. Other English cities are following the example set by London; in 1903, an auxiliary school association was organized at Manchester to look after the welfare of physically defective children. It must be stated that, in adopting the provisions of the "permissive act," the city declares "its willingness to place its auxiliary schools under the super- vision of the State authorities; and by so doing, it obtains aid from the State — paid according to the recommendation of the inspector in his reports." "One of the most important provisions of the 20 AUXILIARY EDUCATION law is that concerning compulsory attendance to the sixteenth year." Plans for the care of defective children in the United States were formulated at about the same time as in England. Until 1894, mentally deficient children in the public schools were treated like those "spoiled" by neglect, and, like the latter, sent to the disciplinary schools. But, in time, careful investigation into the character of minor offences and investigations in child study brought about a change, and classes for backward pupils were organized in the public schools. In the year 1906, there were in the United States twenty-seven State and twenty-eight private schools of this type. In 1903 there were twenty State schools with 277 teachers and 12,079 pupils; and twelve private institutions with sixty-two teachers and 495 pupils. The majority of these pupils are placed in schools of three classes, each limited to fifteen pupils. Most of the teachers are women; among the 277 teachers in State schools, there are but sixty-one men. In most cases, the superintendents of these 1 schools are physicians — they make interesting annual reports to the Commissioner of Education at Washington. These reports, which are pub- lished in advance sheets, contain many valuable observations and much practical information. RISE AND DEVELOPMENT 21 We must not overlook the question of the auxiliary school movement in Australia — the author has learned through private sources that special classes have existed in Sidney and Mel- bourne for a number of years. The foregoing review shows an increasing interest in the welfare of the feeble-minded, which has come about as the result of a widespread sym- pathy. Many differences of opinion still exist, but on the whole, the tendency is to organize classes into schools, either in connection with the public schools, or completely independent of them. While a desire for greater uniformity prevails, there is still much freedom — which extends self not only to the purposes of the schools, but also to organization, teachers, and to methods of instruction. In some cases, the auxiliary schools come under the direct control of the State to guar- antee, perhaps, uniformity; in other cases, pri- vate institutions point the example to be followed; elsewhere, cities and towns set the example to smaller communities. As yet, there is, perhaps, too much freedom concerning pupils admitted to auxiliary schools. As a result, we do not distinguish carefully enough between the imbecile and the poorly endowed child; therefore, we find, as a rule, a prevalence n AUXILIARY EDUCATION of Imbecile or idiotic children in these schools, and consequently, we are forced to adopt a sort of merfico-pedagogical method in place of a more formal pedagogical one. Germany holds rather more firmly to the purely didactic principle, and seeks to preserve intact the character of the school, while giving due credit to the results of medical investigations. The school authorities of many countries ac- knowledge their indebtedness to Germany in the matter of the auxiliary school movement, and many of them are seeking to follow her praise- worthy example. n WHY AUXILIARY SCHOOLS WERE ESTABLISHED BEFORE the establishment of the so-called auxiliary schools (as outlined in the pre- vious chapter), it was the duty of the Volks- schule to assume the care of all pupils and to advance even those who, from the very outset, were incapable of learning. The schools were supposed to furnish pupils with the minimum amount of knowledge which is necessary even for a child of the lowest class; and, in addition, to care for such pupils as were incapable of keeping up with their comrades. Perhaps this attitude was merely an expression of helplessness in the face of the numerous and inexplicable psychical phenomena of childhood; perhaps it was the manifestation of an idea — which still exists, by the way — that the folk schools must not undertake to establish too comprehensive a view concerning the minimum requirements of elementary education; the en- dowment or ability of the average pupil must 83 24 AUXILIARY EDUCATION always be kept in mind in framing the course of study. Teachers themselves have hindered the earlier establishment of special classes, in that they took the view, usually, that all pupils entrusted to their care and instruction could be taught suc- cessfully. We need but hark back to conditions which prevailed in public schools — in the seven- ties and eighties — for confirmation of the above. The primary teacher had seventy or eighty pupils committed to his care. Their parents did not dream of the necessity of imparting to the teacher any information concerning the peculiari- ties of their children — knowledge which might be of great use to the teacher in his work. For the most part the parents rejoiced to know that the little "nuisances" were left in more or less capable hands. Now the teacher's work begins. As far as in him lies, he endeavours to do his best for every single pupil — in instruction and in development generally. As a teacher of the lowest grade was often a beginner in the art of teaching, a long time passed ere his eyes were opened to the conduct of some of his charges. In the normal school, to be sure, he was taught that he could not treat all chil- dren alike. But he also carried with him this idea — ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS 25 that instruction possessing logical sequence and clearness, and good discipline, are all-powerful in their effect on childish minds — expanding and unfolding even the weakest minds. In spite of his efforts to comply with the require- ments of the course of study, difficulties soon arose. There were some pupils who failed utterly to com- prehend his instruction; from others he could not draw a single word. Others could not be disci- plined as he wished, and their restlessness and nervousness affected the class as a whole. As a true disciple of Pestalozzi, the teacher gave much of his time, energy, and attention to these pupils ; but even when his requirements were reduced almost to a minimum, his patience and care were scarcely rewarded — as far as the pupils were con- cerned, the result was nil. Finally, the teacher lost all patience and became a stern judge. Every act came under his severe criticism. These occasions became more and more fre- quent, and grew at last to be a constant source of annoyance to the teacher, and of sorrow to the pupils in question. They could not understand why their teacher was so "strict" with them; they felt keenly the indifference of their fellow pupils who constantly made sport of them. As a result, their sensitive natures became hardened 26 AUXILIARY EDUCATION and their poor stunted minds grew narrower still; they grew more and more indifferent to their lessons and become filled with an intense desire to remain aw^ay from school altogether. The teacher finally lost all interest in them and their welfare, and left them entirely to themselves, and they became merely passive listeners, taking no active part in the work at all. " Promotion time" comes at length — the teacher is delighted at the thought of taking his bright pupils on to a higher grade, and "leaving behind" those who so constantly annoyed him. Branded as "irreclaimable" and "troublesome," these poor unfortunates are passed over to a new teacher and a new year of trials opens for teacher and pupils alike. The question arises — "Shall pupils who do not reach the required standard, even after a second year, still remain in the same grade .^" The fact that eternal sameness must eventually deaden the little remaining intellect of these pupils, leads the teacher at last to the decision that the oldest of them should be sent to the next higher grade. Perhaps new subjects and new conditions may serve as stimuli to arouse new life and effort in minds long seemingly indifferent. Alas! the result falls far short of the expectation. Pupils marked among their ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS 27 fellows by great difference in age are forced to endure much rudeness from their comrades; and moreover, often hear their teacher say that "nothing in the world can be done with them." Finally all self-respect dies out, and the pupils lose every vestige of confidence in themselves, and feel themselves constantly out of place in the life of the school. With each term, the teacher desires more earnestly to rid himself of those pupils who create a poor impression of the class as a whole, but he must suppress his desire time and again. There are but two methods by which the Volksschule may rid itself of burden- some and utterly incapable pupils. (1) The reform school (reformatory) which, however, opens its doors only to incorrigible vagabonds ; (2) institutions or asylums for idiots and imbeciles, open to those poor unfortunates who are entirely helpless or imbecile. Any person who has ever attempted to bring either proposal to the attention of the authorities can testify to the difficulties involved in placing a child in one of either of these classes of institutions. Taking for granted, then, the fact that among the unpromoted pupils who in time are "pushed" into the middle grades of the school, only a small number are fit subjects for either reform schools 28 AUXILIARY EDUCATION or asylums — what is to become of those others, far more numerous, whom the Volksschulen dare not shut out ? Since the schools may not expel a pupil because of his lack of ability to learn, the teacher must needs wait until the child has reached the age of confirmation, when dismissal from school is permissible. Eight years ^ — eight lost years — think of it! — years of wretched work and annoyance for the teacher; years of hindrance for the pupil of average ability ; years of retrogression — mental and physical — for those mentally defective ! Would it not be possible to make a change earlier in the pupil's school career, and thus prevent much of this annoyance, disappointment, and harm ? Is it an honour to the Volksschulen when pupils, who have been confirmed, are discharged from its lower and middle grades ? In spite of the efforts put forth by school authorities, and in spite of the earnest work of teachers, we have not yet succeeded in bringing all pupils up to the same standard, relatively speaking. The Allgemeine Deutsche Lehrerzeitung (Oct. 9, 1904) (a German educational paper) quotes the following from the Christian World of Vienna: ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS 29 "A visit to the folk schools in the so-called working- men's districts in Favoriten and Ottakrine: will show an astounding number of pupils in first or second grade (lowest grades) who have almost completed the term of compulsory attendance at school. Of many of them, the register states * Promoted to next higher grade because of age or size'! Many leave school, indeed, without having learned even the elements of reading and writing!" Mr. Wagner (who quoted from the Vienna World as above) quotes a somewhat similar statement from a daily newspaper which shows conditions in London: Judge {to fifteen year old boy, who is apparently well developed\ physically) : " Why don't you work ?" Boy: "I can't." Mother: "Lie will soon be fifteen years old, then he can leave school." Judge: In what class are you.^^" "In the first" (our lowest). "That is the infant class. Tell me, my boy, how many weeks in a year ?" "I don't know." "Did no one ever tell you.^" "No." 30 AUXILIARY EDUCATION *' How many days make a week ?" "I don't know." Mother: "Along certain lines he lacks ability, but in other ways he is much more clever. Yester- day morning, for example, he took a shilling from his brother's pocket, and spent two hours in the public house, eating and drinking. He won't work; he simply wants to eat and drink." In Germany also, many pupils still leave the public schools from third year grades, after having spent seven or eight years in school. A careful examination of such pupils shows that they fall into the following groups: (1) Children who have difficulties of speech or sight, or hearing; epileptics. Every teacher knows how such pupils retard class work and progress. Still, these pupils have a right to "harmonious development" as given in public schools. Modern pedagogy should make provision for these pupils — in the form of corrective courses for special defects of sight, or speech, or hearing, as the case may be. The work is one which will surely yield excellent results, but, unfortunately, in many communities, the establish- ment of such special classes cannot be realized, probably for financial reasons. (2) Many pupils constantly lag behind theii ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS 31 fellows, not because of any sensory defect, but because their minds are slow to elaborate the stimuli furnished by the senses into higher psychical products. Such pupils often suffer greatly from the fact that their minds work so slowly and sluggishly as to require much attention and drill. But, we ask, would it be wise to deprive them entirely of the influence of proper school training ? It was a long time before the following truths became generally recognized: (1) That because of abnormal psychical development, certain pupils fail utterly to derive any benefit even from the best kind of teaching. (2) That special schools should be provided for such pupils — schools adapted to their special needs. Critical observers finally awakened interest in the various types of abnormal pupils: then began the work of the psychologist and psychia- trist, constantly reinforced and assisted by the individual observer ; the result was a more general insight into the development of the abnormal child — a development which calls for special care and treatment at home and in school. A certain uniformity of opinion concerning the establishment of auxiliary schools is to be noted. As far as the writer knows, only one 32 AUXILIARY EDUCATION expression of the opposite side of the question has been made public. J. H. Witte describes the establishment of auxiliary schools as the result of the clever scheming of certain "hot heads" (Heissporne) — a somewhat startling statement to be sure. Still, Witte does not wish to startle his readers — he gives reasons for his statements. In his opinion, the auxiliary school withdraws the mentally deficient pupil from the helpful influence exerted by normal children; furthermore, he holds that the effort to benefit a class composed entirely of defectives can never be successful. He believes most firmly in the force of example — place a disobedient child among obedient children to learn obedience — have your class made up of one-third feeble- minded and two-thirds normal pupils. This plan is often followed by teachers in dealing with the indolent or inattentive. If, however, a pupil is utterly incapable of attending, if he is forced to remain mentally sluggish owing to physical defects ; if he remains morally unstable, were it not wiser to separate him from his mates as soon as possible ? The "better environment" of the class can never act as a spur to such a child. To see oneself constantly outdistanced results in embittering one's mind — both during and after the unhappy ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS 33 school days. How different, on the other hand, is the mental attitude of a pupil trained in a special class! He is quickened and stimulated and his whole emotional attitude changes. He soon perceives that he is progressing with his fellows — that his teacher gives him the same attention that is bestowed upon his classmates; the scorn of his fellows disturbs him no more; the teacher's harsh words and punishments have been changed into kindly treatment. Instruction is now better suited to his mental grasp, and rays of enlightenment at last begin to fall into the hitherto gloomy voids of his mind. Progress will of necessity be slow; it takes time for the pupil to accustom himself to new conditions; an abnormal mind requires longer time, and often more powerful supports than a normal mind. But in the end, the pupil will gain materially, for he begins to feel the spur of being able to accomplish something himself. It is in reality a philanthropic duty to establish classes for feeble-minded children. When Witte speaks of "coupling weak with weak" as a measure of superior strength imposed on weakness, he overlooks the fact that pupils usually do their best work when placed among those whose mental condition is nearest their 34 AUXILIARY EDUCATION own. So pedagogy does not err when it urges the separation of dull pupils from among those more highly endowed, and places the former in classes to receive special treatment. Witte goes on to make further objections against auxiliary schools on hygienic grounds: "Feeble-minded children being delicate physically, and incapable of resisting disease, naturally become the source of epidemics." This cannot be proven. In the first place, the State rules (in Prussia, at least) that every auxiliary school shall be under constant medical supervision; teachers are trained to assist in caring for the physical welfare of their charges, and avoiding the spread of disease. Again, those who have made careful observations regarding the health of auxiliary school pupils do not hesitate to state that there is far less of illness (from the ordinary diseases of childhood) among these pupils than among those attending the folk schools. The reason for this lies in the fact that many feeble- minded children have had all infectious diseases before their admission to the school — and indeed, in many cases, are suffering from the after-effects of these. Finally, Witte accuses the founders and champions of auxiliary schools of materialistic ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS 35 tendencies. "For the most part," he says, "they are victims of the advocates of superficial scientific and medical theories and of the so-called experi- mental psychology, which states that mental life is entirely dependent upon the physical — a view which is not altogether true." The practical school man knows whereof he speaks — and he does not lapse into materialism — when he says: "This or that child evinces certain psychical peculiarities as a result of disease, either inherited or contracted after birth; consequently he does not make satisfactory progress in his school work. But we cannot hold him responsible for his condition — he can- not progress much owing to the fact that physically he is more or less abnormal.'* Granted that brain processes furnish no direct clue as to how the intellectual life exists, and let us assume, for the time being, that "divine endowment" is necessary; still, experimental psychology and psychiatry can furnish evidence sufficient to prove convincingly that this "divine gift" in man is so small and so limited physically, that disregard or neglect of the physical often proves fatal to the "endowment." No practical teacher can set aside this truth; still, this does not, however, prove him to be a follower of the 36 AUXILIARY EDUCATION so-called '* medical pedagogy" which seeks to prove a sort of economic brain activity, and which looks upon the entire cerebral surface as a sort of repository for "moving memory pictures." L. Striimpell calls attention to the fact that medical therapeutics has clearly shown the dependence of a normal development of bodily life upon a properly directed psychic life; and further, has pointed to numerous injuries to the body resulting from the application of false pedagogical principles; but therapeutics has its limits — it must ever hold itself aloof from all speculations which lack the basis of real experience. Knowledge regarding the physical and mental life of childhood is of so recent origin and requires deepening and broadening; purely materialistic speculations, therefore, are too risky. But the necessity for auxiliary schools is not based upon such superficial data. On the other hand, the auxiliary school will render great service in the matter of better comprehension of childhood with its defects and good qualities, as a result of careful observations and investigations. For this purpose the teacher will draw on the fields of genetic psychology, psychiatry, and what may be called pedagogic pathology, and carefully study what the writer calls the "psycho- ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS 37 pathic defects" of childhood and youth. This thought — advanced first by Koch, and later by Triiper, marks the great gap between the normal and the abnormal mind — a field rich in phenomena as it is difiicult of recognition. In spite of Witte's criticisms, then, the real cause for the establishment of auxiliary classes and schools lies in the fact that there are pupils who cannot follow the course given in ordinary Volksschulen — pupils not dull, perhaps, but rather abnormal. For them, the Volksschule is a place of torture — suppressing what little mentality they may possess. But the folk school is not unique in having pupils who cannot advance. Teachers in pre- paratory schools have met such cases. Leubuscher found two defectives among 165 pupils in the Meininger Realgymnasium. Laquer states that, comparatively speaking, defectives are as common among the well-to-do as among the poorer classes. Secondary schools have this advantage over the elementary schools — the privilege of dis- missing incapable pupils. This right, however, is seldom exercised. The authorities fail to make certain parents understand that their children are not normal, and consequently suffer from the amount of school work demanded of 38 AUXILIARY EDUCATION them. The poor child is often tortured with private lessons in addition to his school work, before his parents realize his inability to master the high school w^ork. For such pupils, special schools or institutions, as, for example, Triiper's ErzieJmngsheim, are far more appropriate than the regular secondary schools. Ill WHAT PLAN SHALL BE FOLLOWED IN ADMITTING PUPILS TO AUXILIARY SCHOOLS, AND WHAT PUPILS SHALL BE CONSIDERED ELIGIBLE? IT has been shown that pupils who are frequently "left back" in first, second, or third year classes, might better be placed in auxiliary schools. Now these questions arise — "What is the proper time to remove these children from the regular school?" and "How can we be certain that no pupil is unjustly admitted to the auxiliary school ?" Care must be exercised by teachers in recom- mending pupils for admission to these schools. In the ofttimes spasmodic and one-sided develop- ment of our pupils, a teacher, guided simply by the mood of a moment, may declare a pupil unfitted for the regular school work — and, without any further investigation — recommend his transfer to an auxiliary school. Unfortunate home surroundings, manual labour outside of school, irregular attendance (perhaps 40 AUXILIARY EDUCATION a result of frequent change of residence) — all of these may work injury to a child as far as his standing in school is concerned. The teacher must not be too anxious or over ready to propose pupils for special classes. It may be possible, in individual cases, that frequent punishment engenders a sort of defiance which will prevent progress on the part of a child; such a child may also be proposed for the auxiliary class. Teachers should be advised to make very careful observations before recommending the removal of any pupil. Occasionally it is wise to transfer a pupil to another teacher — a change of classes often exerts the same influence on a child as a change of air does in the case of a sick person. Every expedient must be tried, ere any child is sent to the auxiliary school. This presupposes that the teacher is more of an educator than an instructor. He must develop a deeper under- standing of the normal child — while thinking of the mental and physical well-being of indi- viduals, he must not lose sight of his class as a whole; in other words, he must be able to detect the signs of mental deficiency in children. There is much discussion at the present time ADMITTING PUPILS 41 concerning feeble-mindedness, and the proper classifications of its various phases; every writer on the subject endeavours to find new terms in which to convey his ideas. In the practical work of the school, however, we are not concerned so much with scientific definitions as with the idea of learning to understand and recognize the deviations of child nature from the normal. Many a child, aflSicted from birth, may develop much as its fellows at home, except, perhaps, more slow^ly; at school, however, he may not be able to meet the great 'demands made upon every pupil. He may appear apathetic during the lesson periods; or perhaps to all appearances much interested, but without deriving much benefit therefrom. In the one case, the child tires easily and his eyes grow dull; he fails to grasp the instruction given, because the necessary reflection is beyond him. The teacher readily detects the shallowness of his knowledge and the fact that his ideas lack coherence and systematic arrangement. In the second case, the pupil is seemingly interested, and probably very attentive, but attention is short-lived: continuous attention is an impossibility in his case. His tendency to motor ^Qtiyity prevents his paying close attention 42 AUXILIARY EDUCATION though he may have willed to attend. He simply cannot sit still; he must move hands, head, feety in spite of orders to the contrary. Again, a child often appears apathetic because of a defect in speech. Perhaps, during his first weeks in school, he tried hard to take part in the work, but was soon made conscious of his deficiency by the teacher's harsh criticisms, or by the teasing of his mates. He becomes self- conscious and refuses to reveal his thoughts in speech at all. When defects in speech organs are such as are easily recognized, the child's unwillingness to speak is readily accounted for. But a cleft palate, an abnormally developed uvula, or an abnormal tongue are not readily recognized as being the causes of faulty speech. When one remembers the numerous difficulties which fall under the general head of stammering, or when one considers how often speech and even thought are hindered by pathological conditions of the air passages, we begin to understand how diflicult it is to discover all of the phases of abnormality. Another sort of difficulty arises when a talkative child confronts a more silent one. Talkativeness, like restlessness, may be regarded as a deviation from the normal, ADMITTING PUPILS 43 Occasionally, a talkative child will answer correctly, and the teacher may be inclined to regard him as entirely normal; but in time, the utter senselessness of the child's talk reveals itself; for every problem he has but one solution, and for the same question, whose wording is slightly changed, he has many different answers. The latter are meaningless, and resemble the so-called reflex actions performed without the cooperation of the more complex mental activities. In the solution of the numerous diflficulties constantly cropping up, it has been thought that certain typical signs could be pointed out, by means of which feeble-minded persons could be detected. So we often run across references to the external signs of abnormal mental develop- ment — signs, for the most part, readily recognized. According to certain writers, nature has bestowed certain distinct signs on the abnormal. This truth is confirmed to a certain extent by ex- perience. Now and again, among defectives, we find some children with very large, almost square heads; or very small, pointed ones; occasionally we see heads very unsymmetrical, or we meet the Mongolian type, or the "frog" or "bird" face. But these cannot be regarded as infallible 44 AUXILIARY EDUCATION signs of degeneracy — at most, they simply serve in the way of confirming the fact of degeneracy. It is clear that lack of intelligence, as observed by teachers, is not the only standard by which to judge the abnormal psychical development of the child. Usually in addition to mental deficiencies, there are certain other peculiarities, and perhaps also defects in the realm of emotional development. The abnormally developed child not only lacks mental power, he is often perverse in morals, and unsocial; sometimes rough or coarse, sometimes extremely gentle: he violates the laws of good conduct, is fond of those things which most children abhor, and too often is guilty of sexual errors, which finally result in physical and nervous ill-health. He will take no part in play, unless urged; is given to brooding, never plays of his own free will; often gets into a passion if he does play with others; is irritable, or becomes a nuisance because of his excessive sensitiveness. The teacher may also discover a tendency to destructiveness among these children ; unless care- fully watched this may result in tormenting his fellow-beings, or animals. Abnormal children often show a sort of fiendish pleasure in the pain or sufferings of others. Sometimes they ADMITTING PUPILS 45 evince a tendency to wander from home or from the home neighbourhood. Punishment has no effect upon such children; even rewards fail of result. In thus characterizing the ethical and spiritual defects of the abnormal child, we must by no means lose sight of his mental deficiencies. Many children, especially boys at the so-called "awkward age," and even girls in the course of their development, sometimes deviate from the normal in the development of the emotions and the will, without being fit subjects for auxiliary schools. In their case, the cause may be laid to faulty training, unfortunate home environment, etc. We must be careful not to regard moral delinquencies as indicative of pathological defects. "Neglected" children are not candidates for an auxiliary class — else these would soon deteriorate into institutions for the care and reformation of children. The foregoing paragraphs suggest some of the difiiculties encountered in the matter of determining the fitness of a pupil for admission to an auxiliary school. Many a pupil becomes, indeed, a sort of psycho- logical puzzle to his teacher. Certain signs seem real proofs of abnormality — others make the teacher hesitate. The teacher should seek to 46 AUXILIARY EDUCATION solve the difficult problem — perhaps the home may furnish explanations of the child's peculiar conduct. This may be accomplished in either one of two ways. The mother may be requested to visit the school, or the teacher may seek the parent in her home. It is, however, a difficult matter to get at the truth of things. Pride, shame, or poverty often cause people to be untruthful. If the parents' report seem untrust- worthy, certain other sources of information are open — the sisters of charity, the overseers of the poor, and the various information bureaus of the city and of the police department may furnish some of the information sought. Realizing the great difficulty involved in the question, "What must be done to avoid unjustly transferring pupils to auxiliary schools .'*" cer- tain question blanks, observation blanks, and admission blanks have been prepared and are here given. "Question sheets" will vary for the different schools; the diversity is explained by the indi- vidual opinions of the persons framing the ques- tions, and by the guiding principle involved. "Shall the doctor or the teacher plan the question sheet ?" is a pertinent question. It goes without saying, that a physician will ADMITTING PUPILS 47 naturally consider certain important points which the teacher would surely omit, owing to his lack of experience. A, PLAN OF QUESTIONS EMPLOYED EST SCHOOLS AT FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN Name Easter 19 Residence Date of Birth Pupil Class School year Parents Vocation Home relations (Name of guardian) Number of miscarriages of mother Number of children Birth Legitimate Illegitimate Disease inherited Diseases of parents Mental disorders, lung trouble, dipsomania, crime, suicide, syphilis. Brothers and sisters Weak-minded, silly, epileptic, etc. Previous illnesses — especially such as convulsions, par- alysis, St. Vitus's dance, rickets, bladder trouble, fainting spells, etc. Sensory defects — squint, blind; lame; defects of speech, etc. Moral tendencies — false, thievish, sly, restless, irritable, unsocial, dull, given to crying, etc. 48 AUXILIARY EDUCATION Opinions of children's teachers concerning industry, progress, development of ideas (especially of number) writing, reading, etc. Has child been recommended in any previous year as a candidate for auxiliary school ? Remarks. Rector School Physician B. EXAMINATION OF PUPIL PROPOSED FOR AN AUXILIARY AT FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN, TOGETHER WITH " PERSONAL" SHEET OF THE SCHOOL Name Date and place of birth , Religion _ , !• of -I (name of father or guardian) Daughter ) I b j Residence floor Front house Rear house Pupil of school class since Recommended to auxiliary school on Recommended second time Entered auxiliary school Dismissed from auxiliary school Cause of dismissal Chosen occupation Information concerning parents ; condition of child during attendance at regular school; at time of entering auxiliary school, and while in attendance there from the lst-6th year. ADMITTING PUPILS 49 1. Concerning parents. Birth, legitimate or illegitimate Is father living Age at death . Is mother living Age at death. Cause of death 2. Concerning brothers and sisters Normal or not Pupils of an auxiliary school. . . Epileptic. . . .Idiotic. . . .Blind Deaf Number of brothers and sisters living and their ages. Number of brothers and sisters dead ; ages at death. Cause of death Number of miscarriages of mother 3. Home conditions — poverty, poor home, character of family life, inability of father or mother to earn living. 4. Inherited tendencies: Lung troubles, dipsomnia, mental disorders, crime, intermarriages between relatives, suicide. 5. Diseases from which candidate has suffered: measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, whooping cough, meningitis, rheumatism, paralysis, convulsions, St. Vitus's dance, fainting spells, bladder troubles, rickets, severe wounds to head, accidents. 6. Development — learned to walk when old; learned to talk at 7. Ailments from which child suffers at present: Headaches, cough, indigestion, glandular swellings, skin eruptions, convulsions, weakness of kidneys and bladder. 8. Hearing — hard of hearing. . . . discharge from ears. . . . 50 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 9. Sight — short-sighted, weak-sighted, cross-eyed, inflam- mation, color bhndness, quivering or twitching of the eyes. 10. Speech and spech organs — stuttering, stammering, lisping, malformation of jawbone, irregular teeth, tonsils, thick tongue. 11. Respiration — sleeps with mouth open difficulty of breathing through nostrils, shortness of breath. 12. Physical deformities — spinal curvature, rupture, shape of head, left-handedness, chicken-breasted. 13. Physical Condition (see health certificate). 14. Character and disposition — serious, listless, sensitive, tearful, shy, timid, cheerful, passionate, companionable, cruel, annoying in class, restless, untidy, untruthful, thievish, excitable, slow, superficial, quarrelsome, disagreeable. 15. Mental condition. Memory — (a) general. (6) in certain directions. (Number, form, words, colour, locality). Thinking power, attention, ability to comprehend, observation, power to memorize (poetry, melody, multiplication tables), impressions made by mental effort, retention of ideas, conceptions, judgment, imagination (lively ). 16. Notes and advice of physician (see heatlh certificate). To be entered in auxiliary school ? To be refused admission .'' 17. Are parents willing to have child entered in auxiliary school ? Yes No ADMITTING PUPILS ^1 18. Resultof examination concerning admission to auxiliary school. Child's development in knowledge and skill (winter and summer terms) in regular school, and in auxiliary school first to sixth year. 1. Religion — Knowledge, interest, retention of passages of Scripture, stories, songs. 2. Observation lessons. Knowledge of objects, interest in observations, fables. 3. The German language. (a) Reading — the written and printed alphabets, blending of sounds, syllables and words, reading of sentences, reading of longer and connected pieces. German and Roman type; mechanical skill, intelligent reading, reproduction, typical errors in reading, tone (of voice in speaking), "swallowing" of words and syllables (i. e., indistinct utterances, faulty articulation). (6) Spelling — Tracing words and letters, copy- ing, dictation; characteristic errors. 4. Arithmetic — Number series ; mechanical skill in use of numbers, oral and written arithmetic, number memory, ability to apply rules to the solution of problems. 5. Writing — Small or capital letters, regularity of form. 6. Singing — hearing, sense of rhythm, " music memory," fondness for music. 7. Gymnastics — Strength, endurance; is he "social " in playing games ? 52 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 8. History — Interest in persons and events; memory for same. 9. Drawing — Mechanical and freehand drawing ; ability to measure with eye, neatness, accuracy. 10. Geography — Sense of locaHty, ground principles of geography, reading of maps. 1 1 . Natural history — Attitude when examining objects, knowledge of relation between structure and function. 12. Manual Training — (Hand Arbeit). Kind, degree of skill shown, interest in the work. 13. Conduct — legitimate scoldings or punishments. 14. Industry and attention — home work, and other occupations. 15. Absences — (a) excused. (b) not excused. (c) caused by illness. QUESTIONS — BRUSSELS AUXILIARY SCHOOLS Causes for examining a child: 1. Insufficient or abnormal development. 2. Continual and notoriously bad behaviour. Lack of power to attend : 3. Three years behind in school. 4. Serious defects of speech. The following documents must accompany this : 1. Report of pupil's school career. 2. Report on causes leading to proposal of child as candidate for admission to auxiliary school. This report ADMITTING PUPILS 53 must contain answers (as full as possible) to the following list of questions : (a) State of health of parents. What about their inorals ? Are they addicted to drink? (6) Has child been ill ? Has he evinced any imperfections in the activity of the senses — sight, hearing, feeling, muscular sense? Is he given to self-abuse? In which study has he made most progress ? Is he attentive? Disobedient? Is his bad behaviour constant or periodic ? Does he steal ? Lie ? Is he rough ? To what sort of treatment (intellectual or educative in general) has the child been subjected ? QUESTIONS FROM LEIPSIC SCHOOL FOR WEAK-MINDED CHILDREN 1. How many pupils in the school who are evidently feeble-minded ? 2. How many children in first year are not to be promoted at Easter time from the lowest grade ? 3. How many pupils attending for two years will not be promoted from lowest grade at Easter? 4. Number of older pupils still in lower grades ? 7. How many pupils coming under 2, 3, 4 are feeble minded ? 54 AUXILIARY EDUCATION B. In judging feeble-minded children keep in mind the following : 1. Is child able to distinguish difference between right and left, and is he able to make movements in accordance with this idea? Can he recognize colour? 2. What can you say concerning the degree of development of his power of speech ? Does he enunciate clearly, articulate clearly, speak distinctly and connectedly ? Can he repeat a short sentence without errors ? Does he omit words in so doing ? Is the order of words in the sentence confused ? Does he stutter? 3. Is he able to distinguish between objects, and pictures of objects ? Is he able to describe simply objects at hand ? Can he follow you in a simple conversation ? Can he give information concerning objects not actually present to the senses ? 4. Has he gained any knowledge at school? Of what sort? Can he recognize simple letters ? Is he able to read words at sight ? Does he know letters of different alphabets ? Is he able to write letters and words correctly from memory, or does he simply copy mechanically ? Does he do the latter correctly ? How far can he count forward ? backward ? and from what number? Can he add columns of figures? How many? Can he subtract? Has he any conception of multiplication or division ? To what extent is he able to work out simple oral problems without help ? Does he use his fingers in addition, etc ? ADMITTING PUPILS 55 5. Is he teachable, stubborn, good-natured, disagreeable, quiet, lively, sociable? ADMISSION BLANK — AUXILIARY SCHOOL AT PLAUEN is proposed for admission to auxiliary school. Pupil of school. Date and place of birth When and where did he first enter school? Time in present class Number of failures to be promoted Name and position of parents or guardians Last place of residence Religion Father Mother Child Vaccination. N. B. Underline terms which are most appropriate; add anything you deem important. General impression — mentally deficient, very deficient, imbecile. Dull, bright. Disposition — cheerful, tearful, unstable. Character — good-natured, true, honest, friendly, con- fidential, bold, eager, shy; disobedient, untrutliful, dis- honest, unsociable, fearful, lazy, impudent, inclined to truancy or vagrancy. Interest — Is it easy or difficult to arouse interest in him ? Does he show strong interest or little ? Does the amount of interest vary? What does he prefer? What does he neglect ? 56 AUXILIARY EDUCATION Apprehension — quick, fleeting, uncertain, slow, clear or exact, definite. Memory — normal, weak, very weak. Intelligent or unintelligent observation. Quick or slow in recalling ideas. Confusion of ideas. Speech — normal, rapid, slow. Talkative; inclined to talk but little, or not at all ; sensible ; foolish. Stammering. Development — Began to talk at years of age; to walk at Movements — Gait. . . . ; arm and hand movements. . . . ; hurried, awkward, dexterous, left-handed. Degree of skill attained at school. (N. B. Underline in black, letters he can read; in red, those which he can write.) 1. Reading: 2. Writing: a, o, u, e, i; — 1, m, n, r; — h, ch, j; v, f ; — s, ss, sch; — a, 6, ii; — b, d, g; — p, t, k; — x, z; — qu — ng; — ai, au, au; — ei, eu, y; — o, o, A, A; — G. Q; — S, Sch, R, N, M; — V, W, P, Z, U; — T, J; — K, F; — L, B; — H, E; — D; — X, Y, C. 3. Arithmetic. How far can he count forward ? From what number can he count backward correctly ? How far can he add 1 + 1, etc. } From what numbers can he subtract 1 ? What can you say concerning his idea of number ? What other operations has he mastered ? Home — Who looks after child at home ? ADMITTING PUPILS 57 Has any change been made in the method of bringing up the child ? State the nature of this change. What can you say concerning his physical welfarel concerning his education ? Physical — Absences excused or unexcused during school year. Long absence weeks due to Suffers from headaches, nausea, and vomiting, bowel trouble, general langour (often falls asleep in class), sleeplessness, epilepsy; dizziness, involuntary twitching of muscles. (These hinder pupil in following the class work.) Short-sighted, cross-eyed, hard of hearing, chronic inflamamation of eyelids, discharge from ears (right or left), chronic nasal catarrh, enlarged tonsils. His poor condition may be due to inherit- ance, accidents at birth, fall, fright, illness. He has suffered from rickets, eclampsia, epilepsy, various brain diseases, measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, inflammation of the lungs, whooping cough, persistent skin disorders. The child is the first, last or of its parents; a twin. Of brothers and sisters still living, were found to be feebly endowed; are not yet old enough to leave school; are behind in their work. Of who died, were not bright, mentally weak. They died at the age of from Of parents and other near relatives are not gifted mentally; suffer from tuberculosis; from 58 AUXILIARY EDUCATION syphilis from various mental disorders;. from alcoholism. Summary of above Plauen, date Director Teacher School stamp AUXILIARY SCHOOL AT HALLE Number in chief school register , is proposed for admission to this auxiliary school. Born on as ... .legitimate child of dead living In care of residence Baptized not baptized. Vaccinated not vaccinated. At school since ; ... .years in grade of intermediate school, under , teacher. Remarks of school principal. Opinion of school principal and physician of auxiliary school. Decision of city superintendent regarding child's admission (N. B. Question 1, 2, 3 to be answered after visiting child's home; 4, 5, to be answered at three different periods in the school year. Each series of observations must be submitted to the principal for examination when completed.) Standpoints from which these observations should be made : ADMITTING PUPILS 59 1. What has been learned concerning the child's parents — home conditions, their care of the child, number of visits to the home ? 2. What information have parents imparted concerning the child ? (Illnesses, accidents, number of visits made.) 3. What physical defects are easily noted — special reference to sense organs and muscular movements? OBSERVATIONS 4. Has mental development been generally satisfactory ? Speech — fluent, defective . . . . Interest in lessons Weakness or unsteadiness of attention Memory Striking characteristics Affect of school work 5. Condition of school work Backward in what subjects . . . Progress made in arithmetic, reading, and writing To week before vacation To Dec. 1 To Feb. 1 Comparison of the foregoing will bring to our notice the following: The questions are largely of a psychological and pedagogical nature, owing to the fact that they must be answered by teachers. But these questions must be so framed that they 60 AUXILIARY EDUCATION will call for repeated observations of the child's peculiarities; furthermore, they must admit of being answered briefly. Lastly, anyone who reads the answers should be able to get at once a fair idea of the child's development before he reaches school age. The question sheet in use at Halle (worked out by auxiliary school teachers and Dr. Maennel himself) has been tested there for a number of years. At the commencement of every school year, a copy is placed in the hands of every primary and intermediate teacher, who begins observations on her pupils at once. If a child shows evidence of being abnormal, the teacher begins to note his peculiarities; these notes are examined by the principal. Shortly before Easter time, approved appli- cations from all schools are sent to the head of the city school administration; he, in turn, often seeks the advice and opinion of physicians and of the auxiliary school principal — all this must be done before any pupil is admitted formally into the auxiliary schools. Usually about fifty applications are presented each year. After consultation with the principal of the auxiliary school, twenty or thirty of these are usually returned, marked "to remain in ADMITTING PUPILS 61 the Volksschule" or *'to be proposed again a year hence." Naturally, these rejected applications are not welcomed by either teacher or principal, both of whom were anxious, no doubt, to rid themselves of a "troublesome" pupil. The pupils whose applications are granted are removed to the auxiliary school at Easter time. Let us now note the method of procedure at Mannheim. From personal observation, I can state that the admission of candidates (at Mann- heim) is rather more difficult than at Halle. In 1899, the city superintendent at Mannheim, Dr. Sickinger, endeavoured to classify all pupils of the Volksschule according to their ability; and to employ a great number of parallel classes of each school grade, in forming "instruction groups," each possessing a peculiar character of its own. As a result, the school has three different divisions, each having its own course of study. In fact, three kinds of classes may be noted. 1. For normal pupils, who are capable, after seven years' work, of reaching the highest class — these form the highest department, having eight grades. 2. For pupils, who, owing to deficient ability. 62 AUXILIARY EDUCATION can not be promoted, a special department is established; simpler work is followed here. This department, with its special classes (called "repetition" classes), naturally does not aim to advance pupils to the same degree as normal pupils are advanced; a certain limit is set however. These last special classes are often called "finish- ing" classes. In these classes opportunity is afforded for pupils to return to regular grades ; any teacher who finds himself inclined to make careful observations will find abundant opportunity to individualize. The classes are small in register — about thirty pupils — and what the author terms "successive" ("group work.?") instruction enables the teacher to know his pupils intimately. Pupils are divided into two groups — the weaker, and the stronger; instruction is sometimes given to both sections at once, sometimes to each group separately. Thus Sections A and B receive 13 hours instruc- tion together (3 religion, 7 German, 2 arithmetic, 1 singing) ; Section A and B, separate instruc- tion, 6 J hours each (4| German, 2 arithmetic). Each section receives instruction the first hour for three days per week. Pupils are not transferred to these special classes until the teacher has filled out a "transfer ADMITTING PUPILS 63 card" as follows: (This form has been found of great service). VOLKSSCHULE AT MANNHEIM — SPECIAL CLASSES EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF CHILD IN SPECIAL CLASSES TRANSFER CARD When? Whither ? To be transferred to a ... . class School Year Date Division of School Special Class School year, 1907-1908 School division Now in class 19— 19— 19— 19— Present teacher 1. Personal history of pupil. Name. Birth, (date). Place of birth. Religion. Father, mother or guardian. Residence. 2. Facts concerning child's parents. Both parents still living ? Has child a stepmother, stepfather ? Is father only living ? Mother only ? Is child an orphan ? Under whose care.'' Are child's education and care neglected ? 3. Previous school record. Has it attended the present school only? 64 AUXILIARY EDUCATION Did the child come from eleswhere — from what school ? What class ? What about its attendance? Was it regular? If irregular, why ? 4. The child's backwardness. In what classes was child " left back ? " (Tell briefly in what lessons its work was poor, or unsatisfactory.) 5. Cause of child's deficiency. Lack of talent? Want of application ? Other reasons — illness, transfers, home conditions. 6. Former illnesses. Fits? dizziness? St. Vitus's Dance? brain diseases ? accidents to head ? rickets ? diphtheria ? measles ? scarlet fever ? whooping cough ? etc. 7. Physical peculiarities and signs of degeneration. Signs of paralysis ? headaches ? speech ? sight ? smell ? glandular swellings ? muscular twitchings ? spinal curvature? malformation of the limbs? chronic diseases ? 8. Personal habits, etc. Cleanly ? attentive ? good natured ? sociable ? untruthful ? inclined to steal ? dull ? excitable ? sensitive ? passionate ? moody ? shy ? lazy ? imaginative ? forgetful ? superficial ? etc. 9. Special aptitudes and abilities. Singing? Writing? Arithmetic? Drawing? Manual Training ? ADMITTING PUPILS 10. Grade of work (school work) attained. 65 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 School year . . . Class Teacher 190- 19- 19- 19- 19- 19— 19— 19- Register Location Industry Conduct German Number (The grade attained by pupil is to be registered here. It therefore stands for the child's past school experience, as well as for the future. For past terms, entry is to be made at the time of pupils' transfer from regular class to auxiliary class ; for future, entries are to be made at close of each school year. In case pupil is returned to regular class, note to that effect is to be made.) 3. It sometimes happens that a pupil of the lower "repetition" class cannot receive much benefit from the instruction there given, because he is mentally deficient; when this occurs, the pupil is transferred to an auxiliary school class (after an examination by the school physician) ; in 1904-1905, four such classes existed in Mannheim, registering 67 pupils. Judging from the small number of auxiliary 66 AUXILIARY EDUCATION classes, we come to the following conclusion: According to the method followed at Mannheim, many pupils are left in the "repetition" classes, and in the regular school, who at Halle and other places would have been sent to auxiliary schools at once. In the auxiliary classes at Mannheim, therefore, we find pupils whose mental depelop- ment is of a very low order — and yet, we cannot say that idiots are admitted to these classes. It seems to me that the method followed at Mannheim tends to change entirely the previous method of admission to auxiliary school classes. Possibly the schools at Mannheim are the first to admit to auxiliary classes only those pupils who belong there of right. However, when aux- iliary schools were established at Mannheim the local institutions for idiots lost a number of their inmates — those who were capable of taking some degree of training. According to regulations, the auxiliary schools (at Mannheim) are not to admit pupils who (though of inferior mental development, to be sure) are capable of being trained at all — these are still to remain in the Volksschule (in "repetition" classes as outlined above) . Time will prove whether the plan followed at Mannheim will exert any strong or lasting influence ADMITTING PUPILS 67 on that hitherto followed. At any rate, th» matter deserves careful attention — admission to auxiliary school classes can scarcely receive too much care. Just as we would avoid sending to auxiliary schools children who are imbeciles or idiots — or the blind, deaf-mutes, or the morally depraved — so, too, must we most carefully avoid admitting children who are backward by reason of illness, etc., and yet cannot be called abnormal. So much for the plan of admission. It would be well for the children recommended for auxiliary schools if, while still in the Volksschule, they did not constantly hear, "Oh, well, in the auxiliary school, among the stupids, you won't be obliged to learn anything!" The disfavour often bestowed on auxiliary schools can readily be understood, if the auxiliary school has been lightly regarded, nay, even ridiculed, and regarded as a sort of "Siberia" by school people themselves. Many parents realize to some extent what the auxiliary schools will do for their children, but they scarcely appreciate its great value — there- fore many object to placing their children in these schools. Parental pride and misunder- standings must be overcome. When school authorities raise suspicion that the children are 68 AUXILIARY EDUCATION not in their "right minds" — when neighbors hint of "dumb" schools or "crazy" schools to which they would never send their children — then all the advice of school people and physicians is in vain — vanity and false pride stand in the way. Parents' consent should be sought before pupils are admitted to auxiliary schools. The stubborn- ness of some parents makes us wish that we could compel them by law to place their children in auxiliary schools — children who are known to be defective. The fourth session of the German Auxiliary School Association (held in 1903) took up this matter at length, and the following resolution was taken : " Compulsion should be used — but only when parents utterly refuse to have their children admitted to the auxiliary school, and are not able to prove that such children are already receiving satisfactory training and instruction elsewhere." Compulsion should be used only when there is sufficient proof, also, that the child is mentally defective. The question could be satisfactorily settled if the questions on entrance sheets and transfer cards had been carefully answered. Uniformity in admitting pupils to the auxiliary schools of each community should be sought for. ADMITTING PUPILS 69 It will not always be necessary to give a child one or two years' trial in the regular school ere he is sent to the auxiliary school. By the time the child reaches the so-called "school age" it is perfectly feasible to make a more or less complete diagnosis of his normal or abnormal development. Naturally, this decision is one to be made by a physician rather than by a teacher. Many children show sure signs of feeble-mindedness at a very early age: it would be a great wrong to send such pupils to the regular schools, for, from the very first, they belong naturally to the auxiliary school, and time spent in the regular school would be irretrievably lost. IV THE PARENTS, AND THE ENVIRONMENT OF AUX- LIARY SCHOOL PUPILS (BEFORE AND DURING ATTENDANCE AT SCHOOL) Er US take it for granted, then, that the newly admitted pupils are left in the auxiliary schools with the consent of their parents — the question arises — " What sort of work is to be done ?" Teachers of auxiliary school classes must make careful observations concerning the physical and mental status of their pupils. In order to know his pupils aright, the teacher must become acquainted with their parents and their home surroundings. The principal of an auxiliary school should seek this information from two sources. I. He should apply to the official information bureau of the city's poor department for all possible information concerning his pupils and their environment. On the whole, this sort of information may be depended upon. The following type reports may serve as examples : 70 ENVIRONMENT OF PUPILS 71 1. N. N. (followed by dates of birth of parents and children) was punished in 1888 by two weeks' imprisonment; again in 1899, for fraud — one day's imprisonment: in 1901, one day, disorderly conduct; reputation — bad. Associates with a married woman, living apart from her husband. There is one child — an idiot — who has been placed in an asylum at Neinstedter. The wife bears a good reputation ; has been ill for some time — cancer. Child's environment could scarcely be worse. 2. N. N. (dates follow as above) has been punished several times on account of petty offences. Since 1902, he has been an inmate of the insane asylum at Alt-Scherbitz. Wife was punished in 1882, for breaking certain police regulations — otherwise of good repute. Many times the parents are in very poor cir- cumstances; but in spite of this, they manage somehow to keep themselves and their children (often numerous) with assistance from either public or private charities. In other cases — and there are many such — the parents are addicted to strong drink, dislike work, lead immoral lives, or have come into frequent touch with the strong arm of the law. n AUXILIARY EDUCATION II. When some information has been gained in this way (through the public information bureaus) the mothers of the auxiliary school pupils are invited to call at the office of the principal. Of course there are always some mothers who pay no attention to such an invitation ; but the greater number appear and take time to converse with the principal. The conversation (the class teacher is usually present also) follows as closely as possible the plan on the following page. When the teacher has secured this sort of information concerning her pupils, she has a good foundation for her work; and she will find it of great service in her dealings with the children. When the parents fail to respond to the principal's cordial invitation, matters proceed much more slowly; much must be left to chance — the teacher experiments and endeavours to learn all he can concerning the pupil. At Halle, I may state, that results have been very satis- factory on the whole. Certain parents, to be sure, endeavoured to preserve a dignified silence con- cerning certain significant facts in their lives, to place themselves, perhaps, in a better light before me — but, immediately upon learning that I was in possession of certain information — from official records — they grew more frank. ENVIRONMENT OF PUPILS 73 Congenital lualformations — harelip, malformations of palate, ears, limbs; defective sense organs, hydrocephalus, paralysis, etc. Physical defects — spinal curvature, lameness, convul- sive movements, defective or abnormal formation of skull, limbs, etc. The skin — moist or dry, flabby; sensitiveness; ill- smelling secretions, covered with hair. (a) Eyes — squint, par- aylsis of lids, defects of cornea and iris, quivering, defects of pupils, short or weak-sightedness . (b) Ears. Discharges - hearing. (c) The nose. The air passages, purulent dis- charges, etc. (d) The organs of speech. Lips, teeth, tongue, gums; hypertrophied ton- sils, other abnormal growths. Speech defects. How do parents account for the mental deficiency of this child ? Home conditions. Is child of legitimate or illegitimate birth.'' Has it a stepmother ? Stepfather ? Father only ? Mother only ? Are parents separated ? Is child an or- phan ? Under whose care ? Does child receive proper care, or does it suffer from neglect ? Record ]5ook. No. Full name of child. 2. o p 0,0 g-o : n P - w n I-* n ^ ^ S.r, "Z ^p n 5 6-;^ ■Orq tr2. Names. Sex. General health, deaths, cause of death — age at death. Is this the first, second, third, etc., child ? n tion CO relation nature eases, nervou ders am relative rents. ( n 3 ncernmg ship and of dis- It P_ 3^2 Si 0- P Eji P 7^ T O B'O B ^ B P Cr t^3. 3 o <^ Defects of development in early years. At what age did child learn to walk ? To talk ? Irregularities in teething, etc. Illnesses experienced before attaining school age. Their course and duration. ^Rick- ets, scrofula, brain disorders, scarlet fever, diphtheria, etc. Accidents — especially in- juries to head, as result of kick, blow, or fall. 74 AUXILIARY EDUCATION Many facts concerning their home lives were told with sorrow, or merely hinted at; some- times, I was able to anticipate answers — out of sympathy with those questioned. In many cases, the mothers entered the "hard school of life" when they married, but they struggled like heroines against their daily trials. Often at the close of the conference, I felt the desire to render more substantial assistance than mere words of encouragement and advice. It goes without say- ing, that the information secured by this means should be held as sacred. The following cases are given as types: 1. Agnes W. — the stepdaughter of a turner. Her father, a drunkard, died of convulsions. The mother remarried — another drunkard — from whom she was separated at the end of four years. When Agnes was admitted to the aux- iliary school, the stepfather was serving a four months' term of imprisonment for attempted robbery. Before this time, he had appeared in court several times for disorderly conduct, begging, etc The mother, though still unpunished, is by no means of good repute, according to the opinion of the authorities. Her responses to my questions did not, however, give any impres- sion of rudeness. She had had five children — ENVIRONMENT OF PUPILS 75 three of whom died in convulsions at an early age. The youngest child, Agnes, learned to walk and to talk at four years. She has had measles, and evidently has scrofula. She was formerly afflicted with convulsions — some traces still remain — namely, a twitching of the head. Her speech is also defective. 2. Otto and Paul M. — brothers. Their father, a man who had worked only occasionally, died of tuberculosis. Of twelve children (Otto and Paul the ninth and tenth respectively), the mother lost five — partly as the result of con- vulsions — partly from lack of vitality. Very likely the two youngest children (girls) will have to be sent to an auxiliary school sooner or later. Otto and Paul suffered in early childhood from measles — dentition was slow and painful. Their education and training have been sadly neglected, owing to the fact that the mother was obliged to go to work daily to support herself and her children. One of the boys has a very defective gait — the other a serious defect in speech. Extreme poverty is largely responsible for the abnormal mental development of these boys. Many similiar cases might be cited. We learn of consanguineous marriages, of great differences between the ages of parents, or again of nervous 76 AUXILIARY EDUCATION disorders among the parents' near relatives. Occasionally the child's deficiency can be traced to prenatal causes — accidents, etc. Sometimes the poor mother cannot tell exactly how many children she has borne — often a dozen or more. The vital energy of these children is extremely low; even when fully normal in development, they easily become later victims to all sorts of developmental defects and contagious diseases. In large families, where the care of children is often neglected, defective development can be traced to falling out of bed, or downstairs, or out of a carriage. Finally, alcoholism and syphilis also leave their impressions on children — in the shape of defective development — a fact known even to laymen. Naturally all of this knowledge concerning a defective pupil cannot be gathered at once. It is the result of constant care and observation, but every additional fact is an aid. Visits of teachers to the homes of the pupils cannot be recommended too often; they are doubly important when the mother does not come to school. Tact on the part of the teacher is a prime necessity; she must also learn to bring up the proper questions at the proper time. Experience will soon teach her how to obtain the ENVIRONMENT OF PUPILS 77 necessary details. Among other things, she must learn if the child receives proper nourishment; his hours of retiring and rising; whether he is forced to work after school hours; does alcohol play any part in his development ? Of course all of these questions may not be necessary in every case. Observation will often suggest the needful ones. For instance, a languid, listless appearing child will suggest a question con- cerning the child's sleep. The teacher finds that the child is employed after school in folding papers — so he misses the invigorating effects of play in the open air. The teacher also learns that the child is obliged to share his bed with tw^o others — one older, one younger than himself. A report such as the above arouses the interest of all in regard to the outside work of pupils and conditions under which they sleep; this results, perhaps, in a general inquiry based on the following questions: Does the child sleep alone ? (State age and sex of bed-fellows.) How many persons sleep in the same room ? Is it possible to use another room ? Does the child see his father before going to school ? 78 AUXILIARY EDUCATION Does the mother prepare a warm drink for breakfast ? Does the child do outside work either before or after school ? At what time does he retire ? At what time does he arise? The resulting answers — vague and unreliable as many of them always are — give us some information at least concerning the environment of our pupils; they serve to place the work of the auxiliary school teacher under the head of "home missions," perhaps. But to make a success of the work, one must be thoroughly acquainted with the conditions surrounding the child. THE HEALTH OF AUXILIARY SCHOOL PUPILS IN addition to securing information concerning the home surroundings of the pupils before their admission to an auxiliary school, we must learn all we can concerning their physical development. This is done largely through the efforts of the school physician. This is not the time nor the place to discuss the need of school physicians; the question is rather to decide on the position and duties of the physician. At Halle, we deemed a physician necessary, though the many polyclinics of the University had done excellent service for years and were capable of continuing such service. The duties of the school physician at Halle, (an office created four years ago) are regulated by an order drawn up by the author and approved by the city council. It reads thus: Duties of Auxiliary School Physician at Halle 1. It shall be the duty of the physician to exercise a careful oversight, not only on the 79 80 AUXILIARY EDUCATION conditions of the school, but also on the health of pupils. 2. All children admitted to this auxiliary school must receive a careful physical examination as soon as possible after their admission to the school (not later than three weeks at most). This examination must be repeated every three months. 3. The results of the examination stated above are recorded on a specially printed form which is to accompany the child from grade to grade until he is discharged from the school. Should a child stand in need of special treatment, the fact is noted upon his record card. This record, properly filled out and numbered (the number corresponding to the child's register number), is placed on file in the principal's ofiice, where it may be examined by the teachers or physician of the auxiliary school. 4. In addition to making periodic examinations of pupils, the school physician is required to make weekly visits to the school. The principal in turn must notify his teachers of the physician's presence in the school, and teachers are requested at such times to place before the physician the results of their observations — especially such as call for medical advice. HEALTH OF THE PUPILS 81 The hours for consultation with the physician are determined upon by the principal and physician in conference. 5. Pupils are not treated by the school physician — on the contrary — the parents are informed by printed notices (which must bear the principal's signature) that the child should be placed under the care of the family physician or taken to a polyclinic for treatment. 6. Should the physician advise the temporary exclusion of the pupil from school, or a limited time of study, or a resort to other curative measures — he must arrange the matter with the principal of the school, who will see that the physician's orders are carried out. 7. At the close of every school year, the school physician (after conference with the principal) must present a report to the authorities; he must present a brief outline of his work as medical supervisor, calling attention to any special cases and any means by which success was attained. 8. When the school physician is prevented by any means from visiting the school, report must be made at once to the authorities, and a com- petent substitute will be appointed. Three months' notice must be given before the contract with the authorities can be declared void. 82 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 9. The authorities retain the right to alter or extend the duties of the school physician, with the consent of the school board. In accordance with the above, every pupil is examined (at least once a year) in the presence of the class teacher. The examination takes place in the principal's oflBce, or in some unoccupied room in the building. The results of the medical examination are recorded on a specially prepared record, which holds good for the entire course. It is arranged thus: HEALTH RECORD of , son, daughter of Born — (give date) Vaccinated Vaccinated second time. In school since (Explanation) Columns, 1, 3, 4, 9, 10 and the head of the sheet must be filled in by the teacher; the remaining columns by the physician. Columns 3, 4 must be filled in every six months. (Correct to ^ centimetre and | kilogram respectively.) Remaining columns to be filled by school physician when pupil enters school — (columns 5 and 8, only when it is held to be necessary) but later when child's development shows changes. HEALTH OF THE PUPILS 83 In column 2 — for perfect health, record " good " ; in case of tendency to disease or chronic disease, " bad "; otherwise, "medium." 1 2 c 1) -' O 3 01 li S X 4 ..1 5 6 7 8 10 s 3 C8 01 s 7) (a) Breast abdomen, (b) spinal column ex- tremities (c) skin dis- eases, par- asites (a) eyes keen-sight- edness (b) ears, hearing (c) mouth nose, speech Observations of physician Suggestions for treat- ment in School. S igns of disease? Word sent to parents on Comments Made by teachers If any child shows the need of special medical treatment, the parents are informed by the prin- cipal. The following is the form of notice sent (by mail). In most cases, we have had satisfactory results. As a result of an examination, your child was found to be suffering from For the sake of the child's health, as well as for the good of the school it is necessary that Halle To Rector. In most cases, the parents have carried out the advice of the physician, and the children in question have been placed in clinical institutions or under medical care. During the school year, the physician collects 84 AUXILIARY EDUCATION data full of interest to the people at large as well as to himself. He is required to publish this information in an annual report. One of these has recently appeared in a daily newspaper at Halle; with the consent of its author, I am permitted to cite the following: *'The two lower classes of the auxiliary school registers 47 pupils between the ages of seven and nine. Of this number 21, or about 45%, were in poor health, and only 5 — or about 10% — in perfect health. Among children between 11 and 14 years of age, there was the reverse proportion. While but 2 of the 47 children above showed no constitutional defects, those in the last school year showed a proportion of 13 out of 21." A more convincing statement concerning the physical defects of auxiliary school pupils is found in the following: **On the whole, out of the 215 pupils in attend- ance at the auxiliary school in Halle during 1901, only 57 are free from defects — even w hen we overlook such defects as slight difficulties of speech, diseases or irregularities of the teeth, slight nervous troubles, etc." In the school year of 1903-1904, the results were not so good. Out of 207 pupils, 11 girls and 15 boys were found to be in good condition. HEALTH OF THE PUPILS 85 Care in measuring and weighing helps to give a clear insight into defective physical development. For measuring height, the authorities have placed at the disposal of the physician a simple but very useful piece of apparatus. A scale with a sliding weight is used to determine weight. Of the aforementioned 47 pupils (7-9 years), 30 fell below the average in height and 31 below the average in weight. Very few reached the average — few^er still exceeded it. The physician's careful examination sometimes discloses conditions concerning which the parents were ignorant. In many cases, the physician renders advice which, if followed, may lead to a permanent cure of certain ailments. In difficult cases, the school physician was often assisted by other city physicians, who were so interested in the work, that they gladly placed their knowledge and skill at the disposal of the little patients. How often, for example, did we call in a busy oculist, who never refused to aid us. At his suggestion many of the pupils were provided with glasses — the expense borne by the city. We noted with satisfaction a decided improvement in the development of these children. Similiarly, an aurist and throat specialist became interested in our work — many cases 86 AUXILIARY EDUCATION of swollen tonsils, adenoid growths, etc., received attention at his hands. In the principal's office, at Halle, we have photographs of pupils taken "before" and "after" such operations, in order to show the excellent outcome of these; in many cases the excessive dullness of certain pupils may be traced to the presence of these growths. The removal of tonsils and adenoid growths, does not always, however, result in restoring auxiliary pupils to the normal; if defects exist in the great central nervous system, we cannot reckon on mental development to any great extent. In many cases, however, the removal of these abnormal growths relieves the child of headaches, hardness of hearing, or a peculiar nasal quality of speech. The auxiliary school physician meets most frequently with all sorts of nervous disorders — (from extreme excitability to the more serious forms of nervous troubles) — it is therefore of great importance that he should be somewhat of a neurologist. Owing to the recognized dif- ficulty of making accurate diagnoses, and the numerous forms of nervous disorders, it is highly important that the school physician should have the aid of a nerve specialist in his work. At H^lle, we were fortunate ia securing the HEALTH OF THE PUPILS 87 assistance of a university professor who rendered assistance to our school physician, and who treated children suffering from epilepsy, paralysis, or chorea. Children's teeth also need attention and care. A healthy condition of the teeth is needed as well to secure good digestion as to assist in speech. It goes without saying that in addition to his professional supervision, the school physician proved a blessing to the school. Improper diet, improper methods of treating pupils, have given way to better conditions in compliance with his advice and counsel. It is to be hoped that other places, in the neigh- bourhood of forests especially, will follow the example of Charlottenberg — that of taking children to the forests for instruction — not merely children in need of rest, but auxiliary school pupils especially. The duties of the auxiliary school physician, the numerous dfemands upon his time and atten- tion, his relation to teachers and principal, may be deduced from what has just preceded. Of course the authorities will appoint to auxiliary schools only such men as are interested in child study or school hygiene. It is often a difficult matter to secure the services of an experienced 88 AUXILIARY EDUCATION physician — hence the great number of young men in auxiliary school positions. Concerning the requirements of such men, Prof. Griesbach says: *'He must have an accurate knowledge of the human body; must have spent considerable time in the study of hygiene; he must be a medical man who possesses a thorough knowledge of hygiene. He should attend pedagogic lectures; should he teach in the higher institutions of learning, he should attend pedagogical seminaries, Oberrealschulen, and Gymnasien, and be required to give model lessons exactly as a candidate for teacher's licence is required to do. Besides being a purely medical man, he must be able to teach medicine — then he will be of great service to his school in both a pedagogical and medical way, and thus exert an enormous influence for good over his pupils." Griesbach lays great stress on the knowledge of hygiene, and rightly so. But a knowledge of psychology and psychiatry are also needed. Perhaps Griesbach lays too much stress on the physician's knowledge of pedagogy — it were better if he were an excellent physician. No one will call into question the many-sidedness of his training, nor will any one regard his work as unimportant. As soon as a physician understands HEALTH OF THE PUPILS 89 that the teacher's purpose is to improve the physical condition of the pupils as well as the mental, he will at once lend his aid to that end. Is it ever necessary for a physician to advise with the school principal concerning the length of recitations, the number of recesses, the order of lessons in the programme, etc. ? It is to be supposed that all such matters will receive just consideration. Another sort of work may demand the notice of the school physician. Let us suppose, that a certain community (because of lack of funds to improve) has declared certain rooms fit for the use of auxiliary school pupils, though from the teacher's standpoint the room is unsuitable for many reasons. Should the physician's report agree with that of the teacher, or should he report the matter to the proper authorities ? His word often carries great weight; and so in his capacity as a physician, he accomplishes what the teacher, perhaps, has been unable to do. VI THE AUXILIARY SCHOOL PUPIL AND HIS CHARACTERISTIC TRAITS THE teacher of a regular class who, perhaps, comes into contact with his pupils merely as their instructor, is seldom concerned with such questions as "How does the subject-matter pre- sented affect the pupil ?" and *' What interest does he take in his school work?" Should the teacher desire to answer these questions fully to his own satisfaction, it would be necessary for him to deal with each pupil separately as an individual. In order to do this, however, the teacher must be "psychologically inclined" as Alternberg says. The teacher's ideals are often too easily dispelled by the vast amount of work to be covered, and the large classes assigned to his care. He is therefore often forced to make all sorts of com- promises, as it were. In time, he accustoms himself to certain routine, and treats much of his work in a purely mechanical way; he becomes an adept, too, in presenting results which seem 90 THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 91 eminently satisfactory to the lay mind. Gradually he relinquishes all his ideals, and becomes a "mere mechanic," as it were, in matters educational. Teachers of this type must be kept out of the auxiliary schools. Neither the number of subjects to be taught, nor the number of pupils assigned to his care, must ever cause a teacher to view all his pupils from this standpoint. In the auxiliary school, the pupils must be judged and rated according to the principles of psychology by one who thoroughly understands psychology — in other words, careful observations of every pupil must be made and recorded; these to form a sort of "characterization" of him, as it were. It may be held by some, that the teacher can form a fair estimate of a pupil's ability by means of the various records prepared before the child'* admission to the auxiliary school. It is true that a fair knowledge of the child's physicial and mental peculiarities may be obtained from these statements — but this is not sufficient for an auxiliary school record. How shall we proceed, then, to obtain the correct knowledge .? And how shall we record the child's development ? In Leipzig, a very simple plan is followed — the child is photographed. This plan of making 92 AUXILIARY EDUCATION a record of the child's appearance at the beginning and at the end of his school course, is worthy of note. To this day, I can distinctly recall one lad, who, upon admission to the auxiliary school at Halle, was almost devoid of the power of speech, and who showed other signs of neglect at home; his peculiar appearance led us to photograph him. Some years later, his appear- ance had altered so much, that a second photograph seemed to portray an entirely different person. Photography, we decided, tells a brief yet eloquent story of the pupil's development. For years, "reports" were considered all- sufficient in describing and characterizing pupils. In many cases, the teacher's estimate of a pupil was given in a semi-annual "figure" or rating, intended to show the mental, moral and intellectual growth of the pupil. But can figures show this.? Their inadequacy has been shown again and again; but tradition has proved so strong that teachers seem loathe to relinquish this method — waiting figures is so easy. At Halle, we planned a sort of school register, which aimed to set aside all use of figures in determining the mental growth of our pupils; we proposed to use concrete expressions in record- ing the teacher's experiences and observations. THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 93 This record was designed to accompany the pupil throughout his entire school career; the teacher is required to report semi-annually on the conduct, attention and interest of his pupils, and upon their skill in oral and written expression ; striking peculiarities are also made note of, together with a record of special progress in the various subjects of study. Even this record has been found by experience to be more or less inadequate. Naturally the question arises, "Can the observant teacher characterize a pupil in terms that may help another person to form a fairly accurate estimate of such pupil ?" As a general rule, the simpler the record, the more valuable it becomes, and the more cer- tain we are that it will be properly filled by the teacher. After all is said and done, the auxiliary school teacher is usually full of interest and enthusiasm in his work; if, however, that work constantly increases in complexity, his interest may wane, and as a result, his work w^ill lose some of its higher quality and tend to degenerate into the purely mechanical. (Maennel uses the expression, "idealism degenerates into mechanism.") The necessary records often entail much work in writing. As an example, we shall present 94 AUXILIARY EDUCATION three sets of plans for describing auxiliary school pupils — by Gorke, Klabe and Richter. PERSONAL EECORD OF AUXILIARY SCHOOL PUPILS (Dr. M. Gorke). 7. Personal data (to he filled hy teacher) 1. Name in full. 2. Age, place of birth, and religion. 3. Name and station of parents. II. History of the child (to be filled in by teacher) (a) Family history. 1. Illnesses or causes of death of parents, brothers and sisters; present condition of their health if Hving. 2. Nervous disorders, mental diseases; deafness and dumbness among relatives. 3. Are parents closely related ? 4. Economic standing of the family. (6) Personal history. 1. Birth. 2. Nourishment in infancy. 3. Previous physical development: (1) Dentition. (2) At what age did child begin to walk? (3) Development of the special senses. (4) Previous diseases — epilepsy, and other ner- vous disorders especially. 4. Intellectual development. (1) At what age did child begin to talk? THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 95 (2) At what age were defects in speech first noticed ? (3) Describe their nature. (4) At what age was abnormal mental develop- ment first noticed ? (5) How did it manifest itself? (6) What is its probable cause? (Accident, illness, serious defects in education and training, as overtaxing of mental or physical powers; or, on the other hand, their inactivity; poverty, privation, etc.) (7) Were these mental defects permanent or merely transitory? Did they show progres- sion, or were they of a fixed nature ? (8) What means (medical or pedagogic) have hitherto been employed with a view to correct- ing these defects, and with what result ? 5. Ethical development. Did the child show evi- dence of any special defects or abnormal tendencies as, for example, lying, fear, appetite (gluttony), lazi- ness, etc. ? III. Present condition (to be filled by physician) 1. Physical condition. (o) General — weight, size, complexion, appear- ance, nutrition, muscular development, shape of head, etc. (6) Sense development — (1) eyes, (2) ears, (3) taste and smell, (4) sensibility to pain, (5) touch. 96 AUXILIARY EDUCATION (c) Defective development — cleft palate, defective teeth, etc. (d) Signs of diseases as scrofula, rickets, scoliosis, struma; condition of internal organs, nasal breathing. (e) Are paralysis or muscular contractions notice- able? (/) Choreic movements, twitchings, etc. 2. Emotional and nervous nature. Does the examination disclose any defects in the emotional nature, or of the will ? — as excitement, fear, restlessness, whimsicality, etc. Does child exhibit any special interests ? 3. Intellectual activity. (a) Attention. (6) How does the process of thought proceed ? (rapidly, slowly, quietly, etc.) (c) Speech — (1) Does the child speak of himself in the first person.^ (2) Does he use the infinitive correctly ? (3) Describe clearly any difficulties on peculiarities in speech. (d) Imagination. (e) Memory — state development. (/) Judgment and reasoning. (g) Number sense. (h) Sense of form. (i) Sense of color. (j) Has the pupil any definite idea of time and space ? THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 97 (k) What progress has he made in the ordinary school studies ? Group III is to be carried along by the teacher during the whole of the child's school career. K. KLABES PLAN 1. Full name. 2. Date and place of birth. 3. Religion Date of baptism. 4. Vaccination: first .... second .... 5. Name and occupation of parents or guardians. 6. Resume of child's school work. DATE OF ADMISSION ATTENDANCE LONG ABSENCES, PROMOTION, TRANS- FERS, ETC. A. Remarks concerning child's development before he reached school age. B. Stage of development attained on entrance to auxiliary school. 1. Physical development. 2. Mental development. 3. Disposition or temperament. 4. Probable causes of child's deficiency. C. Additional observations concerning the pupil during his school career. Date of such observations. 98 AUXILIARY EDUCATION D. Child's interest in school work; his knowledge and skill. Religion German : Reading matter Skill in reading Skill in writing Skill in oral and written composition Number. Comprehension of number Skill in use of nimiber History Home geography Nature study Drawing Writing Singing Gymnastics Technical skill Domestic economy Absences (a) excused (6) unexcused EASTER 19... ancHAEL- MAS 19. . . EASTER 19... MICHAEL- MAS 19. . Signature of class teacher E. Explanation of defects from standpoint of psychology. F. Dismissal. 1. Time and cause of dismissal. 2. Degree of advancement attained. 3. Additional remarks. 4. How far has the school succeeded in fitting this pupil to take his place in life. G. Information concerning pupil after his dismissal from the school. THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 99 K. Richter demanded a mass of detailed information concerning a pupil on his entrance to the auxiliary school. 1. In each case, report on the individual pecul- iarities which distinguish the pupil from his fellows. 2. Observations and information concerning his home training, and its probable influence on the pupil's school work; differences in conduct toward his fellow pupils in school and out, when under the teacher's care, and when not. 3. Concerning children attending other classes for special studies, careful reports are to be made (at Easter time) on their conduct and progress. 4. In later reports, give only the changes which have been noticed in the course of the term. 5. All reports should be brief. richter's plan A. Physical Condition. Irregularity in function and structure. (1) Of the body as a whole — (a) Size (compared with normal of same age) ; size of parts in relation to the whole. (b) Posture in sitting, and standing; gait. (c) Diseases and physical defects — syphilis, scrofula, rickets, tuberculosis, epilepsy, anaemia, indigestion, abnormal skin conditions, muscular twitchings, etc., headaches, illnesses during 100 AUXILIARY EDUCATION school year, spinal curvature, chicken-breasted, narrow-chested, club-foot, asymmetry of limbs, etc., paralysis, defective sexual organs, (influence of puberty on the physical and mental life), etc. (2) Of the head — Size, shape, relation between skull and face, form of skull and face (asymmetry), facial expression. (3) Of the eyes — Distance between eyes, paralysis of lids, inflammation, squinting, rolling, cataracts, defects of iris, differences in size of pupils, short- sightedness, weak vision, dull, vacant gaze, inability to keep eyes fixed on one spot, colour- blindness, etc. (4) Of the ears — Outstanding ears, large, abnormal rim, folds, lobes lacking or attached; diseases of the ear, hearing, (5) Of the nose and throat — (concerning sense of smell, and breathing), chronic catarrh, adenoids, etc. (6.) Of the mouth — (o) Lips — distorted, hare-lip, etc. (b) Chin — protruding, receding, etc. (c) Teeth — number, condition. (d) Gums — palate, tonsils. (e) Tongue - — thick, tongue-tied, sense of taste, etc. (/) Salivation. THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 101 (g) The skin — sensitiveness to heat, mechani- cal irritation (blows), and when injured, etc. B. Character and Disposition. Peculiarities of 1. Disposition — quiet, sad, serious, melancholy, peevish, sullen, indifferent, sensitive, "touchy," soft- hearted, tearful, emotional, whimsical, hard, shy, anxious, fearful, timid, gay, lively, unruly, noisy, irritable. 2. Appetites and desires. (a) Appetite — eats too little, eats too heartily, greedy; overfond of sweets; chews paper, wood, fingernails, etc. (b) Sexual impulses — their development. (c) Inclination toward physical activity — defective physical activity — ease-loving, lazy, easily fatigued, tired, sleepy; restless, lively, playful (or rather, constantly playing), unstable, unsteady in movements, hysterical, voluble, boisterous. Automatic movements — swaying parts of body, sliding, staggering; drumming, rubbing, movements of tongue and lips, grimaces, etc. Clumsy, awkward, unsteady, awkward in making simple movements (spreading and bending fingers, throwing, grasping, rising), weak muscular sense, defective memory for coordination (as in dressing and undressing), left or right handed. Imitation — mechanical or deliberate. 102 AUXILIARY EDUCATION {d) Peculiarities — mania for collecting, kleptomania, pyromania, destructiveness, run- ning away, wandering, contradicting, etc. S. Moral impulses. (a) Feelings toward " self. " (Egoistic impulses.) With or without self-respect, self- confidence; haughty, proud, honourable, ambi- tious, vain, lacking sense of honour, courageous, bold. (6) Altruistic impulses. Conduct toward grown people and children ; faithful, exaggerated fondness, or indifference towards parents and others; apathetic; grateful toward benefactors; thankful; polite, obliging, seeking to ingratiate self, confidential, suspicious, bold, shameless, disobedient, unruly, stubborn, indifferent alike to praise or blame. Sympathetic, jealous, envious, malicious, scornful, mischievous, mean, revengeful. Sociable, unsocial (tendency to avoid fellow pupils), good-natured, harmless, fond of teasing quarrelsome, tattling, leading others astray, violent, cruel. (N. B. For the sake of brevity, the opposites have been omitted in many instances.) (c) Ethical impulses, or the feeling for right and duty. With or without a sense of right, duty, and propriety; conscientious, careless, fickle, thoughtless; sense of shame, repentant; THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 103 selfish, covetous, deceitful, thievish; generous, truthful, sincere, positive, arrogant; untruth- ful (owing to intellectual or moral weakness); hypocritical, well-behaved, naughty, sly; con- duct toward the opposite sex. 4. The religious sense. With or without this sense, superstitions, hypocritical, etc. 5. Aesthetic feelings (love of the beautiful). Defec- tive sense of the beautiful (form, color, tone); distorted aesthetic sense, ^. e., love for what is ugly, etc.; use of rough language; love of order and personal cleanliness; care of clothing, etc.; promptness. 6. Intellectual feelings. Pleasure in success, and its opposite under opposite conditions; uncertainty and doubt concerning the accuracy of his own acts; self- satisfied, self-complacent, over-confident of personal ability or knowledge; easily astonished, curious, inquis- itive; with or without spontaneous impulses, indifferent, lacking energy, weak-willed ; depending upon momentary impressions; easily managed, easily influenced, credu- lous, easily misled, unstable in desire, lazy, fond of work, industrious, docile. . Intellectual development. Special remarks concerning 1. Mental ability in general. (a) Incapable of improvement? or does child approach the normal at all ? (6) Symmetry in the development of the chief faculties of the mind (memory, thought); 104 AUXILIARY EDUCATION special weakness or strength of one or the other. (c) Reaction time of mental processes; slow, mentally inactive; aversion toward mental effort; slow to think; quick; thoughtless, flighty. 2. Attention. Voluntary or involuntary attention. Attentive, inattentive, indifferent, easily wearied; con- sistent; easily distracted; flitting from one object of thought to another; heedless. Attentive only when fre- quently called upon to attend. Interest in work in general or in special studies. 3. Mental ability in general. (a) Attitude on receiving new impressions and sensations; receptivity; rapidity and power of apprehension — whether difficult or easy, slow or quick, incomplete and inaccurate, or complete and clear. Superficial in perception and in power of observation. Differences in the ability of the various senses. Are the mental powers easily aroused ? Difficulty in comprehending sense impressions or language. (6) Power of memory (power to assimilate, retain, and recall). Eaisy or difficult; more or less complete assimilation of poems, verses, multiplication tables, and similar arbitrary material; impressions resulting from work in the different studies. Character of retention of sense impressions and memory images. Forgetfulness. THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 105 Many-sidedness of observation. Character of memory for names, words, numbers, forms {i.e., of letters and figures), colours, places, tones, successive or connected movements, etc. Quick or slow recollection; character of the reproduced ideas — are they true to the original or have changes been made — omissions, inver- sions, additions or the opposites ? (c) Ability to elaborate into higher products what has been acquired. In the realm of thought — Does the child distinguish readily between objects and their special characteristics ? (resemblances, dif- ferences, etc.) Does he distinguish between the essential and the non-essential ? Character of his power of abstraction ; is unable to advance beyond sense-perceptions. Character of general notions along certain lines, or in certain branches of study; indistinct and hazy ideas, confusion of ideas, etc. Accuracy, rapidity and certainty of judg- ments and conclusions formed in reference to the concrete and to the abstract. (2) In the realm of the imagination. Weak or easily excited; difficulty in imagining things not present to the senses, or in imagining oneself in other times, or in strange lands, or in imagining people living under different con- ditions (the sort imagination called for in 106 AUXILIARY EDUCATION studying Bible history and in writing compo- sitions, etc.) Imagination when at play (building, exer- cises in construction), in manual training, (changing form and size), in drawing (form and colour). Highly imaginative — spreading evil reports concerning others, prevaricating, etc. 4. Development of the power of speech. (a) Tone (speaking tone) as to strength, timbre and pitch; gentle, whispering, loud, screaming, singing, monotonous; falsely accented; harsh hoarse, screeching; sharp, repressed, nasal; high, deep (the deep tone of puberty). (6) Pronunciation and the rate of speaking. Impurity of tone, loud, careless pronunciation; "swallowing" final syllables; slow, drawling; hesitating, stuttering (inserting syllables or words; rapid, "running together" of syllables or words; omitting or repeating syllables or words. (c) Organic defects. Lisping, stammering, stuttering; complete or partial inability to speak (speaking only single sounds, or syllables, certain words or phrases); defective enunciation of syllables. Inability to comprehend connection between sense perception and word, letter or sound; number and figure, idea and word; "word blindness"; "word deafness;" confus- THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 107 ing words unconsciously ; (e. g., for wardrobe, table; for table, leg, etc.) (d) Clearness and accuracy of speech. Clear, connected speech; lacking vocabulary; repeat- ing in parrot fashion; inventing words, choice of words, use of idioms and colloquialisms, and use of dialects. Development of the "Sprachgefiihl," or feeling for language. Variations in ability to understand and speak the dialect and the written language. Mistakes in the order of words; use of the infinitive; inflections; incorrect use of tenses; use of prepositions, etc. D. Development in knowledge and skill. Under this head we shall note the child's attitude toward the subject-matter presented in the various branches of study — this attitude is probably the result of the child's mental and physical endowment or ability. By referring now to the peculiarities noted in A, B, and C above, we shall endeavour to show to what special points the attention should be directed in the various studies. 1. Religious instruction. Does the child possess any religious concepts, thoughts, feelings? Does he find it easy or difficult to comprehend religious teachings ? What interest does he show in such instruction ? (Referring chiefly now to the Biblical material of his school grade.) 108 AUXILIARY EDUCATION What stage of development has he attained in relation to religious subject-matter ? (Abstrac- tions, judgments, forming conclusions, with special reference to the ethical and religious 'alue of his acts and the acquirement of ethical and dogmatic teachings.) Comprehension, retention and reproduction of religious teachings. Application of these teacliings to his own conduct. 2. Realien (Real things, i. e., the subjects which give a knowledge of things). (a) Object lessons. Ability to observe and describe things in nature, models, pictures. Differences in the perceptions gained through the different senses. Acquired knowledge of names, qualities, activities, purposes, uses, etc., of objects and events in his own surroundings. Interest and degree of participation in conver- sation; understanding of a talk on things actually present to the senses, on things not so present, and of the moral or religious subjects suggested by them. Thought and imagination in connec- tion with the material so presented. Memory for correlated fables, poems, etc. (6) Nature Study. Ability to see and recog- nize objects and places in nature, in pictures, by means of models. Ideas gained through personal experience or by means of instruction. THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 109 Ability to distinguish between form and struc- ture, between cause and effect, etc. (c) HeimatJcunde (home geography) and geography. Ability to observe (personal ob- servations, observations made in class excur- sions, etc. ) Ability to imagine himself in places previously visited. Map drawing. Use of maps. Ability to relate his ideas on home geography to general geography. Power to receive and retain knowledge pertaining to home geography and general geography. History. Interest in historical persons, facts, events (related to German history), and under- standing of the same. Memory for facts, names, etc. 3. German. (a) Reading. Reader and reading matter. (Recognition of printed and written symbols, "blending" of syllables and words, sentence reading, reading of connected stories, etc. (Ger- man or Roman type). Mechanical skill in reading; reading with expression. Characteristic mistakes in reading. Reproduction of material read ; memory for the same. (6) Writing. Copying written letters and words, with or without a knowledge of their 110 AUXILIARY EDUCATION meaning. Copying from print, German or Roman text. Analysis and synthesis of words. Writing from dictation — mechanical, or upon reflection. Characteristic errors in dictation. (c) Written composition. Ability to express in writing, own thoughts or those of others. Mistakes in sentence construction; order of words, sequence of thought, choice of expres- sions, etc. 4. Arithmetic. Counting — knowledge of the order of numbers, numeration, notation. Mechanical skill, in the simple rules; state how far child can go in each. Difference in oral and written arithmetic. Does the pupil possess a specially good memory for number and for the sequence of operations, or is he deficient here ? Comprehension of the applications of arith- metic. Difference in ability to comprehend concrete and abstract examples. 5. Special "accomplishments." (a) " Schonschreihen" — Material presented. Comprehension of the form of letters and their differences. Aptitude for copying. Character; istics of the child's writing — slant, strength, spacing, relative size of letters, regularity, etc. (6) " Netzzeichnen " (i. e., drawing on paper divided into squares) — straight and curved lines; THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 111 freehand drawing; stigmographic drawing (i. e., drawing by the aid of points or dots at various distances from one another). Abihty to under- stand and copy Hnes of different directions and lengths; single figures and groups. Manner of execution — mechanical, or as the result of reflection; more or less independ- ently; light or heavy touch; eye measurements; accuracy, neatness, etc. Taste in regard to colour and form. (c) Singing. Hearing, voice, rhythm, mem- ory for music. Special preferences for music, singing, certain songs, etc. (d) Gymnastics. Strength, endurance; skill in execution of movements; sense of rythm; conduct during the gymnastic and game periods. (Sociability, defects of character, use of imagina- tion, etc.) (e) Manual Training. Kind of activity mani- fested. Note cleverness in any special line; special interest in any certain kind of work. Manner and method of execution; degree of skill manifested. The amount of writing required in a report like the above appals one; in addition, the teacher who is interested in the finer phases of the child's development is constantly hampered by the necessity of answering the numerous questions. 112 AUXILIARY EDUCATION For many reasons, the plan for the description of pupils for the auxiliary school should not be too comprehensive; neither should the questions be too detailed in character. It is true, however, that few teachers can draw up a suitable form for themselves. Hence, Triiper urged cooperation — he felt that if this led to nothing further than a discussion of even a few common difficulties, much good would result. Unfortunately, however, Triiper pleaded in vain. (Triiper's request was published in Kinder jehler, 1897, 5-6). Little has appeared on the subject since that time; and it must be admitted that none of this works toward uniformity. Possibly Lay's "individuality list" may serve as a starting point toward that goal — uni- formity. In his Experimental Didactics, Lay works out his "list" from the following standpoints: A. Conditions and functions. I. Inheritance. II. Environment. (a) Family 1. Nutrition (effects of alcoholism, etc.) 2. Illnesses. 3. Amount of sleep — its character, the bed- room, bed-fellows. 4. Training. (Parents' outlook on life, their mistakes, example). THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 113 5. Recreation and play — kinds, time devoted to them, work out of school hours, etc. (6) Associates. 1. Friendships and playmates. 2. Public life — street; religious and political associations. (c) Nature. Natural surroundings, i. e., home environ- ment, etc. III. Coordinations of the sensory-motor mechanism. (a) Physical and psychical energy. (b) Tendency to become exhausted. (c) Special aptitudes. (d) Traits of character. B. Physical nature. General physical nature; constitution, size, weight; deviations from the normal; illnesses. C. Mental attributes. I. Sensory — type of observation. II. Associative — attention, memory, interests. III. Motor movements; skill; actions. Previous writers dealt with details, while Lay places stress on general characteristics. The lack of any direct reference to a plan or course of study is a decided advance in Lay's scheme. At Halle, we have become firmly convinced of the inadequacy of our method of making semi- annual reports on each subject of the course of 114 AUXILIARY EDUCATION study. For instance, what can a teacher report concerning a child's progress in religious instruc- tion ? Shall we examine the child and then report "N. N. has learned (well or poorly) a certain number of Scriptural stories, portions of the Catechism, certain hymns, and proverbs" ? Or shall we place greater importance on the appreciation of the subject-matter of religious instruction ? Or, lastly, can we determine the relation between the child's actions and his religious and moral obligations ? I am inclined to think that the auxiliary school teacher is scarcely qualified to pass judgment on the child's progress in religious training. Similar difficulties will confront us in all other branches of study. Now, though Lay's scheme does simplify mat- ters to a certain degree, many other problems still remain unsolved. In the first place, very few teachers possess the psychological insight which Dr. Lay presupposes in his "list." More- over, his scheme is also open to criticism on the ground of the labour involved in writing answers to his headings — people differ greatly in the point of view taken in regard to such matters. But, on the other hand, Lay's scheme can be .simplified and so become more practical. (It is to THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 115 be hoped that this important matter will be taken up shortly in our auxiliary school association.) In the first place, the physical peculiarities could be reported upon by the school physician. The health record (as given above) could be consulted at any time by the principal and teachers of the school. There would then remain but three divisions for the teachers to report on, and the first of these, dealing with the child's inherited tendencies, etc., should receive a brief treatment. The other two come under the following heads: I. Environ- ment (family and home) : (1) vocation, (2) nutrition, (3) number of children, (4) illnesses, (5) parents' outlook on life, (6) recreations, work, and associations. II. Inheritance in the sensory and motor fields: (1) physical and mental power of resistance, (2) power of observation, (3) of attention, of memory, special interests, (4) move- ments, skill, actions, power of speech, (5) traits of character. Following Lay's plan, let us reconstruct the records of Agnes S. and Otto B., given in Chapter IV. I. Agnes S., born Dec. 24, 1895, shows evidences of having inherited the effects of alcoholism. II. Her father, who worked at odd jobs occa- 116 AUXILIARY EDUCATION sionally, died under the influence of liquor. Her mother, who did not bear a very good reputation, married again; the second husband was an iron- w^orker, who had frequently been arrested for drunkenness; at present they are living apart. The family has never been sufficiently nourished, and there seems to be little hope of improving conditions as the combined earnings of the family are small. Of five children of the first marriage, three died of convulsions at an early age; the others passed safely through the usual illnesses of childhood. The mother, though not yet forty years of age, is physically delicate. There is but one small sleeping room for the family; the two girls sleep on a couch which is far from clean. Agnes is an exceedingly restless sleeper, and usually gnashes her teeth. After school she roams about the streets with her sister as there is nothing else for them to do. The mother herself is by no means a model of industry ; she is happiest when not annoyed by the presence of her children. Her idea of training them consists on the one hand of harsh words and blows, and on the other, of pampering. This latter she considers to be the true test of mother love. Agnes joins her comrades in play at times; then again, she goes off alone to dream. THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 117 Occasionally she shdws signs of affection for her playmates; at other times she scratches and bites them. III. Owing to the fact that she has always been poorly nourished, Agnes is physically incapable of resisting disease. She is very stub- born and perverse — insists on doing what is forbidden. She tires easily, often sleeping during class work. She is utterly incapable of following out a line of thought or holding to an idea. Some- times she seems contented; at other times she is cross and peevish. Laughter changes to tears on slight provocation; indeed she often laughs or cries without apparent reason; she seems absolutely lacking in any sense of moral obligation. In size, Agnes is below the average. As to general constitution, she belongs to the middle group; height, chest measure, and weight fall below the average. Abdomen prominent, slight spinal curvature; gait awkward and ungainly; squints slightly with the left eye, otherwise sight and hearing seem normal; convex palate; mouth breather; teeth very irregular; speech very defective. Impressions from without are very imperfect, owing to what may be termed her mental unrest, rather than to the faulty structure of the sense organs. Attention and concentration 118 AUXILIARY EDUCATION seem impossible in her case. Although she may try hard to attend, she is distracted by any sound, etc., which brings up at once a new train of thought. Consequently her memory for words, colours, time and space relations, and tones is exceedingly poor. Her interests are those of the moment — permanent interests apparently have no place in her make-up. Her restlessness is characteristic of her type; it is impossible for her to be quiet even for a very short time; it seems here as if physical restlessness and mental unrest go hand in hand. Agnes possesses no skill in manual work, and her lack of perseverance is a severe trial to her teachers. Following Lay's scheme again, let us examine Otto B: I. Inheritance: Otto B., born 1892, evidently inherits tuberculosis. II. Environment : The father, a labourer, died of tuberculosis. The mother does washing; she is away from home all day. She has borne twelve children, four of whom died at an early age. Otto is the ninth child. In addition to the father's long illness, there was much sickness Among the children of the family. The parents here had no thought of their duty in training or educating their children, THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 119 Otto agrees with his playmates as long as Qe can play leader in all of their games. If he feels that he is being imposed upon, he immediately seeks revenge. He is fond of stealing rides on the street cars; he often steals fruit from the fruit stands. Since his home is on the outskirts of a town, he spends a good deal of time wandering about in the fields. III. Inheritance in the sensory and motor fields. As a result of his outdoor life and play. Otto has grown to be a strong boy, and he walks the long distance to and from school without showing signs of fatigue. But his mentality is poor; many times he seems to possess no mental life at all. What must at one time have possessed an interest for him, seems as other times not to exist at all as far as he is concerned. Then, suddenly, his mind seems to awaken, and for a time he is apparently a good scholar. He observes closely every occurrence on the street which has any interest for him. He understands the value of money, and he spends much of his spare time earning money by rendering various little services to those who will employ him. He seems to find it especially difiicult to keep the seventh commandment. He is nimble and expert at running and 120 AUXILIARY EDUCATION climbing. His speech is very faulty for two reasons — in the first place, he is careless in enunciation, and he stammers; secondly, he omits words here and there or inserts them in the wrong place in the sentence. Otto is naturally good- natured, but punishment makes him sullen. His general physical condition may be called good. In size, weight, and chest measure he is above the average. He suffers somewhat from astigma- tism; glasses were ordered, and these improved his sight. His ears are normal; he is a mouth breather and his voice is hoarse. Otto B. belongs to the type which understands how to enlarge and enrich the mental life by impressions from without. As long as the subject- matter of instruction is concrete, he is attentive; but his memory is very poor. His defective speech is a sore trial and hindrance. So far he has shown no special interests or abilities which might point to his future vocation. His activity, often uncontrollable, can scarcely be regarded as a sign of disease. Unless he is closely watched, he gets into all sorts of mischief. Perhaps many an important detail has been emphasized here, while, on the other hand, certain others of greater value have been omitted. It is indeed a difficult matter to write THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 121 a good description of a child's mental capacity. For this reason, frequent consultation is neces- sary. Let us think now, for a moment, of the auxiliary school teacher. He has this advantage over the teacher in an ordinary school — he is first of all an educator, then a teacher. Therefore, he welcomes the opportunity for obtaining a proper foundation for his work by studying the "personal records" of his pupils. The fact that he can build this foundation for himself makes it doubly valuable for him; he is able, too, to test its accuracy at every step of the way. He must be careful, however, not to fall into the error of supposing that, because certain facts are correct, all his conclusions are correctly drawn. Constant and careful observation will, in the end, enable him to form a fairly correct estimate of his pupils. This sort of work raises him far above the standard of many who call themselves teachers, besides affording him the sort of pleasure which always accompanies scientific investigation; for every successful study of a pupil, serves, in its small way, the great purpose which the study of the evolution of man has raised. But the work of the auxiliary school is directed toward the benefit of its pupils — we must not 122 AUXILIARY EDUCATION lose sight of this truth — and it is the teacher's duty to become thoroughly acquainted with his pupils in order to judge them properly and to treat them correctly. This sort of work is important for every person who deals with the pupil in any capacity. The auxiliary school pupil is entitled to con- sideration, not only in school, and during his school career, but at all times and in all places. Employers, military and court authorities, and others should be informed concerning the personal record of these children. Unfortunately, the use of such records is but little understood as yet. Many of them still prefer to receive an estimate of the pupil in numbers (per cents.) — which seems an easy method of comprehension, rather than the more elaborate "characterization" of the person in question. The latter forces them to form a judgment concerning the pupil, and thus seems more cumbersome. At Plauen, the following form of report is sent semi-annually to the parents of auxiliary school pupils. If all schools would adopt this plan, the parents would have constantly placed before them what is characteristic of their children, and, perhaps, in time, employers and others would also learn to make proper use of these THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 123 records in forming conclusions concerning the pupils involved. Certificate to the parents of Class Conduct and industry Mental progress Absences excused unexcused Auxiliary School (six grades; regular Volksschule) at Plauen, Michaelmas 190. . Teacher Parent or guardian. For the sake of greater simplicity, the auxiliary school teacher could adapt the record to the use for which it is intended; e. g., a certain form of statement could be written for the employer of a servant; a different form for the master of an apprentice; still another (emphasizing points required) for the military, etc. But these care- fully prepared records must be appreciated by the different authorities, employers, etc., and put to their best use, else the labour has been in vain. Unfortunately, the work of the auxiliary school has met with but little appreciation as yet ; we hope to show, a little later on, how impor- tant a factor the auxiliary school is as a social organiziation. VII THE AUXILIAJIY SCHOOL BUILDING THE auxiliary school, as the latest develop- ment in the education of children, has so far received but little consideration as far as its housing is concerned. Usually it is organized in connection with a regular folk school, and occupies rooms not needed by the latter — it must find place where it can. Ideal conditions must be the aim, but this is often a difficult problem, from the financial point of view. It may not be amiss, however, to discuss the question of ideal conditions. The location of auxiliary classes and schools, must, of necessity, be governed largely by the size of the district or districts concerned. In a small community, the first and perhaps the only necessary auxiliary class, would be established in or near the regular school. In larger communities, it is advisable to have groups of classes, so distributed as to location, that they will be easy of access to the pupils who are expected to attend them. 124 AUXILIARY SCHOOL BUILDING 125 From the point of view of school government, it would, perhaps, be wisest to organize a certain number of classes into an auxiliary school before additional classes were planned. A gymnasium should be built in connection with this special school, and playgrounds and school gardens should be provided. The building itself (affording accommodations for the principal and the janitor) should be a model as far as hygienic conditions are concerned. The heating and ventilating systems, and the plumbing (toilets, etc.) should be as nearly perfect as possible, following the most approved plans. All floors should be covered with linoleum. It is suggested also that the seats in the classrooms, especially those for the accommodation of younger pupils, be arranged as in an amphitheatre. The school building should also contain bath- rooms, an infirmary and a workshop. Dressing rooms should be provided in connection with the bathrooms; the bathroom floors should be warmed and so constructed as to preclude all danger of slipping. In addition, a sufiicient number of shower baths should be provided. The infirmary should be large enough to provide accommodation for pupils requiring special atten- tion (examination, vaccination, etc.). A medicine 126 AUXILIARY EDUCATION cabinet in the infirmary should be stocked with various kinds of bandages, restoratives, anti- septics, etc., all ready for immediate use. All necessary apparatus, used by the physician in making his examinations, should also be kept at hand. The workshop should contain materials and implements for modelling, and for paper and woodwork. Tables, stools, and chests (to hold materials, tools, etc.) should form part of the fittings of the workshop. The equipment should also include a turning lathe and a joiner's bench. It is a wise plan to connect the gymnasium with the main building by means of a covered walk or corridor, so that the pupils may go to and from the gymnasium in all kinds of weather without danger. The walls of the gymnasium, as well as the schoolroom walls, should be decorated with pictures and mottoes; the rooms should be made as comfortable and as pleasant as possible. Ordinary gymnasium apparatus is not always suitable for an auxiliary school. The gymnasium in the latter requires special apparatus suitable for all kinds of hygienic and corrective work in gymnastics. It goes without saying that a AUXILIARY SCHOOL BUILDING 127 piano should be included in the equipment of a gymnasium. As stated above, school gardens and play- grounds should also be placed at the disposal of auxiliary school pupils. Sand piles and garden beds afford abundant opportunity for play, and also for the care and culture of flowers and vegetables. Aquaria and terraria might be used to teach a love for animals and how to care for them. VIII THE ORGANIZATION OF AN AUXILIARY SCHOOL AND THE CLASSIFICATION OF ITS PUPILS NEXT in importance comes the question of classifying the pupils. Any one who observes the development of an auxiliary school will realize that a good deal of time is needed for careful observation, etc., before the pupils can be separated into its several classes. Hence, it would be wisest to begin every auxiliary school with but one class. It will be necessary for the teacher to group her pupils in some way — even then, perhaps, her hard work will show but little result for a long time. One of the important questions which demands solution is this, "What pupils shall be admitted to the auxiliary school ?" At Halle, our progress in the organization of the auxiliary school was very slow and we assume that the same may be said of other places; the pupils are separated from among regular school pupils slowly and 128 THE SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 129 carefully. When the authorities become con- vinced that it is not always necessary for a can- didate for auxiliary schools to exhibit pronounced symptoms of mental deficiency, or marked signs of abnormality, the question of enlarging a special class into an auxiliary school will come about as a natural result. How many pupils should be placed in a class, and how many classes should an auxiliary school contain ? Auxiliary school pupils gain greatest benefit when placed in small classes, but as each class calls for the expenditure of considerable money, the authorities seem loath to acknowledge this point. The Prussian Minister of Education (June 16, 1894) recommended that no class should exceed twenty-five in number. He aims, in my opinion, to encourage cities and towns in their efforts to establish auxiliary schools. But his statement is based, as it were, on financial con- siderations — were it not, he would have recom- mended a much smaller number. This recommendation has, unfortunately, been regarded as final in many places. But if a teacher desires to give individual instruction, her class must register less than twenty-five; this is especially 130 AUXILIARY EDUCATION true in the case of the lower classes; fifteen pupils would be a fair number here. Some cities have adopted fifteen as their register number. I would that other cities would follow their example, and that eventually we should find it the rule to have the lower grades register fifteen, the inter- mediate twenty, and the higher grades twenty-five. Statistics show that about one-half of one per cent, of the population is made up of defective children; in a city of 100,000 inhabitants, we might have about five hundred pupils for auxiliary schools. This does not always hold, to be sure, for in Halle, of 160,000 inhabitants, we have about two hundred and twenty-five pupils ; Mannheim, a city of the same size, cared for sixty-seven auxiliary pupils in 1903-4. The conditions at Mannheim cannot be taken as conclusive, because, as will be remembered, the present scheme of admission at Mannheim differs greatly from that followed at Halle. A glance at " Wintermann's Survey of Auxiliary Schools and Classes" (1903), may give us more definite information on the matter. Towns like Aix-la-Chapelle, Barmen, Brunswick, Chemnitz, Cologne, Diisseldorf, Elberfeld, and others (all industrial towns) send, on the average, more pupils to auxiliary schools than other towns whose population is not largely composed of THE SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 131 workmen. Thus it seems that the class of inhab- itants, their vocations and manner of living, exert greater influence on the number of defective pupils than the mere size of the city or town. Suppose that there are 100 pupils to be taken into an auxiliary school. How should its organiz- ation proceed? Many answers might be given here, but one thing will surely be agreed upon: the weakest pupils who have never been in school at all should be grouped as once into the lowest class. These children must first be taught to speak properly. The further establishment of the school depends upon many conditions — room, accommodations, etc. In some places, there is a tendency to establish classes corresponding roughly to the grades in the regular schools. The auxiliarj?^ school should have as many classes as possible, but no class should have more than two sections. The question of organization might be con- sidered from two standpoints — namely, the religion, and the sex of the pupils. As yet there has been no question concerning the predominance of one or another religious belief among the pupils. The work has been founded so far on a more philanthropic basis. When, however, the parents or the clergy are 132 AUXILIARY EDUCATION desirous of having the religious feature of instruc- tion emphasized, the matter is best left to special teachers, as in the regular folk schools. Exper- ience has proved, however, that parents seldom insist on this privilege. If the religious instruction is broad in character, as is necessary in auxiliary schools, the Protestant and the Catholic child may attend the instruction together until they reach the age of confirmation. The sex of the pupils exerts as little influence on organization as does the question of religion. Whether from the standpoint of economy or from pedagogical considerations, co-education has been thought necessary and helpful from the start. The question of co-education has been readily solved here, and no dangers, moral or other, have been found. IX THE PROGRAMME THE problem of planning a course of studies even for a regular school presents many difficulties — that is, if we desire a course which will fulfil all the demands of hygiene and still answer the demands of a school pro- gramme. It is a difficult matter to keep the correct proportion between the two. There is still a lack of agreement on the part of physicians and school people, in regard to the following questions: " What studies cause fatigue most easily .^" and "How can one recognize and decide upon the degree of fatigue .f^" Kraepelin, Ebbinghaus, Lobsien, Bauer, have made a special study of fatigue. Erismann, Burgerstein and Schiller have paid special attention to the division of lesson periods and alternating recesses, as well as to the order in which lessons should succeed one another. These names stand as proof of the difficulty of solving these questions. We assume, as a matter of course, that feeble- 133 134 AUXILIARY EDUCATION minded children show fatigue and exhaustion sooner than children of normal development. Lesson periods in auxiliary schools are therefore of shorter duration than in the regular school. The question of the succession of lessons or subjects has also been carefully considered — dif- ficult studies should be followed by easy ones. Subjects which demand special mental effort should not follow one another. As a general rule, these should alternate with lessons introducing manual training ("techincal" is the term used by Maennel). As certain forms of manual training are also fatiguing to auxiliary school children, we must exercise great care in choosing here. If general rules can be formulated concerning the arrangement of studies, perhaps the following may prove of use: 1. The day's studies should be so arranged as to meet the demands of mental energy required for each. 2. The first lesson of the day should not always make the heaviest demand upon the child. 3. If a lesson has especially aroused and stim- ulated one side of the child's nature, the next lesson should appeal to another phase which has not yet been stimulated. THE PROGRAMME 135 Beyond a few very general rules, the teacher should be left free to arrange the daily plan of studies in accordance with the needs of his class. It often happens that pupils come to school half awake, and at such times are naturally unfit to receive instruction, say, in arithmetic or religion; on such occasions a walk is more profitable than forced instruction. Many writers on auxiliary school matters make the following rules in addition to the above: 4. The same subjects should be taught in every class at the same time. For example, if arithmetic is assigned to a certain time, arithmetic instruction must be given in all classes at that hour. This is held to be necessary, because of the peculiarities of the pupils; many are able to talk well, but read very poorly; others make progress in arithmetic, but are unable to speak well. The question is asked, "Shall a pupil be held back for his defects along one line, when he can accomplish more in others ?" Perhaps it were wiser to permit each pupil to advance accord- ing to his special ability. Taking for granted that all auxiliary classes are placed in one building, and the programme is arranged as indicated, the pupil can go to that class in arithmetic or reading which corresponds to his standard. In 136 AUXILIARY EDUCATION all other subjects, the pupil remains in his own class and advances with his classmates. This plan may have the advantage of furthering the individual abilities of a child, so that, perhaps he may read or cipher better than if he had advanced more slowly with his classmates. But what do these signify in comparison to his back- wardness along other lines ? The wandering about from room to room induces a spirit of restlessness and lack of restraint in the school, which tends to make the whole school unsettled, and militates against all permanent educative influence. 5. The auxiliary school should have no after- noon session. This demand, so recently urged in connection with regular schools in our larger cities, has an especial significance for the auxiliary school. As a rule, auxiliary school pupils are forced to travel considerable distances to and from school and occasionally these long walks cause suffering to delicate children. In the case of older pupils in the higher classes, the question cannot always be so considered. An afternoon session must be added if children are to have thirty-two lesson periods per week. This question, however, can be left to the decision of the school directors, who may perhaps secure to weak pupils (backward on account of long THE PROGRAMME 137 distance to school) the privilege of riding to school at the city's expense. 6. Intermissions must be more carefully con- sidered than in the case of the regular school. Generally speaking, recesses are fifteen to twenty minutes long. The main point to be kept in mind, however, is this — that the recesses and intermissions should really refresh and strengthen the pupils. They should breathe fresh, pure air, eat a simple luncheon, and move about without restraint, preferably in play. The teacher must be constantly on the watch, and help the pupils to make the best of these recesses. Here he will find abundant opportunities for obser- vation, and may, through his observations, render valuable aid to his co-workers. X THE COURSE OF STUDY IT IS no easy task to answer the numerous questions which arise concerning the course of study for the elementary school; the choice and arrangement of the subjects of instruction demand much careful thought. In the case of auxiliary schools, the matter becomes even more difficult. At the very outset the mental pecu- liarities of auxiliary school pupils raise the question, "Is it possible at all to plan a course of study for auxiliary schools which will meet to any extent the demands of the so-called average intellect ?" If we cannot reach a definite conclusion on certain points in this discussion, we must at least recognize the need of a plan of procedure, on broad, general lines, perhaps, for no really successful work can be accomplished without a plan. Hitherto, the course of study for auxiliary schools was planned by teachers who had taught 138 THECOURSEOFSTUDY 139 in regular public schools; and they brought into the course their love for subject-matter. It goes without saying that much of the subject-matter taught in the regular school is entirely out of place in an auxiliary school. When, on the other hand, teachers from certain other institutions, (i e., institutions laying stress on physiological pedagogy,) seek to plan a course of study, they introduce too little subject-matter; they over-emphasize, perhaps, the formation of habits; they lay too great stress on the side of educating, and neglect the phase of instructing; auxiliary school pupils should be given a broad training, i. e., they should be taught many things. How much should be taught ? It would be ridiculous, of course, to set as high a standard for auxiliary schools as is set for the highest grade of regular schools. Perhaps, for a general rule, it would be wise to set as a standard that required by the middle grade of the regular school; in other words, the standard set is rather a low one, perhaps. Still, the auxiliary school pupil can pursue some subjects to a greater degree than pupils in the middle grades of the folk school; for example, the *' realistic studies." Let us endeavour to answer carefully this 140 AUXILIARY EDUCATION question, "What is the purpose of the auxiliary school ?" It is an independent institution for the education and instruction of a certain class of pupils. Its purpose is to fit these to become useful members of society, and for this reason, we should teach therein all those subjects which tend to arouse the individual will and the impulse to do. Through a wise choice of subjects, the overcrowding of the course of study must be prevented. Vvith this general aim in view, we may proceed to define the limit or scope to be kept in mind in each of the several subjects of the course. 1. Religion. The auxiliary school pupil must be led to an understanding of the Divine God. He must be led to comprehend his duty to his neighbour, to himself, and to his God. As a help to his moral and religious feelings and actions, he must be led to accept the more impor- tant truths of the Christian religion, in order to become ready for confirmation. 2. By means of practice in observation, speak- ing, reading, and writing, he should be led to comprehend and to reproduce, both orally and in writing, what he has seen, or heard, or ex- perienced. 3. History. By the study of the lives of men THE COURSE OF STUDY 141 and women who have served their home and country, he should be taught love of country; if possible, he should be taught the beauty of sacrifice for one's native land. 4. Drawing is to be used in every class as a means of expression; in this way, it forms a standard by which we may follow the pupil's progress in the intellectual and aesthetic fields. 5. Manual training. Like drawing, manual training, in its various branches, should lead or direct the activities of the children into the different lines opened up by other studies; and should aid, later on, in the choice of a life work. 6. Singing and gymnastics. In the first place, both of these studies serve useful purposes from the standpoint of hygiene- Secondly, by their rhythmical character, they assist in the coordi- nation of movements and develop the child's will; and lastly, their aesthetic value, and their value as recreation can scarcely be overestimated. 7. Home geography and general geography. (Heimatkunde und Erdbeschreibung) . The child should become familiar with his home environ- ment; and he must not be left ignorant concerning those parts of the world with which his home town or city or country has any intercourse. 8. Arithmetic. Instruction in arithmetic should 142 AUXILIARY EDUCATION aim to make the pupils familiar with the simple problems Cand their applications) of daily life. 9. Natural history and nature study. The child should be taught to observe the change of seasons in his home environment; and, in the interest of self-preservation, and his life with other human beings, the human body is to be made the subject of careful study. We have now stated the scope of each subject. Let us consider, next, the correlation and suc- cession of subjects. The old saying, "Proceed from the simple to the difficult," holds good in the auxiliary schools — the simple must always predominate in the choice of material. A mastery of the subject-matter outlined for regular elemen- tary schools is not to be thought of at all. But the striving toward a complete whole, the outlook toward something really finished, must be the goal, and must be evident throughout. Even if the amount of knowledge mastered is but small, it must be such as will aid in furthering the develop- ment of the growing mind, and result in forming a basis for the religious and ethical personality. In order to accomplish this end, it is by no means necessary that religious instruction should pre- dominate and all other subjects be made subordinate. Triiper, to be sure, undertakes THECOURSEOFSTUDY 143 to apply the culture epoch theory as worked out by Rein. In accordance with his plan, Robinson Crusoe is chosen as the centre of instruction (for children from eight to ten) in nature study, home geography, modelling, drawing, singing, German, and arithmetic. Fuchs also recommends Robinson Crusoe as a basis for the work in auxiliary schools; and really, when one thinks of training for work and for will power and control, one must fall in with this recommendation. Robinson Crusoe is really a classical model for the weak-willed auxiliary school pupil. But his example would exert greater influence in a secluded institution of learning than in a public school. The pupils of the latter school see too much of the world about them, with its many devices, and as a result, Robinson Crusoe's helplessness does not appeal to them as one would wish. Taking into account the fact that many subjects of instruction must be treated independently (as for example, religion, history and arithmetic), it is impossible to present plans for closely connected and organically related wholes. It will be a difficult matter to make auxiliary school pupils understand certain aggregations, as family groups, work, trades, etc., which may perhaps be easily seen in his immediate vicinity. If, however, these 144 AUXILIARY EDUCATION social groups are included in the course of study as home phenomena, the auxiliary school is really preparing its pupils for practical life. No single worker has been able to solve the problem offered by the course of study for auxiliary schools. Much preliminary work must yet be done — as yet, there is no suitable reading book (attempts have been made in Leipzig and in Swit- zerland) — no primer and no arithmetic for the auxiliary school. Therefore the teaching corps of an auxiliary school is forced to consult frequently on what is to be done by the different classes, and to select the subjects of study. This tedious work will eventually lead to a selection of proper reading material, memory gems and arithmetical problems, which may sometime be gathered into a reader and a text book in arithmetic. A course of study for the last school year presents many difficulties. If we can succeed in giving it a proper "home background" as it were, we have accomplished much. The discovery of further connecting links between the various subjects will come about as a result of further care- ful work. The plan of the work of the first and last years (at Halle) is shown on the following pages. ii qJ5 2i o £.' fl'-O ; t 2 K 'S S; 13 s fe ^ ^■B- ■^ i-2 S o „ s^ « s *~ o^ S a ■ii-rt -J- CO « K •'=^ . I r .?^ S -'^ '^ fe< I-" o fl w c c--. 3 !> I tn ^-^ *3 o a cj i^ £». "-2 -t^ eg'O a 5-2^. 5 !u 5 4; a t) 0) W) >i J3 C _^ y a — &i "? tH G o P '="■4) - «^ WO tjD 3 S S »3 " •a^:3.^ T3 & S2 « 03 -'-T3 ^ (D S d ^ c «-^ ^ g a s s s ^« s 0) 3 ■" O eS Sf.-^ rt « rH am m p CS I o 3 "^ a^ >-.'l+H S^^ be ■2 ^Q § SJ. 43 ^ "5 ^ S S 2 S 4> SI'^W 4> ni^ .-^rg^aj tn ^^ 'J} O ■2fr.S.3 4) ?f 4) 4) 6C O ^.a I "C ^ .M OJ go^i-o ^ 4* I a — t^ ^ O 3 o "^ t-i fl o , , • V £ O-OplH ^ a S § ^s-ats s g.a-g 4i „ O .a ° ?i g ^ 2^ "^ to "^ (^ QJ to ^ - - ?3 .2.-2 §-§ ^ Ji «^ 2 ^ 4) 4J^ 4J StO ,' Si a ^ .J, 4) --^ >• CO og-^ o^ ^-^ "^ ?sV to' w L_l Sh t^.3 3-^ oD q «! cc 43 4)J2 G '^ a 2:? p 2 2 5 ■ ■ OS H 4} _ O Eh « Ir2"0 ^ o qa 2 4> 4) CO T3 : te 41 4J_22 :«c2'3 a -o-s O S42 o-a g 2 "3-0 W K ffi «5 ^ 4j a o 9 bo gartens and famihes.) Fri. Seidel - The Motion Songs of the Froebel Kinder- garten. Die Be^veguns- spiele und Lie- der des Fr'dbels- chen Kindergar- tens. Wien und Leipzig, Pichler's Sons. s 1 < 1 O This work is to serve as an aid to the learning of reading and writing. E Schulze — Der erste Lese und Schreibunterricht in dcr Hilfs- schule. Die Kinderfehler, 1903, 1. (First Lessons in Reading and Writing in Auxiliary Schools.) 05 .J O The school garden. What au- tumn has in store forus; harvesting, vegetables, fruits. The school garden. What autumn takes away from us. Signs of fall in flowers, trees, etc. The school garden in winter. The covering of snow. Christ- mas tide and its joys. The school building. The class rooms, their parts. Furniture. The school building. The classrooms. The furniture and its parts. The school building. The class rooms. The school yard. g 2 2B O P How God causes the fruits to ripen. How God causes plants to die in the fall. The Christmas story. The conduct of pupils toward each other. ^ The pupil's at- titude toward his teachers. "Obey your teachers and follow them." The relation of children toward their parents. " Children, obey your parents." i Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March O a aa .6 dj I .S g.S.o = S =<-i 3 o JS o -^ -M ^ S tH •" ^* a ^ ■ - o • •^ o ^^ _ w ,*\ ? ■*-* -* 5 g a.§.a g-S2 3 a^ -?' -« w a -O 03 O.S fa ^■^ a tio"s " ►. a a -S £fa ^=s «-§ .Oft) -d r" m -s s c«ixi fe j« a -dot* ;S . « c.2,:::^ « ;g =« " S " S5 e > ) Q How to care for oneself when ill. Care in case of accidents. Our homes: heating and lighting. Railways and other means of communication. s The Danube, Bavaria, Wurt- emburg, Baden, Hesse. A general re- view of the Ger- man Empire. States border- ing on Gennany. A general view of the world . The German Colonies. Hi War for free- dom in Halle. Queen Loui.'.e. Important scenes in life of W'iUiam I. Rise of the German Empire. Frederick III. Life of the present royal family. « (d) Composi- tion. Children are encouraged to write theirexperi- ences. The work must be done carefully. Letter writing and sim- ple business forms also taught. (B O 2 S ii The Youth of Jesus. His prep- aration for His work. The Miracles of Jesus. The teaching of Jesus. The sufferings of Jesus. The resurrection— the ascension. General view of 'to 3 35 H o Dec. Jan. Feb. March games with ompaniment, with light In summer, s should be oors in the Gardening place of the stic exercises. -~ii o Tr 1 < O .2p |2g^| ^ctfOJOS si u 1 S a .3 "S 3 rt "13 .g ►< ij -^ t-* ""^ * aj d o o u in i • J C M . a; ^ C *T^ .a-s =s=2j g.S.s l-l -^3 i^ a o 3 fc; -- »- ^ O o H if f|.s If pit 2 .a §:2 3 S*" §J Ch '^s o G -a = a,aj iSl 3::^a i'S^s > t2 ._ S a O g O U -111 l-ll ^ THECOURSEOFSTUDY 149 When we compare the requirements of the course of study in the last class with the meagre ability of the auxiliary school pupils, and then compare the requirements of different auxiliary schools, we are forced to the conclusion that more unity should be evolved from the mass of diversity. We must also bear in mind this thought — "Shall the auxiliary schools prepare girls for domestic service, and the boys for manual labour?" Again — "How shall the auxiliary schools make provi- sion for the correction of faulty speech?" So many abnormal children lack the ability to speak properly. Many auxiliary schools have intro- duced special work in articulation — notably, the work of the Gutzmanns of Berlin. It may be well to mention here also, the work of Principal Godtfring (Auxiliary School at Kiel). Godtfring (who has repeatedly written on these subjects) advises that the speech be corrected before the children reach school age. He gathers into a sort of "speech Kindergarten" all children who will be of school age within a half year, and who do not speak correctly. In course of time, he gradually separates those who, in spite of drill, do not improve (of stuttering or stammering). The latter are then placed in special classes for 150 AUXILIARY EDUCATION curative treatment; in case of relapse, they are placed in "repetition classes'* for individual instruction and treatment. Godtfring's plan, which must be of inestimable value in auxiliary schools, has the support of the school authorities of Schleswig-Holstein. XI METHODS OF TEACHING BEFORE proceeding to a discussion of the methods of teaching to be employed in the auxiliary school, it will be wise to decide upon the amount of time to be allotted to each subject per week. SUBJECT OF STUDY Religious Instruction Arithmetic and Form Study German Writing Object Lessons Drawing History Geography Nature Study Singing Gymnastics Manual Training Totals 2 4(5) 7 1 2'(1) 2 30 II 30 CLASS III 28 IV 26 22 In the summer term, certain slight changes are made in order to provide time for gardening; the tiuie devoted to manual training, singing, and ui 152 AUXILIARY EDUCATION gynmastics is shortened so as to allow four hours per week for the garden work. School excursions are also planned for. The methods of instruction followed in the middle and upper grades of the auxiliary school do not differ materially from those used in the regular elementary schools. But in the lower grades of the auxiliary school, the character of the instruc- tion given may vary somewhat from that in ele- mentary school classes of the same grade. Certain rules for the methods to be employed in auxiliary school classes have been formulated, as, instruction should be objective, concrete, individualistic, etc. But these rules would apply perfectly to instruc- tion in any grade, and to any class of pupils. The teachers of the lower grades in auxiliary schools must bear other considerations in mind. Sometimes pupils entering the lower auxiliary school grades seem utterly incapable of receiving any instruction whatever; sometimes they are already *'sick and tired" of school life. The teacher then has a double task to fulfil — she must not only seek to reawaken the child's slumbering powers, but she must also endeavour to prevent the child's mentality from coming to a complete stand- still. In addition, the teacher's instruction must be so planned as to exert the proper educative METHODS OF TEACHING 153 influence on the child, through subject-matter simplified and adapted to the child's capacity. To fulfil all these demands is a matter of no small difficulty, and yet we must aim to do so if the auxiliary school is to be a success. If we aim to awaken the child's mental powers we must begin with play, which stimulates spon- taneously and yet harmoniously This play must so exercise the child's limbs, and his organs of sense, that they will learn in time to obey the will; and at length lead to such cooperation as will affect the desired purpose. If we were to begin at once by making definite demands upon the will, and requiring the accomplishment of certain definite work, the result would be failure — the pupil would be frightened and rendered more backward still. This spontaneous play of the sense organs and limbs gives the teacher his clue — the right idea to follow in exploring the child's circle of ideas and his degree of will power. The teacher can determine as Boodstein holds — to what degree the child's limbs move freely, and to what degree his sense organs assist in making impressions definite and exact. (Delitzsch strongly urges the making of an exact psychological diagnosis — as it were — in order to obtain information con- cerning the pupil's defects of sight, touch, hearing. 154 AUXILIARY EDUCATION taste, smell, sensitiveness to heat, cold and pain, as well as a careful examination of the power of association of ideas, of the powers of speech, of emotion, and of volition.) Speech often needs the most careful attention; intelligible and fluent speech is often the result of long and careful training in articulation, and for this kind of work the teacher needs special prepara- tion. Drawing and painting often give a more exact knowledge of what a pupil has gained through sense activity than mere talking does. By the former means of expression, the teacher can learn how the child's mind works, and he may deter- mine the pupil's progress from day to day by a study of his drawings. Similar insight into the mental life may be obtained by means of modelling, which is, of course, more difficult, and is for this reason often omitted from the course of study. It is so important however, that it should be intro- duced, if possible, even into the lowest grades. Stick-laying is much simpler; this is true also of the Froebel gifts and occupations. Note how delighted the little ones are when they have accomplished something! During the entire les- son period they must be kept actively working — must see, observe, feel, measure, arrange, compare, differentiate, hear, smell, taste -— or whatever METHODS OF TEACHING 155 activity the work in hand may call for. At the same time they must be permitted to talk, at work and in play; they should be encouraged to express their opinions, and to ask and answer questions If the child during instruction strives to seek, to discover, or to convert impressions into any form of expression as action or movement, the auxiliary school is serving a double purpose. (1) It is shunning mere mechanical training which tends to reduce pupils to a sort of dead level and (2) it is developing the motor centres as the basis of intel- lectual and volitional life. The pupils therefore are not merely receptive and passive, but always active and interested. They really experience in their own mental lives what instruction gives them. The school garden and class excursions furnish abundant opportunities for development, and their value can scarcely be too highly rated. There are but few devices which will serve to aid the teacher in his work here. Probably toys and the Froebel gifts are the best and only ones for use during the earliest school year. Outside of these, the teacher must be all in all to his pupils, and his task is therefore by no means an easy one. For auxiliary school pupils even the primer is lacking — the primer which in the regular school so soon pushes itself in between teacher and pupil as a sort 166 AUXILIARY EDUCATION of "dividing wall of paper." It is to be hoped that the primer will be kept out of the lower grades of the auxiliary school. In these grades there should be no reading, no writing, no memorizing of primer material. Since there is to be little or no "drill" in the auxiliary school, let us postpone these as long as possible — they are so apt to destroy the child's interest in school work. Writing and reading may be introduced in the second year in connection with stick-laying. The memorizing of poems and stories can also be postponed until a later period. If, however, it is deemed wise to have children memorize, care must be exercised in the choice of suitable selections, and these should be committed to memory only after the child's interest in them has been thoroughly aroused. Suitable selections have been compiled by Trojan, Lowen- stein and others in Kinderlieder, Kindergarten, or Kinderlauben. In this way and by these methods, the teacher should seek to awaken the dormant mental powers of his charges. For other pupils who have suffered "shipwreck" in their school lives, and of whom it might almost truthfully be stated that they are incapable of further development, other methods must be adopted. The teacher must endeavour to work upon the child's previous experience as far METHODS OF TEACHING 157 as possible; or to assist him to live through the experiences of others. Play, games, and interest- ing work properly presented, still have their value in arousing and stimulating ideas and actions, but the stimuli and the demands upon the pupils must be more vigorous and active. The method of of instruction also should be varied as much as possible, so that the child's dormant powers may be aroused, and his confidence in himself be developed. Continued stimulation, and change of exercise, and constant activity do not injure the weak intel- lect — let no one make the mistake of thinking so. If the teacher carefully watches his pupils, and does not demand too rapid progress of them, he will soon be encouraged. The progress shown will not be merely intellectual progress — it will extend also to the child's physical nature. We have noted above that, in the lower grades of the auxiliary school, few outside means of assist- ance were needed — - toys and the Froebel gifts. To these might be added, perhaps, illustrations of Bible stories and Stbwesand's picture of the family, as well as pictures from the magazines. As the pupils advance, the use of illustrative material grows — until at last, in the middle and higher grades, it will serve as many uses as in the regular schools. 158 AUXILIARY EDUCATION To the statement made in the early part of this chapter — that the methods of teaching in the inter- mediate and higher grades of the auxiliary school will differ but little from those used in the ordinary folk schools — we may now add the following statements: The general truth, "Proceed from the known to the related unknown," is well under- stood. This principle must be followed implicitly in dealing with auxiliary school pupils. When- ever possible, we must start out from the home, the school and its immediate environment, and the street. Only as we do this, will our instruc- tion be valid; as we follow this principle, so will our pupils grasp our instruction; mere verbal instruction must be avoided. Even then, it may be a long time before the pupils can reconstruct logically what has been taught them. They are too easily tired, and very often refuse to respond at all to the teacher's instruction, much to her surprise. It has been suggested, as a preven- tive of this, that the instruction follow the spiral method — but this plan of working through a subject must not be regarded as a pedagogical panacea. In the spiral method, connection between the old and the new material is always more or less mechanical, and constant return is made to the starting point. If we aim to implant merely a METHODS OF TEACHING 169 knowledge of words, the spiral method may be used; but if, on the other hand, the teacher aims to educate, in the truest sense of the word, the spiral method of treatment may easily be dispensed with. If the teacher knows how to present the old in new form — by means of properly conducted reviews, through the gradual introduction of new material, or by viewing it from a new standpoint — then her pupils will surely make progress; it may be slow, but it will surely follow, for the children will not be wearied by mere ceaseless repetition, but will be kept constantly active and alert. The teacher must be active himself, must never weary, never lose hope. Abnormal children often lack clear compre- hension of time and space relations, motion, etc. Special instruction, then, should be directed toward the amelioration of this defect. The birthdays of the children should be remembered; school holi- days, etc., should be looked forward to; the time of day should frequently be read from the clock. Attention must be directed toward the accuracy and rhythm of movements, especially gymnastic movements. Music is of great assistance in this work; in Brussels, the use of music in this con- nection has led to the development of the so-called 160 AUXIIilARY EDUCATION "eurhythmical" exercises, which are most heartily to be recommended. As a means of exercising the eye in determining relations of size and in estimating magnitudes in space, rulers or measuring sticks should be kept on hand in the class rooms and in the school- yard. These should be used to make actual measurements. The class excursions will fur- nish abundant opportunity for work in this direction. In closing, we must not omit to mention the thoroughly practical aspect which must be charac- teristic of auxiliary school instruction. This is especially true in the case of arithmetic. The teacher of arithmetic must illustrate the simple practical dealings into which the pupil will prob- ably be called to enter later on. There should be a "school store" with some sort of merchandise, weights, coins, etc., to familiarize the pupils with the operations of buying and selling. Later, it might be possible to study the questions of supply and demand, and the labor market from the news- papers. Of course, this would be done with the older pupils only, and would help them, perhaps, in deciding upon their choice of a voca- tion. Short compositions and letters may also be made to serve a good purpose, and, as a general METHODS OF TEACHING 161 rule, children will write these well, because of their interest in the work.. The auxiliary school can also render valuable service to pupils preparing for confirmation by training them to become less awkward and ungainly, and by teaching them how to conduct themselves, not only on the street, but also in all places and under all conditions. The teacher must aim always to do his best for his charges — he must endeavour to make them as independent as possible, in order to keep them from making mistakes in later life. Experience has proved that the effort put forth is not in vain — very satisfactory results have already been accomplished. XII AUXILIARY SCHOOL DISCIPLINE IT HAS been stated again and again in these pages, that, while the auxiliary school should retain its character as a school, its instruction should always be truly educative in character. For there is not so much ground to be covered in the auxiliary school curriculum, and therefore it can exercise the sort of influence recommended above, provided that correct methods are adopted. Does memory work possess any special value for the auxiliary school child ? Memory work is more often a burden than a source of inspiration. Power to do is worth infinitely more than mere knowledge. But this power must be under the control of the will if we expect the child to become a useful member of society later on. (a) Discipline Just here we are not treating of education in general, but rather of what Maennel calls "physi- ological dietetics," or spiritual care, training, 162 SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 163 and discipline. In reality, these are not very different in the auxiliary school; the peculiarities of its pupils, however, demand special attention. Auxiliary school pupils are weak, mentally and physically, and for this reason many people claim that kindness and consideration are the only measures to be used in disciplining them. It is true that auxiliary school teachers must show consideration, but, as in the case of normal pupils, kindness alone seldom brings about the desired result. This is true to a greater degree in the case of defective children. These children must occa- sionally come in contact with people of strength of character and firmness of will. If one constantly complies with their wishes, constantly submits to them, they will never learn to discriminate between the good and the evil, they will never learn to suppress their selfish desires. Therefore the dis- cipline of the auxiliary school should be more or less strict. Denials and warnings must also exert their influence on the developing character of the child, but these must never degenerate into a mere routine which will tend to deaden all feeling. Too much talking often fails of its purpose, and, as a general rule, impatience works lasting harm. Calmness and perseverance are absolutely 164 AUXILIARY EDUCATION necessary to success, and the more easily, if the teacher seeks to establish friendly relations between himself and his pupils. In the case of many children, self-confidence must be aroused, and constantly stimulated and supported until a certain amount of independence has been gained. Firmness of discipline does not consist solely in special regulations and warnings — the spirit of order, of punctuality, and accuracy in the daily work of the class room will be all-important in bringing about the desired results, especially if the teacher sets a worthy example by his care in the seemingly little details, and his faithful devotion to his work. In the description of the ideal school house, presented in a previous chapter, reference was made to the advisability of decorating class room walls with pictures, etc. The example set by teachers may vary, but art is unchangeable; and Professor Sante de Sanctis has shown (in his report of his asylum school at Rome) that works of art may be used to furnish models for auxiliary school children, who stand constantly in need of good examples. That the sesthetic may also serve a moral purpose has recently been demonstrated. Therefore, it is argued, school room decorations SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 165 should consist of suitable pictures, etc., not alone for the mere purposes of decoration and to make the school room a pleasant place, but for the influence they may exert on the moral develop- ment of the pupils. In addition, however, the teacher will need other and more direct means of discipline. The most extreme measures should never be used first, even if their use would tend to shorten the process of discipline. In most cases, a carefully graded system of rewards will be more effectual than a graded scale of punishments which may be con- sistent enough, but which are carried out perfunc- torily. Encouragement and praise are great aids — they help to awaken self-confidence ; corporal punishment, on the other hand, often leads to bad results. For this reason, corporal punishment has been severely condemned by many persons besides physicians. Others advocate its use in certain cases. Ziehen says, "Corporal punish- ment should not be entirely prohibited; but children should never be struck on the head." Schwenk says, "If the teacher is certain that the pupil understands what has been forbidden, and yet, in spite of repeated commands, reminders, and warnings still persists in disobeying, then we must carry out the proverb, ' He who will not heed, must 166 AUXILIARY EDUCATION feel/ and we know from experience that an application of the rod often serves a useful purpose." (6) The Child's Physical Needs The physical condition of the auxiliary school pupil demands constant and most careful atten- tion. Bodily injury often hinders mental develop- ment, and for this reason, the auxiliary school physician must not only seek to establish the health of the children, but he must be on the look- out constantly. The teachers can render valuable aid, for they have abundant opportunities for observing the children in the classes, on the play- ground, in the garden. If they have trained them- selves to observe carefully, and have become acquainted with the fundamental principles of hygiene, they soon acquire the ability to note even slight changes in the appearance and conduct of their pupils. In cases of sudden illness, and in minor accidents, they may use the simple remedies provided in the medicine chest of the school. Much more could be accomplished for the pupils' good if the cooperation of the parents could be secured. We have already shown how the phy- sician can, upon occasion, influence them. Con- stant cooperation between parents, teachers, and physicians would accomplish a great amount of SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 167 good for the pupils/especially where their physical condition is concerned. It is often a difficult matter, however, to influence the parents. There are numerous questions and problems which demand discussion and solution; many parents need to be awakened to the necessity of introduc- ing into their homes a more judicious method of living. Unfortunately, the difficulties are too numerous and too great to be influenced en masse, as it were. Consequently, there is perhaps no better way out of the problem than to invite individual parents to the school and to advise them there. Assistance may also be rendered by caring properly for delicate children, granting free transportation for those who live at a distance, and perhaps, even, in certain cases, furnishing a simple, warm breakfast to the pupils during the winter term. In Leipzig, the auxiliary school pupils receive a bath regularly, and a glass of milk and dinner are furnished daily. Perhaps it may be possible,fere long, to furnish tonics to those who are ansemic, and physicians testify that there are many such. The evident need of such tonics, in so many cases, and the equally apparent lack of understanding on the part of the parents, gives rise to the question, "Shall the auxiliary school retain its character as a day school, or shall it 168 AUXILIARY EDUCATION develop into a sort of boarding day school ? " Certain representatives of the so-called Heiler- ziehungsanstalten (institutions partly educational and partly remedial in character and aim) hold that the boarding school plan is by far the better. In this connection, Heller states, "It is heartily to be desired that many of the auxiliary schools may, in time, develop into regular boarding schools." Piper says, "In order to render a good answer to the question 'Auxiliary School or Insti- tution.?' many years must be devoted to the most careful and patient observation of individual cases." The author fully recognizes the value of auxiliary schools, but he also knows that many auxiliary school principals are striving to have their schools converted into boarding schools. Even now, they endeavour to secure the good results of the latter by having the pupils fed in school, and by keeping them in school as long as they can. They consider most seriously the question, "What becomes of our pupils when they leave us ? The longer the child can be kept under the influence of the school, the more effective will that influence be. These children are seldom properly cared for in their own homes; they see little that is good, and often receive lasting impressions of the most unwhole- some character." SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 169 At Leipzig, however, Vvhei'e the children are not only fed, but also organized into classes for busy work (attendance here is voluntary) , the school still maintains its character as a regular day school. At Halle, and presumably at other places with fully developed auxiliary school systems, the same still holds and will probably continue. In spite of its many shortcomings, the day school affords greater opportunities for fitting the pupil to take his place in the world than any other type of institution. In school, the pupil must learn to defend himself against the evil influences of his comrades, of the street, and perhaps even of his home surroundings. He must not be hedged in too closely — neither must he be regarded as an idiot whose ego can never be firmly established. In addition to all of this, education in an insti- tution presents many difiicult problems. Not only is it very expensive, but it also makes heavier demands upon those employed as teachers. A regular day school for defective children demands a great deal from its teachers, and the results are by no means certain. It is very likely that they would be still more uncertain and unreliable in what Maennel has termed "closed institutions" {geschlossene Anstalten). As Gorke states, these latter often afford opportunity for the spread of 170 AUXILIARY EDUCATION various forms of vice, unless there is adequate supervision at all times. We recommend, then, that the auxiliary school preserve its character as a day school, retain its pupils in the school as long as possible during the day, and send them home to their parents at night. XIII THE PREPARATION OF THE AUXILIARY SCHOOL PUPIL FOR THE CHURCH, AND ESPECIALLY FOR CONFIRMATION IT HAS long been held that mental defectives possess a special gift for religion — and many have held that this was a sort of compensa- tion for their lack of ability in other directions. This idea has been supported time and again by the fact that mental defectives seem to possess the ability to memorize a great amount of religious material. As a result, such children have been given an overdose, as it were, of Bible history, etc. Ever since this instruction has been given by auxiliary school teachers, however, this "over- feeding" has been set aside. What Inspector Landenberger stated (in School and Annual Reports of Hygienic Institution for the Care of Mental Defectives and Epileptics at Stettin) is now probably recognized as true — i. e., that one- sided development of the memory (as, for example, with religious matter) works more harm than 171 172 AUXILIARY EDUCATION good. This opinion has been confirmed by the well-known psychiatrists — A. Romer and W. Weygandt. If the teacher understands how to bring his pupil under the guidance of God by means of religious instruction; if he understands how to present the lesson of divine guidance and discipline largely by means of examples from his own personal experience, he does not require all of the means which are needful to the instruction of the normal child — as the history of the early stages of the development of God's kingdom, and the established truths in epic or lyric form. It is not necessary to expatiate upon these in preparing pupils for confirmation. The auxiliary school pupil will never become an active member of the church, nor will he ever take an active part in the discussion of religious beliefs; but he will show his Christianity, perhaps, just as everyone else who can only belong to the "silent in the land," and for this he must be prepared. We must first learn what ideas the pupils bring with them from the regular school. As a general rule, their knowledge of religious matters will be small; but they also bring with them varying powers of apprehension and of receptivity. It therefore becomes necessary to become thoroughly PREPARATIONFORTHECHURCH 173 acquainted with each of the candidates if one wishes to benefit them as much as possible. Such careful individual treatment will be impos- sible, however, if the auxiliary pupil is placed in classes with normal children. When placed among normal children, the auxiliary school pupil often fails to answer even the simplest question, largely owing to unfamiliar surroundings. Above all things, mentally defective children should receive separate instruction for confirma- tion — they should not be prepared at the same time with others. Next comes the question — *' Who shall prepare this group of candidates from the auxiliary schools .P" Shall it fall to teacher or to pastor? In many cities — notably at Halle — this diflBcult task falls to the lot of a clergyman. Twice a week, the principal of the auxiliary school sets aside a room for this purpose — so that prepara- tion for confirmation becomes part of the regular school work, as it were. The clergyman is in every instance the young- est one of the parish in which the school house is located; as assistant pastor, he does not remain long in any one parish, consequently there are frequent changes. The young man is not examined by his superiors 174 AUXILIARY EDUCATION as to his fitness for the difiicult task assigned to him. He simply does the best he can; his own conscience is the only judge of the character of his work. Would it not be more desirable if the church authorities should make it a rule that only he who knows the pupils longest and most intimately should be assigned to prepare them for confirma- tion ? The older clergymen are usually burdened with the task of preparing several classes, therefore no extra work should be imposed upon them. But in the interests of all concerned, the instruc- tion should be assigned to the principal or to the senior teacher in the school. This plan has been adopted recently in Brunswick, Breslau, Kassel, Dresden, Gorlitz and Konigsburg. Usually the privilege is assigned by the church consistory, with the right of recalling it at any time, and the church authorities reserve the right of supervision. The city superintendent visits the school several times each year and holds an examination just before the confirmation. Three or four weeks before that event, the auxiliary school pupils are given over to the care of the parish clergyman for final instruction, so that they may take the vows with the normal candidates. At the beginning of the preparation period, the PREPARATION FOR THE CHURCH 175 "personal record" of each auxiliary school candi- date must be given to the clergyman — so that he may use his influence with the children and their parents. The ceremonies of confirmation and first com- munion at Halle (in the presence of teachers of the school) were always impressive, but left this idea — that the children were being confirmed under special conditions. At the age of confirma- tion, auxiliary school pupils should be made to feel that they can live among others of their own age without noticeable differences. As material for instruction, the Command- ments should be used, and be treated mainly from the standpoint of their practical use in everyday life. Kielhorn has made excellent suggestions concerning methods of presenting them to mental defectives. In addition to the Commandments, we should teach the three Articles of the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, the command of baptism, and the meaning of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. The purpose of confirmation should be made as clear as possible to the candidates. XIV THE RELATION OF THE STATE TOWARD THE AUXILIARY SCHOOL IN ADDITION to making provision for the spread of education and culture, the modern State must make provision for the care of those who may be called inefficient from the economic point of view — i. e., mental defectives. So the auxiliary school is not to be regarded as a luxury or as an outlet for the additional expenditure of public money, but as a duty of the State. Naumann holds that "What is done to uplift the lowest class of the people may be regarded as insurance against a greater loss to the people as a whole." Auxiliary school pupils are drawn from among the poorest classes. Because of their inability to earn a livelihood unless they are specially trained to work, the community is often called upon to take care of them. Without train- ing, the defective becomes a *' do-nothing," or he develops into a vagabond — both not only unwel- come members of a community, but injurious to the body social. 176 RELATION OF THE STATE 177' The mental defective is well-known as the perpetrator of all sorts of misdemeanors and crimes; mental deficiency coupled with a distaste for work is a combination still more harmful. By neglecting to make suitable provision for these people, a community incurs extra expense (1) for the care of the poor, (2) for the suppression of vagrancy, or (3) for the maintenance of criminals. Viewed in this light, the auxiliary school is cer- tainly an insurance against greater loss. A com- parison of annual expenditures will probably show a saving; for if we succeed in making these children capable of earning a living and develop- ing into useful citizens, the community itself is strengthened. The establishment and mainten- ance of auxiliary schools is therefore not merely a duty, but also a social need. The larger cities and towns seem to have entered into a sort of friendly rivalry in the matter of establishing auxil- iary schools, and the State has been ready to recognize the newly organized institutions. Many ideal conditions are still to be realized in connection with these schools. In the first place, compulsory attendance at auxiliary schools should be enforced by the State; and compulsory school attendance should be extended to the fourteenth year. It has often been suggested that 178 AUXILIARY EDUCATION it would be wise to keep auxiliary pupils in school for a year after they have reached the age of confirmation. A more far-reaching suggestion, and one which will be most beneficial in its ultimate results, is the demand that a special "finishing" course covering several years should be established for defectives — attendance to be compulsory. It is an unwise plan to transfer auxiliary school pupils to the regular finishing schools : we should simply have a repetition of the conditions which held in the regular elemen- tary schools before the establishment of special classes for defectives. The difference in scholar- ship alone (between auxiliary school pupils and those from the regular schools) would be a hind- rance to the teacher of the finishing school, and it would probably be necessary to establish special classes in the latter to meet the needs of the weaker pupils. Religious instruction, reading, writing, and arithmetic would of necessity be con- tinued here, but certain economic and civic questions must not be neglected. The new school for defectives just alluded to has certain practical demands to meet. "Pre- paratory workshops" should be established in them; their aim should be to teach concretely the elements of those trades which could be most RELATIONOFTHESTATE 179 successfully carried on by auxiliary school children. Mentally deficient pupils will seldom succeed in creating a meisterstiick — a masterpiece. We are accomplishing much if we succeed in making them fairly efiicient helpers in work like basket- making, book-binding, cabinet-making; or as assistants to masons, shoemakers, gardeners, farmers, bricklayers, etc. Many of the above- mentioned trades cannot be taught in workshops; visits can be made, however, to places where such work is under way; these should be followed by talks on the subject. Emphasis should, in all cases, be placed on practical training, so as to enable the pupils to become self-supporting if possible. By the establishment of the new "finishing" school for defectives, their necessity for the choice of a profession would be postponed for several years ; and at the end of that time, the pupil would prob- ably be able to make a wiser choice. It is always a more or less difficult matter for young people to choose correctly in the matter of a vocation. Auxiliary school pupils give their consent to almost any proposal placed before them, and their parents seldom evince any knowledge or interest in the matter. As a result, the decision often rests with the physician and the auxiliary school teacher. 180 AUXILIARY EDUCATION They can surmise, at least, what mental capacity and what physical ability the pupil possesses, and by reason of their advice they may be able to prevent the constant changes which the feeble- minded pupil is so liable to make. The task of securing suitable positions for these children is of great importance. Parents often seek the assistance and advice of the auxiliary school principal, after they have been repeatedly refused by employers. Occasionally the school is able to render service in this direction, but, as a rule, master mechanics are unwilling to accept apprentices from an auxiliary school. K. Richter says: *' Would that our master mechanics could be brought to understand that pupils sent out from our auxiliary schools are not nearly as incompetent as people are wont to believe; in truth, they are often more capable in practical affairs than boys from the country and elsewhere. The work of training auxiliary school apprentices pays, if the master does not leave the matter entirely in the hands of his assistants, but looks after the boys personally and bestows the necessary patience, kindness, and oversight upon them." We might make a similar statement concerning girls placed in factories and stores, or in families. It is to be hoped that employers will soon learn to RELATION OF THE STAT^ 181 make use of the "personal records" of pupils referred to in an earlier chapter. The realization of this hope demands much of the philanthropic spirit. The State could render aid here — it might, for example, offer rewards to such employers as could prove conclusively that former auxiliary school pupils have so qualified in their employ as to be admitted to the guilds. Richter states that, on a special motion of the Royal Saxon Minister of the Interior, a reward of 150 marks is granted in such cases. It is to be hoped that this example will be followed by other states. Associations in cities having auxiliary schools can exert a broader influence; in Leipzig, Konigsberg, and Berlin such associations already exist. The Association for the Care and Training of Mentally Deficient Children in Berlin studies the question by means of lectures and discussions on the instruction and training of defectives at home and abroad; it understakes to make a study of typical institutions and organizations; it visits schools and institutions devoted to the training of defectives ; and it has established a central bureau of information. Furthermore, the association endeavours to make provision for all who need it — (a) of care, food, clothing; 182 AUXILIARY EDUCATION (6) it seeks to establish day homes for children, where they are fed properly; it seeks to provide proper care for such children during the vacation periods ; (c) it endeavours to place them under suitable care in public or private institutions as need may be; (d) it looks after the appointment of proper care- takers and professional assistants who are to watch over the children, supervise the use of materials furnished, and advise parents, etc. For those who have completed school, the association seeks (a) to advise with parents and teachers concern- ing the choice of a vocation for the child before his discharge from the school; (b) to recommend reliable employers — men whose influence will be for the good of the children ; (c) to look after the care of such children as are not cared for in their own homes; (d) to establish courses, evening classes for tech- nical training, and homes for girl and boy appren- tices, where they may learn to spend profitably their spare time; (e) to render pecuniary assistance where needed; (/) to render aid in special cases of necessity. The work of the association is carried on by an executive council and at the general assembly, RELATIONOFTHESTATE 183 Adults of both sexes, regardless of vocation, political party, or religion, as well as organizations, are eligible to membership. The Leipzig Association aims to gain a peda- gogical insight into the nature of defectives, and to discover the best means of instructing and educating them. The Association endeavours to accomplish its aim by arranging meetings and lectures; by the establishment of a library on the subject of defectives and their care. Meetings will embrace lectures, discussions, reports, model teaching, etc. The Auxiliary School Association at Konigs- berg has for its purpose cooperation with the auxiliary school in caring for the physical and mental development of feeble-minded children. It purposes to look after those who have been dis- charged from the school, those ill in the school, and mental defectives under school age. The Association aims also to disseminate inform- ation concerning the real value of the auxiliary school, and to weaken the public prejudice against it. The care of children who have left the school is worthy of note. The Association seeks to train these children to become self-supporting; to exercise continuous supervision over them; to grant them aid in case of iieed ; protection against 184 AUXILIARY EDUCATION the dangers arising from their weaknesses ; placing children under proper care when necessary. The care of under-age (school age) defectives consists in seeking to provide better care for them by the establishment of a sort of day nursery, and placing them in the auxiliary school as soon as they become eligible by reason of age. At Cologne, Frankfort-on-Main, and Brussels, associations aid in the care of auxiliary school pupils who have been discharged after confirma- tion. K. Richter (Leipzig) has suggested a plan of following the pupils who have left the schools. Every six years a set of questions is sent out to such of these former pupils as can be found. They seek information especially concerning the person's ability to earn a living; this work falls heavily upon the teachers, perhaps, but it is a fine method of following up former pupils and of testing the success of the school's work. Boys must be watched and cared for until they reach the age when they are required to enter the army. That such oversight is really necessary has been conclusively shown by H. Kielhorn. The fact that the mental condition of many who enter the army is not considered at all, is the cause of much of the so-called ill-treatment of soldiers of which we hear so often. Special examinations RELATION OF THE STATE 185 of young men formerly trained in auxiliary schools should be required, but, indeed, it would be wiser to exclude all such from any sort of military service. A special standard of justice is recommended in the case of the feeble-minded. In auxiliary schools the pupils are taught to distinguish between right and wrong, good and bad; but, it is to be feared, that a constant and unchangeable moral standard, as such, can never be established for them. Owing to numerous reasons, it is much more difficult for these people to resist temptation than for normal individuals. Physical and nervous conditions often tend to distort the sense of right and wrong in the feebly endowed; they become distracted when the train of thought is broken by something out- side their power to will away; they often act with- out reflection; but they are easily guided when surrounded by those who understand them. In all cases, the judge must act from a sense of mercy and from a humanitarian standpoint. To regard the defective as absolutely responsible for his acts, and to punish him as a normal person, would be like punishing a cripple because he was born a cripple, a proceeding which would tend to further deform him. The penal code of the German Empire empowers the judge to take into account 186 AUXILIARY EDUCATION the mental condition of the culprit — "uncon- sciousness" or "morbid excitement" — states which tend to hinder free action of the will. No reference is made, however, to mental deficiency which may also have the same effect. At their twenty-seventh conference, the German jurists attempted to remedy this defect. Upon the advice of Professors Kahl and Leppmann (Berlin) the following recommendations have been made to the judicial authorities through Professors Cramner of Gottingen, Krapelin of Munich, and Kleinfeller of Kiel. 1. Any person, who at the time of committing a criminal act is in such physical condition that his ability to judge of the punishable character of his acts is lessened, or his power to resist temp- tation is weakened, is to be punished according to the rules governing the punishment for petty offences. 2. In the case of youthful offenders, it is recom- mended that use be made of the suggestions made by the twenty-seventh conference of jurists, i. e., that enducative measures under the care and direction of the State be substituted for penal measures. 3. It is recommended that use be made of the rule permitting the postponement of punishments, RELATIONOFTHESTATE 187 4. In penal institutions, special care must be given to mental defectives. 5. Those who come under the head of mental defectives in Paragraph 1, should not be sent to the ordinary penal institutions, but to the State reform- atories; youthful offenders are to be sent to educational institutions. 6. Mental defectives who are considered danger- ous to society at large, should be kept in suitable institutions until such time as they are considered fit to be discharged, even though their sentences have been set aside or fulfilled. 7. Such discharge is merely provisional, and may be revoked at any time during a period fixed by law. 8. The physical condition of defectives who are not considered dangerous to society at large, must be carefully guarded by the State after their dis- charge from the institutions, or upon remission of sentence; they may be placed under the care of families, placed in private institutions, or placed under the care of specially appointed guardians. The limit of such supervision should be fixed by law. 9. Special means should be taken to determine the necessity and advisability of protective meas- ures for the benefit of mental defectives. 188 AUXILIARY EDUCATION On account of the far-reaching influence of these propositions, a very important part falls to the lot of the physician in connection with the administration of penal measures. It is to be recommended that the advice of the auxiliary school teacher be taken into account, when it comes to the question of passing judgment on a former auxiliary school pupil. The former life and the previous development of the pupil, as shown by the records of the auxiliary school, should, at least, receive consideration. This would often result in the adoption of milder penal measures, and would assist in the prevention of further misdemeanors. Perhaps aid could also be rendered by auxiliary school and other associations, whose members are in a position to secure legal advice. This sort of assistance will always be welcomed by auxiliary school workers. (Hilfsschule N. 3 publishes an account of the work of the committee for the legal protection of the feeble-minded. This committee was appointed in the recommendation of the German Auxiliary School Association.) XV THE TEACHING FORCE OF THE AUXILIARY SCHOOL THE TEACHERS AND THE PRINCIPAL OWING to the rapid development of the auxiliary school system, it has hitherto been impossible to secure properly trained teachers. The authorities willingly accepted volunteers from among the regular teaching corps. It was taken for granted that these teachers entered the field because of their interest in and love for the work, as the remuneration offered was certainly no inducement. The authorities felt that interest in the work was in itself an excellent equipment ; but they were anxious to secure competent and experienced teachers from among the best in the lower grades of the Volksschule, as these were deemed best suited to the new work. Experience proved the validity of this decision in the majority of cases; but on the other hand, many were disappointed and dissatisfied because of their lack of success. For the sake of all 189 190 AUXILIARY EDUCATION concerned, it was deemed wisest that these latter should withdraw from the work; and the authori- ties, exercising greater care than heretofore, were anxious to secure recruits from among those who has taught in asylums for the deaf and dumb, institutions for the blind, etc. Unfortunately, however, there were but few applications from teachers so trained; consequently, the auxiliary authorities were forced to draw from the ranks of the regular grade teachers — and they decided to favour the younger element, because it was held that, after a teacher has taught pupils en masse, as it were, for a number of years, it was a diflScult matter for him to give the individual treatment so necessary in dealing with defective children. Moreover, it is difficult, often, to adapt oneself to the conditions existing in an auxiliary school, and many teachers would consequently lose interest in their work; lastly, many experienced teachers are too thoroughly imbued with the idea of dis- cipline and drill. Though these are very helpful, and indeed necessary, with ordinary pupils, they are almost entirely out of place with defective children, working more harm than good. The auxiliary school teacher must not be a stern dis- ciplinarian. Self-control is all important; sym- pathy is needed; impatience always works harm. THE TEACHING FORCE 191 and neutralizes the effect of the teacher's influence. Again, the teacher who decides to enter upon the work of the auxiliary school should be physically strong; the teacher of nervous, fretful tempera- ment could never meet the demands made upon him, and his pupils are deprived of the pleasure which school should hold in store for them. Experienced teachers often are models in self- control and fairly radiate brightness and gladness ; but, alas, in most cases they prefer to remain in the Volksschule. Indeed, it has been found a difficult matter to obtain teachers for the auxiliary school work. Many times we have found teachers who seem- ingly met all our demands, and yet we could not be certain that a wise choice had been made. We have learned by experience that in no phase of education does experiment work more harm than among children who deviate from the normal. As a result, various plans were proposed by auxil- iary school teachers themselves, by means of which the right teachers might become qualified to take up the work of the auxiliary school. In the first place, it was recommended that new teachers be granted the privilege of making fre- quent visits to the classes of more experienced teachers — beginning with the work of higher 192 AUXILIARY EDUCATION classes and proceeding gradually through the middle grades to the lowest grades of the school. The visitor should be permitted to ask questions of the experienced teachers and, moreover, he should be permitted to attend the conferences of the auxiliary school teachers. Secondly, candidates for auxiliary school posi- tions should be advised to familiarize themselves with the literature of the subject, and to acquaint themselves with all branches of scientific know- ledge and technical skill which have any bearing on the subject. The following should be carefully studied ; 1. Demoor: Die anormalen Kinder und ihre erziehliche Behandlung in Haus und Schule (Abnormal children and their training at home and in school). 2. Fuchs: Schwachsinnige Kinder, ihre sitt- liche und intellectuelle Rettung (Feeble-minded children, their moral and intellectual salvation). 3. Striimpell: Pedagogische Pathologic, oder die Lehre von den Fehlern der Kinder (Pedagogic pathology, or the science dealing with the defects of children). 4. Heller: Grundriss der Heilpadagogik. (The foundations of pedagogical hygiene or corrective pedagogy.) THE TEACHING FORCE 193 There is much of value, too, in the reports of the German Auxiliary School Association and in the reports of conferences on auxiliary schools and schools for idiots. Kinderfehler and the "Zeit- schrift fiir die Behandlung Schwachsinniger und Epileptischer" also contain valuable information. The auxiliary school teacher will also familiarize himself with the history and organization of the auxiliary school system, and naturally interest himself in the social and scientific questions bear- ing on his chosen work. Psychology, hygiene, corrective pedagogy (how to correct defects of speech, etc.) will also claim the teacher's interest and attention. Lastly, it is recommended that the teacher follow a suitable course of lectures. Hitherto such courses have not been given to any great extent. In 1899, the first of these courses was established in Zurich. Kinderfehler reports that this course was attended by more teachers from pedagogical schools, than from auxiliary schools. In 1904 an attempt was made at Jena to establish a course especially adapted to meet the demands of auxiliary school teachers. The pedagogical departments of the so-called vacation schools, offered lectures on defects of character in childhood 194 AUXILIARY EDUCATION and youth, psychology, defective speech in child- hood, and brain physiology; demonstrations were given by reference to feeble-minded and defective children. These courses of lectures will retain their value as preparatory work for auxiliary school teachers until the State demands specially trained teachers {i.e., teachers trained in special institutions). The State can scarcely be expected to establish training schools for the training of auxiliary school teachers; neither can we expect the student in a normal school to decide whether he will teach in an auxiliary school or in the regular folk school. This might be possible if all institutions for training teachers gave a special course in pedagogy as applied to auxiliary schools. The authorities are working in the right direc- tion, but a further step is needed. To quote from a Prussian resolution of 1901, concerning the training of teachers: "We should give normal students a sound pedagogical training dealing with the normal development of the mental life of the child and its most important pathological aspects." It is to be feared that, owing to the already over- crowded curriculum, the introduction of new sub- jects will scarcely meet with favour. The normal schools cannot be expected to train THE TEACHING FORCE 195 specialists — but we might arouse greater interest in the various phases of pedagogy as applied to auxiliary school children. In recent years pupil teachers have been accorded the privilege of visit- ing institutions for the deaf and dumb, the blind and idiots; they might now be permitted to visit an auxiliary school in session. This should be followed by a short introduction to the history, development, and literature of the auxiliary school system. The practice school should contain a section for the training of feeble-minded children. This would prove of inestimable value to the student, though the work might be said to prove too difficult for beginners, and for this reason the plan might fail. There is another plan worth trying. The state might establish, preferably in a university town, a centre for the auxiliary school teachers of the surrounding district. A model auxiliary school should be established here, and its teachers should be well grounded in the theory as well as in the practice of teaching. In connection with physicians, jurists, and others, these teachers should hold lectures annually for graduates recommended by the university authorities. A final examination — similar to that for 196 AUXILIARY EDUCATION teachers in intermediate schools or institutions for deaf mutes — should be given ; a successful examination would qualify the candidate to become an auxiliary school teacher. Hitherto it has been the custom to assign the head master of a folk school to the principalship of auxiliary schools. This man then has a double duty to discharge — for he retains his position as rector of the elementary school. Perhaps, later on, the question of appointing auxiliary school principals, as the result of an examination, will be considered. It goes without saying that the head master, who is interested in auxiliary school work, may be of great service in it, but in view of the fact that special preparation seems necessary, it seems wisest to have a special director for each auxiliary school. It is self-evident, too, that the director should be a pedagogue rather than a physician — the numerous problems which arise are best treated from the pedagogical standpoint, even when the physical is concerned. Certain questions will come up repeatedly for discussion at teachers' meetings — questions concerning organization, method, etc. The school physician should attend these conferences in order to lend his assistance. Up to the present, we have been referring to THE TEACHING FORCE 197 male teachers only ; but we do not wish to exclude women from working among auxiliary school pupils. Though we do not deem it advisable to relegate the entire care, education, and training of defectives to women, as is done in certain lands out- side our own — we confess that it would be very unwise to dispense with their aid entirely. Curi- ously enough, there are few women teachers in the auxiliary schools of Germany — though for a long time their aid in teaching manual training and gymnastics to girls has been thought desirable. The influence exerted by the women teachers would be a decided gain to auxiliary school work. XVI THE PEDAGOGICAL VALUE OF THE AUXILIARY SCHOOL THE auxiliary school question possesses many phases and aspects. It interests the phil- anthropist, the man interested in political econ- omy, the jurist : it concerns also pastors, physicians, and military officers. Naturally enough, however, the teacher is the one for whom the question posseses the greatest interest. To teach in an auxiliary school is not a sinecure by any means. The teacher here is led by the very difficulties of his work to make a deep study of the subject. He learns the various methods of psychological observation and he discovers presently that a knowledge of the development of atypical children may aid in the understanding of normal children. So by careful study he becomes a pioneer in the field of genetic psychology, and his discoveries render valuable service to the field of general pedagogy. This splendid outlook is by no means an impos- 198 THEPEDAGOGICALVALUE 199 sibility, for auxiliary school pedagogy is still in its infancy and the auxiliary school teacher is still able to work freely, without being hampered by too many restrictions; in addition to this, peda- gogy in general is undergoing constant reorgani- zation and adaptation. In confirmation of this statement, we have but to think for a moment of the changes which have taken place, in recent years, concerning the charac- ter of instruction in the first school years, in the matter of co-education, etc. The auxiliary school can serve as a pedagogical seminary in the widest signification of the term, because it possesses abundant opportunities for experiment and observation. It is almost unneces- sary to state that the auxiliary school is not to be regarded as a sort of station for pedagogic vivisec- tion, as it were — neither is the auxiliary school pupil to be regarded as the subject for experiment ; but the auxiliary school may well become a sort of higher school for all schools, and especially for the regular elementary school, by means of the efforts put forth by its excellently practical and theoretical corps of teachers. XVII THE EDUCATION OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN IN THE UNITED STATES EDUCATIONAL aims and ideals have under- gone many a change since the days when scholars withdrew from the world, and endeavoured to place themselves beyond all worldly influence of any kind. Through succes- sive stages of change and development, we have reached the point where our aim is a very broad one — we endeavour to study man not only in his relation to the Creator and to his fellow-men — we include, to a certain degree at least, all creatures, all natural phenomena, and even the inorganic world; but even yet, educational ideals are in process of evolution. Within a comparatively recent time, prominent educators have advanced the idea that education should aim to place man in possession of his "intellectual inheritances'* (Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler) ; more recently still, stress has been placed on fitting the "child for his environment ' ' (Bailey, Hodge, Bigelow) . Here- 200 EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 201 tofore, and perhaps even yet, to a greater or lesser degree, we have been prone to hold to a sort of training which would fit the child for his future life as an " individual and as a member of society," as we have termed it. But the present life of the child in his present environment was almost entirely ignored. We have been wont, too, to lay too great stress on subject-matter, and we have paid but little attention to the child, whom we have regarded as a sort of little man, instead of as a child with peculiar feelings, emotions, and thoughts of his own. Fortunately, the trend of modern educational development is toward a training more than ever closely related to the pupil's daily life, and more than ever before in the history of man, we are taking into consideration the individual capacities and abilities of our pupils. This is perhaps the most import- ant step we have yet taken. As Americans, we are justly proud of our splen- did system of public education, which the State regards as the foremost factor in its advancement, and as its chief protection and safeguard. We have long recognized the truth that pupils on reach- ing the period of adolescence give evidence of varying abilities and inclinations, and, in our educational system, we have made allowance for 202 AUXILIARY EDUCATION this by providing different courses in our secondary schools and colleges. Child study, genetic psy- chology, and careful observation have convinced those who are interested in the matter that children in all stages of development present varying kinds and degrees of ability and capacity — physical and mental — and that differentiation in curricula and in training are fully as needful and important in the case of young children as in the case of their older brothers and sisters. In relation to this, Dr. James P. Haney writes: "We have grown accustomed to the thought of presenting to the normal adolescent various forms of instruction, especially adapted to his mental capacity, but we are not yet accustomed to the idea that to the normal or subnormal child should be presented material specifically adapted to his training and education." Miss Margaret Bancroft (Principal of the Ban- croft-Cox Training School of Haddonfield, N. J.) calls attention to the fact that "for long centuries the problems that face the teachers of normal children have been met and discussed, with vary- ing degrees of intelligence, and valuable additions have been made to the educational principles that obtain in our schools and colleges to-day. It was reserved for comparatively recent times to direct EXCEPTIONALCHILDREN 203 attention to subnormal types of intellect, and to formulate principles adapted to the much more complex and difficult task of developing the powers latent in the intellectual and moral constitution of a relatively small (though numerically large) num- ber of persons who come into the world handicapped by mental and moral deficiency. "Moreover, as the importance of preventive measures is yearly becoming more fully realized by the medical profession, so in the educational field it is being more clearly apprehended that the general dissemination of certain fundamental prin- ciples will lead to a constantly diminishing number of children of defective mentality." We are making progress in the right direction. Within a comparatively recent time, a number of cities and towns have taken up seriously the problem of the education and training of the exceptional child in the public schools — notably New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Provi- dence, Springfield, Mass. The term "exceptional " is a broad one, including all children who fall below the normal, physically, intellectually or morally — the deaf, the blind, cripples, " incorrigibles," "over age children," and finally the dullards and the so-called mental defectives. These children are taught in special classes of AUXILIARY EDUCATION from twelve to twenty pupils by teachers who, in many cases, have been specially trained for the work. The growth of an intense interest in scientific child study has been the most important factor in the development of these special classes. Dr. E. R. Johnstone (Superintendent of the School for Feeble-minded Boys and Girls at Vineland, N. J.) says: " We must use every endeavour in our special class work to remove from the grades all children whose physical or mental infirmities unfit them for normal life and progress with normal children. "We must remember that it is the normal child who suffers most from contact with the special child who is unable to follow the work of the class. The special child takes more than his share of the attention of the teacher, and, as a matter of fact, the special child does not benefit sufficiently to entitle him to this extra attention. The special class must be a clearing-house. To it will not only be sent the slightly blind and partially deaf, but also the incorrigibles, the mental deficients, the cripples. In the beginning, it must be expected that more than one of these types will be found in the same class room, and indeed all of them may drift in. The teacher must not become discouraged. As a better understanding comes, there will be EXCEPTIONALCHILDREN 205 closer differentiation, and separation will be more complete." Exceptional children are found in every com- munity, and the problem of deciding on those who need special training is a very delicate one. It is almost impossible to draw a definite line of dis- tinction between the normal and the exceptional child. Perhaps the greatest difference between them lies in what Dr. Haney has termed a "dif- ference in power to function. This difference is dependent on differences in structure, leading, perhaps, to what we call a lack of intellectual power. Stated in medical terms, the defective has suffered an arrest of development, the cause of which may be functional or central." The developmental defects of childhood and youth offer a splendid field of research and investigation which is of most vital interest to the physician, the teacher, and to the parent, and it is to be hoped that these will soon realize the importance of this work, not only to the success of the child's education, but to his physical and mental welfare. Defective children fall into so many types and call for such widely different treatment that it is unwise to group them together. We are all more or less familiar with several of these types. The commonest, perhaps, includes those cases arising 206 AUXILIARY EDUCATION from defects of the special senses, of sight or hear- ing, ranging from those totally blind or deaf, to those suffering more or less from minor defects which hinder their progress. The deaf and the blind have been provided for in numerous State and private institutions for many years. Recently we have realized the importance of correcting defects of sight and hearing in school children as a result of special study of the subject. In 1902, the Department of Special Education of the National Educational Association, under the leader- ship of Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, its chairman, endeavoured to bring about a closer cooperation between teachers at large, and those engaged in the education of children requiring special methods of instruction — i. e., teachers of the blind, the deaf, and the feeble-minded. The words of Dr. Bell in his opening address are full of suggestion. He calls attention to the large number of pupils in our public schools who suffer from defective sight or hearing. "The number having defective hearing,'* he says, "probably outnumbers the deaf-mute population. These pupils are not deaf enough for special schools. What is done with them, or for them ? They are drifting along in the public schools; and teachers do not know what to do with them. Now can not we, who teach the EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 207 totally deaf, give you information who are teaching the partially deaf?" The same holds true in the case of pupils handicapped in their school work by defective vision. Dr. Bell suggests that an inter- change of ideas will be mutually helpful. Dr. Harris, continuing the discussion says, "I approve heartily of Dr. Bell's plan, by which mutual benefit will result to special and general teachers alike. The special teacher focuses his mind on particular difficulties and defects; then invents methods and devices by which the defects are removed; then he writes out his ideas relating to these devices, and general teachers learn from his experience what is valuable for their own uses." During the past year, a school for the deaf has been opened in New York City in connection with its public school system. The results of its first year's work have fully justified the wisdom of its organization. There is a movement on foot to establish shortly a public school for the blind. The tendency these days is to keep exceptional children in vital living relations with their families and friends, so that, as they grow older, they *'will find a natural adjustment in the social life" of their environment. A second type of the exceptional child embraces 208 AUXILIARY EDUCATION those suffering from a "disturbance of the blood- making apparatus" — children sufi'ering from anaemia, malnutrition, etc.; children who, owing to the presence of adenoids or other growths, suffer from lack of properly oxygenated blood, and are consequently dull or "backward." The best sort of treatment for these children includes plenty of good food, fresh air and sleep, to build them up physically. To quote again from Dr. Haney: "Once their blood is raised in quality and quantity, and their nutritive processes im- proved, they brighten mentally, and are able to retake their places with their normal mates." A third type is the so-called incorrigible child. Statistics show that the great majority of incor- rigible cases — especially among boys — is to be found in the third and fourth year grades of our elementary schools, among boys between the ages of twelve and fourteen. Why should boys of twelve and fourteen be found in third and fourth year grades, when presumably they have entered school at the age of seven or eight ? There are reasons physiological, and reasons psychological. Under the former, it may be stated that, as a result of careful investigation, we have learned that many so-called incorrigibles are suffering from defects of sight or hearing, or from EXCEPTIONALCHILDREN 209 the pernicious effects of malnutrition due to adenoids, or other post-nasal growths. When the defect has been remedied by supplying the child with "properly adjusted" eye glasses, or by alleviating the ear trouble, or by removing the obstructions in the pharynx, the child often under- goes a "reformation" which is little short of miraculous. In many cases, incorrigibility may be traced to the indifference, or negligence or poverty of the parents. We are endeavouring to overcome the former by seeking to gain the interest and coopera- tion of the parents in the work of their children, by means of parents' meetings, school exhibits, reports of various kinds, and even by visits to their homes. Truancy and the evil influence of depraved com- panions are other fruitful sources of delinquency. The compulsory education law, while not at all sufficient, is still a check on truancy. To offset the bad influence requires all the tact and skill of parents and teachers. In New York City schools (and, presumably, in the schools of other large cities), the question of the so-called **over age" child is a very important one. Many of these children are of foreign birth, and are handicapped at the start by their lack of knowledge of the language. 210 AUXILIARY EDUCATION Placed in classes with younger pupils, they soon lose all interest in the school and its work, and fall behind. To obviate this, special classes have been organized. The course of study is adapted to their needs and the pupils are advanced as rapidly as possible. This plan does not always meet with unqualified success, but it is a step in the right direction. In a recent address before the Department of. Superintendence of the National Educational Association (held in Chicago in February, 1909), Miss Julia Richman, District Superintendent of Schools, New York City, stated that "all school types of 'badness' need classification. Many of these under careful classification would no longer be considered *bad."' There is much truth and significance in this statement. We are too ready to judge children's acts from the viewpoint of the grown-up, with established standards of right and wrong. x\s parents and teachers, we need a better understanding of child nature, and a broader sympathy. In all cases of delinquency, we should seek to ascertain the motive which prompted the deed. As Miss Richman says, "A boy's wrong acts are often due not so much to the deliberate choosing of wrong after he knows the right, but to the lack of any sense of right or wrong." Dr. EXCEPTIONALCHILDREN 211 E. R. Johnstone (of Vineland) has constantly sought to impress his classes with the same truth — "that children are not really bad, as a rule, though they may do wrong occasionally"; and in most cases the so-called wrong-doing is due to ignorance, or disease, or lack of training, or poor and undevel- oped judgment. The child is to be developed morally as well as physically and mentally; in time, his moral nature, aroused and developed and rightly trained, will establish standards of right and wrong; until that time comes, we must endea- vour to be patient, and to guide rather than to repress. The truly successful teacher studies her pupils as individuals, and adapts disciplinary methods to suit special typical cases. The Ger- mans have a saying, " Mann muss nicht alle Kinder liber einen Kamm scheren" — and this is as valid in the realm of ethical training, as in the physical or intellectual phases of the child's development. Let us therefore recognize the child's weakness, and seek, *'not to make correction in the shortest and easiest way, by might," but let us endeavour first of all to strengthen and uplift the child him- self, and to remember always, that "the boy is a boy, not a man." In the last analysis, a certain number of incor- rigible cases are found to be mentally deficient or 212 AUXILIARY EDUCATION feeble-minded. The defective may suffer from impaired vision or hearing, he may be anaemic, he may be a victim of certain orthopedic defects, but in addition, there is an actual lack of nerve tissue in the higher nerve centres, due perhaps to prenatal causes, or to the after effects of serious illnesses — for example, cerebro-spinal meningitis, or the cerebral complications of certain fevers. As a rule, the congenital defective shows unmis- takable signs of arrested growth; these may not be manifested in cases of acquired deficiency. Though these signs are more or less familiar to teachers who have paid even slight attention to the subject, an enumeration of those most common and most readily recognized may not be out of place. The most distinctive signs appear, of course, about the head and in the face. The hair is usually coarse, dry, and of scanty growth. The low "hair line" and fuzzy growth on the face are character- istic of a certain definite type. The occipital bald spot is usually indicative of rickets. The shape and size of the head must be taken into careful consideration. Note, for example, the "square" skull of the child who has been a victim of rickets; the large, round head of hydro- cephalus, in contrast with the small and character- istically shaped head of the microcephalic; the EXCEPTIONALCHILDREN 213 prominent frontal bosses, and "overacting frontal muscles." The skin of the defective is often cold, and clammy, or harsh, dry, and scaly. The com- plexion of certain types deserves mention, for example, the dull, pale colour of the cretin. Facial expression, or almost total lack of expression, are also characteristic in different types. The eyes may be narrow and slant as in the Mongolian type; inequalities of the pupils may denote that the child has been a sufferer from meningitis, or they may indicate serious lesions in the central nervous structure. The ears may be badly formed, irregular, badly set; there may be discharge or inflammation. The broad bridge of the nose, together with a certain lack of expression, and mouth breathing, usually indicate the presence of adenoids. Certain mal- formations of the palate and uvula, and irregulari- ties of the teeth are also significant. An examina- tion of the neck and throat may disclose glandular swellings due to tuberculosis or other causes. Physicians usually note also the thyroid gland and its size. Malformations and distortions of the limbs are common; one need but mention the curiously distorted limbs due to rickets ; the short, square, stubby fingers and squat hand of the cretin, and the curious little finger of the Mongolian type. But aside from all these physical defects, it is in 214 AUXILIARY EDUCATION the realm of the intelligence that the deficiency is most clearly shown. Imperfections in nervous structure lead to defective innervation, so-called. The proper nervous balance is lacking; coordina- tion is imperfect; the powers of judging and reasoning are weak and uncertain; voluntary attention and concentration are either impossible, or nearly so. The will is weak, the tastes dis- torted or exaggerated; the moral sense is often lacking or is perverted. As has been stated by many experts, the defective may often be trained so as to become self-supporting, but he seldom, if ever, becomes self-directing. The exceptional child in the puplic school has long been a problem unsolved. The line between the normal and the subnormal can scarcely be determined; often the difference is exceedingly slight. For the lowest types, provision has long been made by the State, but until recently, the slightly exceptional child has been sadly neglected. Let us return for a time to the problem of the subnormal and their care by the State. Within the confines of a single chapter, it will be impossible to present more than a mere outline of the origin and development of the care and training of the feeble-minded in the United States, with perhaps a brief description of a few of the most widely EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 215 known and typical State institutions. We shall then take up briefly the question of the care and training of exceptional children in the public schools of a few of the larger cities. From the foregoing chapters, we have noted that the work among the defective classes formed the object of a sort of general philanthropic movement, which took its rise in Germany, Switzerland, and England, and extended rapidly through other European countries, and into the United States. Perhaps the first experiment in the training of imbecile or idiotic children in this country was that made in the American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb at Hartford, Conn., about 1818. This experiment was fairly successful in its results, but it was of short duration. In 1846, Edward Seguin published a treatise on idiocy entitled "Traitement moral. Hygiene et Education des Idiots, et des autres Enfants arrieres," which has always been regarded as the standard text book on the subject. Dr. Seguin came to the United States in 1848, and visited the newly founded school for the feeble- minded at Waltham, Mass. Later, he went to Albany, where he rendered valuable assistance to Dr, H. B. Wilbur in the organization of the experiment^ school which eventually developed 216 AUXILIARY EDUCATION into the New York State Institution for Feeble- minded Children, now located at Syracuse, N. Y. As early as 1837 or 1838, Dr. Seguin had established a school for the care and training of idiots in connection with the Hospital for Incur- ables in Paris. His work met with success, and, in time, he received the approval of the French Academy. Much of Dr. Seguin's work is based on his theory that idiocy is a sort of prolonged infancy; in his work he endeavored to arouse, stimulate, and further the process of development, mental and physical. Dr. Seguin finally settled in New York City, where he continued his work until his death in 1880. The Seguin Physiological School for the Training of Children of Arrested Development is still conducted at Orange, New Jersey, by Mrs. Seguin, along the lines laid down by her husband. The school is a select private boarding school, accommodating only a limited number of pupils; much attention is paid to the physical and physiological problems presented by the various pupils. The school is located in a beautiful section of Orange; the visitor is impressed at once by the home-like atmosphere, the refined surroundings and the air of cheerful- ness and content which pervades. The Seguin School is one of the best known private institutions EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 217 of its kind in this country. At the Haddonfield Training School for Those Mentally Deficient or Peculiarly Backward, conducted by the Misses Margaret Bancroft and Jean W. Cox, manual training, physical training, and music receive much attention. The pupils at this school receive a great deal of individual attention. Among the larger public institutions the follow- ing have been chosen as typical: The Massa- chusetts School for the Feeble-minded at Waltham, Mass., has the honour of being the first State institution of its kind in the United States. In 1848, the Massachusetts Legislature resolved to grant a small annual appropriation — about $2,500 — for experimental purposes. The school was opened in October, 1848, and, for a number of years was carried on in connection with the Perkins Institution for the Blind, under Dr. Samuel G. Howe and Mr. James B. Richards. Later, it became an independent institution, and as such was transferred to Waltham in 1889. The work of Dr. George G. Tarbell, who was superin- tendent of the institution from 1878-1883, marks a new era in the training of the feeble-minded. Dr. Tarbell held firmly to the value and necessity of manual occupations for defectives, especially such occupations as could be carried on out-of- 218 AUXILIARY EDUCATION doors; he also advocated the need of making special provision for the so-called institutional or asylum cases, i. e., those of lowest grade. In compliance with his repeated requests, a large tract of land was purchased near Templeton in 1897, where the "colony" plan was adopted. The boys and men are sent to Templeton; the girls and women remain at Waltham. Though the colony plan is still in process of development many important truths have already been made manifest. It has been shown that a large number of men and boys, properly trained, and under adequate supervision, are capable of doing a considerable amount of work on the farms. The wisdom of retaining the men and boys on farms, and of training the women and girls to various domestic employments, has been demonstrated again and again. The economic value of this sort of training must not be lost sight of, though this is really of secondary importance ; in addition to this, however, we must remember that any sort of training which makes these people capable with their hands, or helpful in any way to them- selves or to others, will tend to their success, not only as individuals but as members of society. At Waltham and Templeton, the educatioo?il plan is as follows; EXCEPTIONALCHILDREN 219 I. The training of low-grade inmates. This may seem very elementary, but it is most important. From the beginning, attention is directed to the diet, care of the person, and clothing. Training of the voluntary muscles is systematically carried out by means of various exercises, in play, and even through hard work. The sense of rhythm and the love of music are called upon to aid in teaching these pupils to march, to run, etc., first in imitation of the leader or teacher, and later at the word of command. Strange as it may seem, competitive sports also play an important part in the training. Industrial and manual training also receive a good share of attention. II. Classes for the training of the special senses and voluntary motor power. Kindergarten material plays an important part in the sense training work. III. Kindergarten and primary grade classes. Careful grading is an important feature of the work in this department. The main purpose of all this training is found in the query, "What bearing will it have on the child's future.?" and the teachers keep constantly in view the danger of overdoing the purely book work. Colour, number, form, etc., are taught concretely by means of pegs, beads, blocks, coloured balls, etc. 220 AUXILIARY EDUCATION By means of simple exercises in weaving, cutting, folding, and the use of the peg-board, the fingers are trained to acquire a certain amount of dex- terity. Reading is taught also; primers and first readers form the text books. The more intelligent receive instruction also in spelling, English, and geography. Emphasis is everywhere placed on concrete instruction. The New York State Institution for Feeble- Minded Children, already referred to in connection with the work of Dr. Seguin, was established in 1851, by an act of legislature. It was opened in Albany in that year, and transferred to Syracuse in 1855. Until his death in 1883, Dr. H. B. Wilbur remained at its head. Dr. Wilbur had previously opened a private school at Barre, Mass. (in 1848), a few months prior to the establishment of the Waltham school. The school at Barre thus claims the distinction of having been the first of its kind in actual operation. At Syracuse, the low grade pupils are trained to recognize colour and form by means of the simple kindergarten gifts. The form-board and the peg-board are used as at Waltham. Indeed, the kindergarten gifts have come to be regarded as indispensable; they afford excellent and abundant means of training the senses, and EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 221 certain forms of coordination. Manual and physical training receive their full share of attention. The Pennsylvania Training School for Feeble- minded Children at Elwyn, Pa., was established about 1852. Its original home was at German- town, Philadelphia, and its first head was James B. Richards, who had been associated with Dr. Samuel G. Howe. In 1854 or 1855, through the combined efforts of Mr. Richards and Dr. Alfred E. Elwyn (whose name the place now bears), the institution was incorporated, and an appropriation of ten thousand dollars secured; in 1859, it was removed to its present location. As in other institutions of its kind, special provision is made for the training of children of the lowest grade. The usual methods are employed, the peg-board, lacing, stringing of beads, colour match- ing and simple cord sewing as in the kindergarten. Girls of slightly higher grade learn plain sewing, darning and simple basket-making; the boys are taught simple woodwork and weaving. Careful grading is a special feature at Elwyn; another prominent feature is the development of industrial training of various sorts. The Ohio Institution for Feeble-minded Youth, located near Columbus, Ohio, was founded in 222 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 1857, by an act of legislature. Within recent years the State has purchased a tract of land for a colony. Certain features are peculiar to the school at Columbus. For example, the pupils are classified not so much according to the progress made, but rather as the result of a most careful study of their characters, temperaments, dis- positions, and abilities. Careful study has also been made of the question of fatigue; signs of weariness are closely watched, especially in the case of younger children, and new work is introduced to relieve it. The Indiana Institution for Feeble-minded Youth, located at Fort Wayne, Ind., was originally organized in connection with the Soldiers' Orphans' Home in 1879; it became an independent school in 1887. The children, on the whole, are graded or grouped in accordance with their ages or degree of endowment. Physical training, certain forms of manual training, and music receive special attention. At Vineland, New Jersey, are located the State Home for the Care and Training of Feeble-minded Women, and the New Jersey Training School for Feeble-minded Girls and Boys; both institu- tions were established in 1888. The Training School has maintained a six weeks' summer EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 223 course for teachers for a number of years. The object of this course is to prepare teachers to take up the work of special classes in the public schools. The course is extremely practical in character, and has been productive of much good. A number of interesting features are peculiar to the Training School. For example, children "make their own readers." They are taken to points of interest, or shown objects of interest; later, they are encouraged to talk over their experiences, to illustrate them in simple drawings, and finally to write them. The result is regarded as the best of all materials to be used in learning to read. Some of these "readers" are crude, others exceedingly interesting. Certain forms of manual training, for example, the raffia and reed work, are very successfully taught. The work in wood carving is carefully graded. In the early lessons, the teacher traces an outline of some object on thin wood; the pupil's work consists in driving nails along this outline, or perhaps in punching with a die and mallet; later, he cuts away outside the lines. The aim of all the training given is to fit the children for life; as far as possible, individual abilities and capacities are considered. The system of discipline at Vineland deserves especial mention. 224 AUXILIARY EDUCATION Dr. Johnstone preaches and practises the doctrine of encouragement, of hope, of cheerfulness. Special privileges are used as aids in discipline. The discipline "makes for happiness" first of all, and is "a guidance of energy from the bad into channels of helpfulness and good." Dr. Johnstone and his associates endeavour to make the institution, *'not a place of bars and tortures," nor yet "a prison, in which the world hides its mistakes and crimes"; but rather "a beacon light, set upon the rocks to guide the world aright, if the world will but open its eyes and see." The State Institution for the Feeble-minded of Western Pennsylvania, located at Polk, Venango Co., Pa., was authorized in 1893 by an act of legislature. The social side is emphasized here. In addition, the aim seems to be to adapt the work especially to the needs of the pupils. The founders of these so-called schools seem to have regarded the instruction and training of the feeble-minded as a means of curing, or at least ameliorating, their mental defects. In the early days, therefore, the aim of these schools was largely educational in character. This was but natural, perhaps. The marvellous changes occasionally brought about as a result of judicious treatment, training, and instruction, and the EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 225 educability — within limits, to be sure — of some of the feeble-minded, led physicians, psychologists and teachers of defectives to believe that perhaps all feeble-minded pupils could be improved by such means. The need of making special pro- vision for the custody and care of a large number of comparatively non-improvable defectives (non- improvable as far as education proper is concerned) does not seem to have been recognized or under- stood until years of patient and painstaking effort had " demonstrated how large a part of the fields of beneficent activity lay outside of strictly school work, and how imperfect the results of even the best training must be. The original idea of curing imbecility had to be tried and found untenable before justice could be done to its subjects." (Dr. David F. Lincoln). All insti- tutions aim to train their inmates, even those of the lowest grade, in correct physical habits. This training has a two-fold value, it "raises them out of their brutishness to the level of social beings, fitting them to mingle in the daily relations of a home with the other inmates, and secondly, it is so continued as to form a check to the general tendency to degeneration of mind and body. The intellectual results of the training of the lower grades of the feeble-minded are therefore as 226 AUXILIARY EDUCATION distinct and valuable to them as in the case of those who learn to read and write." The first classes of defectives in our country, in connection with the public schools, were organized in Providence in 1894. A number of feeble-minded boys were selected from certain classes of backward and more or less troublesome pupils, and organized into three special classes, registering about fifteen each. Sense training and the correction of physical defects formed the basis of the work. In 1894, Dr. Thomas M. Balliet established a special class for defective children in Spring- field, Mass. Physical and manual training formed prominent features of the curriculum. In January, 1899, Mr. Seaver, superintendent of schools in Boston, organized the first special class in that city. Mr. Seaver's plan was to select trained teachers for the work. This has been carried out. The class registers are kept small — about fifteen. The course of study includes physical and manual training, music, simple work in number, and primary reading, using a primer as the text. Owing to the great differences in endowment and ability, no hard and fast rules of instruction are prescribed. As a result of a report on "Backward Children EXCEPTIONALCHILDREN 227 in the Public Schools," to the Civic Club of Philadelphia, a school for defective pupils was organized in that city in 1899. At first the school came under the general supervision of the Haddon- field School, and under the medical care of Drs. A. F. Witmer and C. W. Burr. Manual and physical training are emphasized. Medical examinations are carefully made. Through the courtesy of Dr. Willaim H. Max- well, City Superintendent of Schools of New York City, the following extracts from his Annual Reports are presented. These will show the rise and development of the work in New York City. "The question of providing special instruction in the elementary schools for pupils classed roughly as defective, backward, or dull children, has been considered for some time prior to this year, in a more or less desultory fashion. In Public School 1 (Henry Street), there has been for some years a class of children who showed a tendency to become habitual truants." This class was under the care of Miss Elizabeth E. Farrell, at present Inspector of Ungraded Classes in New York City. "In the Girl's Department of Public School 77, also, certain experiments in classifying unruly children have been made" (under the direction 228 AUXILIARY EDUCATION of the principal. Miss Julia Richman, now District Superintendent) . "This year (1902), however, the problem has been considered more formally and in detail. The principals were requested to report on the number of such children in each school. They reported about eight thousand. A careful scrutiny of their answers indicates that the total number of children now in school, who should properly be classed as defectives, is not more than perhaps one-fourth of the number reported." The dif- ficulty of making a correct classification between the normal and the subnormal has been exper- ienced again and again. It is difficult, too, to give an adequate definition of the term "defective" or "feeble-minded." Generally speaking, the feeble-minded child is weak on all sides — in memory, perception, in power of attention; in ability to acquire language or number; in judg- ment and in power of comparison, in power of coor- dination, and usually also in bodily vigour. A lack of moral insight and moral control are often apparent. But while some typical cases may comprise all of these, in other cases the defect may be only relative, or even partial. Dr. Lincoln holds that "if there is one thing that is pretty generally acknowledged as characteristic of this EXCEPTIONALGHILDREN 229 class, it is some form of weakness of practical judgment which renders its possessor unfit for independent life." Concerning the classification of abnormal children, Dr. Maxwell continues: "In dealing with children who come under the general titles 'abnormal' or 'atypical,' it is necessary to dis- tinguish carefully between incorrigibles and truants and those who are to be considered as defective in mental ability. In dealing with this second group, a further subdivision of the various classes is essential to intelligent treatment. The follow- ing subdivisions seem to include almost all children of the atypical class: "(a) Dull children: those who are behind in any or all studies; those who exhibit abnormal precocity in one or more studies; those who have lost time because of irregular attendance or frequent transfer; those who are deficient in English because of foreign birth and residence. " (6) Defective children whose minds may be clouded: those whose defects are partial; those whose defects may be cured; those who, because of some abnormal growth, as adenoids in the throat, or deafness, are behind the other members of their class. " (c) Idiotic or permanently defective children. 230 AUXILIARY EDUCATION "In all cases, specially qualified teachers will be required, and in some instances the services of a trained nurse may be found necessary. But above all, I wish to emphasize the importance of classifyijig the children properly. In many cases, I think that diagnosis after careful exami- nation by a medical expert should be required as a preliminary to assigning pupils to special instruction, for children classified as being in subdivision (b). In determining cases falling under (c) the judgment of an expert should be required in every case." (Report of 1902.) It is just here that the German schools excel. Pupils are admitted to instruction in the Neben- Jdassen only after a careful medical examination. In 1903, there were ten special classes in New York City. The pupils were drawn from the regular grades and placed in special classes after examination by a physician connected with the department of physical training. In his report for 1903, Dr. Maxwell recommends the appoint- ment of a supervisor of special classes, "whose duty it shall be to supervise the work of the teachers, to assign pupils, and, above all, to train teachers for this delicate and important work." Attention is directed again to the need of care in assigning pupils to ungraded classes, as they EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 231 are called in New York City. Before such assignment is made, the pupils in question "should be kept under observation by teachers and prin- cipal long enough to justify the formation of an intelligent lay opinion." (Assoc. Supt. Edw. L. Stevens in Annual Report for 1903.) It is interesting to note that in 1903 the Board of Education received a communication from Dr. A. M. Starr of the Vanderbilt Clinic, calling attention to the fact that the dispensaries and clinics would cooperate with the schools in the work among defective pupils. We can scarcely overestimate the value of this sort of cooperation. It was suggested also that classes for defective pupils should contain from twelve to twenty pupils. In the case of a class of twenty, the teacher should be provided with an assistant who was herself training for the work. Individual instruction was encouraged; efforts were made to secure teachers of exceptional ability. Attention was directed to the need of carefully adapted physical exercises ; to proper material conditions of the classroom, light, air, etc. ; to the necessity of proper nutrition; to the value of various forms of motor activity; to the necessity of frequent changes of exercise, and to the absolute need of frequent rest periods. 232 AUXILIARY EDUCATION It was further recommended that in all schools of sufficient size, one class should be set apart for exceptional pupils, and in these classes, there should be absolute freedom from the prescribed course of study. The teacher should be left free to do each day what is necessary for each pupil, without feeling the need of following the course of study, or the necessity of preparing her pupils for a particular grade. Teachers were urged to secure the cooperation of parents in the matters of nutrition, proper clothing, suf- ficient sleep, and general sanitary conditions. "Another important conclusion reached after a careful examination of many children, is that often a child is not bad or dull because of evil propensity, but from some inherited or acquired physical or mental defect which makes it impossible for him to be like his fellows." (Report for 1905.) During 1905, there were 1,245 examinations; of this number, 115 were examined a second time. In the examinations, three groups or types of observations were noted: first, physical signs (the stigmata of degeneracy) ; second, the degree of motor control; third, abstract mentality. In 1906, Miss E. E. Farrell was appointed Inspector of Ungraded Classes for the City of New York. The by-laws of the Board of Edu- EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 233 cation provide that "the Inspector of Ungraded Classes, shall report to the Board of Superin- tendents on all applications of principals to establish ungraded classes, and upon the fitness of all teachers proposed for assignment to such classes. No child shall be admitted to, or removed from, an ungraded class without the approval in writing of the Inspector of Ungraded Classes, or the permission of the Board of Superintendents; and that no child shall be admitted to an ungraded class who has not been examined as to his phys- ical and mental condition by the Inspector of Ungraded Classes, and by a member of the physical training staff who shall be a physician." Experience has amply demonstrated the truth that two things are all-important for the successful conduct of ungraded classes: first, properly equipped class rooms, and secondly, teachers of "peculiar natural gifts who, in addition, have had the advantage of special training." The equipment suggested includes running water, movable seats and desks, benches for the work in manual training, and light apparatus for physical training. In 1907, higher standards were set for teachers of ungraded classes; as a result the Board of Education succeeded in obtaining the assistance of a number of teachers 234 AUXILIARY EDUCATION particularly adapted by endowment and training for work among exceptional children. The care exercised in the examination of pupils proposed for admission to ungraded classes has resulted most satisfactorily "in preventing normal children who were simply dull from being assigned to these classes, in suggesting to teachers the proper kind of work for individual children, and in determining when it is safe to remove a child from an ungraded class to a regular grade, or to permit him to attempt some form of manual labour." By July, 1907, there were forty-one regularly organized ungraded classes in New York City, and the City Superintendent urged principals to "familiarize themselves with the physi- cal signs in children which indicate mental defect.'* Through the courtesy of Miss Farrell and Dr. Isabelle Thompson Smart, medical examiner, the following forms are presented. The first is filled out by the principal of the school for each child proposed for admission to an ungraded class. Miss Farrell states: "x\.ll items in this report are necessary. Some, however, are more important than others, for example, the question of nationality. For one not familiar with national characteristics, it is an easy matter to take the heavy, sluggish response of the Slavic EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 235 child as indicative of real mental inability, while the children of Latin Europe, with their lively shifting and seemingly inconsistent attention to school duties, seem to the teacher to be unfitted to regular school work. With nationality, the age and the regularity of the school attendance must be considered. The child, who is, perhaps, many years behind his grade, may be a mental defective. However, there is a possibility that his backwardness is the result of long-continued absence from school, due to accident, long illness, child labour, or to the vagrant habits of his parents. Again, in determining a child's place in the school, the kind of work he does best and easiest must be regarded as a factor." Inherited tendencies and adaptations due to environment must also be considered. "Under the heading 'Peculiarities,' much is revealed as to the individuality of the child." (Report for 1907.) OBSBRVATIONS ON CHILD — PROPOSED FOB AN UNGRADED CLASS P. S Borough. Name .Address Age Grade Nationality F M. . 236 AUXILIARY EDUCATION Yrs. in U. S Home Conditions Health Record: Nutrition Bone Dis Eng. Gl. . . . Teeth Throat Nose Vision R L Hearing R L Nervous Disease School Record: Kn'dg. . . . terms lA. . . terms IB. . . . terms 2A. . . . terms 2B. . . . terms 3A. . . . terms 3B. . . , terms Sp'c'l terms. School Att Cause of Irreg Absence in last two terms Attention Memory. . . . Oral Exp Hand AVork Phys. Tr Number Reading Writing Sp. Tastes Disposition Behaviour Habits Peculiarities Other Information 19. . . Principal. The second is used by Dr. Smart on the occasion of her examination of pupils proposed by the principal. Upon the recommendation of Dr. Smart and Miss Farrell, the child is assigned to the ungraded class, or retained in the regular grades, as the case may be. Wlien medical or surgical care is found necessary, the principal is apprised of this fact by Dr. Smart, and an effort is made to secure the parent's cooperation in placing the child under the proper form of treatment. This is not always an easy matter, parents resent what they term " interfer- EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 237 ence"; others are appreciative of the interest shown in the welfare of their children, and gladly follow the advice given them. II OBSERVATIONS ON CHILD PROPOSED FOR AN UNGRADED CLASS Special Med. Ex. P. S. Borough 190 . Name 1. Gen'l Condition A.Anatomical Cranium Facial Asymmetry Palate Teeth Tongue Lips Eyes Ears Limbs Skin Body in General B. Physiological 1. Motor Function Tics Tremours Epilepsy Nystagmus Promptness Coordination Speech Inhibition 2. Sensory Function Vision R . . . . L, . . .Hearing R. . . .L 238 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 3. Condition of Heart Pulse C. Pyschical Balance Proportion Moral Sense. Attention Memory Will Judgment Pecularities D. Development, Att. Diseases E. Family History: Births Miscar Deaths. Cause of Diseases F M Medical Examiner. The third blank is used by the teacher to report the progress of her pupils. It needs no special comment here, except, perhaps, to state that the teacher of an ungraded class must possess a certain insight, and a certain keenness and correctness of observation and judgment in order to render her records valuable. The blanks are made out in duplicate. One set is sent to the office of the Inspector of Ungraded Classes, and the second is kept on file in the ungraded class room, so that the teacher may at any time examine tlie records, as an aid to her work with the children in her care. The card often suggests the form of treat- ment, training, or instruction which will prove most beneficial. EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 839 III PEDAGOGICAL RECORD P. S Borough 19 19 Name Sense Training Taste Smell Touch Sight. Hearing Physical Train, (imitation) . " " (command) Writing Industrial Training Language (oral) " (written) Reading Arithmetic Nature Study Personal Habits Self-control Effort Gen'l Informination Power of Attention " Memory " Judgment Gen'l Health Fatigue Attendance Teacher 240 AUXILIARY EDUCATION In the early days of the work among exceptional children in New York City, an interested teacher would volunteer, perhaps, to take charge of an ungraded class. In case a volunteer was not forthcoming. Miss Farrell points out, a teacher was chosen because of her ability to discipline. This plan was far from satisfactory and *'the substitution of a better one was part of the general plan of organization made necessary by the increase in the number of classes for mentally defective children. With the extension of these classes came a corresponding increase in the number of teachers who w^anted to be assigned to the work." It was therefore deemed wisest to prepare eligible lists as the result of special examinations. The examination was open not only to teachers in New York schools, but also to those in public and private institutions or schools for the mentally deficient. The value of this was apparent. Except for the summer course for teachers at the Vineland Training School, and a special course on the Education of Defectives at the New York University School of Pedagogy, there is no means of training teachers for work among exceptional children. The examination, on purely professional lines, consisted of written, practical, and oral tests. EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 241 The written test included methods of teaching, especially in reference to mentally deficient children, and principles of education. The prac- tical test disclosed the candidate's skill in manual work as sewing, drawing, etc., and in the oral test, the candidate proved her ability to govern a class of exceptional children. Experience has already demonstrated that the teacher of defective children should be peculiarly adapted by nature for the work; she must be resourceful, inventive, hopeful, wise, and tactful. She must possess the spirit of optimism to an unusual degree, for she meets daily with many discouragements ; and in addition she must possess patience, and what some one has termed the capacity for *' taking infinite pains.'* Dr. Wm. T. Harris stated on one occasion that a single visit to the school for feeble-minded in Lincoln, 111., was worth far more to him than all he had gained from a long study of normal children. This is true. As Dr. Johnstone puts it, "The slow mental processes are laid bare. Methods of teaching any line of work may be studied in their minutest details. Here we may see the real value of music, of manual training, of the school garden, of physical training, of the kinder- garten, and of child study. The difference in 242 AUXILIARY EDUCATION training normal and feeble-minded children is one of degree, not of kind." All operations move slowly in the case of the defective, and because of this, we can study them more closely and completely, and thus gain much that will be of utmost value in dealing with normal children. Statistics prove that there are many so-called backward children in the United States; in the case of many of them " the mental or physical infirmities are of so slight a nature that by special training they may become useful factors in the family and society." It is for these children, also, that special classes have been organized. Left to themselves, or in the regular grades, they degenerate mentally and physically, and alas! too often morally; under special training, they are able in most instances to catch up again with their normal brothers and sisters. The special class has taught us many a valuable lesson. (a) It has demonstrated the value of physical training in correcting minor physical defects. (6) It has proven at every step of the way, that industrial training has a decided value and that, sooner or later, normal children must *'get away from books and learn to do." (c) It has demonstrated the need of making EXCEPTIONALCHILDREN 243 children cheerful, happy, and contented in their work. If children dislike school or school work, there may be something wrong with the school and its work. At Vineland they say "Happiness first" and all else will follow. (d) The need of a closer and more sympathetic vital relation between teacher and child as a result of careful observation and study. In addition, it has been shown that in the development of the work of teaching exceptional children in separate classes, the regular classes have been benefited. The teacher of the latter can devote her time and energy to her pupils without hindrance from those who have hitherto been called incumbrances. The work among defective children is a decided advance. These unfortunate children form a "portion of the material furnished by the community" for instruc- tion in the schools. The schools have now to a certain degree adapted themselves to the needs of all children, and undertaken the task of training and educating all classes. "All this tends toward making the public schools a more efficient instru- ment for the education of all the children of the State," and is but another upward step in the cause of education and the uplifting of mankind. BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER I 1. H. SoTTZNER. — "Uber Schulen fiir schwachbefahigte Kinder. Erster Entwurf zur Begriindung derselben." C. F. Winter, Leipzig and Heidelberg, 1864. (Sug- gestions for the establishment of schools for defective children.) 2. W. Reinke. — " Die Unterweisung und Erziehung schwachsinniger Kinder." L. Oehmigke, Berlin, 1897. (The instruction and training of feeble-minded children.) 3. " Nebenklassen fur schM^achbegabte Kinder in Berlin." Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheitspflege, 1900, 1901. (Auxiliary classes for feeble-minded children in Berlin.) 4. P. VON GiZYCKi. — "Der Unterricht fiir schwach- sinnige Kinder." Vossische Zeitung, Sonntagsbeilagen October, 1903. (The instruction of feeble-minded children.) 5. O. HiNTz. — "Die Erziehung abnormer Kinder in Normalschulen." Neue Bahnen, 1897, IV. (The education of abnormal children in normal schools.) 6. O. HiNTz.— "Welche padagogischen Massnahmen eignen sich fiir den Unterricht solcher Kinder, welche durch die Volksschule nicht geniigende Forderun gerfahren ?" Xioewenthal, Berlin, 1898, (What pedagogic measures 246 AUXILIARY EDUCATION are best suited to such pupils as are unable to make satisfactory progress in the Volksschule ?) 7. H. Piper. — "Die Fiirsorge fiir die schwachsinnigen Kinder." Deutsche Schule: Monatsschrift, KHnck- hardt, 1897. 3. Leipzig. (The care of feeble-minded children.) 8. P. Tatzner. — " Die Entstehung des Gedankens, beson- dere Schulen fiir schwachsinnige Kinder zu errichten." Zeitschrift fiir die Behandlung Schwachsinniger und Epileptischer, 1900. (The origin of the idea to estab- lish special schools for the feeble-minded and epileptic.) 9. A. WiNTERMAN. — "Die Hilfsschulen Deutschlands und der deutschen Schweiz." Beyer und Sohne Langensalza, 1898. (German and Swiss Auxiliary Schools.) 10. J. P. Gerhardt, — "Zur Geschichte und Literatur des Idiotenwesens in Deutschland." Selbstverlag, 1904, Alsterdorfer Anstalten bei Hamburg. (The history and literature of the education of idiots in Germany.) 11. C. ZiEGLER. — "Hilfsschulen fiir Schwachbefahigte." Reins Enzyklopadisches Handbuch. (Auxiliary schools for defective pupils.) 12. "Berichte iiber die Verbandstage der Hilfsschulen Deutschlands." (Reports of the meetings of the German Auxiliary School Association.) 13. H. BosBAUER, L, MiKLAS, H. ScHiNER. — "Haudbuch der Schwachsinnigenfiirsorge." Teubner und Graeser, Leipzig und Wein, 1905. (The care of mental defectives.) BIBLIOGRAPHY 247 14. Annual Report of the Special Schools Sub-committee, London School Board, 1903. 15. Schools for the Defective ClasseSj Washington, D.C. 1903. 16. A. ScHENK. — "Reisebericht." Kinderfehler, 1900. 17. K. RiCHTER. — "Die Bestrebungen fiir die Bildung und Erziehung schwachsinniger Kinder in Italien." Zeit- schrift fiir die Behandlung Schwachsinniger und Epileptischer, 1901, 7-10. (The work among the feeble-minded in Italy: their care and training.) 18. " Mitteilungen des Vorstandes des deutschen Hilfs- schulverbandes. " Die Hilfsschule. (Reports of the directors of the German Auxiliary School Associations.) 19. W. Walker. — "Die neusten Bestrebungen und Erfahr- ungen auf dem Gebiete der Erziehung der Schwachen." Dissertation. Solothurn, 1903. (Observations con- cerning the results of the most recent experiments in the realm of training for the feeble-minded.) CHAPTER II J. H. WiTTE. — " Volksschule und Hilfsschule." Thorn, Lembeck, 1901. (Elementary schools and auxiliary schools.) Barthold. — "Die Idiotenanstalten und die Hilfsschulen, eine Grenzregulierung." Zeitschrift fiir die Behand- lung Schwachsinniger und Epileptischer, December, 1901, Burdach, Dresden. (Asylums for idiots, and auxiliary schools.) 248 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 3. "Bericht iiber den ersten Verbandstag der Hilfsschulen Deutschlands," am 12-13 April, 1898, Hanover. (Report of the first meeting of the German Auxiliary Association.) 4. KiELHORN. — " Die Erziehung geistig zuriickgebliebener Kinder in Hilfsschulen." Osterwieck, Zickfeld, 1897. (The training of mentally defective children in auxiliary schools.) 5. K. RicHTER. — "Die Leipziger Schwachsinnigenschule." Leipzig, Hesse, 1893. (The school for mental defect- ives at Leipsig.) 6. M. GoBKE. — " Die Fiirsorge fiir geistig zuriickgebliebene Kinder." Ein Reisebericht. Breslauer Statistik, 1900. (The care of mentally deficient children.) 7. L. Laquer. — " Die Hilfsschulen fiir schwachbefahigte Kinder, ihre arztliche und soziale Bedeutung." Berg- mann, Weisbaden, 1901. (Auxiliary schools for defective children, from the medical and social standpoints.) 8. O. Altenburg. — "Die Kunst des psychologischen Beobachtens." Reuther and Reichard, Berlin, 1898. (The art of pyschological observation.) 9. L. Strumpell. — "Padagogische Pathologic." Ungleich, Leipzig, 1897. (Pathology from the standpoint of pedagogy.) 10. J. L. A. KocK. — "Die psychopathischen Minder- wertigkeiten in der Schule." In A. Bauer, Das Kranke Scbulkind. Enke, Stuttgart, 190^, (Psy- pbop^tbic defects i^ school children,) BIBLIOGRAPHY 249 1. J. Tr^per. — "Die Anfange der abnormen Erschein- ungen im kindlichen Seelenleben." O. Bonde, Alten- burg, 1902. (The first signs of abnormal development in the child's mental life.) 12. G. Leubuscher. — "Die schularztliche Tatigkeit in Stadten und auf dem Lande." Verhandlungen der III Jahresversammlung des Allgemeinen Deutschen Ver- eins fiir Schulgesundheitspflege. Teubner, Berlin und Leipzig, 1902. (The medical inspection of schools in cities and in smaller communities.) 13. L. Laquer. — "Uber schwachsinnige Schulkinder." Marhold, Halle, 1902. (Feeble-minded children of school age.) 14. Th. Benda. — "Die Schwachbegabten auf den hoheren Schulen." Teubner, Berlin and Leipzig, 1902. (Feebly-endowed children in the higher schools.) CHAPTER III 1. H. Keilhorn. — "Die Organisation der Hilfsschule." Bericht iiber den III Verbandstag der Hilfsschulen Deutschlands. Beyer und Sohne, Langensalza, 1901. (The organization of auxiliary schools.) 2. F. W. MtTLLER. — "tJber den Schwachsinn." Bericht iiber den III Verbandstag der Hilfsschulen Deutsch- lands. (Feeble-mindedness.) 3. O. Berkhan, — "Uber den angeborenen und friiher- 250 AUXILIARY EDUCATION neuste Auflage. (Feeble-mindedness — congenital and acquired.) 4. Th. Ziehen. — "Die Geisteskrankheiten des Kindes- alters." Berlin, Reuther und Reichard, 1902. (The mental disorders of childhood.) 5. A. LiEBMANN. — "Die Untersuchung und Behandlung geistig zuriickgebliebener Kinder." Berlin, Berlinische Verlagsanstalt, 1898. (The examination and care of mentally deficient children.) 6. Fr. Frenzel. — "Die Hilfsschulen fiir schwachbegabte Kinder." Hamburg, L. Voss, 1903. (Schools for feeble-minded children.) 7. L. Laquer. — "Uber schwachsinnige Schulkinder." Halle, C. Marhold, 1902. (Feeble-minded children of school age.) 8. L. Laquer. — "Die arztliche Feststellung der ver- schiedenen Formen des Schwachsinns in den ersten Schuljahren." Miinchen, Seiz und Schauer, 1901. (Medical opinion concerning the various phases of feeble-mindedness in children of the first school years.) 9. N. Stadelmann. — " Schwachbeanlagte Kinder, ihre Forderung und Behandlung." Miinchen, 1904, Arztliche Rundschau. (Weak-minded children, their training and advancement.) 10. W. Reinke. — " Die Unterweisung und Erziehung schwachsinniger Kinder." Berlin, L. Oehmigke, 1897. (The instruction and training of feeble-minded children.) BIBLIOGRAPHY 251 11. DeLiTzscH. — "Das schwachbegabte Kind im Hause und in der Schule." Bericht iiber den IV Verbandstag der Hilfsschulen Deutschlands. (The feeble-minded child at home and in school.) 12. F. Grote. — "Konnen Kinder zwangsweise der Hilfs- schule zugefiihrt werden?" (In Bericht as above in 11.) (Can we compel feeble-minded children to attend auxiliary schools?) 13. J. Moses. — "Das Sonderklassensystem der Mann- heimer Volksschule." Mannheim, Bensheimer, 1904. (The plan followed in auxiliary classes in connection with the Volksschulen at Mannheim.) 14. A. SiCKiNGER. — "Der Unterrichtsbetrieb in grossen Schulkorpern sei nicht schematisch-einheitlich, sondern differenziert-einheitlich." Mannheim, Bensheimer, 1904. (The course of study should not be uniformly systematic, but elastic.) CHAPTER IV 1. ScHMiD-MoNNARD. — "Ursachen der Minderbegabung von Schulkindern." Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheits- pflege, 1900. (Causes of mental deficiency in school children.) 2. J. TBtrPER. — "Die Anfange der abnormen Erschein- ungen im kindlichen Seelenleben." Altenburg, Bonde 1902. (The first signs of abnormal development in the child's mental life.) 252 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 3. H. BosBAUER, L. MiKLAS und H. Schiner. — " Hand- buch der Schwachsinnigen Fiirsorge." Leipzig and Wien, Teubner und Graeser, 1905. (The care of mental defectives.) CHAPTER V 1. G. Leubuscher. — "Staatliche Schularzte." Reuther und Reichard, Berlin, 1902. (Public school phy- sicians.) 2. G. Leubuscher. — " Die schularztliche Tatigkeit in Stadten und auf dem Lande." Verhandlung der III Jahresversammlung , des Allegmeinen Deutschen Vereins fiir Gesundheitspflege. B. Teubner, Berlin und Leipzig, 1902. (The medical inspection of schools in cities and in sm Her communities.) 3. Th. Ziehen. — "Arztliche Beobachtung." Reins Enzyklopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik, I. (Med- ical inspection.) 4. A. Bauer. — "Das kranke Schulkind." Enke, Stuttgart, 1902. (The delicate pupil of school age.) 5. G. GoRKE. — "Die Fiirsorge fiir geistig zuriickgeblie- bene Kinder." Genossenschafts-Buchdruckerei, Bres- lau, 1900. (Care of backward children.) 6. F. Cassel. — "Was lehrt die Untersuchung der geistig minderwertigen Schulkinder ini IX Berliner Schul- kreise." Colbentz, Berlin, 1901. (Lessons drawn from the examination of mentally defective pupils, 11th Berlin School District.) BIBLIOGRAPHY 253 7. K. Doll. — " Arztliche Untersuchungen aus der Hilfsschule fiir schwachsinnige Kinder zu Karlsruhe." Macklot, Karlsruhe, 1902. (Medical inspections in the auxiliary school for feeble-minded children at Karlsruhe.) 8. WuLFF. — " Stellung und Aufgabe des Arztes in der Hilfs- schule." Bericht iiber den ersten Verbandstag der Hilfsschulen Deutschlands." (The status and the problem of the physician in the auxiliary school.) 9. K. ScHMiD-MoNNARD. — "tjber den Einfluss der Schule auf die Korperentwicklung und Gesundheit der Schulkinder." Voss, Hamburg und Leipzig, 1898. (The influence of the school on the health and physical development of school children.) 10. J. Gelpke. — "Uber die Beziehungen des Sehorgans zum jugendlichen Schwachsinn." C. Marhold, Halle, 1904. (Sight in its bearing upon the feeble-mindedness of children.) 11. H. Griesbach. — "Uber den Stand der Schulhygiene in Deutschland." Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft deutscher Naturforscher und Arzte, 1903. (School hygiene in Germany.) CHAPTER VI 1. D. TiEDEMANN. — " Bcobachtungen iiber die Entwick- lung der Seelenfahigkeiten bei Kindern." Altenburg 1897, Bonde. (Observations on the development of mental deficiencies in children.) 254 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 2. L. Strumpell. — "Die Verschiedenheit der Kinder- naturen." Leipzig, 1894, Bohme. (The different types of child nature.) 5. Sauppe. — "Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des kindlichen Geistes." Jahrbuch des Vereins fiir wissenschaftHche Padagogik, 1876. (The development of the child's mind.) 4. Emminghaus. — "Die pyschischen Storungen im Kindes- alter." Tubingen, Laupp. (Psychic disturbances in childhood.) 6. O. Altenburg. — "Die Kunst des psychologischen Beobachtens." Berlin, 1898, Reuther und Reichard. (The art of psychologic observation.) 6. J. Truper. — "Schema zur Feststellung des leiblichen und seelischen Zustandes eines Kindes." Kinder- fehler, 1897, 5-6. (How to determine the physical and mental condition of a child.) 7. Ch. Ufer. — ^ "Das Wesen des Schwachsinns." Langen- salza, Beyer. (The nature of feeble-mindedness.) 8. Lay. — " Experimentelle Didaktik." Wiesbaden, 1903. (Experimental Didactics.) 9. Delitzsch. — " Grundlinien zur psychischen Diagnose in der Hilfsschule." Sachsische Schulzeitung, 1904. (Principles underlying psychological diagnosis in auxiliary schools.) 10. C. Kannegiesser. — "Ubersicht iiber die bei Abfas- sung der Charakteristiken schwachsinniger Schiiler zu beobachtenden Merkmale." Zeitschrift fiir Schul- gesundheitspflege, 1898, p. 247-255. (Synopsis of the BIBLIOGRAPHY iSB criteria to be observed in making a summary of the distinctive characteristics of the mentally deficient.) 11. Fr. Frenzel. — "Das Personalheft im Dienste der Schwachs'mnigenbildung." Zeitschrift fiir die Behand- lung Schwachsinniger und Epileptischer, 1902, 9-10. (The value of the personal record in the training of the feeble-minded.) 12. Klabe. — "Anieitung zur Abfassung von Schiiler- charakteristiken. " Leipzig, 1901, Merseburger. (Introduction to the observation of the mental charac- teristics of school children.) 13. K. Richter. — " Ubersicht der bei Abfassung von Charakteristiken der Kinder einer Hilfsschule zu beobachtenden Merkmale." Zeitschrift fiir Behand- lung Schwachsinniger, 1894, 5-6. (A survey of the signs to be observed in making observations on the characteristics of auxiliary school pupils.) CHAPTER VII 1. EuLENBERG UND Bach. — " Schulgcsundheitslehre. Das Schulhaus and das Unterrichtswesen vom hygien- ischen Standpunkte aus." 2 Bde., 1900, Berlin, Heine. (The school building and the plan of instruction from the standpoint of hygiene.) 2. W. Siegert. — " Bau des Schulhauses." Reins Enzy- klopadisches Handbuch, Bd. 1. (The structure of the school building.) 256 AUXILIARY EDUCATION S. R. BoTTGER. — "Uber Zentralisation der Hilfsklassen fiir Schwachbefahigte." Deutsche Lehrerzeitung, 1904, p. 42-43, und Berieht uber die XI Konfe- renz iiber das Idioten und Hilfsschulwesen. Stettin, 1904. (The consolidation of auxiliary classes for the feeble-minded.) CHAPTER VIII 1. O. Berkhan. — "Uber die Griindsatze, nach denen Hilfsklassen einzurichten sind." Zeitschrift fiir die Behandlung Schwachsinniger und Epileptischer, 1881, 1882. (The principles underlying the establishment of auxiliary classes.) 2. A. Darr. — "Uber Errichtung von Klassen fiir Schwach- sinnige." Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheitspflege, 1894, p. 213. (The establishment of classes for the feeble- minded.) 3. H. KiELHORN. — "Die Organisation der Hilfsschule." Berieht iiber den II and III Verbandstag der Hilfs- schulen Deutschlands, 1899-1901. (The organization of the auxiliary school.) 4. F. LoEPER. — "Uber Organisation von Hilfsschulen." Kinderfehler, III, 6. (The organization of auxiliary schools.) 5. K. Klabe. — "Entwurf zur Ausbau der Hilfsschule zu Halle." Merseburger, 1900. Leipzig. (The plan of the auxiliary school at Halle.) BIBLIOGRAPHY 257 6. F. Frenzel. — "Die Organisation der Hilfsschule." Medizinisch-padagogische Monatsschrift fiir die gesamte Sprachheilkunde, 1902, V. (The organization of the auxiliary school.) 7. R. BoTTGER. — "Uber Zentralisation der Hilfsklassen fiir Schwachbefahigte." Allgemeine deutsche Lehrerzei- tung, 1904, p. 42, 43; und Bericht uber die Konferenz fiir das Idioten und Hilfsschulwesen. Stettin, 1904. (The consolidation of auxiliary classes for defectives.) CHAPTER IX 1. Heller. — "Uber Ermiidungsmessungen bei Schwach- sinnigen Kindern." Zeitschrift fiir die Behandlung Schwachsinniger und Epileptischer, 1898, 12. (Deter- mining fatigue among feeble-minded children.) 2. H. Schiller — "Der Stundenplan." Berlin, 1897. Reuther und Reichard. (The programme.) 3. Th. S. Flatau. — "Die geschichtliche Entwicklung der TJberbiirdungsfrage an der Hand der amtlichen Verordnungen und Gesetze." Zeitschrift fiir padago- gische Pyschologie und Pathologic, 1899, p. 197. (The historical development of the question of fatigue — or overburdening of pupils, gathered from a study of successive regulations.) 4. E. Kraepelin. — "Zur Hygiene der Arbeit." Jena, 1896, Fischer. (The hygiene of work.) 5. A. Baur. — " Die Ermiidung der Schiiler im neuen Lichte. 258 AUXILIARY EDUCATION Berlin, 1902, Gerdes und Hodel. (Fatigue among children from a new point of view.) 6. H. Griesbach. — " Uber den Stand der Schulhygiene in Deutschland." Verhandlung der Gesellschaft deutscher Naturforscher und Arzte zu Kassel, 1903, Leipzig, Vogel, 1904. (The status of school hygiene in Germany.) CHAPTER X 1. "Lehrplan fiir die Hilfsschule fiir Schwachbefahigte in Leipzig. " Leipzig, Hesse und Becker, 1903. (The course of study for the auxiliary school at Leipzig.) 2. "Lehrplan fiir die Hilfsschule fiir schwachbefahigte Schulkinder zu Braunschweig." Zeitschrift fiir die Behandlung Schwachsinniger und Epileptischer, 1881, 1882. (The course of study of the auxiliary school for the feeble-minded at Braunschweig.) 3. O. BooDSTEiN. — "Die Hilfsschule fiir Schwachbefahigte zu Elberfeld." Elberfeld, 1901, Friderichs. (The auxiliary school for the feeble-minded at Elberfeld.) 4. Tatzner und Fruggmayer. — "Die Nachhilfeschule zu Dresden- Altstadt." Dresden, 1901, Passler. (The auxiliary school at Dresden.) 5. M. GoRKE. — "Die Fiirsorge fiir geistig zuriickgebliebene Kinder." Breslau, 1900. Genossenschafts-Buch- dnickerei. (The care of children of arrested develop- ment.) BIBLIOGRAPHY 259 6. A. ScHMiTZ. — "Zweck und Einrichtung der Hilfs- schulen." Langensalza, 1903, Beyer und Sohne. (The aim of auxiliary schools.) CHAPTER XI 1. K. Barthold. — "Der erste vorbereitende Unterricht fiir Schwach- und Blodsinnige." Gladbach und Leip- zig, 1881, Schellman. (Preliminary instruction for the feeble-minded and imbeciles.) 2. H. KiELHORN. — " Die Organisation der Hilfsschule." (Der Unterricht.) Bericht iiber den IV Verband- stag der Hilfsschulen Deutschlands. Hanover, 1903, Schrader. (The organization of the auxiliary school — its instruction.) 3. O. Meyer. — " Welche Besonderheiten ergeben sich fiir den Sachunterricht in der Hilfsschule ? " Bericht iiber den IV Verbandstag der Hilfsschulen Deutschlands. (What particular studies are best adapted for concrete instruction in auxiliary schools?) 4. "Das Rechnen auf der Unterstufe der Hilfsschule." Bericht iiber den IV Verbandstag der Hilfsschulen Deutschlands. (Arithmetic in the lowest grade of the auxiliary school.) 5. Strakerjahn. — "Der erste Sprechunterricht in der Hilfsschule." Bericht iiber den II Verbandstag der Hilfsschulen Deutschlands. (Preliminary instruction in language in the auxiliary school.) 260 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 6. K- Basedow. — " Handf ertigkeitsunterricht fur Knaben in der Hilfsschule." Bericht iiber den III Verbandstag der Hilfsschulen Deutschlands. (Manual training — in broader sense — for boys in the auxiliary school.) 7. M.Endeblin. — "Erziehung durch Arbeit." Leipzig, 1903, Frankenstein und Wagner. (Training through work.) 8. CoLOZZA. — "Psychologie und Padagogik des Kinder- spiels." Deutsch von Chr. Ufer, Altenburg, 1901, Bonde. (The psychology and pedagogy of play.) 9. Groos. — "Die Spiele der Menschen." Jena, 1897, Fischer. (Play.) 10. A. FucHS. — " Schwachsinnige Kinder, ihre sittliche und intellektuelleRettung." Giitersloh, 1899, Bertelsmann. (Feeble-minded children — their moral and intellectual salvation.) 11. BooDSTEiN. — "Fromme Wiinsche fiir den weitern Ausbau der Hilfsschule." Vortrag. Dresden, Passler. (The extension of the auxiliary school system.) 12. Th. Heller. — " Grundriss der Heilpadagogik. " Leipzig, 1904, Engelmann. (The outlines of physi- ological pedagogy.) 13. Henck und Traudt. — " Schafft frohe Jugend." 1904, Thiiringer Verlangsanstalt von Henck und Traudt. (A plea for a happy childhood.) 14. Demoor. — "Die anormalen Kinder und ihre erziehliche Behandlung in Haus und Schule." Deutsch von Chr. Ufer. Altenberg, 1901, Bonde. (Abnormal children, their training at home and in school.) BIBLIOGRAPHY 261 15. H. BosBAUER, L. MiKLAs und H, Schiner. — "Hand- buch der Schwachsinnigenfiirsorge." Leipzig und Wien, 1905, Teubner und Graeser. 16. Delitsch. — " Grundlinien zur psychischen Diag- nose in der Hilfsschule." Sachsische Schulzeitung, 1904. (The principles underlying psychological diagnosis in auxiliary schools.) 17. "Bericht iiber die XI Konferenz flir das Idioten und Hilfsschulwesen." (Report of the Eleventh Con- ference for the study of jproblems concerning idiots and the feeble-minded.) CHAPTER XII 1. BooDSTEiN. — Fromme "Wiinsche fiir den weiteren Ausbau der Hilfsschule." Dresden, Joh. Passler. (The extension of the auxiliary school system.) 2. Heller. — "GrundrissderHeilpadagogik." Leipzig, 1904, Engelmann. (Outlines of physiological pedagogy.) 3. ScHWENK. — "Die Zuchmittel in unseren Anstalten." Verlag der Idsteiner Anstalten, 1899. (Corrective measures in our institutions.) 4. "Denkschrift betreffend die besonderen Verhaltnisse und Bediirfnisse der Anstalten fiir Idioten und Epilep- tische im Rahmen der Irrengesetzgebung." Idstein, Grandpierre, 1904. (Report concerning the special situation and needs of institutions for idiots and epileptics.) 262 AUXILIARY EDUCATION CHAPTER XIII 1. H. KiELHORN. — "Der Konfirmandenunterricht in der Hilfsschule." Langensalza, 1904, Beyer und Sohne. (Preparation for confirmation in auxiliary schools.) 2. V. LiJHMANN. — "Der Konfirmandenunterricht bei Geistesschwachen." Bericht iiber die XI Konferenz fiir das Idioten und Hilfsschulwesen. Idstein, 1904, Grandpierre. (Preparation of the feeble-minded for confirmation.) CHAPTER XIV 1. H. KiELHORN. — "Der Schwachsinnige Mensch im offent- lichen Leben." Zeitschrift fiir Schwachsinnige und Epileptische, 1889, 3-5. (The defective in public life.) 2. H. KiELHORN. — "Die Fiirsorge fiir geistig Minder- wertige." Jugendfiirsorge, 1901, VII. (Care of men- tal defectives.) 3. Fr. Naumann. — "Der Wert der Schwachen fiir die Gesamtheit." Buchverlag der "Hilfe," Berlin, Schoneberg, 1902. (The value to the community of the feeble-minded.) 4. A. Damaschke. — "Aufgaben der Gemeindepolitik." Jena, 1901 , Fischer. (The problems of the community.) 5. Schmid-Monnard und A. Hartmann. — "Soziale Fiir- sorge fiir Kinder im schulpflichtigen Alter." Jena, 1904, Fischer. (The provisions for children of school age.) BIBLIOGRAPHY 263 6. H. BosBAUER, L. MiKLAs und H. ScHiNER. — " Hand- buch der Schwachsinnigen Fiirsorge." Leipzig und Wien, 1905, Teubner and Graeser. 7. Th. Heller. — " Grundriss der Heilpadagogik." Leipzig, 1904, Engelmann. (The outlines of physio- logical pedagogy.) 8. " Jahresberichte iiber die Hilfsschule fiir Schwach- befahigte in Leipzig." Leipzig, Hess und Becker. (Annual reports of the Leipzig auxiliary school.) 9. G. Wanke. — "Psychiatric und Padagogik." Wiesbaden, 1905, Bergmann. (Psychiatry and pedagogy.) 10. Fe. Frenzel. — "Die Hilfsschulen fiir schwachbegabte Kinder. " Hamburg und Leipzig, 1903, Voss. (Aux- iliary Schools for feeble-minded children.) CHAPTER XV 1. J. Demoor. — "Die anormalen Kinder und ihre erzie- liche Behandlung in Haus und Schule." Altenburg, 1901, Bonde. (Abnormal children and their training at home and in school.) 2. M. GoRKE. — "Die Fiirsorge fiir geistig zuriickgebliebene Kinder." Breslau, 1900. (The care of mentally deficient children.) 3. BooDSTEiN. — " Fromme Wiinsche fiir den weiteren Ausbau der Hilfsschule." Dresden, Passler. (The extension of the auxiliary school system.) 4. H. ScHREiBER. — "Fiir das Wohl der Dummen in 264 AUXILIARY EDUCATION unseren offenlliclien Schulen." Kinderfehler, 1900. (The welfare of the backward children in our public schools.) 5. H. BosBAUER, L. MiKLAs, und H. Schiner. — "Hand- buch der Schwachsinnigenfiirsorge." Leipzig und Wien, Teubner und Graeser. 6. Th. Heller. — "Grundriss der Heilpiidagogik." Leip- zig, 1904, Engelmann. (Outlines of physiological pedagogy.) CHAPTER XVI A. Spitzner. — "Die wissenschaftliche und praktische Bedeutung der piidagogischen Pathologic fiir die Volksschulpadagogik." Deutsche Schule, 1898, 1-4. (The scientific and practical signification of pedagogic pathology in its relation to general pedagogy.) CHAPTER XVII 1. H. P. BowDiTCH. — "The Relation Between Growth and Disease." Transactions of the American Medical Association. Vol. 332. p. 371 et al. 2. H. P. BowDiTCH. — " The Growth of Children." Eighth Animal Report of the State Board of Health, Mass. Boston, 1877. 3. Henry H. Donaldson. — "The Growth of the Brain." Scrihner^s, BIBLIOGRAPHY 266 4. Arthur MacDonald. — "Abnormal Man." Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C, 1893, Circular No. 4. 5. Bernard Perez. — "The First Three Years of Child- hood." Kellogg and Co. 6. W. Preyer. — "Mental Development in the Child." Appleton and Co. 7. " School Hygiene." Ginn and Co., 1886. 8. Thomas Barr. — "Investigations as to the Hearing of School Children." British Medical Journal, II, 1889. 9. "Eye Defects in Students and Children." Pedagogical Seminary, V. p. 202. 10. Edward Sequin. — "Idiocy and Its Treatment by the Physiological Method." William Wood & Co. 11. G. E. Shuttleworth. — "Mentally Deficient Children, Their Care and Training." London, H. K. Lewis. 12. James Parton Haney, M. D. — "Monograph, the Hundredth Child." N. Y. C. 13. James Parton Haney, M. D. — "The Education of the Dullard in the Public School." Annals of Gynecology and Pediatry, Boston, 1906. 14. Walter S. Cornell, M. D. — "Backward Children in the Public Schools." F. A. Davis Company, Phila- delphia, 1907. 15. Walter S. Cornell, M. D. — "Eye Strain in School Children." New York Medical Journal, June, 1907. 16. Henderson. — "Dependent, Delinquent and Defective Classes." D. C. Heath & Co. 17. W. W. Ireland. — "The Mental Affections of Child- ren." P, Blakiston's Sons & Co., Philadelphia. 266 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 18. Morrison. — ■ " Juvenile Offenders." Appleton & Co. 19. Barr. — " Mental Defectives." 20. Reports of U. S. Commission of Education at Washing- ton, D. C. 21. Annual Reports of Dr. William H. Maxwell, City Superintendent of Schools, New York City, 1902, 1903, 1905, 1906, 1907. 22. Reports of National Educational Association, Depart- ment of Special Instruction. 1905. "The Physical Betterment of the Mentally De- ficient," Dr. J. H. McKee. "Our Limitations in Educating Mentally De- fective Children," Miss Pogue. "The Schools for the Feeble-minded," E. R. John- stone. "All Crime in Disease," Arthur B. Linsley. 1906. "The Incorrigible Child," Julia Richman, Dis- trict Superintendent of Schools, New York City. "The Examination of the Eyes of School Chil- dren," John C. E. Eberhardt. 1907. "Self-support," Frank M. Driggs. "The Training of the Incorrigible," W. A. Gates. 1908. "The Functions of the Special Class," E. R. Johnstone. "The Public School and the Special Child," Earl Barnes. "The Home and the Special Child," Jane Addams. "The Problems of the Special Class," Elizabeth E. Farrell, BIBLIOGRAPHY 267 "Some Urgent Needs for Advancement in the Education of Mentally Defective Children," Isabelle Thompson Smart, M. D. 23. " The Psychological Clinic." A Journal of Orthogenics for the Study and Treatment of Retardation and Devia- tion. Psychological Clinic Press, Philadelphia. Lightner Witmer, Ph. D., Editor. 24. "The Conservation of the Defective Child," by Marion Hamilton Carter, in McClure's Magazine , June 1909, p. 160-171. iltllllllil LIBRARY OF CONGRESS DD DE553T7m •