Glass 
 Book. 
 
 
 Gopyriglit^^. 
 
 COPyRIGlW DEPOSm 
 
WEEDS 
 
 AND 
 
 HOW TO ERADICATE THEM 
 
 BY 
 
 THOMAS SHAW 
 
 W 
 
 Formerly Professor of Agriculture in the Ontario Agricultural 
 College, Guelph, Ontario. 
 
 THIRD EDITION 
 
 (REVISED) 
 
COPYRIGHT. 1911 
 
 BY 
 
 THE WEBB PUBLISHING CO. 
 
 € CI.A288-982 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The aggregate of loss to the farmer 
 resulting from the extent to which weeds 
 prevail on the average farm is very great. 
 It is equally true that such loss could in a 
 great measure be prevented. That it is 
 not prevented is due not so much to indif- 
 ference on the part of the farmer as to 
 the extent to which the presence of weeds 
 will be tolerated, as to a lack of informa- 
 tion with reference to the most effective 
 methods of fighting them. This book has 
 been written in the hope that it will in 
 some measure supply this need. In this, 
 the third edition, several weeds are included 
 in the discussion that are not considered in 
 the previous editions. Much has also been 
 added with reference to eft'ective methods 
 of eradication based upon recent experi- 
 mentation. 
 
 The author wishes to acknowledge his 
 indebtedness to Hon. Geo. H. Clark, Seed 
 
Commissioner of the Dominion of Canada, 
 for the use of certain cuts contained in 
 this book, which are reproduced from 
 'Tarm Weeds of Canada," and to Profes- 
 sor H. L. Bolley of the North Dakota 
 Experiment Station for the ilkistration of 
 spraying machinery. 
 
 THOMAS SHAW. 
 
 St. Paul, Minn., Feb. 2, 191 1. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Chapter I. 
 The Prevalence of Weeds 7 
 
 Chapter II. 
 The Evils which Arise from the Presence of 
 
 Weeds 13 
 
 Chapter III. 
 The Possibility of Destroying Weeds 21 
 
 Chapter IV. 
 The Agencies Concerned in the Distribution 
 
 and Propagation of Noxious Weeds.. 40 
 
 Chapter V. 
 Methods and Principles Generally Applicable 
 
 in the Destruction of Weeds 58 
 
 Chapter .VI. 
 Specific Modes of Eradicating Weeds of the 
 
 Thistle Family 113 
 
 Chapter VII. 
 Methods of Eradicating Weeds of the Mus- 
 tard Family ^ 149 
 
 Chapter VIII. 
 Eradication of the Weedy Grasses 175 
 
 Chapter IX. 
 Specific Modes of Eradicating Miscellaneous 
 
 Troublesome Weeds 196 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE PREVALENCE OF WEEDS. 
 
 ''Cursed is the ground for thy sake; in 
 sorrow shalt thou eat of it all the days of 
 thy life; thorns also and thistles shall it 
 bring forth to thee ; and thou shalt eat the 
 herb of the field." So reads the doom that 
 was hurled down the centuries from the 
 gates of Eden, when man was ejected from 
 a paradise lost, to earn his bread by the 
 sweat of his brow. From that day to the 
 present weeds have followed in the foot 
 prints of man. He no sooner pitches his 
 tent or builds his more permanent home 
 than they entrench themselves around it. 
 He no sooner commences to till the soil 
 than they commence to dispute its posses- 
 sion with the plants that he sows, and thus 
 they harass and perplex him, and compli- 
 cate all his best devised methods for sub- 
 duing the earth. 
 
 It is true at the same time that in lands 
 that have never been tilled, we find some 
 
8 Weeds. 
 
 weeds, but they are native to the soil, and 
 the number of the species is not only lim- 
 ited, but those which do exist seem unable 
 to multiply to any great extent in the natu- 
 ral surroundings amid which they grow. 
 On the other hand, in lands that have long 
 been cultivated, we frequently find that for- 
 eign varieties of weeds are far more numer- 
 ous and aggressive than the native spe- 
 cies. Regions that have been settled with 
 inhabitants drawn from different countries 
 are peculiarly liable to be infested with the 
 weeds of the various countries from which 
 these inhabitants have come. The seeds of 
 the weeds are imported along with the grain 
 that is brought for sowing, and are intro- 
 duced in various other w^ays. Some of the 
 varieties thus imported do not take kindly 
 to the new conditions, but other sorts, like 
 the people who have brought them, often- 
 times find their new surroundings pre-emi- 
 nently favorable to a greatly increased 
 development. 
 
 The "prevalence of weeds" depends 
 (i) on the number of weed species found 
 in any locality; and (2) on the extent to 
 which these various species are allowed to 
 multiply. 
 
Prevalence of Weeds. 9 
 
 J. The number of weed species. The 
 number of the various species of weeds 
 which infest the different portions of the 
 United States and of the provinces of Can- 
 ada has not yet been accurately determined. 
 The story of their distribution has not yet 
 been fully told, and their number is con- 
 stantly increasing. It would serve no good 
 purpose to enumerate the various species, 
 or even to try to give an approximation of 
 their number. Weeds are probably quite 
 as numerous and varied now in America as 
 in Europe, where it is well known that they 
 have been constantly increasing in number 
 and variety with every passing century. In 
 addition to the noxious weeds of America 
 that are native to the continent, the greater 
 portion of those that have long harassed 
 the inhabitants of Europe are now giving 
 trouble to the inhabitants of America. 
 
 Our most troublesome and aggressive 
 weeds are foreigners. The Canada thistle, 
 which seems so completely at home in the 
 central provinces of the Dominion and the 
 northern portion of the United States, was 
 imported from Europe. The same is true 
 of some varieties of the sow thistle. The 
 wild oat, the ox-eve daisv, the burdock, the 
 
10 Weeds. 
 
 wild mustard, the Russian thistle, the 
 prickly lettuce, the corn cockle and indeed 
 nearly all the various forms of weed life 
 that are greatly troublesome to us, come 
 from a foreign source. Foreign weeds in 
 this country are even more numerous and 
 characteristic than the people who brought 
 them hither, and so they are likely to 
 remain, for weeds, unlike nationalities, do 
 not fuse and blend so as to lose their sev- 
 eral individualities. For some of them, as 
 the Canada thistle, the new conditions have 
 been found so favorable that they flourish 
 to a greater extent than even in the lands 
 whence they came. 
 
 Although the presence of weed life in any 
 form is not desirable, some varieties, as for 
 instance the dandelion, are not greatly 
 harm;ful, while others, as the sow thistle, 
 quack grass and the Canada thistle, if given 
 a chance, will soon render the growing of 
 certain crops quite unprofitable. A large 
 majority of the weeds found in this country 
 may be kept in check by what may be 
 termed good cultivation, that is to say, by 
 such cultivation as is necessary to grow 
 good crops ; but other varieties require spe- 
 cific modes of treatment if, when the 
 
Prevalence of Weeds. ii 
 
 attempt is made to exterminate them, it is 
 to prove successful. Happily the number 
 of varieties of weeds which are really seri- 
 ously harmful to crops and difficult to erad- 
 icate is not very large. In the present state 
 of our knowledge of the subject, it would 
 not be safe to name a definite number which 
 would cover the entire list, nor would it be 
 judicious to do so, as new varieties are com- 
 ing forward all the time. Notwithstand- 
 ing, it would probably be not incorrect to 
 say that at the present time the varieties of 
 really noxious weeds in the United States 
 and Canada do not number more than thirty 
 or forty, and it is greatly encouraging to 
 reflect that we seldom find more than half 
 a dozen kinds entrenched in any one local- 
 ity. 
 
 2. The extent to which weeds have been 
 allozved to multiply. The extent to which 
 certain varieties of noxious weeds have 
 been allowed to multiply is simply alarm- 
 ing. Some of them are, in a sense, taking 
 possession of the land. Notably is this true 
 of "wild mustard, the Canada thistle, and 
 wild oats in the Red River Valley and simi- 
 lar grain-growing sections, of quack grass 
 in some localities, and of wild barley and 
 
12 Weeds. 
 
 the Russian thistle in others. In some sec- 
 tions the seeds of wild mustard are so 
 numerous in the soil that, though no more 
 were allowed to ripen during the present 
 generation, there would probably still be a 
 few left to grow plants for the next genera- 
 tion to destroy. Other varieties than those 
 named are increasing with alarming rapid- 
 ity. Unless some effective measures are 
 taken to destroy them, they will increase 
 more and more, to the great injury of our 
 agriculture. It is surely a stigma on the 
 agriculture of any country and a withering 
 criticism on the defectiveness of the modes 
 of cultivation that are practiced in it, when 
 weeds increase rather than decrease. In 
 the hope of doing something to stay the 
 progress of the great tide of weed invasion 
 and weed aggression, this book has been 
 written. The writer cherishes the hope 
 that every interested reader will exert him- 
 self to the utmost to stay the progress of 
 weed extension by doing his best to utterly 
 annihilate weeds in all their seriously nox- 
 ious forms. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE EVILS WHICH ARISE FROM THE PRESENCE 
 OF WEEDS. 
 
 The evils which arise from the presence 
 of weeds are very many and very great ; so 
 many and so great that it would seem incon- 
 ceivable that any one should be found will- 
 ing to offer an excuse for weeds on the 
 ground of their utility. Nevertheless, we 
 sometimes find persons enlarging on their 
 value for fertilizing purposes, and on their 
 utility in arresting the escape of nitrates 
 from the soil through leaching. It is true 
 that weeds may sometimes be turned to 
 good account in enriching the land, if they 
 are plowed under as a green crop before 
 their seeds mature, but more commonly it 
 will be found far better to sow a crop prop- 
 erly suited to the purpose, and one that will 
 at the same time afford pasture if necessary. 
 A green crop thus sown will also hinder the 
 
14 Weeds. 
 
 escape of nitrates more effectively than a 
 crop of weeds, owing to its greater uni- 
 formity. Whenever weeds grow spontane- 
 ously in sufficient numbers to be of much 
 service in either of the ways named above, 
 they are sure to give trouble to whatever 
 useful crop is grown upon the same land, 
 much more than will offset any advan- 
 tage to be gained from them. 
 
 In good farming weeds should not be 
 tolerated at all, because (i) they rob the 
 useful, cultivated plants of their due share 
 of plant food and moisture; (2) they also 
 injure them by crowding and shading; 
 
 (3) they harbor insects and plant diseases; 
 
 (4) they add greatly to the labor of clean- 
 ing grain for market and for seed ; (5) they 
 frequently interfere with a regular rotation ; 
 and (6) they are usually not of much value 
 as food. To all these things may be added 
 the statement that the longer they are left 
 to grow unchecked, the greater is the work 
 required to completely subdue them. 
 
 /. Weeds rob useful plants of their due 
 share of plant food and moisture. Weeds 
 feed upon precisely the same kinds of food 
 as the useful plants among which thev 
 grow, and they draw heavily upon the avail- 
 
Injuries from Weeds. 15 
 
 able soil moisture. They are often more 
 capable of gathering food and moisture 
 from the soil than the useful crop, as their 
 root systems are usually more vigorous and 
 penetrate to a greater depth. When found 
 growing in a crop, therefore, they deprive 
 either that crop or the crops that come after 
 that one, of precisely that amount of water 
 and plant food which they consume during 
 their period of growth. The quantity of 
 plant food which weeds take from the crops 
 and the soil will be in proportion to the 
 numbers in which they are found. It should 
 not be forgotten that plant food externally 
 applied, often at much cost, as in the case 
 of commercial fertilizers will be utilized by 
 weeds quite as readily as the plant food nat- 
 urally available in the soil itself. 
 
 2. Weeds injure useful plants by crozvd- 
 ing and shading them. When useful plants 
 and weeds commence to grow at the same 
 time, the weeds will nearly always leave 
 the useful plants behind in the race. This 
 is owing to the superior power of gathering 
 plant food which nearly all varieties of 
 weeds possess. When present in a crop, 
 they usually grow more vigorously than the 
 crop itself, and as the latter is intended to 
 
1 6 Weeds. 
 
 grow so thickly that it will require all the 
 room that can be given it to enable it to 
 perfect its growth, it follows that the injury 
 through crowding from weeds will be in 
 proportion to the number and vigor of the 
 weeds. Weeds also grow more quickly 
 than useful plants, hence by their shade 
 they hinder that perfect development of the 
 useful plants which abundant sunlight is 
 necessary to secure. 
 
 5. Weeds harbor injurious insects and 
 plant diseases. Weedy fence rows, waste 
 places, and stubble furnish winter lodgment 
 to the chinch bug and various other injuri- 
 ous insects. Certain weeds, by their dense 
 growth, form an excellent harbor for plant 
 lice. The dense shade formed by a rank 
 growth of weeds furnishes conditions favor- 
 able to the development of rust, mildew, 
 and other plant diseases. Some of the dis- 
 eases of the cabbage, cauliflower, and turnip 
 also occur on the wild mustard and similar 
 plants, and are spread by them. 
 
 4. Weeds add much to the labor of clean- 
 ing grain for market and for seed. Were 
 it not for the presence of weed seeds, it 
 would not be necessary to spend much time 
 in cleaning grain intended for sale. It is 
 
Injuries from Weeds. 17 
 
 evident that grain entirely free from the 
 seeds of weeds always commands, even in 
 the ordinar}^ market, a higher price than 
 grain that is unclean. When grain con- 
 taining weed seeds is put on sale for sow- 
 ing, the depreciation in value is much 
 greater relatively. The seedsman cannot 
 afford to pay good prices for seed grain of 
 any kind if he must spend much time and 
 labor upon it in removing the seeds of nox- 
 ious weeds. Oftentimes it is found impos- 
 sible to completely separate weed seeds from 
 the grain in which they are found by any 
 other process than that of hand-picking. 
 With the farmer, in preparing a crop of 
 any kind for market, this would be simply 
 impossible. All kinds of grain should be 
 considered as unfit for seed, however, so 
 long as any seeds of noxious weeds are 
 found in it. 
 
 The difficulty in removing the seeds of 
 weeds from those of grasses and clovers is 
 much greater than in removing them from 
 the small grains, owing to the greater rela- 
 tive uniformity in the size of the weed seeds 
 and the seeds of the grasses. The labor of 
 the cleaning process, therefore, is also rel- 
 atively greater, and in very many instances 
 
i8 Weeds. 
 
 the cleaning cannot be accomplished by any 
 process. The only possible way of prevent- 
 ing the presence of the seeds of certain nox- 
 ious weeds in many kinds of seed grains, 
 clovers, and grasses, is to prevent them 
 from ripening in the crops which produce 
 thes'£ seeds. 
 
 5. Weeds frequently interfere zvith a reg- 
 ular rotation. Ordinarily, farming cannot 
 be carried on successfully without a regu- 
 lar rotation. This fact is admitted on every 
 hand by the most succ^^sful agriculturists. 
 The nature of the rotation vx^ill depend upon 
 such considerations as relate to the capabil- 
 ities and requirements of the soil, the mar- 
 kets, and the facilities for obtaining supplies 
 of plant food. The fertility of the soil can 
 always be sustained in more even balance 
 when a suitable rotation is practiced. When 
 weeds become numerous in any of the crops 
 of a rotation, they greatly hinder the prof- 
 itable growth of these crops. In some 
 instances, this hindrance may be so great 
 as to render the growth of the crops of the 
 regular rotation quite unprofitable until 
 prompt measures have been taken to remove 
 the weeds. The adoption of these meas- 
 
In Junes from Weeds. 19 
 
 ures may necessitate the growing of such 
 crops for a time as may not be desired. 
 
 6. Weeds are usually not of much value 
 for food. If weeds were of much value as 
 food either for man or beast, there would 
 not be the same necessity for waging 
 against them a war of extermination, but 
 usually they are of no value. When live 
 stock feed upon them, it is generally 
 because of short supplies of their proper 
 food, unless it be when the weeds are very 
 young. Nearly all forms of weed life are 
 possessed of acrid or bitter juices which 
 render them distasteful to live stock, and 
 many of them become so woody at a com- 
 paratively early stage of their growth that 
 they are in consequence left undisturbed. 
 Quack grass, it is true, forms an exception, 
 but quack grass is not more valuable than 
 many other kinds of grass, and when we 
 consider the difficulty found in eradicating 
 It, we cannot regard it in any other ligh't 
 than that of a most troublesome weed. The 
 value of weeds for food is so trifling, com- 
 pared with the mischief which arises from 
 their prevalence, that we ought never to 
 sow them or tolerate their presence for such 
 a use. 
 
20 Weeds. 
 
 Finally, the longer zveeds are left to grow 
 unchecked, the greater is the labor required 
 to completely subdue them. Were it not 
 for the presence of weeds, the art of tilHng 
 the soil would be very much^ simphfied. 
 They are more or less responsible for the 
 introduction of the bare fallow, which is 
 not only costly in respect of time, but also 
 involves much labor. Once get the mas- 
 tery of the more noxious forms of weed 
 life, and the bare fallow is no longer an 
 absolute necessity on any farm, except pos- 
 sibly for the conservation of moisture in 
 the semi-arid districts. Weeds also add 
 greatly to the cost of growing crops which 
 require cultivation, such as corn and roots, 
 as those engaged in raising these crops 
 know very well. It would be impossible 
 even to approximate to the cost of labor 
 expended annually in the destruction of 
 weeds, but it is a very large sum, and one 
 that in many portions of this continent is 
 continually increasing, since the cost of sub- 
 duing weeds must always increase as the 
 weeds themselves increase in number. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE POSSIBILITY OF DESTROYING WEEDS. 
 
 The prevalence of noxious weeds in the 
 United States and Canada is simply alarm- 
 ing. They abound on every hand. In 
 many sections, in one form or another, they 
 flourish in every field and luxuriate in every 
 crop. Gardens, which above all places on 
 the farm should be clean, are literally over- 
 run with them. They occupy the sides of 
 nearly every road throughout the whole 
 continent. To so great an extent do they 
 prevail everywhere that they form one great 
 dark blot upon the boasted progress of the 
 twentieth century, and are a reproach upon 
 its civilization. 
 
 The extent to which weeds prevail in 
 nearly all parts of this continent would 
 lead one to suppose that the farmers had 
 abandoned all efforts to destroy them, and 
 were content to gather from their fields, 
 
22 Weeds. 
 
 in the form of crops, merely what the weeds 
 allowed to grow there. This apathy seems 
 to arise, in part at least, from a lack of 
 belief in the possibility of destroying weeds 
 without incurring so much labor and 
 expense as to make the work unprofitable. 
 As the matter presents itself to the writer, 
 there is not a shadow of a hope that the 
 weeds of this continent will ever be 
 destroyed by the farmers, so long as their 
 complete eradication is looked upon as 
 impossible, or so long as the belief is har- 
 bored that the outlay of labor and expense 
 in completely eradicating them will not be 
 repaid by the greater gains that will be 
 obtained when once their destruction is 
 effected. 
 
 Four propositions are now submitted 
 which bear upon the subject of the com- 
 plete eradication of weeds. So confident 
 is the writer of the soundness of these prop- 
 ositions that he makes them as strongly 
 affirmative as possible. They are as follows : 
 
 (i) The noxious forms of weed life can 
 be completely eradicated on every farm 
 throughout the whole continent if the farm- 
 ers of these farms resolve that it shall be 
 done. 
 
Possibility of Destroying Weeds. 23 
 
 (2) Complete eradication can be effected 
 without heavy outlay, if the work be done 
 in the proper way. 
 
 (3) When weeds are once under control, 
 it will be easily possible, with but little out- 
 lay, to keep them so. 
 
 (4) The profits of farming will be, rela- 
 tively, much larger where farms are kept 
 entirely free from noxious weeds. 
 
 The writer is by no means unconscious of 
 the fact that these propositions will be 
 received doubtfully by some who read them, 
 but he finds comfort in the reflection that 
 they will be distasteful to no one whose 
 heart is really set upon the complete eradi- 
 cation of the noxious weeds that may exist 
 on his own farm,. 
 
 I. The noxious forms of weed life can be 
 completely eradicated on every farm. By 
 the assertion that the more troublesome 
 forms of weed life can be completely erad- 
 icated, it is meant that they can be so effec- 
 tually exterminated that they will practi- 
 cally cease to interfere with any rotation 
 that may be desired. It even implies that 
 they can be completely banished from every 
 farm where the attempt is made, except as 
 their seeds are brought back again by natu- 
 
^4 Weeds. 
 
 ral or other agencies, and that with the 
 necessary watchfulness, the plants which 
 grow from these can in turn be destroyed 
 with but little difficulty. Many persons 
 seem to hold the view that while weeds may 
 be held in check and kept from seriously 
 hindering the growth of crops, they cannot 
 be wholly destroyed. They claim that while 
 weeds may be thus far conquered, never- 
 theless they will come again, and therefore 
 that the hope of eradicating them com- 
 pletely is not to be cherished. Those who 
 hold this view shape their practice accord- 
 ingly. They adopt some method of clean- 
 ing a field that proves fairly successful, and 
 then during the years that immediately fol- 
 low give the same field no further special 
 attention. The consequence is that this 
 field soon again requires to be put through 
 some special cleaning process, owing to 
 the increase of the weeds which were 
 but partially eradicated by the pre- 
 vious one. If this practice were a good 
 one, it would involve the correctness of the 
 untenable theory, that in correcting error 
 and uprooting evil, it is better to do it par- 
 tially rather than wholly. So long as the 
 belief is cherished by those who are most 
 interested, that the complete eradication of 
 
Possibility of Destroying Weeds. 25 
 
 noxious weeds is impossible, so long will 
 weeds continue to prevail. To so great an 
 extent is this belief indulged in that it 
 would probably be found a greater task to 
 correct it in the minds of many farmers 
 than to uproot the weeds themselves from 
 their fields. 
 
 To banish weeds completely from any 
 farm will not only require the wise and dil- 
 igent use of measures of a certain charac- 
 ter, which will be described in succeeding 
 chapters, but when once they are gone, it 
 will also require the most persistent watch- 
 fulness to keep them away. With public 
 sentiment on this subject as it is at present, 
 it will be found impossible to get, those who 
 are most directly interested to act in con- 
 cert in destroying weeds, hence the work of 
 even materially reducing their numbers will 
 necessarily be slow. The work of banish- 
 ing weeds from any country would not of 
 necessity extend over many years if all the 
 farmers of the country would but act 
 together. The spectacle would then be wit- 
 nessed for the first time of an inhabited 
 country without noxious weeds to harass 
 and annoy the tiller of the soil. Because 
 farmers cannot all be persuaded to put forth 
 
26 Weeds. 
 
 the effort to banish weeds from their prem- 
 ises, no one engaged in agriculture should 
 refrain from doing all that he possibly can 
 to bring about this result. Though our 
 neighbors should not now believe in the 
 possibility of being able to banish noxious 
 weeds from their farms, if our own farms 
 are made clean and kept clean, the evidence 
 thus presented will in time have its due 
 measure of influence. 
 
 2. The complete eradication of noxious 
 zveeds can be effected zuithout heavy outlay 
 if the work be done in a proper way. To 
 argue the truth of this proposition in an 
 abstract, theoretical fashion w^ould be to 
 spend time to but little purpose. It w^ould 
 not succeed in winning many converts to 
 the truth. Those who cherish the belief in 
 reference to weeds that "the thing that 
 hath been is that which shall be" cannot be 
 reached by any such line of reasoning. The 
 evidence of actual accomplishment is the 
 only testimony which they will not be 
 inclined to reject. Evidence of this kind 
 is not very plentiful, as our farmer readers 
 must know very well. Therefore, because 
 of the lack of the necessary data from other 
 sources bearing upon the cost of cleaning 
 
Possibility of Destroying Weeds. 27 
 
 farms from weeds, the writer must fall 
 back upon his own experience, and use as 
 evidence the work that was accomplished at 
 the Ontario Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
 tion at Guelph from the time it came under 
 his supervision in the autumn of 1888. 
 
 At that time the farm was not in a clean 
 condition. The Canada thistle prevailed to 
 a greater or less extent over the whole of 
 it. In some of the fields the spring grain 
 crops were so infested with this pest that 
 they had to be cut in the green stage to pre- 
 vent the maturing of thistles in countless 
 numbers. In several of the fields, ox-eye 
 daisies spangled meadows and pastures 
 with a glory all their own. The yellow 
 blossoms of the wild mustard lent variety to 
 the foliage of every field, and in some fields 
 their beauty was painfully profuse. Bur- 
 docks revelled among the stones that were 
 strewn along the numerous fence borders. 
 Wheat-thief and false flax were plentifully 
 sprinkled in some localities, while in others 
 the sow thistle had obtained a firm and men- 
 acing footing. Quack grass had monopo- 
 lized more than one field. Ragweed was 
 plentifully strewn over one or two fields. 
 Bindweed had taken possession of small 
 
28 Weeds. 
 
 areas here and there, and blueweed had 
 fixed its firm grip on some of the pastures. 
 Here, then, was a capital opportunity for 
 experiment in the eradication of noxious 
 weeds. 
 
 It would not be correct to say that any 
 one of these varieties of weed life was com- 
 pletely eradicated in the five years from 
 that time till this little book was first 
 written. A few stragglers still survived 
 from year to year, but these, in nearly all 
 instances, came from the seeds which were 
 in the soil ready to spring into vigor- 
 ous existence when favorable conditions 
 occurred for them. It may be said in all 
 fairness, however, that none of these vari- 
 ous forms of weed life were present in suf- 
 ficient numbers to cause serious annoyance 
 to cultivation or real injury to the crops. 
 
 To estimate with absolute precision the 
 cost of bringing this Station Farm into the 
 condition of cleanliness indicated would 
 probably be an impossible task, owing to 
 the many complications that arise in fixing 
 the proportion of the outlay that should be 
 charged to the growing of the crops and 
 to the eradication of the weeds respectively. 
 The utmost that can be hoped for is an 
 
Possibility of Destroying Weeds. 2g 
 
 approximation to the real cost. Such an 
 approximate estimate was made and pub- 
 lished in the Annual Report of the Ontario 
 Agricultural College and Experimental 
 Farm for 1891, pp. 51 and 52. No better 
 course, probably, can be adopted here than 
 to make a quotation from the Farm Depart- 
 ment portion of this report, prepared by the 
 writer. The subject in hand is therein dis- 
 cussed in the following language: 
 
 "The question of the cost of cleaning this 
 farm will doubtless be raised by the enquir- 
 ing mind, and it is well that it should be. 
 In reference to this, I desire to say that I 
 am satisfied that the only outlay for which 
 there was no direct return was that paid 
 for hand spudding. The hoed crops would 
 certainly all pay for the cost of producing 
 them. On much of the land, two crops 
 were grown each year during the cleaning 
 process. On the land gang-plowed after 
 harvest, compensation for the outlay was 
 frequently obtained in the catch crops 
 grown. I regret that no account was kept 
 of the exact amount expended for hand 
 spudding in 1889. In 1890 the time spent 
 in spudding was 498^ hours by one per- 
 son, which, at $1.25 per day of ten hours, 
 
30 Weeds. 
 
 would amount to $62.3 ij^. In 1891 the 
 time thus spent upon the farm amounted 
 to 489 hours, which would cost $61.12^/2. 
 For the two years, then, the outlay for 
 spudding was $123.44. This does not 
 include spudding on the road. On the 
 supposition that as much was expended in 
 spudding in the year 1889 as in the two fol- 
 lowing years, and this estimate is certainly 
 a liberal one, the whole outlay for spudding 
 in the three years would not be more than 
 $250.00. Now, suppose the 400 acres, or 
 thereabouts, of arable and pasture land on 
 this farm had been cleaned by the process 
 of the bare fallow during these three years, 
 that is to say, one-third of it each year, the 
 cost of hired labor of man and team, with 
 rental of land added, in the absence of crop, 
 would have been from $3,200 to $4,000. 
 This calculation is based on the assumption 
 that the cost of the bare fallow, when all 
 the labor is hired and the rental of the land 
 included, would be fully $8.00 to $10.00 per 
 acre." 
 
 When the work of the bare fallow is 
 done by the farmer, it will not, of course, 
 be nearly so costly to the person doing it as 
 when the labor of man and team is hired ; 
 
Possibility of Destroying Weeds, 31 
 
 but in whatever way it may be done, it will 
 cost several times more per acre than the 
 sum actually paid per acre for spudding 
 during the three years in which the Onta- 
 rio Agricultural Experiment Station at 
 Guelph was being freed from weeds. 
 
 J. When noxious zveeds are once eradi- 
 cated, it will he easily possible, with but 
 little outlay, to keep them in check. This 
 proposition is so reasonable that it should 
 scarcely require any argument to demon- 
 strate its correctness. Nevertheless, it is 
 one which runs strangely counter to popu- 
 lar opinion. We find many ready to say 
 that the task is a hopeless one, that weeds 
 will continue to come through all time, and 
 that to keep them completely under control 
 will be found a process costly out of all 
 proportion to the benefits accruing. That 
 noxious weeds, even when once eradicated, 
 will come again is certainly true, and that 
 they will keep coming is equally true, but 
 that it will cost more to keep them wholly 
 banished than only partially banished is 
 altogether illogical. 
 
 Such reasoning would involve the unten- 
 able assumption that when weeds are plen- 
 tiful they are relatively easier to fight than 
 
32 . Weeds. 
 
 when they are few, and that while it would 
 be a wise and commendable course to 
 reduce the number of weeds on a farm, 
 there is a limit beyond which further reduc- 
 tion ought not to go. 
 
 If a farm that is very dirty can be made 
 partially clean with advantage to the 
 farmer, it seems reasonable to think that 
 to go a step farther and to render it alto- 
 gether clean would be a still greater advan- 
 tage, and that if a farm can be partially 
 cleaned and yield profit to the owner, this 
 profit will not only be correspondingly 
 greater if the farm be perfectly cleaned, 
 but that the labor and cost of maintaining 
 cleanliness will continually decrease with 
 the increasing perfection of the cleanliness. 
 
 It may be well to state here that the term 
 ''clean," as applied to freedom from the 
 presence of noxious weeds on farms, is 
 necessarily used" in this work in a relative 
 sense. So long as weed seeds are carried 
 from place to place by means of such agen- 
 cies as birds, waters, and winds, we shall 
 never be able to say that a farm is abso- 
 lutely clean. Though one year it were to 
 be made perfectly free from noxious weeds, 
 the following year a number of weeds 
 
Possibility of Destroying Weeds. 33 
 
 would probably grow from seeds brought 
 by some one or other of the various 'agen- 
 cies concerned in weed distribution. When, 
 therefore, a farm is spoken of as clean in 
 this work, it is meant ( i ) that it is so free 
 from noxious weeds that they do practi- 
 cally no injury to the crops that may be 
 grown upon it; and (2) that such weeds as 
 are found upon it are so few in number 
 that one can remove by hand or with the 
 spud, in one day of ten working hours, all 
 of them found growing in any ten acres of 
 the farm. Such a definition may seem arbi- 
 trary, but since absolute freedom from nox- 
 ious weeds is not, at any rate for the pres- 
 ent, to be looked for, some definition seemed 
 necessary to prevent misconception. A def- 
 inition was chosen, therefore, within rea- 
 sonable reach of attainment, and such as 
 would serve all practical purposes. The 
 mode of securing and maintaining the 
 above-defined degree of cleanliness will be 
 described in subsequent chapters. 
 
 To show that the work of maintaining 
 cleanliness is not necessarily expensive, it 
 will be sufficient to quote again from the 
 Report of the Ontario Agricultural College 
 
34 Weeds. 
 
 and Experimental Farm for 1891. On 
 page 52, the following statements are made : 
 "It may not be amiss here to venture two 
 or three remarks that are general in their 
 nature in reference to cleaning farms. I 
 desire to say, fi^rst, that it is my firm con- 
 viction that the farmers of this province 
 may have clean farms if they so desire it; 
 second, that farms may be cleaned without 
 great outlay, and ordinarily without resort- 
 ing to the bare fallow ; and, third, that when 
 farms are thus cleaned the work of keeping 
 them clean will not be difficult, providing 
 due vigilance is exercised. When a field 
 is cleaned, it can easily be kept clean by the 
 use of the spud and autumn cultivation, in 
 addition to the cultivation necessary to the 
 production of the crops grown. When 
 thus cleaned, the hand spudding, essential 
 in keeping fields clean of weeds, should not 
 be more than $25.00 per year for 100 acres. 
 We expect to keep this farm clean hence- 
 forth at an outlay of not more than $75.00 
 per annum, over and above the ordinary 
 outlay required in good cultivation. This 
 estimate includes private roads, fence bor- 
 ders, unbroken pastures, and by-places." 
 
Possibility of Destroying Weeds. 35 
 
 Some of the statements in the quotation 
 just given may appear extravagant, even 
 to practical men. The idea of bringing 
 farms into a clean condition and then keep- 
 ing them so seems to be entertained by so 
 small a number that those who advocate 
 such views will be looked upon by many as 
 enthusiasts. The writer feels free to say, 
 however, that this opinion is not the view 
 of a mere enthusiast, and no man should 
 regard it as such until he has first honestly 
 made the attempt to clean his own farm on 
 the lines laid down in this book, and found 
 that he cannot profitably do so. This opin- 
 ion, it may be added, is sustained by the 
 experience of 1892 in the management of 
 the Ontario Agricultural Experiment- Sta- 
 tion at Guelph. An accurate account was 
 kept of the time spent in hand spudding 
 that year. It amounted to 512 hours, 
 which, at $1.25 per day of ten hours, cost 
 but $64.00, a sum considerably less than 
 $25.00 per 100 acres. And this cost includes 
 the entire work done in the way indicated 
 on "private roads, fence borders, unbroken 
 pastures, and by-places," in addition to that 
 expended on the cultivable portions. 
 
36 Weeds. 
 
 4. The profits of farming will he rela- 
 tively much larger zvhere farms are kept 
 entirely free from noxious weeds. The 
 correctness of the proposition here made 
 will surely be apparent to the reflective 
 mind, but if proof is wanted, it is easily 
 found. 
 
 Since weeds feed upon identically the 
 same food as useful plants, it follows that 
 where the former take up a portion of the 
 plant food there will be just that much less 
 for the crops in which the weeds grow. 
 Where weeds are more numerous in a crop 
 than the plants of the crop, much more of 
 plant food is used by the weeds than by the 
 crop, for weeds are more ravenous feeders 
 than useful plants. Moreover, through the 
 crowding and shading by weeds of the crop 
 plants, crops are very much injured, as was 
 stated in a previous chapter. Here, too, 
 the injury will be in proportion to the num- 
 ber and strength of the weeds, and crop- 
 yields will be correspondingly diminished. 
 The view has been advocated that some- 
 times noxious weeds should not be cut down 
 in pastures, for the reason that they encour- 
 age the growth of grasses, inasmuch as 
 thev furnish shade to them. This would 
 
Possibility of Destroying Weeds. 37 
 
 be equivalent to saying that grasses robbed 
 of nutriment by overshadowing v^eeds, and 
 grown in the absence of sunhght, would be 
 more abundant and nutritious than grasses 
 occupying the ground alone. Such argu- 
 ment should be consigned to a deeper shade 
 than the rankest weeds can possibly furnish. 
 Again, weeds growing in crops increase 
 the labor of handling the crops, and to no 
 useful purpose. Here, too, the increase in 
 labor will be in proportion to the extent to 
 . which the weeds are present, and with all 
 increase in labor that is not followed by a 
 corresponding return, there must be a 
 decrease in the profits. Weeds increase the 
 labor of harvesting the crops amid which 
 they grow, whether these are cereal or cul- 
 tivated crops. Grain crops are much more 
 difficult to reap where weeds abound, since 
 the latter are more branching in their hab- 
 its of growth than cereal plants, are more 
 woody in fibre, and are of greater height 
 proportionately — the latter characteristic 
 resulting from a tendency to a more pro- 
 longed state of greenness in some portions 
 of the plants. Cultivated crops are much 
 more difficult to harvest where weeds 
 abound, since weeds frequently hinder free- 
 
38 Weeds. 
 
 dom of locomotion on the part of the work- 
 men, impede the working of the implements 
 used, and increase the difficulty of hand- 
 ling the crop. Moreover, weeds materially 
 increase the difficulty of curing both cereal 
 and grass crops by prolonging the curing 
 period, and in proportion as this period is 
 prolonged, the liability to loss from adverse 
 weather is increased. 
 
 When weeds become so numerous as to 
 disturb the regular rotation, they necessa- 
 rily interfere with the profits that would 
 otherwise accrue. A disturbed rotation 
 generally leads to the growing of some crop 
 that is less desirable than that usually 
 grown. This, in turn, may lead to dis- 
 turbed market relations, a greater necessity 
 for the purchase of artificial fertilizers, and 
 even of certain farm foods that may be 
 wanted, and to various other evils, some of 
 which have been mentioned in Chapter II. 
 
 The labor required in cleaning the ground 
 from weeds increases with the increase of 
 the weeds, and the farm profits are there- 
 fore to that extent reduced. More partic- 
 ularly is this the case in growing cultivated 
 crops. With the multiplication of weeds 
 hand labor especially is increased, because 
 
Possibility of Destroying Weeds. 39 
 
 more labor is required to remove weeds 
 from the line of the rows, and the hand 
 labor thus employed is always relatively 
 more expensive than horse labor. Because 
 of this, the untenable conclusion has been 
 reached by some that in America it will 
 not pay to grow crops which require hand 
 labor to keep them clean. The labor of 
 cleaning by other modes, such as the bare 
 fallow, is also increased as weeds multiply, 
 and this increase of labor not only results 
 from the greater frequency with which the 
 bare fallow would have to be resorted to by 
 those who practice it, but also from the 
 thoroughness with which the bare fallow 
 would have to be managed to make it effec- 
 tive when weeds are plentiful, to say noth- 
 ing of the loss that is occasioned by the 
 greater frequency of the seasons when 
 crops can not be grown because of the land 
 lying idle in bare fallow. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE AGENCIES CONCERNED IN THE DISTRI- 
 BUTION AND PROPAGATION OF NOXIOUS 
 WEEDS. 
 
 The means or agencies concerned in the 
 distribution and propagation of noxious 
 weeds are chiefly the following : seed grain, 
 grass seed, clover seed, etc. ; farm live 
 stock ; purchased feed stufifs ; farmyard 
 manures; packing-cases, crates, etc., that 
 have been used for the carriage of goods; 
 road and farm vehicles, etc. ; implements of 
 tillage ; thrashing machines ; railways ; birds ; 
 wild animals ; waters ; winds ; and the inher- 
 ent powers of the weeds themselves. Some 
 of these means or agencies are entirely 
 under the farmer's control, as the last men- 
 tioned ; some of them are but partially under 
 his control — that is, as far as weed distri- 
 bution is concerned — as the vehicles that 
 pass along his roads or are used upon his 
 
Distribution and Propagation. 41 
 
 farm ; and some are entirely beyond his 
 control, as waters and winds. These vari- 
 ous means or agencies will now be consid- 
 ered in the order in which they have been 
 mentioned. 
 
 J. Seed grain, grass seed,' clover seed, 
 etc. By no other agency, perhaps, are 
 weeds so widely and so generally distributed 
 as by the grain seed, grass seed, and clover 
 seed used by the farmer, more especially 
 the two latter. Carrying facilities are now 
 so complete that seed intended for sowing 
 can be brought from great distances to be 
 sold in any market where there is a demand 
 for it. This is particularly true of the less 
 bulky and lighter sorts of seeds. Owing 
 to the ready means which are thus afforded 
 for obtaining supplies of these seeds, there 
 is a tendency in those districts where fair 
 yields are not commonly obtained to pur- 
 chase them from distant parts rather than 
 to raise them at home. The demand thus 
 sustained encourages the growth of the 
 various sorts of seeds in those centers that 
 are found most suitable for them. Unfor- 
 tunately, those centers which are generally 
 possessed of unusual fertility oftentimes 
 produce the seeds of hurtful weeds quite 
 
42 Weeds. 
 
 as freely as those of the useful clovers, 
 grasses, and grains; and owing, in very 
 many instances, to their similarity in size 
 to the useful seeds in which they are found 
 (especially in grass or clover seeds), it is 
 almost impossible, by any process of clean- 
 ing that may be adopted, to separate the 
 seeds of weeds from the useful seeds which 
 are intended for sowing. The distribution, 
 therefore, of these weed seeds is as wide as 
 that of the useful seeds in which they are 
 found, and, it may be added, is as continu- 
 ous. The seeds of millets are also a fruit- 
 ful agency for the dissemination of weed 
 seeds, though not perhaps to the same 
 extent as are seeds that are smaller. 
 
 Renewing the stock of small graiias by 
 the purchase of new seed, or by the 
 exchange for seed grown by others, is a 
 common practice among farmers, and it has 
 many things to commend it; but along with 
 the new seed there too frequently comes an 
 influx of the seeds of the most troublesome 
 weeds. Although this is a less fruitful 
 source of weed-seed dissemination than that 
 which has just been spoken of, it furnishes 
 the explanation of the arrival upon our 
 farms of many forms of weeds, the pres- 
 
Distribution and Propagation. 43 
 
 ence of which we could not otherwise 
 account for. 
 
 Moreover, farmers sometimes test by 
 local trial the suitability of the various sorts 
 of farm seeds that are to be obtained in 
 foreign countries. This work has its dan- 
 gers as well as its benefits. In the old 
 world, as in the new, it is almost impos- 
 sible to buy seed in the open market entirely 
 free from the seeds of foul weeds. When 
 foreign seeds are distributed through the 
 medium of our agricultural experiment sta- 
 tions, a considerable degree of assurance is 
 furnished the farmer that he will get pure 
 seed ; but it would probably be claiming too 
 much for those stations to say that, even 
 when the farmer takes this precaution, there 
 would be no danger. As long as farm 
 seeds are bought in the open market, there 
 will be some danger that the seeds of nox- 
 ious weeds will be brought to our farms by 
 means of them. 
 
 2. Farm live stock. Very frequently weed 
 seeds are introduced upon a farm by being 
 carried in the hair or wool of live stock 
 brought from other localities. Sometimes 
 the weed seeds cluster about the hair of the 
 mane and tail. When the animals are given 
 
44 Weeds. 
 
 the freedom of a pasture, or, as is some- 
 times the case, the freedom of the farm, 
 these seeds lose their hold, and, dropping 
 to the ground, begin at once to grow and 
 multiply. If a flock of sheep were bought 
 in a locality where weeds abounded, and 
 were brought to a clean farm, and there 
 hurdled in a corner of a field while they 
 were being tagged, the number and vari- 
 ety o£the weeds that would be found grow- 
 ing in that spot the next season would be 
 surprising. The writer can testify to the 
 correctness of this statement from personal 
 experience and observation. 
 
 Again, live stock distribute the seeds of 
 various sorts of weeds by means of their 
 droppings. This mode of weed distribu- 
 tion, though somewhat local, is very com- 
 mon, and should be borne in mind when 
 removing cattle from fields infested with 
 noxious weeds to other portions of the 
 farm which, as yet, may not be infested 
 with them. 
 
 J. Purchased feed stuffs. Weeds are 
 very frequently introduced into new locali- 
 ties by being carried in the feed stuffs that 
 are brought from distant places to sup- 
 plement the food that is grown upon the 
 
 i 
 
Distribution and Propagation. 45 
 
 farm when local supplies run short. More 
 especially is this likely to be the case in those 
 localities where dairying or the fattening of 
 live stock is carried on extensively. Weed 
 seeds have long been thus distributed in 
 both grains and fodders; but only locally, 
 until recently, in the latter, owing to the 
 difficulty which has existed of transporting 
 fodder long distances. Now that fodders 
 are baled for ease of transport, v\^eed seeds 
 are carried long distances in them as v\^ell 
 as in grains. Indeed, fodders are nov^ a 
 more dangerous means of weed distribu- 
 tion even than grains, since fodders are 
 usually fed without being subjected to 
 steaming, while grains may be steamed or 
 ground before they are fed, for the pur- 
 pose of destroying the vitality of such weed 
 seeds as may be found in them. Persons 
 who purchase mill screenings which have 
 not first been ground or crushed, and who 
 feed them without steaming or grinding 
 are certain to bring noxious weed seeds to 
 their farms in countless numbers. 
 
 4. Farmyard manures. Weeds are dis- 
 tributed in countless numbers by the agency 
 of barnyard manures, a fact which farmers 
 generally know very well. More especially 
 
46 Weeds. 
 
 are they distributed by means of the man- 
 ures which are purchased in towns and 
 cities, owing to the various sources from 
 which the feed stuffs which are used in 
 these places often come. The purchaser 
 of feed stuffs in towns and cities has not 
 the same interest in looking into the purity 
 of what he buys as the farmer; hence it 
 would probably be exceptional to find the 
 manure obtained from him entirely free 
 from the seeds of foul weeds. Although 
 manure is one of the most common agen- 
 cies by which weeds are distributed, the 
 weeds that are distributed by means of 
 manure are likely to be local in character, 
 rather than distant and foreign. 
 
 5. Packing-eases, crates, etc., that have 
 been used for the carriage of goods. Nox- 
 ious weed seeds are frequently introduced 
 into new localities by means of the straw or 
 chaiT in which goods have been packed for 
 shipment. The packing-cases which have 
 held the goods during transport are often 
 purchased by farmers for other uses. When 
 these are brought home by the purchasers, 
 the packing material is thoughtlessly emp- 
 tied out upon the manure heap or thrown 
 aside, the weed seeds which it contains are 
 
Distrihiition and Propagation. 47 
 
 then given opportunity to produce plants 
 in centers perhaps hundreds or thousands 
 of miles distant from the nearest point 
 where any of the same species may be 
 growing. In this fact we find an explana- 
 tion of the sudden appearance of weeds in 
 new centers where their presence otherwise 
 would be hard to account for; and this is 
 more especially true of sections in proxim- 
 ity to cities. 
 
 As a similar method of weed distribu- 
 tion, it may be mentioned that in the days 
 of early settlement, travelers used to carry 
 many weed seeds in the provender that they 
 brought with them for their horses, and 
 which the animals ate by the road sides, or 
 wherever convenient; and the same state- 
 ment is true of the pioneer settlers of the 
 Northwest, who thus often introduced 
 weed seeds into their allotments before they 
 sowed their first crop. 
 
 6. Road and farm vehicles. Noxious 
 weed seeds are frequently brought to farms 
 by the wheels of vehicles which have been 
 driven 'along the highway. The spread of 
 ragweed furnishes a familiar example of 
 this sort of weed distribution. The seeds 
 of this weed, and also of others that grow 
 
48 Weeds. 
 
 along the public roads, are carried in the 
 mud and dirt and dust that cling to the 
 wheels of every passing vehicle, and in 
 this way they are brought onto the farm. 
 Sometimes they are thus conveyed for 
 miles, not merely by the vehicles used by 
 the farmer himself, but also by those 
 belonging to others ; from this sort of inva- 
 sion the farmer is, in a sense, powerless to 
 protect himself. In a similar manner, weed 
 seeds are also conveyed from one part of 
 the farm to another. 
 
 /.Implements of tillage. Weeds are, to 
 a considerable extent, distributed by the 
 ordinary implements of farm tillage, to 
 which they cling during the various pro- 
 cesses of cultivation. While this is true to 
 some extent of all kinds of weeds, it is 
 more especially true of those weeds which 
 multiply by means of creeping root-stocks. 
 These root-stocks readily cling to the plow, 
 harrow, or cultivator, and are thus carried 
 from one portion of a field to another, or 
 even from one field to another; and thus 
 new centers of distribution are constantly 
 being established. This is especially true 
 when the ground is so damp that it tends 
 to stick to the implements used. Seeds or 
 
Distribution and t^ropagatwn. 49 
 
 root-stocks embedded in the earth that is 
 thus carried from place to place are depos- 
 ited in new centers, where they spring up 
 to carry on the work of further multipli- 
 cation. The distributing power of the 
 implements of tillage under favorable con- 
 ditions furnishes us with one explanation 
 of the rapid multiplication in our fields of 
 such weeds as quack grass and the Canada 
 thistle, when once these pests have obtained 
 a footing in them. 
 
 8. Thrashing machines. Thrashing ma- 
 chines, during the season in which they 
 are used, are continually bearing the seeds 
 of noxious weeds from farm to farm, and 
 from district to district ; for at every thrash- 
 ing, if weed seeds are present at all, some 
 of them are sure to become lodged in the 
 various parts of the machines, and to 
 remain long enough to be carried away. 
 In this manner, from year to year, a very 
 general local distribution is sure to be 
 effected of every form . of noxious weed 
 which matures its seeds in a grain crop. 
 Farms that are managed in the best man- 
 ner often become thus infected with noxious 
 weed life. 
 
50 w eeas. 
 
 p. Railzvays. Railways seem to be a 
 wonderfully effective agency in the distri- 
 bution of weeds, by means of the fodder 
 supplied to the horses and other animals 
 used in constructing them, and the bedding 
 of cars in which live stock is carried. The 
 litter with which these cars are suppHed 
 frequently contains noxious weed seeds ; 
 these, falling to the ground, grow in the 
 soil along the track and commence to repro- 
 duce their kind. A third explanation is 
 found in the fact that oftentimes the weed 
 seeds contained in the grain that is being 
 shipped escape through leaks in the cars 
 and fall to the sides of the track, where they 
 often find conditions quite suitable to their 
 germination. In these and other ways, the 
 railways of the country have become largely 
 responsible for the introduction of new and 
 troublesome weeds into localities where pre- 
 viously they were unknown. 
 
 10. Birds. Birds carry weed seeds to 
 great distances. A sprig of a plant on 
 which the seeds have not left the capsules 
 in which they grew is caught up by a bird 
 and carried to some distant place where 
 the food which its seeds afford can be 
 enjoyed without molestation. Some of the 
 
Dtstrivution and Propagation. 51 
 
 seeds thus carried fall by the way, and 
 start new centers of weed distribution. The 
 instinct for nest-building not infrequently 
 leads to similar results. In this fact we 
 find an explanation of the unexpected 
 appearance of weeds along the edges of 
 forests, and in other localities where the 
 soil has never been subjected to cultivation. 
 
 //. Wild animals. Certain wild animals 
 are the local distributors of weeds, for, 
 being fond of a varied diet, they include 
 the seeds of certain weeds in their list of 
 desirable foods. Sometimes they bury or 
 store away weed seeds when layng up their 
 winter's supply. They also use the foli- 
 age and stems of weeds in building their 
 lairs or nests. When gathering these, they 
 sometimes attempt to carry loads which are 
 more than they can manage, and so leave 
 a part upon the way, for which they may 
 not return. The seeds that are thus dis- 
 tributed here and there on the soil, or are 
 dropped at the mouth of the burrow, or left 
 unconsumed in the nest, spring at length 
 into vigorous life, and commence again the 
 work of weed distribution. 
 
 12. Waiters. Few agencies are more 
 potent in the distribution of the seeds of 
 
52 Weeds. 
 
 weeds, especially of such seeds as float read- 
 ily, than water. When the valleys are del- 
 uged by heavy rains, or when they are 
 turned into streams or rivers by the melt- 
 ing of the snows, such weed seeds are car- 
 ried in countless numbers to lower levels, 
 on the soil of which they are deposited 
 when the waters recede. A fresh seeding is 
 in this way scattered from year to year 
 over the surfaces that are thus exposed. 
 At present, there is no effectual protection 
 from this sort of invasion. So long as care- 
 less farmers on the higher grounds allow 
 the seeds of noxious weeds to ripen annu- 
 ally on their fields, so long will the farniers 
 on the lower levels have weed seeds strewn 
 upon their fields in countless numbers. The 
 only remedy is for the law in some way to 
 intervene and compel the careless farmer to 
 cease troubling, in this most reprehensible 
 way, his unoffending neighbor. 
 
 /J. Winds. Some forms of weed life 
 are widely distributed through the agency 
 of winds. This is especially true of those 
 weeds, the seeds of which have downy 
 attachments that enable them to rise in the 
 air when they are fully matured. Happily 
 for the agriculturist, many of the seeds so 
 
Distribution and Propagation. 53 
 
 endowed do not grow for lack of proper 
 fertilization; but enough are fertilized to 
 give the farmer much trouble. Hence many 
 sorts of weeds are continually finding their 
 way to new centers, to which they have a 
 passage as silent as it is free. Some of 
 these downy travelers are able to sustaui 
 their flight to incredible distances; others, 
 on account of their greater weight, are car- 
 ried but for short distances. It should cer- 
 tainly fill us with some concern to reflect 
 that the winds while purifying the atmos- 
 phere, are also engaged, especially in cer- 
 tain seasons of the year, in scattering every- 
 where the seeds of many exceedingly 
 troublesome weeds. While it is greatly 
 important that no form of noxious weed 
 should ever be allowed to mature its seed, 
 it is doubly so in the case of weeds, the 
 seeds of which are able to rise in the air. 
 
 Winds distribute the seeds of weeds by 
 their driving as well as by their car- 
 rying power. The seeds of some weeds 
 remain in their capsules long after their 
 season of growth is over ; in some instances 
 even until the approach of spring. These 
 are often shaken out by the force of the 
 winter winds, and are driven incredibly 
 
54 Weeds. 
 
 long distances, till at length they find a rest- 
 ing place. Then, when spring arrives, they 
 begin their work of reproduction. 
 
 In the carrying and driving power of the 
 wind, we find an explanation of what would 
 otherwise be difficult of solution, namely, 
 the sudden appearance of weeds in count- 
 less numbers in areas which have been 
 broken for the first time, or from which 
 the forests have been but recently removed. 
 In some instances, the weeds appear in 
 numbers so s:reat that for a time thev form 
 the principal product of the soil. It is this 
 phenomenon which has given rise to the 
 baseless opinion, still cherished by many, 
 that weeds originate spontaneously, spring- 
 ing into life without a seed germ, or else 
 that they grow from seed which has been 
 for ages lying in the soil. 
 
 14. Inherent powers of the weeds them- 
 selves. Weeds also spread and distribute 
 themselves by means of what may be 
 termed their own inherent powers ; that is 
 to say, by ripening seeds which are shed 
 on the ground around the parent stem, or 
 by means of creeping root-stocks. By the 
 former method, whole families are often 
 reproduced around one parent stem in a 
 
Distribution and Propagation. 55 
 
 single season ; and by the latter many weeds 
 are continually spreading and occupying 
 wider and wider areas. These powers of 
 reproduction enable weeds to multiply rap- 
 idly, without the aid of any of the agencies 
 previously mentioned, when once they have 
 been brought into new centers by one or 
 another of these agencies. 
 
 With the agencies that have been men- 
 tioned continually engaged in the work of 
 weed distribution, and also with others that 
 have not been mentioned, the task of the 
 eradication of weeds at first thought seems 
 appalling. While the power of weeds to 
 multiply and spread is very great, the power 
 of man to destroy them is greater, unless 
 this limitless power is allowed to pass unu- 
 tilized with the rush of crowding oppor- 
 tunities. While it is true that there can 
 be no discharge in this war, it is equally 
 true that there can be no defeat for the 
 resolute tiller of the soil who persistently 
 and constantly strives to keep his farm 
 clean. 
 
 It has already been mentioned that over 
 some of these agencies of weed distribu- 
 tion we can exercise but little or no control. 
 These are the agencies of nature — as wind 
 
56 Weeds. 
 
 and water, and such other agencies as wild 
 animals and birds. So far as these are con- 
 cerned, we must submit to the inevitable, 
 and fight them, when we are subjected to 
 their influence, as best we may. Our 
 resource here is to kill the weeds as soon 
 as possible after they appear, or at least 
 before they mature their seeds. 
 
 Where the agencies are but partially 
 under our control, as implements of tillage 
 or thrashing machines, our duty is, by 
 watchfulness, patience, and care, to control 
 the agencies so far as we have power. The 
 judicious exercise of this control will always 
 be found easier than the eradication of the 
 weeds which they have been allowed to 
 bring to us. 
 
 When the agencies are practically com- 
 pletely under our control, as that of the 
 inherent power of the weed plant to ripen 
 its own seeds, or to spread itself by means 
 of creeping root-stocks, the measure of the 
 persistency of our efforts to defeat this 
 power will be the measure of the time 
 required to effect complete extermination. 
 If weeds multiply upon our farms by the 
 shedding of their seeds, it is because we 
 allow them to do so; and if they multiply 
 
Distribution and Propagation. 57 
 
 by means of lateral root extension, it is 
 because we do not use the resources 
 which we have at command to pre- 
 vent this extension. The farmers who 
 tolerate either of these methods of weed 
 distribution will never have clean farms. 
 We sympathize with the man of scrip- 
 ture in whose fields, when he slept, 
 the enemy sowed tares ; but he deserves no 
 sympathy who negligently allows weeds to 
 ripen their seeds upon his farm, or to prop- 
 agate themselves by means of root exten- 
 sion. Such a man is indifferent to his own 
 true interests, for he allows voracious 
 intruders from year to year to prey upon 
 the sources of his own prosperity. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 METHODS AND PRINCIPLES GENERALLY 
 
 APPLICABLE IN THE DESTRUCTION OF 
 
 WEEDS. 
 
 In the conflict with weeds, there are cer- 
 tain general methods and principles which 
 are applicable in a greater or less degree 
 for the destruction of all weeds ; and there 
 are also certain specific modes of treatment 
 which apply only to the eradication of par- 
 ticular sorts of weeds. In the present chap- 
 ter we shall consider the general methods 
 and principles applicable in weed destruc- 
 tion, and in the following chapters treat of 
 the specific modes which are applicable only 
 in particular cases. 
 
 The general methods and principles 
 applicable in weed destruction which, in 
 the writer's opinion, are of the most conse- 
 quence, may be described as follows : 
 
Methods of Eradication. 59 
 
 (i) The persistent and careful study of 
 the habits of growth of aU the various sorts 
 of weeds with which one's farm is infested, 
 so as to be able to deal with them in the 
 most rational way possible. 
 
 (2) The modification (when necessary) 
 of the scheme of rotation that has been 
 adopted, so that such crops as allow the 
 seeds of the weeds which infest them to 
 ripen may, for a time, be omitted from the 
 rotation. 
 
 (3) When certain methods of eradica- 
 tion have been fixed upon, the careful and 
 wise adaptation of these methods to such 
 conditions of soil and climate as are found 
 in the locality concerned. 
 
 (4) The exercise of due care, when 
 seeds are purchased, to see that they are 
 perfectly pure, that is, perfectly free from 
 the seeds of weeds ; and also the exercise 
 of due care with respect to such seeds as 
 are grown at home to see that they, too, 
 are perfectly free from weed seeds. 
 
 (5) The exercise of due care to see that 
 the thrashing machine, especially when it 
 comes directly from a farm infested with 
 any form of noxious weed, is thoroughly 
 cleaned before it is used. 
 
6o Weeds. 
 
 (6) The exercise of due care to see that 
 the chaff from the fanning mill, when it is 
 suspected of containing any weed seeds, is 
 burnt or othei-vvise thoroughly destroyed 
 and that all screenings are also carefully 
 looked after. 
 
 (7) The growing of cultivated crops 
 upon the farm infested, to the largest extent 
 that is practicable. 
 
 (8) The growing of clover and alfalfa, 
 so far as this can be done with profit. 
 
 (9) The growing of soiling crops, to the 
 extent that may be found practicable, both 
 because of the fact that they can be cut 
 almost at any time that is desirable, and 
 also because of their "smothering" prop- 
 erties. 
 
 (10) The utilizing of sheep for the 
 destruction of weeds in pastures. 
 
 (11) The growing at home, as far as 
 possible, of the food required by the live 
 stock of the farm, instead of purchasing it 
 elsewhere. 
 
 (12) The keeping of the land of the 
 farm constantly at work, so far as this can 
 possibly be effected. 
 
 (13) The stimulation of the soil to a con- 
 stantly vigorous production by means of 
 
Methods of Eradication. 6i 
 
 thorough working and a large use of 
 manure. 
 
 ( 14) The practice of autumn cultivation 
 to the largest extent that is possible. 
 
 (15) The exercise of the utmost possible 
 precaution that no weed seeds ripen upon 
 the farm, if by any means their ripening 
 can be prevented. 
 
 (16) The sowing of two or three crops 
 in succession the same season and grazing 
 them down with sheep. 
 
 (17) The giving of due heed to all the 
 agencies by which weeds are distributed 
 and propagated, so as always to be able to 
 counteract or defeat those agencies. 
 
 (18) When once the work of eradica- 
 tion has been undertaken, the making of it 
 as thorough as possible, and the accom- 
 plishment of it in the shortest possible time. 
 
 (19) When once a state of cleanliness 
 has been secured, the maintenance of it 
 thereafter as perfectly as possible under all 
 circumstances. 
 
 It is greatly important that these general 
 principles and methods of weed destruc- 
 tion should be well understood and care- 
 fully observed; for these are even more 
 important than those specific modes of weed 
 
62 Weeds. 
 
 destruction which are described in the fol- 
 lowing chapters. In fact, unless in our 
 management of the farm we pay the utmost 
 heed to these general principles and methods 
 of weed destruction, we can never hope to 
 be completely successful in our war with 
 weeds. As the writer has made it his habit 
 for many years to test the value of these 
 general principles and methods by con- 
 stantly putting them into practice, he will 
 here set down in specific directions, for the 
 benefit of his brother farmers in this most 
 important question of weed destruction, 
 such remarks as he thinks his experience 
 entitles him to make. 
 
 I. Study their habits of grozvth. In the 
 war with weeds, we must study their hab- 
 its of growth, and adapt our methods of 
 fighting them to fit in with these habits. 
 Weeds, like other plants, are classified as 
 annuals, biennials, and perennials. 
 
 Annuals, as their name implies, complete 
 the cycle of their existence in a single sea- 
 son, although in some instances they may 
 start growth in the fall, particularly in the 
 warmer sections. They are then called 
 zvinter annuals. Common examples of this 
 class are shepherd's purse, chickweed and 
 
Habits of Growth, 63 
 
 cheat, while among our cultivated crops, 
 winter rye and winter wheat are winter 
 annuals. More commonly, annuals begin 
 to grow toward the approach of spring. 
 Common examples of summer or ordinary 
 annuals are ragweed, foxtail and pigweed, 
 while among our cultivated crops we have 
 corn, oats, flax, spring wheat, and many 
 others. It follows, then, that as annual 
 weeds can live but a single season, if the 
 plants of any particular sort of weeds of 
 this class on any farm are prevented from 
 ripening their seeds year by year through 
 successive years, the time must come sooner 
 or later when that sort of weed will be 
 completely destroyed on that farm. This is 
 true whatever may be the means that may 
 be adopted to prevent the seeds from ripen- 
 ing. In fact, the weeds would all be 
 destroyed in a single year were it not that 
 many seeds have great power to resist 
 decay, and many remain in the soil for 
 many years without their vitality being lost 
 or even impaired. Some seeds of this class 
 of weeds, as those of wild mustard, retain 
 their vitality for an incredible length of 
 time; so that whenever they are brought 
 sufficiently near the surface by cultivation, 
 
64 Weeds. 
 
 or by other means, at any time during the 
 congenial season of growth, they at once 
 spring into vigorous Hfe. The means to 
 be taken in destroying weeds that are 
 annuals should be, first, to prevent them 
 from maturing their seeds ; and, second, to 
 adopt such modes of cultivation as will 
 most quickly force the seeds that are in the 
 soil into germination, so that they may 
 spring up and be destroyed. The means 
 best fitted to secure this quick germination 
 of the buried seeds of annuals are the 
 growing of cultivated crops and "autumn 
 cultivation." At all events, when the seeds 
 of annual weeds are kept from ripening 
 year after year, and when the agencies con- 
 cerned in their dissemination are effectu- 
 ally looked after and checkmated, the time 
 cannot fail to come when this class of weeds 
 will all be destroyed. 
 
 Biennial weeds complete the cycle of 
 their existence in two years. Many of 
 them are characterized by a tap root, grow- 
 ing deep into the soil. During the first year 
 large quantities of starch are stored up in 
 this root, which is utilized the next year in 
 producing an abundance of seeds. The 
 burdock furnishes an excellent example oi 
 
Habits of Growth. 65 
 
 this sort of weed, being well known and 
 common in many lands, while among our 
 crop plants red clover is our most common 
 biennial. As biennial weeds are repro- 
 duced from seed only, it is evident that any 
 mode of destruction that will prevent them 
 from producing seed will also in time effect 
 their destruction, but it may take years to 
 accomplish this, as the seeds of this class 
 also have great vitality. Fortunately, how- 
 ever, biennial weeds cannot well resist the 
 destructive effects upon their roots of thor- 
 ough cultivation; hence we find this class 
 of weeds more common in old meadows 
 and pastures, along roadsides, and in waste 
 lands generally, than in fields that are cul- 
 tivated. In areas which cannot be culti- 
 vated, therefore, their destruction is more 
 difficult than elsewhere. To destrov them 
 in these places persistent cutting with the 
 mower, scythe, or spud is the only method 
 that can be adopted ; but it should be borne 
 in mind that with many varieties of bien- 
 nial weeds there is not only a great persis- 
 tency of growth, but also, during the sec- 
 ond year, a great persistency of effort to 
 produce their seeds, even though they are 
 cut off several times during the season. 
 
66 Weeds. 
 
 Perennials, as their name implies, live 
 from year to year. Of perennial weeds 
 there are two classes, viz., the perennial 
 with an ordinary root, and the perennial 
 with a creeping root-stock. The perennial 
 weed with an ordinary root-stock, or, as we 
 may call it for our purpose, the ordinary 
 perennial, is reproduced from seed only. 
 The ox-eye daisy is a common example of 
 this sort of weed, and the plantain is 
 another, while alfalfa is a perennial field 
 crop. The ereeping perennial, as we may 
 call it, is not only reproduced from seed, 
 but is also propagated by means of its hor- 
 izontal root-stocks, which run, or "creep," 
 through the soil in various directions from 
 the parent stem. These creeping root-stocks 
 are furnished with many latent buds, each 
 one of which, under conditions favorable to 
 vigorous growth, is capable of sending up 
 a fresh plant to the surface. It follows, 
 then, that the cultivation which does not 
 weaken and destroy creeping perennials 
 necessarily favors their increase, inasmuch 
 as a soil that has been recently stirred is 
 more easily penetrated by the creeping root- 
 stocks than one that has not been so stirred, 
 and has become more compact. Whenever 
 
Habits of Grozvth. by 
 
 any disturbing action is brought to bear 
 upon these root-stocks, as, for example, 
 breaking them off from their parent stem 
 by the implements of tillage, a fresh impulse 
 is given to their growth. Each rootlet so 
 severed attempts to develop into a complete 
 plant. Hence it is that, in moist weather, 
 ordinary cultivation is more likely to pro- 
 mote than hinder the growth of this class 
 of weeds. The influence of summer-fallows 
 and of cultivated crops which are poorly 
 cared for, is also in the same direction. 
 Creeping perennials are also likely to cling 
 to the implements of tillage, and thus be 
 carried from one part of the field to another, 
 and even to other fields. The Canada this- 
 tle, the common sow thistle, and quack 
 grass furnish familiar examples of creep- 
 ing perennials ; and we are sure the experi- 
 ence of our readers will bear us out in what 
 we have just said of the tendency of culti- 
 vation, in moist weather, to promote their 
 increase. 
 
 To destroy creeping perennials we must 
 labor either to smother them, or else by 
 cultivation to bring their roots to the sur- 
 face, where they will perish by exposure to 
 the air and sunshine. By "smothering" 
 
68 Weeds, 
 
 them is meant keeping them constantly 
 under ground. If creeping perennials are 
 kept beneath the surface of the ground for 
 some months during the early spring and 
 summer, they will perish in a single season, 
 and this result will be gained whatever may 
 be the means made use of to effect it, 
 whether spudding, plowing, cultivating, or 
 covering. 
 
 It is sometimes asserted, and the asser- 
 tion is commonly accepted as true, that 
 creeping pereimials are more difficult to 
 destroy than other classes of weeds. This 
 assertion is supported by the specious argu- 
 ment, that whereas creeping perennials have 
 two means of propagation, (i) their seeds, 
 and (2) their creeping root-stocks, which 
 push their way through the soil in every 
 direction, annual and biennial weeds, and 
 ordinary perennials also, have but one 
 means of propagation, namely, their seeds 
 alone. It should be remembered that, in 
 making this comparison, other things have 
 to be considered. We must also take into 
 account the number of seeds produced by 
 each sort of weed, their vitality, and the 
 modes by which these seeds are distributed 
 and fresh plants produced, the crops that 
 
Habits of Grozvth, 69 
 
 are infested by each particular kind of weed, 
 and the power which the various kinds pos- 
 sess of maintaining themselves in perma- 
 nent pastures and waste places. 
 
 Some annuals, such as ragweed, bear 
 seeds in almost countless numbers, whereas 
 the number of seeds produced by creeping 
 perennials is usually not very large. The 
 diversion of the energies of creeping peren- 
 nials from seed-bearing to increase by 
 means of their root-stocks is, therefore, so 
 far unfavorable to their reproduction that 
 the excess of seed production in annuals 
 not infrequently more than counterbalances 
 the advantage gained by creeping perennials 
 by reason of the dual powers of propaga- 
 tion which they possess. Moreover, the vital- 
 ity of the seeds of some sorts of annual 
 weeds, as those of wild mustard, is so great 
 that they seem to be able to retain their abil- 
 ity to grow for a much longer period than 
 the seeds of creeping perennials. Again, 
 when the seeds of" an annual or biennial 
 weed are transported from place to place by 
 water, or by animals, they are given an 
 advantage which goes far to match the 
 more dangerous powers possessed by the 
 seeds of some perennial weeds, such as the 
 
70 Weeds. 
 
 thistle, in their ability to travel from place 
 to place through the agency of winds. 
 Weeds which mature their seeds along with 
 those of the clovers and grasses, as many 
 ordinary perennial weeds do, are much 
 more likely to be widely distributed than 
 those which mature their seeds along 
 with those of cereals, owing to the great 
 difficulty that is experienced in separating 
 the seeds of weeds from the seeds of clov- 
 ers and grasses. Again, some forms of 
 weed life, particularly some biennial weeds, 
 find a congenial and permanent home in 
 pastures and waste places, although in cul- 
 tivated fields they might not prove very 
 harmful. The labor required to remove 
 these weeds from such places is very great, 
 as it has generally to be done by hand; 
 whereas in the same localities annuals -and 
 perennials may not be able to get a footing, 
 because of unfavorable conditions. On 
 account of these conditions, and of others 
 not named, such as the congeniality or 
 uncongeniahty of soils, it will be found that 
 in some localities the weeds most difficult 
 of eradication will be annuals, in others they 
 will be biennials, in others they will be ordi- 
 
Change of Rotation. yi 
 
 nary perennials, and in yet others, creeping 
 perennials. 
 
 2. Modify the rotation. In the conflict 
 with weeds, it is greatly advantageous to 
 drop out of the rotation for a time such 
 crops as allow the weeds which infest the 
 soil where they grow to ripen their seeds. 
 Some weeds, as, for example, those which 
 grow as winter annuals, ripen their seeds 
 early in the season. The seeds of these 
 weeds mature in crops of winter wheat, rye, 
 and hay, but ordinarily they do not mature 
 in spring cereal crops, for the reason that 
 these weeds begin their growth in the pre- 
 vious autumn. If, therefore, in the infested 
 fields winter wheat, rye, and hay are 
 dropped out of the rotation for a short 
 time, and spring crops grown in their stead, 
 the destruction of the weeds mentioned and 
 of those of kindred habits v/ill be greatly 
 facilitated. Other weeds ripen their seeds 
 late. Ragweed, for example, more com- 
 monly grows up after the early cereal crops 
 and meadows have been cut, and, if undis- 
 turbed, it matures its seeds before frost. 
 Grass seed, therefore, in fields infested with 
 this sort of weed, should not be sown for 
 the purpose of producing meadow until the 
 
^2 Weeds. 
 
 ragweed seeds have become greatly reduced 
 in number through the growing of crops 
 which require late cultivation. Other weeds, 
 such as the Canada thistle, grow in all kinds 
 of crops, so that when a piece of ground is 
 badly infested with them some kind of cul- 
 tivated crop should be grown upon it, as 
 the constant cultivation required will tend 
 to destroy them while the crop is growing. 
 
 Farmers are usually much averse to a 
 modification of their fixed scheme of rota- 
 tion, even for a limited time; and more 
 especially so when the modification inter- 
 feres with those crops which have been their 
 chief source of cash revenue. Notwith- 
 standing this, the truth remains that where 
 the modification required for the destruc- 
 tion of any sort of weed is not made, the 
 ultimate eradication of this weed will be 
 found a very difficult matter. 
 
 J. Adapt methods to conditions. In our 
 attempts to eradicate weeds, we should care- 
 fully adapt .the methods that we follow to 
 those conditions of soil, climate, cultiva- 
 tion, etc., which we find to exist. These 
 conditions have, of course, an important 
 bearing on the growth of weeds, and, 
 therefore, upon their destruction. In stiff 
 
Adapt Methods to Conditions. 73 
 
 clay soils with a hard subsoil, the Canada 
 thistle, for instance, can be destroyed by 
 simply turning the land into pasture, and 
 mowing down the thistles when m blossom, 
 and again at a period considerably later. 
 On other soils of more open texture this 
 mode of destroying thistles would not suc- 
 ceed for a long time, if at all. In some 
 climates a considerable proportion of the 
 seeds of the Canada thistle are fertilized, 
 and will therefore grow; while in other 
 localities it does not seem very harmful to 
 allow the thistle to be harvested along with 
 tli£ crops in which they ripen, because of 
 the inability of their seeds to grow for lack 
 of proper fertilization. Other kinds of 
 weeds, as sheep sorrel, are almost harmless 
 in certain sections ; whereas in others they 
 become great pests. Where winter wheat 
 or rye is grown extensively, specific meas- 
 ures might be necessary to destroy winter 
 annuals ; whereas, if the wheat or the rye 
 were not of much account in the rotation, 
 it would be an easy matter to get rid of this 
 class of weeds by growing spring crops 
 successively for a few years. 
 
 If therefore, we wish to destroy a par- 
 ticular sort of weed with the least possible 
 
74 Weeds. 
 
 expenditure of labor, we must study the 
 habits of that weed as affected by the con- 
 ditions under which it grows. Under some 
 conditions, ordinary "good farming" will 
 generally banish a weed ; while under oth- 
 ers "specific methods," energetically and 
 persistently applied, will be absolutely 
 necessary. It is apparent, therefore, that 
 for the destruction of weeds hard and fast 
 rules that will be equally applicable under 
 all circumstances cannot be laid down, for 
 what would be a proper course to pursue 
 under some conditions may be wholly unfit 
 under others. 
 
 4. Sozv only clean seed. Where farms 
 are to be made clean, and to be kept so, 
 great care should be exercised in the pur- 
 chase of seeds, and also in the preparation 
 for the sowing of those grown at home. The 
 distribution of weeds is more widely effected 
 through the agepcy of the seeds sown for 
 useful crops than in any other way, as was 
 shown in Chapter IV. It has, doubtless, 
 been through this agency that nearly all 
 our foreign weeds have been brought to 
 our land. It is not enough for the seeds- 
 man to assure us that his seeds are clean, 
 for he may be deceived himself. If his 
 
Sozv Clean Seed. 75 
 
 small seeds have not been carefully hand- 
 picked, he can have no certain assurance 
 except by critical examination that they are 
 clean ; and in the preparation for sowing of 
 the great variety of seeds in which he deals 
 hand-picking is out of the question. Pur- 
 chased seeds, therefore, should not only be 
 examined with the utmost care, and be 
 cleaned again if weed seeds are discovered 
 in them, but the crops that are raised from 
 them should receive the most careful scru- 
 tiny while they are growing, so long as 
 there is any ground for suspecting that 
 weeds also are growing among them. As 
 weed seeds are oftener carried in the seeds 
 of clovers and grasses than in other ways, 
 particular care should be exercised in the 
 purchase of any seeds of these crops. 
 
 It may, indeed, be wise to grow at home 
 many sorts of seeds that are now commonly 
 purchased, or else to buy them from a 
 neighbor who has a reputation for growing 
 pure seeds. It would be well, too, when 
 attempting to raise one's own seed, to select 
 but a small portion of the crop for this pur- 
 pose, and to take special pains to prevent 
 any noxious weeds from maturing their 
 seeds in this portion ; and this plan should 
 
"jd Weeds. 
 
 be followed with all the crops grown for 
 seed, especially grasses and clovers. It 
 has already been mentioned that weed seeds 
 frequently come to us in the seed grains 
 brought to our farms for the purpose of 
 effecting a change of seed. The danger 
 here, though not easily altogether averted, 
 may yet be lessened. If the seed of all 
 cereal grains were carefully prepared by 
 such a process of screening as would sift 
 out all the smaller seeds from it, deteriora- 
 tion in the seed of this class of crops would 
 be very much less rapid than it now is, and 
 a change of seed would much seldomer be 
 required. The farmer who is so careless 
 as to sow unclean seed of his own raising, 
 or so foolish as to purchase unclean seed 
 from the seedsman because it can be bought 
 cheaply is, however, not likely to be greatly 
 concerned as to whether his farm is clean 
 or is not clean. 
 
 5. Thoroughly clean the thrashing 
 machine before using it. Thrashing 
 machines, especially if they come from a 
 farm with a reputation for uncleanness, 
 should be carefully swept before being set 
 to work. If, in addition, they are made 
 at the first to run empty for a short time, 
 
Watch the Grain Screenings. 7; 
 
 and the seeds that are caught in the grain 
 box are destroyed, the danger from them 
 is even more completely averted. Because 
 of the fact that thrashing machines are 
 often instrumental in carrying weed seeds 
 from one locality to another, it has often 
 been found advisable for several farmers to 
 club together and purchase a machine of 
 their own. For the same reason, small 
 machines run by tread power are some- 
 times used by individual farmers. How- 
 ever, these methods of fighting weeds have 
 obvious disadvantages which will prevent 
 their general adoption. 
 
 6. Give attention to grain screenings. 
 The chaff and screenings from the fanning 
 mill should receive the most careful atten- 
 tion. Whenever weed seeds are suspected, 
 the chaff from the winnowed grain that is 
 being prepared for market, or indeed for 
 any other use, should be burned. The 
 screenings should be ground, boiled or 
 steamed before being fed; or if fed other- 
 wise, they should be strewn on surfaces 
 where the weed seeds they contain are not 
 likely to do any harm. The proportion of 
 weed seeds grown in a crop which collect 
 in the screenings obtained in cleaning it is 
 
7^ Weeds. 
 
 relatively , very large ; hence the opportu- 
 nity to destroy these weed seeds, when they 
 are" thus collected, should by no means be 
 neglected. 
 
 7. Groiv cultivated crops. Wherever it 
 is desired to subdue noxious weeds zvholly, 
 cultivated crops should be grown to the 
 greatest extent that is practicable. The 
 reasons are obvious. The cultivation of 
 these crops gives opportunity, at almost 
 every period of the growing season, for 
 the combating of almost every form 
 of weed life. The working of the soil 
 necessary for the production of good 
 crops not only destroys, from time to 
 time, the weeds that are growing in them, 
 but it also stimulates the germination of the 
 weed seeds lying in the soil, so that they, 
 too, grow up and are destroyed ; and in this 
 way it greatly reduces their numbers in a 
 single season. Many farmers cling to the 
 opinion that, in the fight with weeds, cul- 
 tivated crops are not very helpful. They 
 point to the fact that they have grown these 
 crops from year to year on the same fields, 
 yet the weeds in these very fields have 
 increased. This may have been true, but 
 when it has been so, the crops have cer- 
 
Groiv Cultivated Crops. 79 
 
 tainly not been properly cared for ; for 
 otherwise the weeds would have gradually 
 decreased, rather than increased. No other 
 result could possibly follow where a succes- 
 sion of cultivated crops had been raised, 
 in which no weed had been allowed to ripen 
 its seeds. Other farmers cling to the opin- 
 ion that, whatever may be the value of cul- 
 tivated crops for destroying weeds in gen- 
 eral, they are not helpful in the fight with 
 creeping perennials ; or, at least, that these 
 crops are not so, effective as the bare fallow 
 for the destruction of creeping perennials 
 in a single season. This view^ is a mistaken 
 one. It has arisen, doubtless, from the too 
 common practice of staying the destructive 
 processes too early in the season. Going 
 over the crop with the hand hoe once, twice, 
 or oftener, after horse cultivation ceases, 
 and removing all stray weeds that may 
 appear, will, as a rule, make a thorough 
 job of the work of destroying creeping 
 perennials, except so far as their seeds 
 remain in the soH. The weather must, how- 
 ever, be fairly dry if success is to be com- 
 plete. 
 
 It is only too true that where cultivated 
 crops are grown, and sufficient attention is 
 
8o Weeds. 
 
 not given to the work of keeping them quite 
 clean, their growth only serves to encour- 
 age the increase of weeds in general, and 
 of creeping perennials in particular. Their 
 cultivation furnishes conditions very favor- 
 able to the lateral extension of the root- 
 stocks of creeping perennials. It is also 
 equally favorable to the development in 
 robust vigor of annuals ; so that it not infre- 
 quently happens that where a cultivated 
 crop is grown, and sufficient care is not 
 taken with it, these annual weeds perfect 
 their seeds in great numbers, thus making 
 the state of the field at the end of the sea- 
 son, so far as weed seeds are concerned, 
 worse than it was at the beginning. Where 
 cultivated crops cannot be grown success- 
 fully, that is, so far as weed destruction is 
 concerned, a modified form of the bare fal- 
 low, as described farther on in this chap- 
 ter, may take their place. 
 
 8. Grow clover and alfalfa. Where the 
 conditions are favorable to their growth, 
 the raising of crops of clover and alfalfa 
 will be found helpful in the reduction of 
 weeds ; and more especially is this true of 
 the common red clover. These crops are 
 not only valuable in weed destruction 
 
Grow Clover and Alfalfa. 8i 
 
 because of the frequency with which they 
 are generally cut, but also because of their 
 "smothering" tendencies, especially on good 
 soil and in suitable seasons. Common red 
 clover may generally be cut twice a year — 
 a process which usually renders it impos- 
 sible for perennial weeds growing in it to 
 ripen their seeds the same season. Alfalfa 
 may generally be cut oftener than twice a 
 year. When a luxuriant growth is obtained, 
 both these crops tend to smother and 
 weaken the perennial weeds growing among 
 them. When these crops are grown to be 
 cut for fodder, the ripening of annual and 
 biennial weeds growing among them is also 
 pretty effectively hindered, but if they are 
 allowed to mature their seeds, some kinds 
 of weeds will also ripen theirs along with 
 them. 
 
 Although alfalfa is even more valuable 
 than common red clover for the purpose 
 of checking the ripening of weed seeds, 
 owing to the greater frequency with which 
 it is cut, yet since it can be grown only on 
 certain kinds of soils its use as an aid in 
 weed destruction is x:onsiderably circum- 
 scribed. Both crops are also excellent for 
 other purposes, as the bringing of nitrogen 
 
82 Weeds. 
 
 to the soil when they are plowed under, 
 and so providing a more abundant store of 
 this most necessary plant food ; hence much 
 attention may consistently be given to grow- 
 ing them for other reasons than the service 
 which they render in weed destruction. It 
 may also Be mentioned that after the last 
 cutting of these crops for the season the 
 ground may very profitably be gone over 
 with the spud for the purpose of destroying 
 the creeping perennials which may then be 
 growing. This last precaution will be found 
 to be greatly helpful in speedily completing 
 the work of extermination. 
 
 p. Groiv soiling crops. In the work of 
 eradicating weeds, crops which are to be 
 cut green for feed will be found very help- 
 ful, especially where the other requirements 
 of the farm render it advisable to grow 
 them. This is owing to their smothering 
 tendencies ; to the fact that they can be cut 
 before certain weeds which grow in them 
 have opportunity to mature; and because 
 in many instances two soiling crops can be 
 grown in a single season, hence the benefits 
 derived^ from their cultivation can to some 
 extent be duplicated on the same soil in 
 the same year. As these crops are not 
 
Grow Soiling Crops. 83 
 
 designed to mature their seeds, they may 
 be sown more thickly than other crops ; 
 hence their smothering power is greater 
 than if they were grown for the grain to be 
 V obtained from them ; yet if they are required 
 for winter fodder, they may be allowed to 
 become so nearly ripe before being cut that 
 their grain is mature enough to possess con- 
 siderable feeding value, without allowing 
 many of the sorts of weeds that grow 
 among them to mature their seed. For 
 example, they may be grown in this way 
 and yet be cut before such weeds as the 
 Canada thistle or the perennial sow thistle 
 have opportunity to ripen their seeds ; hence 
 the cultivation of soiling crops has a ten- 
 dency to weaken the vigor of these weeds, 
 and to prevent their further increase. Some 
 of the most mischievous annual w^eeds and 
 biennial weeds may be prevented from 
 ripening their seeds in these crops ; in fact, 
 many of these weeds cannot possibly ripen 
 their seeds if the soiling crop amid which 
 they grow is properly looked after. Because 
 of the further fact that frequently two soil- 
 ing crops may be growti upon the same field 
 during the same season, the cultivation of 
 these crops becomes an excellent means for 
 
84 Weeds. 
 
 destroying a specially troublesome weed like 
 the Canada thistle, whose habit leads it to 
 grow throughout the whole season, as well 
 as such weeds as mature their seeds very 
 early in the season, or such as mature their 
 seeds very late ; or, if it be desirable to take 
 advantage of it, the growing of an early 
 soiling crop gives opportunity for subject- 
 ing lands to the fallow process. 
 
 10. Call in the aid of sheep. Those who 
 have had experience in keeping sheep do 
 not need to be told that where sheep are 
 kept in sufficient numbers some forms of 
 weed life soon entirely disappear, that other 
 forms are much crippled in their powers of 
 growth and so gradually disappear, while 
 still other forms are weakened though they 
 may not be entirely destroyed. On pasture 
 lands with stiff clay subsoils, sheep will 
 eventually prove more than a match for the 
 Canada thistle, if the pasture is at all times 
 kept closely eaten, but several seasons of 
 such cropping may be required to effect this 
 end. Nearly all biennial weeds and some 
 perennials as, for example, the ox-eye daisy, 
 will be greatly checked when thus pastured ; 
 and the same is true of some annuals, as 
 ragweed and wheat thief. If sheep are 
 
Grow Feeds at Home. 85 
 
 thus allowed to act as scavengers, they will 
 render excellent service in the work of weed 
 extermination, more especially in perma- 
 nent pastures, on private roads, along fence 
 borders, in grain stubble and in corners and 
 waste places generally. In order that this 
 work may be done thoroughly, the pastures 
 should be kept closely eaten from early 
 spring. Many weeds are then so tender and 
 succulent that the sheep will eat them ; 
 whereas, when the weeds are at a more 
 advanced stage of growth, they will persis- 
 tently reject them, unless they are impelled 
 to feed upon them through the sheer force 
 of hunger; and when weeds are thus kept 
 closely cropped, the hand cutting or hand 
 spudding that may be required to complete 
 their destruction is greatly reduced. There 
 is probably no way in which weeds can so 
 profitably be used as by turning them into 
 mutton. 
 
 II. Grow food supplies at home. To aim 
 to grow food supplies at home, rather than 
 to purchase them elsewhere, is a safe rule 
 in farming, viewed from the standpoint of 
 economy, even when the question of weeds 
 is not taken into account at all. It is a rule 
 that is much affected by considerations of 
 
86 Weeds. 
 
 location, soil, climate, and other conditions, 
 and is therefore not without its limitations ; 
 but so important is it, notwithstanding all 
 these considerations, that the aim should 
 usually be to grow food supplies at home 
 to the greatest possible extent. The effort 
 thus made to increase production will prove 
 greatly advantageous in reducing weeds. 
 For example, when corn is grown for the 
 silo to be used as winter fodder, it gives 
 ample opportunity for checking those weeds 
 which may attempt to grow in the corn ; 
 whereas if they grew among crops that were 
 raised for the sake of the grain to be sold 
 from them, they might not be equally efifec- 
 tually disturbed ; and it is generally evident 
 that where food supplies are grown at 
 home, the farmer has power to prevent the 
 weeds which grow in the crops producing 
 them from ripening their seeds, a power 
 which he cannot possess when the food 
 supplies are purchased elsewhere. It is 
 true that the purchase of food supplies on 
 a more or less extensive scale is sometimes 
 a necessity, as where dairying and the keep- 
 ing of live stock are largely engaged in, 
 but all grains so purchased, when the pres- 
 ence of weed seeds in them is suspected, 
 
Keep a Crop on the Land, 87 
 
 should be ground or steamed before being 
 fed, as was mentioned in Chapter IV. Even 
 when such grains are fed to sheep, unless 
 they are ground, a portion of the weed seeds 
 contained in them is sure to find its way 
 into the manure, and thus into the soil of 
 the farm. When fodders containing weed 
 seeds are purchased, the seeds contained in 
 them cannot be prevented from getting into 
 the manure unless the fodder is cut and 
 steamed, a practice which is generally 
 impracticable. 
 
 12. Keep the land constantly at work. In 
 the conflict with weeds, the land should be 
 kept constantly at work. Upon some kinds 
 of soil we can easily get two crops a year ; 
 and where this can be done, the necessary 
 cultivation will be found very helpful in the 
 work of destroying weeds. The nature of 
 the crops to be so raised will naturally 
 depend largely upon climate, soil, and the 
 requirements of the farm. As was men- 
 tioned above in section 9, two soiling crops 
 may sometimes be grown the same season. 
 Again, an ordinary crop of grain or of 
 meadow may generally be followed by a 
 catch crop. In many sections, rye may be 
 sown in the autumn, and be followed the 
 
88 Weeds. 
 
 next spring or summer by a crop of corn, 
 roots, or rape. When this is done, the rye 
 may be cut green or plowed under as a 
 green crop. Such soihng crops as oats and 
 peas may be grown, and be followed by 
 rape, turnips, or some other quick-growing 
 crop. When the soiling crop has grown 
 vigorously, and is followed by one of the 
 crops mentioned, grown in drills and culti- 
 vated, the effects in the way of weed 
 destruction are very marked. As all these 
 crops are of use only for feeding stock on 
 the farm at home, the process of incessant 
 cropping, such as we have here described, 
 is helpful rather than otherwise to the fer- 
 tility of the soil. There is the further 
 advantage in thus keeping arable soils at 
 work, that the nitrates of the soil are 
 largely prevented from being washed out 
 by rains. 
 
 jj. Stimulate the land to produce plenti- 
 fidly. Weeds can be much more easily 
 dealt with when the land is kept constantly 
 stimulated to vigorous productivity than 
 when the soil is left to run down and 
 become infertile for lack of proper manur- 
 ing. When crops are strong, weeds do but 
 little harm in them, compared with the 
 
Fertilise Heavily. 89 
 
 injury they work when they are allowed to 
 grow amid crops that are thin and poor. 
 When the soil sustains a vigorous growth, 
 the useful crops leave many forms of weeds 
 behind in the race, especially in the early 
 part of the season. Where the growth is 
 vigorous in the early stages of the crop, 
 the weeds have much less opportunity of 
 monopolizing the growing area. Growing 
 good crops is synonymous with good farm- 
 ing ; that is, the raising of good crops is in 
 itself a great hindrance to the multiplica- 
 tion of weeds. This agrees with the well- 
 known fact that the spread of weeds is usu- 
 ally much more rapid and complete in 
 impoverished farms than elsewhere, hence 
 those who desire clean farms will have done 
 much to secure the desired end when they 
 adopt such measures as will also maintain 
 them in a high state of fertility. Much 
 may be done in the way of securing this 
 fertility by growing catch crops for feed- 
 ing off or plowing under after the earlier 
 crops of the season have been removed. In 
 all localities where the climate is not too 
 severe, peas, buckwheat, and rape may all 
 be grown as catch crops. The cultivation 
 requisite for preparing the ground for these 
 
90 Weeds. 
 
 crops is also good for the destruction of 
 weeds. It may happen sometimes that the 
 season will be so dry that the seeds sown 
 for catch crops will not germinate ; when 
 such is the case, the dry weather which pro- 
 duces this result will also be hurtful to the 
 growth of weeds. 
 
 14. Practice autumn culti'o'ation. In the 
 war with weeds, one of the very best meth- 
 ods to be adopted is "autumn cultivation." 
 It is questionable if any other means can be 
 made use of that will so well repay the out- 
 lay. Autumn cultivation means the tilling 
 of the soil after harvest with a view largely 
 to weed destruction. As soon as the crops 
 are removed, the land that is not sown to 
 grass should be plowed. All weeds that 
 are above the surface of the ground at that 
 time are thus turned under, while the weed 
 seeds lying in the soil are encouraged to 
 germinate. The weeds that grow from 
 these may be destroyed by harrowing or by 
 cultivating, or by the late autumn plowing 
 that just precedes the advent of winter. In 
 this w^ay myriads of weed plants will be 
 got rid of in a single season. 
 
 There are two real difficulties which 
 stand in the way : ( i ) The season at which 
 
Prevent Seeding. 91 
 
 this work is to be done is a busy one ; and 
 (2) there is frequently too httle horse labor 
 available for the purpose, for the reason 
 that too little is kept on the farm. The 
 advantages of this method of destroying 
 weeds are so very important that it is abso- 
 lutely essential that much effort should be 
 made to secure them. It may be remarked 
 that when catch crops are grown for turn- 
 ing under as green manure, the necessary 
 plowing after the harvest of tl>e main crop, 
 and the plowing under of the green crop 
 for manure are much the same as would 
 be required as autum.n cultivation for the 
 purpose mainly of destroying weeds, while 
 if the catch crop has been successful, there 
 is an increase in the fertility of the soil by 
 the application of the green manure. 
 
 75. Allow no weed seeds to ripen. We 
 should never allow noxious weeds to ripen 
 their seeds, if it is at all in our power to 
 prevent their doing so. When the clean- 
 ing of a farm that is foul with weeds is first 
 undertaken, it may not always be possible 
 to hinder the ripening of the seeds of the 
 weeds that infest it, but the ripening may 
 usually be very largely prevented by modi- 
 fying the rotation for a time. When once 
 
92 Weeds. 
 
 a farm is fairly well cleaned, then it is sim- 
 ply inexcusable to allow noxious weeds — 
 at least those which are most troublesome — 
 to mature their seeds. To allow them to 
 do so is to show an indifference to one's 
 best interests which cannot be defended. 
 
 The specific modes of hindering weeds 
 from ripening their seeds will of course 
 vary with the particular weed, and also with 
 the crop in which it grows. Several of 
 these specific modes will be described at 
 length in the following chapter. 
 
 As was said above, one of the best and 
 most reasonable means that can be adopted 
 ^or preventing weeds from ripening their 
 seeds is by a modification of the rotation. 
 The correctness of this opinion will at once 
 be apparent when we think, first, of the 
 unreasonableness of growing a crop a very 
 large portion of which consists of weeds, 
 while we may just as well grow some other 
 crop that will mature at a different season 
 and be comparatively free from weeds ; 
 and, second, that with some crops, certain 
 weeds cannot be prevented from ripening 
 in them without the infliction of consider- 
 able injury to the crop amid which they 
 grow. In any case, however, the hope of 
 
Grase With Sheep, 93 
 
 having a clean farm is a vain one if noxious 
 vv'eeds are allowed to ripen upon it even in 
 quantities ever so limited. If any weeds 
 are allowed to ripen their seeds, the farm 
 will never be wholly clean, notwithstanding 
 the fact that the number of weeds may be 
 very considerably reduced. 
 
 16. Grase off several crops in succession 
 with sheep. There is probably no more 
 effective method of fighting weeds, espe- 
 cially annuals, than by growing two or three 
 crops in succession the same season and 
 grazing them down with sheep. To do this 
 effectively it is necessary to have two or 
 three fields or enclosures, in which there 
 can be alternation in production and in graz- 
 ing. The following are among the advan- 
 tages of this method of attacking weeds : 
 Germination is encouraged in the seeds, 
 especially in the seeds of annuals that may 
 be lying in the soil ; the weeds thus germi- 
 nated are eaten by the sheep along with the 
 other grazing; a very large quantity of 
 grazing relatively may thus be produced 
 from a small area of land ; the land is thus 
 put in excellent condition for growing the 
 grain crops that will follow such grazing. 
 Among the crops best adapted to provide 
 
94 Weeds. 
 
 such grazing are winter rye and other 
 small grains, rape, corn, and sorghum. The 
 experience of the author in thus fighting 
 weeds at the Minnesota experiment station 
 was very satisfactory. 
 
 //. Give careful attention to all modes of 
 weed distribution and propagation. It 
 was stated in Chapter IV that we cannot 
 control some of the modes by which weeds 
 are distributed, that some of them we can 
 but partially control, and that yet others 
 are completely under our control. So many 
 and so varied are the agencies by which 
 weeds come to us, and so many are the 
 means by which they are then propagated, 
 that- we cannot afford to give small heed to 
 any of these agencies and means. It will not 
 suffice to concentrate our energies on keep- 
 ing weeds at bay in one direction when at 
 the same time they come to us in various 
 other directions. Such a course would be 
 about as wise as to try to keep out the wa- 
 ters of a rising tide by closing one breach 
 in the embankment while several others are 
 left open. When everything has been done 
 in this direction, weeds will still come to 
 us. When this is so, there is only one 
 
Make Thorough Work. 95 
 
 resource left to us. This we will now 
 describe. 
 
 18. Make thorough work. When the 
 eradication of weeds is undertaken, the 
 work should be made as complete as pos- 
 sible, and be effected in the shortest possi- 
 ble time. The cheapness of the process 
 is usually in direct porportion to its com- 
 pleteness, and to the brevity of the period 
 occupied in completing it. It is quite pos- 
 sible to destroy creeping perennials in a 
 single season, except only as to the seeds 
 which remain in the soil. It is the lack 
 of thoroughness in the modes usually 
 adopted, rather than the modes themselves, 
 that renders the destruction of this class 
 of weeds so extremely difficult and so 
 expensive. As a rule, creeping perennials 
 are merely checked by the cleaning • proc- 
 esses employed, and by no means destroy- 
 ed by them. Hence the root-stocks left 
 in the soil at once commence to grow. 
 They push out in every direction. They 
 are carried to and fro with the plow and 
 spring into life everywhere, so that in from 
 two to four or five years they have so 
 possessed the soil again that a similar proc- 
 ess of reducing them will have to be 
 
96 Weeds. 
 
 undertaken. Whereas, had these weeds 
 been completely destroyed in one season, 
 and proper means been taken for remov- 
 ing those which afterwards came up from 
 the seeds that remained in the soil when 
 the cleaning process was being accomplish- 
 ed, then the cleanliness of the field would 
 have been maintained, and at a cost that 
 would have been merely nominal as com- 
 pared with the cost involved in cleaning 
 the field anew. The greatest mistake that 
 can be made in the war with weeds is to 
 carry it on with a lack of thoroughness, 
 when once the war has been undertaken. 
 Men clean at fields rather than clean them. 
 They reduce weeds, but do not subdue 
 them. To make thorough work may seem 
 costly at the time, but there is no way of 
 getting rid of weeds so cheaply as when 
 the work is done in a comparatively short 
 time. 
 
 jp. Maintain cleanliness. Where clean- 
 liness has once been secured, it should be 
 maintained from year to year at all haz- 
 ards. To effect this, two things at least 
 are required. First, the general manage- 
 ment of the farm must be good, so that 
 good crops may ordinarily be grown, and 
 
Maintain Cleanliness. 97 
 
 second, every portion of the farm must be 
 gone over once or twice a year with the 
 spud, except that part which is devoted to 
 hoed crops. The meadows should be gone 
 over once or twice, according to the weeds 
 that grow in them and the time at which 
 the hay is to be cut. If thus gone over 
 before the time of haymaking, such weeds 
 as dock, the ox-eye daisy, sheep sorrel, and 
 plantain, which would otherwise ripen their 
 seeds, will be destroyed, as well as any oth- 
 er weeds that may be there. After harvest 
 .they should be gone over again as often 
 as necessary for the purpose of cutting ofif 
 the stray thistles or ragweeds, or any oth- 
 er kind of weeds that may be trying to 
 retain a footing. In the same way, the 
 grain crops should be gone over before 
 they head. Where these have been sown 
 with the drill, this may easily be done with- 
 out injury to the crops. If the grain fields 
 have also been sown with grass seeds, they 
 should be gone over again after harvest ; 
 but this will not be necessary when autumn 
 cultivation is to follow. Permanent and 
 other pastures, fence borders, private 
 roads, and waste places should all be gone 
 over twice a year with the spud. 
 
98 Weeds. 
 
 Notwithstanding the great value of the 
 spud in maintaining cleanHness on farms, 
 it must be used with discrimination. When 
 the weeds are numerous beyond a certain 
 hmit it will not pay to use the spud. What 
 that limit is will depend somewhat upon 
 the scarcity of labor, and the difficulty 
 experienced in securing it and paying for 
 it. It is not possible to fix a limit that will 
 apply equally well in every case, but in 
 the judgment of the writer, unless the 
 spudder can get over from three to five 
 acres a day, it is at least an open question 
 whether some other mode of reducing 
 weeds should not be resorted to instead. 
 The spud is designed rather to maintain 
 cleanliness than to secure it; although, to 
 a considerable extent, it is helpful for the 
 latter purpose also. 
 
 The method of procedure in cleaning a 
 farm, where the work is to be economical- 
 ly done, will be somewhat as follows : 
 
 ( I ) The effort must be put forth to pre- 
 vent any new seeds from maturing on the 
 farm. It may not be possible to secure this 
 result at first on all parts of the farm, 
 owing to the costliness of the work, and to 
 the amount of labor involved in it ; in time, 
 
Method of Cleaning Farm. 99 
 
 however, where judicious measures have 
 been used, the end will be attained with- 
 out great difficulty. 
 
 (2) One or two fields should be set 
 aside each year to be cleaned, these being 
 chosen with reference to the rotation, and 
 to the resources of the farmer, and the 
 work of cleaning these fields should be 
 made as thorough as it would be reasona- 
 bly possible to make it in one season. As 
 each field is thus freed from noxious 
 weeds, cleanliness should be maintamed in 
 that field by the use of the spud, until, in 
 the order of the rotation, the field will have 
 cultivated crops grown upon it, by which 
 means the cleaning process will be still 
 further carried on. 
 
 (3) The pastures and waste places of 
 the farm should, from the commencement 
 of the cleaning process, be gone over twice 
 a year with the spud. If it happens that in 
 these places the weeds are too numerous 
 to be dealt with by the spud, the scythe or 
 the mower should be used instead. In a 
 few seasons, if thus dealt with, these plac- 
 es will be quite free from noxious weeds. 
 The time occupied in cleaning the farm 
 will depend upon the rotation. It should 
 
loo Weeds. 
 
 be practically free from weeds by the end 
 of - the first rotation, counting from the 
 beginning of the undertaking. 
 
 Many farmers, however, look upon the 
 use of the spud in any way as a chimerical 
 idea. They object to it on the score of the 
 cost of the labor involved in its use ; while 
 the truth, in the mind of the writer at least, 
 is beyond the shadow of a doubt that by 
 no other conceivable means can freedom 
 from noxious weed intrusion be maintain- 
 ed so cheaply, or, indeed, be maintained at 
 all. The matter stands thus : In ordinary 
 practice, the spud is not used. The farmer 
 selects a field to be cleaned by the bare fal- 
 low or some other process. Fairly good 
 work may be done ; but some weeds are 
 sure to be left in the soil, while also some 
 seeds of weeds lie there which will ger- 
 minate and reproduce their kind in abun- 
 dance. Unless the field be gone over with 
 the spud after the manner we have here 
 described, it is entirely probable that in 
 from three to five years the field will be as 
 foul with weeds as when taken in hand at 
 the first. On the other hand, if the spud 
 is used in the manner that we have indi^ 
 
Use of the Spud. loi 
 
 cated, all stray weeds will be cut off before 
 they can do any harm. 
 
 The cost of maintaining freedom from 
 weed intrusion, where once a state of 
 cleanliness has been attained, should not 
 be more than $30 or $40 a year for every 
 one hundred acres of land. This estimate 
 is based on the supposition that all the 
 methods of cultivating and managing the 
 crops grown upon the hundred acres, are 
 as they ought to be. 
 
 With respect to the cost of the weed- 
 cleaning process, it may be mentioned here 
 that when a state of cleanliness has once 
 been secured, the cost of maintaining this 
 state of cleanliness by means of the spud 
 is the only direct charge to be made, for 
 the expense incurred in cleaning crops and 
 in destroying weeds by all the other means 
 described in these pages should be more 
 than met by the increased returns which 
 the crops will show by reason of the 
 improved cultivation which the weed-clean- 
 ing process necessitates. On the assump- 
 tion that every part of a one hundred acre 
 farm be gone over twice a year to keep 
 it free from weeds, and on the further 
 reasonable assumption that the cost of 
 
102 Weeds. 
 
 labor involved in doing this for a day of 
 ten hours is from $1.50 to $2.00, the entire 
 outlay for the v^hole work would not be 
 more than the sum already named, $30 to 
 $40. When once a farm has become fair- 
 ly clean, a workman should easily be able 
 to go over it with a spud at the rate of ten 
 acres a day. That this is possible has been 
 demonstrated over and over again, in the 
 experience of the writer, in the work of 
 cleaning the Ontario Agricultural Experi- 
 ment Station Farm at Guelph. Ten acres 
 have been frequently gone over in half a 
 day, and in one instance twenty acres were 
 done, but these results grew out of more 
 than ordinary efifort and are to be regarded 
 as exceptional. One person can, however, 
 easily get over ten acres in a day, even 
 when some hundreds or even thousands 
 of weeds are to be destroyed. Twenty 
 days thus employed should take the spud- 
 der over the farm twice, hence the cost 
 would not be more than the sum named. 
 The whole . farm would not, however, 
 require to be gone over thus twice a year. 
 One field of the farm would probably be 
 devoted to a cultivated crop, and would 
 not require any spudding. Several fields 
 
Use of the Spud. 103 
 
 which had produced grain would not 
 require to be gone over more than once, 
 for the reason that they would be plowed 
 or cultivated soon after harvest as a part 
 of the ''autumn cultivation," and pastures 
 would soon become so clean that one spud- 
 ding in a season would suffice for them 
 also. Hence the outlay for spudding 
 should not be more than $25 a year. 
 
 It is certainly unfortunate that the spud 
 is so little known, and so little used in per- 
 fecting and maintaining cleanliness upon 
 farms. It is well to remember that those 
 who are most averse to using the spud 
 are usually those who have never used it, 
 and that those who have once tried it fair- 
 ly are always unwilling thenceforth to 
 abandon its use. 
 
 A little reflection v^ill make it clear that 
 the spud is of the greatest use in maintain- 
 ing cleanliness on a farm. Suppose a ten- 
 acre field in which a crop is growing has 
 only a few thistles in it — so few, perhaps, 
 that the farmer thinks it scarcely worth 
 while to do anything with them. But it 
 may, at the same time, have some dock 
 plants in it, and a few stalks of mustard, 
 a small number of ragweeds, and a few 
 
I04 Weeds. 
 
 other noxious weeds ; while in the 
 fence corners there may be some 
 burdocks or cockle burs. Now, in 
 one day, one person can remove all 
 these weeds with the spud. If this 
 be done, the thousands and tens of 
 thousands of seeds which these 
 plants would have produced never 
 come into existence, and the future 
 infinite supply of these weeds is 
 also efifectually checked. A corre- 
 sponding saving in the labor that 
 would otherwise have been ulti- 
 mately required in subduing these 
 weeds is also effected. 
 
 It may not be amiss here to de- 
 scribe that form of the spud which 
 in the estimation of the writer, is 
 best adapted to the uses of the 
 farmer. The chisel spud as usually 
 made, may be described as follows : 
 It consists of a light round handle, 
 resembling that of a broom, and of 
 a blade which is shaped somewhat 
 like that of a chisel, but more tap- 
 ering from the end of the blade 
 to the junction with the handle. Its c'hid 
 
 Spud 
 
Use of the Spud. 105 
 
 length is about five feet from the upper 
 end of the handle to the cutting end of the 
 blade. The blade is about eight inches long 
 from the cutting end to the shoulder, and 
 about two and half inches broad at the cut- 
 ting end, and five-eighths of an inch broad 
 at the shoulder. The blade should be thin, 
 not necessarily more than a quarter of an 
 inch at the shoulder, and still thinner as 
 the cutting end is approached. The blade 
 is fitted into the handle in the same way 
 as a common hoe. The implement is very 
 light, so that it is in no way burdensome 
 to carry. 
 
 In few kinds of labor on the farm are 
 quickness and sureness of movement more 
 important than in the use of the spud. 
 When using the spud in a grain crop, the 
 spudder walks astride of a row of grain, 
 the feet being placed between the drills, 
 so that trampling is avoided. He walks 
 along the lines of the drill in which he 
 first enters, and cuts below the surface of 
 the ground all the noxious weeds that may 
 be found within six feet on either side of 
 him. A strip is thus taken at one time of 
 about twelve feet in width. On the return 
 
io6 Weeds. 
 
 trip, he walks in the center of an adjoin- 
 ing strip of equal width, and proceeds in 
 this manner until the whole field is gone 
 over. 
 
 The spudder should always carry with 
 him a short file, to be used for sharpening 
 the spud whenever this may be necessary. 
 The frequency of the sharpenings will 
 depend on the nature of the soil ; but it is 
 greatly important that a good cutting edge 
 be constantly kept. The file should never 
 be forgotten, especially in stony soils, as 
 the spudder never can know how soon he 
 may want it. 
 
 Simple as the work may appear, there 
 is great opportunity for the exercise of 
 dexterity in using the spud. One person 
 will so use it in a grain field that very lit- 
 tle of the grain will be either trampled upon 
 or cut off, whereas another would make 
 constant havoc in both these respects. It 
 is matter for surprise how large and strong 
 a weed root can be severed by the spud 
 when it is dexterously used. Burdock 
 roots two inches in diameter may be easily 
 severed when the spudder is well skilled in 
 his work. 
 
Use of the Bare Fallon;. 107 
 
 MODES OF DOUBTFUL ADVANTAGE. 
 
 Modes of destroying weeds are some- 
 times widely practiced of which it may be 
 said that, even when all things are consid- 
 ered, the benefits arising from them are 
 of doubtful character. Two of these will 
 now be dealt with, namely, (i) the bare 
 fallow; and (2) the fermentation of farm- 
 yard or stable manure. Both of these may 
 on occasion be made very helpful in the 
 work of eradicating weeds, but in the 
 opinion of the writer they both are costly 
 modes, and they both can usually be dis- 
 pensed with. 
 
 I. The bare fallozv. In destroying 
 weeds, the bare fallow has rendered good 
 service in the past, and where it is properly 
 managed it is a very effective mode, espe- 
 cially for creeping perennials. 
 
 Since the bare fallow method as usually 
 practiced requires the land to lie unused 
 during the whole season in "summer fal- 
 low" so that a crop cannot be raised the 
 same season, it is evident that the method 
 is a very expensive one ; in fact, far too 
 expensive, when compared with some of 
 the other modes of fighting weeds which 
 have been previously treated of in this 
 
io8 Weeds. 
 
 chapter. Where these other and less 
 expensive modes are faithfully practiced, 
 it will be unnecessary to resort to the bare 
 fallow for the purposes of weed destruction. 
 
 When it is thought necessary to resort to 
 the bare fallow, let it be in some modified 
 form ; that is to say, let some crop be grown 
 the same season, before or after the fallow- 
 ing is done. When a late crop is grown, as 
 one of millet or of rape, during the portion 
 of the season prior to the sowing of that 
 crop the ground may be fallowed with 
 excellent results, both in the destruction of 
 the weeds and in the preparation of the soil 
 for the crop that is to come after. Simi- 
 larly, other crops which mature early in 
 the season may be followed by the bare fal- 
 low for the rest of the season, and so 
 secure nearly all the benefits of the ordi- 
 nary bare fallow without the missing of a 
 crop. These early-maturing crops include 
 rye, winter wheat, and barley. 
 
 In the same way, pastures may be eaten 
 ofif until some time in June, and then be 
 plowed and worked on the surface, with 
 great injury to the weeds, until it is time 
 to sow winter wheat. The same course 
 may be adopted with early-cut meadows, 
 
Use of the Bare Fallow. 109 
 
 with almost equally good results. Where 
 winter wheat is not grown, the length of 
 the season left for working this sort of fal- 
 low is much increased, and such a bare fal- 
 low, coming after any of the crops above 
 mentioned, will be very effective in 
 destroying weeds. It should be remarked 
 that this mode of fallowing so nearly 
 resembles what has been previously 
 described as "autumn cultivation" that it 
 may better be referred to by that designa- 
 tion. 
 
 The costliness of the bare fallow does 
 not all arise from the fact that a great 
 amount of labor is expended without get- 
 ting a crop the same season; especially in 
 seasons when much rain falls, there is also 
 a serious loss incurred from nitrates leach- 
 ing out of the soil — a loss which would 
 be almost entirely prevented if a crop were 
 grown upon the land. Inasmuch as the 
 bare fallow reduces the humus in the soil, 
 the soil becomes more compact in conse- 
 quence. The bare fallow entails, therefore, 
 (i) the loss of a crop; (2) a certain loss 
 of fertility by reason of the leaching out 
 of nitrates; and (3) increased impaction of 
 the soil. It is obvious, then, that in our 
 
i lo . Weeds. 
 
 fight with weeds we should resort to the 
 bare fallow only in cases of extreme neces- 
 sity. 
 
 Where the bare fallow is resorted to as 
 a means of destroying weeds, the work 
 should be done most thoroughly, especi- 
 ally so far as creeping perennials are con- 
 cerned. Where these are only partially 
 destroyed, the residue remaining in the soil 
 are given most favorable conditions for 
 lateral root extension, and hence for future 
 multiplication. 
 
 In the opinion of the writer, the fallow- 
 ing process should, whenever possible, be 
 accompanied by the growing of green crops 
 for the purpose of enriching the soil while 
 the process of fallowing is going on. For 
 instance, a crop of rye may be sown in the 
 autumn and plowed under the following 
 spring; this may at once be followed by a 
 crop of peas, buckwheat, rape or some 
 other quick-growing crop, which in turn 
 may be plowed under. The weeds will be 
 greatly reduced by this modification of the 
 bare fallow, and the land will at the same 
 time be much improved in fertility and in 
 its mechanical texture. 
 
Fermenting Manure. iii 
 
 2. Fermenting manure. Where farm- 
 yard or stable manure is fermented, the 
 process may render substantial service in 
 destroying the germinating powers of the 
 weed seeds found in it, but the price paid 
 is probably too costly. Manure cannot be 
 sufficiently fermented to destroy the seeds 
 of weeds present in it, except with the 
 result of the removal of much of its most 
 useful properties, more especially of the 
 nitrogen, its most valuable constituent. 
 The reduction of manure in the soil where 
 it is to remain is attended with so many 
 advantages of a mechanical and chemical 
 nature that, whenever practicable, the 
 reducing process should always be effected 
 there, rather than in the farmyard, or in 
 wasting heaps in the field. 
 
 Fermenting manure, therefore, with the 
 object of destroying weeds, should never 
 be resorted to unless the seeds of some 
 especially troublesome sorts are known to 
 be present in it in unusually large quanti- 
 ties. As a rule it is not necessary to resort 
 to the process at all, for if the modes of 
 fighting weeds that "have been already 
 pointed out are faithfully practiced, the 
 seeds that will at length be found in the 
 
112 Weeds, 
 
 manure will be reduced to an insignificant 
 quantity. In this connection it is well to 
 remark that on account of the danger there 
 is of bringing weed seeds to farms where 
 purchased stable manure is used, it may be 
 more judicious, where increased fertility 
 is desired, to purchase artificial fertilizers 
 rather than stable manure. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 SPECIFIC MODES OF ERADICATING WEEDS OF 
 THE THISTLE FAMILY. 
 
 This chapter and those which follow deal 
 with specific modes of destroying certain 
 kinds of weeds which infest the northern 
 part of the United States. Most of these 
 weeds are also troublesome in Canada. 
 Some are local in their distribution, while 
 others are found in greater or less numbers 
 from the Atlantic to the Pacific. While 
 the general methods of weed destruction 
 described in the previous chapter are as a 
 rule equally applicable to all weeds, the 
 specific modes described in this and the 
 following chapters are especially helpful 
 when applied to the weeds for which they 
 are intended. 
 
 . It should be remembered, however, that 
 the modes described here as especially 
 applicable to certain weeds will also apply 
 to all other weeds not specifically men- 
 
114 Weeds. 
 
 tioned which may closely resemble these 
 in their habits of growth. 
 
 The weeds which are discussed in this 
 chapter are all included in the thistle or 
 sunflower family. This is the largest fam- 
 ily of flowering plants, including some ten 
 or twelve thousand species in all parts of 
 the world. The individual flowers are 
 usually small and inconspicuous. They are 
 arranged together in considerable numbers 
 in heads at tlie ends of the stalks. These 
 heads are quite commonly regarded as 
 single flowers, as those of the daisy, the 
 dandelion, or the thistle, but in reality they 
 are made up of a very large number of 
 minute flowers. The family includes many 
 of our most valuable economic and medic- 
 inal plants, as well as many of our worst 
 weeds. 
 
 The six weeds here discussed are among 
 the most troublesome to the farmer. They 
 are the Canada thistle, the perennial sozv 
 thistle, the ox-eye daisy, the hnrdock, the 
 ragweed, and the ivild lettnee. The spe- 
 cific modes here described of dealing with 
 these weeds and those which are discussed 
 in the chapters which follow are nearly all 
 based on the actual experience of the 
 
Description of the Canada Thistle. 115 
 
 writer; hence they are submitted with a 
 degree of confidence which could not be 
 felt were they based merely on theories, 
 however correct these theories might be. 
 
 An outline sketch is given of each of the 
 weeds dealt with. This sketch was in 
 every case prepared from living specimens 
 of the weed illustrated. The root develop- 
 ment of each plant is shown, as well as that 
 of the portion above ground. In the work 
 of exterminating weeds, a knowledge of 
 their habits of root growth is frequently 
 of quite as much importance as a knowl- 
 edge of the growth habits of the portions 
 of the plant ordinarily visible to the eye. 
 
 ' (l) THE CANADA THISTLE. 
 
 The Canada thistle (Carduus arvensis) 
 is a creeping perennial which grows from 
 one to four feet high, according as soils 
 and seasons vary. It is of an upright habit 
 of growth, somewhat branched towards 
 the top, especially when it is not much 
 crowded, but when it is pressed for room 
 it has but a single stem. Its leaves are 
 armed with sharp prickles, which, either 
 when green or dry, but more especially 
 when dry, are exceedingly unpleasant^ to 
 handle. Its blossoms are of a beautiful 
 crimson, and have a pleasing fragrance. 
 
ii6 Weeds. 
 
 The Canada thistle comes up early in 
 May, and continues to grow until the time 
 of severe frost in autumn. It comes into 
 blossom in July and August, and matures 
 its seeds principally in the latter month, 
 but sometimes also in the former. When 
 cut off above or just a little below the sur- 
 face of the ground, it will at once put forth 
 sprouts below the point of excision, several 
 sprouts thus coming up around the parent 
 stem. 
 
 The Canada thistle will grow in almost 
 all kinds of soils, but it does not find a con- 
 genial home in mucks with moist bottoms. 
 It grows in all kinds of crops' that are pro- 
 duced in this country. Its seeds ripen with 
 those of all the cereals, several of the clo- 
 vers, and timothy and some other grasses. 
 
 The Canada thistle is propagated by 
 means both of its seeds and of its creeping 
 root-stocks, but more especially by means 
 of the latteft Its root-stocks penetrate the 
 soil in every direction, and in open soils to 
 distances that are almost incredible. These 
 root-stocks bear numerous latent buds, 
 which, as soon as the root-stocks become 
 broken, at once start to grow, even under 
 
Description of the Canada Thistle. 117 
 
 the least favorable conditions. Its seeds 
 are not only carried incredible distances by 
 the wind, but they are also distributed 
 everywhere by means of the seeds of all 
 kinds of cereal grains and of several of the 
 
 THE CANADA THISTLE. 
 
 clovers and grasses, among which they 
 ripen. They are also distributed by means 
 of manure. 
 
ii8 Weeds, 
 
 Modes of Eradication. 
 
 The following are some of the most 
 effective modes of dealing with this most 
 pernicious weed: 
 
 1. Modifying the rotation. Until the 
 fields infested with the thistle can be spe- 
 cifically dealt with by one of the modes 
 described below, drop out of the rotation, 
 so far as practicable, all crops which will 
 allow the thistle seeds to ripen before they 
 can be cut. 
 
 2. Autumn plozving and spring cultiva- 
 tion, foUozved by corn or some other cidti- 
 vated crop. . Plow the land immediately 
 after harvest. Plow shallow with any kind 
 of plow that will cut the thistles off clean 
 ivithoiit breaking up the creeping root- 
 stocks. Keep the thistles from showing 
 above ground until the late autumn plow- 
 ing, which should be deep for the sake of 
 the crop that is to come after. In the 
 spring, keep the thistles under by the use 
 of a suitable cultivator until the time for 
 planting the cultivated crop. Give this 
 crop sufficient cultivation to insure a good 
 yield, and take pains to keep the thistles 
 that spring up in the line of the rows cut 
 
Eradication of the Canada Thistle. 119 
 
 off by hand hoeing. Go over the crop with 
 the hand hoe, if necessary, once or twice 
 after the horse cultivation has ceased ; and, 
 if the work up to this point has been wel) 
 done, tliere should not be one thistle left, 
 provided the season has been a dry one. 
 The most effective part of the work, how- 
 ever, will have been done the preceding 
 autumn. 
 
 J. August ploiving, folloivcd by zvintcr 
 rye cut early, and this again by a cultivated 
 crop. Plow the ground deeply in August, 
 as early in the month as practicable. Sow 
 rye early in September at the rate of two 
 and one-half to three bushels per acre. Cut 
 the rye the following spring, as soon as 
 it is headed out, for soiling or for winter 
 fodder. Then plow the ground deeply with 
 any kind of plow that will effectively bury 
 the stubble, and harrow at once to conserve 
 the moisture. Plarrow once a week until 
 it is time to drill the ground for rape or 
 some other quick-growing cultivated crop. 
 Then cultivate and care for the crop as 
 described in section 2 above. In the experi- 
 ence of the writer, this mode of destroying 
 the Canada thistle has proved very effec- 
 tive, but it is not well suited to stiff soils 
 
I20 Weeds. 
 
 which will not readily grow cultivated 
 crops. 
 
 Another way is to sow the rye in 
 August, and then pasture it both autumn 
 and spring, before the ground is plowed 
 for the following crop. This mode is not 
 quite so effective as the one just described, 
 inasmuch as the rye when pastured does 
 not so effectually weaken the thistles by 
 smothering them as when it is grown for 
 fodder or for the silo. 
 
 On the Ontario Agricultural College 
 Experiment Station farm at Guelph, this- 
 tle-infested fields have been so effectively 
 cleaned by the mode of treatment recom- 
 mended here that in the following year one 
 person could go over twenty acres in from 
 ten to fifteen hours, and remove with a 
 spud all the noxious weeds found in the 
 grain crop which followed the rape. 
 
 4. Breaking up pasture land or meadozv 
 and sowing to fall zvheat and clover. Plow 
 pasture land in June, or plow land from 
 which a crop of hay has been removed, as 
 soon as possible after the crop has been 
 harvested. Work the plowed ground upon 
 the surface, so that all thistles will be kept 
 under until the time arrives for sowing 
 
Eradication of the Canada Thistle. 121 
 
 winter wheat. In the spring, sow clover 
 in the wheat crop, and after one, two, or 
 three crops of clover have been grown 
 repeat the same rotation. This method is 
 applicable to stifif soils where winter wheat 
 is a leading crop, and is especially success- 
 ful where the land first broken up was 
 clover sod. In localities where winter 
 wheat will not grow, substitute for the win- 
 ter wheat either spring wheat or barley, 
 as may be desired. There will then be 
 ample time for autumn cuhivation after the 
 sod land has been broken up ; if this time is 
 well employed, a great gain in the conflict 
 with the thistles will have been effected. 
 
 5. Smothering by a clover crop, with a 
 cultivated crop follozuing. Where land has 
 been sown to clover, cut the crop twice for 
 hay, or once for hay and once for seed. 
 Then follow with a properly cultivated 
 corn or root crop. The smothering influ- 
 ence of the two growths of clover, com- 
 bined with the effect of the two cuttings 
 necessitated, will be found of much service 
 in weakening the thistles. 
 
 6. Using the spud. When the thistles 
 have been well brought under, they should 
 be kept under by the use of the spud. The 
 
122 Weeds. 
 
 grain fields should be gone over before 
 harvest to prevent the thistles from blos- 
 soming, and the meadows and fields sown 
 with grasses should be similarly dealt with 
 after harvest. To spud thistles before their 
 blossoming season will not in itself be 
 found of much service in destroying them ; 
 but when they are cut with the spud an 
 inch or more below the surface of the soil 
 at that stage of their development, and are 
 again cut in the same way later on, the 
 effects as regards their destruction are very 
 beneficial. In the experience of the writer, 
 when thistles have been thus cut two or 
 three times a year, they have been found 
 to disappear entirely from pastures, fence 
 borders, lanes, and waste-places generally. 
 
 7. Removing thistles from permanent 
 pastures. In removing thistles from per- 
 manent pastures, our mode of procedure 
 must be governed largely by the character 
 of the soil and subsoil. In stiff clays, two 
 or three mowings a year for as many years 
 will cause them to disappear, but on lands 
 with open subsoils the spud will also have 
 to be resorted to. 
 
 Observation. The facts relating to an 
 experiment in removing Canada thistles 
 
Eradication of the Canada Thistle. 123 
 
 and other noxious weeds from a perma- 
 nent pasture in the Ontario Agricultural 
 College Experiment Station farm at 
 Guelph may prove interesting. The field 
 contained twenty acres, and had been for 
 several years in permanent pasture, and 
 was badly smitten. The experiment com- 
 menced in the summer of 1889, and the 
 work was superintended by the writer, who 
 also took part in it. The facts, as given 
 in the annual report of the station for 1891, 
 p. 50, are as follows: "The first spudding 
 in 1889 took fully 100 hours of one per- 
 son. The second spudding took 80 hours. 
 In 1890 the first spudding was done on July 
 9th and 10th, and took 40 hours. The sec- 
 ond spudding was done from August 26th 
 to September 7th, and took ^2 hours. In 
 1 89 1 the first spudding was done on July 
 1 8th, and took 7 hours. The second spud- 
 ding was done on about the last day of 
 September, and took 6 hours. The cost of 
 cleaning the field — for it is now clean — was 
 $22.50 in 1889, $9.00 in 1890, and $i.62>'2 
 in 1891 ; or a total, for the three years, of 
 $33.i2j^ for the 20 acres. The labor was 
 valued at $1.25 per day of 10 hours, with- 
 out board." The annual cost of maintain- 
 
124 Weeds. 
 
 ing cleanliness in this field, so long as it 
 remains a pasture, should not be more 
 than $2.50. 
 
 (2) THE SOW THISTLE. 
 
 There are several varieties of the sow 
 thistle, but some of them do not give much 
 trouble to the cultivator of the soil, and 
 it will be sufficient for our purpose here to 
 speak only of the variety known as the 
 perennial or corn sow thistle (Sonchiis 
 arveiisis), as it is the only form of tliis weed 
 which is very difficult to eradicate. The 
 corn sow thistle is a creeping perennial, 
 while nearly all the other varieties of the 
 sow thistle are annuals. The plant has an 
 upright habit of growth, and grows from 
 one to three feet high, but when th@ soil 
 is quite congenial it sometimes reaches a 
 greater height. Like the Canada thistle, 
 the perennial sow thistle is somewhat 
 branched towards the top. Its stems are 
 rather hairy or bristly, especially its flower 
 stems ; they are hollow, and when bruised 
 a milky fluid exudes from them. The 
 prickles upon its leaves are harmless. Its 
 blossoms are yellow, and the plants are 
 great producers of seed. 
 
Description of the Sow Thistle. 125 
 
 The perennial sow thistle makes its 
 appearance in May, and continues to grow 
 until the autumn. It blossoms in July, 
 and ripens its seeds in July and August. 
 It will grow in any kind of soil, but it is 
 
 THE PERENNIAL SOW THISTLE 
 
 most at home in rich moist loams, and 
 gives least trouble in stiff clays. 
 
 The perennial sow thistle, like the Can- 
 ada thistle, infests all kinds of crops, and 
 it ripens its seeds somewhat earlier than, 
 or simultaneously with, the crops amid 
 which it grows; the only crops of which 
 
126 Weeds. 
 
 this statement is not true being, probably, 
 red clover and alfalfa. 
 
 It is propagated by means of its seeds, 
 which are able to float about in the air by 
 reason of the downy attachment which 
 they possess. As its seeds are very numer- 
 ous, its numbers increase very rapidly in 
 the neighborhood of any place where once 
 they are allowed to ripen. It is an open 
 question if they have the power of sus- 
 taining a long flight, like the seeds of the 
 Canada thistle.' The perennial sow thistle 
 is also propagated with much rapidity by 
 means of its root-stocks, which are numer- 
 ous and which, like those of the Canada 
 thistle, are "creepers" bearing a very large 
 number of latent buds, as is show^n in the 
 sketch. Its seeds, like those of the Can- 
 ada thistle, are constantly being widely 
 distributed by being carried about with the 
 seeds of cereals, clovers, and grasses. 
 
 Modes of Eradication. 
 
 The means to be taken for destroying 
 this intruder are essentially the same as 
 those "described for the eradication of the 
 Canada thistle, and therefore need not be 
 repeated here. 
 
Description of the Ox-eye Daisy. 127 
 
 (3) THE OX-EYE DAIS/. 
 
 The ox-eye daisy (Chrysanthemum leii- 
 canthemum) is a simple perennial with a 
 branching habit of growth. It grows from 
 one to two feet high, according to soil and 
 crop conditions, but usually it does not grow 
 much more than one foot in height. It pro- 
 duces large flowers, consisting of a yellow 
 disc bordered with white rays. The fan- 
 cied resemblance of the disc in the center 
 to the eye of an ox has probably given rise 
 to the name. The flowers, sometimes called 
 *' Marguerites," have been much in favor for 
 bouquets during recent years. The plant, 
 however, is none the less a pestilent weed. 
 It is a great producer of seed. 
 
 The ox-eye daisy is very hardy. It can 
 resist in a marked degree the influences of 
 heat, cold, and drought. It commences to 
 blossom in May or June, according to the 
 locality, and under some conditions it will 
 continue to blossom as late as September. 
 The seeds have, in an uncommon degree, 
 the power of maturing on the stalk, even 
 when the stalks have been pulled out of the 
 ground or cut off from their roots before 
 the seeds are quite ripe, and they also pos- 
 
128 Weeds. 
 
 sess great vitality. Although the plants 
 may appear but singly at first, yet if they 
 are allowed to ripen their seeds, these fall 
 to the ground and grow up again so thickly 
 that to eradicate the weed by spudding is 
 almost impossible. Hence, in pastures and 
 waste places where cultivation cannot be 
 introduced, the ox-eye daisy is an extremely 
 difficult weed to deal with. It is not relished 
 by live stock, owing in part to the woody 
 nature of its growth, but they will browse 
 on it to some extent when it is young. 
 
 The ox-eye daisy grows in all soils, but 
 is most vigorous and troublesome in those 
 of loose texture. It infests all kinds of 
 crops, and it also grows where the land is 
 not cultivated, as in permanent pastures, 
 and in waste places generally. It is most 
 difficult of eradication in permanent pas- 
 tures and meadows, more especially as these 
 grow older, since the roots of the daisies 
 then become much interlaced with those of 
 the crops amid which they grow. It is least 
 troublesome in cultivated crops, and these 
 are very effective in destroying it. 
 
 This weed is distributed entirely by 
 means of its seed. It is most commonly 
 carried about in the seeds of timothy and 
 
Description of the Ox-eye Daisy. 129 
 
 some kinds of clover, but it is also distrib- 
 uted through the agency of the cereal 
 
 THE OX-EYE DAISY. 
 
 grains. It is often taken from field to field 
 on the farm in the manure, and is also car- 
 ried about to some extent by birds. 
 
130 Weeds. 
 
 Modes of Eradication. 
 
 The following are the modes of eradica- 
 tion that have been found most successful 
 in dealing with the ox-eye daisy: 
 
 1. Modifying the rotation. Drop meadow 
 out of the rotation until the infested fields 
 have been dealt with. 
 
 2. August plozving, followed by winter 
 rye cut early ^ and this again by a cultivated 
 crop. Grow a crop of rye followed by a 
 cultivated crop, as described in section 3 
 above, where we treated of the methods of 
 destroying the Canada thistle. The plow- 
 ing in June will turn under the daisies that 
 may have been in the rye, and the stirring 
 of the soil necessary to the cultivation of 
 the crop will be favorable to the germina- 
 tion of the seeds of the weed that may be 
 lying in the soil dormant. 
 
 5. Plowing up meadozv land and plant- 
 ing to a cultivated crop. In the case of 
 meadow land which is infested with the 
 weed, pasture it until the middle of June ; 
 then plow it deeply and plant to some culti- 
 vated crop, taking pains to cultivate it with 
 sufficient care. The daisies are thus turned 
 under before they have had an opportunity 
 
Eradication of the Ox-eye Daisy. 131 
 
 to ripen their seeds. It may be necessary to 
 grow a crop of corn or of roots the follow- 
 ing year in order to complete the work. 
 
 4. After-harvest and autumn cultivation, 
 followed by spring cultivation and a cul- 
 tivated crop. Plow the infested field lightly 
 after harvest, and then again deeply just 
 before winter. In the interval give the 
 soil one or more harrowings to induce the 
 daisy seeds to germinate. In the spring, 
 follow this preparation with a cultivated 
 crop, and this, if necessary, next year, by 
 another cultivated crop. 
 
 5. Sowing to rye for pasture or hay, 
 following by millet, or bare fallow and 
 winter wheat. Sow the infested field with 
 rye, and pasture the rye until June, or cut 
 it for hay. Follow the rye with a crop of 
 millet; or, if thought best, work the 
 ground on the bare fallow system until 
 winter wheat may be sown in September. 
 Where it may not be desired to grow win- 
 ter wheat, the occasional stirring of the 
 soil should be continued until the close of 
 the season, that the weed seeds lying in the 
 soil may be made to germinate. Then 
 next season some kind of spring cereal may 
 be grown. 
 
132 Weeds. 
 
 6. Gvozving a cultivated crop and fol- 
 lowing by a grain crop sozvn to ineadozu. 
 If a cultivated crop is grown with a view 
 to the destruction of the weed, then it 
 should be followed by a grain crop, which 
 should also be sown with clover, or clover 
 and grass. The grain crop should then be 
 gone over with the spud, and any daisies 
 found in it be cut oif. Spudding will prob- 
 ably be necessary in the meadow which fol- 
 lows the grain crop, more especially during 
 the first year of its growth. The best time 
 for spudding the ox-eye daisy .is when it 
 is in blossom, as at that time the weeds are 
 very easily seen. 
 
 When spudding the ox-eye daisy, it may 
 sometimes be necessary to catch the plant 
 with the hand and strike it over the spud 
 handle to free the adherent earth from the 
 fibrous roots of the weed which have been 
 cut off with it. 
 
 7. In permanent pastures, etc. Wher- 
 ever practicable pasture-lands that are 
 infested with ox-eye daisy should be broken 
 up and dealt wnth in one or other of the 
 methods described above. In pasture- 
 lands which cannot be cultivated and there- 
 fore must remain permanent, along fence 
 
 i 
 
Description of the Burdock. 133 
 
 borders, on the sides of roads, and in waste 
 places generally, it is difficult indeed to 
 deal with this pest. Any plan that will 
 prevent it from maturing its seeds will in 
 time prove effectual, but several years will 
 probably elapse before the weed will be 
 fully banished from such places. 
 
 (4) THE BURDOCK. 
 
 The burdock (Arctium lappa) is so well 
 known and so easily managed, if the work 
 of destroying it is gone about properly, 
 that it would seem almost superfluous to 
 write about the modes that will prove effect- 
 ive for its extermination, yet there is no 
 denying the fact that the burdock is one 
 of the most general of the weed abomina- 
 tions which disgrace the farms of today. 
 It is a biennial, the leaves of which are 
 very large even in the early stages of the 
 growth of the -plant. Its seed is borne on 
 a branched stem, which pushes up from 
 amid the center of the leaves to a height 
 of from two to five feet. The first year 
 of its growth, the burdock, being a bien- 
 nial, does not produce any seeds, but in the 
 second year it produces them in immense 
 numbers. The seeds are matured in 
 
 V 
 
134 
 
 Weeds. 
 
 enclosures at the end of the branches of 
 the stems. The seed sacs, circular in 
 shape, are so armed with hooks that they 
 adhere to almost everything with which 
 they come in contact. Hence we find them 
 
 THE BURDOCK. 
 
 The large plant in the sketch represents the burdock in the dead 
 
 state, after it has perfected its growth. 
 
 clinging in large numbers to the hair of 
 horses and cattle that pasture where they 
 grow, and also to the wool of sheep, which 
 they oftentimes render practically valueless. 
 
 i 
 
Description of the Burdock. 135 
 
 The burdock sends a strong tap root 
 down into the soil wherever the natural or 
 artificial drainage is good, hence it does not 
 suffer readily from dry weather. The root 
 as shown in the sketch is broken off. The 
 burdock comes into flower chiefly in the 
 months of June and July, but more espe- 
 cially in the latter month. If cut off above 
 the crown, even after the seed pods are 
 formed, young shoots will be thrown up 
 around the parent stem, and seed be 
 matured sometimes within a few inches of 
 the surface of the ground, and even many 
 weeks after the harvest season is over. 
 It is forgetfulness of this fact, more than 
 anything else, which allows this plant so 
 long to retain its hold in our fields. 
 
 The burdock will grow in nearly all soils 
 that are free from ground water. No other 
 weed, perhaps, is found in so many of the 
 provinces and states of our continent. It 
 is pre-eminently the weed of the outlying 
 and neglected portions of cities, towns and 
 villages, and it is much prone to intrench 
 itself along the fence borders and in the 
 waste places of the farm, but it does not 
 give much trouble where the soil is well 
 cultivated. 
 
136 Weeds. 
 
 The burdock is propagated solely by 
 means of its seed, which is possessed of 
 much vitahty. It is very generally distrib- 
 uted through the agency of domestic ani- 
 mals, to the hair and wool of which its 
 seeds most readily adhere. If a burdock 
 plant is left undisturbed, so that its seeds 
 ripen upon its stems, it sheds them upon 
 ttie ground about it, and there they will 
 continue to give trouble for years after. 
 
 Mode's of Eradication. 
 
 The following are the modes of eradica- 
 tion that have been found most successful 
 in dealing with the burdock: 
 
 I. In cidtivated fields. Where the bur- 
 dock is found in cultivated fields, it will of 
 course be cut off with the hay or grain 
 amid which it grows. When thus cut 
 during the first year of its growth, the 
 plant is but little injured, and when mowed 
 off during the second year it at once pushes 
 up fresh stems and ripens its seeds in great 
 numbers, as already mentioned. Although 
 the farmer may not notice this, the ripened 
 burs will not fail to find lodgment in the 
 hair of his cattle and the wool of his sheep 
 when they feed upon the aftermath or 
 
Description of Wild Lettuce. 137 
 
 gleanings. The only way to prevent this 
 late ripening of the seeds is to go over the 
 fields once or twice after the harvest is 
 over, and cut off with the spud all plants 
 that seem likely to produce seed that season. 
 2. In permanent pastures, waste places, 
 lanes, etc. In permanent pastures, and along 
 fences, in lanes, and around the corners of 
 farm buildings, and in the borders of wood- 
 lands, the plants must be destroyed by the 
 use of the spud. In cutting them, however, 
 great care must be taken to strike them 
 below the crown. If this be done the plants 
 will die, no matter what their previous 
 growth may have been. The spudding may 
 be done at any time of the year when the 
 ground is not frozen, but during the second 
 year the cutting must, of course, take place 
 before the plants form their seeds. A few 
 years "of this persistent spudding will soon 
 get to the last of them. Farmers who go 
 over their fields twice a year with the spud 
 will not long be troubled with burdocks. 
 
 (5) WILD LETTUCE. 
 
 The various species of wild lettuce {Lac- 
 tuca virosa, Lactiica scariola, and related 
 species) are annuals or biennials. The 
 
138 " Weeds. 
 
 most troublesome of them (L. virosa) 
 appears first to have obtained a foothold on 
 this continent in the Atlantic states, but 
 has traveled westward at a rapid rate. It 
 is now common in many sections of the 
 United States. The branches are numerous, 
 and on good soils strong plants will attain 
 the height of from 5 to 6 feet, but on ordi- 
 nary soils the average height will not be 
 more than 3 feet. The blossoms are a pale 
 yellow, and a vigorous plant is capable of 
 bearing from 8,000 to 10,000 seeds. The 
 seeds are provided with a downy attach- 
 ment which enables them to float in the air, 
 hence they may be carried by the winds to 
 almost any distance. 
 
 Wild lettuce comes up early rather than 
 late in the season. It matures its seeds in 
 midsummer. If the plants are cut out 
 before they have reached the blooming stage 
 they will at once send up other branches 
 which in turn will produce seeds. Horses 
 and cattle will crop it off to some extent in 
 pasture, but they are not fond of it. 
 
 Wild lettuce will grow on various soils, 
 but rich loams sustain it in best form. It 
 does not give much trouble in grain crops 
 or cultivated crops, but grows freely in 
 
Description of Wild Lettuce. 139 
 
 WILD LETTUCE. 
 
I40 Weeds. 
 
 meadows and pastures, on road sides, along 
 fence borders and in other waste places. 
 
 Wind is the principal agent in distribut- 
 ing the seeds of wild lettuce, but the seeds 
 may also be distributed along with those- of 
 clover and some of the grasses. 
 
 Modes of Eradication. 
 
 The following are the modes of eradi- 
 cation that have been found most success- 
 ful in dealing with wild lettuce : 
 
 1. Modifying the rotation. Drop meadow 
 and pasture out of the rotation for a time 
 and grow cultivated crops. This will only 
 be necessary with fields infested with the 
 weed. 
 
 2. Mozving and spudding. Cut the 
 plants off with the scythe or mower with 
 sufficient frequency to prevent them from 
 maturing seeds. When they are not numer- 
 ous they may be easily destroyed by cut- 
 ting them off with the spud an inch or two 
 below the surface of the earth. 
 
 Observations, (i) Wild lettuce is not 
 difficult of eradication where care is taken 
 to prevent the maturing of the seeds. (2) 
 Farms cannot be kept free from it in an 
 
Description of Ragweed and Kinghead. 141 
 
 infested neighborhood, without concen- 
 trated action on the part of the farmers. 
 
 (6) RAGWEED. 
 
 Ragweed (Ambrosia art emisice folia) and 
 kinghead {Ambrosia triUda) are annual 
 plants, with slender, much-branched stems. 
 There are several varieties of ragweed, but 
 the variety represented in the sketch and 
 the one known as kinghead are by far the 
 most troublesome ones. Ragweed more 
 commonly grows to the height of from 
 fifteen to twenty-one inches, though in 
 some soils it will, under favorable conditions, 
 grow to the height of four feet. King- 
 head is usually more vigorous, growing 
 from three to six feet high. The blossoms 
 have a yellowish tinge, but the contrast in 
 color between them and the leaves is not 
 marked. The seeds are small and helmet- 
 shaped, and when ripe are of a dark hue. 
 They are produced on the lower portions 
 of the flower-bearing parts of the branches, 
 and are very numerous. They are so light 
 that they float readily in water, and they 
 are possessed of great vitality. 
 
 These weeds usually do not develop 
 until late in the season ; they sometimes do 
 
142 Weeds. 
 
 COMMON RAGWEED. 
 
Description of Ragweed and Kinghedd. 143 
 
 not ripen their seeds in grain crops before 
 these are harvested, or in meadows before 
 the time of cutting. In the stubbles of 
 these crops, if not disturbed, they continue 
 to grow until late in the season. The blos- 
 soms and seeds are produced from July 
 till frost, the precise time of blossoming 
 varying with the attendant conditions of 
 growth. 
 
 These weeds will grow in all soils that 
 are free from stagnant water, but they 
 very much prefer friable or loamy soils 
 that contain a large proportion of humus. 
 They revel in black loams and muck soils 
 that have been well drained, but do not 
 make much headway in stiff clays, except 
 in depressions and valleys, or along water 
 furrows and watercourses. 
 
 While ragweed will grow in all kinds of 
 crops, it does not usually mature its seeds 
 in grain crops, nor does it mature them in 
 the first cutting for the season- in a clover 
 meadow. In rich soils, as in the Red River 
 Valley, the rank growth of these weeds in 
 grain fields makes them' serious pests. In 
 all kinds of stubble they push on rapidly 
 after the crop has been removed, and if 
 not disturbed, produce an enormous crop 
 
144 
 
 Weeds. 
 
 KINGHEAD OR GREAT RAGWEED. 
 
Description of Ragweed and Kinghead. 145 
 
 of seeds before the season closes; and in 
 cultivated crops, as corn or roots, they will 
 also produce seed abundantly if due atten- 
 tion is not given to cultivation late in the 
 season. 
 
 Ragweed and kinghead are distributed in 
 the seeds of all the late-maturing cereals, 
 and in the seed of mammoth and alsike 
 clover, and of timothy. Ragweed is most 
 commonly distributed in the seed of com^ 
 mon red clover, for the reason that by 
 the time the clover crop is harvested for 
 thrashing a large proportion of the seeds 
 of the ragweed growing in it have also 
 ripened. It is in the seed of common red 
 clover that ragweed- is usually carried to 
 new centers. The seeds of these weeds 
 are also distributed by the excrement of 
 animals, by clover hullers and by birds. 
 In localities where these weeds once get a 
 foothold, no agent is so potent in effecting 
 their distribution as water. In low-lying 
 level lands, their distribution soon becomes 
 as wide as the range of the water which 
 overflows them. The water in its subsi- 
 dence leaves the seeds scattered every- 
 where over the soil. It is impossible, 
 therefore, to keep entirely free from these 
 
146 Weeds. 
 
 weeds those parts of a farm which are sub- 
 jected to a periodical overflow of water 
 coming down from lands where they 
 abound. The most that can be done, under 
 such circumstances, is to keep them cut 
 down as they spring up, so that they can- 
 not mature their seeds. 
 
 Modes of Eradication. 
 
 The following are the modes of eradica- 
 tion that have been found most successful 
 in dealing with ragweed and kinghead. 
 
 J. Modifying the rotation and autumn 
 cultivation. Modify the rotation, and give 
 special attention to autumn cultivation. 
 Happily, the rotation will not require seri- 
 ous modification where careful attention is 
 given to the working of the soil in autumn, 
 but late-ripening cereals should not be 
 grown in the meantime, nor should timothy 
 nor any of the forms of clover be allowed 
 to produce a seed crop in the infested fields 
 until the ragweed is much reduced. As 
 soon as the cereal crops are harvested, the 
 ground should be plowed -or disked. It 
 may then be occasionally stirred until the 
 late plowing that is given on the approach 
 of winter. Autumn cultivation is peculiarly 
 
Eradication of Ragweed and Kinghead. 147 
 
 helpful in destroying these weeds, for the 
 reason that the plants grow late, rather 
 than early, in the season. 
 
 2. Growing cultivated crops. Grow cul- 
 tivated crops, taking special care that the 
 cultivation is carried on well through the 
 season. 
 
 J. Using the moiver. When fields are 
 newly sown to grass, the use of the mower 
 in the autumn will be found very effective. 
 The mowing should be done as close to the 
 surface of the ground as possible, for the 
 reason that the seeds of the ragweed are 
 often formed low down on the stem, and of 
 course it should be done before any of the 
 seeds ripen. Pastures and meadows may 
 be treated in the same way. 
 
 4. Spraying. Ragweed or kinghead in 
 fields of small grain may be killed or mate- 
 rially checked by spraying with any of the 
 materials recommended in the following 
 chapter, if applied when the plants are 
 about six inches high. 
 
 Observations, (i) When infested mead- 
 ows or pastures are to be broken up, the 
 work should be done, wherever practicable, 
 before any of the seeds of the weed have 
 had opportunity to ripen. (2) When the 
 
148 Weeds. 
 
 plants are well reduced, hand spudding will 
 soon effect the extermination of this weed, 
 but if its seeds have been allowed to become 
 numerous in the soil, several years will nec- 
 essarily elapse before the work of eradica- 
 tion can be completely effected. (3) Sheet) 
 may be made to render substantial service 
 in reducing the prevalence of this weed, 
 more especially if they be allowed to feed 
 upon it during the earlier stages of its 
 growth. 
 
 ^A> ...i:- .r. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 METHODS OF ERADICATING WEEDS OF THE 
 MUSTARD FAMILY. 
 
 The mustard family contains a large 
 number of troublesome weeds, such as wild 
 mustard, false flax, French weed or penny- 
 cress, peppergrass, shepherd's purse, and 
 wild radish, as well as some of our common 
 garden vegetables, as the cabbage, cauli- 
 flower and turnip. The plants of this fam- 
 ily may be recognized by the shape of the 
 flowers, as the parts are in fours in oppo- 
 site pairs, forming a cross. The flowers, 
 which are usually white or yellow, are 
 borne on stems (foot-stalks) which usually 
 arise from a cluster of leaves at the base. 
 They are closely clustered at the ends of 
 the branches, which gradually lengthen into 
 long racemes, with all stages from the 
 unopened flower buds above to ripe seeds 
 at the base. The leaves and stems usually 
 have a decided odor when crushed. Most 
 of the plants of this family are annuals or 
 
150 Weeds. 
 
 winter annuals, though a few are biennials 
 and perennials. 
 
 The weeds included in this family usually 
 occur in grain fields, gardens, lawns and 
 thin meadows. As they grow rapidly and 
 ripen their seeds with the grain, they are 
 difficult to combat by ordinary means in 
 sections where small grains are grown con- 
 tinuously on the same land for a period of 
 years. Where winter wheat and other 
 winter grains are grown, many of the mus- 
 tard-like weeds grow as winter annuals, 
 developing a rosette of root-leaves in the 
 fall, and starting into bloom and the matur- 
 ing of seeds very early the following spring. 
 As most of the weeds of this family are 
 annuals, they are easily killed by cultiva- 
 tion when small and give little trouble where 
 a good rotation is practiced, with the fre- 
 quent introduction of crops which require 
 frequent cultivation. Naturally, as with 
 other annuals, preventing the plants from 
 seeding is effective, but as the seeds of 
 most of the plants of this family have an 
 oily or mucilaginous covering which effect- 
 ually prevents decay, they maintain their 
 vitality in the soil for many years, and if 
 
Eradication of Mustard. 151 
 
 once allowed to ripen a crop of seeds will 
 give trouble for a long time thereafter. 
 
 The habits of growth of most of the 
 weeds of this family are quite similar, so 
 that a method which is effective in eradi- 
 cating one of them is usually equally so in 
 keeping others in check. For that reason, 
 the methods which are generally applicable 
 will be first discussed, followed by brief 
 descriptions of wild mustard, false flax, 
 French weed and tumbling mustard, the 
 members of this group which are most fre- 
 quently troublesome. 
 
 Among the methods which may be used 
 in eradicating weeds of the mustard family 
 may be mentioned sowing clean seed, har- 
 rowing spring grain, maintaining a regular 
 rotation, fall cultivation of stubble fields, 
 growing cultivated crops, bare fallow, hand 
 pulling and spraying. To obtain the best 
 results from these methods, it is sometimes 
 wise to use two or more of them together, 
 as, for example, following fall cultivation of 
 stubble with a cultivated crop in the spring. 
 
 /. Sowing clean seed is one of the most 
 effective ways of keeping the weeds dis- 
 cussed in this chapter in check. As the 
 seeds of most of these plants are small, 
 
152 Weeds. 
 
 they are quite easily removed from wheat 
 and barley by screening. They are more 
 difficult to take out of seed oats, as a small 
 proportion will stick in the crease of the 
 larger oat grains. They are exceedingly 
 difficult to remove from the seeds of clover 
 and alfalfa, however, as they are about the 
 same size and shape as the seeds of these 
 plants. Care should be taken in purchas- 
 ing clover and grass seeds to see that they 
 are free from seeds of these and other 
 weeds. 
 
 2. Harrozving spring-sozvn small grain 
 fields in the early spring, when the young 
 grain begins to appear, and again when it 
 is about three to five inches high, is quite 
 effective in killing the young mustard and 
 similar plants. In some instances three 
 and even four harrowings may be given, 
 especially in areas where the grain also 
 will be benefited by harrowing it thus fre- 
 quently. This method can only be prac- 
 ticed to advantage on drilled grain, as the 
 harrow will pull out the young grain as 
 well as the weeds in broadcast fields, nor 
 should it be used where the ground is very 
 wet in the spring. It is not particularly 
 effective on fall-sown grain, as the weeds 
 
Eradication of Mustard. 153 
 
 which come up in the fall along with the 
 grain are too securely rooted in the spring 
 to be removed by the harrow. 
 
 5. A regular rotation of crops which 
 includes the introduction at frequent and 
 regular intervals of cultivated crops and 
 meadow, with the recurrence of small grain 
 not oftener than once in three years, is an 
 excellent means of preventing the growth 
 of mustard and similar weeds, but one 
 which in many sections can hardly yet be 
 deemed practicable. Where such a rota- 
 tion is practiced and proper attention given 
 the cultivated crop and the sowing of clean 
 seed, these and similar weeds are not likely 
 to give trouble. If they are introduced in 
 some way, a modification of the rotation 
 may be necessary in any particular field 
 where they become common, by dropping 
 small grains out of it till these weeds are 
 subdued. 
 
 4. Fall cultivation of stubble Helds is 
 effective, but of course can only be prac- 
 ticed where clover or grass seed has not 
 been sown with the grain. A shallow plow- 
 ing or thorough disking immediately after 
 harvest will cause the seeds of mustard 
 and many other weeds to sprout if moist- 
 
154 Weeds. 
 
 Lire conditions are right. Occasional har- 
 rowings will then kill the small weeds, and 
 encourage germination of more seed, which 
 in turn can be destroyed. This method is 
 particularly good when it can be followed 
 by the growing of a cultivated crop in the 
 spring, as outlined below. If it is neces- 
 sary to grow small grain on the field on 
 which autumn cultivation is practiced, har- 
 rowing in the spring after the grain is up, 
 as outlined in the preceding section, is 
 strongly to be recommended. 
 
 5. Fall cultivation, followed by a culti- 
 vated crop in the spring. Fields which are 
 pretty thoroughly infested with mustard 
 can be cleared of this weed, except as the 
 seed remains in the ground, by the autumn 
 cultivation advised in the foregoing para- 
 graph, if it is followed by a cultivated crop 
 in the spring. As previously noted, the 
 weeds of the mustard family do not give 
 serious trouble where thorough cultivation 
 is practiced. Growing a quick-maturing, 
 vigorous soiling crop which will tend to 
 smother the weeds and at the same time be 
 removed early enough to prevent the ripen- 
 ing of seeds in any quantity is also a good 
 method of fighting annual weeds in con- 
 
Eradication of Mustard. 155 
 
 junction with fall cultivation of stubble 
 fields. 
 
 6. The bare fallozv which is maintained 
 throughout the season, though effective, is 
 an expensive method of fighting weeds of 
 this class, both in the labor required to 
 maintain it, and the soil fertility which is 
 lost through leaching, especially where the 
 rainfall is considerable. A modification 
 of the bare fallow which is maintained 
 throughout the year can be made by com- 
 bining the fall cultivation advised in sec- 
 tion 3 with disking and harrowing in 
 the spring for a few weeks, followed by 
 late planting of a cultivated crop or a rank- 
 growing soiling or green manure crop. 
 This is a good method of fighting weeds 
 of all kinds, and is less expensive than fal- 
 lowing through the entire season, while it 
 does not require the land to lie idle 
 throughout the year and thus lose a crop. 
 
 /. Hand pulling is practicable' only when 
 mustard and similar weeds occur in small 
 numbers when first introduced, or when 
 they have been greatly reduced by other 
 methods. Hand pulling is more effective 
 than spudding, as the weeds can then be 
 carried from the field and burned or other- 
 
156 Vi/eeds. 
 
 wise destroyed. This is particularly neces- 
 sary with wild mustard and similar weeds, 
 which have the power of maturing their 
 seeds even after the plants are removed 
 from the ground. 
 
 8. Spraying. A method which has been 
 quite commonly practiced in some sections 
 in recent years, and is now considered by 
 many to be one of the best means of com- 
 bating mustard and other broad-leaved 
 weeds in grain fields, meadows and pas- 
 tures, is spraying with a solution of salt, 
 iron sulfate, or some other chemical. 
 Spraying experiments to kill weeds were 
 first begun in this country about 1896, but 
 it is only in recent years that the practice 
 has become at all general. This method, 
 even as it is at present developed, can not 
 take the place of the more generally rec- 
 ognized methods of fighting weeds, such as 
 the sowing of clean seed, thorough culti- 
 vation, and crop rotation. It is effective, 
 however, in checking the growth of weeds 
 in those sections where no definite crop 
 rotation w^hich includes the growing of cul- 
 tivated crops is practiced, but where crop 
 after crop of small grain is grown on the 
 land. 
 
Eradication by Spraying. 157 
 
 The iveeds zvhich can be killed or seri- 
 ously checked by spraying include most of 
 the broad-leaved plants, such as those 
 included in the mustard family, kinghead, 
 ragweed, dandelion, and even the Canada 
 and bull thistles. Perennials and biennials 
 like these latter, however, must be sprayed 
 several times throughout the season to 
 prevent the growth of new shoots from the 
 roots. Other methods will usually be 
 found cheaper and better in fighting these 
 weeds, with the possible exception of dan- 
 delions in lawns. The spray, if properly 
 applied, will not injure the small grains, 
 or grasses which may have been sown with 
 the grain, as timothy or brome grass. Flax 
 should not be sprayed after it is three or 
 four inches high. Spraying is injurious to 
 clover -and alfalfa, and should not be used 
 on any grain field in which seeds of these 
 crops have been sown, or in meadows con- 
 taining them. It is not effective in fight- 
 ing wild oats, quack grass, foxtail, or 
 other weedy grasses. 
 
 The best time to spray is when the first 
 of the mustard, Frenchweed, or false flax 
 plants are in blossom, but before they have 
 formed pods, as the plants are often not 
 
158 Weeds. 
 
 entirely killed by the spray and the roots 
 and stems may contain sufficient vitality 
 to mature the seeds, even after the leaves 
 are killed. The proper time to apply the 
 spray of course varies with the locality, but 
 it is usually in May or early June. The 
 most effectiv-e v^ork can be done if the 
 spray is applied in damp, cloudy weather, 
 or toward evening, when the evaporation 
 will not be rapid. Naturally, the work 
 should not be done when a rain is immi- 
 nent, as the rain will wash the chemical 
 off the leaves and destroy its effectiveness. 
 Weeds are more easily killed when the 
 growth is rapid than when it is slow. 
 Usually one spraying is sufficient, but if 
 the weeds are numerous, an additional 
 application a week or ten days later may 
 be necessary. 
 
 The materials used in spraying are usu- 
 ally solutions of iron sulfate, copper sul- 
 fate, or common salt. Iron sulfate (cop- 
 peras) is generally considered to be the 
 most effective chemical for use in destroy- 
 ing mustard and similar weeds. About 50 
 to 55 gallons of any of these solutions are 
 required to cover the weeds on an acre of 
 land properly. The proper strength of the 
 
Eradication by Spraying. 159 
 
 solution is about 75 to 100 pounds of iron 
 sulfate to 50 gallons of water; 75 pounds 
 are sufficient if the weeds are young and 
 growing rapidly. From 12 to 15 pounds 
 of copper sulfate, or about one-third of a 
 barrel of common salt, in 50 gallons of 
 water, will make the solution of proper 
 strength for good work when these mate- 
 rials are used. 
 
 The machinery for spraying varies with 
 the acreage on which it is to be used. If 
 only a small area is to be sprayed, as in 
 lawns or the eradication of small patches 
 of some particular weed, any of the ordi- 
 nary knapsack or bucket spray pumps, if 
 fitted with a nozzle which will give a fine, 
 misty spray, will be found satisfactory. If 
 a large acreage is to be sprayed, a power 
 sprayer of the type shown in the frontis- 
 piece is necessary. This machine, or a simi- 
 lar one, can be purchased from dealers in 
 spraying apparatus for from $75 to $150, 
 the cost varying with the size and effective- 
 ness of the machine. ^ It is essential in any 
 case to use a machine with sufficient power 
 to give a strong, misty spray; a sprinkler 
 will not do. It is desirable in purchasing 
 a sprayer to select one which can be used 
 
i6o Weeds. 
 
 for other purposes if possible, such as the 
 spraying of potatoes or orchard and truck 
 crops. 
 
 The cost of spraying varies according to 
 the material used, the machinery with which 
 it is applied, and the time necessary to apply 
 it. The material, whether it be iron sul- 
 phate, copper sulphate, or common salt, 
 should not cost more than $1.25 an acre, 
 and may run as low as 75 cents, according 
 to the cost in the local market, the material, 
 and the quantity used. Salt is probably the 
 cheapest of the three, and should not cost 
 more than 75 cents. A field sprayer like 
 that illustrated should spray from 25 to 40 
 acres in a day. In addition to the driver 
 and horse or team necessary for this outfit, 
 another man and team to haul water will 
 be needed for rapid work unless the spray- 
 ing is done close to the water supply. 
 
 The weeds of this family for which spe- 
 cial descriptions are given are the ones 
 which are most commonly found trouble- 
 some. They are the zvild mustard, false 
 Hax, French zvecd or penny cress, and tum- 
 bling mustard. The methods of eradication 
 outlined in the foregoing pages will be 
 found effective in combating these and sim- 
 
Description of Wild Mustard. i6i 
 
 ilar weeds of the mustard family, such as 
 peppergrass, shepherd's purse, and the wild 
 radish. 
 
 (l) WILD MUSTARD. 
 
 Wild mustard (Brassica arvensis) is one 
 of the most difficult weeds to dislodge found 
 on this continent, when once it gets a strong 
 foothold in the soil. Owing to the extraor- 
 dinary vitality of its seeds, a very long time 
 is required to completely effect its removal 
 from any soil infested by it, for the reason 
 that for years and years the seeds lying in 
 the soil continue to germinate with each 
 successive cultivation that may happen to 
 bring them near the surface. 
 
 Wild mustard is an annual plant which, 
 in the earlier stages of its growth, bears 
 some resemblance to the radish and to the 
 yellow-fleshed varieties of the turnip. It 
 has a spreading, fibrous root, as shown in 
 the sketch. Its stem is more or less 
 branched, according as it is crowded or not 
 when growing, and it bears a bright yellow 
 blossom, which can be seen at a consider- 
 able distance. Its seeds resemble those of 
 the turnip so closely that they cannot easily 
 be distinguished from them, and they also 
 
1 62 Weeds. 
 
 closely resemble the seeds of some varieties 
 of rape. 
 
 Wild mustard comes up in spring as soon 
 as the weather gets really warm, but seeds 
 that come sufficiently near the surface will 
 germinate as long as the season of growth 
 
 WILD MUSTARD. 
 
 lasts. It grows very rapidly, and matures 
 an immense number of seeds. It sometimes 
 grows to the height of more than two feet, 
 but when it ripens amid grain crops is about 
 eighteen inches in height. Its seed pods 
 
Description of Wild Mustard. 163 
 
 are usually about an inch in length. The 
 first flowers, or those borne by the earlier 
 developed plants, appear in May or early in 
 June, but the late plants will produce seeds 
 on into the month of September, or even 
 later. Fortunately, it is not a plant that 
 can withstand severe frost, hence it is not 
 found to any considerable extent in mead- 
 ows or pastures, or in fields of winter 
 wheat or rye. It is not positively known 
 how long its seeds will retain the power of 
 germination when lying in the soil, but it 
 has been claimed that they may lie buried 
 for at least fifty years and yet immediately 
 spring into vigorous life when brought to 
 the surface of the soil under favorable 
 conditions. 
 
 Wild mustard will grow in all kinds of 
 soils, but not equally well. It is most at 
 home in friable limestone soils that possess 
 good drainage, but it will also grow in great 
 luxuriance on loamy prairie soils. On stiff 
 clays it does not grow so readily; but it 
 will make fair headway even in these when 
 given the opportunity. 
 
 Wild mustard grows in all kinds of grain 
 crops that are sown in the spring, and usu- 
 ally it matures its seeds before the grain in 
 
164 Weeds. 
 
 which it grows is ripe. It is manifest that 
 where spring grains are chiefly grown the 
 contest with this weed will be a difficult 
 one. It has been argued by some persons 
 that wild mustard does not interfere to any 
 serious extent with the yields of the crops 
 amid which it grows, but it must be evident 
 to any one who understands the way in 
 which plants feed that a soil cannot produce 
 a crop of mustard and one of grain at the 
 same time, with the result that the grain 
 will yield as well as if the mustard had not 
 been there. 
 
 Wild mustard is distributed by means of 
 various agencies. Some seeds are carried 
 from place to place by birds, but usually 
 this weed finds its way to new centers by 
 the seed being carried in grain. The thrash- 
 ing machine is also a potent means of car- 
 rying it from farm to farm. It is further 
 distributed over farms on which it grows 
 by means of the droppings of cattle, and by 
 the manure. It is also very frequently dis- 
 tributed by spring floods ; when this is the 
 case the farmer has great difficulty in deal- 
 ing with it. 
 
Description of False Flax. 165 
 
 (2) FALSE FLAX. 
 
 False flax {Camelina saliva), sometimes 
 known as wild flax, has probably gained its 
 name from the prevalent, but mistaken, 
 notion that it has originated in the degen- 
 eracy of cultivated flax, whereas cultivated 
 flax is a plant of another order. False flax 
 usually grows to the height of about eigh- 
 teen inches, but sometimes it grows consid- 
 erably higher. Where the seeds have been 
 shed numerously the previous year around 
 some parent stem, it frequently comes up 
 so thickly that some of the plants cannot 
 grow more than a few inches above the 
 ground. In the earlier stages of its growth 
 false flax is somewhat leafy, but after its 
 blossoming stage is passed the upper por- 
 tions of the plant consist mainly of stems 
 and seed pods, as shown in the sketch. The 
 blossoms are small, and of a pale yellow 
 color. 
 
 Ordinarily, false "flax is classed as an 
 annual, although it usually commences to 
 grow in the later portions of the year previ- 
 ous to that in which the seeds are matured. 
 False flax is very hardy, and can withstand 
 considerable frost. Its seeds, which are 
 
i66 
 
 Weeds. 
 
 FALSE FLAX. 
 
Description of False Flax. 167 
 
 very numerous, are easily shed, hence when 
 the ripe plants are disturbed by the jar of 
 the machines used in cutting the crops amid 
 which they grow, many of their seeds are 
 shed upon the ground. The seeds of false 
 flax have some resemblance to the seeds of 
 common flax, but they are much smaller. 
 
 False flax is a weed that will grow in any 
 kind of soil adapted to winter wheat or 
 meadow, hence it will flourish on a wide 
 range of soils. It seems equally at home in 
 the stiffest clays and in the mild, humous 
 loams of the prairie. False flax peculiarly 
 infests winter wheat, rye, meadows and 
 pastures. It does not usually grow to any 
 considerable extent in spring crops, but 
 sometimes stray plants will be found in 
 these crops. These stray plants, however, 
 usually have sprung up in the preceding 
 fall, and have survived the cultivation 
 involved in preparing the ground for being 
 sown in the spring. 
 
 This plant is distributed by means of the 
 seeds of the crops amid which it grows, 
 by farmyard manure, and by droppings of 
 cattle, but it is more widely distributed by 
 being carried in the seed of timothy than 
 in any other way. In this fact we find a 
 
i68 Weeds. 
 
 chief explanation of the sudden appearance 
 of false flax in new centres where formerly 
 it was not known. 
 
 Observations, In the conflict with false 
 flax it will be well to bear in mind the fol- 
 lowing: (i) That grass seeds should inva- 
 riably be sown along with spring grain, as 
 wheat or barley; (2) that autumn cultiva- 
 tion is always the most important thing to 
 be attended to, owing to the natural ten- 
 dency of the weed to germinate from seed 
 in the fall of the year; (3) that when false 
 flax is found in meadows merely in detached 
 patches, the infested parts may be cut and 
 used for soiling purposes, while the remain- 
 der of the crop may be harvested in the 
 usual way; (4) that where alfalfa can be 
 substituted for the ordinary meadow crops 
 it is well to make the change, inasmuch as 
 in that case the first cutting of the alfalfa 
 would take place before the false flax would 
 be ripe. 
 
 (3) FRENCH WEED. 
 
 Frenchweed (Thlaspi arvense), also 
 known as pennycress and stinkweed, is an 
 annual, but when it has not yet produced 
 seeds in the autumn, it will live through the 
 
Description of Frenchzvecd. 169 
 
 winter and mature them the following 
 spring and summer. The name stinkweed 
 is due to the offensive odor which it pos- 
 sesses, and which it imparts to the beef and 
 milk of animals which feed upon it. It is 
 of the same family as mustard, and, like all 
 weeds of that family, it is difficult to eradi- 
 cate. In certain sections of the western 
 prairies it is giving very much trouble, more 
 especially in Minnesota, the Dakotas and 
 Manitoba. 
 
 Frenchweed is usually about a foot high, 
 but under favorable circumstances it will 
 reach the height of two feet, and the plants 
 are capable of bearing seeds though not 
 more than 2 inches high. The branches are 
 numerous. The leaves are oblong in shape 
 and of a deep green shade. The flowers 
 are very small and white in color. The seed 
 pods are elliptical and flat, and from one- 
 fourth of an inch to half an inch in diame- 
 ter. They are very numerous and each pod 
 contains several small seeds. 
 
 Frenchweed will ripen its seeds at any 
 season of the year from June until the 
 arrival of the autumn frosts. The season 
 of maturity is dependent chiefly on the time 
 of the year at which the plants commence 
 
170 
 
 Weeds. 
 
 to grow. Those which get a start in the 
 autumn blossom in May, and by the arrival 
 
 FRENCHWEED. 
 
 of the harvest season the seeds will nearly 
 all be shed on the ground. It is claimed 
 
Description of Tumbling Mustard. 171 
 
 that plants from seeds which have fallen 
 early in the season will in turn mature 
 before the coming of winter. 
 
 Frenchweed will grow least vigorously 
 on stiff clays, and most luxuriantly on the 
 vegetable soils of the prairies. It harms 
 grain crops much more than pasture or 
 meadow or cultivated crops, and it does 
 m.ore injury to grain crops which ripen 
 early than to those which ripen late. 
 
 Frenchweed is distributed through the 
 medium of the seeds. They are carried 
 along with the seeds of cereals amid which 
 they have grown. They may also be dis- 
 tributed in manure and in the droppings of 
 cattle, and to some extent they are con- 
 veyed by water and carried by wind. The 
 seeds are possessed of great vitality, but 
 they will not germinate unless they are near 
 the surface of the soil. 
 
 (4) TUMBLING MUSTARD. 
 
 Tumbling mustard (Sisymbrium altissi- 
 mum) is another bad weed of the mustard 
 family. In some localities it is known 
 simply as "Tumble weed," but in central 
 Europe it is called Hungarian mustard. It 
 is thought that it was brought to this con- 
 
172 Weeds, 
 
 tinent by certain Austrians employed in the 
 construction of the Canadian Pacific rail- 
 way. About the year 1889, it began to 
 arrest the attention of the farmers around 
 Indian Head, Saskatchewan. Since that 
 date it has spread rapidly over a large sec- 
 tion of the Canadian Northwest, and to 
 some extent into the adjoining portions of 
 the United States. 
 
 Tumbling mustard is an annual or winter 
 annual. When it grows amid small grain 
 crops, its branches are not numerous, but 
 they are long and slender. When it has 
 room to grow the branches are quite nu- 
 merous and they bear an enormous numj>er 
 of seed pods. The seeds are small, and of 
 a dark reddish brown color. The plants 
 commonly grow about two feet high but 
 the height varies with the soil and season. 
 The flowers are a pale yellow and the plant 
 bears a close resemblance to common wild 
 mustard. 
 
 Tumbling mustard will grow at all 
 season between the time of the spring and 
 autumn frosts. The seeds usually mature 
 at the same time as those of the small 
 grains or even a little earlier, but under 
 
Description of Tumbling Mustard. 173 
 
 certain conditions they will continue to 
 ripen until the arrival of the autumn frosts. 
 
 TUMBLING MUSTARD 
 
 If cut off before the blossoming stage, 
 more branches will be produced. 
 
174 Weeds. 
 
 While tumbling mustard infests all kinds 
 of crops, it is peculiarly troublesome in 
 cereals. Where these get an early and 
 vigorous start in the spring, they will k^eep 
 the weeds in check for that reason, but 
 when from any cause the crops are weakly, 
 the weeds will soon overshadow them. It 
 does not give serious trouble in pastures or 
 meadows. This plant will grow in various 
 classes of soils, but it thrives most vigor- 
 ously on those essentially humous in their 
 composition. 
 
 Tumbling mustard is propagated chiefly 
 by such agencies as wind, water, birds and 
 the seeds of cereals and millet, but of these 
 the first mentioned is by far the most potent 
 and dangerous. As the wind is such an 
 effective agency in its distribution, anything 
 that will stop the spread of this weed by 
 this means, as a wire fence, will be useful. 
 If the mustard and other plants which col- 
 lect along the fence are then gathered up 
 and destroyed, they will be prevented from 
 again blowing out into the fields when the 
 direction of the wind changes. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 ERADICATION OF THE WEEDY GRASSES. 
 
 The grass family includes a large number 
 of our most useful plants, such as corn, 
 wheat, oats, barley, and all the forage 
 grasses, and is the most valuable of all the 
 great botanical divisions. On the other 
 hand, it includes some of our most trouble- 
 some weeds, which, because of the persist- 
 ence of their creeping root-stocks, as in 
 quack grass, or the similarity of their 
 growth and seed habits to the cereals in 
 which they grow, as with wild oats, or for 
 some other reason, are very troublesome to 
 the farmer and very difficult to eradicate. 
 
 The three most troublesome grasses to 
 the farmers of Canada and the northern 
 United States are quack grass, wild oats, 
 and foxtail. Wild barley or squirrel-tail 
 grass is also a very serious weed pest in 
 prairie pastures and meadows, but one 
 which rather quickly succumbs to cultiva- 
 tion. On land that cannot be cultivated, 
 
176 Weeds. 
 
 cutting before the seed ripens will be effect- 
 ive in preventing its spread. Nearly all 
 the other weedy grasses quite closely resem- 
 ble some one of the three mentioned in the 
 beginning of. this paragraph, and may be 
 eradicated by using the methods recom- 
 mended for the one they most nearly 
 approach in their habits of growth. 
 
 (l) QUACK GRASS. 
 
 Quack grass (Agropyron repens) is 
 known by a great variety of names, as quack 
 grass, scutch grass, quick grass, quitch 
 grass, and dog grass; but it is generally 
 called either quack or couch grass. Quack 
 grass is a creepmg perennial, the root-stocks 
 of which are so numerous that they soon fill 
 the soil. They resemble considerably the 
 roots of Canadian blue grass (Poa com- 
 pressa), but they are much larger and 
 stronger and more vigorous in every way, 
 and they are very much more tenacious of 
 life. The root-stocks of quack grass are so 
 strong and unyielding that they have been 
 know^n to push their way through the tuber 
 of the potato. The stems grow to the height 
 of one to three feet, according to soil and 
 season, and each of them is terminated bv 
 
Description of Quack Grass. 177 
 
 a slender spike from two to several inches 
 in length. The leaves bear much resem- 
 
 QUACK GRASS. 
 
 blance to those of timothy, but are some- 
 what larger, and are characterized by a 
 deeper shade of green. 
 
178 Weeds. 
 
 Quack grass makes a good growth early 
 in the season. Its seeds usually mature in 
 August, about the same time as those of 
 timothy. It will grow in almost any kind 
 of soil, but is most partial to loams and 
 soils of a decidedly open texture. It is 
 least at home in stiff clays, and in these it 
 is much more easily destroyed than else- 
 where. 
 
 Quack grass grows in all kinds of crops 
 from early spring until late autumn, and 
 during this entire period the work of prop- 
 agation goes constantly on by means of its 
 creeping root-stocks. When once it gets a 
 footing, its power of crowding out other 
 crops is very great. Like the Canada this- 
 tle and the perennial sow thistle, quack 
 grass also is easily distributed by means of 
 the seeds of the useful grains and grasses, 
 for its seeds ripen at the same time as those 
 of the cereals, and those of some of the 
 clovers, as for example alsike and mam- 
 moth, and those of timothy. It is also dis- 
 tributed through the agency of farmyard 
 manure, both home-made and purchased. 
 
 Quack grass has some redeeming quali- 
 ties. It furnishes a considerable amount 
 of food of a nutritious -character, both as 
 
Eradication of Quack Grass. 179 
 
 pasture and as hay, and when cut as hay it 
 affords a considerable aftermath. It is so 
 hardy that the cold of winter and the heat 
 of summer cannot destroy it. Hence it 
 has been deHberately bought and sowed 
 to provide permanent pasture, but after a 
 few years its roots become so matted that 
 the plants fail to produce a vigorous 
 growth. When this is so, the pasture may 
 easily be renovated by simply plowing it, 
 and leveling it down again with the har- 
 row. Quack grass, however, is generally 
 looked upon as a great pest, owing to the 
 difficulty of getting rid of it when its 
 absence is desired, and this view is doubt- 
 less the correct one to take of it. 
 
 Other weedy grasses which resemble 
 quack grass more or less closely and are 
 ■sometimes mistaken for it include vanilla 
 grass or holy grass, western wheat grass, 
 and dropseed grass. All of these grasses 
 may be eradicated by the methods recom- 
 mended below for the eradication of quack 
 grass. 
 
 , Modes of Eradication. 
 
 When the attempt is made to destroy 
 quack grass, effective work should be made 
 of it, and this in a single season. The fol- 
 
i8o Weeds. 
 
 lowing modes of dealing with it will be 
 found successful, except in season of unu- 
 sually heavy rainfall. 
 
 I. After-harvest and autumn cultivation, 
 followed by spring cultivation and a cul- 
 tivated crop. After harvest, plow the 
 infested fields lightly, and then harrow with 
 the ordinary harrow — if necessary, using 
 also the spring-tooth cultivator to shake 
 the roots of the grass free from the soil. 
 Then draw the roots into light windrows 
 with the horse rake, and, when they are 
 dry enough, burn them. If the weather 
 should not be dry enough for burning 
 them, the root-stocks may be carted into 
 a compost heap. Repeat the operation a 
 second time and even a third time the same 
 autumn if the weather will admit of it, 
 plowing the ground more deeply each time 
 in order to bring up fresh root-stocks. In 
 no case, however, should the disturbing 
 work go on in wet weather. When the 
 late autumn arrives, rib the land by turn- 
 ing two furrows together from opposite 
 directions, or plow the land so that the 
 largest possible amount of surface shall be 
 exposed to the action of the frost in win- 
 ter. The frost has the efifect (i) of kill- 
 
Eradication of Quack Grass. i8i 
 
 ing the roots that are exposed by the plow- 
 ing, and (2) of freeing them from, the soil. 
 In the spring use -the harrow and culti- 
 vator occasionally in time of dry weather, 
 and the horse rake also if necessary, until 
 it is time to plant corn, roots, or some other 
 cultivated crop. Then cultivate this crop 
 properly, giving it such hand work as may 
 be deemed necessary along the line of the 
 rows. 
 
 2. Ploiv under deeply after the grass has 
 been cut for hay. Allow the grass to grow 
 until near the blossoming stage. Then 
 mow it for hay. Then plow the land 
 deeply, not less than 8 or 9 inches, and if 
 it can be plowed to a greater depth the 
 results will be even more satisfactory. The 
 plowing should be done with much care so 
 that all the grass is deeply buried. The 
 disk should then be run over the land every 
 seven to fourteen days subsequently dur- 
 ing the growing season. In a dry season 
 this method will prove very effective. 
 
 J. Grow two crops of- corn in succession. 
 Grow two crops of corn in succession, 
 planting the corn so that it can be culti- 
 vated both ways. The cultivation should 
 be so thorough that the quack g'rass will be 
 
i82 Weeds. 
 
 all destroyed between the rows of corn. 
 The following season run the disk over the 
 land quite frequently until the middle of 
 June. Then sow millet at the rate of one 
 bushel of seed per acre. The growth of 
 millet thus secured should smother any 
 plants of the quack grass that may have 
 survived. 
 
 Observations. If the first method out- 
 lined is thoroughly followed out, then by 
 autumn the quack grass will be completely 
 destroyed. An infested field was very 
 thoroughly cleaned by this method in one 
 season at the Ontario Experiment Station 
 farm at Guelph in 1891, the cultivated crop 
 used being corn. It should be remarked 
 that more constant and careful cultivation 
 was given to this crop than a corn crop 
 usually receives, and this is true in respect 
 to both the horse labor and the hand labor. 
 In a wet season, however, it would scarcely 
 be possible to eradicate quack grass with- 
 out an expenditure of labor too costly for 
 such a result. Indeed, quack grass should 
 never be disturbed when the ground is wet, 
 for at such a time the growth of the grass 
 would in some respects be encouraged by 
 stirring the soil. 
 
Description of the Wild Oat. 183 
 
 In fence borders it will usually be found 
 very difficult to dislodge quack grass with- 
 out first removing the fence for a time, 
 and then cleaning the ground as described 
 above. However, another mode would be 
 to smother the weed by piling litter or 
 manure upon it, but this mode would only 
 be applicable in the case of small patches. 
 It must not be forgotten that the weed 
 should be destroyed in such places, other- 
 wise it will be continually pushing itself 
 out into the field and giving trouble. 
 
 (2) THE WILD OAT. 
 
 The wild oat (Avena fatua) is an annual 
 grass that is one of our most pernicious and 
 troublesome weeds. In fact, the attention 
 has never been given to this pest that its 
 banefulness merits, but we would advise all 
 farmers to spare no pains to exterminate it 
 utterly from their land. The wild oat will 
 grow readily at different seasons of the 
 year, but it makes its most vigorous growth 
 in the warm, moist weather of spring, 
 though not in early spring. It bears con- 
 siderable resemblance to the common oat, 
 but there are some distinctive points of dif- 
 ference. In the wild oat the chaff scales 
 
i84 
 
 Weeds. 
 
 which adhere to the grain are thick and 
 hairy, while in the cultivated varieties these 
 scales are not so coarse and are hairless. 
 The wild oat has a long, stiff awn, which 
 
 WILD OATS. 
 
 is usually twisted near its base ; in the cul- 
 tivated varieties, the awn is either entirely 
 wanting or, if present, is not so stiff, and 
 is seldom bent. When the awn of the wild 
 
Description of the Wild Oat. 185 
 
 oat is dry, it is generally twisted closely 
 upon itself, but when it is moistened by 
 dew or rain, it slowly uncoils. This uncoil- 
 ing of the twisted awn causes the seed to 
 sprawl and spring about upon the ground, 
 and is a means of forcing the seed into the 
 ground in damp weather. The grain of the 
 wild oat is light, being composed chiefly of 
 hull, and it is therefore of but little value 
 as a feed. 
 
 The resemblance of the wild oat to other 
 cereals before heading is so close that when 
 it grows along with them it is impossible 
 to- detect its presence without very careful 
 scrutiny. It matures its seeds earlier than 
 nearly all the varieties of the useful cereals, 
 but of course not so much so in the case of 
 fall wheat as of the spring cereals ; hence 
 it is especially troublesome in the localities 
 where cereal crops are much grown. It is 
 very troublesome, too, from the fact that it 
 begins to shed its seeds upon the ground 
 as soon as ripe, and the operation of har- 
 vesting the crops amid which it grows 
 greatly helps it to shed its seeds. It is a 
 very hardy plant, and will endure adverse 
 conditions of soil and weather in a remark- 
 able degree, but its seeds will not germinate 
 
i86 Weeds. 
 
 very early in the spring, nor in the autumn, 
 unless the weather be warm and moist. It 
 luxuriates in soils that are well adapted to 
 the growth of cereals, but it will also grow 
 in various other soils. The wild oat does 
 not give serious trouble in meadows or pas- 
 tures. Its seeds are possessed of great 
 vitality, and will spring into life when 
 brought under suitable conditions, although 
 they may have been buried in the ground 
 or in unrotted manure for years and years. 
 The wild oat is distributed most freely 
 by means of the seeds of the small grains, 
 for the reason that, if left to grow among 
 these crops, it is sure to ripen before them, 
 and therefore to have a portion of its seed 
 mixed with the thrashed grain. It is also 
 very largely distributed by manure, since 
 its seed is so light that there is no means of 
 preventing it from being very freely mixed 
 with the straw of the crops amid which it 
 has grown. When once among the straw of 
 the manure heap, its seeds will maintain 
 their vitality for years, unless the utmost 
 pains be taken to thoroughly rot the manure, 
 which should always be done before the 
 manure is placed on the land if wild oat 
 seeds are suspected of being present in it. 
 
Eradication of the Wild Oat. 187 
 
 The watercourses also carry down the seeds 
 of wild oats from higher levels, and some 
 seeds are brought into new localities by 
 thrashing machines. On the farm it is also 
 further distributed by being carried in the 
 droppings of animals. 
 
 Darnel and cheat are annual weedy 
 grasses which give much trouble in some 
 sections. They can be eradicated by the 
 means here recommended for the wild oat. 
 
 Modes of Eradication. 
 
 The following are the modes of eradica- 
 tion that have been found most successful 
 in dealing with wild oats: 
 
 I. After-harvest and autumn cultivation, 
 follozved by a cultivated crop. In fields 
 which have borne grain crops, plow the 
 land just as soon as this can be done, start- 
 ing the process even before the shocks of 
 grain have been removed from the fields — 
 the reason for this early plowing being that 
 many of the wild oat seeds which have been 
 recently shed upon the ground may at this 
 time be induced to germinate, whereas they 
 could not easily be induced to germinate 
 later on. Plow a second time, and then 
 cultivate or harrow the land occasionally, 
 
i88 Weeds. 
 
 until the time of late plowing in the fall. 
 Other wild oat seeds lying in the upper por- 
 tions of the soil may thus be encouraged to 
 germinate. It will be an additional encour- 
 agement if the land be rolled once or twice 
 during the process, especially if the season 
 be dry, for the rolling tends to retain the 
 moisture of the soil, and when the soil is 
 not moist the oats do not germinate readily. 
 In any case, it must be remembered that 
 they do not germinate so readily in the 
 autumn as in the warm and moist days of 
 spring. When the late autumn has come, 
 plow deeply, so that the lower section of 
 the cultivated portion of the soil will be 
 brought to the surface. Then in the spring- 
 stir the surface soil occasionally until it is 
 time to plant corn or some other cultivated 
 crop. 
 
 2. Growing tzvo cultivated crops. Grow 
 two cultivated crops in succession on the 
 land, giving careful attention to the previ- 
 ous autumn cultivation and to the subse- 
 quent preparation of 'the soil for seed, and 
 to the cultivation of the crops while they 
 are growing. 
 
 J. Encourage germination, kill the young 
 plants, and sozv a late crop. Allow the wild 
 
Eradication of the Wild Oat. 189 
 
 oats to start in the early spring. Then plow 
 the land in order to bury the myriads of 
 oats that have germinated. The ground 
 should be at once harrowed to encourage 
 the germination of the oats in the upper 
 section of the soil. When another crop 
 has started the disk should again be run 
 over the land. It should then be sown to 
 millet or barley during the first half of 
 June. These crops should be cut before any 
 stray wild oats that may have survived 
 have produced seed. The ground should 
 then be at once plowed again to bring up 
 the lower section of the furrow slice, which 
 will contain seeds. The next year the same 
 process should be followed. But few wild 
 oats will then remain in the soil. If a cul- 
 tivated crop, as corn, follows, the wild oats 
 should be all destroyed. 
 
 4. Seed the land to alfalfa. One of the 
 most effective ways to eradicate wild oats 
 is to seed the land to alfalfa. The fre- 
 quency of the cutting of the alfalfa crop 
 will prevent any of the oats from maturing 
 seed. If the alfalfa is harvested for sev- 
 eral successive years, the seeds of the wild 
 oats remaining . in the soil will lose their 
 germinating power. The two methods last 
 
190 Weeds. 
 
 submitted are specially applicable to north- 
 western conditions. 
 
 Observations, (i) In all districts infested 
 with wild oats, darnel, or cheat, the great- 
 est care should be taken to get pure seed 
 for sowing, especially of spring oats, wheat, 
 and barley, for these weedy grasses will in 
 many cases ripen earlier than any of these. 
 (2) If these weeds exist on any farm, their 
 seeds, owing to their lightness, are sure to 
 get , mixed with the straw of the thrashed 
 grain, and thus get into the manure. Owing 
 to the remarkable vitality of the seed of 
 wild oats, whenever there is a suspicion that 
 the manure contains wild oat seed it is par- 
 ticularly essential that it should be thor- 
 oughly rotted before being used. (3) 
 Owing to its reluctance to germinate in the 
 fall, autumn cultivation does not do as 
 much for the eradication of this weed as 
 for many others. The greatest pains, there- 
 fore, must be taken to induce its seeds to 
 germinate by the earliest possible cultiva- 
 tion after harvest. As its seeds will not ger- 
 minate in autumn unless the weather is 
 warm and moist, the wild oat is very hard 
 to deal with in the American and Canadian 
 Northwest, where the autumn days are 
 
Description of Foxtail. 191 
 
 never warm enough to secure the germina- 
 tion of the seeds. The soil there is so suit- 
 able to the weed that it grows with great 
 vigor, even to a height of six feet. 
 
 (3) FOXTAIL. 
 
 Foxtail (Setaria glauca) is better known 
 in the Northwestern states as summer grass 
 or pigeon grass. It grows to a greater or 
 less extent in nearly every section of the 
 continent where the land has been tilled, 
 even if only for a few years. It gives great 
 trouble in prairie countries where one kind 
 of cereal is frequently grown for many 
 years in succession on the same lands. It 
 is also troublesome in all crops in the corn 
 bek, particularly in Iowa and the adjoining 
 states. Green foxtail {Setaria viridis) is 
 a closely related species which is more 
 common in the East, Practically the sam.e 
 description applies to it, and the same 
 methods of treatment are applicable. Fox- 
 tail usually grows to the height of about 
 one foot when matured, although the 
 height varies much with the richness of the 
 soil. It is capable of maturing seeds even 
 when but a few inches high. The leaves 
 bear a very close resemblance to those of 
 
192 Weeds. 
 
 millet, but they are much smaller. The 
 head is covered with fine, soft hairs, and it 
 produces many seeds. 
 
 Foxtail commences to grow as soon as 
 the soil gets warm, and the seeds, which 
 have great vitality, will germinate under 
 favorable conditions until the arrival of 
 cold weather in autumn. After the cul- 
 tivation has ceased in corn, potatoes, and 
 similar crops, the seeds which lie in the 
 soil will grow when it is sufficiently moist. 
 The plants produced under these condi- 
 tions grow very rapidly and mature seeds 
 in an incredibly short space of time. 
 
 Foxtail will grow on almost every class 
 of soils, but on rich prairie soils it luxu- 
 riates. It infests almost every form of 
 crop grown, but does not give much trouble 
 in rye, winter wheat, or on cultivated 
 meadow, owing to the early period at 
 which these crops mature. It is spe- 
 cially troublesome in cereals sown in the 
 spring, as in these the plants frequently 
 grow in such numbers as to greatly hinder 
 the growth of the crops. 
 
 Foxtail is distributed through the agency 
 of birds, wind and water, and to a still 
 greater extent probably through that of seed 
 
Description of Foxtail. 193 
 
 FOXTAIL 
 
194 Weeds. 
 
 grain, manure and droppings of animals. 
 
 Other annual weedy grasses which can 
 be eradicated by the methods given below 
 include barnyard grass, fingergrass, and 
 crabgrass. 
 
 Modes of Eradication. 
 
 The following are the modes of eradi- 
 cation that have been found most success- 
 ful in dealing with foxtail: 
 
 1. Modifying the rotation. Increase the 
 acreage of rye, winter wheat, cultivated 
 grasses and permanent pastures. 
 
 2. Autumn cultivation. Practice autumn 
 cultivation to the greatest possible extent. 
 If the fields which have grown cereals are 
 at once ploughed, as soon as the grain is 
 removed, the maturing of many of the 
 seeds will be prevented, but not of all of 
 them. 
 
 3. Groiuing cultivated crops. Grow cul- 
 tivated crops so far as practicable, more 
 especially crops of corn. In these the cul- 
 tivation should be continued as late in the 
 season as possible. 
 
 ./. Harrozving the grain. Harrow the 
 grain in the spring with a light harrow, 
 with manv teeth in it, just after the fox- 
 
Eradication of Foxtail. 195 
 
 tail plants have appeared in large numbers 
 above the surface of the ground. This 
 should never be attempted when the 
 ground or the grain is wet. When the 
 work of harrowing is judiciously done it 
 will also prove helpful to the crops which 
 are thus dealt with. 
 
 5. Pasturing ivith sheep. Utilize sheep 
 in pasturing off the stray plants in pas- 
 tures and in the aftermath of meadows, 
 and in eating off the myriads of plants 
 which frequently grow among the stubbles 
 of cereal crops, in corn crops and in waste- 
 places generally. A flock of sheep will 
 soon clean out all the plants growing in a 
 crop of corn, and without injury to the 
 corn, when the sheep are turned in to feed 
 amid the corn at the proper season. 
 
 Observations, (i) In fighting this weed 
 the aim should be to give prominence to 
 those methods which will most eft'ectively 
 secure the quick germination of the weed 
 seeds in the soil. Until these germinate 
 they cannot be removed. (2) To get the 
 complete mastery of the weed it will prob- 
 ably be found necessary to cease to grow 
 cereals which are sown in the spring from 
 year to year upon the same lands. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 SPECIFIC MODES OF ERADICATING MISCEL- 
 LANEOUS TROUBLESOME WEEDS. 
 
 The most important of the weeds which 
 give trouble to the farmer in the northern 
 United States which have not been treated 
 in the three preceding chapters are the Rus- 
 sian thistle, the plantains, bindzveed, wild 
 buckwheat, corn cockle, ivhcat-thief, blue- 
 zveed and zvild carrot. The last three of 
 these are most serious in eastern Canada 
 and the eastern United States. Wheat- 
 thief and the blueweed belong to the same 
 botanical family, as do the Russian thistle 
 and the wild buckwheat. With these excep- 
 tions, the weeds mentioned in this chapter 
 are not closely related. 
 
 (l) THE RUSSIAN THISTLE. 
 
 The Russian thistle (Salsoli kali var. 
 tragus) is one of the most aggressive weed 
 pests that has ever come to the prairies of 
 the west. It is frequently called the Rus- 
 
Description of the Russian Thistle. 197 
 
 sian cactus, but strictly speaking it is neither 
 a thistle nor a cactus. 
 
 This plant, it is claimed, first obtained a 
 foothold in the United State-s in Bonhomme 
 county, South Dakota, about the year 1873. 
 It is supposed to have been brought in flax- 
 seed from the plains of Russia, where it 
 has been growing increasingly formidable 
 for at least two centuries. So rapid was 
 the spread of the Russian thistle in the 
 United States that it was soon considered 
 a serious menace to successful agriculture 
 in several of the prairie states bordering on 
 the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. It has 
 also made its appearance in states farther 
 to the east, but nowhere is it now so seri- 
 ously regarded as it was a few years ago, 
 though it is still a very troublesome weed 
 in the prairie sections. 
 
 The Russian thistle is an annual. The 
 early leaves of the young plants are smooth 
 and slender, about two inches long, and 
 each is tipped with a spine. Above the 
 early leaves branches grow out which pro- 
 duce many spines, and the number and 
 length of the branches vary much with the 
 attendant conditions of growth. The spines 
 grow in clusters of three, and as the plants 
 
198 
 
 Weeds. 
 
 near maturity they become so rigid that the 
 legs of horses require protection when they 
 have to travel among the mature weeds. 
 When near maturity the plant appears to 
 be almost leafless. Specimens of the plant 
 have been found with a diameter not less 
 than five feet. 
 
 THE RUSSIAN THISTLE 
 
 The Russian thistle does not begin to 
 grow very early in th^ season, hence if 
 grain crops are given an early start in the 
 spring the thistle which infests them will 
 
Description of the Russian Thistle. 199 
 
 be so far kept in check that it may not seri- 
 ously injure the crops. It frequently con- 
 tinues to grow and mature seeds until the 
 frosts become severe enough to destroy its 
 vitality. The earlier plants mature much 
 of the seed in the latter part of August 
 and in September, hence all plants cut off 
 or pulled up after that time should be 
 burned. It is claimed that an average sized 
 plant is capable of maturing from 20,000 
 to 30,000 seeds. 
 
 This weed is specially troublesome in 
 grain crops; the later the crops and the 
 more weakly they are the greater will be 
 the injury done. It grows with sufficient 
 vigor under some conditions to prevent the 
 harvesting of the grain by the ordinary 
 binder, and in all cases on account of its 
 bulk it makes harvesting difficult and 
 expensive. It infests all kinds of crops, 
 but is easily destroyed in such as are culti- 
 vated. This weed grows to some extent on 
 the native prairie, but not so much where 
 grasses are well established in the soil, as 
 where prairie fires, gophers or prairie dogs 
 have prepared a seed bed for it. 
 
 The Russian thistle is propagated solely 
 by means of its seed and its marvelous 
 
200 Weeds. 
 
 power of propagation is attributable to the 
 ease with which the winds send it tumbhng 
 over the prairie for miles in succession, the 
 number of seeds which it produces, and the 
 readiness with which the seeds germinate 
 under favorable conditions. Railways are 
 largely responsible for the conveyance of 
 the seed to new centers. It has also been 
 carried in flaxseed and in the seed of cereals. 
 
 Modes of Eradication. 
 
 The Russian thistle is not difficult of 
 eradication. Its great weakness lies in the 
 inability of the seeds to maintain vitality 
 under normal conditions for a longer 
 period than two years. Under a good sys- 
 tem of farming it may be eradicated with- 
 out great difficulty. Any system of farm- 
 ing that will prevent the plants from matur- 
 ing their seeds for two successive years 
 will accomplish this end. 
 
 The following are the modes of eradica- 
 tion which have been found most success- 
 ful in dealing with the Russian thistle : 
 
 7, Modifying the rotation. Cereal crops 
 and other crops which favor the maturing 
 of the seeds may be omitted for two suc- 
 cessive vears. and other crops grown in 
 
Eradication of the Russian Thistle. 201 
 
 their stead, such as cultivated crops or the 
 tame grasses. 
 
 2. Spudding. When the weed plants 
 are not numerous they may be destroyed 
 by cutting them off with the spud below 
 the crown any time before the seeds are 
 matured, but the work will be much more 
 easily done at an early rather than at a 
 late stage of growth. Along fence bor- 
 ders and in waste-places they may also be 
 thus destroyed. 
 
 5. Grozving two ctdtivatcd crops. If 
 two cultivated crops are grown in succes- 
 sion on the same land, and if at the same 
 time proper cultivation is given to them, 
 the weeds will be all destroyed. 
 
 4. Growing forage crops and pasturing 
 them zvith sheep. The Russian thistle may 
 be easily destroyed by growing certain for- 
 age crops and pasturing them with sheep 
 for two years in succession. Winter rye 
 should be given a prominent place among 
 these crops where it can be successfully 
 grown. The rye may be followed about 
 the end of May with corn, sorghum, millet 
 or rape. Sheep' seem to relish the thistles 
 when young and tender. 
 
202 V/eeds, 
 
 5. Harrow small grain in the early 
 spring. Harrow the grain crop with a 
 Hght steel harrow as soon as the blades 
 begin to show. The teeth should be given 
 a backward slant sufficient to produce the 
 result sought. When the grain is four or 
 five inches high, it should be harrowed a 
 second time, and even a third and fourth 
 time under some conditions. This method 
 of destroying Russian thistles has special 
 adaptation to dry areas where the harrow- 
 ing of the land has also a beneficial influ- 
 ence on the growth of the crop. 
 
 6. Autiunn cultivation. Autumn culti- 
 vation will be found very helpful in 
 destroying the Russian thistle, and also in 
 preventing its further increase. It is effica- 
 cious in proportion to the early date at 
 which the plowing is done. 
 
 7. Legislative enactments. When vacant 
 lands have become infested, stringent. legis- 
 lation is necessary to keep the weeds prop- 
 erly in check. 
 
 (2) THE PLANTAIN. 
 
 The two most important varieties of the 
 plantain are known as the common plantain 
 (Plan f ago major) and the buckhorn or 
 
Description of Plantain an 
 
 d Bnckhorn. 20; 
 
 EnRlish plantain {Plantago lanceolata). 
 
 The common plantain, which seems to 
 follow everywhere in the wake of civihza- 
 tion, IS not a very troublesome weed. It 
 grows about dwellings, m paths where the 
 ^rass has been much trodden, and m was e 
 places generally where the soil is rich 
 Good cultivation in nearly all cases will 
 suffice to keep it at bay. _ 
 
 The buckhorn or rib grass is a much 
 more troublesome weed, and has become a 
 source of great annoyance in the many sec- 
 tions of our continent into which it has 
 been introduced from Europe. It is a s^im- 
 ple perennial. Its leaves are long, ribbed, 
 hairv, and narrowed at the base ihe 
 stems which support its seed-spil<es are 
 usually about a foot high, though they 
 sometimes attain a height considerab y 
 o-reater. Several spikes are commonly 
 borne by each plant. These spikes are usu- 
 ally from one to two inches long, mucn 
 shorter relatively than those of the com- 
 mon plantain. 
 
 The buckhorn continues to grow through- 
 out the greater part of the growing period 
 of the year. If it be cut off above ground, 
 as with the scythe, after the spikes begin 
 
204 
 
 Weeds. 
 
 to appear, other spikes will at once com- 
 mence to grow in their place. Its effort 
 to produce seed is thus sustained until late 
 in the season. It comes into flower in June,- 
 
 THE BUCKHORN 
 
 and seems capable under certain conditions 
 of maturing seeds during all the months 
 following until cold weather is near. 
 
 The buckhorn is most troublesome in 
 meadows and pastures, more especially in 
 
Eradication of Plantain and Buckhorn. 205 
 
 the latter. It also infests lanes, roadsides 
 and waste places, but it is not specially trou- 
 blesome in tilled fields, as it does not seem 
 to have much power to withstand good cul- 
 tivation. Its favorite soils are those which 
 may -be termed sandy loams, or loams of 
 mild constitution. 
 
 This weed is most commonly distributed 
 by means of the seeds of grasses and clo- 
 vers, but it is also distributed to some extent 
 in the seeds of cereal grains which have not 
 been carefully cleaned. It is also distrib- 
 uted in manure, and by means of other 
 agencies. Its seeds are about the same size 
 as those of red clover, and are much the 
 same in color. In shape each seed is slightly 
 elongated, and furrowed on one side. 
 
 Modes of Eradication. 
 
 The following are the modes of eradica- 
 tion that have been found most successful 
 in dealing with the buckhorn. They are 
 also effective in killing the common plan- 
 tain and closely related plants. 
 
 I. Breaking up nicadozv-land and folloiv- 
 ing it zvith a cultivated crop. In the case 
 of meadows, plow them just after they have 
 been cut, and cultivate on the surface until 
 
2o6 Weeds. 
 
 the late autumn. Grow a cultivated crop 
 the following season. 
 
 2. After-harvest and autumn cultivation, 
 followed next season by a soiling crop, and 
 this by a quick-grozving cultivated crop. 
 In the case of tilled fields that are infested, 
 ])low just after harvest, and thereafter give 
 due attention to surface cultivation. Next 
 season grow a soiling crop, and follow that 
 with rape, sorghum, or some other quick- 
 growing cultivated crop, grown as described 
 in section 3 of our treatment of the Canada 
 thistle. 
 
 J. Using the mower, or scythe. In places 
 where cultivation cannot be introduced, per- 
 sistently use the mower or scythe to keep 
 the plants from maturing their seeds, or, 
 if practicable, use the spud to cut off the 
 plants below the surface of the ground. 
 
 (3) BINDWEED. 
 
 The two common species of bindweed 
 {Convolvulus scpium and C arvensis) are 
 very similar creeping perennials with trail- 
 ing habits of growth. As they are so simi- 
 lar, they will be discvssed under the same 
 heading. Bindweed, or as it is often called, 
 wild morning glory, usually grows to the 
 
Description of Bindweed, 207 
 
 length of two to three feet, but on some 
 soils it attains a much greater length. This 
 weed bears a close resemblance to the morn- 
 ing-glory. Its leaves are cordate or heart- 
 
 BINDWEED. 
 
 shaped, and its blossoms are sometimes 
 white, but more commonly they are of a 
 pinkish white, which may be tinged with 
 veins of blue. Its roots are larger than the 
 
2o8 Weeds. 
 
 vines. They form a network in the soil, 
 and also go down deeply into it. 
 
 Bindweed begins to grow usually in the 
 month of May, and maintains its greenness 
 until the time of early frost, although its 
 growth is most vigorous during the early 
 months of summer. It commences to blos- 
 som early in the season, and continues to 
 bloom for a long time. Bindweed grows in 
 various crops, but it is most troublesome in 
 grain crops ; yet when it is found in hoed 
 crops, it greatly adds to the trouble of keep- 
 ing them clean. It climbs up the stalks of 
 the grain amid which it grows, and, after 
 twining around them, it gradually draws 
 them down toward the ground. So com- 
 pletely intertwined and entangled are the 
 vines within themselves that they some- 
 times greatly hinder the progress of the 
 mower or binder. This weed will grow in 
 various soils, but is most at home in soils 
 which contain a large amount of humus. 
 
 Bindweed is generally distributed by 
 means of the seeds of cereal grains, but it 
 is also carried from place to place by the 
 agency of water. In this last fact lies one 
 explanation of the extent to which it is 
 sometimes found in bottom lands. It is 
 
Eradication of Bindweed. 209 
 
 also distributed by means of manure, and 
 in cultivated land it is propagated very 
 largely by means of the root-stocks which 
 it so numerously possesses. 
 
 Modes of Eradication. 
 
 The following are the modes of eradica- 
 tion that have been found most successful 
 in dealing with bindweed : 
 
 /. Modifying the rotation. In the 
 infested fields drop grain crops out of the 
 rotation until the fields have been subjected 
 to a cleaning process. 
 
 2. After-harvest and autumn cultivation, 
 followed by spring cultivation and a cul- 
 tivated crop. Plow the infested fields 
 immediately after harvest, and cultivate or 
 plow them sufficiently often thereafter to 
 keep the plants from breathing until the 
 period of growth ceases. The plowing 
 should be shallow, but at the same tirne 
 thorough. The last plowing, however, 
 should be deep, to prepare the soil for the 
 next crop. In the spring proceed in the 
 same way as in the autumn cultivation; that 
 is, keep constantly stirring the soil near the 
 surface until it is time to plant a cultivated 
 crop, as corn or roots. Then give this 
 
2IO Weeds. 
 
 crop careful culture throughout the remam- 
 ing part of the season. 
 
 It may here be remarked that, as this 
 weed is usually a singularly persistent 
 grower, it requires much labor and con- 
 stant watchfulness in order to eradicate it 
 completely in one season. 
 
 J. Calling in the aid of sheep or hogs. 
 When bindweed grows in pastures and 
 waste-places, its growth may be checked by 
 allowing sheep to have access to the places 
 where it grows, inasmuch as they are not 
 disinclined to feed upon this weed, especially 
 early in the season^ while yet the plant is 
 tender. Hogs that have not had their 
 noses rung or slit to prevent rooting will 
 be a very efficient aid in eradicating bind- 
 v/eed, if they are pastured on it or turned 
 on to a plowed field which contains the 
 roots. They dig up the fleshy, succulent 
 roots and eat them freely. 
 
 (4) WILD BUCKWHEAT. 
 
 Wild buckwheat {Polygonum convol- 
 vulus), sometimes improperly called bind- 
 weed, is a plant possessed of a creeping, 
 and also a twining and chnging habit of 
 growth. In some aspects it resembles 
 
Description of Wild Buckzvheat. 211 
 
 bindweed previously described, but the 
 roots grow very differently, and there is 
 no resemblance between the blossoms or 
 the seeds of the two plants. 
 
 The plants grow singly, but oftentimes 
 in great numbers. The tendrils spread 
 abroad in different directions, and cling to 
 the vegetation amid which the weeds grow. 
 They will then clamber up to the very top 
 of the stalks of matured grain, and will 
 oftentimes cause it to lean toward the earth 
 in consequence of their weight. 
 
 The seeds resemble those of cultivated 
 buckwheat both in shape and color, but 
 they are not quite so large. They are pos- 
 sessed of a considerable degree of vitality. 
 , Wild buckwheat begins to grow almost 
 as soon as the cereal grains, and it con- 
 tinues to grow and mature seeds until the 
 time of severe frosts. In spring cereals 
 many of the seeds are matured before the 
 grain can be harvested. It infests all kinds 
 of crops, but is much more troublesome in 
 cereals than in other crops. It gives but 
 little trouble in pastures and meadows. 
 
 Wild buckwheat will grow in various 
 soils, but it grows much more vigorously 
 in rich vegetable loams than in soil stiff 
 
212 
 
 Weeds. 
 
 and heavy or deficient in vegetable matter. 
 It has come to be a grievous pest on prai- 
 
 WILD BUCKWHEAT 
 
 rie soils in localities where cereals are 
 grown on the same lands from year to year. 
 
Eradication of Wild Buckzvheat. 213 
 
 Wild buckwheat is distributed by means 
 of birds, wind and water, and to a greater 
 extent probably through the agency of 
 manure, the droppings of cattle and the 
 seeds of cereals. 
 
 Modes of Eradication. 
 
 The following are the modes of eradica- 
 tion that have been found most successful 
 in dealing with wild buckwheat: 
 
 1. Varying the rotation. Vary the rota- 
 tion so that much greater prominence will 
 be given for a time to meadow and pas- 
 ture and to cultivated crops. It may be 
 mentioned here that in the judgment of 
 the writer, too little attention is given to 
 the growth of cultivated crops in nearly all 
 parts of the Northwest. If these were 
 more extensively grown and suitably cared 
 for, noxi'ous weeds would soon be mate- 
 rially lessened. 
 
 2. Growing cultivated crops. Grow cul- 
 tivated crops and clean them so effectively 
 that none of the seeds of the wild buck- 
 wheat plants will mature. 
 
 3. Sowing clean seed. Make sure that 
 only clean seed is sown, and use special 
 care in preparing: the seed of cereals for 
 
214 Weeds. 
 
 sowing, or in purchasing the same for 
 seed. 
 
 4. Autumn cultivation. Plough the 
 land immediately after harvest when pos- 
 sible, to prevent the further maturing of 
 the seeds. 
 
 5. Harrowing cereal crops. Draw a light 
 harrow possessed of many short teeth 
 over the cereal crops when the plants of 
 the wild buckwheat have appeared numer- 
 ously above the surface of the ground. 
 When the work is judiciously done it will 
 be found very effective in relation to the 
 labor expended. 
 
 (5) CORN COCKLE. 
 
 The corn cockle {Agrostennna githago), 
 also called purple cockle or pink-flowered 
 cockle, is a common annual weed in wheat 
 fields. It does not commonly occur else- 
 where, though it may grow in other grain. 
 In the winter wheat district it is a winter 
 annual. 
 
 The plant grows from one to three feet 
 high, usually with few branches ; the leaves 
 are long and narrow, and the whole plant 
 is thickly covered with silky hairs. The 
 conspicuous purple or pinkish-purple flow- 
 
Description of Corn Cockle, 215 
 
 CORN COCKLE. 
 
2i6 Weeds. 
 
 ers are borne on the ends of the branches ; 
 the calyx, which encloses the seed pod, 
 becomes much swollen as the seed develops. 
 The plant blooms in June and July, and 
 ripens its seed with the grain. 
 
 The rather large, somewhat flattened 
 black seed occurs commonly in thrashed 
 wheat, where it is easily recognizable and 
 difficult to remove. This seed is particu- 
 larly objectionable in wheat, as when it is 
 ground with the grain, it gives the flour a 
 dark color and unpleasant taste, and is said 
 to be unhealthy. The seed is poisonous to 
 chickens, hence screenings which contain it 
 should not be fed to poultry. 
 
 The white cockle (Lychnis alba) and the 
 sticky cockle or night-flowering catchfly 
 (Silene noctiHora), the former a white- 
 flowered biennial and the latter a sticky, 
 hairy annual with yellowish-white flowers, 
 are closely related plants which sometimes 
 occur in grain fields and meadows. A short 
 rotation, with the rather frequent intro- 
 duction of a thoroughly cultivated crop, 
 will keep both these weeds in check. The 
 methods of eradicating com cockle are 
 equally effective in handling white cockle 
 and night-flowering catchfly. 
 
Eradication of Corn Cockle. 217 
 
 Modes of Eradication. 
 
 1. Sow clean seed. The best method of 
 preventing the growth of corn cockle in 
 grain fields is to sow clean seed. When the 
 weed is once introduced it is rather difficult 
 to eliminate from wheat fields where the 
 crop is grown continuously. Screening 
 will remove some of the seeds from seed 
 grain, but as they are nearly as large as a 
 grain of wheat, they are difficult to elim- 
 inate. 
 
 2. Proper rotation. As corn cockle is an 
 annual weed which soon gives way to thor- 
 ough cultivation, a system of rotation which 
 introduces a cultivated crop every two or 
 three years will, if proper care is used in 
 sowing clean seed grain, soon eliminate it. 
 
 J. Hand pulling or spudding the plants 
 which, occur in wheat fields, if they are not 
 too numerous, is the surest way to check 
 the spread of this weed. The conspicuous 
 flowers make the plants easy to locate in 
 the field, and as they are readily removed, 
 this method is not as slow or difficult as 
 might at first appear. 
 
 4. Harrozving small grain in the spring 
 when it first appears above the ground, and 
 
2i8 . Weeds. 
 
 again when it is about three inches high, 
 will kill cockle and many other weeds. This 
 method is less effective on winter grains, as 
 the cockle starts in the fall with the grain 
 and many of the plants are too firmly estab- 
 lished by spring to be removed by the 
 harrow. Harrowing winter grains as soon 
 as growth starts in the spring does kill 
 many small weeds, however. 
 
 Observations. While this weed is easy 
 to eradicate if proper attention is given to 
 the methods just outlined, it will be found 
 to be quite persistent where wheat is the 
 main crop and no rotation is followed, on 
 account of the difficulty of removing the 
 seeds of cockle from the seed grain, hence 
 the necessity for exercising care in pre- 
 venting its introduction through seed grain 
 wherever possible. 
 
 (6) WHEAT-THIEF. 
 
 Wheat-thief (Lithospennitm arvense) is 
 sometimes known as gromwell, pigeon 
 weed, and redroot. It usually grows from 
 eight to sixteen inches high, but sometimes 
 in rich soils it becomes considerably taller. 
 It is more or less branched in its habits of 
 growth. Its leaves are narrow and about 
 
Description of Wheat-Thief. 219 
 
 an inch long, and are noticeable from the 
 fact that they are of a lighter tinge of green 
 than those of the cereals and grasses. Its 
 flowers are small, and white or of a pale 
 cream color. Its seeds cluster along its 
 
 WHEAT THIEF. 
 
 stems, and are produced abundantly. They 
 are endowed with much vitality. 
 
 Wheat-thief is an annual, but like false 
 flax, it usually comes up in the fall of the 
 
220 Weeds. 
 
 year previous to that in which it matures 
 its seeds. Its blossoms appear during the 
 latter part of May or early in June, hence 
 its seeds ripen before our meadows are 
 ready for harvesting, or before our crops 
 of winter cereals can be cut. It is so hardy 
 a plant that frosts do not destroy it. It 
 usually grows a little in advance of the crop 
 in which it is found, hence its presence may 
 most readily be detected just w^hen it is 
 coming into blossom. The lighter shade 
 which its leaves possess also enables it to 
 be somewhat easily distinguished. It will 
 grow in any kind of soil free from stag- 
 nant water, but is most partial to sandy 
 loams. 
 
 Wheat-thief is most troublesome in crops 
 which mature early, and have been sown 
 the previous season, such as winter wheat, 
 rye, and meadows. It is also found in pas- 
 tures, but it seldom infests spring crops 
 to any considerable extent, although some 
 plants may survive the early cultivation nec- 
 essary for the preparation of the ground 
 for these crops. 
 
 Wheat-thief is most commonly distrib- 
 uted through the agency of the seeds of the 
 winter cereals and of the seeds of timothy, 
 
Eradication of Wheat-Thief, 221 
 
 mammoth clover, and alsike clover. It is 
 not carried in the seed of common red clo- 
 ver. It is further distributed by the drop- 
 pings of cattle, by the manure of the farm- 
 yard, by thrashing machines, and by birds. 
 
 Modes of Eradication. 
 
 The follov^^ing are the modes of eradica- 
 tion that have been found most successful 
 in dealing with wheat-thief : 
 
 I. Modifying the rotation. Drop out of 
 the rotation winter wheat, winter rye, and 
 meadow crops, but not necessarily pas- 
 tures, if these are kept eaten bare. The 
 omission of these crops from the rotation 
 need not continue for more than two or 
 three seasons if due attention be given to 
 autumn cultivation, as described in the next 
 section. In respect to pastures that are 
 infested, it will generally be sufficient to 
 deal with them by means of hand pulling. 
 
 p. Autumn cultivation. Give careful 
 attention to autumn cultivation, for it is in 
 the autumn that the seeds of this weed ger- 
 minate most freely. The first plowing 
 after harvest may be either shallow or deep, 
 as may be desired. If the seeds of this 
 weed have fallen numerously during the 
 
2'12 Weeds, 
 
 harvesting of the immediately preceding 
 crop, cultivating the surface soil will be 
 preferable to plowing it. 
 
 Specific Modes of Eradication. 
 
 5. Grozving cultivated crops. Where the 
 land is suitable, grow cultivated crops, or 
 else grow rye and follow it by a cultivated 
 crop. Where cultivated crops are grown 
 alone, give careful attention to the autumn 
 cultivation which precedes their sowing. 
 
 4. Hand pulling and spudding. Where 
 the weeds are not numerous, resort to hand 
 pulling or spudding. This work, to be 
 easily done, and to fully accomplish the end 
 intended, should be undertaken while the 
 plants are still in bloom. 
 
 Observation. Whenever it may be nec- 
 essary to sow to grass, then, as in the case 
 of false flax, it should only be done with 
 such crops as spring wheat, barley, and 
 oats. 
 
 (7) BLUEWEED. 
 
 Blue weed (Echium vidgare) is a bien- 
 nial. It is sometimes known as viper's bug- 
 loss, but the more common name for it is 
 blueweed. In the Southern States it is 
 
Description of Bluezveed. 22\ 
 
 sometimes called the Canada thistle, 
 although it bears but little resemblance to 
 that weed. It is most common in Ontario, 
 New York and the states to the southward. 
 
 Blueweed is both upright and spreading 
 in its habits of growth, each plant having 
 several branches springing from a single 
 stock. It grows to the height of from one 
 to three feet, according to the character of 
 the soil which it infests. Its leaves are 
 rather large, and those which grow near- 
 est the crown spread out so that they lie 
 near the surface of the ground. Both 
 leaves and stems are covered with numer- 
 ous hairs, which stiffen with the advanc- 
 ing growth of the plant, which explains 
 why blueweed is not relished by live stock. 
 These hairs are also far from agreeable to 
 the touch when one tries to pull the plant. 
 Its flowers are large, and of a deep, rich 
 blue color, thus giving the fields where 
 blueweed grows a very beautiful appear- 
 ance at the season of the year when it is in 
 bloom. 
 
 Blueweed is a biennial. During the first 
 season of its growth, it sends a strong tap 
 root down deep into the ground, and from 
 this several smaller roots branch off. Blue- 
 
224 
 
 Weeds, 
 
 weed does not blossom in its first year, but 
 in the second year the stronger plants begin 
 to come into bloom in the month of June, 
 and the weaker ones later on, so that the 
 period of bloom visually extends over sev- 
 eral months. The blooming season is also 
 
 BLUEWEED. 
 
 extended by efforts made to eradicate the 
 weed, for when it is cut off above the sur- 
 face of the earth, as with the scythe, hori- 
 zontal branches at once start out from the 
 crown and soon begin to bloom and bear 
 seed. Some of these newlv formed hori- 
 
Description of Bhiewecd. 22$ 
 
 zontal branches hug the ground so closely 
 that, when the field is gone over again with 
 the scythe, it is not at all easy to cut them 
 off ; as the same thing occurs with each cut- 
 ting, as long as the growing period contin- 
 ues, and as the weed is a very prolific seed 
 producer, and as its seed is also very tena- 
 cious of life, it follows that in places where 
 cultivation is impossible, this pest is not a 
 very easy one to deal with. 
 
 Blueweed grows in various kinds of soil, 
 but its favorite feeding grounds are those 
 soils which contain much lime. It grows 
 vigorously in gravelly soils, even in those 
 which are suitable for use in road-making, 
 hence we frequently find this plant growing 
 right up to the travelled portions of the 
 roads. 
 
 As in the case of all or nearly all bien- 
 nials blueweed is not very difficult to keep 
 out of the cultivated portions of the farm, 
 but it is a very different matter when we 
 come to deal with it in fence borders, in 
 permanent pastures, on road sides, and in 
 waste places generally. In all these places 
 blueweed soon finds a congenial home, from 
 which it cannot- be easily dislodged. 
 
226 Weeds. 
 
 As regards the distribution of blueweed, 
 it is probable that the wind is the chief 
 agency employed in effecting its spread 
 from place to place. The seeds of blue- 
 v/eed cling long to the receptacles in which 
 they grow, but in winter or toward spring, 
 the wind shakes many of them out of their 
 receptacles and drives them for miles over 
 the encrusted snows. This fact no doubt 
 will generally account for the sudden 
 appearance of blueweed in new centers, 
 where previously it had not been known to 
 exist. Blueweed is also probably distrib- 
 uted to some extent by means of clover 
 seed, where careless methods of farming 
 allow it to mature its seeds while growing 
 in meadows. 
 
 Modes of Eradication. 
 
 The following are the modes of eradica- 
 tion that have been found most successful 
 in dealing with blueweed : 
 
 I. In ctdtivated fields. Really good cul- 
 tivation will keep blueweed from getting 
 much of a footing in the cultivated portions 
 of the farm. When stray plants put in an 
 appearance in a field that is not desired to 
 be broken up that same season, the spud is 
 
Eradication of Bhieweed. 227 
 
 the* most effective means for removing 
 them. The spud should in all cases be 
 made to go below the crown, for when the 
 plant is cut oif below the crown at any 
 stage of its growth, it will surely die, bur. 
 not otherwise. 
 
 2. In permanent pastures, zvaste places, 
 lanes, etc. In permanent pastures, and in 
 waste places generally, if the plant has got 
 a strong foothold in them, it will be found 
 that any plan that will keep it from matur- 
 ing its seed will soon prove effective in 
 destroying it. Whether the spud or the 
 scythe be used must be determined by the 
 number of the plants to be destroyed, but 
 in either case the work will have to be done 
 more than once in a season, and also for 
 several seasons. It will have to be done 
 more than once in a season becatise, when 
 cut with a scythe, the plants at once spring 
 up again and begin to blossom. When the 
 spud is used, some weaker ones are certain 
 to be overlooked in the first cutting, but 
 these also will blossom and bear seed later 
 on. The scythe or the spud will have to be 
 used for several seasons, inasmuch as the 
 seeds lying in the soil, being possessed of 
 
228 Weeds. 
 
 considerable vitality, will continue to germ- 
 inate for years. 
 
 Observations. When fields containing 
 blueweed are pastured closely early in the 
 season, the production of the seeds will be 
 very much hindered. This method will not 
 alone be sufficient to eradicate the weed, 
 however, for some of the plants will be sure 
 to ripen their seeds unless some other 
 method of eradication be employed. 
 
 (8) THE WILD CARROT. 
 
 The wild carrot (Daucus carota) is a 
 biennial. It bears a close resemblance to 
 the cultivated variety, more especially in 
 the portions above ground. It has a tap 
 root, which is more or less branched. 
 
 The wild carrot comes up early in the 
 season. It sends up long flower stems, 
 which terminate in an umbel or flower clus- 
 ter. It thus produces seeds very numer- 
 ously, and when cut ofif by the scythe or 
 otherwise it sends up other stems, and this 
 continues to put forth the effort to produce 
 seeds until late in the season. Owing to its 
 acrid juices, live stock do not care to feed 
 upon it. 
 
Description of the Wild Carrot. 229 
 
 The wild carrot is not greatly trouble- 
 some to crops where the usual cultivation 
 is good. Like blueweed, it is more com- 
 monly found in pastures, along roads and 
 railroads, and in waste places generally, 
 and to a. less extent in meadows. It grows 
 
 THE WILD CARROT. 
 
 most readily in vegetable soils, but it also 
 flourishes in mild loams. 
 
 The wild carrot is brought to new centers 
 through the agency of railways, and to 
 some extent by birds. Wind and water. 
 
230 Weeds. 
 
 however, are the great agencies for carry- 
 ing and scattering its seeds. 
 
 Modes of Eradication. 
 
 The following are the modes of eradica- 
 tion that have been found most successful 
 in dealing with the wild carrot : 
 
 /. In cultivated fields. Give the arable 
 portions of the farm good cultivation. If 
 this be done, the wild carrot will soon cease 
 to appear in them. 
 
 2. In permanent pastures, lanes, zvaste 
 places, etc. In pastures and waste places 
 keep the plants cut down during the second 
 year of their growth, cutting them off with 
 the scythe as often as they attempt to 
 mature their seeds. If this be done thor- 
 oughly, at the end of two years all the 
 plants will be destroyed. 
 
 5. Using the spud. Where the plants 
 are not too numerous, they may be destroy- 
 ed with the spud by cutting them off below 
 the crown at any stage of their growth. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Agencies of weed distribution, 40; not under 
 control, 55; partially under control, 56; 
 wholly under control, 56. 
 
 Alfalfa as aid in eradication, 80. 
 
 Animals, farm, distribution by, 43; wild, 51. 
 
 Annuals, 62; winter, 62. 
 
 Autumn cultivation, 90. 
 
 Bare fallow, use in weed eradication, 107; objec- 
 tions to, 109. 
 
 Biennial weeds, 64. 
 
 Bindweed, description of, 206; eradication of, 209. 
 
 Birds, distribution by, 50. 
 
 Blueweed, description o£, 222; eradication of, 226. 
 
 Buckhorn, description of, 203; eradication of, 205. 
 
 Buckwheat, wild, description of, 210; dica- 
 
 tion of, 213. 
 
 Bugloss, viper's, 222. 
 
 Burdock, descript-ion of, 133; eradication of, 136. 
 
 Canada thistle, description of, 115; eradication 
 of, 118. 
 
 Carrot, wild, 228. 
 
 Catchfly, night-flowering, 216. 
 
 Cheat, eradication of, 187. 
 
 Classes of weeds, 62; annuals, 62; biennials,. 64; 
 perennials, 66. 
 
 Cleaning farm of weeds, method of, 98. 
 
 Cleaning seed grain, 16. 
 
 Cleanliness, maintenance of, 96; cost of main- 
 tenance, 33. 
 
 Clean seed, use of, 74. 
 
 Clover, aid in eradication of weeds, 80; seed as 
 factor in distribution, 41. 
 
 Cockle, 214; corn, description of, 214; eradica- 
 tion of, 217; sticky, 216; white, 216. 
 
232 Index. 
 
 Constant use of land, 87. 
 
 Control of weeds, 31. 
 
 Copper sulphate, use in spraying, 158. 
 
 Corn cockle, description of, 214; eradication of, 
 217. 
 
 Cost of weed eradication, 28; in pastures, 123. 
 
 Cost of crop production,, increased by weeds, 37. 
 
 Cost of maintaining- clean fields, 33, 101. 
 
 Couch grass, 176. 
 
 Creeping perennials, 66. 
 
 Cultivation, autumn, as method of eradication, 90. 
 
 Cultivated crops as means of eradication, 78. 
 
 Daisy, ox-ey^, eradication of, 127. 
 
 Darnel, eradication of, 187. 
 
 Distribution of weeds, 40; by animals, 43, 51; by 
 birds, 50; by clover seed, 41; control of 
 agencies of, 55; by farm animals, 43; by 
 farm implements, 48; by feed-stuffs, 44; by 
 floods, 51; by grain, 41; by grain screen- 
 ings, 77; by grass seed, 41; by live stock, 
 43; by manure, 45; by packing material^, 46; 
 by railways, 50; by root-stocks, 54; by 
 thrashing machines, 49; by tillage, 48; by 
 vehicles, 47; by water, 51; by wild animals, 
 51; by winds, 52. 
 
 Dropseed grass, 179. 
 
 Eradication of weeds, 58; abundant crop pro- 
 duction an aid in, 88; use of alfalfa in, 80; 
 use of annual pasture crops in, 93; by au- 
 tumn cultivation, 90; by use of bare fallow, 
 107; by use of clean seed, .74; by use of 
 clover, 80; by constant use of land, 87: cost 
 of, 26, 29, 122; by use of culHvated crops, 
 78; by destruction of screenings and chaff, 
 77; by home production of feeds, 85; by 
 modifying rotation, 71; necessity for 
 thorough work in, 95; possibility of, 21; by 
 prevention of seeding, 91; by pasturing with 
 
Index. 233 
 
 sheep, 84; by study of habits of growth, 62; 
 by use of soiling crops, 82; by spraying/ise' 
 
 Fallow, use in weed eradication, 107; objections 
 to, 109. 
 
 False flax, description of, 165; eradication of, 151 
 
 Farm animals, distribution by, 43. 
 
 Farm implements, distribution by, 48. 
 
 Feedg, home production of, 85. 
 
 Feed stuffs, distribution by, 44. 
 
 Fermentation of manure, 111. 
 
 Fertility, increase of, as means of eradication, 88 
 
 Floods, distribution by, 51. 
 
 Food value of weeds, 19. 
 
 Foxtail„ description of, 191; eradication of, 194. 
 
 Freedom from weeds, increase of profit by, 36. 
 
 Frenchweed, description of, 168; eradication of, 
 151. 
 
 Grain, cleaning- for seed, 16; screenings, dis- 
 tribution of weeds by, 77; seea, distribution 
 by, 41. 
 
 Grass, couch, 176; dropseed, 179; pigeon, 191; 
 quack, 176; scutch, 176; summer, 191; 
 vanilla,, 179; wheat, 179. 
 
 Grasses, eradication of weedy, 175. 
 
 Grass family, weeds of, 175. 
 
 Grass seed, distribution of weeds in, 41. 
 
 Grazing with sheep, eradication by, 84, 93. 
 
 GromweU, 218. 
 
 Home production of feeds .as means of eradica- 
 tion, 85. 
 
 Implements, distribution by, 48. 
 
 Increase in farm profits, 36, 
 
 Injuries from presence of weeds, 13; by crowd- 
 ing, 15; harbor for insects, 16; for plant dis- 
 eases, 16; by increasing cost of cleaning 
 grain, 16; by shading, 15; by effect on 
 rotation, 18; by use of moisture, 14; by use 
 of plant food. 14. 
 
234 Index. 
 
 Insects, harbored by weeds, 16. 
 
 Iron sulphate, use in spraying-, 156. 
 
 Kinghead, description of, 141; eradication of, 146. 
 
 Lettuce, wild, 137. 
 
 Live stock, factor in distribution, 43. 
 
 Machinery for spraying, 159. 
 
 Machines, thrashing, cleaning before use, 76; 
 distribution by,, 49. 
 
 Manure, distribution by, 45; fermentation of. 111. 
 
 Method, of cleaning farm, 98; of using spud, 105. 
 
 Methods, adapted to conditions, 72; of eradica- 
 tion, general, 58. 
 
 Modification of rotation, 71. 
 
 Moisture, use of, by weeds, 14, 
 
 Morning glory, wild, 206. 
 
 Multiplication of weeds, 11. 
 
 Mustard, eradication o% 151; tumbling, 171; 
 wild, 161. 
 
 Mustard family, weeds of, 149. 
 
 Night-flowering catchfly, 216. 
 
 Number of weed species, 9. 
 
 Oat, wild, description of, 183; eradication of, 187. 
 
 Ox-eye daisy, description of, 127; eradication ot, 
 130. 
 
 Packing material, distribution by, 46. 
 
 Pastures, cost of eradication in, 123; use of an- 
 nual in eradication, 93. 
 
 Pennycress, description of, 168. 
 
 Peppergrass, eradication of, 151. 
 
 Perennials, 66; creeping, 66. 
 
 Pigeon grass, 191. 
 
 Pigeon weed, 218. 
 
 Plantain, description of, 202; eradication of, 205. 
 
 Plant diseases, harbor for, 16. 
 
 Plant food, use of by weeds, 14. 
 
 Prevalence of weeds, 7. 
 
 Prevention of seeding, 91. 
 
 Production, increase of cost of, 37; prevention of 
 seed, 91. 
 
Index. 235 
 
 Profits, increase by freedom from weeds, 36. 
 
 Purple cockle, 214. 
 
 Quack grass, description of, 176; eradication of, 
 179. 
 
 Radish, wild, eradication o£, 151. 
 
 Rag-weed, description of, 141; eradication of, 146. 
 
 Railways, distribution by, 50. 
 
 Redroot, 218. 
 
 Root-stocks, distribution by, 54. 
 
 Rotation, effect on, 18; modifying, 71. 
 
 Russian thistle, description of, 196; eradication 
 of. 200. 
 
 Salt, use of, in spraying, 156. 
 
 Screenings, distribution by, 77. 
 
 Scutch grass, 176. 
 
 Seed, clean, use of, 74. 
 
 Seed grain, distribution by,. 41. 
 
 Seed production, pre-vention of, 91. 
 
 Shading, injury to crops by, 15. 
 
 Shepherd's purse, eradication of, IFl. 
 
 Sheep,, use of in weed eradication, 84; grazing off 
 annual crops with, 93. 
 
 Soiling crops, use in weed eradication, 82. 
 
 Sow thistle, description of, 124; eradicaton of, 
 126. 
 
 Spraying, as means of eradication, 156; cost of, 
 160; machinery, 159; materials, 158. 
 
 Spud, description of, 104; method of using, 105; 
 use of, 99. 
 
 Spudding, cost of, 101. 
 
 Sticky cockle, 216. 
 
 Stinkweed, 168. 
 
 Summer grass, 191. 
 
 Thistle, Canada, description of, 115; eradication 
 of, 118; Russian, description of, 196; eradi- 
 cation of, 200; sow, description of, 124; 
 eradication of, 126. 
 
 Thistle family, weeds of, 113. 
 
236 
 
 Index. 
 
 Thrashing machines,, cleaning before use, 76; 
 distribution by, 49. 
 
 Tillage, distribution by, 48. 
 
 Time to spray, 157. 
 
 Tumbling mustard, description of, 171; eradica- 
 tion of, 151. 
 
 Vanilla grass, 179. 
 
 Vehicles, distribution by>, 47. 
 
 Viper's bugloss, 222. 
 
 Water, distribution by, 51. 
 
 Weeds, distribution of, 40; eradication of, 58; 
 injuries from, 13; multiplication of, 11; num- 
 ber of species of,, 9. . 
 
 Wheat grass, 179. 
 
 Wheat thief, description of, 218; eradication of, 
 221. 
 
 White cockle, 216. 
 
 Wild animals, distribution by, 51. 
 
 Wild buckwheat, description of, 210; eradica- 
 tion of. 213. 
 
 Wild carrot, description of, 228; eradication of, 
 230. 
 
 Wild flax, description of, 165; eradication of, 
 151. 
 
 Wild lettuce, description of, 137; eradication ot, 
 140. 
 
 Wild morning glory, description of, 206; eradi- 
 cation of, 209. 
 
 Wild mustard, description of, 161; eradication of, 
 151. 
 
 Wild oat, description of, 183; eradication of, 187. 
 
 Wild radish, eradication of, 151. 
 
 Winds, distribution by, 52, 
 
 Winter annuals, 62. 
 
PRACTICAL FARM BOOKS. 
 
 This list of books is compiled to give home seek- 
 ers the most practical information pertaining to the 
 farm. Every book written in such a manner as to 
 be easily understood by the amateur as well as the 
 practical farmer. With a library of good farm 
 books at your command you have the first assets for 
 a profitable homestead. 
 
 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 
 
 A book that explains the factors of successful 
 fruit growing and orchard protection, insects 
 injurious to fruits, diseases injurious to fruits, 
 how to spray, harvest and market. The prin- 
 ciples of plant growth. Propagation of fruit 
 plants, etc. Every method outlined is practical 
 and carefuly illustrated so that the explanation 
 will be easily understood. 300 pages, cloth cov- 
 er. Postpaid $1.00 
 
 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 
 
 A coinplete book which explains the methods of 
 growing vegetables for home use and the market.. 
 Any person contemplating entering the truck gar- 
 dening field will find this book a source of infor- 
 mation that will result in diminishing labor and 
 increasing the profits. Price, cloth cover, $1.00; 
 
 paper, postpaid $ .50 
 
 AMATEUR FRUIT GROWING. 
 
 Is a practical book compiled especially for the 
 use of beginners and is written with special ref- 
 erence to cold climates. This book is not intend- 
 ed to enter the field of scientific fruit growing. 
 
 Price, cloth cover, $ .50; paper $ .25 
 
 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Is a complete and thorough treatise on practical 
 agriculture, animal breeding and kindred sub- 
 jects. It explains the fundamental principles of 
 farming and is of incalculable value to beginners 
 and contains many valuable suggestions to prac- 
 tical farmers. Price, postpaid $1.00 
 
 FARM WINDBREAKS AND SHELTER BELTS. 
 
 This book treats on the caring of trees, the meth- 
 ods of planting, the care and general description 
 of the most suitable varieties for windbreaks and 
 shelter belts. Complete information for practical 
 tree growing and directions from seed to maturity. 
 
 Paper cover, postpaid $ .25 
 
 FARMERS' HANDY MANUAL. 
 
 A 52 page book treating on the feeding and care 
 of dairy cows. Valuable information for the be- 
 ginner. Paper cover. Price $ .25 
 
EVERGREENS AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 
 
 Owiivg to the constant demand for a manual treat- 
 ing on the growth and development of evergreens 
 has resulted in the publishing of this complete 
 guide to selection, growth, and care of evergreens 
 from seed to nursery. It also touches on the sub- 
 ject of windbreaks and hedges. Cloth cover, 
 $ .50 ; paper cover $ '25 
 
 THE HOME BEAUTIFUL. 
 
 A book about flowers, both for ornamental and 
 commercial culture. No home is complete without 
 some of Nature's beauties and this book, known 
 also as "The Gold Mine in the Front Yard," ex- 
 plains the cultivation, use and care of flowers, 
 most practical in farming communities. 280 
 pages, cloth bound $1.00 
 
 GRASSES, AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 
 
 The name implies the character of this book. Ex- 
 plains the culture of all the principal grasses in 
 America. How to make hay; temporary and per- 
 manent pastures, etc. 453 page book, cloth bound. 
 Price $1.50 
 
 WEEDS, AND HOW TO ERADICATE THEM. 
 
 A fine edition which should be in the hands of 
 every practical farmer. Gives the name and de- 
 scription of the most troublesome weed pests and 
 methods of destroying them. Cloth cover, $ .50; 
 paper cover $ .25 
 
 SWINE BREEDERS* MANUAL,. 
 
 This is practically a complete veterinary book 
 with 500 questions about swine answered. This 
 book also treats on the subject of diseases and 
 carefully compares the different breeds and touch- 
 es upon feeding and pasturing. Paper cover. 
 Price $ .25 
 
 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCK. 
 
 A very interesting and instructive series of lec- 
 tures on the principles of feeding, breeding, man- 
 agement, and marketing of cattle, sheep and 
 swine. 100 pages of concrete facts that should 
 be in the possession of every man contemplating 
 farming. Price, cloth cover $1.00 
 
 STANDARD BLACKSMITHING, HORSESHOEING AND 
 WAGON MAKING. 
 
 The latest and most complete book on the prac- 
 tical work of blacksmithing, describing how to 
 make tools as well as to use them. Cloth bound $1.00 
 
 FARM BLACKSMITHING. 
 
 A complete treatise on blacksmithing, written 
 particularly for amateur farmers who want a 
 work shop where they can profitably spend stormy 
 days. 100 pages, cloth bound $.50 
 
TANNING GLIDE. 
 
 Explains how to tan hides by use of different 
 methods in from ten minutes to six weeks 
 Complete recipes for making your own solutions 
 most successful methods explained in full. Price $ .25 
 
 POULTRY BOOKS. 
 
 Contain reliable information on every point in 
 practicable and fancy poultry keeping on a large or 
 small scale on a city lot, village place, or the farm. 
 
 EGG MONEY; HOW TO INCREASE IT. 
 
 A reliable 130 page book devoted to the profit- 
 able production of eggs. Written by 25 author- 
 ities, who divulge the methods that have account- 
 ed for their phenomenal success. Price . S 2fi 
 
 POULTRY MANUAL. * 
 
 A guide to successful poultry culture in all its 
 branches, fancy and practical. Breeding and feed- 
 ing; diseases and remedies; how to make farm 
 poultry pay. 14 8 pages of facts worth knowing. 
 Cloth cover, $ .50; paper S 25 
 
 POULTRY HOUSES, COOPS AND EQUIPMENT. * 
 
 Describing coops, fixtures and poultry utensils 
 for the farm and includes the newest plans for 
 building practical up-to-date poultry houses 
 Price « 2K 
 
 CHICfiS; HATCHING AND REARING. .' .' ' 
 
 A manual of dependable instructions in incubat- 
 ing, brooding, housing and developing layers and 
 winners; fattening, killing and marketing broil- 
 ers and roasting chickens. 126 page book of 
 practical chick facts. Price « 2K 
 
 TURKEYS, DUCKS AND GEESE. ' 
 
 How to breed, hatch, rear, fatten, dress, market, 
 develop, feed, show and sell for all purposes.' 
 The information contained in this book will en- 
 able anyone to succeed in this work and save dis- 
 appointment and needless loss of money. 128 
 pages. Price ' » ra 
 
 SIMPLE POULTRY REMEDIES. 
 
 Describes the various diseases of the poultry 
 yard and gives the most effective remedies for 
 acute and well developed diseases. This book 
 will save its price the first time any of the reme- 
 dies are applied. Price ^ ,26 
 
 COOK BOOKS. 
 
 NEW BUCKEYE COOK BOOK. 
 
 Contains 12S8 pages of the best kitchen recipes 
 procurable; 5,000 recipes in all. This is the larg- 
 est and most complete cook book ever published. 
 la addition to the large number of recipes, it 
 contains medical and nursery notes of incalculable 
 
 value to the housewife. Price $2.50 
 
 (Agents Wanted) 
 
TRADE EDITION OR ORIGINAL BUCKEYE COOK BOOK. 
 
 Contains 689 pages. Contains about one-half of 
 the recipes listed in the "New Buckeye Cook 
 Book." Bound in white oil-cloth cover, hand- 
 somely printed, presenting a very attractive book 
 
 for $1.50 
 
 THE COUNTRY KITCHEN. 
 
 A cook book containing 900 tried and tested 
 recipes suited to the country and contributed by 
 readers of our agricultural paper, "The Farmer." 
 The most practical small cook book on the mar- 
 ket. 154 pages, cloth bound ? .50 
 
 (Agents Wanted) 
 
 FARM BOOKS. 
 
 Farmers' Account Book and Farm Record, net $2.25 
 
 Bookkeeping for Farmers 25 
 
 Barn Plans and Out Buildings 1.00 
 
 Cottage Houses . 1.00 
 
 Homes for Home Builders 1.00 
 
 A. B. C. and X. Y. Z. of Bee Culture 1.50 
 
 Mysteries of Bee Keeping Explained . 1.00 
 
 Veterinary Elements 1.50 
 
 Diseases of Horses and Cattle 1.75 
 
 Feeds and Feeding 2.00 
 
 Diseases ©f Swine 2.00 
 
 Swine in America, net 2.50 
 
 Farm Live Stock of Great Britain, net 5.00 
 
 Profitable Dairying 75 
 
 Judging Live Stock 1.50 
 
 Creamery Accounting 1.00 
 
 Cattle Breeding 2.00 
 
 Practical Forestry 1.50 
 
 Beautifying Country Homes 10.00 
 
 Garden Making 1.00 
 
 Practical Floriculture 1.50 
 
 Spraying Crops 50 
 
 Spraying of Plants, net 1.50 
 
 Agriculture with Some of Its Relations with Chemistry, 
 
 (3 volumes), net $5.00 
 
 Pruning Book, net 1.50 
 
 Field Notes on Apple Culture, net 2.00 
 
 The Potato 30 
 
 Gardening for Profit 1-50 
 
 The Soil 1.00 
 
 Principles of Agriculture, net 1.50 
 
 Physics of Agriculture, net 1.75 
 
 How to Make a Garden Pay 1.00 
 
 Soiling Crops and the Silo 1.50 
 
 Forage Crops and Fibre Crops in America 1.75 
 
 Fertility of the Land, net 1.50 
 
 Farm Machinery and Farm Motors 2.00 
 
 Manual of Corn Judging 50 
 
 Cereals in America 1.75 
 
 Alfalfa, Book of, 2.00 
 
M-R 6 iSII 
 
 V^iA 
 
One copy del. to Cat. Div. 
 
 APR e 191 1