V. * • „ o " .^ .*..".. ■ V* ♦' ">' G> a? *• * ** «-° -as*. * + 4*&\ <-° •;&*. * * /a- «v c,v .*^fef. ^ a^ ♦: **• *"rvr»* .<&* o. **.,,•* .sO . *> V •• " ♦ft V* v. *,. .v^ .wv<. v a* . % 4*$y&*r. *►,. .a ,vv, CLIFF HOUSES SMALLER HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. BY JOSIAH W. LEEDS, AUTHOR OF A LARGER "HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES." PHILADELPHIA: J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. 18 82. Copyright, 1882, by Josiah W. Leeds. PREFATORY NOTE. The following work, written from the same view-point as the author's larger history (first edition 1877), has been prepared in response to sundry requests for a book of a more elementary character than that, which should be suitable for intermediate schools and for home students. In essaying to treat our country's wars more concisely than is customai-y in school histories, the author desires not to be mis- understood as in any wise depreciating the sincerity of purpose, or the spirit of self-sacrifice, which so largely animated many who were willing to give up their lives for their country. Yet, as was lately remarked by an influential London journal respecting the war of the Revolution, that even that conflict was one which, " in the opinion of all right-thinking men now alive upon both sides of the Atlantic, ought never to have taken place," there would seem to devolve a responsibility therefore upon writers of history for the young, that they endeavor to incline the minds of these to a consideration of that " more excellent way" of settling dis- putes which does not involve the dread appeal to arms. Assured, also, that the pictorial representations of scenes of violence with which the " boys' papers" of the day are filled, 'have been influential in developing a habit of ready resort to the pistol and other weapons, the writer has carefully avoided the in- troduction of any illustrations which might tend to foster a pro- pensity so subversive of social order and good morals, and one on account of which the whole land even now mourns. It may be pertinently said here, with reference to a class of illustrations commonly employed in school histories, — I refer to 3 Prefatory Note. those representing battles with the Indians, — that these cannot be otherwise than unnecessarily humiliating to a people who, as has been abundantly proved, have been in almost every case of overt war the ones wronged, and not the aggressors. Vividly does the writer recall, after the lapse of more than a fourth of a century, the remark, vehemently uttered, of a lad who occupied the same form with him at school, that " he would wish no better fun than to go West to the plains and be given a chance to shoot the red-skins." Hence the need of fair statement upon the Indian question is specially called for in the school-room, where prejudices may originate which the corrected views of later life may be almost powerless to remove. As a compensation, it is hoped, for brevity in the direction which has been indicated, space has been found for the insertion of a lengthy chapter (xxiv.) upon the work of the various govern- ment departments, wherein the student will obtain an insight into such useful matters of current history and administration as the coast survey, the life-saving and weather-signal services, immigration, the revenue, the public lands, the geological survey of the Territories, etc. This chapter, which has involved much labor in the preparation, may divest the subject of government of something of the repugnance in which it is apt to be held by the youthful student, and make easier to his apprehension the subject-matter of some parts of the Constitution. Finally, in lieu of any teaching which might seem to support so narrow and mischievous a political maxim as that which de- clares for " my country, right or wrong," the attempt has been made, through the lessons deducible from our history, to magnify the truthfulness of that noble and more Christian motto of our late President, " I would rather be beaten in the Right, than succeed in the Wrong." J. W. L. Germantown, Philadelphia, 1882. CONTENTS. PERIOD I. THE EARLY INHABITANTS OF NORTH AMERICA. CHAPTER PAGE I.— The Mound-Builders and Cliff-Dvvellers 7 II. — The North American Indians 12 PERIOD II. EXPLORATIONS AND DISCOVERIES TO THE SETTLEMENT OF JAMESTOWN. III. — The Northmen in America ........ 20 IV. — Explorations of the Spaniards ....... 23 V. — English Discoveries in America ....... 30 VI. — French Explorations and Attempts to Colonize .... 36 PERIOD III. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION. VII.— Virginia 42 VIII. — New Netherland — New York 50 IX.— The New England Colonies 57 X. — Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware ... 73 XI. — The Carolinas and Georgia ........ 83 XII. — The Wars between the English and French Colonies in America . 90 XIII.— Colonial Discontent 100 PERIOD IV. REVOLUTION, AND FORMATION OF A REPUBLICAN GOVERNMENT. XIV. — The American Revolution . . . . . . . .107 XV, — A Republican Government formed ...... 122 XVI.— Formation of New States 127 1* 5 Contents. period v. PRESIDENTIAL ADMINISTRATIONS TO THE CIVIL WAR. CHAPTER XVII. — Washington, Adams, and Jefferson . XVIII. — Madison, Monroe, and J. Q. Adams XIX. — Jackson and Van Buren . XX. — Harrison, Tyler, and Polk XXI. — Taylor, Fillmore, Pierce, and Buchanan PAGE 137 146 161 167 174 PERIOD VI. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE CIVIL WAR TO THE PRESENT. XXII. — Administration of Abraham Lincoln ..... 184 XXIII. — Administrations of Johnson and Grant 203 XXIV. — The Government Departments ....... 216 1. Department of State .217 2. Treasury Department 218 3. War Department 227 4. Navy Department 230 5. Interior Department 231 6. Post-Office Department 241 7. Department of Justice 243 Department of Agriculture 243 Smithsonian Institution 244 Fish Commission ........ 244 XXV.— The Territories 245 XXVI. — Administrations of Hayes and Garfield 251 SUPPLEMENTARY MATTER. Course of Reading 265 Chronological Table 268 South American Chronology 276 Declaration of Independence 278 Constitution of the United States 282 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary ....... 297 History of the United States. PERIOD I. THE EARLY INHABITANTS OF NORTH AMERICA. CHAPTER I. THE MOUND-BUILDERS AND CLIFF-DWELLERS. 1. A large part of the United States was once peopled by a race who, because they built great mounds of earth, have been named the Mound-Builders. We do not know what was their real name. 2. Mounds of Regular Shape. — The mounds were built in many different forms. Sometimes they were shaped like pyramids, not coming to a point at the top, but cut off, or truncated. Some were four-sided at the base ; others were six- or eight-sided. Others, again, appear to have been constructed with steps, winding to the summit. These last were, therefore, something like those Mexican pyra- mids called teocallis, upon whose summits sacrifices were once offered by the Aztec people to their gods. 3. The Largest of these Regular-shaped Mounds have been found in the States which border on the Ohio and Mis- sissippi Rivers. There is one at Miamisburg, Ohio, which 7 History of the United States. is 68 feet high, and 850 feet around the base; one in West Virginia is more than 70 feet high, and 1000 feet in circum- Regulau-Shaped Mounds, Washington County, Miss. — Height of high mound, 55 feet; of platform, 10 feet; of road, 4 feet ; of low mound, 8 feet. ference at the base. At Cahokia, Illinois, there is one still larger. Their usual height, however, is from 6 to 30 feet. 4. Enclosures. — The Mound-Builders not only constructed mounds, they also formed large enclosures by building heavy embankments of earth and stones. These embank- ments were from 5 to 30 feet high, and appear to have been made use of as fortifications, or as places of refuge from attack. It is estimated that these enclosures in the State of Ohio alone number at least 1500. 5. Odd-shaped Mounds. — There is a third class of these ancient constructions, made in various odd forms, such as those of birds, animals, and men, lying flat, and sometimes of great size. There is a very large one of this sort in Adams County, Ohio, shaped like a serpent, and holding an egg in its mouth. As this "egg" is 160 feet long and 80 feet broad, the serpent itself is not a small one. In Licking County, in the same State, there is a similar curi- ous object made of earth, which is called the " Alligator." 6. The Articles found within the Mounds are, besides human remains, implements, such as stone chisels, arrow- The Mound- Builders and Cliff-Dwellers. and lance-heads, axes, and knives; ornaments, such as bracelets and beads, generally made of copper, but some- times of silver or polished stones; also articles of pottery, and pipes in abundance. 7. Use of the Mounds. — The mounds were used as sepul- chres, and perhaps also for the purposes of worship. Fre- quently a charred appearance is observable on their bare sum- mits, as though sacrifices had been there offered. Yet this appearance may also have been caused by their use as fire-sig- nal stations. &VL Mound-Builders' Enclosure, Miami Valley, Ohio. 8. Dress and Habitations of the Mound-Builders. — The Mound-Builders did not dress themselves in skins like the Indians, who came later, but in woven garments, made of a ma- terial like hemp. They appear to have been a race of farmers, rather than fighters or hunters. They must have lived in tents or in wooden huts, for no trace of their dwellings has ever been found. 9. When they came hither. — At what period the Mound- Builders came to North America is also unknown. We are sure it must have been hundreds of years ago, because every skull as yet found has been in a state of extreme decay. There is but a single one known to have been taken out and kept entire. A very good reason for believing that the mounds were built a long while ago is the fact that large trees, hundreds of years old, are found growing upon 10 History of the United States. them. One trunk of a tree found upon a mound at Marietta, Ohio, showed 800 rings of annual growth. 10. Conjectures as to where they came from. — "We are likewise ignorant as to where the Mound-Builders came from. Some learned people believe that they came from India or Egypt. It is the general opinion, however, that they came hither from Mexico and Central America. It is thought that after living in the land some centuries they were driven back by the present race of Indians, who appear to have come from the North. 11. The Cliff-Dwellers. — Ruins of stone walls and towers have been found in the Rocky Mountain region, chiefly in Jill Elephant or Mastodon Mound, Grant County, Wis. — Lying flat on the ground; height, 5 feet; length, 135 feet. the south-western part of Colorado, and localities adjacent in New Mexico and Arizona. Arrow-points and fragments of pottery are plentiful. Some of the ruins are found on the meadows by the stream-courses ; others arc excavations or caves in the faces of low bluffs and cliffs ; others, again, are built in the shelves of rock high up on the sides of the canons. Whether this people inhabited the country of the Colorado at the same time that the Mound-Builders dwelt in the Valley of the Mississippi, we do not know. It is thought by some that they were the ancestors of the Moquis or Pueblos. Knowing nothing of their real name and his- tory, we speak of them now as the Cliff-Dwellers. The Mound-Builders and Cliff-Dwellers. 11 12. The Lowland Ruins are the remains of agricultural settlements, which were probably occupied by a peaceable people. The ordinary houses are square or of other rectan- gular shape. There is usually near each group of dwellings a circular ruin, resembling a tower, often as much as forty feet in diameter, and in many cases having double or triple walls. The spaces between the outer walls are divided by heavy partition-walls into a number of apartments. The inner or central portion of the tower may have been used as a council- chamber ; the apartments, as the receptacles of sacred or valuable property. It is likely that these struc- tures served as both tem- ples and fortifications. Other single-walled tow- ers, placed in command- ing situations along the canons, were apparently watch- or signal-towers. Ground-Plan of a Triple-Walled Tower of the Cliff Dwellers. 13. The Cave-Dwellings may have been occupied by the same tribes that inhabited the lowland houses, for the pur- poses of retreat and defence from their enemies. Tliey were made by digging irregular cavities in the faces of the low bluffs and cliffs, where the stratum was of a soft rock. The fronts were then walled up, leaving only small door- ways, and an occasional small window at the side or top. 14. The Cliff-Houses may have been used in times of in- vasion and war as places of security for their families when the warriors went forth to battle. Or they may have been used as permanent habitations when the tribes were driven from the meadow-lands to take refuge in those " fastnesses 12 History of the United States. of the rock." They are neatly and firmly built of masonry on the shelves of rock, yet their construction must have cost a great deal of labor, as the stone and mortar had to be brought hundreds of feet up the face of precipitous cliffs. [See frontispiece.] CHAPTER II. THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 1. When the islands and continent of America were dis- covered by Columbus and the Spanish explorers who suc- ceeded him, the native people were called by them Indians, for it was supposed that the land they had reached was part of India. 2. Where the Race of Copper-colored Indians came from we know as little about as we do about the origin of the Mound-Builders. There is, or Mas, a tradition prevalent among the Indian tribes that their ancestors came from the North-West. As our Indians bear a resemblance to the nomads of Eastern Siberia, it is thought that their ances- tors crossed to this country either by way of Behriug's Strait or by the Aleutian chain of islands which stretch from Kamtschatka to Alaska. 3. Language. — The speech of the North American In- dians comprises at least eight different languages, each of these languages including a large number of dialects. Yet, as there is a similarity in the grammatical structure of all, or nearly all, of these, it is inferred that the tribes had a common origin. They had no written language, but would sometimes represent their ideas by pictures drawn on 14 History of the United States. wood, bark, or stone, guttural in toue. Their speech is mostly harsh and 4. The Dwellings of the Indians, their wigwams or lodges, were frequently formed of a framework of poles, bent together at the top, and covered with skins. Others were huts overlaid with bark. Some of these, as was the case with the Huron habitations, were 100 or even 200 feet in length, aud contained many families under one roof. On our Mexican border, in the region of the Lower Colorado and Gila Rivers, are the Pueblos or Village Indians. Primitive Ucltpatioxs and Amuse.me.nts of the Indians These live, many together, in large houses several stories high, made of adobe, — that is, mud mixed with chopped straw and sand or gravel, and baked in the sun. The The North American Indians. 15 upper stories are less in size than those below, and are reached by ladders on the outside. 5. Occupations and Amusements. — The chief occupations of the red men were hunting and fishing, constructing bark canoes, and making rude weapons and implements. They had the war-club, the tomahawk of stone, and the flint-headed arrow, for battle and for the chase ; hatchets of stone, stone lasts upon which to fashion their moccasins, knives of the same material to dress skins, and other simi- lar implements. Fish-bones served for angling-hooks, and animal or vegetable fibres for lines. The women tilled the ground, cooked, and did the hardest of the work. Indian corn and tobacco, squashes and beans, were the chief prod- ucts of their little garden -patches. The principal amuse- ments of the Indians were wrestling, running, leaping, and other athletic sports, together with games of chance and dancing. 6. Their Traffic or Commerce was principally carried on with wampum in the East, and with copper and pipe-stone in the West. The wampum was made of shell, in the shape of beads, and was strung together. It was of two colors, white and black or dark-purple, — the dark beads being valued the higher. These strings of wampum were not only used as money, but also to serve as records of treaties, in which case many of them were joined together in the shape of belts. 7. Government. — The tribes were ruled by sachems or chiefs. Although the government of a tribe generally con- tinued in the same family, yet if the people thought they had good reason for making a change, they would elect a ruler of their own choice. In every tribe were clans or bands, each of which was known by its totem, — generally a bird or an animal. Thus, a tribe would be divided into Wolves, Bears, Turtles, Crows, etc. 16 History of the United States. 8. Personal Appearance and Characteristics. — The In- dians, in their physical appearance, are usually tall and well formed, with skin of a copper color, high cheek-bones, and black hair and eyes. Although hardy and brave, hos- pitable and generous, they also delighted in cunning, and were cruel in their triumphs. Whilst too prone to revenge an injury, a deed of kindness shown them was never forgotten. 9. Religion. — Their religion consisted in a belief in one Great Spirit, the Creator and Ruler of all things, and in many lesser spirits or manitous. Each lake, river, and mountain had its manitou, and these must be pacified by presents, such as beaver-skins, tobacco, meat, or any other article which the Indians highly prized. In place of priests, they had their " medicine-men" or sorcerers, their dreamers and interpreters of dreams. The Indians believed that after death the soul lived forever in the " happy hunting- grounds." 10. The Tribes arranged in Four Groups. — The Indians who occupied the territory between the Atlantic Ocean and the Rocky Mountains may be arranged in four great groups, namely, the Algonkin, Iroquois, Mobilian, and Sioux or Dakota. (a) Algonkin. — The Algonkin family comprised the greatest number of tribes of any of the four groups. They inhabited most of the territory from Hudson's Bay on the north to the Ohio and Cape Fear Rivers on the south, and from the Atlantic Ocean westward to the Mississippi River. Some of the tribes of this group were the Chippeways of the Great Lakes ; the Abenakis of Maine ; the Mohi- cans and Narragansetts of New England ; the Lenni- Lenapes or Delawares; the Powhataus of Virginia; the Slmwnees of Kentucky; the Illinois and Miamis; and the Ottawas, Sacs and Foxes. The North American Indians. 17 (b) Iroquois. — Surrounded on every side by tribes of the Algonkin was the land of the Iroquois. This family included the Hurons or Wyandots, in Upper Canada ; the Eries, south of Lake Erie ; but principally the confederacy of five warlike tribes which were known to the whites as the " Five Nations." These Five Nations were located in the State of New York, — the tribe farthest east, near the Hudson River, being the Mohawks ; next to them, on the west, the Oneidas ; then the Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the Senecas, in the order named. The Tuscaroras, in 1713, came northward from North Carolina, and, uniting with the five tribes, these became afterward known as the " Six Nations." (c) Mobilian. — In the region south of Kentucky and North Carolina, and between the. Atlantic Ocean and the Mississippi River, were the tribes composing the Mobilian group. The three large tribes of Creeks, Choctaws, and Chickasaws are the only ones which properly belong thus together. The languages of the Cherokees, Catawbas, Uchees, and Natchez are quite different from those of the three first- named, and also from one another. They are placed in this group simply for convenience of classification. The Natchez tribe dwelt by the Mississippi, near the present city of the same name. They had a wigwam temple and sacred fire, being worshippers of the sun. It is thought that they were a remnant of the Mound-Builders, and that their ancestors may have come from Mexico and Central America. (d) Dakotas or Sioux. — West of the Mississippi, from that river to the desert, dwelt the Dakotas or Sioux. South- ward, their country extended as far as the Arkansas River. The names of some of our cities, States, and rivers show b 2* 18 History of the United States. the particular localities where the tribes once dwelt, as the Tetons and Omahas of Nebraska, the Yanktons and Iowas, the Kansas, Poncas, and Osages. There was one tribe only of the great Sioux family east of the Mississippi, namely, the Winnebagoes. They were located on the west side of Lake Michigan, north of where Chicago now stands. 11. Tribes of the Far West. — Of the other large tribes west of the land of the Dakotas there were, and are still, the Blackfeet Indians of the Upper Missouri, and the A House of the Pueblos or Village Indians. Crows of the Yellowstone ; the Pawnees of the Platte ; the roving Comanches and Apaches of the Rio Grande, and other tribes. The Blackfeet were often at war with the Flat-Heads or Snake Indians, who belonged west of the Rocky Mountains. The North American Indians. 19 12. Habits of the Nomad Tribes. — The most of these tribes, as well as the Dakotas, resided in their villages not more than five months of the year, principally to plant and gather the crop of maize. Then the whole population, except those who trapped the beaver and other fur animals, would remove to the ranging-grounds of the buffalo, living on the meat of that animal and drying quantities of it for future use. 13. The Tribes of the North-West, beyond the Rocky Mountains, the Flat-Heads or Snakes, the Chinooks, the Walla- Wallas, etc., are neither so tall, strong, nor active as the Indians east of that range. The California tribes have long, straight hair, and very dark complexions, and are thought to be of Malay origin. The Pueblos or Village Indians of Arizona have been already spoken of in para- graph 4. 14. Tribes North of our Territory. — The region between Hudson's Bay and the Rocky Mountains was sparsely in- habited by hunters and trappers of the Athabasca tribes. Still farther north, the shores of all the seas, bays, and inlets, and also the islands from Greenland to Behring's Strait, were inhabited then, as at present, by the Eskimos. 15. Tribes or Races South of us. — The Aztecs, whom the Spaniards found inhabiting Mexico, had attained to a high degree of civilization, not unlike that of the ancient Egyp- tians. They were skilled in architecture and metal-work- ing, and practised embalming the dead. The natives of some of the West India Islands — the Caribs of the Baha- mas, San Domingo, Jamaica, etc. — were gentle and peace- able. Those of the Caribbean Islands were fierce and warlike. The natives of all these islands were, however, almost exterminated by the Spaniards soon after their con- quest by the Europeans. PERIOD II. EXPLORATIONS AND DISCOVERIES, TO THE SETTLEMENT OF JAMESTOWN. CHAPTER III. THE NORTHMEN IN AMERICA. 1. Traditions of the Indians. — The Indians of the vari- ous tribes had many improbable traditions of the early peopling of this country. As they possessed no written language, these vague accounts are of little value. As to their own origin, the belief among them is general that they were created by a Great Spirit. Some of their myths, how- ever, are in character like the following, which has been handed down by one of the California tribes. First of all, there existed the moon. Next came the coyote, or prairie- wolf. The moon and the coyote created all things, in- cluding man. This man, said some, was in the form of a stone; others affirmed that he was a mass of flesh like a great earth-worm. Certain of the tribes appear to have had a tradition of a deluge, which at some ancient epoch covered the earth and drowned all of mankind but a few. 2. The First Visitors. — The first who came to the Ameri- can shores, after the early peopling of the country by the Mound-Builders and Indians, appear to have been the Northmen. We speak of the Northmen now as the Scan- dinavians ; in other words, those who inhabit the countries of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, which, together, are 20 874] The Northmen in America. 21 called Scandinavia. The accounts of their early voyages to this country are contained chiefly in the Icelandic sagas, ■which were poems or tales recited by the native bards, or saga-men, and afterward written in books. 3. Northmen settle in Iceland. — We are sure, in the first place, that Iceland was occupied by Norwegians in or about the year 874. The name of the leader of this company Nortihiex's Vessel. was Ingolf. He left his native country to escape the tyranny of the viking Harold, who was surnamed the Fair-haired. 4. Greenland next Discovered.— After the Northmen had been in Iceland more than a hundred years, one of their number, named Eric the Red, sailed to the westward with a few men, and discovered a country which he called 22 History of the United States. ■ [1200 Greenland. Measure upon the map, and you will find that Greenland is only two hundred miles away from Iceland. It is surprising that such a seafaring people did not find it sooner. 5. Biarni's Voyage. — The news of Eric's discovery reach- ing Iceland, a bold sailor, named Biarni, sailed for the same region ; but his vessel was blown southward, out of its course, and other strange lands were seen, which may have been parts of Nova Scotia and New England. 6. Northmen on the New England Coast. — About the year 1000, Leif, the son of Eric, also sailed to the south on a voyage of discovery. He landed on a coast which, from the description given in the saga, appears to have been the south-eastern part of Massachusetts. The country was named by him Vinland, because of the abundance of grapes found there ; and to another coast farther north, which was probably Nova Scotia, was given the name of Mark land. 7. Later Voyages. — There are accounts of a few other voyages by the Icelanders to the same shores, and of dis- putes with the natives, or " skrellings," as the Northmen called them. But, the printer's art being as yet unknown, the knowledge of the Northmen's discoveries was not spread abroad. Even of Greenland scarcely anything was heard until the time when Hans Egede, in 1721, established a mission-station of the United Brethren on its western coast. 8. Traditions of Madoc and of the Zeni. — In addition to these accounts concerning the Northmen there is a less credible tradition about Madoc, the son of a Welsh prince, who was reputed to have come hither in the twelfth century. There is also the later narrative of two brothers named Zeno, of the city of Venice, who were said to have sailed to Iceland and Greenland and the shores adjacent. Explorations of the Spaniards. 23 CHAPTER IV. EXPLOEATIONS OF THE SPANIARDS. 1. The Spirit of Discovery and the Desire for Trade with the Far East began to show itself in Europe shortly after the period of the Crusades. The Crusades had made the people of Europe acquainted with remote regions that they had heard of before only by name. The glowing tales of travellers who had penetrated to India and other distant lands also increased the desire to know still more of those wonderful countries. 2. Improvements in Navigation. — The invention of the mariner's compass infused new life into the art of the navi- gator. No longer dependent upon observing the position of the sun and the stars, he could now pursue his course across the deep even though thick clouds overspread the skies. When the mariners of Spain and Portugal found they might safely pass beyond the " Pillars of Hercules," — for so the heights on either side of the Straits of Gibraltar were called, — the exploration of the West African coast was continued in earnest. The little kingdom of Portugal was particularly active in that direction, and soon became famed as the foremost of maritime nations. 3. Prince Henry of Portugal. — This thirst for adventure and discovery was greatly fostered by Prince Henry of Por- tugal, who drew around him men of science, established a naval college and observatory, and caused much attention to be paid to the making of maps. Many expeditions were fitted out, and numerous new facts were gathered for the map-makers. Yet it is certain that the love of knowledge 24 History of the United States. [U92 was by no means the chief spur to enterprise with many, for the traffic in slaves and the barter for gold soon became prominent objects of the African voyages. 4. Columbus and his Theory. — One of those who for a while earned a livelihood at map-making in the capital of Portugal, was a native of Genoa, named Christopher Co- lumbus. He had early engaged in a seafaring life, visiting many places, perhaps even Iceland, and was one of the small number of people in that age who believed that the earth was a globe, and not flat as it appeared to be. Hence, he felt confident that a much more easy and rapid way to reach India than by the overland route would be to sail directly westward across the Atlantic. 5. Efforts of Columbus to obtain Aid. — Desirous of proving the truth of his theory, Columbus set out to obtain the aid he needed. This he found to be a difficult task, for kings, court people, and most of the men of science whom he met, scouted his ideas as visionary. Unsuccessful with the senate of liis native Genoa, his scheme rejected by King John of Portugal, and also by his geographers, Co- lumbus finally presented himself at the court of Spain. Ferdinand and Isabella, the sovereigns of that country, were then engaged in war with the Moors, so that seven weary years elapsed before the application of Columbus was finally granted. 6. Columbus sails from Palos, in Spain. — On the 3d day of the Eighth month (August), in the year 1492, Columbus sailed from the port of Palos, in Spain. He was accom- panied by 120 men, in three small vessels. They were detained a few days at the Canary Isles to repair one of the vessels, and then continued on their westward course. Week after week the little fleet sailed onward, and, though the men became alarmed and were almost ready to mutiny, the faith of the commander failed not. 1499] Explorations of the Spaniards. 25 7. America Discovered. — Finally, fields of sea-weed began to appear; then came birds, which the Spaniards were sure belonged upon the land. Next, at evening, a light was seen by the expectant voyagers, and the following morning they beheld a low, sandy beach, and strange, dark- liued people upon it. It was on the 12th day of the Tenth month (October), 1492, that America was discovered by Columbus, who, supposing he had arrived on the coast of India, called the natives Indians. 8. Columbus concludes his First Voyage. — The land which Columbus had discovered was an island of the Bahama group, called by the natives Guanahani, but by the Spaniards named San Salvador. It was taken possession of in the names of the king and queen of Spain, without any thought of the rights of its unresisting owners. Colum- bus then sailed southward, and, after discovering Cuba, Havti or Hispaniola, and others of the West India Islands, returned to Spain, where he was received with great honors. 9. Columbus made Three Other Voyages to the New World. Upon the first of these, in. 1494, Jamaica was discovered. Next, in 1498, he sailed along the northern coast of South America, near the mouth of the river Orinoco. Upon his last voyage, in 1502, he explored the coast of Honduras, but, returning thence, was wrecked upon the island of Jamaica, and remained there a year before succor arrived. It is sad to record the fact that from Havti he sent hundreds of slaves to Spain, contrary to the wishes of Queen Isabslla. Yet Columbus was a man of a religious spirit, and professed to be doing God service in sending the pagan natives to a Christian land. 10. Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci. — A Spanish admiral, Ojeda, accompanied by Amerigo Vespucci, of Florence, as naval astronomer, explored part of the northern coast of South America in 1499. Entering Lake Maracaybo from 3 _ ■y of the United & the sea, and. seeing an Indian village built on piles, they called ir V a, or Little Venice, — a name which was afterward given to that whole region. Other voyages were made a tew years later by Amerigo Vespucci. As the account of them which he published was largely s| abroad, it resulted that his own name instead of that of Columbus was given to the continent of America. ■ v jj» e .. lwkiy recoveries .HK SPANIARDS } , swTff.m 11. Cuba was taken Possession of in 1512 by Von Velas- quez, one of the captains o{' Columbus. The Spaniards found the natives so unwarlike that they had little difficulty in overrunning the country, but toward one chief who op- posed them they showed much cruelty. 12. Ponce de Leon in Florida. — In the same year. 1512, Juan Ponce de Leon, who had also beeu a companion of Columbus, discovered the mainland, and gave to it the name of Florida. Disappointed at that time in his search 1528] Explorations of the Spaniards. 27 for a wonderful fountain, the waters of which were said to give immortal youth to all who bathed in them, l>e Leon came again, eight years later, intending to form a settle- ment. But the Spaniards were driven back by the natives to their ships, and IV Leon, being- wounded by a poisoned arrow, died soon after his return to Cuba. 13. De Ayllon seeks for Slaves. — The native islanders of Hayti (which island was called also Hispaniola and San Domingo) suffered great hardships in working the mines ami plantations for their Spanish masters. In a 1'ew years a great many thousands o( them miserably perished. To obtain a fresh supply of victims, Vasquez de Ayllon, with two ships, visited the Atlantic coast in 1520, near what was afterward Beaufort Harbor. They called the land Chicora. 14. Stephen Gomez, a native oi' Portugal, in 1525 sailed still farther northward, to the New England coast. On an old Spanish map the " Land oi' Gomez" is the name placed upon that territory. 15. Magellan circumnavigates the Globe. — A companion of Gomez, the navigator Magellan, leal explored the coast o( South America in 1520, and sailed through the straits between the mainland and the island of Terra del Fuego. Although Magellan died on the voyage, his vessel passed around the Cape of Good Elope, and, reaching Spain again, thus accomplished the first circumnavigation oi' the globe. 16. Narvaez in the Florida Interior. — The name Florida was applied by the Spaniards not only to the peninsula, but also to all the vast, unknown interior beyond. In 1528, eight years after Ponce de Leon's repulse, an expedition under Pamphilo de Xarvaez marched into the Florida in- terior in search of the treasures they fancied were to be found there. Great hardships were met with in the tangled forests and marshes, and many oi' the soldiers died oi' dis- 28 History of the United State*. [1539 ease and famine. The remnant, having built five boats, embarked for Cuba, bul a storm overtook them, and all but four of the men were lost. 17. De Soto discovers the Mississippi. — Undismayed by the fate of Narvaez and his men, Ferdinand de Soto petitioned the king of Spain to permit him to attempt the conquest of Florida, De Soto and his little army of cava- liers ami others, landed on the beach oi' Tampa Bay in the year L539, Their experience, however, was similar to that of IV' Loon and Narvaez, They made the Indians carry their burdens, treating them with great cruelty, and incur- ring thereby thehostility of the tribes. Having traversed a great part of Georgia and Alabama, they finally, in the third year of their wandering (1541), readied the banks of a mighty river, the Mississippi, 18. Fate of the Expedition. — With much difficulty the river was crossed, but IV' Soto died soon afterward, and was buried beneath its waters. The discouraged survivors of the expedition then built some barges, and. descending the ureat river, crossed the Gulf et' Mexico to the Spanish settlements. The efforts of the Spaniards to colonize the Florida territory had. we have seen, proved unsuccessful. Farther southward, their attempts were rewarded with somew hat better success, 10. Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean. — In 1513, Vasco Xnne/ de Balboa, a Spaniard, crossed the narrow [sthmus of Darien, and was rewarded by the discovery o\' the raeitie Ocean, A colony was planted a tew years lateral Panama. 20. The Gulf o\' Mexico explored. — Francisco Fernandez, in 1517, -ailed south- west ward ly from the port of Havana, and discovered the peninsula of Yucatan, The next year the shores of the Bay of Campeachy were explored by Grijalva, to whom also there came rumors of the riches and splendor of the A. tee empire. The northern ooast-line of 1592] Explorations of the Spaniards. '2'.) the Gulf was critically examined l>y Pineda in 1519. lit* specially observed tlie outlet of the Mississippi, giving it the name of the Espiritu Santo. 21. Canqusst of Mexico. — In the year of the expedition of' Pineda (1519), Hernando Cortez, with a force of nearly TOO men, landed at Vera Cruz. Being joined by several thousand warriors ol* one of the provinces, Cortez made his way to Mexico, the capital. The city was captured after a hard struggle, and Montezuma, the king, being wounded, died soon afterward. The country became speedily subjeel to the Spaniards, who gave to it the name oi' New Spain. I\-ru, also, became a colony of Spain when Pizarro wrested it from the [ncas in 1531. 22. Expeditions of Coronado and Alarcon. — From Mexico, in 1539, there set out a company, under the leadership of Coronado, to search for the "Seven Cities of Cibola," which were reputed to contain great wealth. The poor villages 6f the Pueblos and Moquis were found, hut no treasure re- warded the long and wearisome search of the Spaniards. At the same time, several vcs-els under Alarcon sailed up the Gulf of California, and discovered the Colorado River, which they ascended several hundred miles against the rapid current. 23. California and Oregon Coast. — To the country on the Pacific, north oi' Mexico, the Spaniards gave the name of California. A Portuguese in the Spanish service, named Cabri Ho, explored the coast in 1542 nearly as tar as the Columbia River. Fifty years later, in 1592, Juan de Fuca, a Greek, also in the employ oi' Spain, explored the coast still farther to the north, between Vancouver's Island and the mainland. 24. St. Augustine and Santa Fe' founded. — Meanwhile, the Spaniards had planted two settlements only within the present limits of the United States. The first of these was 30 History of the United States. [1565 at St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565. [Further mention of this event is made in paragraph 12 of Chapter VI.] The second settlement was a mission station, at Santa Fe, near the Rio Grande, established in 1582. CHAPTER V. ENGLISH DISCOVERIES IN AMERICA. 1. The Pope's Gift to Spain and Portugal. — The Pope, by a decree or " bull," awarded to Spain and Portugal all the continents and islands which they should discover. An imaginary line, drawn north and south in the middle of the Atlantic, was to divide their possessions, — Spain to take all the new-found countries on the west side of that line, and Portugal all on the east side. Thus, Africa and the East Indies would fall to Portugal, and America, including the West Indies, would be the share of Spain. But, when the news of the discoveries of Columbus became known in Eng- land, King Henry VII. determined to make the attempt to attach some of those lands to his own empire. 2. Voyages of the Cabots. — Failing to secure the services of Columbus, King Henry, in 1496, granted a patent for land in America to John Cabot, a wealthy merchant of Bristol, but a Venetian by birth. Cabot, accompanied by his son Sebastian, crossed the ocean by way of Iceland, reaching the North American coast in the latitude of Lab- rador. This was a year before Columbus sailed along the Honduras coast of the same continent. John Cabot dying soon after his return from this voyage, his son Sebas- tian, who had accompanied him, was given charge of a second expedition in 1498. The men landed on the Labra- 1547] English Discoveries in America. 31 dor coast with the intention of forming a settlement, but, the climate proving too severe, Cabot sailed southward as far as Carolina, and then went back to England. 3. Routes to India. — The year of Cabot's second expedi- tion (1498), the route to India, by way of the west coast of Africa, was discovered by a Portuguese navigator, Vasco da Ancient Map, showing tue Pope's Atlantic Line. Gama. Many years afterward, in 1547 and later, Sebas- tian Cabot was employed on behalf of England in directing the search for a North-East passage to India, by way of the north of Norway and Russia. These attempts being unsuccessful, efforts by others were then made to discover 32 History of the United States. [1576 a way by the north of America. This way, still being sought for, we speak of as the North- West Passage. 4. Frobisher's North-West Voyages. — Martin Frobisher, in 1576 and 1578, made two voyages from England to the north of America, but advanced no farther than the straits between the Greenland Sea and the channels lead- ing into Hudson's Bay. The vessels returned from the second voyage loaded with large quantities of black ore and earth, said to contain gold ; but a critical examina- tion of the substance did not reveal a trace of the precious metal. 5. Drake's Voyage to the Pacific. — In 1579, Sir Francis Drake made a voyage to the Pacific Ocean by way of Cape Horn. Having plundered the South American seaports belonging to the Spaniards, although England and Spain were not then at war, Drake sailed up the coast of Cali- fornia and Oregon. The harbor of San Francisco was entered, and received its name from the piratical com- mander. Drake continued westward across the Pacific, and, reaching England in safety, completed the second circumnavigation of the tilobe. 6. The Newfoundland Fisheries and the Portuguese. — Im- mediately after Cabot's voyages the coasts of Newfoundland began to be visited by tiie fishing-vessels and whaling-ships of several nations, — French, Spanish, English, and Portu- guese. As early as the year 1501, two Portuguese caravels, commanded by Gaspar Cortereal, sailed along the coast of Labrador, and, having enticed 50 or more of the natives on board the vessels, carried them back to Portugal to be sold as. slaves. The later visits of the Portuguese to those coasts were only in the capacity of fishermen. 7. Gilbert's Newfoundland Voyages.— Humphrey Gil- bert, a step-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh, made two at- tempts, in the years 1579 and 1583, to plant a permanent 1585] English Discoveries in America. 33 colony on the island of Newfoundland. Upon both occa- sions, however, serious storms at sea were encountered, and a number of the vessels were lost. Upon returning home with his men from the second voyage, the little vessel in which Gilbert sailed foundered, and all on board of her perished. 8. Amidas and Barlow. — To Sir Walter Raleigh there was at that time given by Queen Elizabeth a patent for a large extent of American territory in a milder latitude than that of Newfoundland. Wishing to colonize his new possessions at once, Raleigh sent out two vessels in 1584, in charge of Philip Amidas and Arthur Barlow. They reached the shores of Carolina in safety, and, entering Pamlico Sound, landed on the low, sandy island of Roa- noke. After trading with the Indians and obtaining a cargo of cedar-wood, peltry, and sassafras-bark, they re- turned to England. Two of the natives, who went with them, became afterward useful as interpreters. 9. The Name Virginia, in honor of the virgin queen of England, M T as given by Raleigh to the territory which she had granted him. This he esteemed a proper return for the honor of knighthood she had conferred upon him. 10. Raleigh's Second Roanoke Expedition. — In 1585 a second expedition, under Sir Richard Grenville, proceeded to Roanoke Island. Grenville, after having been guilty of harshly treating the Indians, left a colony of 110 men and went back to England. The colonists were unwilling to till the soil, depending on the Indians for food. By their bad behavior they forfeited the friendship of the natives, and were soon on the point of starvation ; but a fleet under Sir Francis Drake, arriving unexpectedly, took them back to their own land. Grenville appeared at Roanoke Island soon afterward, left fifteen men there, and sailed back to England. Potatoes and tobacco were at this time first 34 History of the United States. [1587 taken to the Old World as curious products of the new province of Virginia. 11. Raleigh's Third Roanoke Expedition. — Not yet dis- couraged, in 1587, Raleigh sent out still another company of settlers, of whom John White was named as the gov- ernor, and eleven others as the assistant officers. They were directed to form a permanent settlement, to be called the City of Raleigh. When they reached Roanoke Island, the fifteen men left by Grenville were not to be found. They had no doubt been murdered by the natives, who at once showed their hostility toward the new-comers. 12. Disastrous End of the Undertaking. — The settlers find- ing they would need more food to save them from starva- tion, White consented to return to England for supplies. He left upward of 100 men on the island, besides his baby grand-daughter, Virginia Dare, the first English child born in America. On account of the war which then existed between England and Spain, three years elapsed before White returned to Roanoke; but, to his dismay and grief, not one of the colonists was to be found, nor were they ever afterward heard of. 13. Early Routes across the Atlantic. — The first English vovages across the Atlantic, those of John and Sebastian Cabot, had been made, as we have seen, in the high latitude of Labrador. The vessels of the Raleigh expeditions had mostly pursued the ocean-path of Columbus and the Span- iards, by way of the Canary Islands and the West Indies. But in 1602 a more direct route was chosen by Bartholo- mew Gosnold, who approached the coast near the present harbor of Portland, Maine. 14. Gosnold on the New England Coast. — Gosnold sailed southward from Portland Harbor and landed on Cape Cod. So far as we know, that was the first land ever trodden by Englishmen in New England. Buzzard's Bay, which 1607] English Discoveries in America. 35 was next entered, was ealled by the voyagers "Gosnold's Hope." They then landed on one of the Elizabeth Islands, intending to form a settlement; but the project was aban- doned, and the ship, having been loaded with sassafras-root purchased from the natives, returned to England. 15. Pring and Weymouth. — Two expeditions, similar to the preceding, were made to the Maine and Massachusetts coasts in the years 1603 and 1605. The first of these was placed in charge of Michael Pring; the second was in- trusted to George Weymouth. Besides sassafras-root, the skins of the deer, beaver, etc., were also obtained from the natives, a number of whom were forcibly taken back by Weymouth to England. 16. Popham. and Raleigh Gilbert. — Two years later, in 1607, Sir George Popham and Raleigh Gilbert sailed to the mouth of the Kennebec. They would have formed a settlement there, but, like Gosnold's voyagers, these also became discouraged, and soon sought again their native shores. Before leaving, however, they launched the little pinnace Virginia, the first vessel built by Englishmen in America. Thus, after more than a century of exploration and attempts to plant colonies upon these shores, England as yet had none, whilst Spain could show only the two little settlements at St. Augustine and Santa Fe. We may now turn our attention to the efforts which in the mean time had been made by the French. 36 History of the United States. [1524 CHAPTER VI. FRENCH EXPLORATIONS AND ATTEMPTS TO COLONIZE. 1. It has already been stated that the Lucrative fisheries of Newfoundland and the neighboring coasts caused them to be early resorted to by the vessels of several European countries. French fishermen from Brittany and Normandy were especially numerous and active in that quarter. The Gulf of St. Lawrence was explored by a Frenchman, Denys of Honfleur, but it was not until 1524 that an expedition was despatched thither under the royal commission of Francis I. 2. Verrazzani's Expedition. — The single vessel of the first French expedition Avas commanded by Verrazzani, a Florentine. Verrazzani reached the American coast in the locality of Cape Fear, and, sailing slowly northward, en- tered the harbor of New York. He then coasted along the Long Island shore to where Newport was afterward built, and so on until Newfoundland was reached. Verrazzani, returning thence to France, wrote to the king a full descrip- tion of all he had seen. 3. The Claim of France. — It was by reason of Verraz- zani's detailed account that the French laid claim to terri- tory which both the English and the Spaniards already called their own. The prior right of the Indians does not appear to have been considered worthy of a thought. 4. Cartier ascends the St. Lawrence. — The war which raged in Europe between Francis I. of France and Charles V. of Spain and Germany, prevented the French from so tyobis/ien So7& no- ■^ ** W*.// *cs& & cV* S, * r- tynoldJGO? m GR0T ■Cvj $ # c Ji'rrazzaw. A>?/ &- \F#. *v $ Claimed i i 6^^^ EARLY VOYAGES AND GBANTS OF THE | ENGLISH AND FRENCH. 38 History of the United States. [1534 sending a second expedition to America until ten years after that of Verrazzani. It was in 1534 that Jacques Cartier with two ships left the French port of St. Malo, crossed the ocean in the short space of twenty days, and entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The great river of the same name was ascended by Cartier, who thought that at last the high- way to India had been found ; but, being then unprepared for the winter storms, he sailed back to France without pursuing his discoveries. 5. Cartier's Second Expedition. — The following year, however (1535), Cartier, being given command of a second expedition, ascended the St. Lawrence again, until he ar- rived at a settlement of the Hurons called Hochelaga. A height on the island was called by the French Mont-Royal or Montreal. There they remained ice-bound during the winter, suffering greatly from the scurvy. In the following spring they returned to France. The Indian word Kan- naiha, meaning village, Cartier thought was applied to the whole country, which he therefore called Canada. 6. Cartier and Roberval. — In 1541, Cartier sailed yet a third time and with a still larger fleet to New France. At the same time a separate commission as viceroy being given to the Lord of Roberval, he too sailed thither with a fleet. But the men of both expeditions were badly chosen for the work of settling in the wilderness. Famine and disease prevailed, and the colonists, becoming disorderly and dis- satisfied, clamored to return home. Their wish was complied with. 7. Growth of Trade with the Indians. — As a result of these unsuccessful attempts, more than fifty years went by before efforts were again made by the French to plant colo- nies in New France, or "Acadie," as it was also called. Meanwhile, a large trade had sprung up between the French voyagers and the Indians for the skins of the bear, buffalo, 1562] French Explorations and Attempts to Colonize. 39 and lesser peltry. The fisheries also were flourishing. The French government, therefore, saw that fresh endeavors must be made to colonize the country. They would thereby secure to their subjects the advantages of the increasing traffic with the Indians, as well as the future wealth and power which the control of that territory was likely to bring them. 8. De Monts and Champlain. — A grant of all the terri- tory lying between the 40th and 46th parallels of north latitude having been made by the French king to the Sieur De Monts, the latter sailed for Canada in 1604. One of his companions was an adventurous soldier named Samuel de Champlain. They sailed up the Bay of Fundy, where a permanent settlement was established at Port Royal. Part of the New England coast was also explored. The French were more prudent in their dealings with the In- dians than were either the English, Spaniards, or Portuguese, so that the good-will of the natives was secured, and pro- visions in plenty were readily obtained. Further mention will be made of Champlain and the French struggle for dominion in a subsequent chapter. 9. The Huguenots. — In the mean time, attempts were being made by Protestants from France to plant a colony on the southern part of the same coast seen by Verrazzani in 1524. These colonists were mostly of that Calvinist sect called Huguenots. The leader of the Huguenots was Culigny, admiral of France, who, occupying a place of power, was enabled to aid his fellow-Protestants in seeking a wilderness-home in the New World. 10. Eibault's Expedition. — Two expeditions were sent out by Coligny in 1562 and 1564. The first, under Jean Ribault, reached the Florida coast near the mouth of the river St. John's. Farther northward they found a fine harbor, which they called Port Royal. There a fort was built, and Ribault, leaving some of his men to garrison it, 40 History of the United States. [1565 re-crossed the ocean. But many of the colonists were lazy and turbulent, and as a consequence of their bad behavior the Indians refused to supply them with any more food. The Frenchmen were therefore obliged to build a rude vessel and sail back to France, which country they finally reached after suffering greatly on the voyage. 11. The Second Huguenot Expedition, in 1564, resulted still more disastrously than the first. A strong fort was built near the mouth of the river St. John's, and was named Fort Caroline. But a mutiny soon broke out among the men, some turned pirates, and the remainder would proba- bly have starved had not succor arrived. Not all of these men were Huguenots. 12. The Spaniards occupy Florida. — The Spaniards were much displeased when they heard that Protestants from France had actually settled on Florida soil. Philip II. of Spain having given authority to Melendez to possess the territory, a large force under that officer proceeded thither in 1565, and planted a colony on the east side of the penin- sula, at St. Augustine. African slavedabor was then em- ployed lor the first time on our soil. Fort Caroline, on the St. John's, was surprised by the Spaniards, and its Huguenot garrison put to death. Some Frenchmen, led by He Gourgues, retaliated two years later by killing in turn the Spanish garrison, but they made no attempt to effect a settlement. Contemporary European Chronology. 912. The Normans, under Rollo, take possession of Normandy. 1066. William the Conqueror begins the conquest of England. 1096. The first crusade; 1270, seventh and last crusade. 1347. Great plague in Europe; said to have carried off one-fourth the people. 1453. The Turks take Constantinople, and end the Eastern Roman Empire. 1455. Beginning of the 30 years' War of the Roses in England. 1479. Kingdom of Spain formed by the union of Aragon and Castile. ( 'ontemporary European Chronology. 41 1509. Henry VIII. of England ; 1547, Edward VI. ; 1553, Mary. 1517. Tlie Reformation by Luther begins. Calvin. Erasmus. Charles V. of Germany and Spain. Francis I. of France. 155S-1G03. Queen Elizabeth of England's reign. Knox. Bacon. 1560. The civil wars in France, conducted by Conde and Guise. 1570. Republic of Holland formed by the Union of Utrecht. 1603. Union of England and Scotland under James I. Shakspeare. Note. — For South American chronology, see Appendix. 1302. The mariner's compass improved by F. Gioia. 1320. Gunpowder invented at Cologne, by Schwartz. 1420-40. Art of printing invented by Coster, Gutenberg, etc. 1-164. Post-offices in France; 1581, in England. 1471. Printing introduced into England by William Caxton. 1 177. Watches made at Nuremberg. 1489. Maps and charts brought into England by Bartholomew Columbus. 1532. The true solar system revived by Copernicus. 1545. Needles first made in England. 1590-1620. The telescope invented and improved. Galileo. *:.;:* O n account of the readiness with which the subject-matter of each para- graph is suggested by its black-letter or italicized heading, it has been deemed not necessary to introduce questions throughout the book. Some remarks, however, upon Questions for a Topical Review, will be found at the end of the text, page 264. ■■y ;: Although not a few maps have been supplied to eulighten the text, the teacher is, nevertheless, particularly recommended to apply the students' knowledge of geography as a handmaid to their study of history, requiring maps of the country studied to be drawn upon the blackboard by the pupils themselves, and marking them therefor according to merit. Adherence to this course will be found beneficial to the pupils in every respect. *** The student should be encouraged to consult the vocabulary at the end of the book for the correct pronunciation of the proper names as they come in course. PERIOD TTI. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION. CHAPTER VII. VIRGINIA. 1. Claims of Spain, France, and England. — At the be- ginning- of the seventeenth century we find the French in- tent on obtaining control of the territory adjacent to the river and Gulf of St. Lawrence. The Spaniards, gaining wealth from their possessions in South America, New Spain, and the West Indies, paid little attention to their territory of Florida. The Portuguese had settled in Brazil, but their traffic was mostly with Africa and the East Indies, and they laid no claim to North America. The Atlantic coast, therefore, between Nova Scotia and the Spanish settlement at St. Augustine, seemed to invite the attention of the English. Notwithstanding the disastrous results of Raleigh's expeditions, the later and more successful ones of Gosnold, Pring, and others, revived the hope of a profitable commerce with America. 2. The London and Plymouth Companies. — In 1G06, King James I. of England granted to an organization called the "London Company," so much of the territory called Virginia as was included between the 34th and 38th parallels of north latitude. To another organization, called the " Plymouth Company," he granted at the same time the northern part of what was then called Virginia, 42 1G06] Virginia. 43 from the 41st to the 45th parallel. As the London Com- pany's grant was first settled upon, it will be treated of first. [See map, page 37.] 3. Government of the London Company. — The code of laws which was to govern the London Company's colony was prepared in advance by the king. As might have been expected, it was framed to meet the views of royalty rather than of pop- ular government. The king was to appoint a superior council, whose members were to reside in England ; and, although the colonists were to be allowed a domestic council, its mem- bers and their acts were to be subject to the king's ap- proval. During twenty-one years the Virginia plantation was to receive all duties levied on vessels trading to its ports ; after that, the duties were to be paid to the crown. For five years the products of the colony were to be held by the settlers in common. The Church of England was to be made the established religion. 4. Jamestown Settled. — In the latter part of 1606, one hundred and five men, in three vessels commanded by Christopher Newport, sailed for Virginia, intending to enter Pamlico Inlet. A storm prevailing, they found Early Settlements in Virginia and Maryland. 44 History of the United States. [1007 themselves opposite the Chesapeake. Naming the capes at its entrance Cape Charles and Cape Henry, after the king's sons, they ascended the broad river Powhatan, which they also called the James, in honor of their king. On its northern bank they landed the 13th day of the Fifth month (May), 1607, and called the place Jamestown. 5. Captain John Smith. — The council of seven named by the king chose one of their number, Wingfield, their presi- dent. The most able and active member, however, was Captain John Smith, who took the chief management of affairs when Newport, in the summer, returned to England. Whilst exploring the neighboring country Smith was cap- tured by the Indians and carried before their chief, Pow- hatan ; but at the intercession of the chief's daughter, Pocahontas, he was released. The next year Smith made a careful exploration of Chesapeake Bay, and also ascended the Potomac River a considerable distance. Upon his re- turn he was elected president of the council, and discharged its duties with much firmness and ability. Two new settle- ments were established, near where Richmond and Norfolk now stand. 6. The Virginia Company. — The London Company having very soon changed its title to that of the "Virginia Company," a new charter was obtained, which was less favorable to the colony than the previous one had been. It provided that the affairs and laws of the colony should be regulated entirely by the council in England and by the governor whom it should choose. 7. The Starving Time. — When Captain Smith went back to England, two years after Jamestown was first settled, there were but forty acres of land under cultivation, al- though the colony numbered about 500 persons. Without any regular system of work, their provisions being nearly gone, and the friendship and aid of the natives lost, the 1619] Virginia. 45 number of the colonists was soon reduced by death and desertion to 60 persons. Concluding to depart, they had actually embarked, and were sailing down the river, when they were met by the ships of Lord Delaware. The latter was the first governor appointed by the Council. 8. Lord Delaware and his Deputies. — The ill health of Lord Delaware very soon obliged him to return to England, and Lord Percy was for a while left in charge of the colony. During the next five years, from 1611 to 1616, Sir Thomas Gates and Sir Thomas Dale served succes- sively as deputies for Lord Delaware. A large number of cattle were brought over to the colony. Instead of the men working in common as before, a separate lot of ground was assigned to each individual. 9. Captain Argall, a coarse and passionate man, captured Powhatan's daughter, Pocahontas, and brought her to Jamestown. A war with the Indians was avoided only by the marriage of Pocahontas to John Rolfe, a settler of good repute. Argall afterward sailed to the Dutch settlement at the mouth of the Hudson, and to that of the French at Port Royal, on the Bay of Fundy. The Dutch acknowl- edged the English authority for the time; but the houses of the French at Port Royal were burnt. Argall returned to Virginia and managed to hold the office of deputy for a while, although Dale had already named George Yeardley for that post. To settle the dispute Lord Delaware sailed for the colony, but he died on the passage. 10. America's First Representative Assembly. — George Yeardley, the new governor, arrived in Virginia in 1619. There were then, twelve years after the landing at James- town, but 600 colonists and seven distinct plantations or boroughs. Yeardley, having made the number of boroughs eleven, called a meeting of the first colonial Assembly, or " House of Burgesses," to which each of the boroughs sent 46 History of the United States. [1619 its own chosen representatives. A written constitution, granted to the colony in 1621, still further secured to the people the blessing of a representative form of government. [See the note at the end of this chapter.] 11. Results of Better Government. — Acts were passed by the new Assembly which gave general satisfaction to the colonists, who therefore applied themselves with more vigor to the work of building houses and cultivating their fields. A number of respectable young women were brought over to the colony, and became the wives of the planters. Emi- gration was also much stimulated, so that in three years after Yeardley's arrival the colony numbered nearly 4000 persons. 12. Cultivation of Tobacco. — Tobacco became early the principal crop of Virginia, being planted at Jamestown not only in the gardens and fields, but in the very streets. It was mostly used instead of money to pay taxes and tithes, as well as debts, fines, and salaries. At times there was danger of the colonists suffering through lack of food, be- cause of the great attention c'iven to the growing of this weed. When Yeardley's successor, Wyatt, came over in 1621, he recommended that more attention be given to corn, cattle, grape-growing, and silk-culture. The latter industry did not succeed. The first cotton seeds in the United States were planted at Jamestown in 1621. 13. Indian Troubles. — While Powhatan lived there was peace between his people and the whites. But upon his death his younger brother, who succeeded him, incensed the tribes against the English, who were rapidly taking pos- session of their best lands. Upon one day in the year 1622, the Indians massacred 350 of the settlers, who were widely scattered over eighty plantations. Jamestown was saved by a friendly Indian giving warning of the intended attack. The survivors of the attack collected upon six of 16221 Virginia. 47 the plantations, and began a war of extermination against the natives. It lasted fourteen years, and greatly hurt the 'prosperity of the colony. A similar Indian uprising and massacre of the settlers occurred in 1644. 14. Slavery in Virginia. — Negro slavery was introduced into Virginia in 1619, in which year a Dutch man-of-war landed twenty ne- groes at Jamestown. They were sold as slaves to the planters. For many years it was almost entirely the Dutch who con- tinued to bring the blacks to the prov- ince. Nevertheless, they were introduced so slowly, that at the end of thirty years there was but one negro to fifty whites of the population. It should also be stated that, before the introduction of African slavery, it was the custom to purchase white persons who had been sent over from Eng- land. They were held to servitude a number of years, or until they had fully " worked out" the cost of their ocean- passage and other expenses. 15. Virginia a Royal Province. — The London stock- holders of the Virginia Company having suffered much loss became dissatisfied, and appealer! to the king to ex- amine into the company's affairs. King James appointed commissioners, whose report was so unfavorable to the com- COTTON-rLANT. 48 History of the United States. [1624 pany that their charter was abolished in 1624. The colony then came under the direct control of the king, who ap- pointed the governor and Council ; but the colonists did not give up their own Assembly, for that had been secured to them by their constitution. 16. Religious Intolerance. — Sir William Berkeley was governor of the province of Virginia for the greater part of forty years. He was strict in requiring conformity to the usages of the Church of England. A penalty of £100 was imposed upon ship-masters bringing Quakers into the colony, or upon any person who should harbor that people or permit an assembly of them in or near his house. Bap- tists were also excluded, whilst Romanist priests were given five days' notice to quit the colony. A fine was also imposed upon all who did not attend the parish chapels. 17. The Culpeper and Arlington Grant. — In 1673, the king of England granted to Lords Culpeper and Arling- ton the whole province of Virginia, to be under their con- trol for the term of 31 years. The news of this grant gave great dissatisfaction to the colonists, who were already aware of the rapacious character of the two noblemen. 18. Bacon's Rebellion. — The favor shown by the gov- ernor and the other officers of the crown toward the rich planters caused trouble with the smaller land-owners, of whom the poorest class now lost the right of suffrage. At that time, 1676, King Philip's war was raging in New England, and depredations upon the whites of Virginia began to be made by the tribes south of the Potomac. Nathaniel Bacon, a young and talented planter, was anxious to organize a militia force and proceed against the Indians. The governor, who had a monopoly of the Indian trade, refused the demand of Bacon, who thereupon raised a com- pany and went to the war. Berkeley proclaimed Bacon 1680] Virginia. 49 and his followers rebels, and a conflict ensued, in the course of which Jamestown was burnt. Soon afterward Bacon died, and the insurgents being without a leader the rebellion was quelled. By order of the governor upward of twenty of Bacon's adherents were hanged. 19. Condition of Virginia. — The result of the rebellion was to increase, rather than diminish, the hardships of the colonists, who had a regiment of the king's soldiers quar- tered among them. The British navigation ads were a great grievance, for they required the colonists to ship their productions only in vessels of the mother-country. Unjust restrictions were also imposed upon Virginia's trade with the other colonies, and upon the manufacture of any articles which were made in England. 20. Growth of a Local Aristocracy. — The state of society in Virginia was very different from what it was in New England, where the people settled at once in villages, and soon began the making of various kinds of goods to sup- ply their needs. In Virginia, on the other hand, the owners of the large plantations on the tide-water rivers exchanged their tobacco for English goods, which were brought directly to their wharves. For many years there were very few towns in the province, and those were of slow growth. The poorer class of settlers were kept in debt to the wealthy planters and in dependence upon them. Hence it happened that from the holders of large estates there were chosen the Council, Assembly, justices, and other officers of government. 21. After Berkeley's Return, Lord Culpeper, having pur- chased Arlington's share of the grant of Virginia, became governor in 1680. Returning to England three years later, he sold his patent to the crown in exchange for a pension. The ruined village of Jamestown was deserted 50 History of the United States. [1698 in 1698, and the seat of government removed to Williams- burg. Until the Revolution Virginia continued to be ruled by the royal governors. ; V* It is of special importance, before the teacher proceeds farther in the history, that he or she should make clear to the comprehension of the pupils the meaning of representation and representative government. Having ex- plained how the school committee represent the parents of the children, as well as the religious organization, or the community who elect them, and that the mayor, council, etc., of q city are chosen by its own people to make and administer laws for its government, they will have no difficulty in under- standing how officers (exclusively or largely) chosen by a company in England, might fail to represent properly a distant colony, or to attend promptly to their various needs and natural rights. CHAPTER VIII. NEW NETHERLAND — NEW YORK. 1. Henry Hudson's Voyages. — In 1609, an English navi- gator, named Henry Hudson, while in the employ of some merchants of Amsterdam, entered the bay of New York. He also sailed up the river, now known as the Hudson, as far as the Catskills. The Indians were wonder-struck at the sight of the strange vessel (the "Half-Moon"), but, being badly treated, were glad to see it disappear down the river. The following year Hudson explored the great bay, north of Canada, which also bears his name. 2. The Dutch occupy New Netherland. — The Dutch at once erected a fortified trading-post on Manhattan Island at the mouth of the river, and, by reason of Hudson's dis- coveries, laid claim to all the territory from Cape Cod to Delaware Bay. The English disputed this claim. As early 1625] New Netherland. 51 as 1613, Captain Argall, from Jamestown, asserted his country's right to the soil. The Dutch lowered their flag, but raised it again as soon as Argall departed. 3. A fortified trading-post was built on the Hudson, a little below the present site of Albany, in 161 5. Captain Mey (or May), who was sent out the same year by an Am- sterdam trading com- pany, entered Delaware Bay. Another vessel, commanded by Captain Block, sailed through Long Island Sound, making note of the out- lets of the Housatonic and Connecticut Rivers. On the Lower Delaware and at the mouth of the Con- necticut, fortified trading-posts were built by the Dutch, who gave to their American possessions the name of New Netherland. 4. The Dutch West India Company was an organization formed in 1621, to which was granted entire control of the trade and settlement of New Netherland. A number of adventurers under Captain Mey, who was sent out by this company in 1623, built Fort Orange at the place where Albany afterward arose. By another party, Fort Nassau, on the Delaware, was built. 5. Minuits, the First Director or governor for the com- pany, was sent over in 1625. The first regular colonists were Protestants from the French-Netherland frontier, and were called Walloons. They settled at Wallabout Bay, on the west end of Long Island. Manhattan Island was Paht op New Netherland. 52 History of the United States. [1629 bought from the Indians for sixty guilders, or about twenty- four dollars. The settlement which arose at the south end of that island was called New Amsterdam. 6. Colonization by the Patroons. — In 1629, the West India Company, with the consent of the States-General of Holland, announced a scheme for the more rapid settling of New Netheiland. Any members of the company who should, within four years, cause at least fifty persons to settle upon a tract of land granted to them for the purpose, were to be allowed to take the title of patroon, with all its privileges of commerce and local government. The company reserved Manhattan Island to itself; but grants were soon made for several large manors, — as that of the Rensselaers, above and below Fort Orange; of Pavonia, on New York Harbor; and of Swansdale, on Delaware Bay. These patroons carried on an extensive trade with the Indians, but they frequently fell into sharp disputes with their tenants. 7. Walter Van Twiller succeeded Minuits as director in 1633. Shortly after his arrival, English settlers from New England built two fortified trading-houses on the Con- necticut River, near others belonging to the Dutch. One of these posts was near the location of the present city of Hartford ; the other, at the river's mouth. Although the Dutch protested, the question of the right of ownership of that region was not decided until Peter Stuyvesant became governor. 8. Governor Kieft and New Sweden. — William Kieft succeeded Van Twiller as governor in 1638. In the same year some Swedes, under Minuits, formerly the governor of New Netherland, settled on land upon the Delaware, near where Wilmington now stands. The land was pur- chased from the Indians, and a fort was erected there, which was called Fort Christina, in honor of the Swedish queen. 1647] New Netherland. 53 To her American domain of New Sweden Queen Christina sent a governor, John Printz, in 1643. Notwithstanding the protests made by Kieft that the Dutch were the right- ful owners of all that region, Printz caused a New Sweden. fort to be built on Tini- ciim Island, near the mouth of the Schuyl- kill. Two other forts were erected on the east side of the Delaware. 9. Kieft's Indian Wars. — No war broke out between the Dutch and Indians until about thirty years after the founding of the colony. In the year 1641, some Indians of the Raritan tribe being suspected of stealing, Kieft sent an expedition against them, and several of their warriors were killed. For this the Indians retaliated. Two years later the Hackensacks were attacked and many of them murdered, because one of their number when drunk with liquor supplied by the Dutch had killed two whites. 10. The neighboring Indians on Long Island, and others along the Hudson, then united against the Dutch, killing many, and burning their dwellings and barns. Finally, in 1645, Kieft made a treaty with the Mohawks, who had not taken part in the war, and through their influence the hos- tile tribes agreed to a peace. The colony having suffered great loss by these wars, the unpopular governor was recalled by the company. 11. Administration of Stuyvesant. — Peter Stuyvesant, being appointed governor of the colony in 1647, undertook 5* 54 History of the United States. [1651 the task of bringing it back to its former state of prosperity. The dispute with New England respecting the boundary was referred to four arbitrators. They decided that the Dutch were to retain the west end of Long Island, where Brooklyn and some other settlements had arisen ; also, that the western boundary of Connecticut was nowhere to approach within ten miles of the Hudson River. 12. On the Delaware, where New Castle was afterward built, Stuyvesant, in 1651, caused Fort Casimir to be erected. Four years later, the Dutch having sent a strong force to the Delaware, all the military posts of New Swe- den fell into their hands. During Stuyvesant's admin- istration many Africans were brought into the colony by vessels of the West India Company, and were sold at public auction into slavery. 13. Form of Government. — The director, his council, and the.sherilf, administered the government for the company. They could make and execute the laws, and also act as judges in matters of dispute, thus giving the people no voice in the government. Quarrels about questions of authority frequently occurred with the governors, who sometimes denied to the people the right of appeal to Hol- land. The more liberal government of New England was well known to the New Netherland colonists. Upon one occasion they sent a remonstrance to Holland, in which they spoke of New England as a place " where neither patroons, nor lords, nor princes are known, but only the people." Hence, when England made a demand for the surrender of the colony, many of the people were not unwilling to come under its rule. 14. The English take New Netherland. — The Duke of York, brother of King Charles II., purchased various English claims for Long Island and the territory between the Connecticut and Delaware Rivers, then partly occupied, 1673] New Netherland — New York. 55 as we have seen, by the Dutch. The king confirmed the duke's title to the territory, which thereupon received the name of New York. Next, in 1664, three armed ships arrived at New Amsterdam from England, and a demand was made by the duke's agents for the surrender of the place. Governor Stuyvesant complied, although loath to yield without making any resistance. Fort Orange and New Turk in 1059. the forts on the Delaware were also given up, and thus the whole of New Netherland came under English control. The town of New Amsterdam had its name changed to New York. 15. When War broke out between England and Holland in 1673, New York, Long Island, and the Delaware settle- ments passed again into the hands of the Dutch, but were held by them until the following year only. 16. The Duke of York, Proprietor. — The improvement in their political affairs which the people of New Nether- 56 History of the United States. [1674 land had expected, did not come to pass for twenty years. The governors sent over by the duke were disposed to be harsh in the exercise of their authority. This was particu- larly the case with Sir Edmund Andros, who received the appointment in 1674. He finally became so obnoxious to the people that another governor was appointed, and a charter of liberties was granted to the colony allowing it a representative assembly. But, when the duke became king under the title of James II., in 1685, Andros was reinstated in power, and the privileges which had been granted were revoked. 17. Disagreements with the Royal Governors. — Upon the accession of William and Mary in 1688, the people ap- pointed Jacob Leisler, a merchant of New York, governor. Two years elapsed before the arrival of Henry Sloughter, whom the king had appointed to that office. The populace still espousing the cause of Leisler, the latter was arrested for high treason and was hanged. Although the repre- sentative assembly was restored, disagreements with the governors concerning the provincial expenses were fre- quent. Upon no subject were they more so than upon that of the governors' salaries. In the four wars with the French for the possession of Canada, the New York settlements were often ravaged by hostile Indians, as will appear in a later chapter. i* The teacher should not fail to point out to the pupils, as they progress in the history, how variously the American colonies were governed, — some being ruled by royal governors, others being under the control of proprietors, whilst others, again, were under charters which gave to the freemen the power to frame their own laws. Likewise, how the political tendency, in all the colo- nies, was always toward self-rule and a republican form of government. 1620] The New England Colonies. 57 CHAPTER IX. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. PRELIMINARY VIEW. New Plymouth. — The colony of New Plymouth was founded by the Pilgrim Fathers (Independents) in 1620. It was annexed to Massachusetts in 1692. Massachusetts Bay Colony was founded by Puritans (not Separatists) in 1628. Connecticut. — Emigrants from Plymouth in 1633, and from Boston in 1635, settled the colony of Connecticut; whilst merchants and others from England, in 1638, founded the independent settlement of New Haven. The two colonies were united in 1664. Rhode Island, — In 1636, Roger Williams, being exiled from Massachusetts Bay Colony, settled " Providence Plan- tation;" other exiles, two years later, settled " Rhode Island Plantation." They were united under one administration in 1663. New Hampshire. — Settlements were made within what is now New Hampshire in 1633, but the colony came under the government of Massachusetts in 1641, and so remained until 1679, when it became a distinct royal province. In 1690 it was again united to Massachusetts, and remained under the same government until 1741. Maine. — Part of what is now Maine was granted to Ferdinando Gorges in 1621. The colony was settled very 58 History of t/ie United States. [1606 slowly. It came under the control of Massachusetts in 1653, and was not made a separate Stale until L820. The United Colonies of New England was the title of a confederacy organized in L642, comprising the colonics of Massachusetts, Now Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven. This League, which was entered into mainly for purposes of protection against the Dutch, French, and Indians, came to an end in lo'ljo. COLONY OP NEW PLYMOUTH. 1. The Plymouth Bay Company, or the Company of North Virginia, was organized at the same time as the South Vir- ginia Company, in 160b*. The next year, whilst James- town was being settled by colonists sent by the latter, others sent out by the Plymouth Company landed at the month of the Kennebec. Becoming discouraged, however, they returned the following year to England. In 1014, Cap- tain John Smith was sent to the same locality, and made a map oi' the coast, which he presented to Prince Charles, at the same time changing the name of the country from North Virginia to New England. 2. The Council for New England became the name of a new body incorporated by King dames T. in 1620. It took the place o{' the Plymouth Company, and comprised many new members. The "Great Patent" gave them the sole rights of government ami trade in all that part of the American territory comprised between the -40th and 48th parallels of north latitude, and extending from the At- lantic to the Pacific Ocean. It therefore included the present Canada, New England, and the greater part of the Middle States. 3. The Pilgrim Fathers. — The first permanent settlement in New England was made by a company of Independ- ents or Congregationalists,* called the "Pilgrim Fathers." 1620] Colony of New /'///mouth. 59 These people had separated from the Established Church of England, and, to escape persecution, fled to Holland. Fearful, however, that their children would lost; the sim- plicity of their faith in that land, they decided (o seek an asylum in America. Permission being granted by the London or South Virginia Company, the emigrants, 102 in number, set sail from Plymouth, England, in the ship Mayflower, for the Hudson River. 4. Landing of the Pilgrims. — Carried by storms north- 60 History of the United States. [1620 ward of the London Company's territory, the Pilgrims came to land at Cape Cod. Having cruised many days around the bay, exposed to storms and severe cold, the ex- plorers finally found a suitable harbor on its western side. On the 21st day of the Twelfth month (December), 1620, the weary voyagers landed on " Plymouth Rock." 5. The First Winter. — John Carver was chosen the first governor. So great were the hardships of the first winter from famine, cold, and disease, that more than half the settlers, including the governor, perished. Provisions were then obtained from a settlement at the mouth of the Ken- nebec. As the soil near Ply month was not fertile, several years elapsed before enough land had been broken up and cultivated to meet the demand for food. 6. Friendliness of the Indians. — It was well for the colo- nists, in the midst of their many trials, that the Indians proved friendly. The first to meet the Pilgrims had been Samoset, greeting them with the words, " Welcome, Eng- lishmen." A treaty was made with Massasoit, chief of the Wampanoags, so that there arose no trouble with these In- dians until the breaking out of King Philip's war in 1675. But Miles Standish, the first appointed captain of the militia, had several encounters with Indians of other tribes, some of them being killed. When John Robinson, a lead- ing minister among the Independents, who remained in Holland, heard of this, he wrote, "Oh, how happy a thing it would have been that you had converted some before you killed any !" 7. Government of Plymouth. — The Pilgrims had been first bound together as a religious association only; but, before leaving the Mayflower, they entered into a compact to make such civil laws as might be necessary, and to sub- mit to and obey them. All the freemen of the colony at first constituted a General Court or assembly, and made the 1628] Massachusetts. 61 laws ; but later, the towns chose representatives. The free- men annually elected the governor and his assistants, or council. By the revised laws of 1671, each town chose a body of selectmen, who were given power to decide all small causes at law, but appeal could be taken to the court. We thus see how much more free was the government of the Pilgrims than was that which early prevailed in either Virginia or New York. 8. No Charter was granted the colony by the Plymouth Council of England, but, after several years' delay, the Pilgrims were allowed a patent for the land where they had settled. MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY. 9. The Puritans. — North of the Plymouth Colony a second and larger colony soon arose, which was settled by the Puritans. These were not separatists from the Estab- lished Church of England, as were the Pilgrims of Ply- mouth ; but, objecting to many of the practices still retained by the national church, they desired a simpler form of living and worship. To be free in the enjoyment of their religious belief, many of them now began to turn their attention to the New World. 10. The Massachusetts Bay Grant. — In 1628 some of the Puritans obtained from the Council for New England a grant of the "Plantation of Massachusetts Bay," extending from three miles north of the Merrimac Piver to three miles south of the Charles, and from ocean to ocean. John Endicott, with the first body of colonists under this grant, settled at Naumkeag, now Salem, where there were already a few families. Others settled at Charlestown. 11. Settlement of Boston. — The company in England, having obtained a charter with some difficulty from the king, concluded to transfer the government directly to the colony. John Winthrop was appointed the first governor, G G2 History of the United States. [1630 an honor to which he was frequently re-elected. He came over to the colony in 1630. Seventeen vessels, containing 1000 persons, together with farm animals and implements, arrived the same year. They settled upon the little penin- sula at the head of Massachusetts Bay, naming the place Boston. Roxbury, Cambridge, Lynn, and other settlements arose at the same time. [See maps, pages 59, 108.] 12. The Government of the Massachusetts Bay Colony was much like that of Plymouth, but the right to vote was granted to " church members only." The colony was formed with the idea of preserving what they believed to be a pure form of worship, and therefore much of the legislation partook of a religious as well as civil character. Town-meetings, to discuss local matters and to choose the men to manage them, early became a marked feature in Massachusetts government. There Mere magistrates for the towns, to try petty causes, whilst other magistrates (the governor's assistants) formed the Assistants' Court, for trying causes of a more serious nature. Thus, home rule seemed established. 13. Eliot and the Praying Indians. — John Eliot is known in New England history as the " Apostle to the Indians." In 1646, at their village of Nonatum, ten miles west of Boston, he established a civilized Christian settlement of the natives, the first of the kind in the English colonies. Seven such villages of the " Praying Indians," as they were called, were organized around Boston. A magistrate was appointed for the trial of offences and settlement of differ- ences among them. Several similar settlements were estab- lished within the limits of Plymouth Colony, as well as in the country of the Nipmucks, about fifty miles southwest of Boston. At the time of the breaking out of King Philip's war there were probably more than 3500 Indians who had been thus brought under the direct care of the whites. 1036] Massachusetts. 63 14. Education. — A school for the advanced education of the youth was established at Cambridge in 1688. Henry Dunster, a learned Hebrew scholar, was its first president. In acknowledgment of a large bequest of money and books from John Harvard, the institution received the name of Harvard College. The same year there arrived the first printing-press used by the English in America. A metrical version of the Psalms, prepared by John Eliot and others, was printed upon it in 1640. Eliot also translated the Bible into the Indian dialect, and it was printed some years later. By the law of 1647, every town of fifty householders was required to appoint a teacher to instruct the children how to read and write, whilst towns of one hundred families were obliged to provide a grammar-school. 15. Manufactures and Trade. — In order that Massachusetts and the other New England colo- nies might not be dependent on England for all their goods, the making of cotton, linen, and woollen goods was early started. Ship-building also became a profitable source of industry, staves, skins, and dried fish being some of the chief articles of export. The vessels which carried them to the West Indies or other distant ports would frequently go around by the Guinea coast for return cargoes of slaves. As there was not much coin in circulation in the colonies, such articles as beaver-skins, musket-balls, and the Indian wampum were freely made use of. 16. Persecution of Baptists and Antinomians. — In 1636, Early Printing Press. 64 History of the United States. [1637 Roger Williams, a Baptist, was banished from Massachu- setts for declaring that the civil magistrate had no authority or right to rule in matters of conscience. A year later, Anne Hutchinson, who was charged with setting up the " Antinomian heresy," — that faith was sufficient without good works, — was also sent into exile. Sir Henry Vane, who was appointed governor in 1637, was soon superseded by Winthrop for holding like views. Others of both these sects were either banished or left the colony unbidden. 17. Persecution of the Quakers. — A violent persecution broke out against the Friends in 1656. A law was passed forbidding any ship-master to bring a Quaker into the colony under the penalty of £100 and the obligation to carry such a one away again. Many of the Friends, both women and men, were thrown into prison, whipped, kept in irons, had their tongues bored through or ears cut on , and under- went many other indignities. Endicott, the governor, and Norton, a leading clergyman of Boston, were participants in this work of persecution. 18. Finally, a law was passed that any Quaker returning to the colony after being banished, should suffer the pen- alty of death. Four of those who believed it their duty to come back to the colony, one of them a woman named Mary Dyer, were hanged on Boston Common. They all met their death with Christian resignation, declaring it was for Christ's sake they suifered. When the news of these bloody proceedings reached England, the king sent word that the executions must cease. 19. ICing Philip's War. — The Cause, — More than half a century had the whites lived in the land, and year by year they had acquired the lands of the Wampanoags at a trifling cost. The natives beginning to fear they would lose their homes altogether, one of them, a chief named Metacomet or "King Philip," entered into a combination of the tribes 1688] Massachusetts. 65 to recover their lands and liberty. An Indian who gave the whites this information was killed by some of his tribe. The murderers, in turn, having been tried and executed by the settlers, the Indians, with Philip as their leader, determined to seek revenue. 20. Events of the War. — The war began in the summer of 1675 with the massacre of several whites by the Indians. Militia of the Massachusetts and Plymouth Colonies pro- ceeded against the Wampanoags, who had been joined by the Mohcgans. Near Deerfield, upward of 100 of the militia and farmers w r ere killed in an ambuscade. Deer- field itself, Northfield, Springfield, and other towns, were burnt. The Indians were then pursued into the country of the Narragansetts, with which tribe they were in league. Their fort being surrounded by the whites, many hundreds of the Indians were shot, and their wigwams destroyed by fire. In the following year, many settlements nearer Boston and others in Rhode Island were fired by the Indians, but Philip was finally pursued to his home on Mount Hope Bay, and shot in his effort to escape. 21. Results. — Of the eighty towns of Massachusetts and Plymouth, fifty had been damaged or destroyed by fire. About 600 of the colonists had been killed, or were taken prisoners and never again heard of. A much larger num- ber of the Indians had been slain, whilst the labor bestowed on the Praying Indians during so many years was mostly lost. The war also extended southward, stirring up the tribes of Maryland and Virginia against the whites, whilst eastward, nearly one-half the settlements in Maine and New Hampshire were destroyed. The loss of life there was, in proportion, still greater than it was in Massachusetts. 22. The Salem Witchcraft.— The six years from 1688 to 1693 were memorable in New England by reason of the witch excitement. This delusion prevailed chiefly around e G* 66 History of the United States. [1G84 Salem, the accusations of witchcraft being made mostly against old or ill-featured women. A court to try the cases was held, presided over by Governor Phipps. Fifty per- sons were convicted in four months, and twenty of them were hanged. Even the leading clergymen were carried away by the foolish delusion. Finally, when accusations began to be made against people of excellent repute, the excitement died out. 23. Royal Claims to Supremacy. — When Cromwell died and the Puritans lost their power in England, at the Res- toration, measures were taken to check the growing inde- pendence of the colonies. Several of the colonies received the commissioners sent over by the king, but Massachusetts would not at first acknowledge their authority. Few of the king's suggestions were adopted. At last, in 1684, the colonial charter was declared forfeited. 24. The Royal Governors. — King Charles dying at this time, James II., his successor, in 1686, sent over Sir Ed- mund Andros as royal governor of all New England. So harsh was his rule that when, in 1689, King James was exiled from England, and William and Mary became the ruling sovereigns, the people of Massachusetts im- prisoned Andros and his friends and demanded the old charter. That instrument, however, was somewhat too liberal to suit the king, who sent over the "Province Charter" in 1691. From that time until the Revolution, Massachusetts (to which Plymouth and Maine were also annexed) was subject to governors chosen by the King of England. The first governor under the new charter was Sir William Phipps. NEW HAMPSHIRE. 25. Mason and Gorges Grants. — In 1621 and 1622, John Mason and Ferdinando Gorges, members of the Plymouth Council, received grants from the king for the territory 1029] New Hampshire and Maine. 67 between the Merrimac and Kennebec Rivers, and extend- ing from the ocean to the river St. Lawrence. Many con- flicting claims, some of them with Massachusetts, arose in consequence of these grants. The portion west of the Piscataqua was allotted to Mason in 1629, and received the name of New Hampshire. 26. The First Settlements were made at Dover and Ports- mouth in 1623; but so slow was the growth of the colony that, thirty years after that date, Portsmouth contained scarcely sixty families. The New Hampshire settlements, and those of Maine, suffered greatly by Indian ravages at the time of King Philip's war, as well as subsequently during the several wars with the French. Concord, on the Merrimac, the capital, was not laid out until 1726. 27. Changes of Government. — The New Hampshire set- tlements were annexed to Massachusetts in 1641, and re- mained so until 1679, when the colony came under the king's jurisdiction. It was not until 1741 that New Hampshire, which had had the same governors as Massa- chusetts, was permitted to have a governor of its own, — Benning Wentworth. The town of Bennington, then set- tled, received from him its name. MAINE. 28. Claimants of Maine. — When Mason and Gorges made division of their lands in 1629, the territory com- prised between the Piscataqua and Kennebec Rivers was allotted to Gorges. East of the Kennebec as far as the Penobscot, known later as the District of Cornwall, was granted to the Earl of Sterling, to whom was also given a patent for Nova Scotia. The French, however, claimed the territory of the Sterling grant as part of their Acadia. 29. Early Settlements. — After Gosnold's voyage along the Maine coast in 1602, that locality became a frequent resort of fishermen, but the only settlements at the time 68 History of the United States. 1636 Gorges became owner of Maine were at Pemaquid Point and Monhegan Island. Saco and York were then settled, a court being held at the former place in 1636. But the growth of the colony was still more slow than was that of New Hampshire, so that, upon the death of Gorges, the few settlers were allowed to govern themselves as they pleased. 30. Annexation to Massachusetts. — Massachusetts Bay Colony having laid claim to Maine as being hers by the The Lumbermen's Haunt. Great Charter, the towns reluctantly came under Puritan government in 1653. Some years later, Massachusetts pur- chased the rights held by the heirs of Gorges. Maine re- mained attached to Massachusetts until 1820, when it was admitted as a separate State into the Union. Its great forests, situated upon the navigable rivers, and upon the 1636] Connecticut. 69 many lakes of the interior, proved one of the principal sources of wealth to the State. In lumbering and ship- building, Maine for many years took the lead. CONNECTICUT. 31. Dutch and English Claims. — The Dutch of New Netherland claiming the territory north of Long Island Sound, built, in 1633, two trading-posts on the Connecti- cut River. One of these was near the river's mouth ; the other, the " House of Good Hope," was. near the site of the present city of Hartford. They bought the land at both the settlements from the Indians. But the Council for New England had, in 1630, made a grant of the land on the Connecticut to the Earl of Warwick, who, the next year, sold it to Lord Say and Seal and others. The troubles which thence arose with the Dutch were settled during the directorship of Peter Stuyvesant. 32. Windsor and Saybrook Settlements. — Without per- mission from the English proprietors, some Plymouth colonists in 1633 settled the town of Windsor, near the Dutch House of Good Hope. In 1635, however, John Winthrop, son of the Massachusetts governor, came with a commission from the proprietors themselves, and built a fort at Saybrook, at the mouth of the Connecticut. The same winter a company of others arrived from Massachu- setts, but endured great hardships on their wilderness journey. In 1636, Hooker and Stone, ministers of the gospel, and many other reputable emigrants, settled at Hartford and adjacent places. 33. New Haven Colony. — A company, largely of mer- chants, arriving at Bostotf from England when the Hutchin- son controversy was at its height, determined to seek homes in some quieter locality. Led by Theophilus Eaton and John Davenport, they chose a small tract of land at the 70 History of the United States. [1638 head of Quinnipiack Bay, on Long Island Sound, and called the place New Haven. This was in the year 1638. The land was purchased from the Indians at the price of ten coats. Eaton, chosen the first governor, continued for twenty years to hold the post. The right of suffrage was, as in Massachusetts, restricted to church members, and the Scriptures were ordered to be the law of the land. 34. The Pequod War, of 1636, arose in consequence of the harsh retaliation which the settlers visited upon the Indians, who had killed some ill-behaved traders. The whites having sought revenge by killing many more of the Indians, the latter began making reprisals. Next, Endi- cott from Boston, with some volunteers, destroyed several of the Pequod villages ; also their plantations of corn, their canoes and wigwams, on Block Island. Other volunteers from the Connecticut settlements then attacked two fortified villages of the Pequods near the mouth of the Thames, set them on fire, and killed '600 of the warriors, with their women and children. Fourteen only escaped this awful massacre. The remainder of the tribe were pursued into a swamp and obliged to surrender. A number of the prisoners were distributed among the colonists as slaves. 35. United Colonies of New England.— In 1643, Massa- chusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven entered into a confederacy for the preservation of their religious faith, and for mutual protection against the Dutch, French, and Indians. Rhode Island and Maine were not invited to join the federation, as they were said to "run a different course." Two commissioners were appointed from each of the colonies. They met annually in each colony alter- nately, and, in deciding upon any'measure, the assent of six of the eight members was necessary ; yet their decisions were not necessarily binding. The league came to an end in 1665, when New Haven was united to Connecticut. 1636] Rhode Island. 71 36. The Constitution of Connecticut, adopted in 1639 at Hartford by all the freemen of the colony, is noted, ac- cording to Bancroft, as "the first in the series of written American constitutions framed by the people for the people." Virginia's constitution of 1621, as already shown, was framed by the London Company in England. The constitution of Connecticut provided for the election by the people of a governor and assistants, and also of deputies to form a representative assembly. There Mas no recognition of any controlling political power superior to the people. 37. The Charter of Connecticut, obtained by John Win- throp from King Charles in 1662, agreed in its liberal provisions with the constitution. The boundaries of the province were defined on the north-east and south, and, as with Massachusetts, were declared to extend westward to the Pacific Ocean. New Haven, although included within these limits, did not ^ once accede to the union. When Andros, in 1686, was appointed royal governor, and, coming to Connecticut, demanded the surrender of the char- ter, it was hidden from him in the hollow of an oak. So well was the charter liked that it continued in force until the year 1818. RHODE ISLAND. 38. Roger Williams Banished.— In 1636, Roger Wil- liams, the Baptist, was banished from the colony of Massa- chusetts, because his views concerning liberty of conscience were thought heretical by the Puritan magistrates. He was opposed to the exaction of tithes for the support of any one sect, and to the infliction of punishment for dif- ferences in religious belief. Many weeks in the depth of winter the exile wandered in the wilderness, and was grate- ful at last to receive food and shelter from the Indians. 39. Providence Founded. — Deciding to settle at the head of Narragansett Bay, Williams called the place Providence, 72 History of the United States. [1638 because of "God's merciful providence to him in his dis- tress." From the Indians he obtained a clear title to the land. Severely as he had been dealt with by the Puritans, he harbored no resentment against them, and when, soou afterward, the war with the Pequods broke out, he pre- vailed upon the Narragansetts not to join that tribe. 40. Rhode Island Plantation. — In 1638, a number of re- spectable emigrants from England, holding religious views not agreeable to the Puritans of Massachusetts, came to Providence. They were led by John Clark and William Corldington. In accordance with the advice of Roger Williams, they settled on the island of Aquidneck, which was afterward called Rhode Island. Newport was founded the following year, 1639. The Plantation of Rhode Island remained separate from Providence until 1644. 41. Wise Laws. — The settlers on Rhode Island, as well as Roger Williams and his friends^at Providence, enacted a few simple laws for their government, founded on the principles of love and good-will to all. No laws were passed interfering with the free exercise of the conscience. All private disputes were ordered to be settled by arbi- trators chosen by the parties to the quarrel; but if they refused, then the chosen selectmen or " disposers" of the town were to decide the matter. 42. The Charter. — From the English Parliament, Roger Williams, with the assistance of Sir Henry Vane, obtained a charter for the plantations in 1644, uniting them under one government. Some of its provisions not being satisfac- tory, a union was not fully agreed to until 1663, when a new charter was granted by Charles II. Like that of Con- necticut, it gave full liberty to the people in the election of their officers and in legislation, and remained the constitu- tion of the State down to 1842. Courts for judicial business were held alternately at Providence and Newport. 1634] Maryland. 73 CHAPTER X. MARYLAND, NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANIA, DELAWARE. MARYLAND. 1. The Founder of Maryland was George Calvert, a Romanist. Receiving a grant of part of Newfoundland, he attempted to make a settlement there in 1624, but, the locality not being a desirable one, he turned his attention to Virginia. Finding that liberty of conscience was not assured in that province, he succeeded in obtaining from King Charles I. the grant of Maryland. Before that occurred, Calvert had acquired the title of Lord Baltimore. 2. The Maryland Grant was claimed as including the territory between the 40th parallel of latitude and the Potomac River, and extended from the ocean to the head- waters of that stream. Its name was conferred in honor of Henrietta Maria, the queen. George Calvert having died before the charter was issued, his son Cecil succeeded to the proprietorship. 3. The First Settlement in the province was made by a company of Catholics under Leonard Calvert, a brother of Cecil, who came in two ships, the Ark and Dove, in 1634. At an Indian village on the north side of the Potomac near its mouth, the settlers landed, the natives generously per- mitting them to occupy their wigwams. They called the place St. Mary's. [See map, page 43.] Peace was in after- years mostly kept with the Indians, but there was some trouble with the Susquehanna tribe on the northward, and with the Nanticokes on the east of the Chesapeake. 7 74 History of the United States. [1646 The cultivation of tobacco very much engaged the atten- tion of the settlers, as it did of those oT Virginia, and the keeping of slaves was encouraged in the same manner. 4. Opposition of Clayborne. — Much opposition to the Maryland grant was made by William Clayborne, surveyor and secretary of the Council of Virginia. Having a license to trade in the Chesapeake, he had established a post at the mouth of the Susquehanna, and another on Kent Island. The island was taken by the settlers of St. Mary's, and Clayborne driven away. He returned several years later to the island, and for a time gave the settlers much trouble, even keeping away the governor during more than a year (1646) from the province. 5. The Proprietary Charter gave permission to Lord Baltimore and his heirs to make laws with the advice and consent of the freemen of the province, but the laws were not to be repugnant to those of England. He might im- pose taxes, establish courts, appoint the governor and other officials, and manage the province as he saw fit. The pro- prietor sent a code of laws to the colonists, but they pre- ferred to choose their representatives and make their own laws. They agreed, however, that he should appoint the members of the upper house. Their good understanding with Lord Baltimore lasted during all his long proprietor- ship of forty-three years. 6. Religious Toleration was secured to the colonists almost as fully as in Rhode Island. It was provided that" no person within this province, professing to believe in Jesus Christ, shall be in any ways troubled, molested, or dis- couraged for his or her religion, or in the free exercise thereof." Nevertheless, the Quakers were frequently fined or imprisoned for their testimonies against war and oaths. At the time of the supremacy of Cromwell and the Parlia- ment in England (1649-1660), many Puritans came into the colony, and for a while the Catholics were disfranchised. 1064] Maryland. New Jersey. 75 7. The Royal Government. — Upon the accession of Wil- liam and Mary id 1689, the proprietor of Maryland lost his rights, and a royal governor, Lionel Copley, was ap- pointed. His successor, Nicholson, removed the seat of government from St. Mary's to Annapolis in 1694. Dur- ing the twenty-four years that Maryland was subject to royal governors, the national church of England was set up in the colony, and the religious and civil affairs of the parishes were placed in the hands of vestries. 8. Later Proprietary Government. — The province of Maryland was restored to its proprietors in 1715, and re- mained in their possession until the Revolution. Frederick Calvert was the sixth and last Lord Baltimore. Although the city of Baltimore was laid out in 1729, for thirty years or more it remained a mere village, second in importance to Annapolis. NEW JERSEY - . 9. Early Possessors. — The territory lying between the Delaware River on the west and the Lower Hudson and the ocean on the east was granted in 1634 to Sir Edmund Ployden, and called by him New Albion. Neglecting to organize settlements, Ployden's grant became void, and the Dutch included the territory in New Netherland. The Swedes, about 1640, built several forts on and near the Lower Delaware. 10. Berkeley and Carteret Grant.— The English, in 1664, becoming owners of New Netherland, the Duke of York immediately afterward granted this part of his possessions to Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley. It was called* New Jersey in compliment to Carteret, who had been governor of the island of Jersey in the English Channel. Philip Carteret, a kinsman, was New Jersey's first gov- ernor, and Elizabethtown was chosen as the seat of gov- ernment. On Newark and Raritan Bays settlements soon 76 History of the United States. [1074 arose, many Puritans coming thither from Long Island and New England. The question of the payment of quit- rents agitated the colonists several years. 11. Purchased by the Friends. — In 1G74, Berkeley sold West New Jersey, his half share of the province, to Edward Byllingc and John Fenwick, members of the Society of Friends. Salem, near an old fort of the Swedes, east of Delaware Bay, was then set- tled by Fenwick. William Penn and other Friends bought By Hinge's share in 1677, and, the same year, Burlington was founded. Two years later the Friends also purchased East New Jersey, which had be- longed to Carteret. Robert Barclay, "the Apologist," was the first governor. 12. Presbyterians in East Jersey. — The Presbyterians of ^Scotland, who were at that time exposed to much persecu- tion, were invited by Penn and his Friends to take an equal part in the management of East Jersey. They accepted the oiler with alacrity, and many of them settled in the province. One of the twelve Scotch proprietors was the Earl of Perth, from -whom was named Perth Amboy. New Jersey and the Delaware River Settlements. 1702] New Jersey. 77 13. Peace with the Indians was always the rule in New Jersey. The Quaker settlers made no use of Avarlike weapons, so that good-will prevailed with the Minisinks and other tribes, and the white men built their homesteads and cultivated their fields undisturbed. The Indians had obtained' strong liquors from the Swedes, but the request to the Friends that their sale might be prohibited was at once granted. About 1745, David Brainerd engaged in religious labors amongst the Indians, drawing many of them away from their pagan praetiees. 14. The Government of the proprietors Berkeley and Carteret was a liberal one. Although they appointed the governor and some other offieers, the people chose their own representatives, who established the courts and levied the taxes. The later government of the Quaker proprietors was similar, except that the people were permitted to choose all the offieers except the governor. The " Concessions" were mutually agreed upon between the proprietors and people, and hence could not fail to give satisfaction. " We put the power in the people," was the message of the Quaker proprietors to the emigrants. 15. The Royal Rule. — Andros, the royal governor of New York and New England, claimed authority not only over those provinces, but over New Jersey also. His usurpations as to the latter were not sustained. Neverthe- less, there were many disputes between the proprietors and the crown, until finally, in 1702, the proprietors surren- dered their ownership. East and West Jersey were then united under one royal governor, Lord Cornbury. The power of the people was very greatly restricted, and often the governors were (as was Cornbury) haughty and exacting. PENNSYLVANIA. 16. The Founder of Pennsylvania. — In payment of cer- tain claims owing by the English government to Admiral 7* 78 History of the United States. [1681 Penn, there was granted to his son, William Penn, in 1681, a tract of land in America. This tract was to include three degrees of latitude, and to extend westward from the Delaware River five degrees of longitude. William Penn had, years before, united with the religious society called Quakers, and, as a consequence, had endured much persecu- tion, being imprisoned in the Tower of London and other places. Prompted by no selfish purpose of gain, but de- sirous of offering to the persecuted people of all religious creeds, and especially to the Friends, a refuge from their oppressors, he felt impelled to try in America what he called a " holy experiment." 17. Message to the Indians. — William Markham was first sent, in 1681, as Penn's deputy, to announce the coming of the emigrants, and to greet the Indians in the name of the proprietor. In his letter to the natives, Penn told them that, though the king of the country where he lived had given him the province, yet he desired to enjoy it only with their love and consent; that he hoped to secure their friendship by just and peaceable actions, and that he himself would shortly come and arrange everything to their satisfaction. 18. Penn's Arrival. — In the following year, 1682, Penn, with about 100 emigrants, mostly Friends, sailed for the Delaware in the ship Welcome. He arrived at New Castle late in the year, and, landing there, the Swedes, English, and Dutch acknowledged his government. The Duke of York had previously conveyed to Penn his ownership of the three Lower Counties on the Delaware. Penn then proceeded up the river to Shackamaxon, where, under a spreading elm-tree, it is said, the Great Treaty was held with the Indians " which was never sworn to and never broken." The Quaker proprietor repeated the assurances of peace and good- will which his letter contained, telling 16821 Pennsylvania. 79 the Indians that he came unarmed among them, that their lands would be fairly purchased, and that he desired all to be openness, brotherhood, and love. Presents were then given to the sachems, who, in return, handed back the peace-belt of wampum. 19. Results of the Peace Policy. — Whilst in the other colonies it was usual for settlers on the frontier to carry their guns to the fields and places of worship, in Pennsyl- vania and New Jersey this was not done by the Friends, and they were not molested. Even the doors of their houses they kept unlocked, lest the Indians might think Fac-Simile of the Reputed Wampum-Belt of the Oreat Treaty. From the original in the possession of the Pennsylvania Historical Society. (The two figures and the cross-stripes are in purple heads.) they mistrusted them. Five years after the "great treaty," when a rumor spread that there was to be a rising of the Indians, some of the Friends at once rode to one of the native villages about twenty miles distant. The Indians assured them that there was no truth in the report, and that they harbored no enmity against the English. Peace reigned in the province during a period of sixty-five years, at the end of which time the power of the Friends in the government was lost. 20. The Settling of this Colony was more rapid than was that of any of the others. Its free government and the absence of any kind of persecution, the fertility of the soil and the low price of the land, attracted many colonists. Yet Pen n cautioned his friends not to change their places of abode rashly, but to consider the glory of God and all their duty as of the first importance. Philadelphia (mean- ing " The City of Brotherly Love") was laid out by Penn 80 History of the United States. [1683 immediately after his arrival. Friends from Germany settled Germantown the following year, whilst many from Wales took up farms in the vicinity. Upward of twenty vessels arrived in a twelvemonth „ so that in the space of five years Philadelphia gained more than did New York in half a century. 21. Boundary Dispute with Maryland. — The grant of Pennsylvania was such that it could not be made to com- prise three degrees of latitude without encroaching either upon the grant of New York on the north, or that of Maryland on the south. The north line was readily ad- justed ; but as to the Maryland boundary, Penn and Lord Baltimore did not come to an agreement. Many delays occurred before the matter was at last arranged. Finally, in 1763, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon were chosen to run the line, which was afterward so famous as the parallel of separation between the free and slave States. The work was not completed until 1767. 22. Proprietary Government. — Penn divided the settled part of his province into counties, the people of which chose delegates to the Assembly and Council. The pro- prietor named his deputy, but made no change in the form of government without the consent of the Council and Assembly. When Penn returned to England in 1684, he chose five members of the Council as his deputies, but, disagreements ensuing, he reduced the number to one. The three Lower Counties then desiring a separate govern- ment, Penn permitted them to choose their own Legis- lature. In 1693, Pennsylvania was brought under the government of Fletcher, the royal governor of several of the colonies. After three years, however, the province was restored to Penn, and remained under the proprietary rule until the Revolution. 23. The Walking Purchase grew out of a dispute between 163S] Pennsylvania. Delaware. 81 Perm's descendants and the Indians as to the right of the former to the territory at the Forks of the Delaware, — that is, between the Lehigh and Delaware Rivers. It was at last agreed, in 1737, that the matter should be settled ac- cording to the oldest deed to Penn. This stated that the grant included the land " one and a half days' journey northward, and thence by a line drawn to the Delaware." The proprietors, by procuring the fastest walkers in the province, made the distance much greater than the Indians believed was just. The whites thus gained the land at the Forks, but they embittered the Indians against them. The Friends took no part in this wrong, but raised money amongst themselves to compensate the Indians. 24. The Moravians and Indians. — In 1740, a Moravian colony from Georgia settled on lands at the Forks be- longing to George Whitefield. The peaceful settlers of Bethlehem were soon on friendly terms with their Indian neighbors, the Minisinks. One of the brethren, named David Zeisberger, spent sixty years in gospel labors amongst the tribes, first at their villages on the Lehigh and in the Wyoming Valley, afterward in the western part of the State, on the Alleghany and Beaver Rivers. Still later, he lived with and instructed them at their settlements in east- ern Ohio. Here, in 1781, occurred the massacre of Gnaden- hiitten, when ninety of these Christian Indians — men, women, and children — were confined in two houses, and murdered by the militia of the frontier. DELAWARE. 25. The Swedish Settlers. — Peter Minuits, who had been the first director of New Netherland, was sent by Queen Christina of Sweden, in 1638, to plant a colony on the Delaware. Fort Christina was built near where Wilming- ton afterward arose. Five years later, John Printz was deputed by the queen to be her governor of New Sweden. / 82 History of the United States. [1651 Several forts were also built on the east side of the river and bay. [See map, page 53.] The colonists were en- joined by the queen to aid the Indians and to maintain a traffic with them; to be diligent in farming and in other industrious pursuits, and to observe the Lutheran religion. 26. The Dutch Conquest.— When the Dutch West India Company, in 1629, began to grant lands to patroons, one of those grants was that of " Swansdale," on the west side of Delaware Bay, near Cape Henlopen. By virtue of Captain Mey's discoveries, the Dutch claimed this as their territory. A little fort was built here, the first settlement in Delaware, but the occupants were murdered by the In- dians in retaliation for the death of a chief. Nine years later came the Swedes, as stated above. In 1651, the Dutch built Fort Casimir on the site of New Castle, five miles below Fort Christina. In 1655, a strong force sent by Stuyvesant, governor of New Netherland, captured all the Swedish forts on the Delaware. 27. The English Owners.— When the Duke of York, in 1664, became possessor of New Netherland, the Dutch settlements on the Delaware were also given up to him. The three counties of New Castle, Kent, and Sussex were formed on the west side of the bay, but were conveyed to Penn when he received the grant of Pennsylvania, in 1681. Lord Baltimore claimed the three counties as part of Mary- land, but the claim was not sustained. 28. A Separate Legislature was allowed the Three Coun- ties in 1691, as they had become dissatisfied with their representation in the Assembly of Pennsylvania. When Fletcher, for a brief period, became royal governor of Pennsylvania, Delaware also came under his authority. After 1702, although Delaware existed as a separate prov- ince from Pennsylvania, it had the same governors, and 1660] The Carolina*. 83 was under the proprietors' control until the Revolution. Maryland was the only other of the thirteen colonies which continued until that period under proprietary government. CHAPTER XI. THE CAROLINAS AND GEORGIA. 1. The Grant of Carolina. — In 1663, three years after the Restoration, Charles II. granted to eight English noblemen all the territory south of Virginia as far as the latitude of Port Royal. This territory was claimed by the Spaniards as a portion of their domain of Florida, and also by the French because Ribault had undertaken to plant a colony there. 2. The Grand Model. — The constitution designed for Carolina was the most remarkable one framed for any of the colonies, and the least suited for the time and the people. It was the joint work of the Earl of Shaftesbury, one of the proprietors, and John Locke, the philosopher, and was derisively called the Grand Model. It provided for a division of the country into counties, each with its earls and barons and lords of the manor. There was also to be a grand council or parliament of fifty members, and a landgrave as ruler. The right of suffrage was confined to freeholders, being denied to the humbler ones who had to pay rent. NORTH CAROLINA. 3. Clarendon Colony. — A colony from New England, in 1660, settled near the mouth of Cape Fear River, on land purchased from the Indians. But the soil did not prove suitable for either grazing or agriculture, and hence the 84 History of the United States. [1662 colony was soon abandoned. In 1665, emigrants from Bar- badoes settled near the same locality. One of the planters, Sir John Yeamans, was appointed governor by the proprie- tors, who gave the name of " Clarendon" to the territory ex- tending from Cape Fear to Port Royal. The settlers found employment for several years in making boards, shingles, and staves, which they shipped to Barbadoes. 4. The Albemarle Settlements. — Very soon after the settlement of Jamestown, in Virginia, emigrants from that colony began to inhabit the coun- try between the James River and Albemarle Sound. But it was not until 1662, when Quakers, exiled from Virginia, be- gan to bend their steps thither, that much attention was given to the colony. Governor Berke- ley, of Virginia, appointed William Drummond chief magistrate, the col- onists choosing The Carolina Settlements. their own Assem- bly. The Albemarle settlements, however, were included in the second charter of Carolina, which was granted to the eight titled proprietors in 1665. 5. The Albemarle Government. — Under an excellent governor, Stevens, with a popular Assembly, and a Council 1712] North Carolina. 85 chosen by both the proprietors and the people, the colonists were entirely contented. But, contrary to promise, the proprietors sought to change the form of government by bringing the colonists under the constitution. The Albe- marle settlers, peaceable though they were, strongly objected to the Grand Model. They also protested against the navi- gation acts, which obliged their traders to pay a duty not required of the British merchants and ship-owners. 6. Seth Sothel, who had become one of the Carolina proprietors, was appointed governor of the Albemarle set- tlements in 1683. Not succeeding in enforcing the con- stitution and the navigation acts, he turned his attention to matters of private gain, by seeking to control the Indian traffic, by exacting unjust fees, and in other ways. At the end of five years he was banished by the colonists, and for a while was governor of South Carolina. 7. Later Government. — After Sothel's administration and until 1729, when the proprietors sold their rights to the crown, both North and South Carolina were under the same governor. Of the excellent, though brief, rule of John Archdale special mention is made in the next section. From 1729 until the Revolution the two provinces were under separate governors appointed by the king. 8. The Tuscaroras. — In 1712, some of the settlers of North Carolina became involved in a war with the Tusca- rora tribe, who dwelt on the Neuse River and its neighbor- hood. German and Swiss immigrants settled on their lands, and the aggression was resented by the Indians. The governors of Carolina and Virginia sent militia against them, the troops being aided by Indians of the Yemassee, Catawba, and other tribes. Many of the Tus- caroras were captured and reduced to slavery, and the rest fled northward and joined the confederacy of the Five Nations. 86 History of the United States. [1670 SOUTH CAROLINA. 9. The Settlers at Charleston. — The first colony sent out by the Carolina proprietors was in 1670, and comprised three ship-loads of emigrants, under William Sayle, the governor. They entered the harbor into which empty the Ashley and Cooper Rivers, and upon the peninsula be- tween them, but back from the point, chose the site of their town. Ten years elapsed before they built upon the point itself, and named the place Charleston. 10. The Form of Government, according to the Grand Model, did not suit the colonists, for they chose their own governor and Assembly. Yet, in a few years, the Charles- ton settlers began to send captive Indians as slaves to the West Indies, and also to connive with the freebooters who depredated upon the Spanish ports and commerce. Re- ceiving rum from Barbadoes in exchange for the captive Indians, the morals of the province suffered greatly in consequence. These and other acts displeased the proprie- tors, who, in 1686, sent James Colleton to try to arrange their differences with the colonists. The latter, however, refused to recognize the authority of the new governor, and finally banished him. 11. Huguenot and other Settlers. — Emigrants from many quarters were attracted by the mild climate of South Caro- lina. There came Dissenters from England ; Scotch Presby- terians and Irish Catholics ; and Dutch Reformed from New York and Holland. A company of Scotch settled at Port Royal in 1684, but they were driven out by the Spaniards, who claimed the territory as belonging to St. Augustine. A large number of Huguenots, driven from France by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, arriving in the province, made their homes on the Cooper and San- tee Rivers. Although the new-comers were skilful and 1700] South Carolina. 87 industrious, the colonists opposed their enfranchisement, and for six years they were denied the right of suffrage. 12. Archdale's Wise Administration. — One of the eight proprietors was John Archdale, a Quaker. Being appointed governor of the Carolinas in 1695, lie at once devised measures to pacify the people, quiet the spirit of turbulence, and reform abuses. He appointed a Council satisfactory to the settlers, desiring them to choose their own represen- tatives to the Assembly. That the Huguenots might be better treated, he sought to awaken public sympathy to- ward the refugees. Some Indian slaves who were about to be sold to the islands were set free. The natives afterward showed their gratitude for this act by kindly caring for a shipwrecked crew, who had expected to be murdered. 13. Archdale, moreover, showed an open spirit toward the Spaniards, who for the first time expressed a wish to be on friendly terms with the English. No sympathy was now shown for freebooters. Finally, the Council and Assembly voted grateful thanks to the proprietors, — the first expression of such sentiments ever uttered in Carolina. Although Archdale was governor little more than a year, yet his brief administration was so marked by executive ability, allied to patience, firmness,- and openness toward all, that it merits the attention of every student of our history. 14. The Wrong Policy Renewed. — Archdale having been asked to name his successor, his choice fell on Joseph Blake, who, during four years, governed the province with pru- dence and moderation. After that, the wrong policy was renewed: the Indians were captured to be sold as slaves; there was war with the Spaniards of St. Augustine; buc- caneering revived ; and there were disputes about the im- posing of taxes. The religion of the national church of England was also introduced, and, against the protests of the Dissenters, the country was divided into parishes, and 88 History of the United States. [1729 tithes were claimed as in Maryland and Virginia. In 1729, the proprietors sold their rights to the crown, and South and North Carolina thence became royal provinces. 15. Rice and Cotton. — The first rice introduced into South Carolina was in 1694, when the master of a vessel from Madagascar gave a little bag of the grain to a Charles- tonian. It was nearly a century later (1790) before the sea-island cotton, so superior to the common variety because of its long and silky fibre, was introduced. The first crop was raised on Hilton Head, near Beaufort. The seed had been brought six years earlier from the Bahamas to Georgia. 16. Slavery. — In 1712, when South Carolina contained 6000 whites and 10,000 negroes, its first slave law was en- acted. It declared that, as the province needed the labor of negro and other slaves, a people inferior to the whites, the good order and security of the province required that all negroes, mulattoes, and Indians who could not prove they were freemen, must be made slaves. Any found abroad without a pass were to be chastised, and if an owner neglected to punish a runaway slave he forfeited his claim to him. Crimes committed by slaves were to be punished with great severity, and even death in many cases ; but the owner of a slave would not incur a penalty even for whipping him to death, unless bloody-mindedness was proved. GEORGIA. 17. The Georgia Grant. — The country between the Sa- vannah and Altamaha Rivers, extending westward to the Pacific, was granted by George II., in 1729, to twenty-one trustees. It was called Georgia, and was to be held in trust for the poor. This trust was continued until 1751, when Georgia became a royal province. 18. James Oglethorpe, a member of the British Parlia- ment, who had greatly interested himself in the subject of 1738] Georgia. 89 prisons and imprisonment for debt, was the person most interested in the grant. He desired to provide "a place of refuge for the distressed people of Britain and the perse- cuted Protestants of Europe." The free exercise of religion was granted to all but Papists. 19. Settlements. — Savannah was founded in 1733 by Oglethorpe and his first company of emigrants of the debtor class. The next year came some Jews, also some High- landers, and a body of persecuted Lutherans from Salzburg, in Germany. Augusta, at the head of navigation on the Savannah River, was then established as a trading-post, an exten- sive traffic having been opened with the In- dians. Moravians, sent by Count Zinzendorf, settled on the Ogcechee River, and in 1737 and 1738 came John and Charles Wesley, and George Whitefield the preacher. Near Savannah Whitefield founded an orphan asylum, and made an extensive tour through the provinces, preaching and collecting funds for the asylum's support. 20. The Great Awakening, a religious revival which spread through the country at that time, began under the preaching of Jonathan Edwards, at Northampton, Massa- chusetts. At Stockbridge, in the western part of Massachu- setts, Edwards labored for several years with satisfactory results as a teacher and preacher among the Indians there- about. He was afterward president of Princeton College. 21. Rum and Slave-holding were at first prohibited by the trustees, who were aware of the evil effects of both in Carolina. Yet, the debtor class who were being be- 8* WhITEFIELD'S ORPHANAGE, NEAR SAVANNAH. 90 History of the United States. [1739 friended, clamored the most for the free use of rum and the enforced labor of the negro. With slavery in active operation in Carolina and Florida, it was not long excluded from Georgia. 22. War with the Spaniards. — In 1739, war was de- clared by England against Spain. Oglethorpe, in the mean time, desirous of marking the southern boundary of the English dominion, caused forts to be built near the mouths of the Altamaha, St. Mary's, and St. John's Rivers. [See map, page 91.] To defend these forts against the Spaniards, the settlers, as well as the Indians, were called into service. The Spanish fleet returned to Cuba without capturing the forts. At the same time the English fleet, although aided by militia from the colonies, was baffled in its attempt to conquer the Spanish West Indies. 23. The Moravians, who had come to Georgia to make Christians of the Indians, and not to teach them the art of war, finding that their work was broken up, left the colony in 1740. They settled at the Forks of the Delaware, on lands belonging to Whitefield, as mentioned in the account of Pennsylvania. CHAPTER XII. THE WARS BETWEEN THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH COLONIES IN AMERICA. GROWTH OF FRENCH POWER. 1. The French in Canada. — The explorer Champlain, upon his second visit to Canada, founded Quebec, in 1608. He aided the Ottawas in their expeditions against the Iroquois, who for the first time discovered the deadliness of the white man's weapons. In 1615, the first body of % ■;r, :)(> IS 0UTAGAMIS\ < J+frjSandusA'i, \mAsccIutens\&'~ VW^.S^J-OelawarABaV C.Mc (if T Sfj, kx 'cjfocmws, If \ 1\ c f £3 {^ J ^°4% t ? ^p^ \£t.JohnVU W FRANC AND THE MpLISH COLO? <3 & f 10 92 History of the United States. [1049 Recollect priests from France came to Canada, but in a^ few years, through the influence of Cardinal Richelieu, they were supplanted by the Jesuits. Their headquarters were at Montreal, whence missions were established by them among the Hurons and other Canadian tribes. 2. Iroquois Wars. — In revenge for their defeats by Champlain, the Iroquois or Five Nations in 1649 and the following year invaded the country of the Hurons. They utterly defeated and dispersed that nation, and the missions among them were broken up. More than thirty years later there was a general war between the French and their Indian allies on one side, and the English and Iroquois on the other. The French first invaded the Seneca country east of Niagara, whilst the Iroquois in return again entered Canada, and spread terror far up and down the St. Law- rence. The Iroquois also greatly interfered with the fur trade of the French traders. 3. Explorations in the West. — The Mississippi, which had been discovered by De Soto, the Spaniard, in 1541, was re-discovered by a French priest, Marquette, in 1673. With a companion, Joliet, he explored the middle course of the river many leagues, as far south as the mouth of the Arkansas. Another priest, Hennepin, in 1679, explored the Great Lakes and the Upper Mississippi as far as the Falls of St. Anthony. La Salle, an adventurer, about the same time, descended the great river to the Gulf, giving to the country on both sides of the Mississippi the name of LouisrANA, in honor of the French king. Thus France laid claim by virtue of discovery to all the region of the Great West. In 1684, La Salle, with several hundred men, endeavored to plant a colony near the mouth of the Mississippi, but he and most of his men perished. 4. The French Possessions. — At the latter part of the seventeenth century, New France comprised all the region 1702] First and Second Intercolonial Wars. 93 of the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes, and the Valley of the Mississippi. The French traders had opened an extensive traffic with the Indians, and many mission- stations were established among them. The government of France, however, began to fear lest the English, who claimed a part of the territory they occupied, would wrest it from them. Wars which broke out in Europe between France and England, were followed by similar struggles between their colonies in America. There were four such intercolonial wars between the years 1689 and 1763. FIRST INTERCOLONIAL 'WAR. 5. The first intercolonial war, in the reign of William and Mary, continued from 1689 to 1697. War-parties of French and Indians, sent by Count Frontenac, governor- general of Canada, attacked the English settlements on the Mohawk and Piscataqua. At Schenectady and Salmon Falls many of the English were massacred. A large fleet, under the command of Sir William Phipps, ascended the St. Lawrence, hoping to capture Quebec and Montreal, but the enterprise failed. A land force of the colonial troops met with no better success. Fresh incursions of the Indians into New England followed. Maine especially suffered, as all its towns were attacked and many of them abandoned. This war, called " King William's War," ter- minated with the peace of Byswick in 1697. The French and English agreed to retain their territories as they were before war was declared. SECOND INTERCOLONIAL WAR. 6. The second war between the colonies, in the reign of Queen Anne, began in 1702, after England, with Holland and Germany, had declared war against France and Spain. At that time French colonists, under DTberville, had built a fort at Biloxi, on the Gulf of Mexico, and had like- 94 History of the United States. [1702 wise located farther eastward at Mobile. The Red River and other streams of Louisiana they also explored. Another French party founded Detroit in 1701. 7. The war in America again began with incursions of the Canada Indians, who surprised and massacred the settlers of Deerfield, and, afterward, of Haverhill. The English colonies sent an expedition against Acadia, and Port Royal was captured. Later, in 1711, a large fleet from England ascended the St. Lawrence, but many of the vessels were lost in a storm, and the remainder went back to England. The peace of UtrecJd, in 1713, put an end to this second contest, known as " Queen Anne's War." Nova Scotia and adjoining territory were ceded to the English, but the war had proved very disastrous to the colonies. Several thousand young men had been slain or died of disease, many fields remained untilled, and the growth of the colonies was greatly checked. THE THIRTY YEARS' INTERIM. 8. Colonization in Louisiana. — The French Mississippi Company, or Company of the Indies, having obtained the exclusive right to trade in Louisiana, built Fort Rosalie, near Natchez, and a trading-post on the Alabama, near where Montgomery now stands. John Law, who estab- lished a " Royal Bank" in Paris, was the chief promoter of the scheme. In 1718, New Orleans was founded by Bienville, and became the seat of government. Two years later Law's "Mississippi Bubble" burst. Nevertheless, Louisiana's population had increased to several thousand, and, with the aid of negroes from Africa, rice, tobacco, and indigo were cultivated, and afterward the country's great staple, sugar. 9. The Natchez and Chickasaws. — The French com- mandant at Fort Rosalie demanded of the Natchez tribe, 1725] The Thirty Years' Interim. 95 in 1729, the tract of land on which were the huts of their principal village. Angered at such a proposal, the Natchez listened to the counsel of their neighbors, the Chickasaws, and murdered the French settlers. The French retaliated by killing many of the Natchez tribe, and selling the rest as slaves to San Domingo. Other French expeditions, in which the Choctaws joined, invaded the Chickasaw country, but were unsuccessful in defeating that tribe. At the end of ten years a peace was agreed to. 10. War with the Norridgewocks of Maine broke out in 1722, the English settlers having continued their encroach- ments upon the Indian lands. Massachusetts applying to Connecticut for aid, that colony at first refused, having scruples as to the justice of the war, but jealousy of the French influence with the Indians overcame their objections. The Mohawks were more firm in their refusal to be allies of the whites, telling them to give back the lands and prisoners of the Norridgewocks if they wanted peace. In one of the expeditions against the tribe, an aged French priest and thirty of his Indian disciples were slain, a high price being put upon Indian scalps. The war continued with great savagery on each side for three years. 11. Commercial Distress. — The colonies being constantly in debt to England for the goods they imported, specie to pay for these was always in demand. There were then no surplus crops of grain and cotton to do it with. The cost of wars with the French and Indians had drained nearly all the specie from the country. To help pay these expenses and promote trade, a bank was started in South Carolina in 1712; but great trouble ensued between the merchants and planters by reason of the depreciation of the bills. 12. Banks were created, within a few years, in all the colonies except Virginia, and with the same results in most of them as in Carolina. But, in Pennsylvania, the 96 History of the United States. [1743 money was loaned upon such security as real estate or silver plate, and with better results. Nevertheless, the effect of the system was to drive the remaining specie out of the country, and also to stimulate the methods of credit. THIRD INTERCOLONIAL "WAR. 13. The war in Europe for the Austrian succession, which began in 1740, did not extend to the English and French provinces until 1743. The New England and Canadian River Scene— the Saouenay. other colonies then made preparations to attempt the capture of the strong fortress of Louisburg, which had been built by the French on Cape Breton Island. The English of Nova Scotia had found that it interfered Math their com- merce and fisheries. The colonial fleet, under Sir William Pepperell, being joined by another from England, Louis- burg fell into their hands in the summer of 1745. 14. Next, France sent a large squadron to the defence of 1754] Fourth Liter colonial War. 97 Canada, but the ships were captured by an English fleet under Admiral Anson. The Six Nations were allies of the English, being directed by a shrewd agent and trader, William Johnson. In Pennsylvania, the wishes of the Friends that the colony should not engage in war were overruled, and the long-established peace- policy of that province was at last given up. The peace of Aix-la-Cha- pelle ended " King George's war," in Europe and America. Louisburg, as one of the conditions of the peace, was given back to the French. FOURTH INTERCOLONIAL WAR. 15. The fourth and final struggle was the only one which did not grow out of a Avar first begun between the English and the French in Europe. It arose directly out of the conflicting claims of the rival nations to the control of the Great Lakes, the Ohio Valley, and the Mississippi, along which the French had already sixty posts. Halifax, on the Nova Scotia coast, was built by the English in 1749 as a check to Louisburg. The English colonists numbered about 1,500,000; the French, scarcely 100,000. 16. The Ohio Company was the name of an English cor- poration which obtained a grant of many thousand acres of land near the Ohio River, together with the sole privi- lege of the Indian traffic. To oppose this scheme, the French built a post at Presque Isle, on Lake Erie. Gov- ernor Dinwiddie, of Virginia, in 1754, thereupon caused a fort to be built where the Alleghany and Monongahela Rivers join to form the Ohio. This post was taken by the French and called by them Fort Du Quesne. The young George Washington, then a surveyor, of Westmoreland County, Virginia, was sent by Dinwiddie on a mission to the French; but, on his return, he and his company were captured. It was thus the war began. 'J 9 98 History of the United States. [1754 17. Braddock's Defeat. — At an important council held at Albany in 1754, the Six Nations and their allies agreed to aid the English. A plan devised by Benjamin Franklin, of Pennsylvania, for a federal union of the English colo- nies under a president-general, subject to Great Britain, was rejected. General Braddock was sent from England the next year to take the chief command, but he and many of his men were slaughtered in an ambuscade of the French and Indians near Fort Du Quesne. The Shawnee and Delaware tribes took the side of the French, and with torch and tomahawk ravaged the Pennsylvania frontier. 18. The French Neutrals. — The larger part of the people of Acadia or Nova Scotia were French, and did not take part in the war. The English admirals, however, to get rid of the trouble and expense of keeping garrisons among them, formed a plan to get them together and force them on board the ships. The scheme was entirely successful. Thousands of the poor Acadians were driven from their homes and scattered among the English colonists as far south as Georgia. That the deed might be complete and the Acadians so disheartened that they should not care to return, their crops were destroyed, and their houses and barns burnt. 19. The French Invasion. — To the Earl of Loudoun was given in 1756 the command of the English forces in America. The French commander, the Marquis of Mont- calm, crossed Lake Ontario with a force of Canadians and Indians, and captured and destroyed the English forts at ( )swego. The next year, with the aid of the garrisons of the French forts at Crown Point and Ticonderoga, on Lake Champlain, Montcalm captured Fort William Henry at the head of Lake George. His Indian allies, maddened with liquor, massacred a large number of the English after they had surrendered. 1763] Fourth Intercolonial War. 99 20. Conquest of Canada. — In 1758, General Abercrombie having succeeded Loudoun in the chief command, 30,000 troops were sent from England to the relief of the colonies. Abercrombie was unsuccessful in capturing^ Fort Ticon- dcroga, but Louisburg was taken by an expedition under Amherst and Wolfe. A third force took possession of Fort Du Quesne, from which the French had withdrawn. In honor of the English Minister of State, the place was then called Fort Pitt, or Pittsburg. 21. Amherst succeeded to Abercrombie's place next year, and sent Wolfe against Quebec, where Montcalm, who had retreated from Ticonderoga and Crown Point, was in com- mand. Wolfe was aided by a fleet which had been sent from England. In the terrible battle which ensued, Mont- calm and Wolfe were both killed, but Quebec fell into the hands of the English. The French forts at Niagara, Mon- treal, and other places were also taken, and Canada became, in 1760, a province of Great Britain. 22. Peace of Paris. — By the peace of Paris, in 1763, this last contest, called the "French and Indian War," was declared at an end. All the northern possessions of the French, as well as those east of the Mississippi, were con- firmed as belonging to the English. Louisiana, west of the Mississippi, was given by France to Spain in payment for the aid afforded, — Spain being also the owner of Florida. 23. Conspiracy of Pontiac. — The Indians of the Ohio region, who had been allies of the French, found that the English were now determined to occupy their hunting- grounds. Incited by Pontiac, an Ottawa chief, these tribes and the Senecas entered into a conspiracy against the Eng- lish. In the summer of 1763, the settlements all along the: western frontier wore attacked. Many of the settlers were scalped, their buildings were burnt, and part of the military posts were captured. General Gage, Amherst's 100 History of the United States. [1713 successor, sent two expeditions against {hem. One of these invaded the Ohio region, whilst the other went to the re- lief of Detroit, which had been several weeks besieged by Pontiac, The Indians were obliged to sue for peace. CHAPTER XIII. COLONIAL DISCONTENT. 1. Slave-Trade. — The Contract with Spain. — Under the treaty of Utrecht (1713), the English South Sea Company was given the exclusive privilege of introducing slaves into the Spanish West Indies. This English company agreed to pay the king of Spain $33J a head for the unholy privilege, and, within thirty years, to introduce 144,000 negroes into the Spanish colonies. 2. The African Company. — At the same time that the English traders were supplying the Spanish colonies with slaves, another organization, the " African Company," aided by English legislation, was bringing them to England's own colonies. Several of the latter complained of this action, but the British government was not willing to give up so profitable a traffic. 3. Distribution of the Slaves. — Slavery existed to a greater or less extent in all the colonies, but chiefly in those of the South, where the soil, climate, and plantation system all favored the employment of the African. In Virginia and Carolina, the slaves exceeded in number the white popula- tion. In 1750, there were aboul 1000 slaves in Boston. In Newport, Rhode Island, which was then a lively shipping port, the proportion of the whites to the slaves was still greater. New England rum was exchanged on the African 1770] Colonial Discontent. 101 coast for negroes to be sold ia the colonics, and the ships of Newport, Boston, and New York were all engaged in the traffic. 4. Protests against Slavery. — The first protest of a relig- ious body against negro slavery was drawn up in 1688 by Francis Daniel Pastorius, a German Quaker of German- town, near Philadelphia. It was adopted by the meeting at that place. In 1758, John Woolman, a Friend of Philadelphia, brought the subject of holding slaves to the attention of his fellow-members. He also visited Newport, to plead with those of his brethren who were there en- gaged in the traffic. In the space of about twenty years, the practice of either holding or dealing in slaves was peacefully abolished by the Friends in the North, and, a little later, by those of Virginia. 5. Dr. Samuel Hopkins, a Congregational ist pastor of Newport, called the attention of his religious society to the matter in 1770. Before the end of the century it was de- cided by that body that the holding of slaves would not be permitted among them. 6. Redemptioners. — In the middle colonies, especially in New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, many white ser- vants were imported from England. They were known as Redemptioners. Their term of service was limited by law, but they were generally kept in a low state of igno- rance and poverty. The name "soul-drivers" was given to those who made it a business to purchase the redemp- tioners in lots from captains of ships, and to drive them about the country like cattle. They were disposed of to the farmers, with whom they worked out the passage- money. Grown persons were sold for a term of 3 to 6 years, and children for a term of 10 to 15 years. 7. Regulators. — In New Jersey, Maryland, and the Carolinas, there were many complaints against lawyers and 9* 102 History of the United States. [1771 sheriffs for the exaction of unjust fees and on other ac- counts. The trouble became greatest in the central parts of North Carolina, where the people, who called themselves Regulators, not only refused to pay taxes, but violently as- saulted the officers of the law. Governor Tryon marched against them, and in a battle at Alamance, on Cape Fear River (1771), about 200 of the regulators were killed. So bitter a feeling ensued that it was found necessary to send a milder governor to take Tryon's place. It was at the time of these troubles that Tennessee and Kentucky began to be settled, as told in a later chapter. 8. English Colonial Policy. — Until the time of William and Mary, either the king's privy council, or commissioners appointed by that body, had charge of the affairs of the colonies; but in the year 1696, the colonial administration was given into the hands of Parliament. A series of measures was then adopted, intended to cripple the indus- tries of the colonies, and make the people more and more dependent upon the mother-country. 9. The Navigation and Trade Acts were the cause of general complaint in the colonies. The first navigation act which went into force was at the time of the Restoration (1660). It was then ordered that no goods should be im- ported into the colonies except in English vessels, navigated by Englishmen. Such American staples as sugar, cotton, and tobacco, could be exported to English ports only. Hence the colonies were obliged to pay heavy prices for English and all other European goods, that the British merchants might first reap a profit. At later dates, the attempts by the colonies to manufacture iron and steel goods were prohibited, as was also the making of hats. It "was forbidden to send woollen goods out of the colonies, or from one colony to another, as such action would hurt England's monopoly of the traffic. 1767] Colonial Discontent. 103 10. The Stamp Act, passed by Parliament in 17G5, was intended to raise a revenue in the colonies to defray the ex- penses of the French and Indian wars. It imposed a tax on bills, bonds, and other legal documents, as had long been the usage in England itself. Iron and lumber were at the same time prohibited from being exported to any country but England. 11. Action by the Colonies. — The news of the proposed measure was received with great clamor in the colonies. Petitions were forwarded to Parliament declaring that no person ought to be taxed without being represented in the assembly which imposed the tax; but the protests of the colonists were unavailing. 12. The Virginia Assembly were in session when infor- mation was received that the act had been passed. Strong resolutions were adopted by them in opposition to it, and the same was done by the Assembly of Massachusetts. Nine of the colonies sent delegates to a general Congress held at New York, by whom a declaration of rights and grievances was issued. In some of the cities riots occurred, and the crown officers were assaulted. The Stamp Act was repealed after it had been a year in force. 13. Import Duties. — Parliament, not being willing to give up its asserted right "to bind the colonies in all cases what- soever," next passed a bill, in 1767, imposing a duty on tea, paint, paper, glass, etc. This tax was to pay for the support of the king's military. Many of the colonists re- fusing to make use of the foreign goods, the duty obtained did not nearly defray the expense of its collection and the military's support. 14. Quartering the Troops. — By reason of the losses which the crown officers had suffered in the Stamp Act riots, two regiments of troops were sent by the British government to Boston and quartered in the town. The hostile feel- 104 History of the United States. [1173 ing against the military was kept alive by a weekly paper published in the place. After several brawls had occurred between the troops and the mobs of men and boys, a severe fight took place, in which several of the inhabitants were killed. The " Boston Massacre," as it was called, pro- duced great excitement throughout the colonies, the people now dividing into two parties, — the Tories, who favored the mother-country, and the Whigs, who opposed taxation by Parliament. 15. Tax on Tea. — The loss to the British merchants through the disuse of their goods in the colonies finally resulted in the repeal of the duties on all of them, except that of three pence per pound on tea. Now, the Americans did not object to the amount of the tax, but to the principle of " taxation without representation," and that it was which mainly gave rise to the war. 16. In 1773, cargoes of tea were sent from England to several of the colonial ports, to try how they would be re- ceived. In New York and Philadelphia the cargoes found no purchasers, and the vessels returned to England. At Charleston, the tea was landed, but became worthless by being stored in a damp warehouse. At Boston, a party of young men disguised as Indians went on board the vessels and emptied the tea into the harbor. 17. Boston Port Bill. — The numerous riotous proceedings in Boston so incensed the British government against the city that an act was passed forbidding all intercourse by water with the place. This act was called the Boston Port Bill. General Gage, the king's commander, landed ad- ditional troops and supplies there in the spring of 1774. The provincial leaders in Massachusetts then met together and drew up a "Solemn League and Covenant" not to have intercourse with Great Britain until their rights were restored. The militia were also called out. 1774] Colonial Discontent. 105 18. Continental Congress. — In the Ninth month (Septem- ber), 1774, delegates from eleven of the colonies met at Philadelphia, and formed an assenibly, which they called the Continental Congress. It was composed of 55 mem- bers, who appointed Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, their president. This assembly drew up a declaration of rights ; agreed to continue non-intercourse with England; and issued addresses to the king (George III.), to the people of England, and to the people of the colonies. 19. Franklin in England. — In 1764, Benjamin Franklin went to England as the agent of Pennsylvania, and, shortly afterward, filled the same position for the other colonies. His statements before the House of Commons were of service in procuring the repeal of the Stamp Act. By addresses published in the papers of London, he tried to change the tone of feeling toward America, explaining the burdens to which the trade and manufactures of this country were subjected. 20. When intelligence reached England of the assem- bling of the Continental Congress, Franklin still continued his efforts to induce the government to change its measures. William Pitt (Lord Chatham) and Edmund Burke were among those in Parliament who favored his efforts. A plan for a reconciliation was finally submitted to Parlia- ment, but rejected ; and Franklin, departing from Eng- land early in 1775, found, when he arrived in America, that war had already begun. 106 History of the United States. Contemporary European Chronology. 1618-1618. The 30 years' war in Germany — a period of havoc. 1649. Charles I. of England beheaded — the " Commonwealth." Cromwell. 1660. Charles II. on the throne — the " Restoration." Milton. Grotius. 1665. Great plague of London. 1666. The great fire of London. 1685. Edict of Nantes revoked; Protestants expelled from France. 1685-1688. The English " Revolution," and abdication of James II. 16S9. William III., of Orange, and Mary. British Constitution confirmed. 1702. Anne, queen of England. Newton. Locke. Fenelon. 1704. George I. (first of the Hanover line). 1715-1774. Louis XV. of France. 1727. George II. AVhitefield. Wesleys. Newton. 1740. Frederick II., surnamed the Great, ascends the throne of Prussia. 1760. George III. Reigns 51 years. Johnson. Cowper. 1610. The thermometer invented by Sanctorius, Drebbel, and Galileo. 1619. The circulation of the blood announced by Harvey. 1630. The first gazette or newspaper at Venice; in England, in 1665. 1641. Coffee introduced into England; tea, in 166G. 1643. The barometer invented by Torricelli and Pascal. 16S7. The Newtonian philosophy announced in England. 1721. Inoculation introduced into England from Turkey. 1752. New style of the calendar introduced. 1769. The spinning-jenny invented by Arkwright. *#* Before taking leave of the colonial period, the teacher is recommended to read to the class some account of the manners, customs, etc., of that time, such as may be found in Higginson's Young Folks' History of the United States. "*■;;;.* Instructors of youth may, obviously, do much to encourage those under their care in the selection of really good and instructive books and the re- jection of the merely trivial and harmful. As a present aid thereto, and to promote a farther acquaintance with the events and topics treated in this history, a " Course of Reading" will be found in the latter pait of the book. PERIOD IV. REVOLUTION, AND FORMATION OF A REPUBLICAN GOVERNMENT. CHAPTER XIV. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. EVENTS OP 1775. 1. Battle of Lexington. — A quantity of ammunition and other supplies for the provincial militia having been de- posited at Concord, twenty miles west of Boston, General Gage sent a body of troops to seize or destroy them. Arriving at Lexington early in the morning of Fourth month (April) 19th, the British troops found a company of "minute-men" assembled to dispute their progress. The militia not obeying the orders of the British officer to dis- perse, the command was given to fire upon them. Eight of the Americans were killed and several wounded. The troops went on to Concord and destroyed the military stores there. On their return toward Boston they were severely harassed by the Americans, who fired at them from behind barns, trees, and stone walls. 2. Bunker's Hill. — The news of the battle of Lexington spread rapidly among the provincials, who quickly mus- tered an army of 20,000 men, and closely besieged the British on the Boston peninsula. Reinforcements under Generals Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne came by sea to the relief of the British. Meanwhile, the Americans, to 107 108 History of the United States. [1775 ° Concord, tLexingto, oJfe<[/brcl J%^ £-~* TsaJuzrot (kjCwi rtastow/i Boston, strengthen their position, erected a breastwork on Bunker's Hill. After a severe struggle and loss of life on both sides, the breastwork was captured by the British, but the colonial militia escaped along Charlestown Neck. 3. Ticonderoga and Crown Point, the two strong fortresses on Lake Cham- plain, were taken from the royalists by a small body of militia u n d e r Ethan Allen and Seth Warner. A large number of cannon was se- cured by the pro- vincials. 4. The Conti- nental Congress as- sembled the second time at Philadel- phia, and adopted the title of the " United Colonies." General Washington, a delegate from Virginia, was made commander-in-chief of the army, and eight generals were also appointed. To provide for the expenses of the war, bills of credit to the amount of two million dollars were ordered. 5. The Royal Governors Superseded. — In Virginia, Lord Dnnmore, the royal governor, after a lengthened dispute with the people, sought refuge on board a man-of-war. Several times he landed upon the Virginia coast, seeking to regain possession of the province. Finally, having de- stroyed Norfolk by fire, Dunmore sailed to the West Indies. By the end of the year all the old governments in the colo- nies were dissolved, and provincial Assemblies organized. Wueue the Wak Began. 1770] The Revolution. 109 6. Expeditions against Canada. — As the Americans feared an attack from Canada, two expeditions were sent by Congress into that country. One of these, under Gen- erals Schuyler and Montgomery, proceeded by way of Lake Cliamplain, and took possession of Montreal. The other, under General Arnold, followed the course of the Ken- nebec, but was delayed on its toilsome march through the tangled forests. Both armies combined in an attack upon Quebec, bnt were repelled. The Americans evacuated Canada in the following spring. 7. Action by England. — Before the end of 1775, an act was passed by the English Parliament forbidding all trade with the colonies, and authorizing the capture of American trading-vessels on the high seas. Richard Penn and Henry Lee, who brought a petition from Congress to the king, were refused a hearing, upon the ground that the Congress was an unlawful assembly. Agreements were then entered into with the governments of Hesse-Cassel and Brunswick, that they should furnish, for pay, 16,000 troops to aid the British. These German mercenaries were known throusrh- out the war as Hessians. EVENTS OP 1776. 8. Evacuation of Boston. — Washington, upon being ap- pointed by Congress commander-in-chief, joined the pro- vincial army which was besieging Boston. Many of the militia, whose terms of enlistment had expired, left the service; the supplies were also low. Washington having ordered a redoubt to be constructed on Dorchester Heights, which menaced the city, the British were obliged to leave the place. Their fleet sailed for Halifax, whilst Washing- ton and the provincials entered the city. 9. Siege of Charleston. — To regain possession of the southern colonies, a British fleet, under Sir Peter Parker, appeared early in the summer before Charleston. At the 10 110 History of the United States. [1776 entrance of the port was a fortification of sand and palmetto logs, defended by Colonel Moultrie. This so effectually resisted the fire of the British vessels that the commander drew off his fleet and sailed toward New York. But Washington had already established his headquarters in that city, and ordered the construction of works of de- fence. 10. Declaration of Independence. — What led to it. — It was not at first the settled purpose of the colonists to assert their independence of Great Britain, but to force the un- just measures against them to be repealed. When, how- ever, their petition to Parliament was refused a hearing, and Hessians were hired to make war upon them, the desire to set up a government separate from that of the mother- country, became apparent. The several colonial Assemblies one by one began to declare for independence. 11. Tlte Declaration Framed. — The general Congress being again in session in Philadelphia, the following motion was made by Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, and agreed to : " That these United Colonies are and of right ought to be free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." A committee consisting of five delegates — Franklin, Jefferson, Adams, Sherman, and Livingston — was meanwhile appointed to prepare a Declaration of Independence. The document was drawn up with great care, principally by the hand of Jefferson, and, having been fully discussed, was signed the fourth day of the Seventh month (July), 1776. [The text will be found in full at the end of the book.] 12. Articles of Confederation were prepared by another committee of Congress, but not adopted until the following year. They conferred upon the nation the name of the 1776] The Revolution. Ill " United States of America," and were duly ratified by the governments of all the thirteen States. 13. Operations about New York. — By obtaining control of the forts on the Hudson and on Lake Champlain, the British hoped to cut off New England from the South. With this end in view, a force of 30,000 Brit- ish and Hessians was concentrated on Staten Island. Lord Howe, the commander, issued a proclamation offering pardon to those provin- cials who would return to their allegiance, but it was not accepted. Howe then attacked and de- feated the American army of Generals Put- nam and Sullivan on Long Island. Wash- ington thereupon evacuated New York, and withdrew to the upper end of Manhattan Island. 14. Retreat of Washington. — Washington retired with his army a short distance, to White Plains, hoping to hold possession of an important road. He was defeated. Nearly at the same time, Forts Washington and Lee, on opposite sides of the Hudson, which had been placed in command of General Greene, were captured by the British. Wash- ington with the remnant of his army then retired through New Jersey to Trenton, and escaped across the Delaware to the Pennsylvania shore as the army under Corn wal lis came in sight. 15. Battles of Trenton and Princeton. — At Trenton and Rear of Independence Hall, 1776. 112 History of the United States. [1777 Princeton detachments of the British army were stationed, whilst Howe withdrew for the winter to New York. As the enlistments of many of the Americans would expire at the end of the year, Washington crossed the Delaware in boats, and, surprising the Hessians at Trenton, made many of them prisoners. Continuing on to Princeton, another battle was fought, more prisoners were taken by the militia, and the remainder of the British force was put to flight. Washington retired northward to Morristown, where his army went into winter-quarters. 16. Commissioners sent to France. — After the American defeat on Long Island, Lord Howe made further proposals of amity, but, as the Americans would treat only on equal terms as an independent power, the effort to make peace again failed. Later in the year, Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee were commissioned by Congress to proceed to France, to solicit aid and the recognition of American independence by that power. EVENTS OP 1777. 17. Burgoyne's Campaign. — Ticonderoga and Benning- ton. — To occupy the line of the Hudson, as already planned by the British, General Burgoyne advanced from Canada, being joined by his Indian allies, the Iroquois. Proceed- ing up Lake Champlain, Ticonderoga fell into the hands of the invaders. Burgoyne having arrived at Fort Edward, on the Upper Hudson, and being in need of provisions, sent a body of Hessians toward Bennington, in the Ver- mont territory, where a large quantity of supplies were stored. But the American militia, under General Stark, repulsed them. 18. Stillwater and Saratoga. — Leaving Fort Edward, Burgoyne came into conflict with the American army under General Gates, which was stationed at Stillwater. The 1778] The Revolution. 113 battle was indecisive, but, a few weeks later, a second and more general engagement took place at Saratoga. Bur- goyne's army, being in need of provisions, and worn out with fatigue, surrendered. The battle of Saratoga may be considered the decisive engagement of the Revolution. Sir Henry Clinton, the British commander at New York, had captured Forts Clinton and Montgomery, on the Hudson below West Point, but on hearing of Burgoyne's deleat he left the forts and retired to New York. 19. Advance on Philadelphia. — While these events were occurring on the Hudson, a second British army, under General Howe and Admiral Howe, sailed from New York to the Chesapeake, and landed at Elk River, at the head of the bay. To stay their advance on Philadelphia, which was the object of the movement, Washington posted his army at Chadd's Ford, on the Brandywine. The British, however, after a bloody encounter, forced a passage and proceeded on to Philadelphia. A young French officer, the Marquis de Lafayette, and a Polish officer, Count Pulaski, both in the American service, were present in this battle, Lafayette being wounded. 20. Battle of Germantown. — When Howe had been two weeks in possession of Philadelphia, Washington attacked the principal part of the British army, which was stationed near the city, at Germantown. A fog coming on at the time, the British recovered from the disorder into which they had been thrown by the onset of the militia, and de- feated and drove them from the field. The Americans then retired into winter-quarters at Valley Forge, on the Schuylkill, where they suffered greatly from cold, naked- ness, and disease, as well as from poor and insufficient food. EVENTS OF 1778. 21. Army Disaffection. — The bills of credit ordered by Congress had depreciated to one-fourth of their nominal h 10* 114 History of the United States. 11778 value, and murmurs of discontent were rife throughout the country. The notes of the different States were at a simi- lar low ebb. Much disaffection prevailed in the army, and many officers gave in their resignations. There was also an intrigue to place General Gates in chief command of the f cs. (Ten §MIiings 3 L.M.) io& r:: ^m^^mi^r< ^t^t^^ ^^^^B ivis/,1 775 M*y,i77$' A Provincial Note of Connecticut. army in place of Washington; but this was opposed to the popular wish, and did not succeed. 22. Aid from France. — Upon the news of Burgoyne's surrender reaching France, that country, impelled by rivalry of England, agreed to acknowledge the indepen- dence of the United States, and to furnish them aid in money and troops. A fleet, under Count D'Estaing, was at once sent to America, with the intention of block- ading the British in Philadelphia; but Clinton, who had succeeded Howe, withdrew the army toward New York. 1779] The Revolution. 115 At Monmouth Court-House the British were intercepted by Washington's army and defeated, but were not prevented from reaching the city. 23. Movements of the Fleets. — The French fleet first sailed from the Delaware to New York Bay, then to Bos- ton, and finally to the West Indies. Clinton thereupon sent a British fleet against Savannah, which captured that place. Likewise, to punish the Americans for their great depredations on British merchant shipping, he destroyed many vessels, mills, and other property in the neighborhood of Buzzard's Bay and New Bedford. 24. Massacre of Wyoming. — The confederacy of the Six Nations had been persuaded to enter the British service in 1777. While serving in Burgoyne's army against the Americans, they committed many atrocities, one of the most notorious of their leaders being a Mohawk chief, named Brandt. In the summer of 1778, a band of the Seneca tribe, with British troops and Tories, descended the Susquehanna and destroyed the settlements in the Wyoming Valley. 25. The able-bodied men were mostly absent in the American army, but the old men and boys were mustered into a company, while the women and children were gathered within a stockade fort. The Americans, being overpowered, surrendered or took to flight. All the pris- oners were massacred without mercy. The few survivors hurried to the fort where the women and children in terror were gathered, and, together, they made their escape through the wilderness and over the mountains to the Delaware. EVENTS OF 1779. 26. The British in Georgia. — The British having Sa- vannah in their possession, the Tories throughout Georgia joined with them, so that that State came mostly under the 116 History of the United States. [1779 royal authority. An American army, under General Lin- coln, aided by the French fleet from the West Indies, made an assault upon Savannah, but the attempt to capture the place was unsuccessful, and both the fleet and the army were obliged to retire. 27. Other British Successes. — An English expedition sailed into Hampton Roads, devastated Portsmouth, and de- stroyed the shipping. Another expedition, sent by Clinton into Long Island Sound, burnt the American shipping at New Haven, and devastated Fairfield, Nor walk, and Green- wich. This was done in retaliation for the depredations of American privateers on the shipping of the British. On the Hudson, the forts at Stony Point and Verplanck's Point fell into Clinton's hands. The American general Wayne re-captured Stony Point, but it was soon again in British possession. 28. Sullivan's Indian Expedition. — To punish the Six Nations for the Wyoming massacre and other barbarities, an American army under General Sullivan was sent into their country. Forty of the Indian villages, upon the Tioga and Genesee Rivers, were laid waste, and all their corn and fruit-trees' destroyed. But as one enormity pro- vokes another, so the Indians retaliated in turn, hovering in small bands near the frontier settlements, and burning and scalping at every opportunity. 29. A Naval Engagement, the most awful of the war, occurred on the coast of Scotland, between an American squadron of five vessels, under John Paul Jones, and two British frigates, under Captain Pearson. After the fight had continued with great fury for three hours, the maga- zine of the Serapis, one of the British frigates, exploded, and her commander then yielded. But it was a dreadful victory for the Americans, for of 375 men on board Jones's vessel, 300 were either killed or wounded. 1780] The Revolution. 117 EVENTS OF 1780. 30. The British in South Carolina. — In South Carolina a cavalry force of the British, under Colonel Tarleton, de- feated detachments of the American army in several places. The British fleet and army having besieged Charleston, General Lincoln, the American commander, was obliged to surrender. Another American army, under General Gates, advanced into South Carolina, but was defeated in a battle fought at Camden. Partisan warfare was kept up for a long while in Carolina, Colonels Sumter, Marion, and Pickens being active on the American side. At King's Mountain, just within the border of North Carolina, a part of Cornwallis's army, which was advancing northward, was defeated, and retired into South Carolina. 31. Treason of Arnold. — While General Arnold was com- mandant at Philadelphia, after the battle of Saratoga, his extravagant style of living led him to make a wrong use of the public moneys. For this he was tried by a court- martial and reprimanded by Washington ; but afterward, at his own request, he was placed in command at West Point. In revenge for the censure he had received, and that he might reap a high reward, he agreed to deliver West Point into the hands of the British. 32. Capture of Andre'. — Clinton, at New York, being apprised of Arnold's scheme, sent a young aid-de-camp, named Major Andre, to confer with him as to the terms of surrender. But, after the interview, as Andre was return- ing to New York, he was captured by three of the Ameri- can militia, and the treasonable correspondence found upon his person. Arnold escaped, was appointed a general in the British service, and received for his treason a reward of £10,000. The talented Andre was hanged as a spy, although Washington would gladly have pardoned him 118 History of the United States. [1781 had he not thought it necessary to comply with the usages of war. EVENTS OF 1781-1786. 33. Army and Monetary Troubles. — Early in 1781, there was a revolt of the whole body of Pennsylvania militia, who refused to serve any longer. They said that their terms of service had expired, their pay was due, and they were suffering from lack of clothing. As they were march- ing toward Philadelphia, where Congress was in session, they were met by Generals Reed and Wayne, who, on be- half of Congress, agreed to satisfy the troops if they would not disband. This they accordingly consented to. Robert Morris being appointed treasurer of the United States, the Bank of North America was organized, and the credit of the country somewhat improved. France and Holland made large loans to the republic. 34. The War in Carolina was continued this year between the forces of Greene, who had succeeded Gates, and the British army under Cornwall is. On his way northward into Virginia, Cornwallis defeated the Americans at Guil- ford Court-House. Another division of the British army, under Lord Rawdou, was discomfited at Eutaw Springs, and retreated to Charleston. Savannah, in Georgia, and Wilmington, in North Carolina, were then the only other places south of Virginia held by the British. 35. Final Campaign in Virginia. — Early in the year, General Arnold landed a body of British troops near Richmond, destroyed the public stores there, and com- mitted depredations upon private property. Additional troops were sent by Clinton, and united with Cornwallis's army ; but they were turned back by the American force under Lafayette. Cornwallis then intrenched himself at Yorktown, near the mouth of York River. He was there besieged by the American army, aided by a French force 1783] The Revolution. 119 under Count de Rochambeau, which had been landed on Rhode Island the previous year. Washington directed the movements. A French fleet, under Count de Grasse, also arrived before Yorktown, when Cornwallis, finding he was hemmed in on every side, was forced to capitulate. 36. End of the War. — When the news of the reverse at York town reached England, the people of that country, unwilling to be any longer taxed to carry on the struggle, demanded that peace be made. Although this did not suit the temper of SnffolK DISMAL SWAMP King George III., yet his cabinet were on the side of the people, and peace was accordingly agreed to. A treaty was signed at Ver- sailles on the 3d day of the Ninth month (September), 1783. The Ameri- can republic was thus declared an in- dependent nation, its boundaries extending from the Atlan- tic Ocean to the Mississippi River, and from the Great Lakes to Florida. The United States were represented at the treaty by Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, John Jay, and Henry Laurens. 37. Washington and the Army. — Whilst the negotiations for peace were pending, much discontent was shown by the officers of the army, on account of not receiving the pay they had been promised. Washington appointed a special meeting with them at Newburg, on the Hudson, and suc- ceeded in allaying the storm. Some of them made a secret Where the War Ended. 120 History of the United States. [1783 proposal to the commander that he should accept the title of " king," but he indignantly declined the proposed honor. Resigning his commission "as commander-in-chief at An- napolis, where Congress was then in session, Washington retired at the close of 1783 to his estate of Mount Vernon on the Potomac. 38. Financial Losses. — According to an estimate made by Congress, the war of the Revolution cost the United States about 135 million dollars. Besides the debt incurred by the government, nearly every corporation was also in debt, whilst the currency was almost worthless. Trade and manufactures were at a very low ebb, and agriculture had been greatly neglected, owing to the withdrawal of so many yeomen to serve in the army. 39. Moral Loss. — Of far more con- sequence than the money loss was the spread of vice and immorality, — a result of that license which war begets. The influence of the French and German officers in spreading sceptical views concerning matters of religion had been widely felt. In addition to this should be men- tioned the publication of the infidel works of Thomas Paine. They were largely read at that time and during the succeeding generation, and weakened or wrecked the religious belief of many. 40. The Results in Massachusetts were perhaps more disastrous than they were in any other of the States. The State debt had been increased to more than thirty times what it was before the war, and all the towns were bur- Mount Vernon. 1786] Shays's Rebellion. 121 dened in a similar manner. The merchant fleet of Nan- tucket had been reduced by the war from 150 sail to 19. Where prosperity showed itself in the maritime towns, it was generally the result of gains arising from privateer- ing. The lavish use of this money had at first the effect of creating a demand for foreign goods; but, to pay for these, specie had to be sent out of the country. As the home currency was of little value, many failures followed. 41. Shays's Rebellion. — The unhappy condition of the country resulted in insurrections in various places. The most important of these was that which occurred in Massa- chusetts in 1786, and was known as Shays's Rebellion. It grew out of the great accumulation of private debts, and the law measures which were taken to collect them, the people crying out against the lawyers and the courts as being the causes of their woe. At Northampton, many hundreds of the malcontents armed themselves with muskets and obtained possession of the court-house. At Spring- field, led by a Captain Shays, they tried to secure the Federal arsenal, but were dispersed by the State troops. The abuses complained of were duly rectified by the General Court and Legislature. 42. Conclusions. — In a history so brief as this, only a mere outline of the main events can be given, for, were all the particulars of the war set forth, they would fill volumes. England did indeed oppress us, and it was well that our country should be independent and free. Yet, as we read how brothers who were Tories fought against brothers who were Whigs; how Indians were bargained with to burn and scalp and commit every wickedness; how French and Hessians were also drawn into the strife ; how worthless became the currency, how trade suffered, and the fields were untilled; how infidelity, drunkenness, profanity, and other vices prevailed, — we will then be ready to ask our- 11 122 History of the United States. [1786 selves the question, whether America and the mother-country ought not to have settled their quarrel in another way. 43. It is well to remember the words of the sage Franklin in the year of the treaty (1783), that "all wars are follies, very expensive and very mischievous ones," and that " there never has been, nor ever will be, any such thing as a good war or a bad peace." And One wiser than Franklin also declared, that men should always seek peace, and that the way to do so is to love and pray for our enemies, doing good to those who hate or despitefully use us. CHAPTER XV. A REPUBLICAN GOVERNMENT FORMED. 1. Plans for Colonial Union. — Various plans for a union of the colonies, more general in purpose than (1) the New England Confederacy of 1643, were proposed before the Revolution. (2) One of these plans for a permanent union was suggested by William Perm. (3) Next, at the Albany conference during the last French war, Benjamin Franklin proposed a union of seven of the colonies, to be represented by a General Council. Over this council was to be a presi- dent-general appointed by Great Britain. But this project was not received with entire favor either by the colonies or the mother-country. (4) When the Stamp Act was passed in 1765, a general Colonial Congress met at New York, adopted a declaration of rights and grievances, and issued several addresses. (5) During the following nine years unity of action was kept alive by Committees of Correspond- ence, as first proposed by Samuel Adams of Massachusetts. Beginning with the various towns of that province, the 1785] A Republican Government Formed. 123 plan was quickly adopted by the other colonies. (6) Finally, in 1774, after the passage of the Boston Port Bill, delegates from eleven of the colonies met at Philadelphia, and formed themselves into the assembly known as the Continental Congress. 2. The Confederacy not Satisfactory. — After the Declara- tion of Independence was issued, Articles of Confederation were adopted by Congress and ratified by the governments of all the States. The confederacy took the title of the United States of America, and a Congress of delegates from all the States was the governing body. But, after a few years' trial, it was found that this compact allowed so much liberty of action to the States, that some of them inclined to one course and others to another. Unless the union was made more perfect, continual disagreements must arise between them. 3. Some of the Defects. — One of the greatest defects of the government of the Confederacy was, that no power was given to Congress to make treaties of commerce with foreign nations, or to regulate the commerce between the States. Hence, as each State adopted such a policy as it thought would result the most to its own advantage, jeal- ousies^ and bitterness began to arise between them. Another defect was, that the power to levy taxes was given to the States, yet not conferred on the general government. Thus the credit of the Confederacy was likely to suffer. There was also no judicial power like the Supreme Court to apply the laws of Congress and to decide upon troubles arising between the States. Neither was there any chief executive power such as a President. 4. Origin of the Constitution. — The Legislatures of Mary- land and Virginia, in 1785, were desirous of making a compact relative to the navigation of Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac River. Finding, however, that they 124 History of the United States. [1787 possessed too little power for the purpose, they proposed a convention of all the States to decide the matter. Dele- gates from five of the States met at Annapolis next year, but, as they represented only a minority of the States, they judged it best to issue a call for a general convention. Accordingly, in 1787, such an assembly met at Philadel- phia, appointed George Washington their presiding officer, and proceeded to frame a Constitution. 5. Differences of Opinion. — States' Rights. — The chief conflict of opinion was upon the question how much power it would be safe to take away from the States and to give to the general government. Two diverse parties thence arose: the Federalists, who favored a strong compact or union of the States, and the Anti-Federalists, who were opposed to surrendering the States' rights. These desired a confederacy or league of States, rather than a compact nation. 6. Basis of Representation in Congress. — The question of slavery also became a prominent one. The Southern delegates wished the States to be allowed representation ac- cording to the whole population, whether white or black, bond or free. By having the slaves counted, they would thus secure more delegates in Congress ; but the Northern members thought this was not right, as the slaves were treated as so much property, and had none of their own number to represent them. It was finally agreed that, in determining the quota of representation, five slaves should be counted as though they were three Avhite persons. 7. The Constitution Adopted. — After the convention had been in session four months, and the draft of the Constitu- tion had been earnestly discussed, it was finally agreed to, as amended, and forwarded to Congress. Congress then sent a copy of it to the Legislatures of the thirteen States, by all of whom it was adopted, Rhode Island being the 1787] A Republican Government Formed. 125 last to give its assent. [See the full text of the Constitution in the latter part of the book.] 8. The Purposes of the Constitution are thus stated in the preamble : " We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, pro- mote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution of the United States of America." The " people" of the United States were here declared to have made this more perfect union. Thus we became a nation rather than a league of States, as before. 9. The Powers of Government conferred by the Constitu- tion come under three heads : the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. In other words, there is a Congress with power to make the laws ; a President and Vice-President to execute them ; and a Supreme Court and certain lower courts which possess judicial powers. 10. The Legislative Power, or tlie power to make the laws, is vested in two assemblies, a Senate and a House of Representatives. Both assemblies are together called the Congress, and they must convene once a year. The Legis- latures of the States choose their Senators, each State, what- ever its size or population, being allowed two; but the Representatives are chosen directly by the people. The term of service of the Senators is six years ; that of the Representatives, only two years. The presiding officer of each body is called its " Speaker." 11. The Executive Power is vested in a President and a Vice-President, chosen by the people for a term of four years. The Vice-President is the presiding officer or Speaker of the Senate. In case of the death, resignation, or removal of the President, he serves in his place. The President nominates ambassadors and consuls to foreign 11* 126 History of the United States. [1787 countries, heads of departments, judges of the Supreme Court, postmasters, and other officials, and can enter into treaties with foreign powers, — all subject to confirmation by the Senate. The President and Vice-President, and other civil officers of the government, may be impeached for treason or misdemeanor by the House of Representatives. The Senate is the court which tries them. 12. The Judicial Power is vested in a Supreme Court and such inferior courts as Congress may from time to time establish. Should a law passed by Congress or by any State Legislature be found to be at variance with the Fed- eral Constitution, the Supreme Court can pronounce it illegal and not binding. When disputes arise between two States, or between the citizens of one State and the govern- ment of another, the same tribunal may decide them. When a mutiny or other trouble takes place upon an American vessel at sea, the offenders are brought before one of the United States District Courts for trial. So also are those who are accused of robbing the mail or counter- feiting the currency. 13. How the Three Powers Act. — The three branches of the government service — the legislative, executive, and ju- dicial — were wisely framed so as to act as checks upon one another. When a law is passed by Congress and sent to the President for his signature, he may return it to Con- gress with his veto if he does not approve of it. It then requires a two-thirds vote of both Houses to " pass it over his veto." The President's veto power is designed to pre- vent too great haste in the passage of bills. Even when a bill has been approved and become a law, it may still be set aside by the Supreme Court, if that body finds it uncon- stitutional. 14. The two Houses of Congress likewise act as a check upon each other. Although the Senate lias the treaty- 1787] Formation of Nciv States. 127 making power, yet in the House of Representatives all the money-appropriation bills for the different departments of government must originate. If, therefore, the Senate was to enter into an unwise treaty, the House could refuse to vote the money to carry its provisions into effect. 15. Compared with other Republics. — One of the republics which our own most nearly resembles, was that which was formed in Greece about 300 years before the Christian era. It was a league of twelve towns, for their mutual welfare and defence, and had its president, council, and senate. In modern times there was a similar federation, known as the Union of Utrecht, formed between the provinces of the Netherlands. The Swiss cantons are also united as a re- public. But all these resemble the league of states such as was ours under the Articles of Confederation, rather than the closer union of the people which we became under the Constitution. The modern republic of France, with its president, senate, and popular assembly, closely resem- bles ours ; but the French Senate is so constituted that one-fourth of its members hold their seats for life. CHAPTER XVI. FORMATION OF NEW STATES. 1. Vermont. — The territory lying between the Upper Hudson and Connecticut Rivers was claimed by both New York and New Hampshire. The first grants of that region were issued for the township of Bennington by Governor Benning Wentworth, of New Hampshire, in 1749. Brattleboro' had been settled 25 years earlier, during the Norridgewock war. Other grants continued 128 History of the United States. [1791 to be issued, notwithstanding New York's claim, founded upon the grant to the Duke of York. An appeal being taken to the crown, judgment was given in favor of New York. That Stale, upon the receipt of the sum of §30,000, gave up all its right to the soil. Under the name of Ver- mont, the territory lately in dispute was admitted into the Union in 1791, as the 14th State. 2. Maine, which continued to be a part of the territory of Massachusetts until 1820, was, upon its separation from that State, admitted as a member of the Union the same year. During the Revolution, the district of Maine held many loyalists. Many of these gradually retired eastward of the Penobscot, and finally beyond the St. Croix into New Brunswick. [See also page 68.] 3. The Territories of the Old States. — According to the charters of a number of the English colonies, their terri- tory was described as extending westward to the Pacific Ocean. Upon the conclusion of the war of the Revolution, the Mississippi River was, by the treaty of Versailles, named as the western limit. To the Mississippi River, therefore, the seven States of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, claimed, as shown on the map. These States were very unwilling to give up their unoccupied lands to the government; but the other six States, which had smaller areas, insisted that as this western land must be defended by the general government, it ought to be held as the common territory of all. 4. Cession of the Territories. — Finally, in 1780, it was agreed by Congress that, if the Territories were ceded to the government, they should be used only for the common benefit, and, when peopled, should be admitted as repub- lican States into the Union on an equality with the original 13. With this understanding, New York promptly ceded 130 History of the United States. [1787 its western territory the same year ; the last to part with hers was Georgia, in 1802. 5. The North-West Territory, or the large tract north of the Ohio, extending westward to the Mississippi, was con- veyed to the government by Virginia, New York, Connec- ticut, and Massachusetts. It was organized as a Territory by Congress in 1787, with the stipulation that slavery should be prohibited within its limits. It was further agreed that it should be divided into not less than three, nor more than five, States. As the requisite population of 60,000 was reached, there were admitted, in succession, the five States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wis- consin. 6. Organization of Territories. — After surveys of any Territory have been made by order of Congress, it may dis- pose of its lands in several ways. Some of these are : to sell sections of the land to actual settlers, or give it to dis- charged soldiers, or make grants of it to railroad corpora- tions. When the population begins to increase, the Presi- dent has the right to appoint a governor, secretary, and judicial officers; but the people choose their own territo- rial legislature. They can send a delegate to Congress to represent them, but he has not the right to vote. 7. How States are Admitted. — The power to admit new States belongs to Congress. When a Territory contains a sufficient number of inhabitants to become a State, the people of the Territory may adopt a Constitution and sub- mit it to Congress, with a petition that they be admitted into the Union. If in the opinion of Congress the Con- stitution is republican in form, and no hindrance appears (like polygamy, in the case of Utah), an act of admission may be passed. In some cases Congress has passed the act of admission first, with the condition that a proper Consti- tution shall be adopted at a certain time. 1818] Formation of New Slates. 131 8. No State Religion is permitted under the Constitution of the United States, the first amendment to which declares that " Congress shall make no law respecting an establish- ment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." It has been objected by many persons that the Constitution does not even recognize the existence of God. As the Ordinance for the government of the North- West Terri- tory and the Constitutions of the States do contain explicit mention of the Supreme Being, the nation's Constitution should have been more clear in that respect. 9. Ohio, the State first formed from the North- West Territory, was admitted into the Union in 1802. Its first colonists were New Englanders, who, in 1788, descended the Ohio River from Pittsburg, and settled Marietta, at the mouth of the Muskingum. In the same year Fort Washington was built, where Cincinnati now stands, by General St. Clair, governor of the North-West Territory. There was war with the Miamis at that time. Although many of the first settlers of Ohio were from New England, yet, in later years, many families who were opposed to slavery came into the State from the Carolinas and Vir- ginia. Cincinnati has received many Germans, almost one-third of its population being of that nationality. 10. Indiana was settled by nearly the same class of people as Ohio, and was admitted as a State in 1816. A few years before that date, General Harrison, governor of the terri- tory, was engaged in a war with Tecumseh's Indians, — as narrated under Madison's administration. The oldest city in Indiana is Vincennes. It received its name from a French Canadian, named De Vincennes, who, in Bien- ville's war against the Chickasaws in 1736, was burnt at the stake by that tribe. 11. Illinois was admitted in 1818. The territory was sparsely inhabited by several Indian tribes when Hennepin 132 History of the United States. [1832 and La Salle, in 1679, voyaged down the river of the Illi- nois to the Mississippi. La Salle built a fort near where Peoria now stands. More than a century later, in 1795, a stockade fort was built on the present site of Chicago. It was destroyed in the war of 1812, and the garrison massacred by Indians. 12. During the Black Hawk war, in Jackson's adminis- tration (1832), traders and others followed the troops, and Chicago began to be built. It increased in population rapidly. In 1871, a great fire occurred there, involving a loss of property estimated at 200 millions of dollars. Two hundred per- sons perished, and many thousands were left house- less. Many rail- ways concentre at Chicago, and the city is said to be the greatest grain- shipping port in the world. 13. Michigan was not admitted as a State until 1837, although the first settlement in the North- West was in its territory. As early as 1668, Marquette and two other priests established among the Chippeways a mission-station at St. Marie, where the waters of Lake Superior flow into Lake Huron. Detroit, on the strait where the waters of Huron flow into Lake Erie, was founded by the French in 1701. It was besieged by the chief Pontiac, and was the scene of active operations during the war of 1812. The North- West Territory. 1796] Formation of New States. 133 Michigan's great wealth has been chiefly derived from its immense forests of lumber and its mines of copper. 14. Wisconsin came into the Union in 1848. When the French voyagers, Marquette and Joliet, re-discovered the Mississippi in 1673, they passed from Lake Michigan into Green Bay, Wisconsin, and ascended Fox River. Then, after paddling along a chain of little lakes, and carrying their canoes a short distance, upon the waters of the Wis- consin they launched them once more, and thus reached the great Mississippi. Wisconsin's chief city, Milwaukee, has been largely settled by Germans and Scandinavians. The Winnebago Indians formerly occupied that locality. 15. [Note. — We have taken a brief view of all the newer States north of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi. Let us now turn to those south of the Ohio. These were also formed from the western parts of such of the original 13 States as extended to the Mississippi. See map, page 129.] 16. Kentucky. — In 1769, Daniel Boone and others, led by an Indian trader, left their homes in the Yadkin Valley of North Carolina, and journeyed westward through the mountain country, nearly into Kentucky. Boone was cap- tured by the Indians, but returned to the territory a few years later with another party, and settled there. During the Revolution, a stockade fort was built by the Americans at the Falls of the Ohio, where Louisville afterward arose. The Shawnee tribe at that time occupied the land. Ken- tucky, which was ceded to the government by Virginia, was admitted into the Union in 1792. 17. Tennessee, which had been the western territory of North Carolina, was admitted into the Union in 1796. Just forty years before that date, in the time of the last war with the French, Fort Loudoun was built in the country of the Cherokees, East Tennessee. The royal 12 134 History of the United States. [1768 governor of Carolina was so desirous of enlisting the Cherokees against the French, that he promised them a reward for every scalp of a Frenchman or French Indian they should bring in. The first settlers were refugees from North Carolina, who, wishing to escape from the exactions of the royal officers, located upon one of the head-streams of the Tennessee in 1768. 18. Mississippi and Alabama were formed out of the western part of Georgia and the narrow strip (scarcely 14 miles wide) of Western South Carolina. A reference to the map will show this. They were first called the Terri- tory of Mississippi. Being divided, the western portion retained that name, and was admitted as a State in 1817. Biloxi, on an arm of the Gulf of Mexico, was selected for settlement by the French about 1700. The occupation of the lands of the Natchez by the French, and their wars with that tribe and with the Chickasaws, have been already narrated. [See page 94.] 19. Alabama was admitted into the Union two years after Mississippi, in 1819. The French, under D'Iberville, settled at Mobile in 1702. A few years later a trading- post was built by the French " Mississippi Company" where Montgomery now stands. The Choctaws, who were an agricultural people, dwelt in the central and south- ern parts of Alabama. Cotton is the great staple of this State, as it is also of Georgia and Mississippi on either side of it. 20. [Note. — The purchase of Florida from Spain, and of Louisiana from France, also the admission into the Union of these and the rest of the States, are mentioned under the administrations during which those events occurred. A list of all the States except the original 13, from what territory derived, and when admitted into the Union, is given below in this place for convenience of reference.] Formation of New States. 135 21. Vermont, claimed by New Hampshire and New York . Kentucky, ceded by Virginia . Tennessee, ceded by North Carolina . Ohio, formed from North- West Territory Indiana " " " Illinois " " " Michigan " " " " Wisconsin " " " Mississippi, ceded by Georgia and South Carolina Alabama, ceded by Georgia and Soutl Carolina Maine, set off from Massachusetts Louisiana, purchased from France Missouri, part of the Louisiana tract . Arkansas " " " " . Iowa . " " " " . Minnesota " " " " (chiefly) Oregon " " " " . Kansas " " " « . Nebraska " " " " . Florida, purchased from Spain . Texas, revolted from Mexico California, purchased from Mexico . Nevada " " Colorado, " " and France West Virginia, set off from Virginia 1791 1792 1796 1802 1816 1818 1837 1848 1817 1819 1820 1812 1821 1836 1846 1858 1859 1861 1864 1845 1845 1850 1864 1876 1863 136 History of the United States. 22. Number of States and Territories. — The above 25 States have been admitted into the Union since the origi- nal 13, thus making the whole number at present 38. There are also 8 (regular) Territories : Utah, New Mexico, Arizona, Dakota, Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, and Wash- ington. In addition to these, there are (1) the Indian Territory, part of which has a modern Indian government of its own ; (2) the District of Alaska ; and (3) the Dis- trict of Columbia, which latter is under the control of a Board of Commissioners, three in number, appointed by the President. Contemporary European Chronology. 1774. Louis XVI., King of France. Linnaeus. Buffon. Voltaire. 1789. The French Revolution begins with the formation of the National Assembly. George III. on the throne of England. Burke. Blair. Gibbon. 1772-1795. Poland conquered and partitioned by Russia, Austria, and Prussia. Newspapers. The first colonial news sheet was a little monthly, entitled "Publick Occur- rences, both Foreign and Domestiek," published at Boston, in 1690, by Benja- min Harris. William Bradford, at New York, began the issue of a reprint of the " London Gazette," in 1096. This was followed, in 1704, by a weekly of Boston, the " News-Letter," which continued until the Revolution. It had a circulation of only 300 copies. More widely distributed was the " New England Courant," established in the same city (1721) by James, the brother of Benja- min, Franklin. The early days of the latter were passed as an apprentice in his brother's printing-shop. Philadelphia's first issue, the " American Weekly Mercury," of Andrew Bradford, began to be published two years earlier than Franklin's paper. Although, at the time of the adoption of the Constitution, the number of the newspapers in this country had greatly increased, yet the circulation of all of them together did not equal the issue of a single one of our principal dailies. The patent for a "Lightning Printing-Press" was granted to R. M. Hoe in 1816. PERIOD V. PRESIDENTIAL ADMINISTRATIONS TO THE CIVIL WAR. CHAPTER XV.II. ADMINISTRATIONS OP WASHINGTON, ADAMS, AND JEFFERSON. "WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 1789-1797. 1. George Washington, of Virginia, who was elected by the people of the United States their first President, en- tered upon the duties of his office in the spring of 1789. John Adams, of Massachusetts, was elected Vice-President. Eour years later, at the expiration of their term of office, they were both re-elected to serve a second term. 2. The First Cabinet. — To assist him by their counsels and to have an oversight of the respective departments of government, Washington selected the following officers of his "cabinet": Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State; Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury; Henry Knox, Secretary of War ; Edmund Randolph, Attorney- General ; Samuel Osgood, Postmaster-General. John Jay was chosen chief-justice of the United States. The sepa- rate offices of Secretary of the Navy and Secretary of the Interior were afterward added. [Note. — The duties of these departments, and of their various bureaus, are set forth in chapter xxiv.] 3. Work of the First Congress. — To raise a revenue for defraying the expenses of the government, as well as to 137 138 History of the United States. [1789 pay the war debt of the Revolution, Congress imposed a tariff on merchandise imported, and laid a duty on the ton- nage of vessels. The national courts were organized into a Supreme Court, Circuit and District Courts ; the Consti- tution was amended by the adoption of twelve new articles ; and the salaries of the President, Vice-President, justices, and members of Congress, were fixed. 4. The Miami War. — Probably incited by some ill-dis- posed traders from Canada, Little Turtle, a chief of the Miami Indians, persuaded his own tribe, as well as the Wyandottes and others, to begin a war against the whites. A body of troops sent into their country was defeated. General St. Clair, governor of the North-West Territory, then proceeded with an army against them, but was like- wise discomfited by Little Turtle's band, so that not more than one-fourth of his force escaped. 5. The following year, the Indians yet refusing to con- sent to a treaty, General AVayne was sent against them, and finally obliged them, in 1794, to agree to a peace. An extensive tract south of Lake Erie was given up to the government, in return for which the Indians were to receive a yearly payment of a few thousand dollars in money and merchandise. 6. The Whiskey Insurrection was a rebellion which broke out in the western part of Pennsylvania in 1791, when Congress imposed a tax on the manufacture of ardent spirits. Whiskey-distilling in that region had been carried on largely for many years, mostly by emigrants from Ire- land, but for a while previous to the act of Congress of 1791, the distillers had been exempt from a tax even by the State. 7. When the obnoxious measure was passed by Congress, scenes of violence ensued, such as driving away or assault- ing the law-officers, and burning the barns and mills of 1797] Washington's Administration. lo9 those distillers who complied with the act. A large army was called out by the President to quell the disturbance, but, through the exertions of some men of moderation, order was restored. Albert Gallatin, a native of Switzer- land, a man of liberal education, was particularly active in settling the matter by amicable means. 8. War with France Prevented. — France, being at war with England and Holland, would have been glad to re- ceive aid from the United States in return for services rendered this country during the Revolution. But Wash- ington and his cabinet were opposed to any interference by Americans in the affairs of the nations beyond the Atlan- tic. A proclamation of neutrality was accordingly issued, and we were saved from being drawn into the strife. The French envoy, Genet, who took advantage of the sym- pathy shown by some Americans, to fit out privateers, was recalled by his government. 9. Treaties with England and Spain. — A treaty was made with England, by which various matters likely to cause a difficulty between the two countries were adjusted. By a treaty with Spain, which then owned Louisiana, the bound- aries between that territory and the United States were settled. Likewise, the free navigation of the Mississippi River was secured to the American government. 10. The Peaceful Policy which Washington had favored resulted, among other things, in much commercial pros- perity. This was shown by the increase in the exports of the country, which had risen, at the end of his eight years' term, from 19 to 56 million dollars. In his Farewell Ad- dress, Washington calls upon his countrymen to continue in the same peaceful course as that with which they had begun; to cherish a true union of the States ; to beware of keeping a large standing army; not to alter the provisions of the Constitution hastily ; and especially to be watchful against 140 History of the United States. [1797 the evils of party spirit. Washington then retired to his estate of Mount Vernon, and died there near the end of 1799. JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. 1797-1801. 11. John Adams, of Massachusetts, who had served two terms with Washington as Vice-President, became the second President of the United States; whilst Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, was chosen to the second office in the gift of the people. Washington had refused to be President for a third term. 12. The Political Parties. — Notwithstanding Washing- ton's strong protest against the spirit of party, the election canvass was very bitter. The two chief political parties were the Republicans, who desired the friendship of France, and the Federalists, who were charged with too much favor toward England and its form of government. 13. The Mode of Electing- the President and Vice-Presi- dent at that time was different from what it is at present. The candidate who received the highest number of votes became President, and the one having the second highest on the list became Vice-President. It therefore happened in this instance that Adams was chosen by Federalist votes, and Jefferson by Republican votes. The Constitution was afterward amended so that such a thing might not again happen, both President and Vice-President being now always of the same political party. 14. War with France again Averted. — The French gov- ernment, being displeased at America's neutrality, refused, in 1797, to receive our authorized minister. Three envoys were then sent by President Adams to France. ■ Not suc- ceeding in their negotiations, war appeared imminent, and the army and navy were ordered into service. But Bona- parte, having at that time overthrown the government of 1800] John Adams's Administration. 141 the Directory, received the envoys who were a second time sent from this country. Thus war was again turned aside, a treaty signed, and the matters in dispute settled. 15. Sedition and Alien Laws. — Two measures approved by the President caused him to become unpopular with many. One of these was the " Sedition Law." It gave The Camtol at Washington. government the power to impose a heavy fine and imprison- ment upon any person conspiring to oppose its measures by act, speech, or printed publications. The "Alien Act" permitted the President to banish from the country any foreigners whom he considered dangerous to its peace and liberty. These laws were thought necessary by the Presi- dent because of the Reign of Terror in France, and the fear that emissaries from that country should come hither with wicked intent. 16. The Seat of Government was Removed from Phila- delphia to the city of Washington in the year 1800. The District of Columbia comprises a square, nearly ten miles 142 History of the United States. [1801 on each side, granted by Maryland and Virginia to the government as the location for the capital. The city was laid out upon the north side of the Potomac, under the direction of Washington himself. Broad avenues, from 90 to 160 feet in width, were marked out, and a capitol and other government buildings erected. JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 1801-1809. 17. Thomas Jefferson was elected third President of the United States by the party opposed in politics to Adams. Jefferson was a man of much intelligence, a fluent writer, and the chief author of the Declaration of Independence. He had also been governor of Virginia, and minister to France. Aaron Burr was chosen Vice-President. The Alien and Sedition Laws were promptly repealed by the new administration. 18. The Louisiana Purchase. — At the close of the last intercolonial war in 1763, France had ceded the vast tract then known as Louisiana to Spain. Spain kept Louisiana until the year 1800, when she transferred it back to France. That country showing a disposition to restrict the free navi- gation of the Mississippi, Congress made a proposition to France to buy Louisiana, and the offer was accepted. For the sum of fifteen million dollars, all of the territory claimed by France from the Mississippi River to the Pacific, was, in 1803, ceded to the United States. Spain's claim to the Oregon part was released in 1819. [See map, page 172.] 19. A War with Tripoli broke out in 1804, owing to the depredations of the Tripolitans upon American mer- chant-vessels, and the carrying their crews into slavery. The United States had paid an annual tribute to the Bar- bary States, but refused any longer to do so. Commodores Dale and Preble were sent with two small fleets to the Mediterranean, and blockaded the ports of Tripoli. The 1807] Jefferson's Administration. 143 next year, William Eaton, an American ex-consul, then in Egypt, marched a body of troops across the desert to Derne ; but, before he could reach Tripoli, our consul-general there had effected a treaty of peace. 20. Duel between Burr and Hamilton. — Alexander Ham- ilton, who had been Secretary of the Treasury under Wash- ington, was afterward appointed commander-in-chief of the army. Having offended Aaron Burr, the Vice-Presi- dent, the latter sent Hamilton a challenge to mortal combat. In the duel, which took place at Weehawken, on the Hud- son, Hamilton was mortally wounded by the fire of his opponent. This event caused so painful a sensation throughout the country that the practice of duelling fell very much into disrepute. At the Presidential election which followed, Jefferson was again chosen to the first office, but George Clinton, of New York, succeeded to Burr's place. 21. Burr's Scheme of Conquest. — Burr, being shunned by his countrymen and disappointed in not securing office, devised a scheme for the conquest of Mexico. A new kingdom was to be set up there. As a place of rendezvous for his followers, a large tract of land on the Washita was purchased. One of those to whom Burr confided his scheme was Herman Blennerhassett, the owner of an island on the Ohio Eiver, near Marietta. Preparations were made for the undertaking in 1807, by building barges at Marietta and enlisting men for the service. But, the plan being ex- posed, Burr was taken to Richmond for trial before Chief- Justice Marshall. He was charged both with offending against the King of Spain, to whom Mexico belonged, and with treason against the United States, but was released on the ground of insufficient evidence. 22. The British Blockade Acts. — The wars in Europe between Napoleon Bonaparte and the allied powers had 144 History of the United States. 1807 resulted in greatly increasing for a while the commerce of the United States. American and other vessels were actively engaged in carrying goods and food-products to the con- testants, thereby reaping great gain. To prevent this action on the part of neutrals, Great Britain, in 1806, de- clared all the ports from Brest, in France, to the river Elbe blockaded by her fleets. The trading- vessels of other nations were warned not to be found within those limits. A second decree against neutrals, called the British Orders in Council, appeared next year. 23. The Decrees of Napoleon.— In retaliation for the British Blockade Acts, Napoleon issued his " Berlin De- cree" and " Milan Decree." They were so called because they were issued from those two cities. These acts declared the British Islands and their dominions to be in a state of blockade by France, and forbade the Americans or other neutrals to trade with them. 24. Embargo Act. — As the enforcement of the English and French decrees would be likely to result in great losses to American shipping, President Jefferson advised that an embargo be laid upon all the merchant-vessels of the country. Congress accordingly passed such a measure, thereby preventing American vessels from leaving their ports. 25. But the Embargo Act did not suit American shippers, whose profits from the carrying trade were such that they preferred to take the risk of capture. The farmers and planters also murmured, because the excess of their products could not be sent abroad. Then Congress, in 1809, re- moved the embargo, but forbade intercourse with Great Britain and France, whilst France passed a like act with regard to America. These restrictions, however, were soon removed by both countries. Commerce and war, it is evident, can never be made to work well together. 1809] Jefferson's Administration. 145 26. Right of Search. — Jefferson's unfriendliness toward England was well known to Napoleon. It was his hope that an occasion would arise which would cause a rupture between the United States and England, and thus prove of advantage to France. The right claimed by the British of searching American vessels for British seamen seemed likely to bring about what France desired. It was at that time the English law that a British subject must always remain so, no matter how many years he might live in this country: his becoming naturalized here made no differ- ence. Hence, in searching American vessels for English deserters, trouble would be sure to occur. 27. Affair of the Chesapeake. — Previous to 1807, only private vessels of the Americans had been searched by the British for their deserters, but in the summer of that year the American frigate Chesapeake was overhauled by the English frigate Leopard, off the capes of Virginia. Four deserters from the British service were on board the Chesa- peake, and were ordered to be given up. The Americans did not comply until a broadside had been fired into them. 28. Jefferson's hasty Action. — The President immedi- ately issued a proclamation ordering all British merchant- vessels to leave American ports. James Monroe, the American minister at London, had negotiated a treaty with England ; but Jefferson would not submit it to the Senate, because it did not absolutely forbid the right of search. An envoy from England then came to America to settle the Chesapeake difficulty, first requesting Jefferson to recall his order against British vessels. The President would not agree to this, and the envoy returned home. Thus matters stood at the end of Jefferson's second term in the spring of 1809. k 13 146 History of the United States. [1809 CHAPTER XVIII. ADMINISTRATIONS OF MADISON, MONROE, AND J. Q. ADAMS. MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 1809-1817. 1. Further Negotiations with England. — James Madison, of Virginia, was Jefferson's successor in the presidency. His administration opened brightly, for an understanding was at once arrived at with the British minister at Wash- ington. It was agreed that, if the President would annul the Non-Intercourse Act, then the British government would repeal its Orders in Council. These orders required American vessels, before entering a port of Prance with goods for that country, to pay customs duties in England. But the English government having stated that their min- ister had no power to make such an agreement, Madison dismissed him. Hence arose one cause of the war of 1812. 2. The Eight of Search Unsettled. — A second cause of the war was the claim of Great Britain to the right to search American vessels for British seamen. The affair of the Chesapeake was settled in 1811, by the British govern- ment making amends; but the good effect of that act was lost through a second encounter off the capes of Virginia, between an English and an American war-vessel. The British vessel was disabled, and many of her men w T ere killed or wounded. 3. War with Tecumseh. — Another cause of the war with England was, that the agents of that country (so it was charged) incited the Indians to hostilities against the 1812] • War of 1812. 147 United States. It would appear that our own government may Lave been also at fault. The Miamis had ceded to the government a tract of land upon the Wabash, which Tecumseh and his brother, the "Prophet," of the Shawnee tribe, declared ought not to have been done without their consent and that of other chiefs. General Harrison then advanced against the allied tribes, and defeated them in a battle on the Tippecanoe. In the following year, a second expedition was sent against the Indians, and several of their villages were destroyed. Tecumseh, having joined the English in the war which broke out soon afterward, was made a general in their service. WAR OF 1812. 4. War was declared against Great Britain the 18th day of Sixth month (June), 1812. Congress was far from being unanimous in its favor, less than two-thirds of the members voting for the measure. Only five days after- ward, England, not having heard of the declaration of war, repealed its obnoxious Orders in Council. But the Presi- dent had already called out the army. He appointed General Dearborn the commander-in-chief. 5. Invasion of Canada. — General Hull, at Detroit, crossed to the Canada side of the Detroit River, with the intention of seizing a British fort there. Alarmed at some successes of Tecumseh's Indians, he returned to Detroit, where, being besieged by the British general Proctor, he was forced to surrender. A second American army crossed the Niagara River into Canada, but, at a battle fought at Queenstown, these also surrendered to the British. 6. Naval Engagements. — During the first year of the war there were several engagements upon the Atlantic between the war- vessels of the two nations, in most of which the Americans had the advantage. JOetters of marque were also issued to vessels owned by private individuals, giving them 148 History of the United States. [1813 permission to depredate upon the commerce and navy of Britain. As many as 250 British vessels were taken by these American privateers in the year 1812. This species of piracy was abolished by European nations in 1856. 7. Battles on and near Lake Erie. — The American army at the beginning of 1813 was disposed in three divisions: one near Lake Champlain, a second near the east end of Lake Erie, and the third near its west end. At French- Offl CAMDABOEDEB mR 01 1812. town, south of Detroit, a body of the Americans were sur- prised by British and Indians and obliged to surrender. Many of the wounded were massacred, and the village was set on fire. General Harrison's force at Fort Meigs, on the Miami, was also besieged, and many of his men killed in an ambuscade ; but the British retreated. 8. Later in the year 1 813, an American fleet, under Com- modore Perry, captured the British squadron near the west 1813] War of 1812. 149 end of the lake. This allowed General Harrison to occupy Detroit and advance into Canada. In a battle on the river Thames between his army and the allied British and In- dians under General Proctor, the latter were defeated and Tecumseh killed. At the east end of the lake, the British general Prevost captured Niagara, and burnt several settlements on the American side, among them being Buffalo, then a mere village. These deeds were done in retaliation for the burning of a Canadian village by Americans. 9. Red Jacket and Cornplanter were two noted chiefs of the tribe of Senecas. That tribe and the others of the Six Nations took part with the Americans in their contest with the British, lied Jacket was a great orator, but he was often under the influence of liquor obtained from the white men. He was opposed to the missionaries, because the practice of so many of the whites was so different from what they preached. Whilst Red Jacket engaged actively in the war, Cornplanter, who was of a peaceable disposi- tion, devoted himself to efforts for the improvement of his people. He always refused liquor, and welcomed the mis- sionaries, though he did not himself profess the religion of the whites. 10. Naval Encounters of 1813. — There were several fierce engagements on the ocean between war-vessels of the hos- tile powers. In one of these, between the American ship Hornet and the British war-sloop Peacock, the latter was captured, but it sank while the wounded were being re- moved. In another, which happened off Portland Harbor, between the Enterprise and the Boxer, both commanders were killed, and were taken to Portland for burial. 11. Jackson and the Creeks. — Influenced by a chief named Weatherford, the Creek Indians of Alabama now followed the example of Tecumseh in trying to rid the 13* 150 History of the United States. [1814 country of the whites. Fort Minims, near Mobile, was surprised by this tribe, and the garrison of over 200, with women and children, were massacred. General Jackson and others, at the head of a large body of militia, advanced into their country, defeating them in several battles. Finally, at the Horse-Shoe Bend of the Tallapoosa, a body of about 1000 of them were surrounded, and the larger part of them killed, the whites rivalling the red men in their methods of slaughter. The Creeks then gave up the larger part of their territory to the United States. 12. Battles near Niagara. — With the downfall of Napo- leon, the British government, in 1814, was enabled to send a larger force of troops to Canada. In the summer of that year, an American army, under Generals Brown and Scott, crossed the Niagara River and captured the British post at Fort Erie. The Americans were also successful in other battles fought on the Chippewa River and at Lundy's Lane, near the great cataract, but the sacrifice of life was very great. 13. Engagement on Lake Champlain. — The British gen- eral Prevost invaded the territory of the United States by "way of the west side of Lake Champlain. While besieging the town of Plattsburg, a naval battle took place near by, on the lake, the British being defeated and their fleet cap- tured by the American squadron, under Commander Mac- donough. Prevost thereupon retreated into Canada. 14. Advance on Washington and Baltimore. — To effect the capture of the national capital, a British fleet, under Admiral Cochrane, entered the Chesapeake and ascended both the Potomac and Patuxent Rivers. The Americans burnt their squadron to prevent its being captured. The British then landed an army, and, defeating the militia at Bladensburg, entered Washington, where they burnt the capitol and other public buildings. Re-embarking on their fleet, the British sailed up the Chesapeake, designing to 1815] War 0/ 1812. 151 attack Baltimore ; but the force which they landed was repulsed, whilst Fort McHenry resisted their attempts at capture. The British commander then withdrew his fleet. 15. Hartford Convention. — Near the close of the year 1814, an important convention of delegates from several of the New England States was held at Hartford. Many of them were opposed to the war, some from self-interest or party feeling, others because they believed the war un- necessary. Seven amendments to the Constitution were proposed. One of these provided that a two-thirds vote of both houses of Congress should be required to make war. A second, that no one should hold the office of President more than one term. A third, that representa- tives should be apportioned among the States according to the number of free persons only. The proposed amend- ments were submitted to the several States, but, being concurred in by only three of them, were not adopted. 16. Battle of New Orleans. — At the beginning of 1815, a large British squadron, having entered the Gulf of Mexico, approached New Orleans on the east side by way of Lake Borgne. The Americans, who were under the command of General Jackson, had been informed of the intended attack, and intrenched themselves behind a long parapet of earth and cotton-bales. The British, under General Paken- ham, made several attempts to dislodge the American force, but were defeated with great loss, and retired to their ships. The Americans had been so effectually protected by their intrenchments that they suffered the loss of but 13 men, killed and wounded. 17. Peace Declared. — As early as 1813, the Emperor Alexander of Russia agreed to mediate between Great Britain and the United States. The President accordingly sent three commissioners to Europe, — John Quincy Adams, Albert Gallatin, and James Bayard. But, as England pre- 152 History of the United States. [1815 ferred to treat directly with the United States, without the mediation of Russia, negotiations were entered into at Ghent, and a treaty concluded near the end of 1814. The battle of New Orleans occurred after the treaty was signed, but before information of the fact reached this country. 18. Results of the War. — Great rejoicing ensued through- out the country when this unpopular war was brought to a close. The treaty, however, did not even provide for settling the matter of impressment, which was the chief cause of the war, whilst a better understanding upon the matter could have been secured before there was any fight- ing. Each of the contestants agreed to restore to the other the places which they had captured and occupied. 19. War with Algiers. — Peace had no sooner been made with England, than war was declared with Algiers. That country, like Tripoli, had been guilty of depredating upon American commerce, and exacting tribute. Two fleets, under Commodores Bainbridge and Decatur, were sent to the Mediterranean. The Dey of Algiers submitted, whilst Tunis and Tripoli agreed to observe the former treaties which had been made with them. 20. Liberia. — The American Colonization Society was organized in 1816, Henry Clay being its first president. The design of this society was to promote the founding of a colony in Africa, to which free blacks could be removed, and where they would have good opportunities for self- improvement. The tract of land first selected proved to be unsuitable; but in 1821 the territory called Liberia was chosen, and a republican form of government was adopted. Much aid to the enterprise was contributed by England. ' The colored emigrants from the United States to Liberia have never exceeded 800 in one year. Coffee and palm-oil are the chief exports of the African republic. 1817] Monroe's Administration. 153 21. Banks and Monetary Distress. — When the charter of the first Bank of the United States expired in 1811, many State banks were established to supply the demand for ready money. During the war of 1812, when specie pay- ments were suspended, there was a great increase in the volume of paper money. Not only the States, but cities, counties, and private individuals, issued their notes, bills, and tickets. 22. So much confusion in money affairs ensued, that Congress chartered (1816) the second Bank of the United States, with a capital of 35 million dollars. It was to con- tinue in existence for twenty years only, and its notes were to take the place of the others of all sorts which were in circulation. During several years there was much distress throughout the country. The prices of land, produce, and manufactured articles fell, and a great many farms, as well as other kinds of property, passed into the hands of those who had claims against them. MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION. 1817-1825. 23. James Monroe, of Virginia, Madison's successor, also held the presidency during two terms. The fact that four of the first five Presidents of the United States were from Virginia, earned for that State the distinction of "the mother of Presidents." The political feeling was so much more quiet than it had been previously, that this period was spoken of as " the era of good feeling." Monroe was of a conciliatory disposition, as was shown by the efforts he had made to prevent war with England. After his in- auguration in 1817, he visited all the Northern and Eastern States, and was cordially received. 24. The Naval Force on the Great Lakes was a subject which next claimed the joint attention of Great Britain and the United States. An agreement was promptly entered 154 History of the United States. [1817 into between them, that on Lakes Ontario and Champlain but one armed vessel should be kept in service by either party, and that on either Lake Erie, Huron, or Superior no more than two such should be maintained by each nation, and those to be armed with a single gun only. Neither nation has ever regretted that its fleets upon those waters were so nearly abolished. 25. The First Seminole War.— In the latter part of 1817, a company of United States soldiers proceeded to remove some military stores from the territory of Florida, which was still a Spanish possession. The troops, in passing through the Seminole country of lower Georgia and Florida, fell into an ambuscade, and all but six of their company were killed. General Jackson marched against the tribe, drove them southward, and took possession of the Spanish forts at St. Mark's and Pensacola. Two Englishmen, who were tried for inciting the Indians to make war, were found guilty, and were hanged. " » 26. Florida Purchased from Spain. — It being evident that the ownership of Florida by Spain would be likely to occasion frequent disputes between that country and the United States, a treaty for its purchase by us was ratified in 1821. The sum agreed to be paid was five million dollars. Its territory was divided into two districts or counties ; the one east of the Suwanee River being called St. John's, and that west of it Escambia. Florida was not admitted into the Union as a State until 1845. 27. The Missouri Compromise. — In the year 1820, the Territory of Missouri petitioned Congress to be admitted into the Union. As provision had been made that the States formed from the North-West Territory were to be admitted into the Union as free States, the South claimed that slavery ought to be allowed in Missouri. The value of the African in the work of cultivating: the cotton- 1822] Monroe's Administration. 155 fields of the South had gradually inclined the people there to look upon the system with more favor than formerly. Washington, Jefferson, and Patrick Henry had all desired to see its extinction. 28. The result of the long and bitter debate in Congress between the two sections was the following compromise : (1) that Missouri should be admitted without any restric- tion as to slavery ; and (2) that in the future no slave State should be erected out of United States territory north of the parallel of 36° 30', — that being Missouri's southern boundary. 29. Admission of Missouri. — The Constitution which had been framed for Missouri also gave rise to a great deal of discussion in Congress, because it prohibited free negroes or mulattoes from coming into the State. But this clause was finally stricken out, as being opposed to the provision of the Federal Constitution, which declares "that the citi- zens of each State shall be entitled to all the privileges and immunities of the citizens of the several States." Missouri was then (1821) admitted into the Union. Its chief city, St. Louis, was built on the site of a trading-post established in 1763 by a Frenchman, La Clede. He had been given a monopoly of the fur-trade of the upper Mississippi and Missouri Rivers. 30. The Slave-Trade Condemned. — Both Great Britain and the United States had declared against participation in the African slave-trade, in the year 1807. Four years later, an act was passed by Great Britain inflicting the penalty of transportation or imprisonment at hard labor upon those found guilty of taking part in it. At last, in 1822, at a convention held in London between commissioners of the two countries, it was agreed that the slave-traders were to be treated as pirates, and that their vessels might be seized and condemned by the officers of either nation. 156 History of the United States. [1823 31. " The Monroe Doctrine" is the name applied to the national policy as it was announced by President Monroe in his message to Congress in 1823. The South American republics having been then recently formed, the President declared that any attempt by Europeans to oppress or con- trol them would be taken as an unfriendly manifestation toward the United States. He further declared that, as America's policy was not to entangle itself in the political broils of Europe, the attempt to extend the monarchical system " to any portion of this hemisphere would be dan- gerous to our peace and safety." J. Q. ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. 1825-1829. 32. John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts, the son of John Adams, was chosen the sixth President of the United States. There were four candidates voted for by the people, but, as none of them received a majority of all the votes cast, the election was left to be decided in the House of Representatives. Adams's chief opponent was General Jackson, who exhibited a very quarrelsome disposition during the exciting canvass. Adams was much milder in speech and action. In his inaugural address he appealed to the men of all parties to lay aside their political animosi- ties, and to cultivate those virtues aud principles which become a free and enlightened people. 33. Internal Improvements. — When first considered. — Soon after the close of the war of 1812, the subject of constructing national roads and improving the navigation of the great rivers began to be much talked of. There were many persons who thought that this work ought to be done at the cost of the whole country, — that is to say, by order of Congress. In 1817, during Madison's adminis- tration, Congress recommended the construction of several military and post roads, and canals, but no action was then taken. 1825] John Quincy Adams's Administration. . 157 34. Declared Constitutional. — Next, during Monroe's administration, the subject was frequently debated in Con- gress whether that body had the power, under the Consti- tution, to grant money for the construction of roads and canals and the improvement of the watercourses. It being finally concluded that Congress possessed such power, sur- veys and estimates for certain large works were accordingly authorized. 35. Works ordered. — Under President J. Q. Adams, who decidedly favored these internal improvements, work upon several of the projects was begun. These were the canal across the State of Delaware, connecting the Chesapeake and Delaware Bays; the Louisville and Portland Canal, at the Falls of the Ohio ; and the Dismal Swamp Canal, in Virginia. Surveys were also made for a road from Washington to New Orleans, besides other works. 36. Canals authorized by States. — The construction of canals and other internal improvements was, however, mostly left to the States. In some cases the States built such works at their own expense, but in most instances charters were granted by the Legislatures to incorporated companies to construct and control them. 37. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal had its origin in a project of General Washington's, to improve the navigation of the Potomac River, and, by the use of common roads, to connect with the streams flowing into the Ohio. Wash- ington was appointed president of the company ; but, many difficulties being met with, the original project was given up, and in 1820 a canal was authorized to be built. It was not completed from Cumberland to Georgetown until 1850. The Erie Canal, from Albany to Buffalo, was con- structed during the eight years of Monroe's administration, from 1817 to 1825. 38. The Pennsylvania system of canals, connecting Phila- 14 158 History of the United States. [1825 delphia with Pittsburg and Lake Erie, was completed a little later than the Erie Canal. Monroe's administration also witnessed the construction of those great water-ways, the Delaware and Hudson Canal, and that of the Schuyl- kill Coal and Navigation Company. By means of these, Pennsylvania's coal-product was readily delivered at tide- water. 39. Steamboats. — The first steamboat constructed in the Fitch's Delaware Biver Steamboat, 1790. United States to carry passengers was built at Philadelphia (in 1787 to 1790) by John Fitch. The motive power was a low-pressure engine, and the boat was propelled by paddles suspended at the sides ; afterward, by paddles at the stern. Oliver Evans, of the same city, in 1804, first practically applied to a boat the high-pressure engine ; but this craft was used merely for dock-dredging purposes. The first really successful application of the power was that of Robert Fulton. His boat, the Clermont, a small side-wheel steamer, in 1807 ascended the Hudson from New York to Albany. Improvements made in 1815 by Robert L. Stevens, re- 1826] John Qidncy Adams's Administration. 159 salted in securing a higher rate of speed. In 1838, the first ocean steamship from England, the Sirius, arrived in the harbor of New York. 40. Railroads. — Horse Power. — The first railroad in the United States was constructed during John Quincy Adams's administration, in 1826. It connected the town of Quincy, Massachusetts, with Neponset, and was but three miles in length. It was built to supply the granite for Bunker Hill Monument. The cars were drawn by horses. A railway was built the next year, 1827, at Mauch Chunk, Pennsyl- vania, the cars being raised by horse-power to the summit of the mountain, and descending by gravity. In 1828, twelve miles of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad were built and operated as a passenger railway. 41. Steam Power. — In the same year, the first locomotive engine used in America (but built in England by Stephen- son) was run upon a short road of the Delaware and Hud- son Canal Company, connecting with their mines. At the West Point foundry, New York, the first American-built locomotive was constructed. It was operated on the South Carolina Railway in 1831. The first of the Pacific Rail- roads, the "Union" and the "Central," running from Omaha, Nebraska, to San Francisco, California, were built between 1866 and 1868. 42. Decease of Ex-Presidents. — A memorable and solemn event occurred on the 4th day of the Seventh month (July), 1826, while the people were celebrating the 50th anniver- sary of the nation's independence. On that day expired both John Adams'and Thomas Jefferson. These ex-Presi- dents had stood at the head of the two opposing political parties ; but they had also been previously associated in preparing the Declaration of Independence. It was a further remarkable coincidence, that on the same day of the next year the death of ex-President Monroe occurred. 160 History of the United States. ['825 43. Georgia, the Government, and the Creeks. — There had been a compact entered into between the United States government and the State of Georgia, that the government should pay the Indians for their lands in that State, as soon as they could be purchased. The words in the com- pact were, " as early as the said lands could be peaceably obtained upon reasonable terms." Previous to 1825, the government had purchased from the Creeks more than one- half of their territory, but, after that, the tribe began to prize their lands and homes more highly. 44. Treaty of Indian Springs. — Nevertheless, at a council held at Indian Springs, in 1825, a small portion of the Creeks agreed to sell the lands of the whole tribe to the government. Although the Indians who signed the treaty belonged to but 8 villages or towns, whilst those of 48 villages had nothing to tlo with it, yet the government accepted and ratified the treaty. 45. The Creeks lose their Lands. — The majority of the Indians were highly exasperated upon hearing that the treaty of Indian Springs had been ratified. Yet the State of Georgia at once commissioned 100 surveyors to lay out the lands for which the government had so unfairly ob- tained the title. Two years later, all of this territory was disposed of for settlement by lottery. The Creeks having lost their homes, the government made another treaty with them, agreeing to give the chiefs and warriors a considerable sum of money, and to pay the tribe thereafter an annuity of $20,000. 46. The- Tariff. — During the war of 1812, when foreign gooels could not readily be brought into the country, many mills were erected, especially in Rhode Island. When the war ceased, English goods began again to find their way hither, and hence our manufacturers asked that a duty, or tariff, should be laid upon goods imported. This was 1829] Jackson's Administration. 161 granted. Now, in 1828, Congress enacted a new tariff law, to encourage home manufactures, and heavier duties were laid on foreign iron, wool, hemp, spirits, etc. 47. Protection and Free Trade. — There being but few manufactories at the South, the people of that section were dissatisfied with the tariff, because of the higher prices they had to pay for their goods. This question therefore divided the political parties in choosing another President. The advocates of a tariff were those who desired protection to home manufactures; those who were opposed to this pro- tection, of course, were the advocates of free trade. CHAPTER XIX. ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN. JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 18291837. 1. Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee, was the choice of the people for President to succeed Adams; John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, was elected Vice-President. Jackson and Calhoun had been the candidates nominated by the free-trade party. The administration of Jackson was marked by a general removal of office-holders for party reasons. During his eight years' presidency, he removed ten times as many persons from office as all the Presidents had who preceded him. 2. Removal of the Cherokees. — Cherokee Georgia. — The north-western part of Georgia was the home of the tribe of Cherokees. After the Creeks had lost their lands, the people of Georgia began to covet the possessions of the Cherokees also. This tribe had a printed constitution and / 14* 162 History of the United States. [1831 code of laws of their own, and, by solemn treaties, the American government had agreed that they should not be disturbed in their homes or in the right to govern them- selves. 3. The Lands Divided. — The Georgians were not able to influence Congress against the Cherokees during; Adams's administration, for that President did not favor the meas- ure. When Jackson came into office, they had less trouble in carrying out their designs. Aware that the white mis- sionaries among the Cherokees were opposed to the removal of the tribe, a bill was passed by the Legislature of Georgia, forbidding the missionaries to go upon the Indian lands. In 1831, by order of the governor, the Cherokee lands were surveyed ; the next year they were disposed of by lottery; and the year following they were divided, and organized as ten counties of the State of Georgia. 4. The Removal. — As in the case of the Creeks, a treaty was also made with the Cherokees which was not acceptable to the majority of the tribe. The principal chief, John Ross, was decidedly opposed to it. The tribe did indeed receive a large sum of money for their lands, but they were averse to giving up their homes. It was agreed that they should remove west of the Mississippi River, to a tract which the government promised "should in no future time be included within the limits of any State or Territory." In the spring of 1838, the militia gathered the Cherokees into companies, and the removal began. The journey oc- cupied five months, and though the exiles were not harshly treated, 4000 of them (being one-fourth of the whole num- ber) died before the reservation was reached. 5. The Chickasaws and Choctaws in Alabama and Mis- sissippi, after making considerable progress in civilization, lost their lands in nearly the same manner as the Creeks and Cherokees. They were removed west of the Missis- 1832] Jackson's Administration. 1G3 sippi to the Indian Territory, and settled upon lands near the other two tribes. Still later, the remnant of the Semi- noles, from Florida, were moved to the same neighborhood. These five tribes are frequently spoken of as " the five civilized tribes of the Indian Territory." 6. Nullification in South Carolina. — The passage of a tariff law by Congress, in 1832, increasing the duties upon many articles, caused much dissatisfaction in the cotton- growing States. In South Carolina open resistance was made to the collection of the duties, and a nullification ordinance was passed. This ordinance declared the law of Congress unconstitutional, and that the government had no authority to enforce it. President Jackson issued a procla- mation declaring that the law would have to be obeyed, whilst Calhoun, the Vice-President, resigned, and was at once elected to the Senate from South Carolina. The gov- ernor of that State then issued a proclamation in opposition to that of the President, and the Legislature passed laws looking toward secession. The troops were also called out. 7. The Debate in Congress. — Meanwhile, in Congress, the doctrines of nullification and the right of a State to secede were warmly debated. Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts, and Henry Clay, of Kentucky, were the prominent speakers on that occasion. The trouble Mas finally settled by the passage of a "compromise bill," which was introduced by Henry Clay. It provided for a gradual reduction of the impost duty during the succeeding ten years. 8. The United States Bank, by its charter, was the legal depository of the public funds, but President Jackson, deeming them unsafe there, issued an order for their re- moval to certain State banks. The Secretary of the Treas- ury, refusing to obey the order, was dismissed by the Pres- ident, and another person appointed in his place. The collectors being forbidden to deposit the funds in the Bank 104 History of the United States. [1836 of the United States, that institution failed (1836), and great financial distress followed. 9. Black-Hawk War. — When the Galena lead-mines were discovered, the lands of the Winnebagoes of Wiscon- sin, and of the Sacs and Foxes of Illinois, were overrun by the miners, much to the displeasure of the Indian owners. The Everglades. Several of the whites were murdered by them, and troops were at once sent into their territory. A number of battles were fought, and a noted chief, Black Hawk, and others were taken prisoners. Having been brought to the princi- pal Eastern cities, to show them the power of their captors, 1836] Jackson's Administration. 165 the conquered chiefs then made a treaty ceding their ten million acres of land to the government for an annuity and a yearly supply of provisions. 10. Second Seminole War. — The Seminoles of lower Georgia and Florida had refused to emigrate to the lands set apart for them beyond the Mississippi. In 1835, troops were sent against them. Many of these soldiers perished in ambuscades, and others died of the miasma of the swamps. The Seminoles retreated to the Everglades, and were enabled during seven years to continue the war. Osceola, a noted chief, was captured, and confined in Fort Moultrie, where he died of a fever. This war cost the government 30 million dollars, and involved the loss of many lives. 11. The Meteoric Shower of 1833, the most remarkable display of the kind on record, was visible over all the United States, a part of Mexico, and the West Indies. The shoot- ing stars fell in great numbers, like snow-flakes, leaving phosphorescent lines' along their course. There also fell, at intervals, large fire-balls, whose luminous -trains remained visible for several minutes, or even half an hour or more. One, seen in North Carolina, appeared of larger size and greater brilliancy than the moon. In the neighborhood of the cataract of Niagara, the display was particularly bril- liant. In many quarters much alarm was manifested at the spectacle, the people believing that this falling of the stars from heaven betokened the coming of some great calamity. 12. Great Fires. — A great fire which occurred in the city of New York, in 1835, destroyed the principal buildings in the commercial part of the city. It involved a loss of 17 million dollars. Of other destructive fires since that of 1835, may be mentioned those at Philadelphia in 1850, at Portland in 18GG, at Chicago in 1871, and at Boston in 1872. 166 History of the United States. [1837 13. Arkansas, which was set off from Missouri as a sep- arate Territory in 1819, was admitted into the Union in 1836. The population increased very slowly until after 1850, when many planters from the lower Atlantic and Gulf States took up land for the growing of cotton. It has a large area excellently adapted for that crop. VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION. 1837-1841. 14. The Panic of 1837.— Martin Van Buren, of New York, succeeded Jackson. His administration is chiefly memorable for the great panic of 1837, the results of which were felt throughout all his term of office. The • national debt had been entirely paid off, but when the United States Bank failed, a great many State banks sprang into existence. While these State banks were issuing their notes in abundance, the public lands were offered for sale. 15. A period of wild speculation resulted, only to be fol- lowed by the usual disastrous reaction. As an order had been issued that the purchasers of public lands must pay for them in specie, the banks were not able to meet the demands upon them for coin, and, consequently, suspended. This prostrated the business of the country, the great im- provements ceased, and failures followed one another in quick succession. 16. Relief Measures. — As the failures of the banks re- sulted in embarrassment to the government, President Van Buren was obliged to call an extra session of Congress. An issue of treasury notes was authorized by that body. A bill was also proposed for the establishment of an inde- pendent treasury and sub-treasuries, but it did not become a law until several years later. 17. A Rebellion in Canada against the British govern- ment broke out in 1837. Citizens of Vermont and New York took part with the insurgents; but the President 1841] Harrison's and Tyler's Administrations. 1G7 promptly issued a proclamation advising the violators of the law to return to their homes. The order was heeded ; the insurrection quickly died out, and the United States was saved from a serious difficulty with Great Britain. 18. Wilkes Exploring Expedition. — A notable expedition, designed to make researches in the Antarctic regions, was fitted out at government expense in 1838. It comprised six vessels, which were placed under the command of Lieu- tenant Charles Wilkes. Numerous islands in the Pacific were discovered, and 1700 miles of the Antarctic continent mapped. After an absence of four years, the expedition returned. The account of their geographical discoveries and researches in science was afterward published in five lar^e volumes. CHAPTER XX. ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON, TYLER, AND POLK. HARRISON AND TYLER. 18411 845. 1. William Henry Harrison, of Ohio, who had been gov- ernor of Indiana Territory, was chosen by the Whig party to succeed Van Buren. John Tyler, of Virginia, was elected Vice-President. The Whigs were nearly the same in politics as were the Federalists, whom they succeeded ; the Democrats, or Free-Traders, remaining the other prin- cipal political party. Harrison at once called a special session of Congress, but, being taken suddenly ill, he died just a month after his inauguration. Vice-President Tyler succeeded him. 2. Tyler's Opposition to a National Bank. — It had been the general supposition, when Tyler was elected, that he favored the establishment of a national bank ; but, upon 168 History of the United States. [1841 Congress passing a bill to charter such a bank, the Presi- dent vetoed it. A second bill, somewhat modified, also received his veto. All the members of his cabinet, except Daniel Webster, the Secretary of State, at once resigned their places. Meanwhile, Congress had repealed the Sub- Treasury Act, as it was thought the locking up of so much of the public funds injured the business of the country. 3. The Ashburton Treaty received its name from the British minister, Lord Ashburton, who was sent to this country to settle the question of the North-Eastern bound- ary. Commissioners from Maine and Massachusetts con- ferred with the British minister and Daniel Webster at Washington, and the boundary line between Maine and New Brunswick was soon arranged. Other important matters settled by the treaty were : the rendition of fugi- tives from justice ; the keeping of armed vessels on the coast of Africa to suppress the slave-trade ; and the contro- versy which arose about the Canadian border disturbance of 1837. 4. Annexation of Texas. — Irruptions by Americans. — The Mexican province of Texas was coveted by the people of the Southern States for many years before it was actually annexed to this country. As early as 1819, adventurers from Mississippi, entering the territory, called upon the people to join the American Union, but they were driven out by the Spaniards. In 1821, Moses Austin, of Missouri, obtained permission from the Spanish authorities to intro- duce 300 Catholic families into Texas. Austin soon died, but his son settled a slave-holding colony on the Rio Brazos. 5. Texas Independent of Mexico. — In 1824, Mexico be- came a republic free from the control of Spain, and, five years later, passed a decree manumitting every slave in its territory. This act disappointed many of our pro-slavery 1845] Poltis Administration. 169 people, who had wished to forcibly annex Texas, and offers were now made for its purchase. These offers being de- clined by Mexico, the plan of colonizing Texas with Ameri- can settlers was then adopted. In 1836, the number of these settlers had become so considerable that the people declared their independence of Mexico, and passed an act establishing slavery forever in the province. 6. Texas Finally Annexed. — Santa Anna, who had made himself dictator of Mexico, demanded that Texas should return to its allegiance; but, in the dispute which followed, he was taken prisoner. In the same year, 1836, General Samuel Houston was made president of the independent State of Texas, and in 1845, during Tyler's administration, it was annexed to the United States. Our treatment of Mexico, during that period, will always remain a blot upon the political record of this nation. 7. The Suffrage Dispute in Rhode Island. — By the old colonial charter of Rhode Island, the right to vote was allowed to property-owners only. Many of the people wished to remove the restriction, and in 1842 they were successful in electing their candidate for governor. In order to maintain his position, this governor (Dorr) took posses- sion of the State arsenal ; but, the militia and United States troops being called out, Dorr was arrested, tried for treason, and imprisoned. A new and more liberal Constitution was then adopted by the people. [Refer back to page 72.] POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 1845-1849. 8. North-Western Boundary. — James K. Polk, of Ten- nessee, the candidate of the Pro-Slavery party and the party of annexation, succeeded Tyler as President. The subject of the North-West boundary line between our territory and the British possessions was the occasion of much excitement in the country, so that a war for a while 15 170 History of the United States. [1846 threatened. The North-Eastern boundary, it will be re- membered, had been settled by the Ash burton treaty during Tyler's administration. The Northern boundary was settled previous to that, in 1822, and was declared to run from the north line of New York, up the middle of the St. Lawrence River, and through the middle of Lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, and Superior. The North-Western boundary, or the continuation of the line from the west end of Lake Superior to the Pacific, was the portion now in dispute. 9. British and American Claims. — The claim of the United States to Oregon was founded on the fact that the Columbia River had been entered and named by an Ameri- can trader in 1792; that the Pacific coast territory, north of California, was really part of the Louisiana purchase of 1803; that the government explorers, Lewis and Clarke, in 1804, had visited the head-streams of the Missouri and descended the Columbia; and that, in 1811, the fur-trading post of Astoria, founded by John Jacob Astor, had been built at the mouth of that river. 10. But British subjects had also established settlements on the Columbia and Frazer Rivers. By agreement, both nations occupied the Oregon Territory during a number of years. Finally, in 1846, the 49th degree of north latitude was agreed upon as the international boundary line, — the same as at present. 11. Iowa was received into the Union in 1846. The French explorers Marquette and Joliet were the first white men who trod its soil. They landed at an Indian village called by the natives Moingona, a name which the French altered into Des Moines. Dubuque, a Canadian, owned a trading-post within the limits of the State, about the year 1788; but the first permanent settlement was made at Bur- lino-ton in 1833. 1847] Polk's Administration. 171 War with Mexico. 12. Cause of the War. — Having annexed Texas, the Pro- Slavery party in Congress was anxious that the United States should also possess the Mexican provinces known as California and New Mexico. Our government had certain claims for damages against Mexico, and sent an envoy, Slidell, to demand a settlement. As he was not promptly received, General Taylor was ordered in the spring of 1846 to proceed with an army to the Rio Grande. But the Nueces River, east of the Rio Grande, was claimed by the Mexicans as the Texan boundary. They therefore charged the United States troops with invading their territory. 13. Beginning of the War. — A Mexican army, stationed at Matamoras, near the mouth of the Rio Grande, crossed that river and engaged the American troops under General Taylor. At Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, the Mexi- cans were defeated, and Taylor, crossing to the south side of the Rio Grande, occupied Matamoras. The party of annexation in Congress, rejoicing that the Mexicans had been provoked to strike the first blow, was then enabled to secure the passage of a declaration of war. 14. Progress of the War. — The Oregon boundary trouble having just been settled, those who favored the war felt sure there would now be no interference with their plans by Great Britain. General Taylor advanced to Monterey, and, after a three days' struggle, captured the place. Santa Anna, who was in command of a second Mexican army, attacked Taylor's force near Buena Vista, but was repulsed with great loss. 15. March on the Mexican Capital. — Early in 1847, Gen- eral Winfield Scott, being appointed commander-in-chief of the American forces, landed an army near Vera Cruz, and at once invested the place. After a fierce bombard- ment of several days, during which many of the women 172 History of the United States. [1847 and children of the place were slain, the city capitulated. Scott then advanced, in the track of the conqueror Cortez, toward the Mexican capital. Defeating the armies of his opponents at Cerro Gordo, Contreras, and other places, he entered the city of Mexico early in the autumn of 1847. 16. New Mexico Occupied. — While Scott was thus forcing his way to the capital, an army under General Kearney set out from Missouri, and, crossing the plains, reached Santa Fe in New Mexico, which they occupied without opposition. Kearney issued a proclamation declaring him- self governor of the province, and its inhabitants no longer Mexican subjects. 17. California Occupied. — The third part of the war- 1848] Polk's Administration. 173 scheme was to occupy California. A small party of Ameri- cans, under Captain Fremont, who had been exploring in the Rocky Mountain region, made their way over the Sierra Nevada range into California. Uniting with the few American settlers there, and receiving the assistance of part of the Pacific fleet of Commodore Stockton, California was quickly in their possession. 18. A Trea.ty with Mexico, called the treaty of Gua- dalupe Hidalgo, was signed in 1848. New Mexico and California were ceded to the United States, and the Rio Grande was made the boundary between Mexico and Texas. Nevada and Utah were parts of this purchase. The United States agreed to pay Mexico, for the 545,000 square miles of territory comprised in the cession, the sum of 15 mil- lion dollars. In addition to this, our government agreed to settle the claims for damages said to be owiny; to our citizens, amounting to the sum of 3J million dollars. 19. Cost of the War. — The money cost of the Mexican war itself was about 100 million dollars. Although few of the Americans were killed in battle, yet thousands of them died of the vomito and other diseases. In the city of Mexico, for a while, the deaths among the Americans were 1000 a month. The territory acquired by the war could have been obtained at a far less cost in money by negotiation, whilst thousands of lives would have been saved, and great evils avoided. 20. The Wilmot Proviso.— Whilst the treaty for the ac- quisition of California and New Mexico was being debated in Congress, a proposition was introduced by David Wil- mot, of Pennsylvania, respecting slavery in those territories. The " Wilmot Proviso" declared that slavery should be for- bidden in any territory ceded to this country by Mexico. It met with great opposition from the Pro-Slavery party, and failed to become a law. 15* 174 History of the United States. 11848 21. The California Gold Excitement. — Gold was dis- covered in California in 1847, just before the treaty with Mexico was ratified. A laborer first observed the shining particles in a mill-race on one of the tributaries of the Sacramento River. The discovery occasioned great excite- ment throughout the country. Thousands of emigrants from the East crossed the plains to the new El Dorado, others went by way of Panama, and others, again, by the long route around Cape Horn. San Francisco at once be- came the favorite city and port. Silver and quicksilver, as well as gold, were also discovered. But for a number of years gambling, intemperance, and ruffianism prevailed on that part of the Pacific coast, whilst speculation became rife all over the land. CHAPTER XXI. ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR, FILLMORE, PIERCE, AND BUCHANAN. TAYLOR'S AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 1849-1853. 1. General Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, who had been prominent in the Mexican war, became President in 1849. Millard Fillmore, of New York, was chosen Vice-Presi- dent. The question of the admission of California as a State formed one of the principal subjects of Taylor's first message to Congress; but the President died ere the matter was decided. His death happened upon the same day as the great fire at Philadelphia, the 9th day of Seventh month (July), 1850. Vice-President Fillmore succeeded him. 2. Anti-Slavery Society. — The excitement which pre- J 849] Fillmore's Administration. 175 vailed throughout the United States in 1820, when the Missouri Compromise Act was being debated, was not re- newed for a number of years. The opposition to slave- holding, however, was increasing at the North, and, in 1833, the Anti-Slavery Society was organized at Philadel- phia. Arthur Tappan was its first president. 3. Anti-Slavery Publications. — Benjamin Lundy, in Bal- timore, and William Lloyd Garrison, in Philadelphia, issued the earliest anti-slavery papers. These publications, and also tracts in opposition to slavery, began to be freely sent to the slave-owners and others at the South during Jackson's administration. When that President recom- mended that it should be made unlawful to use the mails for such a purpose, intense excitement followed. At the North, some of the outspoken opponents of slavery were violently assaulted, whilst at the South, some of the post- offices were broken open and the unwelcome documents destroyed. 4. Anti-Slavery Parties. — The few persons who at that time favored the utter extinction of slavery were known as " Abolitionists." A larger party was composed of those who, while they believed that the slave system was morally wrong and that no new slave States should be created, yet were willing that slavery should continue in the States where it then existed. These comprised the " Free-Soil" party. 5. California's Free Constitution. — California increased so rapidly in population after the discovery of gold, that its people, in 1849, adopted a Constitution prohibiting slavery, and asked to be admitted as a State. This was a result of the acquisition of its territory which the Pro- Slavery party had not expected. The debate in Congress became so bitter that both the advocates of slavery and the opponents of that institution threatened secession.. Their 176 History of the United States. [1S50 differences were settled for the time by the "Omnibus Bill." 6. The Omnibus Bill, which was the name given to a bill concerning a variety of matters, was introduced by Henry Clay. It provided not only for the admission of Cali- fornia, but for the organization of the Territories of New Mexico and Utah without reference to slavery; the adjust- ment of the Texas boundary; the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia; and the enactment of a Fugitive Slave Law more stringent than the old one. Henry Clay, although an opponent of slavery, was willing to postpone the settlement of that question until some future time. 7. California was then admitted into the Union, in 1850. The name " Cali- fornia" was given to the country by the Spaniards, the coast having been ex- plored as early as 1542 by Cabrillo. San Francisco harbor was entered in 1579 by Sir Francis Drake. Although Drake called the country New Albion, it remained, notwithstanding its title, always attached to Mexico. The Franciscan friars, who had succeeded the expelled Jesuits in Mexico, established a mis- sion at San Diego in 1769. A number of similar missions were located along the coast. 8. Rich though California's mines have been in precious ore, yet the valley of the Sacramento and other localities in the State have proved very valuable also for the growing of wheat. But thousands of acres of this rich alluvial land have been over-covered by the washings from the mines, so that the loss in the State's productive capacity from this cause has been great. The cultivation of the The Bio Treks. 1853] Pierce's Administration. 177 grape and other kinds of fruit, and the rearing of sheep for the wool, are among the important industries. The Big Trees of the Calaveras and Mariposa groves, and the Yosemite Park with its varied charms of mountain, water- fall, and lake, are among the wonders of the continent. The " Central Pacific Railway," whose western terminus is at San Francisco, and the "Southern Pacific Railway," reaching the same city through the San Joaquin Valley, will exert a great influence upon the future of the State. PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION. 1853-1857. 9. Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, the candidate of the Democrats for President, was chosen in opposition to General Scott, the candidate of the Whig party. Pierce was a lawyer who had been much interested in politics, and had also been a general in the Mexican war. 10. The Gadsden Purchase. — In consequence of a dispute with Mexico as to the boundary between that country and the United States west of the Rio Grande, a further pur- chase was made by our government in 1853. It comprised the Pima silver region and other territory south of the Gila River, being the southern part of the present Terri- tories of Arizona and New Mexico. The price paid to Mexico for this tract was 10 million dollars. [See map.] 11. A Treaty with Japan was also entered into in 1853. That country, like China and Corea, had long been averse to the intrusion of foreigners ; but Commodore Perry being sent there on an embassy with his fleet, was received with apparent favor by the military ruler, or Tycoon. A treaty of friendship, and afterward a treaty of commerce, was entered into between the two nations. In 1868, when the Tycoon was overthrown, and the Mikado, or emperor, was made head of the nation, the policy of Japan became still more open. An embassy was sent from there to this coun- 178 History of the United States. |"1S54 try, and, a little later, numbers of the youth were placed in our colleges to be educated. ' Educators and others from the United States have been received in Japan with favor. 12. Kansas-Nebraska Bill. — A bill to organize the Terri- tories of Kansas and Nebraska was introduced into the Senate by Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois. Those Terri- tories being north of the parallel of 36° 30', slavery was excluded from their limits according to the provisions of the Missouri Compromise Act. The bill of Senator Doug- las proposed to abolish this act, and to allow any Territory, whether north or south of the compromise parallel, either to permit or to exclude slavery upon becoming a State. The Kansas-Nebraska bill, although opposed by the Free- Soil party, became a law in 1854. 13. Disturbances in Kansas. — Upon the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill, adherents of both the Free-Soil and Pro-Slavery parties began at once to people Kansas with emigrants favoring their respective views. While this was in progress, murders, robberies, destruction of property, and other outrages prevailed, the Free-Soil settlers being the worst sufferers. They, however, adopted a Constitu- tion at Topeka rejecting slavery, and, having submitted it to the people, it was ratified by them. Order was partly restored in 1856, when the President appointed John W. Geary governor of the Territory. BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION. 1857-1861. 14. James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, was chosen Presi- dent at the autumn election of 1856, and entered upon the duties of his office the 4th day of the Third month (March) following, as provided by law. John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky, became Vice-President. Buchanan had served in both houses of Congress, had been minister to Russia and to Great Britain, and was also Secretary of State under President Polk. 1858] Buchanans Administration. 179 15. Political Parties. — The Republican party, which was the name taken at this election by the former Free-Soil party, was opposed to the extension of slavery into any of the Territories. The Whig party had disappeared. The Democratic party, by whom Buchanan was elected, favored slavery in the Territories if so willed by the people. A third party at that time was the American or "Know- Nothing" party: they were opposed to popery and foreign influence. 16. Minnesota was received into the Union in 1858. The most of this State had been a part of the Louisiana pur- chase of 1803. St. Paul, although it is the oldest town in the State, was not settled until 1846. Various bands of the Sioux or Dakota Indians inhabited the Territory, which they ceded to the United States by treaty in 1851. The land was soon settled upon by emigrants from the States, many of them being attracted by the reputed healthfulness of the climate. Minnesota soon became a great grain- growing country. At Minneapolis, on the Mississippi, the water-power furnished by the Falls of St. Anthony operates some of the largest flouring-mills in the world. Dtiluth, at the western end of Lake Superior, is the eastern terminus of the Northern Pacific Railway. 17. Oregon was admitted into the Union in 1859. Wash- ington and Idaho Territories were originally included within its limits. The broad and fertile valley of the Willamette, between the Coast and Cascade ranges, began to be settled by emigrants in 1834, the first company being a band of Methodist missionaries. The tide of emigration to that quarter was checked for a while upon the discovery of gold in California; but, in 1850, a law of Congress granting lands in Oregon to settlers upon very liberal terms, had the effect of renewing the immigration. 18. The Lecompton Constitution. — At an election held in 180 History of the United States. [1858 Kansas Territory in 1857, the Free-Soil candidates for the Territorial Legislature and for delegate to Congress were elected. In the mean time, however, delegates of the Pro- Slavery party met at Lecoinpton and framed a Constitution adopting slavery. Having submitted it to the people, its advocates claimed that it was ratified, and sent it to Con- gress ; but that body ordered a new election, and the Le- compton Constitution was rejected by a heavy majority. Four years later (1861) Kansas was received into the Union as a free State. 19. Plans to Abolish Slavery. — The passage of the Fugi- tive Slave Law, and the excitement respecting political affairs in Kansas, impressed many thinking men with the belief that slavery would have to be abolished, or the country would surely drift into war. (1) Some advocated immediate abolition, without any conditions. (2) Others favored gradual emancipation. Neither of these plans found many supporters. (3) The Liberia scheme of coloni- zation had withdrawn but a few thousands of freed blacks from American soil. (4) Still a fourth plan was that of compensated emancipation. 20. Compensated Emancipation was a plan for making the manumission of the slaves a national act, — that is, that the North, which had participated in the gains of the slave- traffic, should unite with the South in compensating the slave-owners for releasing the slaves. It was proposed to pay an average price of $250 for each man, woman, and child held in slavery. To obtain the money for this pur- pose, and to provide a fund for the education and elevation of the freedmen, it was proposed to set apart the proceeds of the sale of the public lands west of the Mississippi. Elihu Burritt, of Connecticut, known as "the Learned Blacksmith," was the foremost advocate of this project; but it was not received with general favor, some rejecting I860] Buchanan's Administration. 181 it for moral reasons, others for those which were political or selfish. 21. The John Brown Raid. — In the autumn of 1859, an attempt was made to liberate the slaves by a general up- rising. John Brown and his sons, who had taken an active part in Kansas against the introduction of slavery, believed that with a few followers they could accomplish this object. They crossed the Potomac at Harper's Ferry, expecting the blacks to join them at once. JNot receiving their aid, Brown and his little company took possession of one of the shops of the United States arsenal at that place. They were soon overpowered, however, by government troops, and, being handed over to the authorities of Virginia, were tried and executed. This undertaking and its result added greatly to the excitement throughout the country. 22. The Momentous Election of 1860. — The canvass which preceded the election for President in the autumn of 1860, was the most exciting which had been known in our nation's history. The Democratic, or Pro-Slavery, party had had control of the government during most of that time. But public opinion was rapidly undergoing a change. It now appeared as though the party opposed to slavery would be found the strongest when the question was brought to the decision of the ballot. 23. The Candidates. — The Democratic Convention for nominating candidates for President and Vice-President was held at Charleston, South Carolina. So much differ- ence of sentiment showed itself that finally the Southern delegates withdrew, and named as the Pro-Slavery candi- date for President, John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky. Those who remained nominated Stephen A. Douglas. The American party nominated John Bell, of Tennessee. The Republicans, whose convention was held at Chicago, named Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, for President, and Hannibal 16 182 History of the United States. [I860 Hamlin, of Maine, for Vice-President. There were there- fore candidates of four parties before the people. Lincoln and Hamlin, receiving a plurality of votes, were elected. 24. Abraham Lincoln, the successful candidate, had spent his early manhood in hard toil as a woodman in the West, and hence had few opportunities to obtain an education. He was, however, industrious, honest, and straightforward, and, having taken up the study of law, was sent to Congress. He came prominently before the people in the canvass for the presidency, speaking in opposition to the views of Douglas upon slavery, which were somewhat similar to those held by Henry Clay. 25. Secession of South Carolina. — It had been openly declared by many in the South, that, if the Republican party was successful, the States of the South would with- draw from the Union. Accordingly, before the end of 1860, when the result of the election became certainly known, the Legislature of South Carolina called a conven- tion, and declared, by a unanimous vote, that "the union now subsisting between South Carolina and other States, under the name of the United States, is hereby dissolved." 26. Ten other Southern States Secede. — In the First mouth of 1861, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, and Georgia followed the example set by South Carolina. All the other States south of the Potomac and the Ohio, except Kentucky, within a few weeks cast their lot for secession. Eleven States in all seceded. 27. Confederate Government Organized. — Delegates from the seceded States met at Montgomery, Alabama, and or- ganized the " Confederate States of America," with a Con- stitution similar to that of the United States. Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, was elected President, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, Vice-President. Richmond, Vir- ginia, was made the capital. The Senators and Represen- 1861] Buchanan s Administration. 183 tatives from the South in the national Congress resigned their seats, and most of the officers of the army from that section also joined the cause of the Confederacy. 28. Overtures for a Separation. — A delegation was sent by the Confederate Congress to Washington to treat for a peaceful separation ; but the Secretary of State, William H. Seward, gave as his reply, that no State could leave the Union except with the concurrence of a convention of all the States. Contemporary European Chronology. 1792. France declared a Republic. Reign of Terror follows. Bonaparte. 1S04. Bonaparte crowned Emperor of France. 1814. Banished to Elba. 1814. Louis XVIII. 1S24. Charles X. 1S30. Louis Philippe. Cuvier. 1820. George IV. of England. 1830. William IV. 1837. Victoria. 1S32. The Reform Bill jiassed by the British Parliament. 1833. Slavery abolished in the British colonies. Wilberforce. 1840-1872. Livingstone, Scotch missionary and traveller, in Africa. 1S48. Louis Napoleon becomes President of France, and, in 1851, Emperor. 1S54. Crimean War. Nicholas, Czar of Russia. Cobden. Bright. 1783. First successful balloon ascension, by Montgolfier, in France. 1798. Vaccination discovered and introduced by Jenner. 1798. Galvanism discovered b}' Galvani. 1S00. Lithography invented at Munich by Senefelder. 181 fi. The miners' safety-lamp invented by Sir Humphry Davy. 1830. Locomotive steam-carriages used on Liverpool and Manchester R.R. 1839. Daguerre, in France, and Talbot, in England, apply photography, — J. W. Draper and Rutherford, in the United States. 1844. (Nitrous oxide gas and ether used as anaesthetics in the United States.) 1857. Aniline dyes, extracted from coal-tar, begin to be used. Note. — Some notable American inventions are referred to in the account of the Bureau of Patents, chapter xxiv. *4jf* The teacher of the younger pupils should be assured that his scholars have a clear understanding of any words, not of common use, which may occur in the text. He will need to exphiin to these that pro-slavery means si mply /or slavery. Likewise, such scarcejy avoidable phrases as "political disabilities" and " basis of representation'' should be made plain. The differ- ence between "plurality'' and " majority," in connection, for instance, with J. Q. Adams's election and that of Lincoln, or of some local case assumed for the purpose of illustration, may be interestingly shown on the blackboard. PERIOD VI. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE CIVIL WAR TO THE PRESENT. CHAPTER XXII. ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 1861-1865. CAUSES OF SECESSION". 1. State Sovereignty. — The advocates of slavery mostly held the opinion that the United States comprised a league of States, rather than a union of the people of the States, and therefore that any one of them could withdraw from the Union if it so desired. Such was the right always claimed by the Anti-Federalist or States'-Rights party. Others, however, believed that the compact made between the people was more national in its character, and that no State had a right to secede. 2. Slavery. — The right to hold and traffic in slaves was closely connected with the doctrine of States' rights. It was mainly the hope of preserving the institution of slavery which made any of the States wish to secede. Seeing that the views of the people at the North as to the lawfulness of the custom were rapidly undergoing a change, they feared that if they remained in the Union, slavery was doomed to extinction. Herein was their chief grievance. 3. Loss of Power in the Territories. — (1) When the Terri- tory North-West of the Ohio was organized in 1787, it was stipulated that slavery should be prohibited within its limits. 184 1857] Lincoln's Administration. 185 This was the first check to the spread of slavery. (2) The Missouri Compromise Act of 1820 prohibited slavery in any new Territory north of the parallel of 36° 30', the northern boundary line of Arkansas. (3) The Wilmot Proviso, although it failed to become a law, had received the assent of one of the houses of Congress. It proposed that slavery should be excluded from any territory ceded to this country by another power. When California, which was ceded to us by Mexico, was admitted in 1850 as a State, slavery was excluded, although more than half its area was south of the compromise parallel. (4) The Kan- sas-Nebraska bill of 1854 repealed the Missouri Compro- mise Act, and permitted any new State, whatever its latitude, to do as it pleased respecting slavery. But when the Le- compton Constitution, prepared by the Pro-Slavery party of Kansas, was rejected, it became evident that Kansas would be admitted as a free State. Therefore, the majority of the members of Congress would be clearly opposed to slavery, and would, in time, pass laws forbidding it altogether. Incidental Occasions of Secession. 4. Assault on Senator Sumner. — During the session of Congress of 1856, Charles Sumner, a Senator from Massa- chusetts, was violently assaulted by Preston Brooks, a member from the South. This event, which occurred while the Senate was in session, caused great indignation at the North. Their newspapers were filled with hot denunci- ations of the " cowardly assault," whilst those at the South replied in a similar tone. Thus, as the breach widened, the desire to secede grew stronger. 5. The Dred Scott Decision of 1857 was a decision of the Supreme Court given in the case of Dred Scott, a slave. It affirmed that slaves, in every part of the national territory, were to be considered as property. Whilst at the North the opposition to slavery grew thence still stronger, the sla ve- to* 186 History of the United States. [1859 owners at the South, on the other hand, greatly rejoiced. They affirmed that they had full power over their bonds- men, for the Supreme Court had declared the Constitution to be upon their side. 6. John Brown's Raid, in 1859, was declared to be a great outrage upon the South, and, if successful in its pur- pose, would have resulted not only in the loss of their slaves, but also (they said) in the murder of many of the masters. Meanwhile, by the secret operations of the " Underground Railway," a large number of slaves had found their way to freedom, and thus the Fugitive Slave Law was set at naught. 7. The Election of Lincoln, many at the South had de- clared, would finally decide the slave States to withdraw from the Union. They were well aware that their political power would fall below what it had been ; that an anti- slavery cabinet would be chosen ; and that many of the government offices would fall into the hands of the Repub- licans — the opponents of slavery. THE CIVIL WAR. Events of 1861. 8. Fort Sumter Bombarded. — One of the fortifications at the South of which the Secessionists were anxious to gain early possession, was Fort Sumter, in Charleston Harbor. A month after Lincoln's inauguration, the Confederate batteries directed by General Beauregard opened upon the fort. So effective was the firing, that, on the second day of the bombardment, Major Anderson, the Union commander, surrendered the post. The result of this occurrence was to cause the feeling of enmity between the two sections to break out into open Avar. 9. First Engagements. — A call for 75,000 volunteers was at once issued by the government. The foremost of these, 1861] The Civil War. 187 in passing southward through Baltimore, Fourth mouth (April) 19th, were mobbed by Secession sympathizers, and several lives were lost on each side. About the same time, the government arsenal at Harper's Ferry was seized by the Confederates. At Norfolk the war-vessels and other property at the navy-yard were destroyed by the United States officers there, and the place evacuated. At Great Bethel, uear Fortress Monroe, where General Butler was in command, the Union troops met with defeat in the first regular engagement of the war. 10. Battle of Bull Run. — It was nearly midsummer of 1861, when the main army of the volunteers under General McDow- ell, engaged the Confed- erate force under Gen- eral Beauregard, at Bull Run, a few miles south- west of Washington. A panic seized the Union troops, who fled in disorder toward the capital, leaving a great quantity of artillery and stores on the field and strewed along the line of their retreat. 11. Second Call for Volunteers. — As it became evident to the President and Congress, after the repulse at Bull Run, that a much larger body of militia would be required to subdue the rebellion, a call was issued for an army of 500,000 men. General McClellan superseded General Scott, who had held the chief command. A portion of the Union army, attempting to cross into Virginia near Lees- burg, were defeated at the battle of Ball's Bluff; but, in 188 History of the United States. [1861 West Virginia, the Unionists, under General Rosecrans, were mostly successful. 12. Missouri Campaign. — In Missouri, although the slaves numbered but a tenth of the population, the advo- cates of slavery were active, and managed to elect their governor. General Harney being sent to St. Louis to take command of the Western Military Department, that city was kept out of the hands of the Secessionists. Missouri was the field of much partisan or guerilla warfare. One of the principal battles was that fought at Wilson's Creek, near Springfield, when General Lyon, the Union com- mander, was killed. The State was cleared for a while of Confederate troops, by an army under General Curtis. 13. Events on the Coast. — The Atlantic and Gulf coasts, from Virginia to Texas, were soon blockaded by the National navy. On 'the North Carolina coast, the Con- federate forts at the entrance of Hatteras Inlet were cap- tured by an expedition under General Butler. The other forts on Roanoke Island were taken early in the following year, whilst the fleet on Albemarle Sound was burnt by the Confederates to prevent its capture. The defences of Beaufort, at Port Royal entrance, South Carolina, were also surrendered. 14. Capture of Mason and Slidell. — The Confederates, being anxious to obtain recognition of their cause by Eng- land and France, sent James M. Mason and John Slidell as ambassadors to those powers. In order to elude the blockade, they took passage first to Cuba. Upon their leaving the island for Europe, in the British steamer Trent, that vessel was intercepted by the National steamer San Jacinto, commanded by Captain Charles Wilkes. Mason and Slidell were taken on board the National vessel, and sent to Fort Warren, in Boston harbor. 15. The British government at once demanded the sur- 1802] The Civil War. 189 render of the commissioners. As President Lincoln was convinced that their capture had been made in violation of the rights of neutrals, the prisoners were quietly given up, and a war with England was averted. This action met with the approval of all fair-minded men at the North. It was seen that the seizure was in direct violation of America's own protest against the right of search, the principal pretext for the war of 1812. Events of 1862. 16. Tennessee Occupied by Nationals. — Numerous gun- boats were constructed for the Western rivers, in order to operate against the fortifications erected thereon by the Confederates. A fleet of these gun-boats, under Commo- dore Foote, and a land force, under General Ulysses S. Grant, captured Fort Henry, on the Tennessee River, and Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland. A few weeks later, Nashville, the capital of Tennessee, was occupied by the Union army, and Andrew Johnson was appointed military governor of the State. 17. Operations on the Mississippi. — On the Mississippi, the strong posts of the Confederates at Columbus, below Cairo, and at Island Number Ten, were next evacuated, although the latter withstood a bombardment of several weeks by the gun-boats of Commodore Foote. The Union fleet then continued down the river and captured Fort Pillow and Memphis. Meanwhile, General Beauregard, who had escaped from Island Number Ten, joined his forces with those of General A. S. Johnston - . At Shiloh and Pittsburg Landing, on the Tennessee, they defeated the Union army of General Grant. 18. Battle of Corinth. — General Grant's army being re- inforced by that of General Buell, a decisive battle took place at Corinth, in north-eastern Mississippi. The Con- 190 History of the United States. [1862 federate array met with a signal defeat, and retreated south- ward. In Tennessee, another Confederate army, under General Bragg, was defeated at Murfreesboro' by Union forces under Rosecrans. 19. New Orleans Captured. — Whilst the gun-boats of Commodore Foote were operating on the middle Missis- sippi, another fleet, under Admirals Farragut and Porter, advanced against New Orleans from the Gulf. After several severe engagements with the Confederate gun-boats, and a lengthened bombardment of the forts below the city, the place fell into the hands of the Nationals. General Butler, commander of the land forces, was placed in charge of the city. 20. The Iron-Clad Merrimac. — In Hampton Eoads, the National fleet, which was stationed there, was attacked by a Confederate iron-clad ram, the Merrimac, which steamed out of Norfolk harbor. By the use of its powerful beak, the Merrimac sank the Cumberland; with red-hot shot it set fire to the Congress; whilst the other National vessels were obliged to withdraw. The next day, however, a Union war- vessel of a new form of construction, called the Monitor, engaged, and completely disabled, the Merri- mac. Norfolk was shortly afterward occupied by Union troops under General Wool. 21. McClellan's Advance on Richmond. — The first ad- vance on Richmond, from the northward, had ended in the Union repulse at Bull Run. A second attempt, by a large army under General McClellan, was made by way of the James River peninsula. As the Union army advanced westward from Fortress Monroe, the Confederate forces slowly retired until they were within a few miles of Rich- mond, where General Robert E. Lee was in command. At Fair Oaks a battle was fought, resulting in severe loss to both sides. Finally, in the latter part of the Sixth 1802] The Civil War. 191 month (June), there ensued a series of sanguinary engage- ments lasting seven days. MeClellan's army, being contin- uously repulsed, gained the cover of the Union gun-boats at Harrison's Landing, on the James River. Thus the attempt ended in failure and a great loss in killed and wounded on both sides. 22. In the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, the Unionists, under Generals Pope and Banks, endeavored to prevent the Confederates from joining the army of Lee, near Richmond. But, in several battles and many skirmishes which took place, the Confederates, under Generals " Stonewall" Jack- son and Ewell, were mainly victorious. 23. Lee's Invasion of Maryland. — AVhen MeClellan's army retired from before Richmond, Lee hurried north- ward, defeating: the Nationals at the second battle of Bull Run, or Manassas. Lee then crossed the Potomac into Maryland. The Nationals retreated to the fortifications near Washington, whilst President Lincoln, finding the capital in danger, issued a call for several hundred thou- sand additional troops. Lee's advance being checked by the army of McClellan at South Mountain and Antietam, the Confederates re-crossed the Potomac, and retreated up the Shenandoah Valley. 24. Battle of Fredericksburg. — A third advance against Richmond being ordered, the National army w T as placed under the command of General Burnside, who prepared to cross the Rappahannock at Fredericksburg. After con- siderable delay, pontoons were constructed, and the army gained the south side of the river; but the Confederate army, being strongly posted on the rising ground beyond, inflicted great loss upon the Nationals. General Burnside accordingly withdrew into winter-quarters on the north bank of the river. 25. Confederate Ports Uncaptured.— Before the end of 192 History of the United States. [1863 the year 1862, all the fortifications of the Confederates on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts had been re-taken by the Nationals, except those of Wilmington (North Carolina), Charleston, and Mobile. On the Mississippi River, Vicks- burg and Port Hudson still remained in the hands of the Confederates. 26. Confederate Cruisers. — The Southern ports being blockaded by National war-vessels, the Confederates had a number of privateers fitted out in England, to depredate upon the merchant-vessels of the North. Of these pri- vateers, the Alabama, commanded by Captain Semmes, achieved the greatest notoriety. For a year and a half, avoiding contact with armed vessels, it continued its career of burning the merchant-vessels belonging to the North. The Alabama was finally captured in the English Channel by the National vessel Kearsarge. Owing to the fact that this and others of the cruisers were really British vessels, manned chiefly by subjects of Great Britain, the heavy losses they inflicted gave rise to a claim for damages upon that country. Events of 1863. 27. Emancipation of the Slaves. — The War not against Slavery. — When President Lincoln was inaugurated in the spring of 1861, he said, in his address, "I have no pur- pose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so." A very large proportion of the people of the North held the same view of the matter, and it was not until the war had made considerable progress that their views began to alter. In conformity with this change of opinion, Con- gress, in 1862, passed a law abolishing slavery in the Dis- trict of Columbia. Kansas, which came into the Union in 1861, not long after the war began, prohibited slavery on its soil. 1863] The Civil War. 193 28. Partial Emancipation Proposed. — A law passed Con- gress, and received the approval of the President, providing for the emancipation of the slaves in the border States. It was thought that if the slave-owners in those States were to be compensated for their bondsmen, they would be willing to forsake the cause of the Confederacy, and thus the war would speedily come to an end. The plan, however, was not taken advantage of by the slave-owners. A scheme for colonizing the freedmen somewhere on the American continent met with similar disfavor. 29. Emancipation Proclamation. — After considerable hesi- tation, President Lincoln finally concluded to issue a procla- mation decreeing that the slaves in any State which should be in rebellion on the first day of the year 1863 should be free. Notice of this intention was given 100 days previous to that time. None of the States, however, accepted its provisions, and accordingly the President issued his Procla- mation of Emancipation on New Year's Day, 1863. 30. The Finances. — Suspension of Specie Payments. — To defray the expenses of the war, large loans of money were authorized by Congress. But, as the result of the war con- tinued uncertain, whilst the expenditures greatly increased, paper money declined very much in value. In other words, a gold dollar was soon worth two paper "promises to pay." The banks thereupon suspended specie payments the last day of the year 1861. 31. Treasury Notes and Taxes. — The banks having sus- pended, Congress, in order to provide a national currency, passed a bill early in 1862, authorizing the issue of treasury notes. These are what are commonly known as legal ten- ders or " greenbacks." To raise a revenue for paying the interest on the bonds, and for other expenses, taxes were imposed by Congress on goods imported and manufactured, on incomes, legal papers, bank checks, etc. n 17 194 History of the United States. [1863 32. National Banks. — The treasury notes had been issued directly by the government, but, in 1863, a law was enacted for the formation of national banks in the several States, to- take the place of the State banks. That these notes should be deemed entirely secure, the banks were obliged to deposit bonds of equal amount in the treasury at Washington. More upon this subject is said in a subsequent chapter. 33. West Virginia. — Forty-eight counties of north and west Virginia, not sympathizing with the secession of their State, formed a provisional government. They were admitted into the Union in the spring of 1863, under the title of the State of West Virginia. The discovery, made in 1861, that coal-oil, or petro- leum, existed in West Virginia and in western Pennsylvania in such quan- tities as to make it a valuable product of commerce, caused great excitement and much speculation. The Kanawha coal-fields have also proved a source of considerable wealth to the newly-formed State. 34. Battle of Chancellorsville. — Gen- eral Burnside, who had commanded the Union army on the Kappahannock, was superseded by General Hooker. Hooker's large force crossed the river above Fredericks- burg, intending to flank the army of Lee. The assailants, however, were again defeated with great loss, and obliged to retire. More than 12,000 men were killed and wounded on the Union side : the loss of the Confederates was not quite so heavy. 35. Battle of Gettysburg. — The army of Lee, having been reinforced by that of General Longstreet, crossed the Poto- Petroleum-Well. 1863] The Civil War. 195 mac and advanced up the Cumberland Valley to Chambers- burg, in Pennsylvania. Great consternation prevailed in that State and throughout the North generally. Volun- teers were called for, and General Meade was placed in chief command. At Gettysburg, on the first three days of the Seventh month (July), a great battle was fought, per- haps the most decisive of the war. The Confederates were finally defeated, and hastily retreated south of the Potomac. 36. Capture of Vicksburg. — After New Orleans was captured in 1862, the flotillas of Admirals Farragut and Porter ascended the Mississippi and laid siege to the Con- federate stronghold of Vicksburg, where General Pember- ton was in command. Although assisted by the army of General Grant, the place did not fall into the hands of the Nationals until one day later than the battle of Gettysburg. Port Hudson, farther down the river, the last possession of the Confederates on the Mississippi, surrendered to the army of General Banks five days after Vicksburg was given up. 37. Operations about Chattanooga. — Several months after the battle at Murfreesboro', in Tennessee, General Rose- crans advanced from that place toward Chattanooga. At the Chickamauga Creek a battle took place with the Con- federate army of General Bragg. Rosecrans, although de- feated, took possession of Chattanooga, where he was joined by the divisions of Hooker and Sherman. General Grant having assumed the chief command, the Confederates, after a hard struggle, were driven from their strong positions on Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. 38. Charleston Besieged. — During most of the year, Charleston was closely besieged by the fleets of Admirals Dupont and Dahlgren, and the land forces of General Gill- more. Fort Sumter was battered to pieces, and the forts on Morris Island were taken. The city itself was fre- quently bombarded, and, though not captured, blockade- 196 History of the United States. [1864 running was prevented. At other points, however, large supplies of war material from foreign countries for the Confederates, continued to elude the watch of the govern- ment vessels. 39. The Draft. — Volunteers not offering themselves in sufficient numbers during the year, President Lincoln ordered that a compulsory draft be made. Many who were able, instead of serving, paid the government a sum of money, as required by the law. Others hired substitutes to serve in their places. Some were unwilling, upon con- scientious grounds, either to serve in the army or to provide substitutes. These were usually exempted. In the city of New York many opposed the draft for political reasons. A riot finally broke out there, the mob wreaking its fury upon the blacks, a number of whom were murdered. The rioters also burned the Colored Orphan Asylum and about fifty other buildings. Events of 1864. 40. Nevada was admitted into the Union, the thirty- sixth State, in 1864. It was formed from a part of Cali- fornia, called the " Washoe Country," and from a large area of Utah. Carson City, the first settlement, was formed by Mormons in 1848. During ten years thereafter, the increase of population was very slow, but when, in 1859, the rich silver-mines of the State were discovered, emigrants began to pour in rapidly. In 1 879, the great Sutro Tunnel, which affords drainage and gives access to the Comstock silver lode, was opened. 41. Fort Pillow Massacre. — Fort Pillow, on the Missis- sippi above Memphis, was taken from the Unionists by a large body of Confederate cavalry under General Forrest. Its capture was marked by signal atrocity, as no quarter was given to the garrison, half of whom were colored troops. Men, women, and children were butchered indiscriminately. 1864] The Civil War. 197 42. The Final Advance on Richmond began in the Fifth month (May), the Union army being under the command of General Meade. General Grant, however, had been appointed general-in-chief of all the armies, and hence directed the operations. Upon crossing the Rapidan, the advance of the Union army was disputed by the army of Lee, but without avail. Before reaching the James River, great battles were fought at " The Wilderness," Spottsyl- vania Court-House, and Cool Arbor. The losses in killed on both sides were great; many thousands were also wounded. Part of Grant's army crossed the river at Ber- muda Hundred, and laid siege to Petersburg, where the Confederates were strongly intrenched. 43. General Early's Invasion. — "While Grant was besieging Petersburg, Lee tried to effect a withdrawal of part of the Union army by ordering General Early to make an inva- sion north of the Potomac. Early's way was unobstructed, as a Union army, under General Hunter, advancing up the Shenandoah Valley toward Lynchburg, had just been driven into West Virginia. Although checked at the Monocacy, in Maryland, a portion of Early's army advanced as far as Chambersburg, in Pennsylvania. The inhabitants refusing to pay a money tribute of $200,000 which was demanded, the town was set on fire, and one-half of it laid in ashes. 44. Sheridan's Pursuit.— The Confederate raiders, after the burning of Chambersburg, retreated into Virginia, followed by a large cavalry force under the Union gen- eral Sheridan. Early being defeated at Winchester, was followed up the Shenandoah Valley toward Staunton by Sheridan's cavalry. In retaliation for the burning of Chambersburg, a large number of fine barns in the Valley were wantonly burnt, crops were destroyed, and cattle were driven off. 17* 198 History of the United States. [1864 45. Sherman in Georgia. — The Union army of General Sherman, leaving Chattanooga, defeated the armies of Johnston and Hood, and occupied Atlanta. Great devas- tation was wrought in the march to that city through the section formerly called " Cherokee Georgia." The great wrong of which the Indians had been the victims, was thus visited in return upon the generation succeeding those who did the deed. 46. Preparatory to leaving Atlanta on his "march to the sea," Sherman ordered the city to be set on fire. Buildings covering two hundred acres of ground were thus destroyed. Sherman then advanced through Georgia to Savannah, and captured that place also. The defences of Mobile having been taken from the Confederates by the fleet of Farragut, Wilmington and Charleston were the only seaports of consequence remaining in their hands at the end of 1864. 47. In Tennessee a Union army, under General Thomas, was actively engaged during the latter part of the year, and finally dispersed the Confederate force of General Hood which had been besieging Nashville. In Louisiana, an expedition under General Banks proceeded toward Shreve- port, on the Red River, to which place the Confederates had moved the seat of government of the State after the fall of New Orleans. The expedition, however, resulted in disaster to the Union forces. 48. Lincoln Re-elected. — At the election for President in the autumn of 1864, Abraham Lincoln was again chosen to the office of chief magistrate. Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, who had served as military governor of that State, was elected Vice-President. 49. The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, by which slavery was prohibited forever in the Republic, was passed by Congress in response to the message of the Presi- dent. He desired a stronger guarantee of freedom for 1805] The Civil War. 199 those who had been, or were yet, in bondage than was the Emancipation Proclamation. The amendment was rati- fied by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the States, as required by law. Events of 18G5. 50. Sherman in Carolina. — Burning of Columbia. — Early in 1865, the army of Sherman left Savannah and advanced to Columbia. The Confederate general, Wade Hampton, before leaving Columbia, had ordered all the cotton stored there to be burnt ; but a large part of the " Garden City of the South" was itself laid in ashes. Whether this was done by the Confederates or by the Union troops, is a matter of controversy. 51. Advance to Goldsboro'. — Immediately after Sherman left Columbia, Charleston was evacuated by the Confeder- ates, but not before they had destroyed a great deal of property in the city. Wilmington also was given up, its chief stronghold, Fort Fisher, having fallen into the hands of the Nationals a short time previously. Meanwhile, Sherman continued his desolating march into North Caro- lina, until Goldsboro', in the eastern part of the State, was reached. There he established his headquarters. 52. Peace Proposals. — While Sherman was on his north- ward march, three commissioners from the Confederate States — one of them being Alexander H. Stephens, the Vice- President — were appointed, to try to negotiate terms of peace. The commissioners were met at Fortress Monroe by President Lincoln and Secretary of State Seward; but, as the recognition of the independent rights of the Con- federates was insisted upon, nothing was accomplished. 53. Sheridan's Raid near Richmond. — General Sheridan, with his force of cavalry, advancing rapidly from the Shen- andoah Valley toward Richmond, destroyed the railroad connections of the Confederates north and west of that city. 200 History of the United States. [1865 Lee then attempted to break through Grant's lines, hoping to unite his force with the army of Johnston in North Caro- lina. Failing in this attempt, he at once sent word to Richmond that that place must be evacuated. 54. Richmond Evacuated. — Jefferson Davis and his cabi- net left Richmond without delay. General Ewell, the Confederate commander, having ordered the destruction of .Richmond and frs Neighborhood. the large quantities of cotton and tobacco stored in the place, departed with his troops. The conflagration, however, spread rapidly, so that the principal business portion of the city was destroyed. The arsenal was also fired, and the Con- federate gun-boats were blown up. On the 3d day of the Fourth month (April), the Union army entered Richmond. 55. Surrender of the Confederate Armies. — Five days after the fall of Richmond, Lee, finding that he could no 18G5] The Civil War. 201 longer hope to escape, surrendered the remnant of his army to General Grant, at Appomattox Court-House. A few days later, the army of Johnston capitulated to Sherman, at Raleigh, and the Rebellion came to an end. 56. Assassination of President Lincoln. — Whilst the people of the North were rejoicing over the near termina- tion of the war, Abraham Lincoln, the President, was assas- sinated. This awful deed was committed by John Wilkes Booth, an actor, and the event took place whilst the Presi- dent was present at a theatre in Washington. Secretary Seward was also attacked by an accomplice, and narrowly escaped death. 57. At the News of the Tragedy a thrill of grief and horror ran through the nation ; for, however people may have differed as to the right or propriety of the war, all admitted the openness of character and sterling honesty of the late President. Booth was pursued and killed, and several of his fellow-conspirators were tried, convicted, and executed. Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President, im- mediately upon the death of Lincoln, became President. 58. Capture of Jefferson Davis. — Jefferson Davis, whilst in the act of escaping from a party in pursuit, was taken prisoner near Macon, Georgia. He was sent to Fortress Monroe, and, having been confined there a year and a half, was released without trial. 59. Losses by the War. — Killed and Disabled. — The whole number of men enrolled in the Northern army was about 2,650,000; in the Southern army, 1,100,000. It is estimated that 300,000 men of each army perished in battle, or by diseases in camps and hospitals. The number crippled, or permanently disabled by wounds or disease, amounted altogether to 400,000. This would make a total of 1,000,000 men as the actual loss to the country. The Unionists confined in the prisons at the South suffered 202 History of the United States. [1865 greatly, many of them dying of the hardships encountered. The North, with its ampler resources, was enabled to ex- pend large sums of money upon the construction of hos- pitals and in the mitigation of suffering. 60. The Money Cost of the war, to both sides, is esti- mated at six thousand million dollars ($6,000,000,000). The national debt was increased from 60 million dollars in 1860, to 2,600 millions in 1865. To meet the yearly in- terest on this debt, taxes were imposed on a great variety of manufactured goods ; stamps were also required on deeds, bank-checks, money receipts, leases of property, and many other papers and documents. Nevertheless, there was a great amount of money in circulation, high prices were obtained for everything, and several years elapsed before a financial crisis came. The Confederate interest-bearing: bonds and paper currency of the South, being repudiated, caused great loss to the holders. 61. The Moral Loss by the war was indeed great, yet it was perhaps not so apparent at first as it was somewhat later. After the lapse of ten or fifteen years, the evil con- sequences could be much more readily measured. The student will accordingly find the subject further referred to under President Garfield's administration, 1881. 62. The Armies Disbanded. — Within a few weeks after the termination of the war, the several hundred thousand men composing the Union army were disbanded, and re- turned to their homes. The Confederate forces, sadly re- duced in numbers, did likewise. Some of the principal participants in the secession were disfranchised, but the lives of none were taken, nor was their property confis- cated. As the States were re-admitted into the Union, the full rights of their citizens were exercised, and, within a brief period, their Senators and Representatives again occupied seats in the National Congress. 1S68] Johnson's Administration. 203 CHAPTER XXIII. ADMINISTRATIONS OF JOHNSON AND GRANT. JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 1865-1869. 1. The President and Congress Disagree. — A wide dif- ference of opinion as to the right means of re-organizing the lately rebellious States soon showed itself between the President and Congress. The latter body believed that the President's sympathies inclined him to be too lenient toward the South. A number of reconstruction measures passed by Congress received the President's veto. 2. Re-organization Attempted. — Provisional governors for seven of the Southern States were appointed by the President. Conventions in five of those States accepted the 13th Amendment, as to slavery, reversed the secession ordinance, and disallowed the debts of the Confederacy. They also formed Constitutions for their respective States, and ordered the election of representatives to Congress. Many of these representatives being men who had taken a leading part in the Rebellion, Congress refused to admit them. In so doing, it claimed the power granted by the Constitution, to "judge of the elections, returns, and quali- fications of its own members." It believed that further legislation was necessary before those States should be admitted on an equality with the others. 3. The President's open Opposition. — To inquire into the condition of the States lately in rebellion and whether they were properly entitled to representation in Congress, that body appointed, in 18G8, a committee of fifteen. It was 204 History of the United States. [1868 known as the "Reconstruction Committee." To this measure the President was very much opposed. In the course of a journey to Chicago, he frequently declared his views, speaking against members of Congress who held the contrary opinion. All the members of his cabinet, except Secretary of War Stanton, resigned. 4. Impeachment of the President. — In the Second month (February), 1868, the President, in defiance of the "Tenure of Office Act," ordered Secretary Stanton to resign. The Secretary refused to comply. On the following day, the House of Representatives resolved, by a large majority, "that Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, be impeached of high crimes and misdemeanors." The articles of impeachment, afterward prepared, charged the President with making odious speeches during his journey to Chicago; with declaring that Congress was not a constitutional body ; and with seeking to prevent the execution of the laws it had passed. 5. The Trial. — According to the provisions of the Con- stitution, the Senate acted as the jury for the trial of the President. Chief-Justice Chase presided. After a delay of ten days, which was asked for by the President's counsel, the trial proceeded. It lasted more than two months, closing with a vote of 35 in favor of impeachment, and 19 for acquittal. As the vote lacked one of the requisite majority of two-thirds, the President was acquitted. 6. The Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution having passed Congress, was ratified by a sufficient number of the States, and became a law. Whilst the 13th amendment had declared slavery abolished throughout the Republic, the 14th was intended to secure to the freedmen equality of rights, as citizens, with the whites. It also gave to Congress the power to remove the political disabilities of those who had taken part in secession ; affirmed the validity 18G8] Johnson's Administration. 205 of the National debt, but declared the Confederate debt void and illegal. 7. The Southern States Re-organize. — The 14th amend- ment was ratified with little delay by the States of the South. Congress then having approved of their State Constitutions, the Senators and Representatives chosen by them were admitted into the National Legislature. A gen- eral Amnesty bill, in favor of those who had been actively engaged in the Rebellion, was passed in 1872. 8. The District of Alaska, formerly known as Russian America, was pur- the ARCTIC OC&W chased from Russian govern- ment in 1867 for the sum of $7,200,- 000. It contains an area of about 577,- 000 square miles. Sitka, in the south- ern partof the Terri- tory, is the principal port. The rigor of the climate is such as not to admit of successful aoricul- ture, but coal and other minerals are Alaska. said to abound. Mount St. Elias has the greatest altitude of any mountain in North America. 9. The chief source of Alaska's wealth is found in catching the seal, sea-otter, and walrus. The privilege of taking the seals was granted by government to the Alaska Commercial Company, and to prevent the waste of animal life which formerly prevailed, the number to be killed 18 206 History of the United States. [1867 yearly is regulated by law. The introduction, by our soldiers and traders, of intoxicating liquors among the Alaska Indians, has resulted in inflicting a great wrong upon that people. Drunkenness and debauchery have now become very common amongst them. 10. Nebraska was admitted into the Union in 1867. The construction of the Union Pacific Railway at that time, gave a great impetus to the growth of the State, so that the rate of its increase in population was remarkable. Some tribes of the Sioux still occupy a part of its territory. Whilst the valley of the Platte, running through the centre of the State, is broad and very fertile, much of the northern portion, south of the Niobrara Eiver, is a sterile area of great sand-hills. 11. A Bankrupt Law was passed in 1867, the previous ones, passed in 1801 and 1847, having been repealed. By the provisions of this act, a person owing debts but unable to pay them in full, could make application to a United States Court, saying that he wished to surrender his prop- erty to his creditors, and to be declared a bankrupt. In other cases, the creditors could oblige a debtor to give up his property, if they had reason to fear that he had not the means to pay in full, or was making a wrong use of what he had. 12. The French in Mexico. — A year before the termina- tion of the Civil War, the French emperor, Louis Napoleon, taking advantage of that war and of dissensions in Mexico, sought to establish a monarchy there. The Archduke Max- imilian, of Austria, was proclaimed Emperor of Mexico in 1864, and held that position for four years, supported by French troops. His empire was then overthrown, he him- self was put to death, and the republic, with Juarez as president, re-established. The people of the United States were strongly opposed to this intervention of the French, 1871] Grant's Ad ministration. 207 protesting that it was in opposition to the " Monroe Doc- trine" upon the subject. GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION". 1869-1877. 13. Ulysses S. Grant, of Illinois, who had served as gen- eral-in-chief of the Union armies, was elected President at the autumn election, 1868, and a second time, in 1872. Schuyler .Colfax was chosen Vice-President for the first term, and Henry Wilson, of Massachusetts, for the second term. The latter, however, died in 1875, before the expira- tion of his term of office. 14. Political Affairs at the South were in an unsatisfac- tory state when General Grant came to the Presidency, and for several years they did not improve as rapidly as many people had supposed they would. This was partly owing to the fact that some of those from the North who were given offices at the South, were unfit for those responsible positions. On the other hand, there were many cases of harsh treatment both toward persons from the North who moved to the South, and toward the late slaves. Murders by masked men of a secret order called Ivu-Klux, were of frequent occurrence in some quarters. 15. A Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which was adopted in 1870, affirmed the right of every citizen, of whatever color or race, to vote; also, that Congress should have the power to enforce the right by appropriate legislation. To carry out that purpose, Congress passed the so-called "Enforcement Act." Serious disturbances be- tween whites and blacks arose, especially in South Carolina and Louisiana, when, at the times of election, troops were sent to those States by the President. 16. The Freedmen's Bureau was established by act of Congress a few months before the close of the war, and continued in operation until 1871. It was designed to 208 History of the United States. [1871 relieve the urgent necessities of the late slaves, as well as those of the white refugees from the South. Transporta- tion for many thousands of such was afforded, hospitals were established, and provisions and other necessary relief supplied. Aid was contributed by many societies and in- dividuals, as well as by the government. General Howard was appointed commissioner of the bureau. 17. Freedmen's Schools. — The late slaves having been suddenly given the right to vote, it was evident that they must be brought out of their ignorant condition if they were to exercise rightly the duties and privileges of free- men. In addition, therefore, to relieving their bodily needs, as many as 2000 schools were opened at that time amongst them. The most prominent of these was Howard Univer- sity, near Washington. .Besides the aid extended by the Freedmen's Bureau in the maintenance of schools, there were additional schools supported by most of the religious denominations of the North. 18. Peabody Fund. — The most important single contribu- tion to schools in the South, was the gift of $2,000,000 bestowed by George Peabody in 18G7. The yearly income only of this fund is expended, and it is available to both whites and colored. The district in which any aided school is situated, must contribute at least twice the amount it re- ceives from the Peabody Fund. The influence of the trust in encouraging public schools has been very great. Not a single. State of the South possessed a modern public school system at the time the trust was created ; but now no State is without such a system. In 1880, the trustees of the fund decided that "the greater part of the income will be hereafter used in the education of teachers for public schools" of the South. 19. The New Indian "Policy, generally known as the "Quaker Policy" of Indian treatment, was announced by 1 809 J Grant' 's Administration. 209 President Grant in his first animal message to Congress in 18G9. He stated therein, that the Society of Friends, being opposed to strife and war, were well known to have always lived in peace with the Indians, and hence he had concluded to give the management of a few reservations of the Indians to them. The agents were to be such as they might select, but this privilege was soon granted equally to the other religious denominations. 20. Reasons for the Policy. — (1) One reason for this Indian Tkkiutouy. policy was, the President's desire to avoid the horrors and the expense of border warfare. Our country was deeply in debt, and retrenchment was necessary. (2) The first Pacific Railway had just been completed, and, were the Indians hostile, its protection would require the presence of a large army. This, also, would be attended with great expense. (3) But there was a higher reason for the humane o 18* 210 History of the United States. [1873 experiment than either of these. It was acknowledged that the Indians had been treated with great wrong in the past, and that a different administration of their affairs was due to them. It was hoped that the reproach of that unjust treatment might, in some degree, be removed by steadily pursuing the opposite course. 21. The Results of the changed policy, wherever adhered to, have been very encouraging. Wei l-qiuili tied agents, farmers, and other helpers were in most cases chosen, and the white speculators, horse-thieves, and whiskey-dealers were removed from the reservations. Some of the tribes gave up their blankets and leggings, and dressed like the whites. They were taught farm-work, and were given herds of cattle, sheep, and swine, which have increased in numbers greatly. Saw-mills were erected in many places; good frame houses displaced the wigwams; and smooth fields, well tilled and fenced, began to take the place of the former rough clearings. Many schools have been opened among them, and they have been brought under the good influences of the Christian religion. [Some further par- ticulars in the account of the Indian Bureau, next chapter.] 22. The Modocs. — In 1852, a few men of the Modoc tribe of Southern Oregon, while under a flag of truce, had been murdered by a Captain Wright and his company of soldiers. In 1873, trouble arose with this tribe, who were under the leadership of a warrior named Captain Jack. His father had been one of those murdered by Wright's company. Troops were sent against the Modocs, who strongly intrenched themselves in a rough part of the country called the " Lava Beds." 23. A truce was agreed upon, and commissioners visited the camp of the Modocs. The commissioners, not agreeing to their requests, were, upon a signal being given, assaulted, and two of them, General Canby and Dr. Thomas, were 1871] Grant's Administration. 211 killed. A third, A. B. Meacham, although left upon the spot as dead, managed to escape, and since then has warmly espoused the cause of the Indian. Captain Jack was cap- tured and executed, and his band was removed to the Indian Territory. Placed under the charge of the Friends, the Modocs have become perfectly peaceable, cultivating the land assigned them by government. They are total abstainers from strong drinks, and their children are in school, making good progress. 24. Sioux War. — In 1876, a war broke out with the Sioux Indians, who, several years before, had ceded to the United States a large tract of their land in Western Dakota. Upon the reservation of the Black Hills, to which they agreed to retire, gold was discovered, and an invasion by white adventurers and miners bey-an. The Indians there- upon committed depredations upon the settlers of Montana and Wyoming. Several hundred troops, under General Custer, proceeded against them, but were overpowered near the Little Big Horn River, in Montana, and every one of them slain. Other troops pursued the natives, defeating them in several engagements. A remnant, under the chief, Sitting Bull, escaped across the border into Canada. 25. The Geneva Arbitration. — Treaty of Washington. — The claim of the United States government against Great Britain, for damages inflicted by the Alabama and other Confederate cruisers fitted out in British ports, was resisted until six years after the war terminated. Several times, during that period, the irritation caused by the discussion appeared likely to produce a war between the two countries. Finally, in 1871, representatives of Great Britain and the United States met at Washington to arrange a treaty. One of the provisions of this treaty was, that a Court of Arbi- tration should convene at Geneva, in Switzerland, and decide the amount of damages due this country. 212 History of the United States. [1872 26. The Award. — The arbitrators accordingly met at Geneva the next year (1872), and chose Count Sclopis, of Italy, their presiding officer. They decided that neutral governments ought not to allow their subjects to fit out armed vessels intended to injure a friendly nation; that they should not allow their ports to be made use of for hostile purposes ; and that a neutral nation should be held gjtiu 9^iv^^y aJkioirt^'- K ^L^O^^^/Z^^^^^- i-- Fac-Simit.es of the Geneva Arbitrators' Sionvtttres. Charles Francis Adams, United States; Frederick Sclopis, Italy; Staempfli, Switzerland; Viconite d'ltajnba, Brazil. Sir Alex. Cockburn, Great Britain, did not sign. responsible if it violated these provisions. The arbitrators then awarded to the United States the sum of $16,500,000 in full for all claims. The Geneva Arbitration is justly esteemed one of the most important, and also one of the most cheering, international events in modern history. 27. The Temperance Crusade. — In the winter of 1873-74, a women's temperance movement began in Ohio, and soon spread into Indiana and other of the Western States, as well as to the Eastern cities. " Prayer, persuasion, and personal influence" were declared to be the watchwords. 1876] Grants Administration. 213 Whole counties of Ohio were swept free of the saloons. In the city of Brooklyn many of the liquor-dealers gave up the demoralizing business, and aided the workers for temperance. " Workingmen's Coffee-Houses" were started in many of the cities, to take the places of taverns which had been removed. [The temperance subject is treated further in the next chapter, in connection with the revenue.] 28. A Period of Financial Depression began in 1873, and continued to be felt for six years. The first causes of this depression and the so-called "hard times," were the great war debt and the large issues of paper money. Money being plentiful in the North, many new enterprises were started, and the spirit of speculation prevailed, so that stocks, bonds, and all kinds of property reached very high prices. There was also an over-production of manufactures. 29. The panic began with the failure of a widely-known banking-house, which had made heavy loans in aid of the construction of the Northern Pacific Railway. Prices then quickly declined, manufactories were stopped, and many people in all branches of business were thrown out of em- ployment. Many of the lowest class of the unemployed became " tramps," wandering from place to place about the country, begging their way, and often depredating upon property. " Strikes" against a reduction of wages were also frequent among the workers in the mines and manufac- tories, and, in the summer of 1877, such a strike on the part of the employees of many railways caused serious inter- ference with travel. A great deal of railroad property, especially at Pittsburg, was destroyed by the rioting strikers. [See Hayes's administration.] 30. Colorado was admitted into the Union, the thirty- eighth State, in 1876. It is hence known as the "Centen- nial State." Emigration was first attracted to the Territory by the discovery of gold near Pike's Peak, in 1858. The 214 Histori/ of the Untied States. [1876 grand scenery of peaks, mountain parks, and deep canons, for which Colorado is noted, has become easily accessible by the Pacific Railroad and its lateral branches. Many invalids go thither, attracted by the salubrity of the climate, the rarity of the air, and the clear skies. In the south- west corner of the State, in the canons of the Rio Mancos and San Juan, are to be seen the ruined dwellings and towers of the Cliff-Dwellers. The Ute Indians possess Tike's Peas and Penyer City. large reservations in the western part of the State, although they parted with an extensive tract to our government in 1880. 31. The Centennial Exhibition of 1876 was intended to commemorate the 100th year of the independence of the United States by a display which should show the indus- trial, intellectual, and moral progress of the nation. It was held at Philadelphia, in which city the Declaration of Independence had been proclaimed. Two commissioners 187i» Grant's Administration. 215 from each State and Territory were appointed. A general invitation was extended by the President and Congress to all nations, so that the display became international in its character. It continued to be held during six months of the year, there being about ten million admissions in that time. The exhibition was thought to have had a beneficial effect, in thus bringing so many people from all sections of J|*.UJ«.T1 1 1 1 'I • « 1 ' i.P.; J=.W :■-■■. > >. "\R Memorial Hall. the country peaceably together. It also drew many visitors from foreign countries, causing a demand for our products abroad. 32. Presidential Election of 1876.— Many of the Repub- licans desired that General Grant should be proposed as a Presidential candidate for a third term, but the general sentiment throughout the country was against so Ions- a continuance in office. Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, was accordingly nominated by the Republicans for the office of President, whilst the Democrats selected Samuel J. Tilden, of New York. There was a third party, called the Inde- pendent Greenback party, which favored paper money in preference to specie, but their candidate received few votes. After the election had been held, the result was so close that both the Republican and Democratic parties claimed the victory. 216 History of the United States. [1876 33. The Joint High Commission. — When Congress assem- bled, objections were made to the counting of the electoral votes by the president of the Senate, as had been the usual custom. It was said that the returns from Oregon and three of the Southern States were not legal. After the dis- cussion had continued three months, amidst great excite- ment throughout the country, it was finally agreed that the disputed returns should be referred to a " Joint High Commission." This commission was composed of five Senators, five Representatives, and five Judges of the Supreme Court. The result of the counting was that R. B. Hayes was declared elected by a majority of one vote only. CHAPTER XXIV. THE GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS. 1. The Chief Executive Power, or the power to carry out the laws, is conferred by the Constitution upon the Presi- dent. He is the commander-in-chief of the army and navy, as well as of the militia of the States, in times of war or disturbance. With the advice and consent of the Senate, he has power to make treaties, to appoint ambassadors, con- suls, judges of the Supreme Court, and other officers. Like- wise, he is authorized to carry out the laws enacted by Congress. Once a year, when Congress assembles, lie sends to it his message upon the state of the country, and makes such recommendations as he believes are required. He may also send messages to Congress during the sessions, or when either house calls upon him for information. 2. The Cabinet. — In order to carry out the provisions of the Constitution that the laws shall be faithfully executed, Department of State. 217 the President has the assistance of the seven officers who compose his Cabinet. These officers, who are appointed by the President, are called "Secretaries," and each of them has control of a " Department." The seven de- partments are : 1 . Department of State ; 2. Department of the Treasury; 3. War Department; 4. Navy Department; 5. Interior Department; 6. Post-Office Department; and 7. Department of Justice. But such a large amount and variety of business is required to be attended to by the departments, that the work is divided amongst sub-depart- ments, or bureaus. Each of such bureaus is in charge of a chief or commissioner, who reports to the secretary. There is also a Department of Agriculture, but its chief is not one of the President's Cabinet. I.-DEPAETMENT OF STATE. 3. Its Organization. — This department, which was the first organized by Congress, in 1789, was at first called the Department of Foreign Affairs, but the name was very soon changed to that which it now bears. 4. Duties of the Secretary. — The Secretary of State is considered the first officer in the Cabinet, his duties being similar to those of a Prime Minister in other countries. He is the keeper of the Great Seal of the United States, which is affixed to the commissions of the principal officers of the government. It is his duty to correspond with our foreign ministers and consuls and give them their instructions; to have a general oversight of foreign affairs ; to issue pass- ports; to keep the original copies of all the acts, resolutions, and orders of Congress, and to have them printed, and sent to all the important officers of the government at home and abroad. 5. The Diplomatic Service. — All ambassadors, envoys, and resident ministers, who are sent to foreign countries as the representatives of this country, are styled " diplomatic 19 218 History of the United States. agents." They are appointed by the President, but they correspond with and receive their instructions through the Secretary of State. They usually reside at the capital of the country to which they are sent, as at London, Paris, Berlin, Pekin. In the same manner, ministers sent hither from foreign countries reside at Washington, the seat of our national government. 6. The Consular Service. — Consuls are also appointed by the President, but they make their reports to the Secretary of State. They usually reside at the chief seaports of for- eign countries, as their duties concern the interests of our trade and commerce. The business of a consul is to collect evidence respecting American commerce with the country to which he is sent; to settle disputes between masters and crews of American vessels; and, in some cases, to take charge of the property of American citizens who may die within their consulates. 7. Passports are issued by the Secretary of State to American citizens going to foreign countries ; or, they may be obtained in those countries from our ministers or consuls. The object of the passport is (1) to officially show to what nation the bearer of the passport belongs, and (2) to secure to him when in foreign countries his rights and privileges as an American citizen. Every master of an American vessel sailing to a foreign land is required to obtain a regis- ter, or pass-port, giving a full description of the vessel, and stating that it belongs to this nation. Such papers are furnished by the Secretary of State to the collectors of the ports. II.— TREASURY DEPARTMENT. 8. The Secretary of the Treasury acts as the agent of the government in borrowing money, and in managing the revenue. The various government bonds, the treasury notes or "greenbacks," and the national bank-notes, are Treasury Department 219 issued under his direction, and the Philadelphia mint and branch mints are under his supervision. He also has charge of the coast survey service, the life-saving service, the light-houses and buoys, and he sees that the laws relating to commerce and navigation are carried out. 9. The Secretary's Assistants are an assistant secretary, several comptrollers and auditors, and many hundred clerks. mm-'' The Mint, Philadelphia. The accounts of all the receivers and payers of the public money are examined by certain of the auditors and clerks, but the money itself is not always nctually received and paid out at the treasury building in Washington. A great deal of this work is done at the sub-treasuries in the large cities. 10. The Bureau of Currency is in charge of the comp- troller of the currency, who has the direct oversight of the national banking system of the United States. The comp- troller may grant authority to a national bank in any State to begin business, when it deposits United States bonds in 220 History of the United States. the treasury, so as to make its bank-bills secure. But the engraving of the plates and the printing of the bills are done in the Treasury Department, where the seal is also imprinted upon each bill, and where it receives its number and is countersigned. 11. Revenue. — The principal sources from which the revenue of the United States is derived, are (1) the duties on imported goods, (2) the income of the Post-Office De- partment, (3) the sale of the public lands, and (4) direct taxation or internal revenue. Direct taxation would not be required in this country were it not needed to pay the interest on the Civil War debt and the pensions. 12. Customs, or Duties on Imports. — One of the most responsible of the offices belonging to the Treasury De- partment, is that of collector of customs. The collectors are appointed by the President, with the consent of the Senate, but they nominate their own employees, such as the weighers, measurers, gangers, inspectors, and watchmen. Custom-houses are established at many seaport towns, which are therefore called "ports of entry." Of these ports, the most important is New York City, as it receives the largest proportion of the goods imported. 13. Duties of a Collector. — As a tariff is imposed by Congress on many imported goods, it is the business of the collector or his deputies to collect these charges. The goods which compose the cargo of a vessel arriving from a foreign port, are described in a document called a " mani- fest." As the cargo is landed on the wharf, the weighers, gangers, inspectors, etc., perform their work, so that the collector may know what duties to collect. If he suspects an attempt to cheat the government, he has the right to cause any box or other package to be opened. Smuggling is thus, in a large degree, prevented. The collector gives his "clearance" to vessels which depart for foreign ports. Treasury Department. 221 14. Internal Revenue. — During the war, and for several years after its termination, Congress passed acts imposing direct taxes on property, business, and incomes; on legal documents, notes, and checks ; and on almost all kinds of manufactured goods. These charges are now mostly re- moved, but stamps are still required on bank checks, and duties are payable on intoxicating liquors, cigars, and a few other manufactures. The chief collector is an officer of the Treasury Department„called the " Commissioner of Internal Revenue." All the States and Territories are comprised within certain revenue collection districts, each having its assessor, deputy collector, and assistants. • 15. Revenue from Strong Drink. — The sum obtained by the government from the duty on intoxicating liquors amounts to about 70 million dollars, being one- fifth of the whole revenue. Let us now see what the use of this liquor costs the country. We may then form an opinion as to whether it is a wise or a just thing for our government to encourage its sale. 16. Cost to the Country. — Distilleries, Saloons, etc. — There are not less than 13,000 distilleries, breweries, and whole- sale liquor-stores in the United States, besides 140,000 saloons. As many as half a million people are employed in the business. Were the places where liquor is made and sold in this country ranged in a single line side by side, they would probably reach a distance of a thousand miles, so that it would require a man forty days, travelling at the rate of twenty-five miles a day, to drive past them. 17. The Money Waste. — At least 600 million dollars are yearly spent in this country for spirituous and fermented liquors. But that sum represents only the direct cost to our people. If we should compute the loss which the use of intoxicating liquor causes, (1) in the charge for poverty and crime, (2) in the support of insane and disabled people, and 19* 222 History of the United States. (3) in the loss of wages, time, etc., we would be likely to find that it would amount to 600 million dollars more. 18. Moral Loss. — About 100,000 persons, at an expense of 100 million dollars, are imprisoned yearly for crime, a large part of it being due to the use of intoxicating drinks. It is estimated that 60,000 persons in this land yearly fill the drunkard's grave. To know the particulars of a single case of drunkenness makes the heart sick ; how awful, there- fore, must be the whole record for a single day in a great city! 19. Temperancs Movements. — The American Temperance Society was formed at Boston in 1826. In the course of five years, as many as 7000 temperance associations were in operation, comprising a million and a quarter of members. Many fell away, however, upon using beer and cider in place of wine and distilled spirits. In 1840, the " Wash- ingtonian" temperance movement was started at Baltimore. The enthusiasm upon the subject was increased by the visit of Father Matliew from Ireland, and many again signed the pledge. 20. Since the Civil War, the drinking of intoxicants has greatly increased. In 1873, a Women's Tern perance move- ment began in Ohio, and extended to others of the Western States and to the Eastern cities. A number of liquor- dealers gave up the business, whilst "coffee-houses" and u friendly inns" were started to take the place of the saloons. Many physicians have, wholly or in part, given up the prescribing of alcohol as a medicine. It has been shown that alcohol does not unite with the blood so as to nourish the system. 21. Temperance Legislation. — Many methods have been tried during the past forty years to enable towns, counties, or States to release themselves from the terrible evils of rum-drinking. Treasury Department. 223 (a) Licenses were refused, before the year 1845, to liquor-sellers in many of the counties and towns of Massa- chusetts, New York, and Connecticut, with very good results. Many communities, since that time, have obtained relief in the same manner; but so much depends on the person or persons who grant or refuse the licenses, that surer methods of restriction are preferred. (b) A Prohibitory Law, enacted by the State of Maine, declared the manufacture or sale of intoxicants anywhere within its borders to be unlawful. The rest of the New England States, and six others, enacted prohibitory laws, but afterward repealed them. Some States are again re- sorting to that plan. Kansas, by the action of its Legisla- ture and people, adopted (1880) a prohibitory amendment to its Constitution. (c) Local Option laws are preferred by some communi- ties, the Legislature giving permission to particular towns or counties to vote upon the question of granting or re- fusing licenses. A large number of counties and towns in various parts of the country have resorted to this plan, and so well does it usually work that it is being more and more adopted. (d) Landlords' Prohibition. — When the founders of a new settlement desire that no intoxicating liquors shall ever be sold there, they may have the prohibition inserted in all the deeds of their town lots. Such action was taken at the founding of Vineland, New Jersey ; Colorado Springs, Colorado ; and the new English colony of Rugby, in Tennessee. (e) Plans for Lessening the Sale of intoxicants without entirely prohibiting them, have been tried in some States. (1) In Ohio and other States the Civil Damage Act gives the right to any one who shall suffer on account of a person's intoxication, to obtain damages from the one who 224 History of the United States. sold the liquor, or from the owner of the saloon. (2) High License-Fees. — In some places so high a license-fee is pur- posely charged for the privilege of selling liquors, that many are kept out of the business. (3) Four-Mile Act. — In Tennessee no liquors can be sold within four miles of any chartered school or academy. 22. Coast Survey. — As a help to our commerce and navi- gation, the coast survey work was authorized by the gov- ernment as early as 1807. It is still unfinished. The work is under the management of a board composed partly of military and naval officers. Officers of the army and Treasury Department. 225 vessels of the navy have been much employed in this use- ful undertaking. Accurate maps are made of the coast, as well as of all islands, shoals, or anchorage grounds, as far as twenty leagues from the shore. A report of the work done is made every year through the Treasury Depart- ment to Congress, the full details, with their accompanying charts, being deposited at the Naval Observatory, Washing- ton. Copies of these are furnished, when wanted, to our own and foreign vessels, and prove of great service. 23. Light-Houses and Buoys. — Attached to the Treasury Department is a "Light- House Board," composed of civil engineers and others. They have charge of the building, inspection, and illumination of light-houses, and the main- taining of light- vessels, fog-signals, buoys, and beacons. These are placed at prominent or dangerous places along the sea-coast, as well as on the shores of the navigable lakes and rivers. The expense of this work is borne by the general government, none of it by the States separately. 24. The Life-Saving Service, of the Treasury Depart- ment, is in charge of a superintendent, who has the general oversight of the twelve districts into which the sea-coast and the lake-coast are divided. Each district has its own superintendent, its life-saving stations, and its surf-men ; also, an inspector, whose duty it is to see that the service, in his district is in good condition. 25. Each station is supplied with the necessary life-saving apparatus. These consist of life-boats and rafts, long ropes, the wreck-gun and rockets for casting the ropes to vessels in distress, and the life-car and buoy. By the use of the latter, and with the aid of hawsers and hauling-lines, the shipwrecked people may reach land when the sea is too rough for the boats. The life-saving service was estab- lished in 1871. During nine years thereafter, the surf- men afforded help in nearly 1000 cases of disaster, in P 226 History of the United States. which the lives of 10,010 persons were saved, and those of 371 were lost. Manner of Using the Life-Saving Apparatus. 26. Immigration. — The Bureau of Statistics publishes information respecting the prices paid for labor in the several States ; the cost of living ; the price and rent of land; concerning products and markets; and many other useful facts of the same character. This information being sent to foreign hinds, causes many of their inhabitants to soek homes in this country, where land is cheap. Some of the States also have their own bureaus of immigration, who publish information of a similar sort. 27. Where the Immigrants Land. — More than three- fourths of all the emigrants from Europe arrive at the port of New York and are landed at Castle Garden, which was formerly a fortress defending the city. There is a Board of Commissioners of Emigration, who endeavor to protect the new-comers from fraud and imposition, provide for the sick and helpless, and render aid to those seeking employ- ment. Upon the Pacific coast, San Francisco receives an War Department. 227 increasing number of Asiatics, mostly Chinese, who are useful as house-servants and laundrymen, and have been much employed in railway construction in the Far West. 28. Causes of Emigration. — The tide of emigration from Europe to America began to set in strongly about 1845. The laboring classes of Great Britain were much dissatisfied with the operation of the " Corn Laws," which, by im- posing a duty on grain from abroad, kept the price of bread always high. The potato famine in Ireland, in 1846-47, caused many to leave that country for America, whilst the political disturbances in Germany resulted in a similar outflow of people from that section. The obliga- tion to perform military service has driven many away from nearly all the countries of Europe, but particularly from Germany and France. 29. Where the Immigrants Settle. — Most of the immigrants go directly to the Western States and Territories, and settle upon farms. Many of the Irish, however, as well as the French, Italians, etc., prefer to remain in the Eastern cities. The States of the South and South-West have as yet not been successful in attracting many immigrants, although Texas has received* large accessions of Germans. Since 1873, many thousands of Mennonites have left Russia to escape military service, and have found homes mostly in Kansas, Nebraska, Dakota, and Minnesota, and in the Manitoba province of the Dominion of Canada. They are an honest, temperate, and industrious class of people, and are likely to be a great gain to the country. III.-WAE, DEPARTMENT. 30. The Army. — The department of the Secretary of War comprises eight bureaus, such as those having charge of the pay, transportation, and provisioning of the troops, the offices of the surgeon-general, chief of engineers, sig- 228 History of the United States. nal service, etc. The whole regular army of the United States consists of upward of 25,000 men. The most of these are stationed at the forts on the sea-coast and the great lakes, or are employed in watching the Indian tribes not on reservations, and in guarding the Mexican frontier. Besides the regular army, each State has its own militia. The military academy is at West Point, on the Hudson. There are also a number of arsenals and armories. 31. River and Harbor Improvement. — The Rivers. — A great deal of work has been done under the supervision of engineer officers of the army in removing obstructions from rivers, or in deepening their channels. One of the latest of these was the removal of many rocks, dangerous to navi- gation, in the channel which connects the East River with Long Island Sound. 32. The Mississippi Jetties. — Another great and expensive work, authorized by act of Congress, may be mentioned here, although it was mostly done under the direction of a civil engineer, not of the army, Captain J. B. Eads. This work, which was begun in 1875, was the deepening of the South Pass of the Mississippi River by the use of jetties, so that the depth has been increased from 8 feet to upward of 20 feet. This result is likely to have a great influence on the commerce of New Orleans and the West, as grain for export can now be shipped by that route instead of by rail to the Eastern seaports. 33. The Harbors. — About 70 harbors on the great lakes, wholly or in part artificial, have been constructed under the supervision of the engineer corps of the army. Substantial stone breakwaters have been built where no natural harbor existed, as in the case of the Delaware Breakwater, opposite Cape Henlopen. The value of this harbor of refuge will be evident when it is stated that as many as 17,000 vessels sought its shelter in the single year 1871. War Department. 229 34. Signal Service. — In times of war, the Signal Service communicates intelligence by the use of a variety of signals, by the telegraph, and in other ways. Its regular employ- ment, however, is of a more peaceful character, — that is to say, the recording of the state of the weather. There are more than 200 weather-signal stations throughout the country, situated on high buildings in cities, on the coast, and on the tops of mountains. All of these communicate daily by telegraph with the central office at Washington. 35. Each station is provided with a variety of instru- ments for showing the state of the weather, such as a barometer, thermometer, anemometer or wind-gauge, wind- vane, rain-gauge, and others. With the help of these, the approach of storms and various changes in the weather can be generally announced a day or more in advance. These indications are telegraphed to all parts of the country, and frequently prove of much service to farmers, shippers, and others. 36. Wars Prevented. — In the history of this Republic since the Revolution, serious disputes with various coun- tries have arisen, but the most of them were settled without resort to war. (a) Some of these disputes were adjusted by negotiation, — that is to say, our own envoys or officials settled the matter directly with the country with which we had trouble. (b) Others were settled by arbitration: both parties re- ferring the dispute to a foreign ruler or commission, by whose decision they had promised to abide. The Geneva Arbitration (1872) was a notable example of this. (c) Another way of avoiding war is by mediation. This happens when some interested ruler or other person offers to be the judge of a dispute between two contending nations. It is generally not resorted to until nations are actually at 230 History of the United States. war, when a third power, desiring to stop the further shedding of blood, offers to mediate. 37. International Arbitration. — Since the time of Eras- mus, various plans have been proposed for settling disputes between nations, by a more just, sensible, and Christian method than that of fighting. In 1835, William Ladd, of New England, proposed a plan, which it is to be hoped may yet be adopted. This plan is : (1) A Congress of Ambassadors from various nations to settle the principles of the laws of nations so that disputes need seldom occur. (2) A High Court of Nations composed of able citizens of different countries, to adjust all disputes brought before them, thus preventing war. These propositions were ably advocated by Elihu Burritt, of Connecticut, and presented by him, Henry Richard of England, and others, at the Peace Congresses held in Europe between 1848 and 1851. 38. The Geneva Arbitration had such a good effect, that our House of Representatives, in 1874, recommended by a unanimous vote that arbitration should be tried in every case of dispute with a foreign power. In the British House of Commons, in the Swedish Diet, and in the Par- liament of Holland, similar resolutions have passed. It is the desire of all good men that our country may never see another war, either with foreign nations, or between our own States, or with the Indian tribes. IV.— NAVY DEPARTMENT. 39. The department of the Secretary of the Navy com- prises several bureaus, but it is not necessary specially to mention them. The principal navy-yards are at Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Norfolk, and Pensacola. At these stations the vessels of war are constructed, equipped, and repaired. The naval academy is at Annapolis. Our squadrons do not remain altogether in American waters, but visit all the seas where our merchant-ships sail. It is pleasant to know Interior Department. 231 that national vessels are often employed on errands of science, charity, and peace. 40. Some Errands of our War-Shipa. — Vessels of our navy have been sent, at times, on scientific and exploring expedi- tions to various parts of the globe, to the tropics as well as to the Arctic seas. They have been employed on errands of mercy, as in carrying food to the famine sufferers in Ireland, or to those left destitute by flood or earthquake. They have also been used directly in behalf of peace. Such was partly the mission of the Ticonderoga to West Africa in 1879, when the commander of that vessel was employed as arbitrator to settle the disputed boundary between Sierra Leone and Liberia. V.-INTERIOR. DEPARTMENT. 41. A great variety of home affairs are managed through this department, such as those relating to the Indians, the public lands, pensions, patents, the census, and education. The Interior Department has also the supervision of the geological and geographical survey of the Territories; the government grants to railways; and the public buildings, jails, and charitable institutions of the District of Columbia. 42. Indian Bureau. — The oversight of the Indians, which was formerly intrusted to the War Department, has, since 1849, been in the hands of the Department of the Interior. The number of Indians in the United States in 1880 was nearly 300,000. This includes those in Alaska, who number upward of 30,000. Between the time of the formation of our government and the year 1871, nearly 400 treaties were made with the Indian tribes, principally for the cession of their lands. But, in the year named, Congress by law declared that no Indian tribe was to be recognized as a nation capable of making a treaty. 43. Removals. — The policy of removing the Indians to 232 History of the United States. lands west of the Mississippi began with the transfer of the Creeks to the Indian Territory, about 1825. The other four Mobil ian tribes, the Cherokees, Choctaws, Chiekasaws, and Seminoles, were soon afterward removed to the same locality. Many tribes besides these, now have reservations The Indian Tinners' Shop at Carlisle in the Territory : nearly one-fourth of the Indians, exclu- sive of those in Alaska, being there. 44. The Peace Policy.— In 1869, President Grant adopted a new policy of Indian management. The tribes were placed upon reservations, under the control of agents nomi- nated by the religious societies. A Board of Indian Com- missioners, composed of honest and intelligent men, was Interior Department. 233 appointed by the President. It is their duty to supervise the payments of money to the Indians, and to inspect the goods purchased for them. Several inspectors were also appointed. It is the duty of these to visit the agencies, examine the accounts, and see that the laws are observed. 45. Results of the Humane Plan. — Schools are now estab- lished upon all the reservations, and the Indians are taught to farm and to take care of cattle, so that they need not hunt the buffalo and lead the wild life they formerly did. Many of them are carefully instructed in the truths of the Christian religion. Some of the youth have been sent to boarding-schools in the States, such as those at Carlisle, in Pennsylvania, and at Hampton, in Virginia, where they are taught trades in addition to their other studies. Their condition has therefore greatly improved. [Other particu- lars are given under Grant's administration.] 46. Pensions. — A yearly pension is allowed by govern- ment to every soldier or seaman who had been disabled by wounds or disease while in the service of the United States. If any such soldier or seaman, who is married, dies of wounds or disease, his widow or children become entitled to the pension. Any who require the use of artificial limbs, are supplied with them once in five years. The number of names on the pension roll in 1875 was 235,000, to whom there was paid an average of $110 each per year. 47. Patents. — Colonial Patents. — Before the organization of the government, patents were occasionally granted by the colonies. We read of one being issued by the General Court of Massachusetts as early as 1641. This was a ten years' patent for a process of making salt. In 1728, Con- necticut granted a ten years' patent to two individuals "for the sole practice of the art of steel-making." 48. The United States Patent Law of 1790, provided for the granting of letters patent on " any useful art, manu- 20* 234 History of the United States. faeture, engine, machine, or device, or any improvement thereon, not before known or used." A patent will not be granted by the Commissioner of Patents, unless it is ap- plied for within two years after an inventor has made his invention public. Each patent continues in force 17 years. That the Americans are a very inventive people is shown by the fact that the applications for patents and re-issues in the one year 1875, numbered above 20,000, nearly three- fourths of which were granted. 49. Some Inventions and Discoveries. — The first patent issued by the United States government, was one to William Pollard, in 1700, for an improved spinning-machine. 50. In 1792, Eli Whitney, of Massachusetts, a graduate of Yale College, whilst engaged as a teacher in Georgia, invented the cotton-gin, or cleaner. By reason of this dis- covery our exports of cotton increased from 138,000 pounds in 1702, to 18,000,000 pounds in 1800. 51. The first patent for a reaping-machine was that granted to Schnebly, of Maryland, in 1833. The first successful mower was Manning's (1831), followed by Am- bler's improvement in 1834. These have been greatly sur- passed by the later ones of Hussey and McCormick. 52. The first patent for a practical seioing-machine was granted to Elias Howe in 1846. This was followed by the machines of Wheeler and Wilson, Grover and Baker, Singer and Co., and others. In 1870, the number of sewing-machines manufactured in this country amounted to nearly 500,000. 53. The discovery of the vulcanization of india-rubber, or its hardening by combination with sulphur, was made by Charles Goodyear, of Connecticut, in 1835. The uses to which vulcanized rubber is now applied in the arts are very numerous and are constantly increasing. Mixed with coal-tar, it produces a substance resembling jet. Interior Department. 235 54. The electric telegraph was invented by Samuel F. B. Morse, of New York, in 1832, but it was not until 1843 that Congress extended aid for building an experimental line from AVashington to Baltimore. The alphabet of Morse's is a series of dots and dashes. It has been super- seded in many places by House's instrument, which prints the letters themselves. By the duplex and quadruple® methods of E. P. Gray, of Chicago, invented about 1876, several messages can be transmitted over one wire at the same time. The telephone, of Graham A. Bell, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, permits messages to be sent over a wire simply by speaking into a mouth- piece, which is attached to an electro-magnetic battery. Improvements in methods of electric lighting have been made by Thomas A. Edison, of Newark, New Jersey, and others. — The identity of lightning with electric fluid was demonstrated by Benjamin Franklin in 1752. 55. The first ocean telegraph cable between England and America was successfully laid and operated in 1866. Five lines are now in operation, four from Ireland and one from France. [Note. — Concerning the introduction of steam- boats and railways, see J. Q. Adams's administration, para- graphs 39 to 41.] 56. Public Lands. — How besfoiced. — Millions of acres of the public lands belonging to the United States have been given to soldiers, as " bounty-lands." Large grants have likewise been made to the States for canal purposes, for railroads and wagon-roads, and for educational and other special objects. 57. Land -Surveying Districts. — Besides the General Land Office at Washington, there are about 100 sub-offices in the various land-surveying districts, nearly all of them being west of the Mississippi. Each district has its register, receiver, and surveyors. The land is surveyed and divided 2 3 6 History of the United States. into "townships," which usually contain 36 square miles each. The townships are subdivided into "sections" of one square mile, or 640 acres, each. These sections are frequently divided yet again into quarter-sections of 160 acres, or eighth-sections of 80 acres. 58. How to Obtain Public Lands. — The public lands may be acquired by individuals in five different ways. (1) Under the Homestead Act, a tract of 160 acres may be had at the price of $1.25 per acre; or, 80 acres of rail- road laud may be had at double that price. In order to prevent speculation, it is provided that purchasers must reside on and cultivate their land five years. When the government gives to a railway company public lands along the line of its projected road, as has been frequently done in the West, the alternate lots are reserved. (2) Under the Pre-emption Act, a person may enter at the district land office a tract of 80 or 160 acres of government land, and thus have the right to take it at the regular price when it is offered for sale. (3) A desired tract may be obtained at Public Sale, whenever offered by proclamation of the President, or by public notice issued by the General Land Office at Washington. (4) Lands not sold at public auc- tion may be afterward purchased by what is called Private Entry. (5) Lands may likewise be taken up under the Timber Culture Act, as explained below. Before a foreigner can have the right to take up lands under any of these acts, he must declare before a proper court his inten- tion to become a citizen of the United States. 59. Timber on Public Lands.— Since 1830, the United States government has reserved nearly 250,000 acres of land on the coasts of Florida and the other Gulf States, for the preservation of live-oak for the use of the navy. Although the law imposes a penalty upon any person found guilty of cutting timber on these or any other of Interior Department. 237 the public lands, yet the depredations committed in recent years have amounted to many million dollars. The govern- ment has taken special measures to put a stop to this stealing. 60. Timber- Culture Acts. — In 1873, Congress passed a law which was intended to encourage the growth of timber on the Western prairies. Any person who would plant trees twelve feet apart each way upon 40 acres of govern- ment land, and keep the trees in good condition for ten years, would be entitled to a quarter-section (160 acres) at the end of that time. The States and Territories which have taken most ad- vantage of this act are Kansas, Ne- braska, Minnesota, and Dakota, where many hundreds of thousands of acres have been entered for planting. 61. Census. — An act of Congress re- quires that a census of the United States shall be taken once in each ten years. The first census was taken in 1790; the last, that of 1880, was therefore the tenth. A Superinten- dent of the Census is the chief of this bureau. For the purpose of taking the enumeration, the whole country is divided into 64 districts, over each of which is appointed a marshal, who names his assistants. It is these assistants who take the names and obtain most of the other particulars which the law requires. y' ''V. ^| , lw^ v C^, \ — (^ — -jnT f ^Sylht 'muigton, % (f\. ■^ XT/ i "\J s —\Fernandina' Specimen of a Census Map. The relative productiveness of the Atlantic coast rice- fields, shown in five shades of density. 238 History of the United States. 62. What the Census Shows. — By the census we obtain not only the total number of whites, blacks, Indians, Chinese, and others, in the whole country, but also the number of blind, deaf and dumb, insane, prisoners, etc. We likewise learn how many people belong to the dif- ferent religious denominations; the number of schools, scholars, and teachers; the number of factories and farms, and their products, and many other interesting particulars. 63. Total Population. — In 1800, the population of the 16 States, then comprising the United States, was 5,300,000, of which number about 1,000,000 were people of color. In 1880, with 38 States and 11 Territories and Districts, the population was a little over 50,000,000, of which num- ber 6,577,000 were colored. In addition to these there were 105,000 Chinese and Japanese, and 252,000 Indians, exclusive of the 30,000 in Alaska. 64. The Geological and Geographical Survey of the Ter- ritories was begun in Nebraska, when that Territory was received into the Union, in 1867. The construction of the Union Pacific Railway was then in progress. Dr. F. V. Hayden was appointed chief of the survey. Wyoming Territory was explored the next two years, resulting in the discovery of the remarkable scenery of the Upper Yellow- stone River and Lake. The survey of Colorado followed in 1873 and subsequent years. Other explorations author- ized at that time were those of (1) Clarence King, on the 40th parallel of latitude; (2) Lient. G. M. Wheeler's, in the region west of the 100th meridian ; and (3) Professor Powell's, in the valley and canons of the Colorado River. 65. Nature of the Work. — The explorers are expected to collect full sets of all the different kinds of rocks, soils, ores, minerals, and mineral waters. They are to observe whether the clay they may find is adapted for bricks or pottery, the stone for the purposes of building and road- Interior Departm mi. 239 construction, the limestone for slacking, and what is the quality of the sand ; also whether the soils are adapted to the growing of fruit or forest trees. The heights of the mountains are obtained, careful maps are made, and numer- ous sketches and photographs are taken. The geologist in charge of the survey has other scientific assistants, who note any additional facts in natural history, fossils, the ruins or other remains of the aborigines, etc. 66. Education. — The work of the Bureau of Education at Washington is principally to collect and distribute infor- mation respecting the public schools of every grade through- out the country. The States themselves, through their own school boards, have entire control of the raising and expen- diture of the funds, and the courses of studies to be followed. Within a few years, the Bureau of Education has given considerable attention to the public libraries of the United States, collecting and distributing much information respect- ing them. 67. Government Land Grants in aid of public education were made as long ago as 1785. From that time to the present, the extent of such grants has amounted to many million acres. In 18(32, Congress passed a law distributing the proceeds of the sale of five million acres among the dif- ferent States. Since that time, more attention has been paid to the establishment of normal institutes, agricultural colleges, and schools for instruction in the useful arts. The States themselves, and many towns and individuals, have contributed for these purposes. 68. Colleges. — Prior to the Revolution, there were ten colleges or collegiate institutions chartered in the colonies. One of these, that of Dartmouth, New Hampshire, was founded for the especial benefit of Indian youth, but did not succeed in that course. Another, the University of Pennsylvania, gave special attention to medicine. At the 240 History of the United States. beginning of the Revolution, the students in the ten colleges probably did not number more than 300. The colleges and universities in 1880 numbered about 360, with a total enrolment of many thousand pupils. Some of these col- leges are designed especially for young women, such as those of Mount Holyoke, Smith, and Wellesley, in Massa- chusetts, and Vassar College, in New York. 69. Public School System : In the North. — The necessity for providing free public schools was early recognized by some of the colonies, especially those of New England and Pennsylvania. Under the republic, the first decisive step toward general public education was made by the State of Massachusetts, in 1834, when one million dollars was raised to aid the towns in providing school accommodations. The first normal school was established at Lexington in that State, in 1839. The other Northern States soon followed the example of Massachusetts, as did also those of the West. Horace Mann, of Massachusetts, Henry Barnard, of Connecticut, and De Witt Clinton, of New York, were early advocates of the system. 70. The laws of several of the New England States forbid the employment of children under a certain age in factories. These laws, however, are not always regarded, and hence a large number of children in those States grow up without even knowing how to read and write. To cor- rect this evil, compulsory education, or the obligation by law to attend school, has been talked of. 71. In the South. — When George Peabody, at the con- clusion of the Civil War, donated the sum of two million dollars to promote education in the Southern States, none of those States possessed a modern system of public schools. In a few years not a State of the South was without them. Yet there still remains a great deal of ignorance unprovided for. The greater part of the freedmen's children receive as Post- Office Department. 241 yet no school education. To meet this lack, there has been several years pending in Congress an " Educational Fund Bill." It is proposed by this bill that the proceeds of the sale of public lands shall be set apart for a perpetual fund, the most of it to go to the States where the need for schools is greatest. VI.-POST-OFFICE DEPARTMENT. 72. Colonial Postal Service.— In 1693, Thomas Neale was permitted by royal patent to transport letters and packages in the colony of Virginia at such rates as the planters were willing to give. A more general postal system was organized for the colonies about 1710, but the revenue was very small. Benjamin Franklin was ap- pointed by the English government postmaster-general for the colonies in 1753. He retained the office twenty years. His proposition to run a weekly stage from Washington to Boston, to go through in five days, was thought a great advance in the rapid conveyance of the mails. 73. The Postmaster-General's Duties. — The Postmaster- General appoints all the postmasters throughout the United States whose pay is under $1000 per annum. The others are appointed by the President. The Postmaster-General recommends the establishment of new post-offices where he deems them necessary; enters into contracts for the carrying of the mails on all the post-roads, whether by cars, steamers, stages, or horsemen ; and also arranges for the transmis- sion of the mails to foreign countries by sea. He provides likewise for the distribution of stamps, stamped envelopes, newspaper wrappers, postal cards, etc., to the various offices throughout the country. 74. Minor Post-Offices. — As there is a post office in every city, town, and village, and even at many cross-roads, all under the general supervision of the central office at Wash- ington, the work of that department is very extensive. q 21 242 History of the United States. The whole number of post-offices in the United States is upward of 35,000, each having its postmaster, and, when necessary, assistants, clerks, and carriers. 75. Postal Union. — At Berne, in Switzerland, in 1874, a postal convention of representatives from all the States of Europe, the United States, and Egypt, was held, and a Postal Union was organized. One of the rules adopted was that the postage between the United States and the other countries belonging: to the Postal Union should be re- duced to five cents per half-ounce letter. This has greatly encouraged correspondence, and has thus aided in bringing many emigrants from those parts to our shores. China, Japan, and some other countries have meanwhile joined the Postal Union, the headquarters of which are located at Berne. 76. Franking Privilege. — This is a privilege allowed by law of Congress to its own members and other employees of the government, permitting them to mail a certain class of letters, papers, books, etc., without paying postage thereon. The privilege has been greatly abused in the past, Congress- men and others sending through the mails almost anything they wished. They can now send free only that which relates to the business of their offices. 77. Dead Letters are those which are misdirected or which are not called for at the office to which they are sent. The law requires that they shall be advertised three weeks in a newspaper of the neighborhood, and, if not then claimed, that they shall be sent to the General Post-Office at Washington. They are opened in the "Dead Letter room," and, if they contain money or other valuables or important writings, the senders are notified or the letters returned to them. Department of Justice. 2 13 VII.-DEPAETMENT OF JUSTICE. 78. The chief of this department is known as the Attor- ney-General of the United States. He has the assistance of a Solicitor-General and others learned in the law. It is the duty of the Attorney-General to give his advice and opinion upon questions of law, when required to do so by the President ; also, to perform the same service of giving legal advice, when requested to do so by the heads of any of the departments. 79. The Attorney-General exercises a supervision over the attorneys and marshals in all the Judicial Districts in the States and Territories. A great many suits constantly arise under the customs, internal revenue, and postal laws, in all of which the government is directly interested. An- other class of suits, the admiralty, bankrupt, and patent cases, in which the government has not a direct interest, are also tried in the United States courts. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. 80. This department is managed by a commissioner, but he is not a member of the President's Cabinet, as are the Secretaries of the other seven departments. It is the duty of the Commissioner of Agriculture to obtain new kinds of seeds and plants; to test their value by cultivation ; and, if they prove satisfactory, to distribute them to farmers and others. A large propagating garden is provided at Wash- ington for experimental purposes. 81. Useful facts and figures relating to such matters as dairies, wool-growing, silk-culture, irrigation, and drainage, are collected every year, and many thousands of the printed report containing them are sent to all parts of the country. Facts concerning droughts, the devastations of grasshoppers, the army- worm, and the Colorado beetle, come under the notice of this department. 244 History of the United States. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 82. The Smithsonian Institution was founded at Wash- ington, in 1846, upon the bequest of half a million dollars made to this country by James Smithson, an Englishman. The bequest was to be used " for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." It is managed by a Board of liegents, who annually report their proceedings to Congress. Joseph Henry, a noted scientist, was for a long period of years the secretary of the institution. By its aid, many valuable papers upon investigations in natural history, astronomy, and other sciences have been published. Much attention is given to the Monnd-Builders' remains, and other matters relating to the antiquities of our country. 83. The National Museum is connected with the Smith- sonian Institution, and is supported by the government. The first specimens deposited were those brought back by the Wilkes exploring expedition. The museum now re- ceives the specimens of various kinds from the government exploring and survey expeditions in the Territories and else- where; also the specimens procured by those persons sent out by the Smithsonian Institution itself. It is likewise supplied with a great variety of preserved specimens and models of fishes, deposited by the government Fish Com- mission. By a system of exchanges, duplicate sets of these are sent to other museums, in this and foreign countries, and from these, specimens such as we do not possess are received in return. 84. The Fish Commission, which was organized in 1872, is superintended by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- tution. The work is divided into two branches. One of these is the inquiry into the condition of the fisheries on our Atlantic and Pacific coasts and the great lakes ; and the other, the propagation of useful food fishes, as well as their protection. Hatching-stations are provided, and The Territories. 245 millions of the young fish, or eggs, are supplied yearly to the State Fish Commissions, or are sent abroad. The favorite kinds are shad, salmon, white-fish, German carp, and fresh-water herring. Many persons now have private ponds for the propagation of fish. CHAPTER XXV. THE TERRITORIES. 1. There are eight Territories of the United States, exclusive of Indian Territory, Alaska, and the District of Columbia. The names of the Territories are Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, Washington, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona. The Interior Department has the oversight of the tribes in the Indian Territory, although the Cherokees and the other four associated tribes have a simple democratic form of government of their own. Alaska, as yet, is merely a customs district, having a collector of customs and deputies, but without any terri- torial government. The District of Columbia is under the immediate control of a Board of Commissioners, three in number, appointed by the President. DAKOTA. 2. Dakota was setoff from Minnesota and organized as a Territory in 1861. Immigration was at first rapid, but was checked by the Sioux war of 1862, and, later, by the ravages of the grasshoppers. In 1876, upon the discovery of gold in the Black Hills [see page 211], immigrants again poured into the Territory in large numbers. Deadwood became the rising town in the mining district. Where the 21* 246 History of the United States. North Pacific Railroad reaches the Missouri River, the town of Bismarck has been built. Many Scandinavians have recently come into the Territory, and have turned their attention to agriculture. MONTANA. 3. Montana, especially its western half, is, as its name implies, a land of mountains. Gold was discovered there in 1861, pro- ducing the usual result of a flock- ing of eager miners into the district. Vir- ginia City was built, and, in 1864, the Terri- tory of Montana was organized, having been set oft" from Idaho. The Northern Pacific Railroad runs through the Territory. The reservation of the Crow Indians is in the southern part of the Territory, and the reservations of the Blackfeet, Flatheads, and other tribes are in the northern part. IDAHO. 4. Idaho, on the west of Montana, is separated from it by the Bitter Root range of mountains. It was set off from Washington and organized as a separate Territory in 1863. The Catholics had established a mission in the district in 1842, and ten years later gold was discovered. The country being largely mountainous, it is better adapted for Wyoming. 247 the purposes of grazing than for agriculture. Cattle- raising and sheep pasturing are, therefore, together with mining, the principal industries of the Territory. 5. Nez Perce's War. — In 1877, trouble arose with the Nez Perces Indians respecting the sale of some of the lands of the tribe to the government. The Indians having committed depredations, General Howard, with a small force, was sent against them. The Nez Perces fled before their pursuers a long distance, but finally came to a stand near the Bear Paw Mountains, in Montana. Nearly all the hostiles were killed or made prisoners. The latter, including their chief, Joseph, were sent to the Indian Territory. "WYOMING. 6. Wyoming was organized as a Territory in 1868, but its increase in population has been slow. The first white settlement was probably at Fort Laramie, where a fur trading-post was built in 1834. The Union Pacific Rail- road crosses the Wind River Mountains at a pass, which was formerly the chief wagon-road, 7500 feet above sea- level. In the southern part of the Territory are many "buttes," or flat-topped hills, furrowed into strange shapes by the action of water-currents upon the soil of blue clay. At a little distance these have the appearance of walled cities, ruined castles, mounds, and pyramids. 7. The Yellowstone National Park is in the north- west corner of Wyoming Territory. It was visited and sur- veyed by the government exploring expedition under Pro- fessor Hayden, whose account of its grand canon, water- falls, lake, and spouting springs, excited general interest. It was, therefore, in 1872, set aside by act of Congress as a national park for the public use and enjoyment forever. It comprises an area of 3575 square miles. 248 History of the United States. WASHINGTON". 8. Washington Territory, originally a part of Oregon, was organized in 1853. The Straits of Juan de Fuca, which separate Washington from Vancouver's Island, were so called from a Greek navigator of that name, in the Spanish service, who entered them in 1592. The dis- pute with Great Britain as to the North-West, or Oregon, Giant Geyseb — Yellowstone Park. boundary, was settled in 184G; but the ownership of the San Juan Islands, in the strait, was not decided until 1872. The Emperor of Germany, to whom the matter had been referred, decided that they belonged to the United States. 9. Tacoma, on Puget Sound, is the western terminus of the Northern Pacific Railway. There are several reserva- tions of Indians upon the Sound, which latter has always been a favorite resort of the natives on account of the Utah. 249 abundance of its supply of salmon. Immense forests of very large pine- and fir-trees overspread that portion of the country, and the cutting of the timber is one of the chief industries. The tops of some of the tall peaks of the Cascade Range are covered with perpetual snow, whilst glaciers also occur in a number of places. UTAH. 10. Utah, which was organized as a Territory in 1850, was acquired from Mexico by the treaty of 1848. In the previous year, a body of Mormons, under Brigham Young, came to Utah from Nauvoo in Illinois, and founded their city of Great Salt Lake. The district was first called by them "Deseret." In 1857, occurred the Mountain Meadow massacre, when a large band of emigrants were attacked by Indians, who were under Mormon influence, and all except a few of the children were killed. The attempt to establish a Federal court in the Territory being resisted, President Buchanan sent a body of troops thither ; but the matter was settled without bloodshed. Whilst the Mor- mons continue in the majority and uphold the practice of polygamy, which is so opposed to the moral sense of the nation, Utah will probably not be received as a State into the Union. 11. At Ogden, in the northern part of the Territory, is the junction of the Central Pacific and Union Pacific Pail- ways. The Wahsatch Mountains, noted for their pictu- resque scenery, extend north and south through the central parts of the Territory. Eastward of the range, flow the Green and Grand Pi vers in their deep canons, and on the west spreads out the arid plain of the Great American Desert. The silver and gold mines of Utah have hitherto been the chief source of its wealth, but the Mormon people give considerable attention to fanning, although it can be carried on only with the aid of irrigation. 250 History of the United States. NEW MEXICO. 12. New Mexico was visited by the Spanish expedition of Coronado in 1539. In 1582, Santa F6, the first of the Catholic mission stations, was founded. The native popu- lation of Moquis were kept in a state of peonage, or semi- slavery, by the Spaniards. They then, as they do now, Horseshoe Canon, Green River, Utah. lived together in large casas of many apartments, weaving and pottery-making being two of their chief industries. 13. The Territory was acquired from Mexico in 1848, General Kearney being its first governor. The English and Spanish languages are both used in the schools. In the eastern part of the Territory is an unwatered and tree- less country, called " the Staked Plains," mostly covered with the shrub known as the mesgulte. The Sierra Madre 1877] Hayes's Administration. 251 and other ranges extend north and south on either side of the Rio Grande. There are reservations of the Navajoe and Apache Indians in the Territory. ARIZONA. 14. Arizona, like New Mexico, was acquired from Mexico in 1848, the part south of the Gila River excepted. This latter portion, which was known as the " Gadsden Pur- chase," was acquired in 1853. Ten years later, Arizona was organized as a Territory. Soon after Santa Fe was founded, several Jesuit missions were built, one of the oldest of them being that of Tucson. Many ruins of the abodes of the Cliff-Dwellers are found in the northern parts of Arizona and New Mexico. Sheep-raising and sil- ver-mining are the chief industries of the country, but its growth has been much retarded by the presence of outlaws from Mexico and the surrounding Territories. The South- ern Pacific Railway, recently completed through the south- ern part of Arizona, must now hasten its settlement. To tourists, the Grand Canon of the Colorado, 1000 to 6000 feet in depth, will doubtless prove a great attraction. CHAPTER XXVI. ADMINISTRATIONS OF HAYES AND GARFIELD. HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION. 1877-1881. 1. Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, the nineteenth Presi- dent of the United States, had been thrice governor of his native State, occupying that position when elected chief magistrate of the nation. His inaugural address was entirely unpartisan in spirit, and did much to allay the 252 History of the United States. [1877 bitterness of political feeling which had long prevailed. The choice of his Cabinet gave general satisfaction, whilst the withdrawal of several bodies of troops which had been sent to the South was followed by good results. Attention was also given to the reform of the civil service. It was a political motto of the President's worth remembering, that " He who best serves his country, serves his party best." 2. The Railroad Strike.— The President had been but four months in office, when, in the summer of 1877, a serious labor disturbance occurred at the North, known as the Railroad Strike. The managers of the great railway lines, or " trunk lines," between the East and the West, proposed to their employees a reduction of wages. This was objected to by the engineers, brakemen, and other workers, who, combining together, left their posts and forbade others to occupy them at their peril. 3. At Baltimore, Pittsburg, Chicago, San Francisco, and other cities, the militia were called out, and riots ensued, with loss of life and property. This was particularly the case at Pittsburg, where the Union Depot, many machine- shops, and other property, valued at more than three million dollars, were destroyed by the mob. Nearly 100 lives were also lost. At San Francisco, the fury of the mob was directed chiefly against the Chinese. Two weeks elapsed before the tumults ended, and the travel and freight busi- ness on the roads was regularly resumed. 4. The Fisheries Dispute. — By the Treaty of Washington of 1871, not only was it provided that the Alabama claims should be settled by arbitration, but also a dispute relating to certain fisheries was to be adjusted in the same manner. On behalf of the United States fishermen, the privilege was asked that they be allowed to fish in Canadian waters the same as the subjects of Great Britain. The United States were willing to repeal certain duties on fish imported 1878] Hayes's Administration. 253 from Canada, and to pay the British government a sum of money for the privilege they asked. 5. How it was Settled. — To settle what this sum should be, three arbitrators were appointed, who met at Halifax in the summer of 1877, and concluded on an award of five million dollars. Although the Americans thought the sum too large, it was nevertheless promptly paid. An- other fisheries trouble, two years later, was also peaceably settled, the decision being, in that case, against the British government. 6. Specie Payments Resumed. — An act of Congress, passed in 1875, declared that on the first day of the year 1879 the government would begin paying its notes in coin. The premium on gold for several years had been very small, and when the time arrived for resumption, no diffi- culty was experienced. 7. With Respect to Silver, so great had been the product of the American mines, that the privilege of paying debts in that coin had been disallowed in 1874. That is to say, silver had been demonetized. This occasioned so great dis- satisfaction, especially in the West, that Congress now passed a law restoring the silver dollar to its former standard as a legal tender. In other words, it was re- monetized. Provision was likewise made fur the coinage at the mints of not less than two million dollars of silver a month. 8. The Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1878 was the most fatal visitation of the kind ever known in this country. The disease made its appearance at New Orleans, and quickly spread among the towns on and near the lower Mississippi. It also appeared along the Ohio as far eastward as Louis- ville. Memphis, Vicksburg, and Grenada especially suf- fered from the scourge. Most of the inhabitants who could get away, fled from the desolating pestilence. 22 254 History of the United States. [1878 9. Not until the frosts of late autumn appeared, and at least 20,000 people had died, was the progress of the dis- ease stayed. The large contributions in money, provisions, medicine, etc., which were sent from the North, not only did good to the afflicted, but also helped to heal the enmi- ties made by the war. In order to prevent the return of such an epidemic, prompt measures were taken to improve the healthfulness of the towns. The drainage system of Memphis received particular attention. 10. Chinese Immigration. — When the Chinese were brought to this country in large numbers to aid in the construction of the Central Pacific Railway, little or no objection was made to their presence, as there was a great demand at that time for labor. After the panic of 1873, however, many people being thrown out of employment, an outcry began to be raised against the Asiatics because they were willing to work for very low wages. This an- tagonism was especially great in California, as the most of the immigrants landed at the port of San Francisco, and many of them made their homes in that city. Congress was then called upon to forbid Chinese emigration to this country. 11. The Chinese Treaties. — In 1858, a treaty of com- merce had been entered into with China, which country, like Japan, had been opposed to intercourse with other nations. In 1868, when so many of the Chinese began to come hither, a further treaty was made, guaranteeing them against compulsory service; also securing to them all right- ful privileges when in this country. The like privileges were extended to American citizens in China. This treaty is known as the Burlingame Treaty, it having been nego- tiated by an American of that name in the Chinese service. Finally, in 1879, an act being passed by Congress to re- strict Chinese immigration, the President vetoed it, because 1879] Hayes's A dm'mistration . 255 it was in opposition to the provisions of the Burlingame Treaty. He immediately afterward, however, appointed three commissioners to proceed to Pekin, and through them a third treaty was made, satisfactory to the country. [For Nez Perces War of 1877, see " Idaho," page 247.] 12. 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