SACRED AND PROFANE 
 
 HISTORY 
 
 EPITOMIZED; 
 
 WITH X 
 
 CONTINUATION 
 
 OF 
 
 MODERN HISTORY 
 
 TO THE PRESENT TIME- 
 TO WHICH 15 ADDED 
 
 AN ACCOUNT 
 
 OF THE 
 
 TEUDAL SYSTEM, THE CRUSADES, CHIVALRY, THE RE- 
 rORMATION, AND THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 
 
 TOdETHER WITH A 
 
 COMPREHENSIVE CHRONOLOGICAL TABLB. 
 
 By BENJAMIN TUCKER. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY JACOB JOHNSON, AND FOR SALE AT HtS 
 B00K.STORES IN PHILADELPHIA, AND 
 RICHMOND, VIRGINIA. 
 
 1806. 
 
 A. BARTRAM} 7RINTER> 
 
District of Pennsylvama^ to nvit : 
 
 BE IT REMEMBFRED, That on the eighth day of 
 April, in the thirtieth Year of the Independence of the United 
 States of America, A. D. 1806. Jacob Johnson of the said dis- 
 trict, hath deposited in this Office, the Title of a book, the Right 
 whereof he claims as Proprietor in the Words following, to wit : 
 
 " Sacred and profane history epitomized; -with a continua* 
 " tion of modern history to the present time. To which is 
 *' added an account of the feudal system, the crusade?, chi- 
 «* valry, the reformation, and the revival of learning. To- 
 ♦' gethei" with a comprehensive chronological taDle. By 
 " Benjamin Tucker. 
 
 In Conformity to the Aci of Consf^cc of the United States, tivt 
 tituled, " An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing 
 the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Pro. 
 prietors of such Copies during the Times therein mentioned." 
 And also to the Act, entitled " An Act supplementary to an Act, 
 entitled, " An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by secu- 
 ring the Copies of Maps, Charts and Books, to the Authors and 
 Proprietors of such Copies during the Times therein mentiohed," 
 and extending the Benefits thereof to the Arts of designing, e»« 
 graving, sknd •tcUing historical and other Prints." 
 
 D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the DlstrieK 
 of Pennsylvania. 
 
 .,».rV •^ ^^"^^« 
 

 PREFACE. 
 
 AMONG the variety of objects which present 
 themselves to the young and inquirm^ mind; and 
 which direct it to the attainment of the most useful 
 information, few are more striking or more impor- 
 tant, than the study of history. From this source, 
 communities and nations are furnished with the bright- 
 est examples for the guidance of their actions, and 
 individuals enriched with the experience, and animated 
 with the virtue, of the most distant ages. 
 
 To give the youth under my care a knowledge of 
 the most striking traits of this study, and to excite in 
 them a taste for the interesting pursuit, has been the 
 object of the following epitome. 
 
 In the higher classes of the seminary it has, for 
 some time past; been used in manuscript ; and its bene^ 
 fici^l effects have been strikingly visible. But finding 
 'that too much of their time was engrossed in transcrib- 
 ing- it, and that other brunches of education were in 
 danger of being neglected by the continuance of the 
 practice, I havcj with considerable solicitude; submitted 
 it to the pre:: 3. 
 
 The catechet'cal form has been prefeiTcd, as being 
 conceived tlie most effectual to impress zrA familiarize 
 the subject. Ir.dee I no otlier mode can be adopted by 
 an instructor v»l en inculcu'ciiig this kind of kncvi^iedgc; 
 for where the questiors have been omitted, he must nc- 
 ce:.sarily s''pply tiitm, and I have found that unless a 
 
iV PREFACE. 
 
 pupil had a previous knowledge of the question, he Wd» 
 always embarrassed in the reply. But as the repetition 
 of questions on every little change of subject, would 
 only fatigue the teacher without aiding the pupil ; 
 the answer on that account, has been frequently extend- 
 ed further than the interrogation strictly called for. 
 
 Ancient history has sometimes been extended to th« 
 reign of Charlemagne ; but as the division is unim- 
 portant, and has little effect upon the relation of events, 
 J have chosen to limit it to the fall of the Roman cm* 
 pire in the west. At that time, the foundation of 
 those kingdoms and empires was laid, which are now 
 the most distinguished in the history of Europe. And 
 no event that has succeeded it, appeared to me to have 
 abetter claim to drawing the line of division. 
 
 Originality in the following work is not professed. Tq 
 bring into view some of the most striking events of an- 
 cient and modern times, and to excite a taste for the pe-» 
 rusal of the historical parts of the sacred writings and 
 history in general, has been the design of the under- 
 taking. To effect this 1 have had recourse to the most 
 approved ancient and modern historians, from vrhom I 
 have selected their collected sentiments, or their lan- 
 guage, as would best promote the object of the work. 
 
 The comprehensive chronological table added to this 
 performance, is taken from the Encyclopedia, publish- 
 ed by Thomas Dobson of Philadelphia, to whose 
 
 politeness I am indebted for the copy. 
 
 B. T. 
 
 PhiladeljJiia^ 1S06. , 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 €i:,WHAT«hiflory? 
 
 A. Hiftory, in the general fenfe of the word, fignifies a true 
 relation of fafts and events ; or, confidered in a moral point 
 €>fview, it is that lively philofophy, which, laying afide the 
 formality of rules, fupplies the place of experience, and teach- 
 es us to a6l with propriety and honour, according to the exam- 
 ples of others. 
 
 The province of hiftory is fo extcnfive, that is conne<5ted 
 with every branch of knowledge; and fo various and abun- 
 dant are its ftores, that all arts, fciences, and profeflions are 
 indebted to it for many of the materials and principles upoa 
 v»hich they depend. It opens the wideft profpefl^s to the eyes 
 of mankind in the fpacious fields of literature, and is one 
 of (he mod pleafmg and important objects of (iudy, to which 
 the mind can be directed. 
 
 Q^Into how many j)arts is hiftory divided ? 
 
 A. Hiftory confidered with refpe6l to the nature of its fubjefls, 
 may be divided into general and particular ; and with refpefl to 
 time, into ancient and modern. Ancient hiftory commences 
 with the creation, and extends to the fall of the. Roman empire 
 in the weft. Modern hiftory, beginning with that period, reaches 
 dow n to the prefent time. General hiftory relates to nations and 
 public affairs, and may be fubdivided into facred and profane. 
 Biography, memoirs, and letters, conftitute particular hiftory. 
 Sacred history is contained in the Old and New Teftament ; and 
 profane, in all other records of antiquity. 
 
VI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Q.. What ©iher divifions are there, neccflTary to the ftudy of 
 general hiflory ? 
 
 A. It is Lirual, in order to avoid confuflon, to divide it into 
 certain parts and intervals, each beginning with fome memora- 
 ble occurrence. The creation, the deluge, the Olympiads, 
 tlie building of Rome, and the birth of Chrift, are fome of 
 the nioft celebrated. Thefe are termed epochas. 
 
 The whole interval of ancient hiftpry is divided into eleven 
 parts. The firft extends from the creation to the deluge, 
 Vhich includes 1656 years. — The fecond, from the deluge to 
 the vocation of Abraham, 426 jears.— The ihird, from the vo- 
 cation of Abraham to the departure of the children of Ifrael 
 out of Egypt, 430 years. — The fourth, from the departure out 
 of Egypt to the deftruaion of Troy, 308 years.— The fifth, 
 from the deflrudlion of Troy to the laying the foundation of 
 the temple under Solomon, 172 years — -The fixth, from the 
 foundation of the temple to the building of Rome, 258 
 years. The feventh, from the building of Rome to the reign 
 of Cyrus, 216 years. — The eighth, from the reign of Cyrus to 
 the deftru6tion of the Perfian empire, 206 years. — The ninth, 
 from the fall of the Perfian empire to the deftru(!lion of the 
 Macedonian, 163 years — The tenth, from the fall of the Gre- 
 cian empire to the birth of Chtifl^, 1&8 years. — The deventh 
 and laft, from the commencement of the Chriftian era, to the 
 fall of the Roman empire in the weft, 476 years. 
 
 From this period Modern hifioiy commences ; in which the 
 feveral kingdoms that have been founded fince that time are 
 {iillin(5tly confidcrcd. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Pag*. 
 
 FIRST EPOCHA. 
 The creation, . . . 13 
 
 SECOND EPOCHA. 
 The deluge, . . . U 
 
 THIRD EPOCHA. 
 The vocation of Abraham, . » 16 
 
 FOURTH EPOCHA. 
 The departure out of Egypt, . « 17 
 
 FIFTH EPOCHA. 
 The taking of Troy, . . .18 
 
 SIXTH EPOCHA. 
 The temple, . * . .20 
 
 SEVENTH EPOCHA. 
 The building of Rome, . . . Sf 
 
 EIGHTH EPOCHA. 
 The reign of Cyrus, . . . 3g 
 
 NINTH EPOCHA. 
 The Grecian empire, . . 'St 
 
 TENTH EPOCHA. 
 Fall of the Grecian empire, . . 63 
 
 ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 
 The Christian era, . . ,77 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 England, » . . .109 
 
 Sweden, . . . . 131 
 
 Denmark, . . , ,136 
 
 Russia, . . . .139 
 
Viii CONTENTS. 
 
 PA6b. 
 
 Livonia and Esthonia, . . • . 144 
 
 Poland, . . . .145 
 
 Germany, 
 
 Prussia, 
 
 Hungary, 
 
 France, 
 
 Spain, 
 
 150 
 158 
 162 
 163 
 174 
 
 Portugal, . . . .181 
 
 United Provinces, . . .186 
 
 Switzerland, . . . 191 
 
 Geneva, . . • 194 
 
 Ecclesiastical States, . . . ibid. 
 
 The kingdom of Naples and Sicily^ . 197 
 
 Venice, . . . . 199 
 
 Genoa, . . . 202 
 
 Savoy and Sardinia, * . . 206 
 
 Florence or Tuscany, . . . 20& 
 
 The Republic of Saint Marino, . • 213 
 
 The Turks, . . . .214 
 
 America, . » . . 225 
 
 Mexico, . . . . 233 
 
 Peru, . . . 255 
 
 North America, . . 270 
 
 United States, . . . 273 
 
 The Feudal System, . .278 
 
 The Crusades, • . 281 
 
 Chivalry, . . • . 289 
 
 The Reformation, . . , 293 
 
 The Revival of learning, , . .297 
 
 Chronological table, ; . .305 
 
rfMwwflmBa 
 
 SJCBED AKD PBOFAXE 
 
 HISTORY, 
 
 EPITOMISED. 
 
 FIRST EPOCHA. 
 
 THE CREATION, 
 
 Q /t T what period of time is tlie creation of the 
 jr\. world placed ? 
 
 A. Four thousand and four years before Christ. 
 
 Q. What was the situation of mankind before the 
 flood? 
 
 A. It appears in general, from the first chapters of 
 Genesis, that the world before the flood was exceeding- 
 ly populous ; that mankind had made considerable im- 
 provement in the arts, and were become extremely vi- 
 cious both in their sentiments and manners ; which gave 
 occasion to a memorable catastrophe, by v/hich the 
 whole of the human race, except Noah and his family, 
 were swept off the earth. 
 
 B 
 
f6 ANeiENT HISTORY. 
 
 THIRD EPOCIIA. 
 
 THE VOCATION OF ABRAHAM. 
 
 Q. Who were the descendants of Abraham that lefl- 
 the land of Canaan ? 
 
 A. His g-randson Jacob, to whom v/erc born the twelve 
 patiiarchs. They vvith their father moved from Canaan 
 into that part of Egypt, of which I'anis was the capital, 
 in the year of tlie world 2298. Moses was born 135 
 years afterv/ards, and was instructed in all the learning 
 of the Egyptians, who at that time had arrived to a de- 
 gree of eminence in the arts and sciences. 
 
 Q. What are the first authentic accounts v/e have of 
 Greece ? 
 
 A About the same period, the Egyptians and Phcnici- 
 ans sent colonies into several parts of Greece, who mixing 
 with the natives, built towns, and fonned a number of 
 communities independent of each other. The various 
 itiventioiis and arts which they introduced among- the 
 original hihabitants, contributed to augment their com-* 
 forts, and to civilize their manners. 
 
 Q. How long after this was it, when Moses led the 
 children of Israel out of Egypt ? 
 
 -A. In the 856th year of the deluge, and 430 from the 
 vocation of Abraham. In Lis progress through the 
 wilderness he instituted, bj'divine commiand, the taber- 
 n-AcIe service, and established a form of civil government 
 among the tribes. 
 
THIRD EPOCHA. 11^ 
 
 FOURTH EPOCHA, 
 
 THE DEPARTURE OUT OF EGYPT. 
 
 Q. Did Moses conduct the children of Israel into the 
 land of Canaan ? 
 
 A. No ; he viewed the promised land from the moun- 
 tain of Nebo, and there died. Joshua his successor, 
 conducted them into it, and nearly completed the con- 
 .quest of Canaan. After him several judges succeeded ; 
 but the Israelites, upon the death of the elders thatj?.new 
 Joshua, forgot the God of their fathers, and were sedu- 
 ced into the idolatry of the neighbouring nations, w^hich 
 brought down upon them heavy chastisements. 
 
 Q. What other events occurred at this period ? 
 
 A. In the year of the world 2 679, Pelops, son of Tan- 
 talus, reigned in Peloponnesus, and gave his name to 
 that famous peninsula ; and Bel or Belus, king of the 
 Chaldeans, received from his people divine honours. 
 
 Q. When was the Assyrian empire founded, and hy 
 whom ? 
 
 A. It was founded by Ninus the son of Belus, in the 
 year of the world 2737, and 5 14 years before the build- 
 ing of Rome. 
 
 Q. Where did he establish the seat of his empire ? 
 
 A. At the ancient city of Nineveh, which he greatly 
 ornamented and enlarged. In founding this empire 
 he subdued a great number of nations from India t<i 
 Egypt. 
 
 Q. To whom did he leave his crown ? 
 
 B 2 
 
18 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 A. To Semiramis, who had been the wife of one of 
 his officers, but to whom he v/as afterwards married. 
 
 Q. What account have we of her reiirn ? 
 
 A. It was niuch famed for her conquests and mag- 
 nificent woi;ks. In order to immortalize her name, she 
 embellished and enhirged the city of Babylon in a few 
 years, to such an amazing extent, as to h\v exceed Ni- 
 neveh. 
 
 Q. What memorable event occurred during her 
 reign ? 
 
 A. In the reign of Semiramis, Troy, which had once 
 before been taken by the Greeks, in the reign of Laome^ 
 den, was a second time taken and reduced to ashes by 
 the same Greeks, in the time of Priam. 
 
 Q. As this era is memorable, not only on account of 
 the greatness of the event, which has been celebrated 
 by the most distinguished poetSj but as it furnishes a 
 proper date in taking the account of fabulous and heroic 
 times, mention the particular period when it took 
 
 place ? 
 
 A. It happened in the year of the world 2820 — 1 164 
 years after the flood, and 308 years after the departure 
 »ut of Egypt. 
 
 FIFTH EPOCHA. 
 
 THE TAKING OF TROY. 
 
 Q. To what period are we to place those ages of fic- 
 tion, in which the poets speak of their heroes, the pff- 
 spring of the gods ? 
 
 A. Not very remote from the present era ; for in the 
 time of Laomedon the father of Priam, appeared all the 
 
FIFTH EPOCHA. 19 
 
 illustrious personages concerned in the golden fleece ; — 
 Jason, Hercules, Orpheus, Castor, he. And in the 
 age of Priam, Achilles, Agamemnon, Menelaus, Hector, 
 Ulysses, Diomedes, Sarpedon, and ^neas the son of 
 Venus, whom the Romans acknowledged to be their 
 father and founder. 
 
 Q. This appears to have been the most illustrious pe- 
 riod of heroic times j what are the events recorded in ho- 
 ly writ ? 
 
 A. They were, during this period, still more remark- 
 able. The extraordinary strength of Sampson ; his 
 astonishing exploits ; the administration of Eli, of Samu- 
 el the chosen prophet ; of Saul the first king of Israel ; 
 his victories, presumption, and unhappy fall, are events 
 Avhich took place about this time. Saul's death was in 
 the year of the world 2949. 
 
 Q. Was there any change in the government of 
 Athens, during the period of v/hich we have been 
 speaking ? 
 
 A. Yes ; Codrus, king of Athens, devoted himself 
 to death for the safety of his country, and his sons, Me- 
 don and Nileus, contending respecting the succession, 
 the Athenians abolished the regal power, and created 
 perpetual governors or magistrates for life. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Saul in the kingdom of Israel ? 
 A. David. He proved an illustrious and fortunate 
 prince ; he greatly enlarged hisdoniinions, and advanc- 
 ed the Israelites to a degree of wealth and power not 
 before known. 
 
 Q. .When was Ionia settled, and by whom ? 
 A. During the reign of Saul in Israel, sceral Atheni- 
 an colonies settled there. The settlement of the ^oli- 
 an colonies took place about the same time. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded David in the throne of Israel ? 
 
20 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 A. His son Solomon ; famed for his wisdom, justice, 
 and pacific virtues. Kis hands unpolluted with blood, 
 were declared worthy to raise a temple to the Most 
 High. 
 
 Q. Where did Solomon lay the foundation of the 
 temple, and when ? 
 
 A. At Jerusalem, in the 480th year after the depar- 
 ture out of Eg^ypt, 172 years after the destruction of 
 Troy, and C60 years before the building of Rome ; in 
 the year of the world 2993. 
 
 SIXTH EPOCHA. 
 
 THE TEMPLE. 
 
 Q. Did the kingdom of Israel continue united aft6r 
 Solomon's death ? 
 
 A. No ; under his son Rehoboam Israel was divided 
 into two kingdoms ; one, for distinction, was called the 
 kingdom of Israel, and consisted of the t«n tribes who 
 associated under Jeroboam; the other, the kingdom of Ju- 
 dah, and was composed of such as adhered to the house 
 of David. 
 
 Q, Who was Shishak of the scriptures, mentioned 
 as having been made an instrument to punish the impie- 
 ties of Rehoboam ? 
 
 A. He is supposed to have been Sesostris king of 
 Egypt, who, in profane history, is much famed for his 
 conquests. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Rehoboam in the hause of Judah, 
 and when ? 
 
 A. His son Abijah, in the year of the world 3046 j 
 
SIXTH EPOCHA. 21 
 
 who, during his reign, obtained a memorable victory 
 over the revolted tribes. 
 
 Q. By whom was Samaria built, and when ? 
 
 A. By Omri, king of Israel, in the time of Asa, the 
 successor of Abijah in the house of Judah, and in the 
 year of the world, 3080. From this time it became the 
 capital of the kingdom. 
 
 Q. Who were the successors of these princes ? 
 
 A. In Judah, the pious reign of Jehosophat succeed- 
 ed ; and an Israel, the idolatry and impieties of Ahab 
 and Jezebel. 
 
 Q. What new settlements were made about this time ?' 
 
 A. Dido, a Tyrian princess, transported a colony into 
 Africa, and laid the foundations of Carthage. Soon after 
 this, Judah and Israel became the scene of extraordinary 
 revolutions and wonders. 
 
 Q. What was the cause ? 
 
 A. Jehoram, by marrying the daughter of Ahab, was 
 seduced into the idolatry of that wicked family, and drew 
 down upon himself the punishments of heaven. Jehu took 
 possession of the throne of Israel, and destroyed the whole 
 posterity of Ahab. Jehoram king of Judah, and his son 
 Ahaziah, with the greatest part of the royal family, were 
 all slain about the same time, as allies of the house of 
 Ahab. Atluiliah resolving, upon receiving this inform^a- 
 tion, to extinguish the house of David, put to death all 
 that remained of that family, not excepting her own 
 children, and usurped the crown of Judah. 
 
 Q. Did she long retain this usurped authority ? 
 
 A. No ; Joash, who vvas preserved by the care of 
 Jchosheba his aunt, and brought up in the temple un- 
 der Jehoiada the high priest, in six years, put an end to 
 ^he usurpation and life of Athaliah. 
 
 Q. What other events are mentioned in scripture ? 
 
22 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 A. During this time, Elijah and Elisha w-;re working 
 those wonders and miracles in Israel, wliich have made 
 their names so eminent in holy v/rit. 
 
 Q. To what period of time do these events bring us? 
 
 A. To about 3 1 20 years after the creation. 
 
 Q. You have mentioned, some time back, that Greece 
 was divided mto several independent states : were they 
 alike distinguished for their valour ? 
 
 A. No ; the political importance of them all, was for 
 the most part relative, a!>d depended, especially in the 
 latter and more celebrated periods of their history, up- 
 on their connexion with Athens and Lacedemon. 
 
 Q. Which of these first became emment ? 
 
 A. Lacedemon. 
 
 Q. How ? 
 
 A. By the wise and virtuous laws of Lycurgus. 
 
 Q. When did he flourish ? 
 
 A. In the year of the v/'orld, 3120, and before Christ 
 884 years. 
 
 Q. What were the prominent features of Lycurgus* 
 laws ? 
 
 A. He allotted to every family an equal share of lands, 
 prohibited the use of gold and silver, and made iron mo- 
 ney alone current, in order to check the avarice of his 
 subjects. 
 
 Q. What other regulations did he establish? 
 
 A. He forbade foreign travel, lest the morals of his 
 people should become corrupted, by an intercourse with 
 effeminate nations. He established public tables, at 
 which even the kings of Sparta, were required to share 
 the coarsest viands with their people, and to set exam- 
 ples of the most rigid temperance. 
 
 Q. In what manner v/ere the Spartan children edu- 
 cated ? 
 
SIXTH EPOCHA. 2S 
 
 A. They were considered as the property of the stt te, 
 knd their education consisted in accustoming them to 
 bear the cravings of hunger and thirst, and to endure the 
 scourge of discipline, and every degree of pain, with pa- 
 tience, and even exultation. 
 
 Q. What effect had this system of education upon the 
 Spartan youth ? 
 
 A. Their passions became inflamed with patriotic ar- 
 dour, and their bodies hardened by constant exercise, so 
 that they were eager to undertake, and powerful to ac- 
 complish, every exploit for the glory of their country. 
 
 Q. Did not Lycurgus extend liis regulations to cir ' 
 cumstances, which are not supposed to come within the 
 limits of legal restrictions? 
 
 A. Yes ; he prescribed rules of the most rigid abstemi- 
 ousness ; inculcated respect to old age ; enjoined modes- 
 ty of behaviour ; and promoted the constant intercourse 
 of the old and young. 
 
 Q. Did Joash, who was so miraculously brought to 
 the throne of Judah, rule the people with wisdom and 
 justice ? 
 
 A. Yes, during the life of Jehoiada; but after his death, 
 he became a tyrant. He ordered Zachariah the high 
 priest, son of his benefactor, to be stoned to death. 
 
 Q. Was not this act of perfidy and ingratitude fol- 
 lowed by a signal punishment ? 
 
 A. Yes ; the year following, being beaten by the Syri- 
 ans, he fell into contempt, and was slain by his own ser- 
 vants. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. His son Amaziah. 
 
 Q. Did the kingdom of Israel, which had been weak- 
 ened under the successors of Jehu, by wars with tt^ 
 kings of Damascus, continue to be reduced ? 
 
24 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 A. No ; it began to revive and flourish under the "vvise 
 and vigorous administration of Jeroboam the second, 
 who exceeded in piety and valour those that had gone 
 before him. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Amaziah ? 
 
 A. Azariah, who acquired equal glory in Judah. 
 
 Q. At what time did this take place ? 
 
 A. In the year of the world [3 1 94. 
 
 Q. When did the computation of the Olympiads com- 
 mence ? 
 
 A. In the 3 4th year of Azariah's reign, and of the 
 world 3228. 
 
 Q. What was the occasion of this era being particu- 
 larly noted ? 
 
 A. It is celebrated in history, not only as being the 
 great Epocha of the Greeks, but here, according to Var- 
 ro, the fabulous times end. 
 
 Q. Why are they called fabulous ? 
 
 A. On account of the many fables, which the poets 
 have interwoven with the transactions they describe. 
 
 Q. Explain more fully the Olympiads. ^ 
 
 A. The Olympiad was a space of four years, at the ex- 
 pimtion of which, the Olympiad games were celebrated 
 with great pomp, near the city of Olympia, in Pelopon- 
 nesus. 
 
 Q. You have mentioned Varro, what was his distribu- 
 tion of time ? 
 
 A. He divided the whole series of time into three pe- 
 riods. The first, he extended from the creation of the 
 world, to the deluge, v/hich he called the unknown age ; 
 there being nothing in profane history relating to that 
 time, which has any appearance of truth. The second 
 period extended from the deluge to the first Olympiad, 
 which he syled the fabulous. The third and last peri- 
 od, bcgiar.ing with the first Olympaid, was carried to 
 
SIXTH EPOCHA. 25 
 
 the age in which the author lived, and may be extend- 
 ed to the present times. This he stiled the historical 
 period, because the transactions of mankind are hand- 
 ed down to us by faithful and authentic relations ; so 
 that the Olympiads, while they constitute the great 
 Epocha of the Greeks, are, at the same time, to be con- 
 sidered as the true era of history. 
 
 Q. Do these observations respect any other transac- 
 tions besides those of the heathen world ? 
 
 A. No ; holy writ furnishes a true and authentic ac- 
 count of the affairs of the chosen people, from the times 
 of Abraham, the founder of the Jewish nation, and have 
 traced them back in a summary way, to the first forma- 
 tion of the world. 
 
 Q. To return from this digression, what was the state 
 of Israel ? 
 
 A. It was torn by intestine divisions. Shallum, the 
 son of Jeroboam, had slain Zacariah, and usurped the 
 crown, which inspired Menahem with hopes of gratify- 
 ing his ambition in the same way ; he therefore conspi- 
 red against the usurper, and served him as he had done 
 his lawful prince. 
 
 Q. To what period do these events bring us ? 
 
 A. To the year of the world 3233, and before Christ 
 771 years. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Azariah in the kingdom of Ju- 
 dah ? 
 
 A. He was succeeded by his son Jotham, who proved 
 a pious and wise prince- 
 
 Q. Who was king of Assyria at this time ? 
 
 A. Pul, who taking advantc.t;e of the present state of 
 Israel, advanced against it with an army ; but Menahem 
 pacificed him, by paying him a thousand talents. 
 
 Q. Who was the successor of Pul hi the Assyrian 
 monarchy ? 
 
 C 
 
26 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 A. Sardaiiapalus, who is supposed to have been the 
 son of Ful. 
 
 Q. You informed me some time back, that the Athe- 
 nians, upon their abolishing the regal power, created per- 
 petual governors or magistrates. Did these governoi's 
 continue to retain their office for life ? 
 
 A. No ; during the reign of Sardanapalus in Assyria, 
 the Athenians, whose disposition insensibly led them 
 to a popular government, retrenched the power of these 
 magistrates, and limited their administration to ten 
 years. Charops was the first who held this dignity under 
 these restrictions. 
 
 Q. Let me now turn your attention to Italy. What 
 are the first authentic accounts we have of that coun- 
 try ? 
 
 A. After the destruction of Troy, jEneas gathered the 
 few remains of his unhappy countrymen, and sailed for 
 Italy, where he married the daughter of king Latinus, 
 and, succeeding him in the throne, left it to his poste- 
 rity. 
 
 Q. How long did this race of kings hold the sove- 
 reignty ? 
 
 A. For more than 300 years. 
 
 Q. When was the first remarkable revolution ? 
 
 A. In the time of Numiter and Amulius : Amulius 
 seizing the crown to the prejudice of his elder brother 
 Numiter, remained possessed of it until Romulus and 
 Remus (the sons of Ilia, Numiter's daughter) arrived at 
 manhood, when they restored their grandfather to his 
 inheritance, and slew the usurper. 
 
 Q. What important event followed this revolution ? 
 
 A. The building of Rome. This era is particularly 
 distinguished in history, as being preferred to every 
 other, in regulating the accounts of the western and 
 European nations. 
 
SEVENTH EPOCHA. 27 
 
 Q. Inform me when it took place ? 
 
 A. The building of Rome, according to Varro, com- 
 menced in the third year of the sixth Olympiad, 430 
 years after the destruction of Troy, 752 before the 
 Christian era, and, in the year of the world, 3252. 
 
 SEVENTH EPOCHA. 
 
 THE BUILDING OF ROME. 
 
 Q. Was not the building of Rome followed by an 
 event of equal note in the eastern chronology ? 
 
 A. Yes ; the downfal of the Assyrian monarchy took 
 place about six years afterwards. 
 
 Q. How? 
 
 A. Principally through the effeminacy of Sardana^ 
 palus, who, neglecting the administration of public afr 
 fedrs, and giving himself up to pleasure, fell into (con- 
 tempt with his subjects. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. Arbaces governor of Media, and Belesis governor 
 of Babylon, conspired against him ; and, beseiging him 
 in his capital, reduced him to the necessity of perishing 
 in the flames of his own palace. 
 
 Q. What effect had this upon the eastern chrono- 
 logy ? 
 
 A. From the beginning of the reign of Belesis at 
 Babylon, which is the same with Nabonassar, the fam.ous 
 astronomical era commenced, called the era of Nabo- 
 nassar. 
 
 Q. Why is this era noted ? 
 
 A. It is a sure guide in respect to tlie eastern chrono- 
 
28 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 logy, and a:5 it commfences several years before the 
 
 Babylonish captivity, by which the course of the Jewish 
 
 l-istoiy h interrupted, it enables us here to take up the 
 
 series, and to continue down the account of time with 
 
 certainty, to the beginning of the Cliristian era. 
 
 Q. What does the first year of Nabonassar coincide 
 
 with ? 
 
 A. With the seventh year of Rome, the second of the 
 
 eighth Olympiad, and the 7'iGth before Christ. 
 
 Q. To return to the children of Israel ; who succeed- 
 ed Jotbam in the kingdom of Judah ? 
 
 A. Ilis son Ahaz, v»4io being attacked by Resin king 
 of Syria, and Pekah king of Israel, applied to Tiglath 
 Pileser king of Assyria, from whom he readily obtained 
 assistance. 
 
 Q. Who was this Tiglath Pileser ? 
 
 A. He is supposed to have been one of the royal family 
 of ALSsyria, who taking advantage of the confusion which 
 was occasioned from the dissolution of the Assyrian 
 monarchy, and the division of it between Arbaces and 
 Belesis, put himself at the head of those who still adher- 
 ed to the house of Ful ; and getting possession of 
 Nineveh, established a third empire for himself, while 
 they were employed in settling themselves in the pro- 
 vinces which they had respectively governed under the 
 fj' mer monarch : thus a second Assyrian empire rose 
 out of the ruins of the first, of which Nineveh, as before, 
 remained the capital. 
 
 Q. You have mentioned Tiglath Fileser's coming to 
 the assistance of Ahaz ; v.hat conq\iests did he effect ? 
 
 A. He took Damascus, and wholly destroyed the king- 
 dom of Syria, which he united to his own ; he also great- 
 ly distress c:l the kingdom of Israel, and even ravaged 
 the territories of his friend and allv Ahaz. 
 
SEVENTH EPOCHA. 29 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Tiglath Pileser,in the kingdom of 
 Assyria ? 
 
 A. His son Salmaneser. 
 
 Q. Did he continue hostile to the kingdom of Israel ? 
 
 A. Yes, he wholly subdued it, threw Hosea the king 
 into prison, and carried the people into captivity. 
 
 Q. When was this ? 
 
 A. In the year of the world 3283, and before Christ, 
 721. 
 
 Q. What other occurrences took place about this 
 time ? 
 
 A. Romulus, the first king of Rome, reigned 37 years. 
 He had been much engaged in wars, but alv.ays return- 
 ed from them victorious. Having paid particular atten- 
 tion to the civil and religious establishments of his new 
 colony, and laid the foundation of those laws and insti- 
 tutions, which contributed so much to the advancement 
 of the Roman Empire ; he v/as succeeded by Numa, 
 who, in a long unhiterrupted peace, embraced the op- 
 portunity of finishing the work of his predecessor, by 
 softening the manners of the people, and bringing their 
 religion into an exact form. 
 
 Q. To what period does this carry us ? 
 
 A. To the year of the world 3290 ; about which time, 
 ' several colonies from Corinth and other parts of Greece, 
 built Syracuse, in Sicily, and Crotona and Tarentum, in 
 the south of Italy. 
 
 Q. What change took place in the kingdom of Judah ? 
 
 A. Hezekiah succeeded Ahaz in that kingdom, and 
 was renowned for his piety and justice. He was mira- 
 culously recovered from a fit of sickness, and delivered 
 from the menaces of Sennacherib king of Syria. But 
 his son Manasseh, deviating from his pious steps, was 
 sold into the hands of Esarhaddon, the successor of 
 Sennacherib. 
 
 C 2 
 
so AN'CIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Q. Wliat was the character of this prince ? 
 
 A. He was wise and politic ; he reunited the kingdom 
 of Babylon to that of Nineveh, and by his numerous con- 
 quests, equalled, in extent of dominion, the ancient Assy- 
 rian monarchs. 
 
 Q. What was the situation of the-Medes, during these 
 conquests of Esarhaddon ? 
 
 A. They began to render themselves respectable, un- 
 der the wiae administration of Deioces their first king. 
 He had been raised to the throne on account of his adhe- 
 rence to virtue. He terminated the disorders occasi- 
 oned from the anarchy into which his country had been 
 throvvn, and laid the foundation of a powerful empire. 
 The city of Ecbatana v/as also built by him. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Numa in the kingdom, of Rome ? 
 
 • A. Tuiius Hostilius, under whose reign, and in the 
 
 Sod year of the city, happened the famous combat of 
 
 the Horatii and Curiatii ; by which Alba was sulijected, 
 
 and its citizens incorporated v,'ith the victorious Romans. 
 
 Q. What was the state of Egypt at this time ? 
 
 A. Psammitichus nov/ reigned in Egypt. It had be- 
 fore been divided into twelve parts, and was governed by 
 an equal number cf princes ; but Psammitichus, v/ho 
 ^vas one of them, having been expelled by the jealousy 
 of the rest, collected an army, dethroned the eleven con- 
 federate princes, and seized upon the whole kingdom. 
 The lonians aided hirn in the revolution, for which he 
 granted them an establishment in Egypt, hitherto inac- 
 cessible to strangers. This circum.stance established a 
 commerce with the Grecians, which was afterwards kept 
 up, and is considered the era of true Egyptian history ; 
 all that went before, having been so darkened by fables 
 and the invention of the Priests, as to be worthy of very 
 Httle credit. 
 
 Q. To what period of time does this bring us ? 
 
SEVENTH EPOCHA. SI 
 
 A. To the year of thcworld 3348. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Deiocea in Media ? 
 
 A. Phraortes, who, after a reign of 22 years, left the 
 kingdom to his son Cyaxares. The Scythians, in Cyax- 
 ares's reign, dispossessed him of all upper Asia, and 
 held it 28 years. 
 
 Q. What has been the situation of Judah since you 
 last adverted to it ? 
 
 A. Anion succeeded Manasseh, and after a short 
 reign, left the kingdom to his son Josiah ; who proved a 
 pious prince and thoroughly reformed the Jewish state. 
 
 Q. Did Rome continue to flourish ? 
 
 A. Yes ; by the apparently wise establishment of in- 
 corporating the conquered nations, she increased in the 
 number of her citizens, and in power ; but this was, at 
 length, one of the causes of her downfal. Ancus Mar- 
 tins, her fourth king, now reigned. 
 
 Q. You have mentioned some time since, that Baby- 
 Ion had been revinited to Nineveh ; how long did it con- 
 tinue so ? 
 
 A. Until the reign of Chiniladen, who proving an 
 effeminate prince, Nabopollasser, general of his armies 
 against Cyaxares the Mede, rebelled against him ; and 
 joining with Astyages the son of Cyaxares, took Nine- 
 veh and slew his master; after which, to gratify the 
 Medes, he utterly destroyed that ancient city ; and from 
 this time, Babylon became the metropolis of the Assy- 
 rian empire ? 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Nabopollasser in the Assyrian 
 empire, and when ? 
 
 A. His son Nebuchadnezzar, in the year of the world, 
 3397. 
 
 Q. What is his character ? 
 
 A. He is much famed in history for his conquests, 
 both in the east and the west ; he raised Babylon to be the 
 
32 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 metropolis of the world. Jerusalem was taken by hira 
 three several times, and at last totally destroyed ; and 
 the people of Judah were led into bondage by the con- 
 queror. 
 
 Q. This, I suppose, was the Babylonish captivity of 
 'seventy years, so often mentioned in the writings of the 
 prophets ? 
 
 A. It was. 
 
 Q. Let me turn your attention to Greece : inform me 
 in what particulars Athens exceeded Sparta ? 
 
 A. A frdrer order of civil polity was displayed in the 
 constitution of Athens ; a constitution, which furnished, 
 not only a model for the laws of Rome, but for most of 
 the nations of Europe. It was a regular system of ju- 
 risprudence, extending to every class of citizens. 
 
 Q. By whom were these improvements introduced, 
 which formed tlie peculiar merit of the Athenian go- 
 vernment, and when ? 
 
 A. By Solon, in the year of the world 3410. 
 
 Q. State the outlines of his administration ? 
 
 A. He vested the sovereign power in the general as- 
 sembly of the people, which was composed of fi-ee 
 men, whose age exceeded thirty ; but m order to obvi- 
 ate the evils, which a pure and unmixed democracy must 
 have produced, when vested with an absolute and uncon- 
 troled authority, he established a balance of power in 
 the council of five hundred. The members of this 
 council, were appointed annually by lot; they were 
 obliged to possess certain legal qualifications ; and to 
 stand the test of a severe scrutiny into their moral 
 character, before they were invested with their liigh 
 office . 
 
 Q. What was the province of the council of five hun- 
 dred? 
 
SEVENTH EPOCHA. 33 
 
 A. They had the direction of all political concerns, 
 and prepared business for the assembly of the people, 
 to whom no measure was proposed without their previ- 
 ous sanction. 
 
 Q. What other measures did he take for the benefit 
 of the people ? 
 
 A. H* restored the court of Areopagus, so much ce- 
 lebrated for the pure administration of justice, and the 
 unsullied character of its members. 
 
 Q. What powers v/ere the members of this court in* 
 vested with ? 
 
 A. They tried criminals for capital offences, inspect- 
 ed the general behaviour of the citizens, superintended 
 the conduct of youth, and took care that they were edu- 
 cated in a manner suitable to their rank. 
 
 Q. Had they not other privileges still more impor- 
 tant? 
 
 A. Yes ; they had the power of reversing the decrees 
 
 of the popular assembly, of rescuing the condemned 
 
 from their sentence ; and condemning the acquit- 
 ted ? 
 
 Q. What was the situation of Athens ? 
 
 A. It naturally directed the attention of its inhabi- 
 tants to commerce. The country, although fruitful in 
 vines and olives, was not adequate to the support of its 
 inhabitants, without the supply of foreign produce : this 
 deficiency pointed out the sea, as the proper sphere for 
 their exertions ; and, in time, they rose to the highest 
 eminence as a commercial state. Their great inter- 
 course with strangers, gave a particular direction to 
 their laws, and promoted that urbanity of manners, by 
 which they were so eminently distinguished. 
 
 Q. Did not the different laws of Sparta and Athens, 
 produce, in the course of time, a corresponding dilTer- 
 ence of manners ? 
 
34 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 A. Yes ; the performances of the theatre, the popu- 
 lar assemblies, and the sacred festivals, employed the 
 inhabitants of Athens ; while the Spartans, indulging 
 in no amusement or relaxation, Vvcre incessantly busied 
 in the exercise of war. The streets of Athens resound- 
 ed with lively notes of music, and their songs were dic- 
 tated by the tender passions of pity and love ; ftie poets 
 of Sparta, rehearsed only the stern virtues of departed 
 heroes, or roused her sons to martial exploits by the de- 
 scription of battles, victory or death. In Athens, the 
 sportive sallies of wit, and the gay images of fancy, 
 gave a peculiar vivacity to social intercourse ; the se- 
 riousness of a Spartan was manifested in his cautious re- 
 serve, his grave deportment, and the peculiar concise- 
 ness of his sharp and pointed repartee. The virtues of a 
 Spartan were gloomy and austere j while the dissipa 
 tion of an Athenian was engaging and agreeable. The 
 one was an illiterate soldier, whose character was form- 
 ed by martial discipline alone j the other was a man of 
 genius, of taste, and of letters, who enjoyed the advan- 
 tages of refinement and knowledge. 
 
 Q. This digression has carried you a little beyond the 
 period we have been contemplating. Return to the 
 reign of Psammitichus in Egypt. Who succeeded him, 
 and when ? 
 * A. His son Nechus, in the year of the world 3394. 
 
 He is called in scripture, Pharaoh Necho. It was 
 against him that Josiah, king of Judah, fought the battle 
 in the valley of Megiddo ; where he received the fatal 
 wound of which he died ? 
 
 Q. By whom was Nechus succeeded ? 
 
 A. By Psammis, who left the kingdom to his son 
 Apries, the Pharaoh Hophra of the bible, against whom 
 so many prophecies are directed. The first year of 
 Apries was the last of Cyaxares, king of the Medes, who^ 
 
" SEVENTH EPOCHA. 35 
 
 after a reign of forty years, was succeeded by his soa 
 Astyagcs. 
 
 Q. In what year was this ? 
 
 A. In the year of the world 3410. 
 
 Q. Who reigned at this time in Rome ? 
 
 A. Tarquinius Priscus. He subdued part of Tusca- 
 ny ; and having adorned the city with many magnifi- 
 cent works, left the throne to Servius TuUius. 
 
 Q. What was the situation of Babylon ? 
 
 A. Nebuchadnezzar having finished his expeditions, 
 and enriched himself with the spoils of conquered na- 
 tions, turned his attention to adorning the city, and rais- 
 ing those stupendous works, of which we read with so 
 much interest, in ancient history. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. His son Evil Merodach, who, as soon as he was 
 settled on the throne, released Jehoiachim, king of Ju- 
 dah, out of prison, where he had been confined 37 
 years ; but he afterwards rendered himself so odious, 
 even to his own relations, that they conspired against 
 him ; and he was slain after a short reign of two year§, 
 by Neriglessar his sister's husband, who usurped the 
 throne, in the year of the world, 3444. 
 
 Q. W^ho succeeded Neriglessar ? 
 
 A. His son Laborosoarchod, a brutal prince, who af- 
 ter a reign of nine months, was put to death by his own 
 subjects, in the year of the world 3449, and 555 before 
 the Christian era. 
 
 Q. How was the government settled ? 
 
 A . Narbouid, grandson of Nebuchadnezzar, and the 
 Belshazzar of the scripture, having removed those who 
 had murdered his father Evil Merodach, succeeded to 
 the kingdom of Babylon. 
 
 Q. What was the situation of Athens at this time ? 
 
 A. Pisistratus, in the year of the world 3444, usurped 
 
36 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 the sovereign authority at Athens ; and with his succes- 
 sors, infringed the fair and e<juitable plan of government 
 which had been estabHshed by Solon. The struggles of 
 the Athenians for their rights, in succeeding times, con- 
 spired, with other causes, to involve them in wars with 
 the Persians. 
 
 Q. What was the situation of the Medes ? 
 
 A. They Avere increasing in power under Astyages ; 
 which exciting the jealousy of Neriglessar king of Baby- 
 Ion, he declared v, ar against them ; but before it termi- 
 nated, Astyages died, and left the kingdom to his son Cy- 
 axares, called by Daniel, Darius the Mede. The war 
 with which he was threatened being very formidable, ho 
 applied to Cambyses king of Persia, who had married 
 his sister, for assistance. Cambyses sent a body of 
 troops, and with them his son Cyrus, whom his uncle 
 Cyaxares appointed general of his armies against the 
 king of Babylon. 
 
 Q. What was the character of Cyrus ? 
 
 A. He was a prince of extraordinary wisdom and 
 courage. In his infancy, he resided in Persia with his 
 father, where he received an education which qualified 
 him to endure hardships, and the incidental fatigues and 
 dangers of a military life. At twelve years of age he 
 was sent into Media, by his grandfather Astyages, where 
 he remained five years, and gained the love and respect 
 of all that knew him, by his virtuous behaviour and ami- 
 able manners. 
 
 Q. W^hat was his conduct in this war ? 
 
 A. It was glorious, and his success astonishing. Hav- 
 ing, by his superior abilities in the art of war, vanquished 
 the king of Babylon, and Croesus his ally, in battle, he 
 pursued his advantage over Croesus, surrounded him in 
 his capital, and got possession of his kingdom and im- 
 mense riches. 
 
SEVENTH EPOCHA. 37 
 
 Q. Who was Croesus ? 
 
 A. He was king of Lydia, in Asia Minor, and was the 
 most wealthy prince of his time. The capital of his 
 kingdom was Sardis. 
 
 Q. In what manner did Cyrus proceed ? 
 
 A. He subdued, with equal expedition, the other allies^ 
 of the king of Babylon ; made himself master of all Asia 
 Minor, and extended his conquests into Syria. 
 
 Q. Did he stop here ? 
 
 A. No ; he marched against Babylon itself, made 
 himself master of that powerful city, and of the whole 
 Assyrian empire ; which he put under the dominion of 
 his uncle Cyaxares. 
 
 Q. How long did Cyaxares reign in Babylon ? 
 
 A. He died within two years after his accession to the 
 throne, as did also Cambyses, king of Persia ; at which 
 time, Cyrus succeeded to the whole monarchy. Thus 
 the empire of the east was transferred from the Assy- 
 rians to the Medes and Persians ; but as Cyrus was a Per- 
 sian, and all his successors, it has obtained the name of 
 the Persian monarchy j Cyrus, and not Cyaxares, being 
 reputed the founder. 
 
 Q. To what period are we to fix the Persian empire 
 under Cyrus ? 
 
 A. 216 years after the building of Rome, 536 years 
 before the birth of Christ, and in the year of the world 
 3468. 
 
 D 
 
ANCIENT ?IISTORY. 
 
 EIGHTH EPOCHA. 
 
 REIGN OF CYRUS. 
 
 Q. What was the first remarkable act of Cyrus, upoii 
 his accession to the throne ? 
 
 A. In the first year of his reign, he pubUshccl the fa- 
 mous decree for rebuilding the temple of Jerusalem ; 
 the seventy years captivity being now completed, as 
 foretold by the prophet ? 
 
 Q. Who governed the Roman empire at this time ? 
 
 A. Servius Tullius still reigned at Rome } he had 
 greatly enlarged the city, and by his mild and popular 
 administration, had become the peculiar favourite of his 
 subjects : but this excellent prince, at last fell a sacrifice 
 to the perfidy of his own daughter, and the ambitious de- 
 signs of his son-in-law, Tarquin the Proud, who suc- 
 ceeded him in the throne, in the year of the world 3470. 
 
 Q. Is not Cyrus mentioned in sacred writ ? 
 
 A. Yes J in the 41th and 45th chapter of Isaiah, he 
 is mentioned by name, 220 years before he was born, 
 and has the glorious titles bestowed upon him of God's 
 Shepherd, and God's Anointed ; and, from the partiality 
 he manifested towards the Jews, it appears he feared the 
 God of Israel. 
 
 Q. W^ho succeeded him ? 
 
 A. 'lis son Cambyses, in the year of the world 34-75. 
 Under him the Persians enlarged their empire by the 
 conquest of Egypt. 
 
 Q. What was his character ? 
 
 A. He proved a orutal prince^ unworthy of filling the 
 
EIGHTH El'OCIIA. 39 
 
 ihrone of Cyrus. He ordered his brother Smerdis to be 
 killed privately, in consequence of a suspicious drciun 
 -which disturbed his fancy. I?ut he did not long- sur\ivc 
 iiim ; and upon his death, Snicrdis, ih- magician, usurp- 
 ed the throne, under pretence of being Smerdis, the son 
 of Cyrus. 
 
 Q. Was not this deception soon discovered ? 
 
 A. Yes ; and gave rise to the famous confederacy of 
 the seven Noblemen ; the result of wliich nas, that Da- 
 rius, the son of Hystexspes, Avas raised to the Pcrsiun 
 throne, in the year of the world 5483. He is culled 
 in scripture Ahasuerus. 
 
 Q. You informed mc, some time back, that Pisis- 
 tratus had usurped the sovereign authority at Athens ; 
 when did they recover their liberty ? 
 
 A. During tlic reign of Darius in Persia, Hamiodi- 
 us and Aristoj/iton slew Hippcirchus, the son oi Pisis- 
 tratus, and ol^liged his brother Hippias to fly into the 
 domiiuoRs of Darius for protection. 
 
 Q. What was the situation of Rome at tlils time ? 
 
 A. About the time of this revolution at Athens, one 
 of a similar nature occurred at Rome. Tarquin, by 
 his violence and arbitrary measures, had rendered the 
 royal power odious ; and the insult of his son Sextus, 
 upon Lucretia, completed tlic public indignation. The 
 people, animated by th.e sentiments and heroic beha- 
 viour of Brutus, slicok off the regal tyranny, and de- 
 clared themselves a free stat'j. 
 
 Q. W^hcn did this take place ? 
 
 A. In the ycirof the world 3494, and 244 years after 
 the building of Rome. 
 
 Q. Did Tarquin quietly subm.il to this expulsion ? 
 
 A. No ; he drew in several neighbouring princes to 
 vindicate his cause, amongst v>hom Porsenna, kirg of 
 the Clusians, bore Jie most distinguished part. 
 
40 ANCIENT HISTORY*. 
 
 Q. What v/as the conduct of the Romans ? 
 
 A. It wcia upon this occasion, that they first hc^mi to 
 discover, tiiut noble ardour for hberty, that inviolable 
 love of thtii' country, which makes so distinguished a 
 part cf the character of that renowned nation. 
 
 Q. Did Poracnna persist in his defence of Tar- 
 q'un. 
 
 A. No ; struck witli the bravery of the Romans, he 
 determhied no longer to interrupt them, in the enjoys 
 ment of a liberty, to which their merit gave them so 
 just a titl-j. 
 
 Q. Rut were not the Roman:^, M'ho were invincible 
 to a forei.:2;n force, in danger of being ruined by intes- 
 tine divisions ? 
 
 A. Yes ; the jealousy between the Patricians and Ple- 
 beians rose so high, Ihatthe latter retired from the city, 
 and entrenched themselves upon a hill, afterwards call- 
 ed Mons Sacer. 
 
 Q. Did these two coritcMu'ing panics enter into open 
 hostiiid'js ? 
 
 A. No; the mild persuasions of Ivlenenius Agrippa, 
 and tlic concessions made by the Senate, in the admis- 
 sion of riebcian magistrates, whcse cflice wi.s to pro- 
 tect the people against the consuls, soRened their dis- 
 contents, and restored tranquillity to the state. The 
 law establishing the institution of these magistrates, 
 was called the sacred law, and they had the liile of the 
 Tribunes of the people. 
 
 Q. When did this revolution happen ? 
 
 A. In the 258th year of the city, and of the world, 
 3510. 
 
 Q. You informed me some time back that Ilip- 
 pias, brother to the dethroned monarch of Athens, 
 flew into Persia tor protection ; did he p:*cvail upon Da- 
 rius to declare war against the Athenians : 
 
EIGHTH EPOCHA. 41 
 
 A. Yes ; and ]Mardoiiius Avas sent with a numerous 
 arniy against them. 
 
 Q. What v.as his success? 
 
 A. MiUiadf s, \vith a handful of men, in the plains 
 of Marathon, gave him battle, and totally routed his 
 forces. 
 
 Q. This victory, I recollect to have been much cele- 
 brated in :.]icient history ; what v.as the comparative 
 force of the two armies ? 
 
 A. The Athenians did not exceed ten thoi.-sand, and 
 the Persians have been computed at twenty times their 
 numbc'.'. 
 
 Q. When was this b,Utlc fcu-lit ? 
 
 A. In the year of the world 35 14. . >■ 
 
 Q. What was the situation of Home ? 
 
 A. The spi'/it of discontent between the nobility and 
 the people, which had in some measure been allayed, 
 was by no means wholly suppressed. Coriolanus, a 
 distir.j^uished senator arid c;cncral, who had rendered 
 eminent services to the repubiic, was treated with great 
 severity and inj.'iratitude, and was compelled to leave 
 his country to save his life. 
 
 Q. Did he passively submit to his bariishment ? 
 
 A. iN^o ; of a haughty and indignant spirit, he resolv- 
 ed upon revenge ; and v.ith this view, applied to the 
 Volsciiuis the enemies of Home, and tendered them 
 his services against his nalive country. The offer 
 was cordially embraced; and Coriolanus v.as made 
 general of the ^'olsci an army. 
 
 Q. What v;ere his victories ? 
 
 A. He recovered from the Romans, all the towns 
 they htid taken from the \^oIsci ; carried by assault 
 several cities in Latiura ; and led his troops within 
 five miles of the city of Rome. After several unsuc- 
 
 D2 
 
42 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 ccssful embassies from the Senate, all hope of pacifying 
 the injured exile appeared extinguished, and the sole 
 business of Rome, was to prepare v. ith tiie utmost dili- 
 gence for sustaining a siege. 
 
 Q. What was the conduct of the women upon this oc- 
 casion ? 
 
 A. Terrified by the impcndingdanger into anep;lcctof 
 their usual decorum, they ran tuniultuously from th.cir 
 houses to the temples. Every siuictuary, and particu- 
 larly the t:;mple of Jupiter Capitolinus, resounded with 
 the v/tiillnr^'s and loud supplications of women. 
 
 Q. Wh.at followed ? 
 
 A. In th.is j^eneral consternaUon and distress, Valeria, 
 .AS if moved by a divine impulse, suddenly took her stand 
 upon the top of the steps of the temple of Jupiter, and 
 having assemljled the womcvj about her, confidently de- 
 clared there was yet h.ope for the Republic ; that its pre- 
 servation depended upon them, and upon their perform- 
 ance cf the duty they owed their country ; buL it is not 
 by the sword, nor by the strength cf the arm, that we are 
 to prevail ; tliese belong not to our sex ; soft moving 
 words must be our weapon and our force. Let us all, 
 in our mourning ature, and accompanied by our chil- 
 dren, entre;..t Vcturia, tlie mother of Coriolanus, to 
 intercede with her son for our common safely. 
 
 Q. Was this proposition agreed to ? 
 
 A. Yes ; it was universally applauded, and tlie whole 
 train of women took their waj- to Veturia's house ; where, 
 by their urgent solicitations, they at length obttined 
 the promise of Veturia to comply with their request. 
 
 Q. In what manner did they proceed ? 
 
 A. The next day, the most illustrious of the Roman 
 women repaired to Veturia's house, wdiere, with Vetu- 
 ria and Volumnia Coiiolanus's wife, they mounted a 
 number of chariots, which had been ordered by the con- 
 
EIGHTH EPOCHA. 4J3 
 
 auls to be made ready for them, and, without a guard, 
 took thtir way to the enemy's camp. Coriolanus, upon 
 perceiving who they were, and conjecturing what views 
 the Romans had in so extraordinary a deputation, re- 
 solved, in liis ovrn mind, not to be moved ; but he reckon- 
 ed upon a savage inflexibihty that was not in his nature : 
 for, going out with a few attendants to receive the wo- 
 men, he no s'^oner saw Veturia, attired in mournintr, 
 her eyes bathed in tears, and Mith a countenance and 
 motion that bespoke her sinking under a load of sorrow ; 
 than he hastily ran to lier, and not only calling her mo- 
 ther, but adding to that word the most tender epithets, 
 embraced her, wept over her, and held her in his arms 
 to prevent her falling. A like lenderntss he presently 
 afterwards expressed to his wife, and then, with the 
 warmest paternal affection, caressed his children. 
 
 Q. How did Vetiiiia succeed ? 
 
 A. After some time had been idlowed to those silent 
 tears of joy, which often flow plentcously at the sudden 
 and unexpected meeting of persons dear to each other ; 
 Veturia^entercd upon the business she had undertaken, 
 Mid in the most imi>res3ive language of entreaty, solicited 
 her son to resi-n his commission as general, and to de- 
 sist from the destruction of his country. Coriolanus 
 made no attempt to interrupt her while speiiking, and 
 when she had ceased, continued in deep silence. 
 Anger, hatred, and desire of revenge, balanced in his 
 heart, those softer passions, which tlie sight and discourse 
 of his mother had awakened ip his breast. 
 
 Q. What was the conduct of his mother ? 
 
 A. P^crcciving his irresolution, she proceeded ; why 
 dost thou not answer me, my son ? Is there then such 
 greatness of mind in giving all to resentment .? Art thou 
 ashamed to grant any thing to a mother, who thus en- 
 treats thee, tlius humbles herself to thee ? If Uus be the 
 
44 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 case, to what purpose should I longer tndurc a -Nvrctchcd 
 life ? As she uttered these words, interrupted by sighs, 
 she threw herself prostrate at his fe-t ; his wife and chil- 
 dren did the sanrj ; and all the Avonien, with united 
 voices of mournful accent, begLCti '^ri^^ implored his pity. 
 The X'olscian officers, not iJ;Ie unmoved to behold this 
 scene, turned awitv their eyes ; but Coriolanus, almost 
 beside himself to see Vetuiia at his fert, passionately 
 cried out, ah I mother, wb.ut art thou doinj^.'r and tenderly 
 pressing her hand in raising her up, added, in a low 
 voice, Home is suvtd, bnt thy son is lost. Karly next 
 morning CoriokuHis broke up his camp, and peaceably 
 marched liis army homeward. 
 
 Q. Did Danus king; of Ferf ia live to cominuc llic v.ar 
 against the Athenians ? 
 
 A. >o ; ne was succeeded by Xerxes, who prepared 
 to revenge the defeat at Marathon, by a new expctulion 
 against C' recce, lie is said to have been followed in 
 this aUempt, by an army of 1700,000 men. Leonidas, 
 king of Sparta, uilh only 300 Lacedemonians, encoun- 
 tered his whole force in the streights of 'I'hermopilrc. 
 For three days he defended himself against tlie nume- 
 rous army of the Persians ; but behig at lenj^th cur- 
 rounded, he and his followers were ail slain upon the spot. 
 
 Q. When was this? 
 
 A. In the year of the v.orkl 3524. 
 
 Q. Did Xerxes continue successful in his expedition ? 
 
 A. No ; by the wise counsel of Themi-^tocles, the 
 Athenian admiral, the naval army of the Persians -was 
 the same year vanciuished near Salamis ; and Xerxes, 
 in great fear, repassed the Hellespont, leavhig the 
 command of his land forces to INkuxlonius. 
 
 Q. What was the success of Mardonius ? 
 
 A. lie was killed, and his whole army routed, near 
 Plati:ca, by Pausanias; king of the Lacedemonians, and 
 
EIGHTH LPOCHA. 45 
 
 A ri Slides, general of the Athenians. This battle was 
 foui^ht in the moiT.ing ; and on the evenhig of the san\e 
 day, the hv naval forces obtained a memorable victory 
 over the remainder of the Persian fleet, 
 
 Q. What was the effect of tliesc signal events ? 
 
 A. They restored liberty to the fairest portion of 
 Asia, where the Greek colonies were planted, and 
 completely frustrated the dt^ij^ns of Xerxes to enslave 
 the nations of Europe. 
 
 Q. What was the state of Athens after this con- 
 quest ? 
 
 A. For half a century after the repulse of the armies 
 of Darius and Xerxes, the Athenians maintained, with- 
 out control, tl.c pre-eminence of pov/er. The fur- 
 ther progress of the Ath.enians in extending their do- 
 minion, was assisted by colonization and commerce. 
 Th.cir navy rode the sea in triun^ph, and their mer- 
 chants exchanged the superfluous productions of Attica, 
 for the choicest fruits of diLtant couiUiies. The large 
 :nd fertile Island of Euboea was numbered among 
 their territories ; their domiiiion extended over the 
 space of a thousand miles, from Cyprus to the Thraci- 
 an Rosphorus, and over foity intermediate ish^nds. 
 They planted colonies on the winding shores of iVIacc- 
 don and Thrace, and commanded the coasts of the Eux- 
 ine sea from Pontus to Crim Tartary. These trophies 
 of naval pov>cr were erected, not over ignorant barbari- 
 ans, but over men who had the same languac,e and laws, 
 the same arts and lineage ; who had every thing with 
 il.e victors, except skill in navigation, prudence in 
 council, and prowess in the field. 
 
 Q. What was the state of the arts and literature in 
 (ircece ? 
 
 A. The same spirit of competition, which roused the 
 < Irrcian cities to contend for victory and renown, excited 
 
46 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 tliem to a rivalry of tiilenls. As soon as the apprclicr.- 
 sions of danger from the inroads of bafbarians were 
 removed, they be>^iai to cultivate the arts of elegance ; 
 and the defeat of the Pcrtian power, and the death of 
 Alexander the Great, containing :*n intermediate space 
 of 180 years, displayed the genius of Greece, shining in 
 its brightest splendour. 
 
 Q. Were not men of genius particularly encourag- 
 ed ? 
 
 A. Yes ; the name of the pointer and sculptor was 
 celebrated in festivals ; their works were exhibited at 
 public games ; and tliey were reputed to confer, by 
 every specimen of their art, distinguished honour upon 
 their country. The monuments of their talents reficct- 
 cd lustre upon their c'.K'.ractcr, and gave it the highest 
 /respectability; as it v as their noble pro>ince, to ex- 
 press the likeness of heroes, and to emlx)dy the perfec- 
 tions of their imaginary Gods. 
 
 Q. Were not the most memorable events kept in 
 view by these monuments of thicir ingenuity ? 
 
 A. Yes; the arts called forth, by the most lively ima- 
 Rfes, the crcat events and characters of history. l>crv 
 public edifice in Athens was fdlcd with statues of warri- 
 or^, legislators, philosophers, and orators. In one 
 place stood ^lilti ides, frowning destruction on l^crsiu ; 
 in another, the placid Socrates, the thoughtful Solon, 
 and the empas'.ioned I")cmoi:.thencs. ICvcry street pre- 
 sented an Athenim with some striking example of va- 
 lour, wisdom, or patriotism : wherever he turned his 
 eye ,'.e s. w some monument raised fo perpetuate the 
 renown of his uncestors ; and tlic precious tribute of 
 the arts, so literally paid to all persons of genius, 
 courage and virtue, gave the keenest incitement to the 
 display of every species of excellence. 
 
 Q. Here indi:eJ is displayed a prospect highly inter- 
 
EIGHTH EPOCHA. 47 
 
 esuny to every cultivated miiul ; for we behold Greece 
 when in her most flourishing state, adorned with litera- 
 ture, arts and sciences. Does not the contrast with 
 other nations, render the picture still more impres- 
 sive ? 
 
 A. Vcs ; for at a period when all surrounding nations 
 were obscured by intellectual darkness, and were bar- 
 barous and unpolished ; her sons unfolded the full pow- 
 ers of their transcendant genius. Their active mtelkct, 
 not enervated by tiic luxuries of refinement, nor dis- 
 tracted by a multiplicity of objects, exerted itself with 
 ardour, followed up many of its inventions with peree- 
 verance, and soared to the most astonishing heights of 
 the beautiful and the sublime. 
 
 Q. Were they not originally indebted to foreign 
 countries for the arts and sciences? 
 
 A. Yes; toother countries they were doubtless in- 
 debted for some iiide and imperfect essays of art, sci- 
 ence and philosophy ; but it was their peculiiir glory to 
 shape them into beauty, and methodise them into sys- 
 tem ? 
 
 Q. This interesting digression, has canied you be- 
 yond the usual limits, and has unavoidably anticipated 
 some events which had not taken place, when jrou en- 
 tered upon this subject: return to tlic reign of Xerxes, 
 king of Persia. Who succeeded him, and when ? 
 
 A. He was succeeded by Artaxerxes Longimanus, in 
 the year of the world 3540. It is generally supposed, 
 that from him, Nehemiali received tlic commission to 
 restore and rebuild Jenisalem. 
 
 Q. What was the situation of Rome ? 
 
 A. The distinguished character which Greece bor» 
 amongst the nations, determined the Romans to form a 
 •chcmc of laws upon their model ; and with tliis view, 
 deputies were sent to cxuujinc tlic coa^titutions of tlic 
 
48 A'NCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 several Greek cities, and parlicultiily th^it of Atheub. 
 Ten mai^i St rates Avere elected, in the year of the 
 ■world 33 54, \vith absolute authority to carry this de- 
 sign into execution. 
 
 Q. What was their success ? 
 
 A. They composed a body of lavrs, digested into 
 twelve tables, which were proposed to the people, and 
 received their approbation. But the Decemvli^s, after 
 having finished their business, found too many charms 
 in authority to readily resign it ; and vainly attempted 
 to entail slavery upon a state, whose predominant pas- 
 sion was the love of liberty i but the Romans, disdain- 
 ing to submit to their oppressors, abolished the Deceiu- 
 rirs, and restored the authority of the consuls. 
 
 Q. When did the Pei'sians wholly decline hostilities 
 with Greece ? 
 
 A. About this time, Cimon, the Athenian general, 
 having obtained miuiy victories over the Persians ; Ar- 
 taxerxes signed a treaty of peace, highly to the ho- 
 nour and advantage of Greece ? 
 
 Q. What other scheme of politics did he pursue ? 
 
 A. He endeavoured to'weaken their force, by foment- 
 ing intestine divisions. 
 
 Q. Did any thing of this kind take place ? 
 
 A. Yes ; m the year of the world 3573, a war broke 
 out between the Athenians and Lacedemonians, and 
 is known by the name of the Peloponnesian war. It last- 
 ed twenty-seven years, and at length terminated in the 
 taking of Athens by Lysander, who had drawn into the 
 party of the Lacedemonians, Darius NotJius, son and 
 successor of Artaxerxes. 
 
 Q. Did not the Persians become sensible of their 
 error in making the Lacedemonians thus powerful ? 
 
 A. Yes ; that ambitious republic, having now no rival 
 to fear, began to extend its view to Asia ; and promoted 
 
EIGHTH EPOCHA. 49 
 
 the expcdilion of young Cyrus against his brother Ar- 
 taxcrxcs Mnemon, who had succeeded Darius Nothus, 
 in the year of the world 3603. 
 Q. Did Cyrus succeed ? 
 
 A. No ; he fell in battle by his own rashness, and 
 left ten thousand Greeks, who had served under him, 
 exposed to all the dangers of war, in an unknown regi- 
 on, several hundred miles from their native country, 
 iind surrounded on every side with numerous armies ; 
 but they effected an honourable retreat, which has been 
 celebrated by Xenophon, the disciple of Socrates, who 
 himself conducted it ; and who was the gi'catcst com- 
 mander and philosopher of his time. 
 
 Q. \Miat other characters distinguish.cd themselves 
 in Ci:ecce during the Peloponnesian war I 
 
 A. IVriclcs, Alcibiadcs, Thrasybuliis, Colon, l3ras;- 
 des, and Lysander. 
 
 Q. And what was the state of Rome ? 
 
 A. She was rendering herself formidable to all the 
 nations round her. \'eii, one of the strongest and most 
 opulent cities in Italy, was taken by Camillus, after a 
 biegc of ten years. Hut soon after this, Rome was redu- 
 ced to the greatest extremity. 
 
 Q. By what means ? 
 
 A. By the irruption of the Gauls, who defeated the Ro- 
 man army, and advancing against the city, laid it in ashes. 
 Such of the senators iuul nobles as chose to survive the 
 ruin of their country, retired into thecapitol with Man- 
 lius, where they resolutely defended themselves, un- 
 til relieved by Camillus, whose bravery restored Rome 
 again, to her former splendour ? 
 
 Q. In Mhat year did the Gauls destroy tJie city of 
 Rome •*"* 
 
 r 
 
50 ANCIENT HSITORY. 
 
 A. In the 363d year after it had been founded bv 
 Romuhis, and in the year of the world 3615. 
 
 Q. Did the Lacedemonian power in Greece continue 
 to predominate ? 
 
 A. No; it bet^an to decline; and Thebes, which 
 had hitherto made no figme in the history of nations, 
 raised herself to the highest pitch of glory, by the wis- 
 dom and valour of F.paminondas. 
 
 Q. What was the cliaracter of this general ? 
 
 A. The most illustrious of antiquity. He possessed 
 in an eminent degree, all the virtues necessary in a 
 warrior and a statesman ; nor was he less distinguished 
 as a philosopher. No Thcban ever equalled him in 
 knowledge and eloquence. 
 
 Q. Did Thebes retain her power, after the death of 
 ^^his great personage ? 
 
 A. No ; she fell again into her former degree of in- 
 significancy, and yielded to the sceptre of Sparta. 
 
 Q. Was not Greece at this time in a much less flou- 
 rishing state than formerly ? 
 
 A. Yes ; she was about submitting to a new power, 
 M'hich, beginning in Philip, rose to the dominion of all 
 Asia. 
 
 Q. Who was Philip ? 
 
 A. lie was king of Macedon, and had betn brought 
 up under Epaminondas. He was of an enterprising gcni^ 
 us, and gave early proofs of an unbounded ambition. 
 
 ■Q. Did not this spirit of enterprise and ambition ex- 
 cite the jealousy of the neighbouring powers ? 
 
 A. Yes ; and created their united exertions to oppose 
 his growing greatness. But although Oclius and his son 
 Arses, kings of Persia, did their utmost to thwart his de- 
 signs ; although the Athenians, roused by the eloquence 
 of Demosthenes, drew into a confederacy almost the 
 vhole of Greece against him ; yet he triumphed ovei* 
 
EIGHTH EPOCHA. 51 
 
 every difficulty ; and the victory of Choronea rendered 
 him absolute in all the Grecian states. 
 
 Q. At what time did this take place ? 
 
 A. In the year of the world 3665. 
 
 Q. Did he make any other conquests ? 
 
 A. No ; he was forming the plan of an expedition into 
 ihe east, and projected the total overthrow of the Persi- 
 an empire ; but an untimely death hurried him out of 
 the world, in the year 3668. He was succeeded by his; 
 son Alexander, surnamcd the Great. 
 
 Q. What was the character of this prince ? 
 
 A. lie gave proofs from his earliest years, of a hero- 
 ic spirit, that appeared destined for the conquest of 
 nations. 
 
 Q. Who reigned now in Persia i^ 
 
 A. About this time Darius Codomaimus ascended the 
 throne, who, in a private station, had distinguished him- 
 self by his valour and prudence. 
 
 Q. Did he successfully defend himself against his 
 powerful rival ? 
 
 A. No ; Alexander having settled the affairs of Greece, 
 over-ran all Asia Minor with astonishing rapidity, defeat- 
 ed Darius in three pitched battles, and upon the death oi 
 that prince, who was treacherously slain by Bessus, be- 
 came sole monarch of the cast ; at v.hich time the 
 Persian empire ended. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. The commencement of the Macedonian or Greci- 
 an empire. yMcxander pursuing his victories, and be- 
 coming master of almost all the provinces of the cast, 
 became the founder of the third or Macedonian Em- 
 pire. 
 
 Q. When did this take place ? 
 
 A. 422 years after the building of Rome, 330 before 
 fhc birtJi of Christ, and in the year of the world 3674. 
 
5^ ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 NIXTil EPOCHS 
 
 GIJECIAN' EMPIRE. 
 
 Q. In what manner were the Romans employed at 
 this time ? 
 
 A. They were engaged m a tedious war with the 
 Samnites : but at length subdued them by the intrepi- 
 dity and judgment of Papirius Cursor, one of the great- 
 est generals of his time. 
 
 Q. What was the further progress of Alexander ? 
 
 A. He continued his con(|uests,and penetrated as far 
 as India ; but returning to Babylon, he died there, in the. 
 33d year of his age, and of the world, 3631. 
 
 Q. What became of his empire after his death ? 
 
 A. It was variously divided amongst his followers, 
 Perdiccas, Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, Antigonus, 
 Selcucus, Lysimachus, Antipater, and his son Cassan- 
 dcr, Avho had been commanders under this great con- 
 queror, and having learned from him the art of war, 
 formed a design of rendeimg themselves masters of the 
 several provinces, over which they were constituted 
 governors. 
 
 Q. Was the family of Alexander respected ? 
 
 A. No ; they were ^^hol]y destroyed, liis brother, 
 iiis mother, hisv.ivcs, his children , and even his sisters, 
 vterc sacrificed to the ambition of these new monarchs. 
 * Q. What were the principal moriarchics that arose 
 upon this occasion ? 
 
 A. Egypt, founded by Plolemy ; 'and Asia or Syria, 
 
NINTH EPOCHA. 53 
 
 founded by Sclcucus .- each of which continued pcrma- 
 Ticnt, and was inherited by their posterity for many years 
 ^.fterwards. 
 
 Q. And did the East remain subject to Greece ? 
 
 A. Yes ; and received its language and customs ; and 
 although it was not under the dominion of one prince, 
 as formerly, yet the Greeks universally governing in the 
 several principalities into which it was divided, gave oc- 
 casion for historians to term the period we are speaking 
 of, the Grecian or Macedonian empire. 
 
 Q. What was the situation of Greece during these 
 changes in tl^.e east ? 
 
 A. It was marked with a continued succession of revo- 
 lutions. Cassander, Pyrrhus king of Kpirus, Deme- 
 trius Polioccrtes, Lysimachus imd Scleucus, reiv^ned 
 successively in Macedonia ; each establishing himself 
 by the expulsion of his pixideccssors. 
 
 Q. What was the state of the Romans ? 
 
 A. They were extending their conquests in Italyj: 
 having subdued the Samnites, Brutians and lietrurians, 
 they threatened Tj-rentum with the same yoke. The 
 Tarentines finding themselves too weak to resist that 
 powerful republic, applied to Pyrrhus king of Epirus 
 for assistance, wl>o obtained two successive victories 
 over the Romans; but in the end they were beaten by con- 
 Mil Cuiius, and forced to abandon Italy. 
 
 Q. W^hen was this ? 
 
 A. In the year of the world 3732, 
 
 Q. When did Antigonus Gonatus get possession of 
 the throne of Macedonia ? 
 
 A. About this time, and left it to his posterity ; but 
 met wUh great opposition from Pyrrhus, who at length 
 \vas killed, at Argos, by a tile thrown from a house-top. 
 
 Q. When did the Acheon league take place in Greece, 
 end what was the object of it ? 
 
 K 3 
 
54 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 A. It took place during this period, and was projected 
 by Aratiis. It was a confederacy of several powerful 
 cities of Peloponnesus, and the neighbouring territories, 
 in defence of liberty ; and was the last cfPort made by 
 the Greeks to maintain their independence and freedom. 
 
 Q. Did the Romans, after the departr.re of Pyrrhus, 
 find any power in Italy able to oppose them ? 
 
 A. No ; they became masters of the whole country, 
 fi'om the farthest part of Hetruria to the Ionian sea, and 
 from the Tusccm sea to the Adriatic. In the Carthat;!- 
 nians alone, they found their most formidable enemy. 
 This repubUc, winch was founded by Dido, and which, 
 as far back as the reign of Xerxes, was considerable for 
 wealth and extent of territory, had, at this time, extend- 
 ed her dominioiis.to both sides of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Q. What settlements had the Carthaginians made, 
 besides those on the African coast ? 
 
 A. They had made several conquests in Spain ; had 
 settled in Corsica and Saixlinia ; and possessed several 
 towns in Sicily. 
 
 Q. Did you say they were a wealthy nation ? 
 
 A. Yes ; they had acquired immense wealth by com- 
 merce, and the sovereignty of the seas, which no nation 
 at this time could dispute A\ith them. This led the 
 Romans to consider them as a formidable rival, which, 
 if not checked, might grow to a power too mighty even 
 for Italy itself: hence tlic ori;^in of the several Piuiic 
 wars, the first of v/hich commeticed in the 489th year 
 of tlie city, and of the world, 3740. 
 
 Q. What wasti.is war considered remarkable for ? 
 
 A. It was the first foreign war in which the Romans 
 .had been engaged ; and, while employed in it, they 
 formed. the design of becoming masters of the sea, 
 which they accomplished. 
 
NINTH EPOCHA. 55 
 
 Q, What was llie progress of the war ? 
 
 A. i he consul Duilius ventured to attack the Car- 
 thaginian ticet, and obtained a complete victory. Rcgu- 
 lus, nis successor, no less distinguished himself He 
 landed in Africa, and reduced Laithage to the utmost 
 extremity ; but Xantippus, the Lacedemonian general, 
 arriving, gave a great change to the atiuirs of Afiiea. 
 Regulus was vanquished and made prisoner. 
 
 Q. What effect had this reverse of fortune upon Re- 
 gulus ? 
 
 A. It gave additional lustre to his fame. Being sent 
 into Italy to negociate a peace, and treat for an exchange 
 of prisoners, he warmly defended, in the senate, tliat 
 law, by which it was declared inconsistent with the glory 
 of the Roman name, to redeem prisoners taken captive 
 on the day of battle. 
 
 Q. What was the result ? 
 
 A. Upon his reiurn to Africa, it is said, he suffered 
 a cruel death from the resentment of the Cartliaginiuns, 
 who were incapable of admiring that greatness of soul, 
 which made him prefer tne interest of liis country to 
 all private considerations. 
 
 Q. How was the war afterwards conducted ? 
 
 A. With various success. Hamilcar, the Caithagi- 
 nian general, distinguislied himself cminenily in ..icily 
 by his military skill ; but tinally the consul Lutaiius 
 obtaining a coiwplete victory over tiie enemy's Ueet, 
 Carthage was compelled to submit, and to accept such 
 terms of peace as the Romans were pleased to grant 
 
 them. 
 
 Q. When did this war terminate ? 
 
 A. In theyearof the world o765. 
 
 Q. Did the Carthaginians enjoy peace upon the con- 
 clusion ot this war i 
 
 A. No : they were immediately after involved in ano^ 
 
56 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 ther, which brought them to the brink of destruction. 
 The mercenary troops, of which the army was com- 
 posed, revolting for want of pay, were joined by most 
 of the ciut'S of Africa. All endeavours to reconcile 
 them proved ineflectual ; they invested Carthage, and 
 would have dcstmyed it, but for the valour and conduct 
 of Mamilcar, who at length vanquished the rebels, and 
 recovered the revolted cities. 
 
 Q. Did the Carthaginians lose any part of their ter- 
 ritory during this Vvar ? 
 
 A. Ves ; thty lost Sardinia by the treachery of tiie 
 Romans, who takinjjf advantage of their domestic trou- 
 bles, seized that important inland. 
 
 Q. What was their situation in Spain ? 
 A. Haniilcar was sent to re-establish their dominion 
 in that province, lie carried on a war for nine years 
 with great success : his S'jn, the famous Hannibal, was 
 in the camp with him, where he learned the art of war, 
 and acquired that implacable hatred against the Ro- 
 mans, winch afterwards gave rise to so much conten- 
 tion. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Mamilcar in the command of the 
 army ? 
 
 A. Asdrubal, whose prudence and mild administra- 
 tion, established the Carth igiuian power in Spain. 
 Q. How were the Romans occui)ied during this lime ? 
 A. They were engared in a war with Teuta queen 
 of the lUyrians, who suffered licr sul)jects to practise 
 piracy on the sea coast ; but she was obliged to submit, 
 and resign part of her dominions to the conquerors. 
 Their next war was with the Gauls. After bringing As- 
 drubal into a treaty not to pass the Iberus, they enter- 
 ed seriously into the contest : they vanquished the 
 Gauls in several battles^ passed the Po, and pur5U9d 
 
NINTH EPOCHA. 57 
 
 iheir conquests on the opposite side, until they became 
 masters of Italy, from the Alps to the Ionian sea. 
 
 Q. When did Asdrubal die ? 
 
 A. About tliis time ; and was succeeded by Hanni- 
 bal, at the age of twenty-five, in the command of the 
 army. 
 
 Q. What was his character ? 
 
 A. He was the peculiar favourite of tlic soldiers, and 
 possessed all the virtues that distinguished his father. 
 He completed the conquest of Spain ; and conceiving 
 himself sufliciently powerful to enter upon tlie long pro- 
 jected war with the Romans, he advanced with his ar- 
 my to the river Iberus, and took the city of Saguntum. 
 
 Q. Did not the Roman ambassadors at Carthage in- 
 terfere ? 
 
 A. Yes ; but their complaints were little regarded. 
 The loss of Sicily ; tiie treacherous behaviour of the 
 Romans in seizing Sardinia ; and their unjust attempts 
 to abridge the power, and to bound the conquests of the 
 Carthaginians in Spain; had so irritated their mmds, 
 that all the endea\om's of the party, which opposed 
 Hannibal, were fruitless. 
 
 Q. \\'hat effect had this upon the Romans ? 
 
 A. They proclaimed war against the Carthaginiani% 
 by order of the senate. 
 
 Q. At what time was tliis ? 
 
 A. In the ;)3 jlh year of the city, ami of the world 
 :>7S7. 
 
 Q. In what manner did Hannibal proceed ? 
 
 A. He gained over the Italic Cauls, by ambassadors 
 secretly dispatched for that purpose ; lie prevailed on 
 the nations throui;h which he was to pass, l)y presents, 
 not to oppose his march ; and secured the peace of 
 Africa and Spain, by strong detachments of troops left 
 under ilie command of proper ^o\err.ori3. He tlien 
 
58 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 crossed the Iberus, ti-averscd thePyrennees, Trans-Al- 
 pine Gaul, and the Alps; and rushed upon Italy with 
 all his forces, before the Romans imagined him set out 
 from Spain. The Italic Gauls immediately joined him, 
 and seasonably reinforced his army, which had suffered 
 extremely in its passage over the Alps. 
 
 Q. What was the further prop;ress of the war ? 
 
 A. Four battles were successively won, which render- 
 ed it probable that Rome nmsi soon fall into llie hands 
 of this irresistible conqueror. Ilieronymus, king of 
 Syracuse, declared against the Romans ; almost the 
 whole of Italy abandoned them ; and the republic ap- 
 peared deprived of its last resource, by the death of 
 the two Scipios in vSpain. 
 
 Q. How did she extricate herself from this cxtre- 
 tremity ? 
 
 A. She owed her safety to the valour and conduct of 
 three great men. The firnuiess of Tabius, who, dc- 
 spisin;^ popular rumours, pursued steadily ».hose slow 
 measures, by which alone he found Hannibal could be 
 vanquished, served as a rampart to his country : Mar- 
 ccllus, who raised the seige of Nola, and took Syracuse, 
 revived the courage of the Roman troops: but the glo- 
 ry of conquering Hannibal, and putting an end to this 
 dangerous war, was reserved for young Scipio. 
 
 Q. At what age was he invested with the command 
 of the army ? 
 
 A. At the age of twenty-four, he undertook the com- 
 mand in Spain ; where his father and uncle had both 
 fallen. Immediately upon his arrival, he attacked New 
 Carthage and took it. His affability and humanity drew 
 most ofthe nations of Spain into an alliance with the Ro- 
 mans. The Carthaginians were obliged to abandon 
 that rich and fruitful country ; and Scipio, not .satisfied 
 
NINTH EPOCHA. 59 
 
 with tliese conquests, pursued them into Africa. Eve- 
 ry thini^; gave way to his superior valour and abilities. 
 The alhes of the Carthaginians forsook tliem, their ar- 
 mies were defeated, and that haughty republic was now 
 made to tremble in its turn. 
 
 Q. Did not Hannibal successfully oppose Sclpio ? 
 
 A. No; although he had maintained his ground 1C> 
 years in Italy, he was unable to stop the progress of this 
 young conqueror. Scipio defeated him m a pitched bat- 
 tle, and forced the Carthaginians to submit to the terms 
 of peace he had prescribed them. Thus ended the 
 second Punic war. 
 
 Q. At what time did this war terminate ? 
 
 A. In the 552d year of the city, 17 ycai-s after its conV 
 menccmcnt; and in the year of the world 3800. 
 
 Q. Let me now turn your attention to the affairs of 
 Asia, which during the pcricxl you have been speaking 
 of, were entirely separated from those of Europe. What 
 was the first occurrence worthy of notice ? 
 
 A. About the middle of the first Punic war, while 
 Antiochus Tlieos, king of Syria (the son of Antiochus 
 Soter) was engaged in war with Ptolemy king of Egypt ; 
 Thcodotus governor of Hactria, revolted and declared 
 iiimself king of that populous province, which contained 
 not less than a thousand cities, all of which he got under 
 his obedience, and rendered himself too strong to be after- 
 wards reduced. 
 
 Q. Did any otiicr nations follow this example ? 
 
 A. Yes ; particularly the Parthians, who, headed by 
 Arsaces, expelled the Macedonians, and laid the foun- 
 dation of an empire, which, in lime, extended itself ovxr 
 higher Asia; and which grew to such strength, hat the 
 Romans in their greatest power, were not able to shake. 
 It was afterwards called the throne of Arsacidae, from 
 Arsaces the founder of tlie empire. 
 
60 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Q. Did not these revolts greatly weaken the empire, 
 of the Syrian kini^s ? 
 
 A. Yes ; they became almost secluded from ail the pro- 
 vinces that lay beyond the Tyejris. This led them to 
 turn their attention to such parts of their dominions as 
 bordered upon Egypt ; in consequence of which, Jiidea, 
 which separated the two kingdoms, became the ground 
 of war and contention, and occasioned the shedding of 
 much blood. 
 
 Q. You informed me some time back, that after the 
 death of Alexander the v^reat, the empire of Egypi 
 Was founded by Ptolemy : who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. His son Ptolemy Philadclphus ; and his succes- 
 sors bore the name of Ptolemy, until Cleopatra ; un- 
 der whom the kingdom became a province of the Ko- 
 man empire. In the rei^n of Ptolemy Philadclphus, the 
 Old Testament was translated into Greek, by his or- 
 ders, in the city of Alexandria : it is called the Septua- 
 gint, and is frequently referred to in the New Testa- 
 ment. 
 
 Q. To return to the Romans, which way did they 
 turn their attention, after making peace with Carthage ? 
 A. Towards Greece. Philip, kuig of Maredon, hav- 
 ing entered into an alliance with IlannihfJ when in Ita- 
 ly, it was considered a suflicient ground for war. The 
 consul Flamminius was sent aguinst him, and by his 
 victories reduced the power of that prince, and restored 
 the several cities of Greece to tl.eir liberty. 
 Q. ^Vhcn was this ? 
 A. In the year of the world 3808. 
 Q. What became of Hannibal? 
 
 A. Being obliged to fly his country, he took refuge 
 with Antiochus, surnamed the Great, king of Syria; 
 and inspiring him with a jealousy of the Roman power, 
 persuadcfl him to oppose their growing greatness- 
 
NINTH EPOCIIA. 61 
 
 Q. Did Antiochus succeed iii the warf 
 
 A. No; rejecting the wise counsels of Hannibal, he 
 lifts disappointed in all his designs. Beaten by land and 
 sea, he v.as compelled to submit to the terms of peace 
 imposed by Lucius Scipio, brotheV of Scipio African.- 
 us. 
 
 Q. In what year ? 
 
 A. In the year of the world 3815. 
 
 Q. What was the fate of llannil)al after this defeat ? 
 
 A. He sought protection from Pioisias king of 13ithy- 
 nia, but finding himself still persecuted by Ambassies 
 from the Romans ; to avoid falling into their hands, he 
 terminated his life by a dose of poison. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Antiochus the Great, m the king- 
 dom of Syria ? 
 
 A. Seleucus; and after his death, Antiochus Epipha- 
 ncs, who had been some time hostage at Rome, got 
 possession of the throne. 
 
 Q. What was he remarkable for ? 
 
 A. For his ciiiel persecutions against the Jews, which 
 driving them to extremities, many of them united in 
 their own defence under Matthias, the father of Judas 
 Maccabeus, who was much fumed for the many victo- 
 ries which he obtained over the armies of the king of 
 Syria. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Philip in the kingdom of Mace- 
 don ? 
 
 A. Perseus, who presuming too much upon his wealth 
 and numerous armies, ventured to engage in a war 
 with the Romans, but he was vanquished in battle by 
 Paulus Emilius, and was obliged to surrender himself 
 into their hands. Thus the kingdom of Macedon, which 
 had for nearly 200 years, given masters not only to 
 Greece, but to all the kingdoms of the east, was now rc- 
 
 F 
 
62 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 (luccd to the forni of a Rom'JiTi province ; vhich leads 
 to the commencement of the Roman empiie. 
 
 Q. Ho.v do you fix the bcj^inning of the Roman en|r 
 pire to this periled, when they were loni; before tl e most 
 powerful people in the world r 
 
 A. In regulating the succession of empires in arxicnt 
 history, the most natural order is that which represents 
 them rising one after another, and establisliing each 
 its power and greatness upon the entire ruin of that 
 which went before. Thus, altliough upon the death of 
 Sardanapalus,thc Assyrian monarchy was dissolved, yet 
 reviving again in the kings of Nineveh and Babylon, that 
 revolution was not considered as the era of a new empire. 
 But when the power of the Assyrians was utterly bro- 
 ken, and the dominion of Asia wholly transferred to 
 another ^Kople by Cyrus, the Persian empire then com 
 menccd. In the same manner, although the Persians 
 were greatly weakened under Xerxes and his son Ar- 
 taxerxes Longimanus ; although they were forced to 
 •ccept of such terms of peace as Greece v.as uiliii.g to 
 grant them ; yet as that monaixhy stiil subsisted under 
 kh\rr;s of its own ; and was not finally subdued until Alex- 
 ander passed into Asia and overthrew Darius; all 
 historians extend tlie period of its duration to that time ; 
 after which the sovereignty of Asia was transferred 
 irou\ the Persians to the Macedonians : and here began 
 the third great empire. The same reasons induce us 
 to exieud the period of tlie Macedonian empire to the 
 defeat of Perseus by Paulus I^miiius ; for although the 
 Romans had long before givtn laws to Greece, and even 
 to the kings of Macedon, yet that kingdom was not ut- 
 terly destroyed \mtil this time, when it became a pro- 
 vince of the Roman empire, and all its power and do- 
 minion were transferred to the conqueroi*s : and Rome 
 w;>s advanced to the sovereignty of the world. 
 
TENTH EPOCHA. 6 ?y 
 
 Q. Mciilion the particular period Avhen, acccr lini^ lo 
 ihis logiibtion (which as respects ancient history I thii^.k 
 a LTOocl one) the IMiicedonian empire ended, and that oi' 
 the Romans succeeded ? 
 
 A. In the 535th year of Rome, 168 years before Chribt 
 and of the world 3836. 
 
 TKNTJI EPOCHA. 
 
 f ALL OF THE GUECIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Antiochus Epiphancb in the Syri- 
 an monarchy ? 
 
 A. His son Antiochus Eupator, a minor of nine years 
 old, \inder the tuition of Lysias ; Demetrius Soter tl:r 
 re il heir, being at Rome, a l;OStaj;c. 
 
 Q. What was the situation of the Jc\rs during the 
 reign of this young monarch ? 
 
 A. They were still persecuted ; but Judas !\!accabeus 
 opposed the Syriars with nuich valour and success, ijxl 
 t)btained many victories over them. 
 
 Q. Did Antiochus lu'pator rei^-n loni; in Syria "r 
 
 A. No ; Demetrius iioter escaped from Rome, was ac- 
 i-.nowledged king ; and young Antiochus and Lysias 
 were shiin. 
 
 Q. Did this produce any e]iunj:,e in favour of tiie 
 .lews ? 
 
 A. Not any : they were, as before, persecuted. De- 
 metrius sent numerous armies against then^ which 
 were defeated by Judas ; but being at length overpow- 
 ered by the superiority of his enemy, he was slain, 
 fighting with astoiiishing bravery. He was euc 
 
64 AN'CIENT HISTORY. 
 
 cteded in th^* cliarj^e of defcndinij the Jews, by his bro^ 
 ther Jonathan, who no less dlstinj^uished himself by hU 
 valour, and by a firmness that no misfortunes were 
 al:!e to shake. 
 
 Q. Wiien did this take place ? 
 A. In tlic year of the world 3843. 
 Q. Did the Jews obtain any foreign aid ? 
 A. Ws ; tlic Romans; pleased to see: the kings of Sy- 
 ria iiunibltd, I'eadily granted the Jews their protection, 
 and declared them, about this time, their friends and 
 i.IIies. 
 
 Q. Vrhat clian.^e took place in llie t'.uone of Sy- 
 ria, and Mhen? 
 
 A. ALxandcr Bales, pretcndinr, to he the sonof An- 
 tiochus Epiphanes, and being supported by Ptolemy 
 Philomtter, Jiing; of l'4;ypt, claimed the throne of Sy- 
 ria, slew Demetrius, and got possession of the king- 
 dom, in the year of the world 3855. 
 
 Q. Did Alexander Bales liold the throne of Syria 
 Jong ? 
 
 A. No : in three years after, Demetrius Soter van- 
 ijuished him in battle, and got posses^ion of the throne. 
 O. "What was the situation of the Carthaginians ? 
 A. They had recovered, in some measure, the great 
 losses w!r.ch t'.iey had sustained during the second Pu- 
 nic war ; but the Romans, dreading their growing pow- 
 er, declared war against them, with a resolution to ut- 
 terly destroy Cartha;^e, in order to get rid of so formi- 
 dable a rival ; which was effected by Scipio h^milianus, 
 who by this achievement acquired for himself and 
 his family the surname of Africanus, in the f)08th year 
 of i\ome, and of the world 3860. 
 
 Q. What other events took place at this time ? 
 A. Corinth was reduced to ashes by Lucius Mum- 
 mius the consul, and with it ended the Achean league. 
 
TENTH EPOCHA. 6S 
 
 Ail the paintings and statues, which adorned that city, 
 were removed to Rome. The Romans, who before 
 had boasted of no other knowledge than that of war, po- 
 litics, and agriculture, at this time begun to value them- 
 selves upon a polite taste, and the relish of what was 
 excellent in the fine arts. Learning became honoura- 
 i)le at Rome, the liberal sciences were encouraged ; and 
 advances were made in the various branches of know- 
 led :?;e. 
 
 Q. What was the situation of Syna ? 
 
 A. It was the scerie of new revolutions. Antioclius 
 Theos, son of Alexander Bales, under the tuition of Di- 
 odotus Triphon, dethroned Demetrius Nicator, who by 
 his mal-administration had incurred Ib.e hatred of his 
 subjects ; but he recovered his authority soon afier, and 
 declared Judea a free and independent !.*ate, in conside- 
 ration of the services he had received from Simon, the 
 brother and successor of Jonathi,r.. 
 
 Q. With Khat pou er was Simon vested by this grant ? 
 
 A. He was constituted hi^h priest and sovereign 
 j)rince of the Jews. 
 
 Q. Was not tlie opprcsbicn of the Jews much allevi- 
 ated from this time ? 
 
 A. Ves ; t'le land was released from taxes ; ever) 
 foreign yoke was abolished ; and Judea became a dis- 
 tinct kingdom, under princes of its own. 
 
 Q. W!ien did this lake place ? 
 
 A. In the year of the world 386.'. 
 
 Q. What was the situation of the Parthians at this 
 lime ? 
 
 A. They began to grow formidable by the victories 
 of Mithridatesj who subdued India and Bactria, and ad- 
 vanced with an army toward the Euphrates, to extend 
 Jiis conquests on the other side ; but the inhabitants 
 called Demetrius Nicator to their assistance, who con- 
 
66 ^ ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 ceived the design of again reducing the Parthians, as 
 he still reo;arded them as rebels. 
 
 Q. What was his success ? 
 
 A. He obtained several victories over Mitlu'idates ; 
 but preparing to return into Syria to chastise Tryphon, 
 who, after murdL-ring Antiochus Theos, had usurp- 
 ed the crown, he unfortunately fell into an ambuscade, 
 and was made prisoner by t!ie Parthians. 
 
 Q. Did the kingdom of Syria remain long in the 
 hands of 'I'ryphon ? 
 
 A. No ; lie was suddenly abandoned by his subjects, 
 to whom he rendered himself insupportable by his 
 prid-e ; and ay Demetrius was still a prisoner in Par- 
 thia, and his children by Cleopatra under age, Antio- 
 chus Sidetus, the brother of Demetrius, was chosen 
 protector. 
 
 Q. Did Cleopatra take any otiier measures ? 
 
 A. Yes; understanding that her husband Nicatorhad 
 married Rodaguna, daughter of Phraates, who had suc- 
 ceeded Mitiiridates in the throne of Parthia, she marri- 
 ed Antiochus, out of revenge; who, when he had set- 
 tled himself in the kingdom, and put an end to the usur- 
 pation of Tryphon, entered upon a war with the Parthi- 
 ans, under pretence of delivering his captive brotlier. 
 
 Q. When was this ? 
 
 A. In the year of the world 5873. 
 
 Q. What was the event of the war ? 
 
 A. Antiochus Sidetus at first had great success; he 
 overthrew Phraates in three battles, recovered Pabylonia, 
 Media, and the other eastern provinces, except Par- 
 thia ; by which Phraates was reduced within tlie narrow 
 limits of his first Parthian kingdom : but the Syrian ar- 
 my going into winter quarters, where they were obliged 
 to disperse over the country, Phraates fell unexpectedly 
 i7pon them, and advancing against Antiochus, he over- 
 
TENTH EPOCHA. 67 
 
 powered him with numbers, slew him and his followers ; 
 and pursuing his advantage, he made so dreadful a 
 slaughter, that there scarcely returned a man into Sy- 
 ria to carry the mournful intelligence of this fatal over- 
 throw. 
 
 Q. What became of Demetrius ? 
 
 A- He had returned into Syria, and on his brother's 
 death recovered the kingdom. Phraates after being 
 three times defeated by Antiochus, had released Deme- 
 trius from liis captivity, and sent him to Syria, in hopes 
 that by exciting an insurrection there, for the recovery 
 of his crown, he might force Antiochus to return for 
 the suppressing of it. 
 
 Q. How long did Demetrius continue to reign in Sy- 
 ria ? 
 
 A. He M'as dispossessed, in the year of the world 
 3880, by Alexander Zebina, son of Bales, who in his 
 turn, was defeated and expelled by Antiochus Gryphus. 
 
 Q. Let me turn your attention to the Romans. What 
 was their situation during the time of which we have 
 been speaking ? 
 
 A. They were engaged in a war with the Numan- 
 tines in Spain, and so often defeated, that they were ob- 
 liged to send Scipio Emilianus us their last resource 
 and hope, before they could subdue them. They were, 
 at the same time, in danger of an insurrection of their 
 own slaves, in Sicily, under Eunus, and were obliged to 
 employ the whole forces of the Republic against them. 
 Soon after this, Attains, king of 1 erj^amus, dying, left 
 the Romans heirs to his immense wealth. 
 
 Q. Did their thirst for conquest still continue ? 
 
 A. Yes ; not satisfied with the dominion of Italy, 
 Greece, and Africa^ they were now beginning to extend 
 theij' con cpiests beyond the Alps, where Sextius, having 
 
68 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 subdued the Saluvians, established the first Roman co- 
 lony at Aix in Provence. 
 
 Q. While the Republic was thus enlarging her terri- 
 tories, did she enjoy domestic tranquillity ? 
 
 A. No ; the avarice, usurpation, and ambition of the 
 Patricians, had encroached so much upon the property 
 and privileges of the people, that they stood in much 
 need of new defenders. The two Gracchi, who gene- 
 rously undertook that oflice, being overpowered by the 
 faction of the nobility, perished in the glorious attempt ; 
 and after them there arose few Tribunes possessed of 
 that noble spirit of liberty, which had heretofore distin- 
 guished this brave people. Faction and bribery began 
 universally to prevail, and these conquerorsof the world 
 became slaves to the worst of tyrants. 
 
 Q. At wliat time was this ? 
 
 A. In the ye'ar of the world 3885. 
 
 Q. Who reigned now in Numidia ? 
 
 A. Jugurtha, rendered infamous by the murder of 
 Hiempsal and Adherbal, who hyd been left under the 
 protection of the Romans. In defendinir himself ao-ainst 
 them, he effected more by his presents than by his arms. 
 Marius was at length sent against him, and terminated 
 the war ? 
 
 Q. Did not Marius soon after distinguish himself by 
 another victory ? 
 
 A. Yes ; by the defeat of the Teutones and Cimbri, 
 who threatened all the provinces of the Roman Empire, 
 and even Italy itseif, with destruction. 
 
 Q. Were the Romans freed from enemies upon this 
 •defeat ? 
 
 A. No; these were scarcely suppressed, before a 
 more formidable adversary arose in Mithridates, king 
 of Pontus, who having made himself master of all Asia 
 Minor, passed into Greece, and vras not without much 
 
TENTH EPOCHA. 69 
 
 (litTiculty driven from thence by Sylla. At the same tinnC) 
 Italy endangered the Roman Empire by an universal 
 revolt ; and to add to these misfortunes, Rome saw her- 
 self torn by the factions of Marius and Sylla, one of 
 whom had, by his victories, spread his fame to the re- 
 motest regions ; and the other had signalized himself 
 as the conqueror of Greece and Asia. Sylla assumed a 
 tyrannic sway over his country, and laid the foundation 
 of future trouble, by the unhappy precedent of his per- 
 petual dictatorship. 
 
 Q. When was this ? 
 
 A. In the year of the world 3925. 
 
 Q. What other disturbances were there at this time ? 
 
 A. Sertorius, a zealous partizan of Marius, fixed him- 
 self in Spain, and entered into a treaty with Mithri- 
 dates ; and Spartacus brought Rome to the point of ruin, 
 and was found invincible, until Ponipey was sent against 
 him. 
 
 Q. What was the success of the Roman arms abroad, 
 during these domestic disturbances ? 
 
 A. Lucullus triumphed in the east. Mithridates was 
 beaten in every encounter, and retiring beyond the Eu- 
 phrates found himself still pressed and pursued by his 
 victorious enemy. But their general, invincible in battle, 
 found it impossible to subject the soldiers to obedience, 
 and to repress that licentiousness, which, like a frenzy, 
 seized the Roman army. 
 
 Q. Was Mithridates wholly discouraged by his nu- 
 merous defeats ? 
 
 A. No ; he again prepared to oppose his enemies ; 
 and Ponipey, the last hope and refuge of the Romans, 
 v/as conceived alone capable of terminating this long and 
 destructive war, 
 
 Q. How did he succeed ? 
 
 A. It v/as on this occasion, that his glory rose to its 
 
70 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 height. lie finally subdued Mithridates, and reduced 
 Armenia, v/hithcr he had fied for refuge ; and pursuing 
 his advantage, added Albania, Iberia, Syria, and Judea 
 to tlie Fvoman empire. 
 
 Q. When was tlds ? 
 
 A. In the year of the world 3941. 
 
 Q. Did the state of affairs at Rome get any better 
 dunng these conquests abroad ? 
 
 A. No ; Cicero was engaged in crushing a dangerous 
 conspiracy at home, and by his eloquence, more power- 
 fully defeated the dark and dcingerous machinations of 
 Cataline, than his colleague Anthony did, by his arms : 
 and could the eloquence of Cicero, or the virtues of Ca- 
 to, those intrepid defenders of the constitution and the 
 laws of their country, have roused the JRomans to a 
 sense of their danger, the commonwealth might have 
 been preserved ; but their efforts were vuiavailing. 
 Luxury, avarice, and ambition, had vmiversally taken 
 possession of the minds of men, and rendered them in^ 
 sensible to great and generous designs. 
 
 Q. Who became the principal directors at Rome ? 
 
 A. Pompey, who reigned without a rival in the Se- 
 nate, and whose great authority and power made him 
 absolute master of its deliberations ; Crassus, who v/as 
 the richest man in Rome, and possessed, next to Pompey, 
 the greatest authority ; and Julius Ccesar, who, by his 
 victories in Caul, was endeavouring to get a name and 
 interest equal to Pompey and Crassus ; these three uni- 
 ting, a combination was formed, by which they agreed 
 tliat nothing should be done in the commonwealth, but 
 what received their mutual concurrence. This was 
 called the first Triumvirate. 
 
 Q. What effect had this combination ? 
 
 A. It weakened the constitution, by a new interest 
 which had not before taken place in the government, 
 
TENTH EPOCHA. 7l 
 
 and which was very different from that of the Senate 
 or the people, and yet dependant on both. 
 
 Q. What was the first act of Caesar upon being taken 
 into the Triumvirate ? 
 
 A. He availed himself of the mterest of his confede- 
 rates to obtain the consulship, and commenced his 
 schemes for empire, by ingratiating himself into the 
 good opinion of the people. For this purpose, he 
 procured a law for dividing certain lands in Campania, 
 among such of the poor citizens as had at least three 
 children. He next deliberated with his confederates 
 upon sharing the foreign provinces of the empire be- 
 tween them. 
 
 Q. Was this division agreed to ? 
 
 A. Yes ; Pompey chose Spain ; Crassus chose Syria ; 
 and to Caesar were left the provinces of Gaul, composed 
 of many fierce and powerful nations, most of them unsub- 
 dued, and the rest only professing a nominal subjection ; 
 as it was therefore, rather appointing to conquer than to 
 command, this government was granted him for five 
 years. 
 
 Q. What states did he subdue in Ms expedition into 
 Gaul ? 
 
 A. The Helvetians were the first that he brought into 
 subjection, after their losing nearly 200,000 men. 
 The Germans were next cut off, to the number of 80,000, 
 their monarch narrowly escaping, in a small boat, 
 across the Rhine. The Belgse, the Narvians, and the 
 Celtic Gauls, were also brouglit under subjection ; and 
 after them the Suevi, the Menapii, and all the nations 
 from the Mediterranean to the British sea. 
 
 Q. Did he stop here ? 
 
 A. No ; stimulated by the desire of conquest, he cross- 
 ed over into Britain, where he defeated the nations and 
 obliged them to sue for peace. Thus, in less than nine 
 
72 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 years, he conquered, besides Britain, all the country 
 which extends from the Mediterranean to the German 
 sea. 
 
 Q. How was Pompcy engaged, while Caesar was thus 
 increasing his reputation and riches abroad ? 
 
 A. He remained at Rome, co-operating with Caesar 
 in his ambitious views, and advancing his interest, 
 while he vainly imagined he was forwarding his own ; 
 by which means Caesar had continued five years longer 
 in Gaul. 
 
 Q. Did he at length change his opinion of Caesar ? 
 
 A. Yes ; roused from his lethargy by the fame of 
 Caesar's valour and riches, he became at length jealous 
 of his own reputation, and did all in his power to injure 
 Caesar's. 
 
 Q. In what manner was Crassus engaged ? 
 
 A. In conducting the war against the Pailhians ; 
 where he acted with so little prudence, that he suffered 
 the enemy to get the advantage of him in almost every 
 skirmish ; and being incapable of extricating himself 
 from the difficulties in which he was involved, he fell 
 a sacrifice to his own rashness : a loss fatal to the Ro- 
 man state, as it was principally by him, that the rival 
 factions of Caesar and Pompey were kept united. 
 
 Q. When was this ? 
 
 A. In the year of the world 3955. 
 
 Q. What event took place after his death ? 
 
 A. It \vas followed by a bloody civil war; in which 
 Rome lost her liberty for ever. Caesar, elated with his 
 conquests in Gaul, Asia, Mauritania, and Spain ; all 
 which he had tmversed with incredible expedition, had, 
 by his successes, raised the envy of Pompey and the 
 Roman Senate, who, by their injudicious conduct, had 
 induced him to march his army to Ravenna ; where, 
 finding that Pompey was sent against him as an enemy 
 
TENTH EPOCHA. 73 
 
 to his country, he passed the Rubican, the prescribed 
 boundary of his province, and proceeded to Rome. 
 Taking a hirge portion of treasure from the temple of 
 Saturn, he v/ent in pursuit of Fompey, and defeating 
 him in the plains of Pharsalia, trampled on the liberty 
 ef his counti'y, 
 
 Q. Was not ills end very tragical ? 
 
 A. Yes ; a conspiracy was formed against him, which 
 had Brutus and Cassius at its head ; in consequence of 
 which, he was slain in the senate house, and expired be- 
 neath the statue of his unhappy rival, 
 
 Q. When was this ? 
 
 A. In the year of the world 3961. 
 
 Q. What followed this event ? 
 
 A. The city soon after fell into the hands of Antony, 
 Lepidus and Octavius Csesar, afterwards called Augus- 
 tus, who, by their proscriptions, almost wholly extir- 
 pated the Roman nobility. 
 
 Q. What became of Cicero ? 
 
 A. His eloquence, which had been successfully di- 
 rected against the rapacity of Verres, and the conspira- 
 cy of Cataline, was the cause of his own lamentable 
 end. With the boldness of truth, and the warmth of in- 
 discretion, he provoked the rage of an implacable 
 tyrant, by the enumeration of his private ^ices. The 
 vindictive Antony fixed his guiltless head upon that 
 rostrum, from which he had so often delighted and in- 
 structed his countrymen. 
 
 Q. In Mhat manner did this second triumvirate fix 
 the division of the government ? 
 
 A. They determined, that the supreme authority 
 should be lodged in their hands, under the title of trium- 
 virate ; that Antony should have Gaul ; Lepidus, 
 ■fepain ; and Augustus, Africa and the Mediterranearf 
 
 G 
 
74 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Islands ; and that Italy and t!io Eastern provintcs 
 should remain in common until their enemies were sub- 
 dued ; of which each presented a list. Amongst these 
 were comprised, not only the enemies but the friends of 
 the triumvirate ; for the paitizans of the one, were often 
 fonnd the opposers of the other. Thus Lepidus gave up 
 his brother Paulus to the vengeance of his colleague ; 
 Antony permitted the proscription of his uncle Lucius ; 
 and Augustus delivered up Cicero, who was assassinated 
 by the direction of Antony, as has been just described. 
 Q. You have mentioned, some time back, that Bi*utus 
 and Cassius were the principal conspirators against 
 Caesar ; did they oppose the usurped authority of the 
 triumvirate ? 
 
 A. Yes ; being compelled to quit Rome, they went 
 into Greece and Syria, wl^l-e they raised a formidable 
 force ; but upon engaging with Antony in the fields of 
 Philippi, their army was defeated, and they both fell : 
 after which, Rome made no further struggle for her li- 
 berty, but quietly submitted to the dominion of her 
 conquerors. 
 
 Q. Did they long continue united ? 
 A. No; in 3973 Antony and Augustus combined to 
 ruin Lepidus, and having effected their purpose, next 
 turned their ai-ms against each other. 
 Q. What was the event ? 
 
 A. The battle of Actium decided the empire of the 
 world in favour of Augustus. Antony, upon that dis- 
 aster, was abandoned by his friends, and even by Cleo- 
 patra, queen of Egypt ; for whose sake he had brought 
 all these misfortunes upon himself. Herod the Idume- 
 an, who owed every thing to Antony, was obliged to stib- 
 mit to the conqueror ; by which he confirmed himself 
 in the possession of the throne of Judea. Thus Augus- 
 tus triumphed over every opposition. Alexandria open- 
 
1 ENTH EPOCHA. i D 
 
 ed iis gates to'liim, and Egypt became a Roman pio- 
 vlncc. 
 
 Q. When was tliis ? 
 
 A. In the year of the world 3977. 
 
 Q. What became of Cleopatra ? 
 
 A. Disdaining to adorn the victor's triumph, she ended 
 her days by poison j and Antony, sensible that he could 
 no longer withstand the power of his adversary, by a 
 voluntary death, left Cscsar in the unrivalled possession 
 of the Roman empire. Thus the Roman common- 
 wealth, 727 years after the foundation of thajt city by 
 Romulus, was converted into an absolute monarchy. 
 
 Q. In what manner did Augustus conduct him.self ? 
 
 A. Soon after the death of Antony, he returned to 
 Rome in triumph, v.iierc, by tlie mildness and justice 
 of his government, he endeavoured to reconcile his 
 countrymen to that power, which it was in vain for them 
 any longer to oppose. A erscd in the deepest arts of dis- 
 simulation, he pursued with astonishing success, his am*- 
 bitious cai'ccr : yet the equity of his laws, iind the prudent 
 administration of hi-^ government, made no small recom- 
 pense for the evils he had before infiicted. The period 
 of history, preceding his accession, fiom the time of Ma- 
 rius, presents the most calamitous prospect, filled with 
 recitals of sanguinary proscriptions, and images of mar- 
 tial horror ; but after the naval victory of Actium had 
 given him tl-e empire, the {xene biightened into the 
 fair views of order and happiness. The storms of ci\il 
 discord were hurihed into peace, and philosophy, litera- 
 ture and the arts, derived the greatest and most honour- 
 able encouragement from his patronage. lie presented 
 to the world the most extraordinary character, since he 
 proved, that the smiles of fortune, far from increasing 
 t';e severity of his temper, and giving a keener edge t<> 
 
76 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 his i"c:icntmcnts, could sof:cn a timid and siing-uiiuu-y 
 tyrant, into a mild iind generous prince. 
 
 Q. What eifcct had bis administi^ition upon tlie man- 
 ners of the people of Rome ? 
 
 A. It had the huppiest effect ; an era of the highest 
 refinement commenced with his reign. His pahices 
 were adorned with the vases of Corinth. Grecian 
 artists were invited to Rome. And the masterly execu- 
 tion of tlie medals of that period, prove their superiority 
 to those of former times. The capital of the world, 
 which Augustus found disrjraced by buildings of the 
 rudest form, displayed, under his auspices in its marble 
 palaces, temples, and theatres, all the elegance and ma- 
 jesty of Grecian architecture. The cultivation of elo- 
 quence and poetry were equally cherished. Writers, 
 whose works are the glory of ancient Italy, and the sub- 
 ject of encomium, for every generation, adorned this 
 period, and reached tliat standard of excellence, from 
 which the unpolished style of their predecessors, and the 
 degenerate afTectadon of their followers, seem equal- 
 ly remote. Horace and Virgil, Tibullus and Propertius, 
 flourished in the couit of Augustus. 
 
 Q. V/hat conquests did he make over the enemies of 
 Rome, who had taken advantage of their intestine divi- 
 'oions ? 
 
 A. He subdued th.e Cantivbrians and Asluricins, border- 
 ing upon the Pyrennces ; Ethiopia sued for peace ; the 
 Favthians dreading his power, sent back the standard 
 taken from Cru'^svis, and all the Roman prisoners in 
 their hands ; Judca sought his alliance ; Pannonia sub- 
 mitted to him ; and Germany trembled at the name of 
 this powerful conqueror, ^'ictorious every where, both, 
 by land and sea, he shut the temple of Janus, and gave 
 peace to all the Roman empire. 
 
 Q. What other event took place, during this period ; 
 
ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 77 
 
 A. At this time, when peace spread her benign infiu- 
 ence over the world, and war, with all its horrors, had 
 for a moment retreated from tlic abodes of men, there 
 was born at Bethlehem, in Judea, the Prince of Peace, 
 Jesus Christ, our Saviour ; the author and founder of 
 the Christian religion. Herod was then the governoi/ 
 of Judea, under Augustus. 
 Q. When was this ? 
 ■ A. In the year of the world 4004. 
 
 ELEVENTH EPOCKA. 
 
 CHRISTIAN ERA. 
 
 Q. The present Epocha biings us to a ncv,' era, tu'c 
 most interesting to mankind, and t!v^ most deserving oi 
 commemoration of any that Las been noticed, in the 
 annals of nations. The Chri:.tian religion, which you 
 have mentioned, being promulgated at this tim.e by its 
 Divine Founder, is indeed, a system of EtJiics so much 
 superior to every thing that went before it, that it will 
 not admit of a comparison. Before you proceed with the 
 history, give me a short view of it? 
 
 A. The precepts of Christianity form the most com- 
 plete, most intelligible, and most useful system of mo- 
 ral philosophy. The standard of duty which is set up in 
 the gospel, is agreeable to every rational idea of the Su- 
 preme Being, and is calculated to correct our errors, 
 to exalt our affections, to purify our hearts, and to en- 
 lighten our understandings. The motives by which 
 Christ enforces the practice of his laws, are consistent 
 
 G 2 
 
78 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 with the -vvisdom of t'le Ahni^^hty, aiul correspondent 
 to the expectations of rational beings. He wlio duly 
 weiglis the elTccts of the Christian duties, and remarks 
 how they contribute to restore num to the original dig- 
 nity of his nature, will be led to conclude, that they 
 fonn an indispensal)le part of a religion coming from 
 God ; because they are in every respect consistent with 
 his wisdom, mcicy, and goodness. 
 
 Q. What are the superior rules of conduct which the 
 gospel enjoins ? 
 
 A. The sr.crifice of self interest, selfish pleasiu'cs, 
 and vain glory. Hy it alone we are taught, in the most 
 explicit language, to check all violent passions, and to 
 cultivate the mild and pure aiTections of the heart; 
 to forgive injuries, to love our enemies, to resist the first 
 impulse of evil desires, to practise true humility and 
 universal benevolence; and to prefer the joys of heaven 
 to the pleasures and occupations of the Morld. 
 
 Q. Do not the precepts of Christianity, then, furnish 
 the best rule of life ? 
 
 A. Yes; were the actions of mankind to be regulated 
 by them, not liinr;- would be wanting to render them hap- 
 py. Peace and liarniony would floui ish in every part of 
 the globe. There would be no uijustice, no impiety ; no 
 fraud, no rapine ; no reign of disorderly passions. Every 
 one satisfied with his own lot, resigned to the divine 
 will, and enjoying a full prospect of endless happiness, 
 would pass his days in contentment and tranquillity ; 
 to which neither pain, nor sorrow, nor even fear of 
 death, could ever give any long interruption. 
 
 Q. Your idea of the Christian religion is a very just 
 one ; and while you are enriching your minds by the 
 acquisition of science, 1 hope you will never forget 
 that an attention to the diviiic precepts of tlie gospel, 
 
ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 79 
 
 is, of all duties, the most important ; as by that alone you 
 can attain to happiness here and eternal happiness here- 
 after. Let us now proceed with the history. Did Rome 
 long njaintain her splendour and refinement after the 
 death of Augustus ? 
 
 A. No ; notwithstanding her external magnificence 
 during his reign and that of his immediate successors, 
 the manners of the people gradually underwent a. 
 great change ; the state contained in her bosom, the 
 causes of her own decay ; and the poison of dissolution 
 preyed upon her vitals. She became in time, as abject 
 and degraded, as she had ever been great and power, 
 ful. 
 
 Q. Wl^o succeeded Augustus Csesar in the Roman 
 empire, and when ? 
 
 A. His son-in-law, Tiberius, in the 15th year of the 
 Christian era, and of the building of Rome the 765th ; 
 this prince had lived in a state of profound dissimula- 
 tion under Augustus, and was not at first hardy enough 
 to shew hi mself in his real character. In the beginning 
 of his reign, nothing appeared but prudence, generosity, 
 and clemency. But succeeding events brought to Ir^ht 
 his natural dispositions, and discovered the malignity of 
 Ids mind. He became at length odious to the world, and 
 troviblesome to himself ; an enemy to the lives of others, 
 ;ind a tormentor of his own. 
 
 Q. When did the crucifixion of our Saviour take 
 place ? 
 
 A. In the eighteenth year of this monarch's reign, 
 and the 33d, of the Christian era. 
 
 Q. By whom was Tiberius succeeded ? 
 
 A. By Caligula, in the year 39. 
 
 Q. What was his character ? 
 
 A. Like his predecessor, he concealed his enormities 
 
80 A>JCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 in the beginning of his reign ; but in less than eight 
 months, all appc:irancc of moder?.tion and clemency 
 vanished ; >vhiie unexampled avarice, and capricious 
 cruelty, took possession of his mind. After a short reign 
 of three years and ten months, lie was assassinated by 
 Cassius Chcrea, tribune of the praetorian bands, and was 
 succeeded by his uncit* Claudius, who in the commence- 
 ment of his reign gave hopes of a liappy administra- 
 tion ; but soon after, lie began to lessen his solicituile for 
 the public go^d, and committed to his favourites the 
 concerns of the empire. 
 
 O. Was there any foreign cxpedilion undeitaken 
 during this emperor's reign ? 
 
 A. Yes ; the Britons, M'ho, for nenrly a century, had 
 been left in the undisturbed possession of ti^cir island, 
 began to seek the mediation of Iconic to suppress their 
 intestine divisions. Bercius, a native of that country, by 
 many arguments ])ersudded the emperor to m.\ke a de- 
 scent upon the islaiul, and Piautius the Pi'iCtor, a\ as or- 
 dered to make preparation for the expedition. 
 
 Q. What was his success ? 
 
 A. In conjunction with his lieutenant Vespasi in, he 
 vigorously prosecuted the war; thirty battles were 
 fought and a pu't of the island reduced into the form of 
 a Roman province. liis succerssor Ostorius, against 
 whom the Ikitons rebelled, after an obstinate resistance, 
 at length overcame them; and Caractacus king of the 
 Silures or inhabitants of South Wales, was taken cap- 
 tive and brought to Pvome, where, from his in'r pidity 
 and valour^ he received the pardon of the emp.-ror. 
 
 Q. In what manner did thi^ emperor's reign termi- 
 nate ? 
 
 A. He was poisoned by Ins second Mife Agrippina, 
 flic daughter of his brother Cermanicus ; a wpman of a 
 
ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 81 
 
 cniel and ambitious spirit, \vhoLe ^rcat object was to 
 procure the succes'oion for Nero; her i>oii by a former 
 m^'riage. 
 
 Q. When did Nero succeed Cluudius ? 
 
 A. In the year 55 ; and although but seventeen years 
 of age, he began his reign v.itli the general approbati- 
 on of mankind. He appeared just, liberal, and humane. 
 
 Q. Was there not a remarkable cliange in his cha- 
 racter ? 
 
 A. Yes ; as he increased in years, he increased in in- 
 famy. The execution of his mother Agrippina, was 
 the first alarming instance he gave of his ciiielty. All 
 the bounds of virtue being thus broken, he gave loose to 
 appetites which were not only sordid but inhuman. 
 A great part of the city of Rome, during his reij^n, was 
 reduced to ashes, and most historians ascribe the con- 
 iiagration to him, 
 
 Q. Were there any proofs of this ? 
 
 A. Yes; during the conflagration, none were permitted 
 to extinguish the flames ; and persons w ho were seen 
 •settuig fire to houses, declared they had orders for do- 
 hig so : but Nero used every art to evade the imputa- 
 tion of so detestable an action, and to fix it upon the 
 Christians, who were at that time gaining ground in 
 Rome. 
 
 Q. Did he cflcct his impious j)urpose ? 
 
 A. Yes ; nothing could be more dreadful than the per- 
 secution raised against them upon this false accusation. 
 Wlun the day was not sufficient for their tortures, the 
 flames in which they perished, says Tacitus, served to 
 illuminate the nij^^ht. In this persecution it is generally 
 stipposed that Siiinl Raul was beheaded, and that Saint 
 Reter was crucified ; there are, however, some learned 
 men of opinion, that Saint Reter never went into Italy. 
 
 Q. Did he confine his cruelties to the Christians ? 
 
 A. No; Seneca the philosoplier, Lucan the poci, 
 
82 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 the valiant Corbula, who had gained Nero numerous 
 victories over tlic Parthians, with many of the priiicipai 
 families of Rome, fell victims to his tyranny. Human 
 nature at length becoming weary of bearing her perse- 
 cutor, the whole world seemed roused> as if by com- 
 mon consent, to i id the earth of a monster. Sergius 
 Galba, who was at that time governor of Spain, accepted 
 the invitation of Vindcx, to march with an army towards 
 Rome. 
 
 Q. What effect had this upon Nero? 
 
 A. The reputation of Galba, upon hearing he had de- 
 clared against him, struck him with the utm.ost terror ; 
 ^d he fell into a swoon, from which, when he recovered, 
 lie tore his clothes and exclaimed he was undone. He 
 called for Locusta to furriish him with poiscm ; and retir- 
 ed into the Servelian gardens with an intention of flying 
 into l.'gypt. But being prevented, and the revolt becom- 
 ing general, he went from house to hoiisefor admittance 
 without effect. In this distress, Phaon one of his freed 
 men, offered him his house abcait four miles distant, 
 where he might some time remain concealed ; Nero ac- 
 cepted tlie offer, and half dressed, with his head cover- 
 ed, and hiding his face with a handkerchief, he mounted 
 on horseback, atterided by four of his domestics. 
 
 Q. What were the incidents of his journey ? 
 
 A. Though short, it is said to have been crowded with 
 extraordinary adventures ; an earthquake gave him the 
 first alarm. The lightning from heaven flashed in his 
 face ; round him, he heard noticing but confused noise 
 from the camp, and the cries of the soldiers impre- 
 cating a thousand evils upon his head. Jlis horse taLing 
 fright, he dropped his handkerchief, and was recognised 
 by a soldier who addressed him by his name: alarmed 
 at the discovery, he quit his horse and entered a thicket, 
 through which he crept to the tack part of Phaon's house. 
 
ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 80 
 
 Q. What was the conduct of the Sjenate ? 
 A. Finding the prsetorian guards had taken part with 
 Galba, they declared him emperor, and condemned 
 Nero to die, accordinf*; to the rie*our of the ancient laws ; 
 upon heanng of which he was so terrified that he termi- 
 nated his existence with a dagger. 
 Q. When was this ? 
 
 A. In the 69th year of the Christian era, and 3 2d, of 
 Nero's age. 
 
 Q. What was the fate of Sergius Galba? 
 A. After a reign of seven months, he was killed by the 
 faction of Otho ; and in three months after, Otho WaS 
 succeeded by Vitellius, who giving himself up to luxury 
 and cruelty, was forsaken by his adherents, and finally 
 massacred by tiie soldiers of Vespasian, who had disput- 
 ed the etripire with him, and who, upon his' death, 
 was declared emperor, by the unaniiiious Consent of the 
 Senate and army, in the year 70. 
 
 Q. Where was Vespasian at this time ? 
 A. At Alexandria in Egypt, from whence he set out 
 to Rome, after giving his son Titus the command of the 
 army, which was designed to lay siege to Jerusalem, in 
 consequence of the revolt of the Jews ; and was met a 
 considerable distance from the city by the Senate and nu- 
 merous inhabitants, who gave the sincerest testimonies 
 of their joy in having an emperor of such great and ex- 
 perienced virtues. 
 
 Q. What was the situation of the Jews ? 
 A. Josephus, their own historian, represents them as 
 having arrived at the highest pitch of iniquity, while 
 famines, earthquakes, and prodigies, conspired to fore- 
 warn of their approaching ruin. To. add to their mis- 
 fortunes, they had the most bitter dissensions among 
 themselves, and were split into parties that robbed and 
 destroyed each other with impunity. Through their i»- 
 
84 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 fatuadon and obstinacy, they had long determined to re- 
 sist the Roman power, vainly hoping to find protection 
 from heaven, which their impieties had utterly offended. 
 
 Q. What was the conduct of Titus ? 
 
 A. He be,i^an his operations about six furlongs from 
 Jerusalem during the feast of the passover, when the 
 city was filled with people who had come from all parts 
 to celebrate that great solemnity. 
 
 Q. What effect had his movements upon the Jews? 
 
 A. It produced a temporary reconciliation between 
 the contending frictions ; they determined to oppose 
 their common enemy, and afterwards to decide their 
 domestic quarrels. Their first sally, which was made 
 with much resolution, put the besiegers into great dis- 
 order, and obliged them to abandon their camp, and 
 fly to the mountains ; but rallying immediately after, 
 the Jews were forced back into the ^ity, which was 
 strongly fortified by three walls on every side, except 
 where it was surrounded by deep vallies. 
 
 Q. How did Titus proceed ? 
 
 A. He began by battering down the outward wall, 
 which after much fatigue and danger he effected, shew- 
 ing at the same time, the greatest clemency to the Jews, 
 and offering them repeated assurances of pardon. Five 
 days after the commencement, he broke down the se- 
 cond wall, and made preparations for battering the 
 third, which was their last defence ; but before he began, 
 he sent Josephus, their countryman, into the city to ex- 
 hort them to yield, who used all his eloquence to per- 
 suade them, but he was only reviled with scoffs and re- 
 proaches. 
 
 Q. What was the consequence ? 
 
 A. The siege was carried on with greater vigqur than 
 before. The city was surrounded with a trench to pre- 
 vent relief and succour from abroad, several batteries 
 
ELEVENTH EPOCKA. 85 
 
 for engines were raised, and the v/all at length was bat- 
 tered down, and he entered the citadel by force. 
 
 Q. What effect had this upon the Jews ? 
 
 A. They continued to deceive themselves with ab- 
 surd and groundless expectations, while many fc/i^j 
 prophets deluded the multitude, declaring they should 
 soon have assistra:ice from heaven. In the mean time 
 the battle centered round the inner wall of the temple,- 
 while the defendantB desperately combated from above. 
 
 Q. Was not Titus willing to have saved that beautiful 
 structure ? 
 
 A. Yes ; but a soldier casting a brand into some adja- 
 cent buildings, the lire communicated to the temple, 
 and, notwithstanding the utmost endeavours on both 
 sides, the whole edifice Avas quickly consumed. The 
 sight of the temple in ruins effectually damped the ar- 
 dour of the Jews. They now began to perceive that 
 heaven had forsaken them, while their cries and lam.en- 
 tations echoed from the adjacent mountains. 
 
 Q. Did they immediately submit to the Romans ? 
 
 A. No ; the most resolute endeavoured to defend the 
 upper and stronger part of the city named Sion ; but 
 Titus with his battering engines soon after made him- 
 self entire master of the whole of it. John and Simon, two 
 leading characters of the opposite factions, were taken 
 from the vaults where they had concealed themselves : 
 the first was condemned to perpetual imprisonment, 
 and Simon was reserved to grace the conqueror's tri- 
 umph. The greatest part of the populace were put to 
 the sword, and the city, after a six months siege, was en- 
 tirely razod to the ground : so that, according to our 
 Saviour's prophecy, not one stone remained upon ano- 
 ther. — The number who perished iu this siege, accord- 
 ing to Joseplius, amounted to more tlian a million of 
 souls, and the captives to almost an hundred thousand. 
 
 H 
 
86 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Q. AVhat was the conduct of Tilus ? 
 
 A. Upon takinp; Jerusalem his soldiers would have 
 crowr.cd him as conqueror, Init he modestly refused 
 the honour, urging thul he was only an instrument in 
 the hands of heaven, which had evidently declared its 
 v.'rath ai^ainst the Jews. 
 
 Q. How did he return to Rome ? 
 
 A. In triumph with his father, and was received ^ith 
 tlie utmost magnificence and joy. Amongst the spoils, 
 were exposed vast quantities of gold, and the book of the 
 Holy Law taken out of the temple. A triumphal arch 
 was erected, on which were described all the victories of 
 Titus over the Jews. His father Vespasian built a tem- 
 ple to peace, in which Mere deposited most of the 
 Jewish spoils ; and having calmed all the commotions in 
 every part of the empire, he shut up the temple of 
 Janus, which had been open five or six years. 
 
 Q. By whom was \'espasian succeeded ? 
 
 A. By his son Titus, in the year 79, after having 
 reigned ten years, beloved by his subjects and deserving 
 of their affection, although he had in some instances 
 displayed too much rapacity and avarice. 
 
 Q. What was the character of Titus ? 
 
 A. After his ascension to the throne, he became an 
 example of the greatest moderation and humanity, 
 which, added to his justice and generosity, procured 
 him the love of all good men. 
 
 Q. Were ihzvc not some very heavy misfortunes be- 
 fel the Romans during his reign ? 
 
 A. Yes ; an eruption of Mount Vesuvius did much 
 damage, destroying many towns, and throwing its ashes, 
 says Cioldsmith, into countries an hundred miles distant. 
 Upon this memorable occasion, Pliny, the naturalist, lost 
 his life. Being impelled by an unwarrantable curiosity 
 to observe the eruption, he was suffocated in the flames. 
 About the same time' a fire broke out at Rome, whiciv 
 
ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 87 
 
 continued three days ; and was followt d by a plat^ue, ir 
 which ten tliousand pcrs'jns Avere said to have been bu- 
 ried in a day. 
 
 Q. Vrhat was the conduct ox'' the ei-pperor ? 
 A, He did every thing in his power lo repair the 
 damage sustained by the public, and with rebpect to the 
 city, declared that he would take the whole loss upon 
 himself. 
 
 Q. What conquests did the Romans make during his 
 reign ? 
 
 A. Agricola, who had been sent into Britain in the 
 latter end of Vespiisian's reign, in order to quell the re- 
 fractory, and to civilize those who had formerly submit- 
 ted to the Roman power, rendered liimself master of 
 the whole country. 
 
 Q. In wliat manner did Agricola conduct himself af- 
 ter he had made this con(iUCi;t ? 
 
 A. He used every moans to restore disci'.^linp. Uk U\u 
 own army, and to introc'uce some degree of refinement 
 amongst those whom he had conquered. He encourag- 
 ed them to build temples, theatres, and stately houses ; 
 he directed the sons of their nobility to be instructed in 
 the liberal arts ; had them taught the Latin lunguage, and 
 induced them to iinitfte the Komun modes of dress 
 and iiviiig. Thus by degrees lliis l^arbarous people 
 bL'g.m to assum^:: the kr.urious manners of their con- 
 (pierors. 
 
 Q. When did this emperor die ? 
 
 A. In the year 8 1 , and ::d of his reign ; and not v.iih- 
 CHit suspicion of having been poisoned by his brother 
 Domitian, vvho siicceeded him. 
 
 Q. What was the character of Domitian ? 
 
 A. In public, '>c was proud and ostentatious ; in pri- 
 vate, mean and contemptible. Like Cahgula, he was al 
 once a hypocrite and a tyrant. During his reign, John 
 Ibc Evangelist was banished to the Isle of Patmos, where 
 
SS ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 lie vv'i'ote the Revelations. Doniitian was at length stab»' 
 bed by Stephanus the comptroller of his household. 
 I'his emperor was the last of the twelve Caesars. 
 
 Q. Vv !io succeeded him, and when ? 
 
 A. Cocccius Nerva, in the year S6. He was elected 
 l:y the senate, as they determined to lia^ e an emperor 
 oT their own choice. He ascended the imperial seat at 
 ii vciy advanced age, but filled it with great reputation. 
 I'inding how diiticult it war, to hold the reins of the em- 
 pire, he p-dopted Ulphius Trajan, who had been brought 
 up under the celebrated Ilutarch, his successor ; aj:id 
 died of a fever soon after, in the year 98. 
 
 Q. In v/hat manner did Trajan conduct himself? 
 
 A. Besides attending to the business of the state at 
 home, he made himself feared and respected abroad ; 
 aiKl protected the Roman provinces from the incursions 
 of the savages. He also built abridge over the Danube, 
 a"nd ccr.que.cd Dacia, now Transylviuiia. 
 
 Q. "\V"as there not, during this emperor's reign, an in- 
 Furreclion of the Jews ? 
 
 A. Yes ; this unfortunate people, still infatuated with 
 llie vain expectation of some signal deliverance, took 
 the advantage of Trajan's absence in the east, in an ex- 
 pedition he had undertaken against the Armenians and 
 Parthians, to massacre the Cj recks and Romans whom 
 they had got into their power. The rebellion first 
 began in Cyrene, a Roman province in Africa ; from 
 here the llame extended to Egypt, and next to the Isle of 
 Cyprus. But these cruelties were of short duration. 
 The governors of the respective provinces making head 
 agabist their tumultuous fury, entirely defeated them, 
 ^nd a great number were massacred. 
 
 . Q. In what manner was the emperor engaged during 
 these transactions ? 
 
 A. He was prosecuting his successes in the ea^t, 
 
ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 89 
 
 wliere he carried the Roman arms farther than they 
 had ever been before. But determininij to return to 
 Rome, he went to the city of Saieucia, v/here he died cf 
 an apoplexy, in the year 1 17. 
 
 Q. W^ere there any other distinguished characters, 
 besides Tiutarch, who lived at tlie time of Trajan r 
 
 A. Yes ; Cornelius Tacitus, the Roman historian, 
 Scutonius, who v.'rotc the history of the twelve first 
 emperoi's, and Pliny the Younger. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded irajan ? 
 
 A. The Romans elected Adiian his kinsman, who 
 enacted many salutiiry lav.s : solicitous for the welfare 
 of his people, he \isilcd the most distant parts of his do- 
 minions. Ke went into (iaul, and from there into Bri- 
 tain, where he erected the wall so famous in jiistory, 
 for the purpose of preventing the Picts from making 
 incuisions into the Roman provinces, lie afterwards 
 went into opain, and from tlicnce into the east, Vvliere lie 
 repelled tlie Parthians. llavin,;/ visited Athens i.nd 
 Sicily, he returned to Home. 
 
 Q. Did not this emperor give orders to rebuild Jeru- 
 salem ? 
 
 A. Yes ; and it was performed witli great expediticn 
 by the assistance of the Jews, who nov/ began to conc(uve 
 hopes of being restored to t'ctir long lost kingdom ; 
 but not taking warning by former misfortunes, and 
 being incensed at the privileges wliich were granted 
 the Pagan worshippers in their new city ; they fell 
 upon the Romans and other Pagans dispersed throughout 
 Judea, and put them to the sword. 
 
 Q. What was the consequence ? 
 
 A. They M'cre, in their turn, severely pimished by one 
 of the emperor's generals, and lost 600,000 men in tlit 
 course of a two years war ; after which all the Jews re- 
 maining in Palestine were banished, «nd it was made a 
 
 H2 
 
90 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 capital ofTcncc, for any of thera to return to t!:cii' own 
 country. Thu3 the prophecy of their dispersion was 
 iiillilk'd by the merais, which, at first, appeared calcu- 
 lated to defeat it. 
 
 Q. Whtit other occurrence took place during this 
 reign ? 
 
 A. Soon after the insurrection of the Jews, a dan- 
 gerous irrupuoii t(.ok place, of tlui northern barbarians. 
 They entered Media v.ith great fury, and passing 
 throuy;h Arniei.ia, cai-iied their devastations as far as 
 Cai)pado(ia. But Adrian preferring peace to an un- 
 profitable war, bought them offby large sums of money, 
 which induced tliem to return to their native v.ilds to en- 
 joy tlieir plunder, and meditate frtsii invasions. 
 
 Q. By whom was this emperor succeeded ? 
 
 A. By Marcuo Antoninus, in the year 13S, whom 
 Adrian ha.d adopted some time before his death, upon 
 finding his cwii strength sensibly to decline. 
 
 Q. Vv'hat wa'j the character of this piincc ? 
 
 A. He v/ar» eminent for his justice, clemency, and 
 moderation. His morals were so pine, that he was 
 usually compared to Numa, and was surnamed the 
 Pious. He v/as a distinguished rewarder of learned men, 
 upon whom he conferred the highest honours. After a 
 prosperous reign of 22 years, he was seized with a violent 
 fever at Loiium, a pleasure-house at some distance 
 from Rome, and after confirming the adoption of Mar- 
 cus Aurclius, who had been ni.med by his predecessor, 
 he expired, in the year 161. 
 
 Q. Did Marcus Aurelius reign alone ? 
 
 A. No ; although he was left sole successor, he toojt 
 Lucius Verus as his associate and equal, with a view of 
 his sustaining a part of the toils of empire ; but he found 
 him too much inclined to vainty and luxury to be de- 
 pended upon. He persuaded him, however, to march 
 
ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 91 
 
 against the Parthians, Avho were at this time making- 
 great devastations in the east. 
 
 Q. Vvhut was the success of the war? 
 
 A. In four years after, the Parthians were conquered, 
 and Aurclius and \''erus triumphed together. During 
 this contest, Aurehus liad been assiduous in promoting 
 the good of the empire; while \'erus had ieil the man- 
 a.<<ement of the war to his Heutenants, and abandoned 
 himself to every kind of luxury. 
 
 Q. What measures did AureHus take to reform him? 
 
 A. He proposed a marriage between his daughter i.u- 
 cilia ai^.d Verus, in hopes that it would have had a fa- 
 vourable iniluence upon his conduct, but it \\as found 
 ineflccUial. Lucilla proved of a disposition very unlike 
 her father ; and instead of correcting, she only contribut- 
 ed to increase, her husband's extravagancies. Aurelius, 
 however, still entertained the hope that upon \'erus's 
 return to Rome, his presence would keep him in awe, 
 and that happiness would at length be restored to the 
 
 state. . 
 
 Q. Was tills the case ? 
 
 A. No; nothing could exceed the miserable state of 
 t!ie empire shortly after the return of Verus. In this 
 dreadful picture was represented an emperor, unawed 
 by example, or the calamities surrounding him, giving 
 way to unheard-of licentiousness. A raging pesti- 
 lence which the army had carried back with them 
 from Partha, spreading terror and desolation flirough 
 all parts ofthe western world ; earthquakes, famines, and 
 inundations, such as had seldom before happened ; the 
 products of the earth throu_hout all Ualy devoured by 
 locusts ; and to add to these mislortunes, all the barbar- 
 ous nations, surrounding the empire, taking advantage of 
 its various calamities, made their irruptions even into 
 Italy itself. 
 
92 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Q. Did not tlie enthusiasm of the Pagans impute" 
 these misfortunes to the iunoctnt Christians ? 
 
 A. Yes ; and in consequtnce of it, a violtnt persecu- 
 tion was raised aii'ainst them in ali pt^its oi theen^p're ; 
 in which Justin Martyr, Polycarp, bisliop of Smyrna, 
 and numerous others suffered martyrdom. 
 
 Q. What was the conduct of Aurclius? 
 
 A. He marched against the Marcomaiini and Qua- 
 di, taking Verus with him, who reluctantly left the 
 pleasures of Rome for the fatip:ues of a camp. They 
 came up with the IMarcomanni near the city of Aqui- 
 lea, and after a furious en:^ag-emf,nt, routcl their army, 
 and pursuing fhem over the Alps, entirely defeated 
 them — Verus returning from Aquil^a to Rome, died of 
 an apoplexy in the 40lh year of his age. 
 
 Q. When was this? 
 
 A. In the year 169. 
 
 Q What became of Aurelius ? 
 
 A. He returned to Rome, where he began his usual 
 endeavours to benefit mankind by a farther reformation 
 of the internal poHcy of the state, but was soon inter- 
 rupted by a renev.al of the former wars. 
 
 Q. What remarkable occurrence did he meet with 
 durini'- these wars ? 
 
 A. In one of the engagements, he is said to have been 
 miraculously relieved, when his army was perishing 
 "with thirst, by thi prayers of a Christian legion which 
 had been levied in his service- At thai dreadful junc- 
 ture, and just as the barbarians were ready to fall upon 
 tiieni, it is asserted there fell such a shower of rain as 
 instantly refreshed the fainting army. The soldiers 
 were seen holding their mouths and their helmets up 
 to heaven, and receiving the water which came so mi- 
 raculously to their relief. By this unlooked-for aid, the 
 
ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 95 
 
 Romans recovered their strcnglh ar.d courage, and 
 ' turnins^ upon their encPxiies, they cut them to pieces. 
 Q. What eiTect had this upon AurcJius ? 
 A. He appeared so sensible cf the miraculous assis- 
 tance, that he immediately relaxed the persecution 
 against the Christians, and wrote to the senate in favour 
 of their rcliirion. 
 
 Q. Did he restore peace to his subjects ? 
 
 A. Yes ; but being some time after informed that the 
 
 ■Scythians ;iad invaded his territories, and attempting to 
 
 march against them, he was attacked by the plague at 
 
 Vienna, of which he died, in the year 180, and 59th 
 
 year of his age. 
 
 Q. By whom was he succeeded ? 
 A. By his son Commodus, whose reign v/as marked 
 by cruelty, injustice, and corruption. lie was stran- 
 gled in the year 192, and was succeeded by Pertinax, 
 who had many virtues ; but endeavouring to reform the 
 pr-;Storian band, a body generally countenartccd by bad 
 emperors, and hired to protect them, he was slain in his 
 own palace, by one of the miscreants who composed 
 that troop, after a short but blameless reign of three 
 months. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. The army, who had long conceived themselves 
 possessed of a right to dispose of the empire, had now 
 the insolence to put it up to public sale. The senate 
 and people were obliged to acquiesce in this determina- 
 tion, and Didiusj who produced immense sums of ready 
 money, obtained it j but was, in a short time after, in 
 consequence cf his avarice, abandoned by the army, 
 and Septimius Severus elected in his stead, and Di- 
 dius was slain by an order of the senate. 
 
 Q. What expeditions were undertaken duHng this 
 €inperor*3 reign ? 
 
'94 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 A. He marched against the Parthians, who were then 
 invading the frontiers of the empire : he ibrced submis- 
 sion from the king- of Armenia, and destroyed several 
 cities in Arabia Felix > he landed on the Parthian coast, 
 took and plundered the famous city of Ctesephon, and 
 then marched back thixjugh Palestine and Egypt, and 
 at length returned to Rome in triumph. 
 Q. Did he undertake any other expedition ? 
 A. Yes ; havino- visited Italy, he went over with his 
 two sons, CaracalUi, and Geta (v/hom he had appointed, 
 his successors- into Britain. He left Geta in the south- 
 ern part of the province, and took Caracalla with him 
 in an expedition to Caledonia, in the eom'se of which, 
 the Romans experienced a number of difficulties ; a 
 great part of the army perishing on their march. 
 Q. Was he defeated ? 
 
 A. No ; he so far succeeded as to subdue the Caledo- 
 nians, and erected what w^as called Severus's wall, which 
 extended from St'lvrr.y-frith to the German Ocean. He 
 died at York in 212, and in the 50th year of his age. 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. Plis two sens were acknowledged as joint empe- 
 rors ; but Carav.alla caused his brother to be put to 
 death, and after a tyrannical and cruel reign of five 
 years, was dispatched by Martial, a centurian, at the in- 
 stance of Macrinus, one of his commanders, who was 
 chosen to succeed him ; but after a reign of 14 months 
 he shared the same fate with Caracalla. 
 Q. Vv^ho succeeded Macrinus ? 
 
 A. Ileliogabalus, who, after a wicked reign of 4 years, 
 was put to death in the 18th year of his age, and was 
 succeeded by liis kinsman Alexander ; a man of great 
 learning and consummate modesty. He delighted in the 
 arts of peace, but was ready to expose himself in war. 
 Q. Did he reign long ? 
 
ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 95 
 
 A. No ; the northcT'ii barbarians who had begun their 
 depredations^ now passing the Danube and invading the 
 empire, he miurched to meet them, and met with some 
 success ; but was cut off by his own soldiers, in a muti- 
 ny, in the 29th year of iiis age, and of tlie Christian era 
 235. 
 
 Q. Wlio succeeded him ? 
 . A. Maximin, a man of gigantic stature, who was dis- 
 tinguished for military achievements abroad, but v/as hat- 
 ed for his cruelties at home. He defeated the Germans 
 in several battles ; but his army being at last tired with 
 toil and hunger, mutinied, while they lay before Aquileia, 
 and he was slain in 238 ; after v/hich Papienus and Bal- 
 binus enjoyed the supreme authority, until the praetorian 
 bands murdered them both, and meeting by accident 
 with Gordianus a youth of 1 6, they instantly declared 
 him emperor on the spot. 
 
 Q. Did the pr^torian bands permit him to reign 
 Alone ? 
 
 A. No ; they obliged him to admit Philip the praeto- 
 rian prefect, to share in the imperial authority. This 
 prefect slew his colleague in the 6th year of his reign, 
 but met v/ith the same fate from the revolt of his gene- 
 ral Decius, in the year 243. 
 
 Q. Did Decius succeed him in the empire ? 
 
 A. Yes ; and after his exaltation, appeared disposed 
 to consult the good of the empire j but fighting against 
 tlie barbarous nations, who were now accustomed to in- 
 vade the empire, was slain, in 251, and was succeeded by 
 Gallus, who suffered the state to fall into numerous 
 disorders. Peace was bought with foreign enemies 
 abroad, while the Christians v/cre persecuted at home. 
 At length his own general jEmilianus revolted against 
 him, and the emperor and his son were slain in a battle 
 which they fought against the insurgents, in 255- 
 
96 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Q. Was JEmillaiius chosen emperor ? 
 A. No ; the senate refused to acknowledge him, and 
 an army that was stationed near the Alps chose Valeri- 
 an their own commander to succeed in the empire ; bufr- 
 he was afterwards taken prisoner by Sapor king of Per- 
 sia, and treated in the most ignominious manner. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded to the throne ? 
 
 A. GalHenus, the son of the unfortunate Valerian ; 
 who promised to revenge his father's cause ; but hav- 
 ing established himself in his authority, he remained 
 inactive, and gave himself up to ease and luxury. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. It was at this time that no less than thirty per- 
 sons claimed the supreme authority, who are generally 
 known in history by the name of the thirty tyrants. Gal- 
 lienusled an army against one of these, and was slain by 
 his own soldiers at the siege of Milan. He was suc- 
 ceeded by Flavius Claudius, who reigned two years, and 
 died of a pestilential feverin Pannonia, as he was march- 
 ing against the Goths, in 270. 
 
 Q. What was the character of his successor ? 
 
 A. He was bold, active, and enterprising. His name 
 "Was Aurelian. 
 
 Q. What was the most remarkable event of his 
 reign ? 
 
 A. The defeat of Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, and 
 empress of the east. Aurelian was slain in 275, and suc- 
 ceeded by Tacitus, who, after a reign of six montLs, di- 
 ed of a fever while he was on his mp.rch against tlie, 
 Persians. His successor, Probus, was slain by his sol- 
 diers on his march to Greecej in 282. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Probus ? 
 
 A. Carus ; but he was soon after struck dead by light- 
 ning. His son Numerianus, who succeeded to the 
 throne, was inconsolable for his death, and brought such 
 
ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 97 
 
 a disorder upon his eyes by weeping, that he was obliged 
 to be carried with the army shut up in a close litter. 
 
 Q. Did not his fither-in-law Asper attempt to usurp 
 the throne ? 
 
 A. Yes ; with this view he ordered Numerianus to be 
 secretly murdered, still pretending that the emperor 
 was alive. But the fraud at length being detected, Di- 
 oclesian, a distinguished commander, was chosen em- 
 peror, and slew Asper with his own hand in 284. 
 
 Q. What were his conquests ? 
 
 A. He gained many victories over the northern bar- 
 barians who infested the empire ; but during his reign 
 a persecution was raised against the Christians. Both 
 he and his partner resigned their command, and died in 
 retirement. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded to the empire ? 
 
 A. Constantius Chlorus, and Galerius. The first 
 was virtuous, valiant, and merciful ; the latter brave, but 
 brutal and cruel. Upon their coming into full power, 
 they agreed to divide the empire ; Constantius was ap- 
 pointed to govern the western parts. He died in Bri- 
 tain and appointed Constantine his son as his succes- 
 sor. Galerius was seized with a very extraordinary dis- 
 order with which he expired, after having languished 
 nearly a year. 
 
 Q. When did Constantine, surnamed the Great, whom 
 you have mentioned, come to the throne? 
 
 A. In the year 311. 
 
 Q. Had he any competitors ? 
 
 A. Yes ; the principal of whom was Maxentius, who 
 
 was at this time in possession of Rome, and was a firm 
 
 asserter of paganism. In Constantine's march against 
 
 I the usurper, he was converted to Christianity by a very 
 
 \ extraordinary appearance. About sun-set, it is said, by 
 
 I some historians, he saw a luminous cross in the heavensy 
 
 I 
 
98 • ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 with an inscription signifying that in that sign he shoukl 
 overcome. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. The emperor was so far affected, that he caused 
 a standard to be made displaying the cross as it had 
 appeared to him in the heavens, after which he consult- 
 ed with several of the principal teachers of Christianity, 
 and made a public avowal of that sacred persuasion. 
 
 Q. In what manner did the emperor proceed ? 
 
 A. He entered Italy with ninety thousand foot, and 
 eighty thousand horse ; and advanced almost to the 
 gates of Rome. Maxentius advanced from the city 
 with an army of one hundred and seventy thousand foot, -. 
 and eighteen thousand horse. The engagement was 
 for some time fierce and bloody, till his cavalry being 
 routed, victory declared upon the side of his opponent, 
 raid he himself was drowned in his flight by the break- 
 ing down of a bridge, as he attempted to cross the Ty- 
 ber. Constantine upon entering the city, disclaimed all 
 praises which the senate and people were ready to of- , 
 fer, ascribing his success to a superior power. 
 
 Q. Was Constantine received as emperor after this , 
 concjuest ? 
 
 A. Yes ; he was universally acknowledged ; and con- 
 tributed all in his power to promote religion and to en-i 
 courage learning, which had long been on the decline, 
 and was almost extinct in the empire. His colleague 
 Licinius was attacked by Maximin in the east, but he 
 was defeated ; and while endeavouring to raise a new ' 
 army, died of an extraordinary madness. Licinius, not 
 contented with this victory and his share in the empire, 
 and aspiring to reign alone, was twice defeated by Con- 
 stantine, and finally ordered to be put to death. 
 
 Q. Did Constantine continue the seat of his empire 
 in Italy ? 
 
ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 99 
 
 A. No; dissatisfied with the situation of Rome, and 
 ambitious of being handed down to posterity as the 
 founder of a new capital; he detei mined to build a city 
 which should bear his own name, and which should ex- 
 ceed Rome in situation, splendour, and magnificence. 
 
 Q. Where did he fix the seat of his empire ? 
 
 A. At Byzantium, situate on a rising ground, com- 
 manding the streight which unites the Euxine and Me- 
 diterranean. Here he raised sumptuous public edifices, 
 built many Christian churches; and spared no pains cr 
 expense to render Constantinople, v/hich the city was to 
 be henceforward called, th^ pride and wonder of the 
 
 world. 
 
 Q. In what year did he remove his court there ? 
 
 A. In the year cf Rome 1084, and of the Christian 
 
 era 330. 
 
 Q. What effect had this change ? 
 
 A. The empire, which had long before been in a most 
 declining state, was, by this measure, precipitated in its 
 downfal. It never after resumed its former splendour, 
 but like a ilowcr transplanted into a foreign cUme, lan- 
 guished by degrees, and at length sunk into nothing. 
 The seat of the empire was scarcely renioved, before 
 the savage nations broke in upon the Roman territories. 
 Constantine indeed gave them several severe checks, 
 and confined them within their bounds : but in succeed- 
 ing times the case was greatly altered. After dividing 
 the empire among liis three sons, he v.as taken ill and 
 died at Nicomedia, in the 61st year cf his age and of 
 the Christian era 342. 
 ■ Q. What followed his death ? 
 
 A. From this period the condition of the empire be- 
 came desperate ; no wisdom could obviate its decay, no 
 courage oppose the evils that si^rroiUKied it on every 
 side. The changing the seat of the empire from Rome 
 
100 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 to Constantinople J occasioned the most injurious effects- 
 Withdrawing the Roman legions from the Rhine and 
 Danube to the east, destroyed the western barriers of the 
 empire j and h\id it open to invaders. The northern bar- 
 barians, who at first were unknown to the Ilomans, 
 had now become so formidable, and arose in such 
 numbers, that the earth seemed to produce a new race 
 of mankind. Rome, now known by the name of the 
 western empire, in contradistinction to Constantinople, 
 wliich ^vas called the eastern, weakened by this division, 
 became the prey of these barbarous nations. 
 
 Q. What was the character of the emperors who had 
 to contend with this people ? 
 
 A. Generally speaking, they were neither furnished 
 with coumge nor conduct to oppose them. Their resi- 
 dence in Abia, enervated their manners and enfeebled 
 their exertions. Sunk into softness, they shewed them- 
 selves with less frequency to the soldiers, became more 
 indolent, fonder of domestic pleasures, and more ab- 
 stracted from the empire. 
 
 Q. Give me a cursory view of these emperors ? 
 
 A. Constantius, who succeeded Constantine and reign- 
 ed 38 years, was weak, timid and unsuccessful. Julian 
 his successor surnamed the apostate, in consequence of 
 his relapsing into paganism, was a more valiant prince. 
 -He drove the barbarians, who luid taken fifty towns up- 
 on the Rhine, cut of their new settlements, and his 
 name was a terror to them during liis reign, which last- 
 ed two years. Jovian and Valentinian had virtue and 
 strength suiTicient to preserve the empire from mme- 
 diately falling under its enemie«. But during the reign 
 of Valens, who succeeded them, an event occurred 
 which hastened the universal destruction. 
 
 Q. What was this ? 
 
 A. The Huns, a savage people who inhabited the 
 
ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 101 
 
 country between the Palus JVIoeotis, the mountains of 
 Caucasus and the Caspian sea, passed the Thracian 
 Bosphorus, and fell upon the Goths, who fled with con- 
 sternation ; and presenting themselves upon the banks 
 of the Danube, entreated the Romans to allow them a 
 place of refuge. 
 
 Q. Did Valens grant them their request ? 
 A. Yes ; he gave them a residence in Thrace, but 
 left them destitute of all needful supplies. Stimu- 
 lated therefore by hunger and resentment, they soon 
 after rose against their protectors ; and, in a dreadful 
 engagement which was fought near Adrianople, they 
 cut off Valens himself and the greatest part of his army. 
 In this mamerthe Roman forces grew weaker; so 
 that the emperors were obliged to hire one body of bar- 
 barians to oppose another. 
 
 Q. What effect had this expedient ? 
 A. It was of use in circumstances of immediate dan- 
 ger ; but when those were over, the Romans found 
 it as difiicult to free themselves from their new allies, as 
 from their former enemies. 
 Q. Who succeeded Valens? 
 
 A. Theodosius ; whose valour and conduct in some 
 measure impeded the destruction commenced in the 
 time of Valens ; but upon his death the enemy became 
 irresistible. A large body of troops were called in to 
 assist the regular forces of the empire, under the com- 
 mand of Alaiic their king. This Ciothic prince, who s 
 represented as brave, impetuous and enterprising, per- 
 ceiving the weakness of the state, and how incompetent 
 Arcadius and Honorius, the successors of Theodosius, 
 were to the securing of it ; and being instigated by Ru- 
 tinus, who had designs upon the throne, he declared war 
 against his employers, and fought the armies of the eiiOr 
 
 I 2 
 
i02 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 pirc for some years with various gmcccss. As his troops 
 were cut off, he received supplies from liis native forests, 
 and at length, putting his deep-luid schemes into ex- 
 ecution, passed the Alps, and poured dov/n like a torrent 
 upon the fruitful vallies of Italy. 
 
 Q. What effect had this upon the inhabitants ? 
 
 A. They beheld with terror and astonishment, a 
 dreadful enemy, ravaging in the midst of their country ; 
 while their wretched emperor Honoriu8, who was then 
 in Ravenna, seemed only resolved to keep up his digni- 
 ty, and to refuse any accommodation. The inhctbitants 
 of Rome f^dt tlic calamity with double aggravation. 
 That great city, whicli had long reigned as mistress of 
 the world, now saw itself besieged by an army of fierce 
 and terrible barbarians ; and beim?; crov/ded with inhabi- 
 tants, was reduced by the extremities of pestilence and 
 famine to the most deplorable situation. 
 
 Q. What was tlie conduct of the senate ? 
 
 A. Urged by the extremity of their situation, they 
 raised an immense treasure by taxes, and by stripping 
 the heathen temples ; and thus at length bought off thos€« 
 fierce invaders. 
 
 Q. Did Alaric persist in any further hostilities? 
 A. Yes ; he soon after returned. The condition in 
 which he found the imperial city, sufficiently manifested 
 the degeneracy of its inhabitants, and the possibility of 
 its conquest. It had long been the resort of all nations, 
 and the receptacle of those, whose follies and vices pro- 
 ved the different countries of their birth. To the incapa- 
 cities of a weak government, the general of the Goths 
 opposed intrepidity and military skill. His army, 
 mdeed, reflected the image of the ancient Romans at 
 that momentous period of their history, when the fruit- 
 less attempt of Hannibal to conquer his enemies, served 
 only to drtiw forth the full energy of their character. 
 
ELEVENTH EPOCHA. lOS 
 
 He found the city unprepared for his attacks ; he enter 
 ed it amid the silence of the night, and directed his 
 march by the conflagration of palaces. The slaughter 
 was dreadful, the spoils immense, and the holy faith of 
 Christ alone, checked the avarice and lust of the plun- 
 derers. To complete the degradation of the imperial 
 city, the sons and daughters of consuls and patricians 
 attended the festive board, and were doomed to drag the 
 chains of the haughty Goths, who displayed their tri- 
 umphant banner, waving over the prostrate eagle. 
 
 Q. When did this happen ? 
 
 A. Ill the year of Rome 1 163, and of the ChristiaE 
 era 410. 
 
 Q. What was the fate of the empire ? 
 
 A. The capital being ransacked several times, and 
 Italy over-run by barbarous invaders, under various de- 
 nominations, from the remotest skirts of Europe ; the 
 western emperors for some time continued to hold the 
 title, without the power of royalty. Honorius lived till 
 he saw himself stripped of the greatest part of his do- 
 minions ; and at length, upon the abdication of Augustu- 
 lus, the very name of ■: uiperor of the west expired, in 
 the 476th year of the Christian era. 
 
 Q. What time did this empire flourish ? 
 
 A. The rise, aggrandisement, decline and fall of the 
 Roman power, are included within the compass of twelve 
 centuries. This miglity empire, like the majestic tem- 
 ples that adorned her cr.pital, was broken into fragments, 
 and divided among numerous nations. At the end of 
 that period, by the incursions of foreign armies, the 
 first foundations of those kingdoms were laid, which are 
 now tlie most distinguished in the history of the v/estern 
 world. The Saxons contended successfully with the 
 nations, for the possession of Britain. Gaul and Spain 
 were divided between the Franks, Visigoths, Suevi, 
 
104 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 and Burgundians ; Africa was exposed t© the Vandals and 
 Moors ; and Italy was filled with an army of Goths and 
 Lombards. Constantinople, which continued for some 
 centuries after tho reign of its celebrated founder to 
 •give an Imperfect representation of imperial splendour, 
 •was finally taken' by the Turks with its dependant ter- 
 ritories. 
 
 Q. It appears, that, notwithstanding the external mag- 
 nificence of i^ome, r.nd her prosperity during the reign 
 of AugustUB and his immediate successors, the manners 
 of the people underwent a great change ; and that tlie 
 state contained within her bosom the causes of her own 
 decay ; what were the principal of those which occasi- 
 oned the downfall of this great empire ? 
 
 A. It may bo»atlnbuicd to tlirce causes: The extinc- 
 tion of patriotism ; the iritroduction of luxury ; and the 
 neglect of the ariciciit modes of education. 
 
 Q. Explain the first of those causes ? 
 
 A. The indiscriminate admission of all the subjects 
 of the empire to the freedom of the city, although a con- 
 ciliutimr, was a most impolitic measure. Instead of 
 raising the natives of the provinces, to the dignity of 
 Romans, this privilege produced th- opposite effect, 
 and sunk the latter to a level with the former. The 
 ri'^-ht of citizenship was rendered of no value, by being 
 so widely disused. The people were no longer ac- 
 tuated by the same love of independence, or the same 
 detestation of ser^iiily. They looked r^o m.ore v/ith a 
 jealous eye upon the power of the senate or the prero- 
 gatives of the patricians ; and undis.in;^uis'ied -in the 
 crowds of new competitors for the same privileges, they 
 gradually sunk into insignificance. The profusion and 
 extravagance of the rich, were displayed in the celebra- 
 tion of the public games. The gladiators and the races 
 of the charioteers were exhibited to the dissolute crowds ; 
 
ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 105 
 
 and the licentious productions of the stage, often repre- 
 sented with all the attractions of splendid decorations, and 
 crowded processions, vitiated the general taste, inflamed 
 the passions of youth, and encouraged dissipation and 
 immorality of conduct, in persons of every class. 
 
 Q. Explain the second cause of its dowi:tfal, the intro- 
 duction of luxury ? 
 
 A. Its gradual progress may be traced from the 
 destruction of Carthage. Profusion and extravagance 
 began to prevail as soon as the precious metals vv'ere in- 
 troduced in abundance. Voluptuousness usurped the 
 place of temperance ; indolence succeeded to activity j 
 self-interest, sensuality and avarice, totally extinguished 
 that ardour, which, in ancient times, glo-vyed in every 
 breast, for the publit good. The republic, which had 
 long withstood the shocks of external violence, fell 
 gradually a prey to prosperity. Her gallant chiefs 
 had viewed with undavmted 'eye, the approach of Han- 
 nibal, and defied the armies of Pyrrhus ; but their 
 degenerate descendants, even the posterity of Fabius 
 and of Scipio, enriched with the spoils of Greece, and 
 surfeited with the luxuries of Asia, leaving their battles 
 to be fought by barbarian mercenaries, sunk supinely on 
 beds of sloth, and heard the trumpet of battle with 
 dismay. 
 
 Q. Explain the last cause of its downfal ? 
 
 A. The education of youth had undergone a com- 
 plete change, and prepared their minds for dependance 
 and servility. Cornelius had in the purer ages of the 
 commonwealth, brought up the Gracchi ; and Julius 
 and Augiistus Caesar were reared by Aurelia and Accia ; 
 their minds were formed upon principles of honour and 
 virtue, and were directed to the most noble pursuits ; 
 and they vrerc taught by their illustrious mothers to 
 m^bibe the spirit, and emulate the exploits of their 
 
106 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 ancestors. In succeeding- times, the youths were en- 
 tmsted to ignorant domestics, who initiated them into 
 the various arts of luxury and extravagance. Tutors 
 and rhetoricians, who disgraced the name of Greeks, 
 repaired to Rome, and "by their insinuating manners, 
 versatile dispositions, and frivolous attainments, gained 
 a complete ascendency in the noblest families. A fond- 
 ness wds formed in early life, for expensive diversions 
 and trilling acquirements ; and no time was given to 
 the cultivation of the liberal arts, or the study of Ro- 
 man or Grecian history. Nor were the modes of 
 thinking less vitiated in early years by the progress 
 of a specious and destructive philosophy. The priur 
 eiples of l'2picurus had been for some time faslii- 
 onablc in Rome ; hh disciples advancing far beyond 
 the modest scepticism of the academic school, boldly 
 denied the providence of a Supreme Ruler of the 
 universe, and openly mabitained that death was the ex- 
 tinction of all existence. These tenets gave a fatal 
 blow to the established religion, and were calculated 
 to undermine the great bulwarks of moral obligation. 
 
 The Roman youth, v/lio resorted to Athens and other 
 seats of learning, were tliuo taught to despise the ce- 
 remonies and deride the raaxin>s of their national belief, 
 a firm adherence to which, had been the honour of their 
 ancestors, and liad operated powerfully upon their mar- 
 tial efforts. 
 
 Q. Does not the history of th.is empire exhibit a very 
 instructive example to mankind ? 
 
 A. Yes ; the Romans illustiious as they were for the 
 dignity of their cliaracter,ihcir martial prowess, and the 
 extent of their empire, hold forth a splendid light for the 
 guidance of mankmd. Their virtues in the prosperi- 
 ty of the commonwealth, and their vices in its decline, 
 fiirn;sh examples and cautions to persons of all sue- 
 
ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 107 
 
 cecding times. In those kings and emperors, who 
 were remarkable for purity of character, monarchs may 
 find examples worthy of their imitation ; and common- 
 wealths may be taught, from the disorders of their fac- 
 tions, what limits to prescribe to the ambition of the 
 wealthy? and what curb to impose upon the licentious- 
 ness of the populace. To be conversant with this im- 
 portant history, is to view mankind engaged in the full 
 exercise of patriotism, courage and talents j or to con- ' 
 template them enervated by luxury, debased by corrup- 
 tion, and sunk into tlie most abject disgrace. 
 
MODERN HISTORY, 
 
 EPITOMISED. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 Q. yj AVING noticed the most intercstmg oc- 
 XjL currences, from the creation to the fall 
 of the Roman Empire in the west ; you will now pro- 
 ceed with the history of succeeding times, by taking a 
 summary view of the several empires and kingdoms, 
 Avhich liave been founded since that period. But in or- 
 der that this view may be the more satisfactory, the ori- 
 ginal inhabitants of each country, tliat has not hereto- 
 fore come particularly under your notice, must be 
 briefly considered. This arrangement, indeed, will 
 sometimes carry you back beyond the period assigned 
 for modern history : but as the subject is intimately con- 
 nected with it, and as the omission of a short account of 
 the origin of the modern kingdoms of Europe, would 
 have deprived you of necessary information, it is 
 
 K 
 
110 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 thought best to take this retrospective view. England 
 will first come under your notice ; but as the history of" 
 this country has been already epitomised, and is gene- 
 rally read, a shorter narrative may be given of it than of 
 those with which you are less acquainted.— Inform me 
 what are the first accounts we have of that country ? 
 
 A. Before the Romans got possession of the island, 
 the Britons, v/ho then possessed the country, were di- 
 vided into several nations or tribes, each of which was 
 governed by its own king. And after Britain became 
 a member of the Roman empire, many of their tribes 
 had their proper kings, who were suffered to govern by 
 their own laws, provided they were tributary. 
 Q. Who succeeded the Romans ? 
 A. The government returned to the Britons, who 
 chose for their king, Constantine, brother of Aldroinus, 
 king of Bretagne in France, a prince of the British 
 blood ; to whom succeeded Constantine, his son ; then 
 Vortiger, who usurped the crown, and, to miaintain his 
 usurpation, first called in the Saxons. 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. The Saxons having been introduced into the island, 
 in time, wholly subdued it. Although they were over- 
 thrown in many battles by king Vortimer, the succes- 
 sor of Vortiger, and afterwards by king Arthur, yet 
 the Britons, upon the death of that monarch, were forced 
 to retreat, and exchange the rich parts of Britain for the 
 mountains of Wales. 
 
 Q. In what manner was the country divided by the 
 Saxons ? 
 
 A. Into seven kingdoms, called the Saxon Heptarchy, 
 which -continued for several ages. But after the Sax- 
 ons had established themselves in all the desirable parts 
 »f the island, and had no longer the Britons to contend 
 
ENGLAND. Ill 
 
 with, they began to quarrel among themBelves. A 
 country divided into a number of petty independent 
 principalities, must ever be subject to contention, as 
 jealousy and ambition have more frequent incentives to 
 operate. After a series, therefore, of battles, treasons, 
 and stratagems ; all these petty kingdoms fell under the 
 povvxr of Egbert, king of Wessex, whose merit deserv- 
 ed dominion, and w^hose prudence secured his conquests. 
 He was crowned king of England, at Winchester, in 
 SI9. ' 
 
 Q. What followed? 
 
 A. Peace and unanimity had been scarcely established, 
 when the Danes began to level their fury against Eng- 
 land. In about five years after the accession of Egbert, 
 their invasions became truly formidable. From that 
 time they continued with unceasing ferocity, until the 
 kingdom was reduced to a state of. the mosrt distressful 
 bondage. After frequent repulses, they at length re- 
 solved upon making a settlement in the country, and 
 landing upon the isle of Thanet, stationed themselves 
 there. In this place they kept their ground, notwitlj- 
 standing a bloody victory gained over them by Ethel- 
 wolf, the successor of Egbert. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Ethclwolf ? 
 
 A. Ethelbakl ; who after an inglorious reign of three 
 years, was succeeded by his brother l^lthelred, a brav^ 
 commander, but whose valour was insufHcient to repress 
 the Danish incursions. During his reign they penetrFtt- 
 ed into Mercia, and took up their winter quarters at 
 Nottingham ; from whence the king attempted to dis- 
 lodge them, but re(5^eiyed a wound in the battle, of which 
 he died. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. His brother Alfred, afterwards surnamed the 
 Grc;at, who found the kingdom in the most deplorable 
 
112 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 situation. The Danes had subdued Northumberland 
 and East Anglia, and had penetrated into the heart of 
 Wessex. The Mercians were united against him, and 
 his dependance upon the other provinces of the empire 
 was but precarious : the lands lay uncultivated, throug'h 
 fear of continual incursions ; and all the churches and 
 monasteries were burned to the ground. In this situ- 
 ation of affairs, no thing- appeared but objects of ter- 
 ror; and the wisdom and virtue of Alfred alone, were 
 found sufficient to bring back happiness, security, and 
 ©rder. 
 
 Q. Give me a more particular account of his charac- 
 ter ? 
 
 A. He seemed born not only to defend his bleeding 
 country, but even to adorn humanity. He had given 
 early proofs of those great virtues, which afterwards 
 gave splendour to kis reign j and Was anointed by pope 
 Leo, a future king, when sent by his father to Rome. 
 On his return, he became every day, more the object of 
 his father's affections ; but being indulged in youthful 
 pleasures he was much neglected in his education ; and 
 had reached his twelfth year, before he was made ac- 
 quainted with the lowest elements of literature. 
 
 Q. In what manner did he become better informed ? 
 
 A. His genius was first roused by the recital of some 
 Saxon poems, which recounted the praises of heroes. 
 This species of erudition, which is sometimes able to 
 make a considertible progress even among barbarians, 
 expanded those noble and elevated sentiments which he 
 had received from nature. Encouraged by the queers 
 his mother, and stimulated by his own ardent inclina- 
 tion, he soqn learned to read those compositions, and pro- 
 ceeded from them to a knowledge of Latin authors, 
 who directed his taste, and rectified his ambition. 
 
 Q. What was his first expedition ? 
 
ENGLAND. 113 
 
 A. Against the Danes. He had scarcely come to the 
 crown before he was obhged to take the field : and not- 
 withstandmg his success at first; the ravciges of this 
 barbarous people became so distressful, and their pow- 
 er so extensive, tliat at lengtli, he was reduced to the 
 wretched necessity, of relinquishing the ensigns of his 
 dignity, and concealing himself from the public eye. 
 His solicitude, however, for his country's welfare, still 
 continued, and when a suitable opportunity offered, he .. 
 summoned his subjects to meet him in arms, returned 
 from his retreat, and totally subdued his enemies. 
 
 Q. What was the extent of his power after this con- 
 quest '' 
 
 A. He possessed a greater extent of territory, than 
 had ever been enjoyed by any of his predecessors : the 
 kings of Wales did him homage for their possessions ; the 
 Northumbrians received a king of his appointing : and 
 no enemy appeared, to give him the least apprehensions, 
 or excite any alarm. In this state of tranquillity which 
 lasted twelve years, Alfred was employed in cultivating 
 the arts of peace, and repairing the damages which the 
 kingdom had sustained by war. 
 
 Q. Did he found any literary institutions ? 
 
 A. Yes; he founded, or at least re-established the uni- 
 versity of Oxford, endowed it with many privileges, and 
 gave it in his own example, the strongest incentives to 
 study, He made a considerable progress in the differ- 
 ent studies of grcanmar, rhetoric, philosophy, archi- 
 tecture, and geometry. He was an excellent historian, 
 understood music, and was acknowledged to be the best 
 Saxon poet of the age in which he lived. He died in 
 ^901. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. His son Edward, who died in 924 and was suc- 
 ceeded by his natural son, Athelstan. After a reign of 
 
 K2 
 
114 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 sixteen years, he died, and was succeeded by his bro- 
 ther Edmund, who, like the rest of his predecessors, 
 met with disturbances from the Northumbrians on his 
 accession to the throne ; but his activity soon defeated 
 their attempts. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. His brother Edred, in 9 46, who implicitly sub- 
 mitted to the direction of Dunstan the monk, both in 
 church and state ; and the kingdom was in danger of 
 beinji^ turned into a papal province by this zealous eccle- 
 siastic ; but was checked by the death of the king, in 
 955. His sons being yet unfit to govern, Edwy his ne- 
 phew ascended the throne. He was a prince of great 
 personal accomplishments and a martial disposition ; 
 but immediately upon his accession, he was involved 
 in a quarrel with the monks, whose rage, neither his 
 accomplishments, nor his virtues, could mitigate. 
 
 Q. By whom was he succeeded ? 
 
 A. By his brother Edgar, who being placed on the 
 throne by the infiuence of the monks, affected to be en- 
 tirely guided by their direction in all his succeeding 
 transactions. He died in 9 7" 3, and was succeeded by 
 Edward, surnamed the martyr ; who was stabbed by or- 
 der of his mother-in-law, in 979. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. His half brother Ethelred H, a weak and irresolute 
 monarch, incapable of governing the kingdom, or pro- 
 vidhig for its safety. During his reign the Danes were 
 daily gaining ground, and as they lived indiscriminately 
 among the English, a resolution was taken for a gene- 
 ral massacre. Ethelred, by a policy incident to weak 
 princes, embraced the cruel resolution of putting them 
 all to the sword, which was effected in one day. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. Sweyn, king of Denmark, who had been informgil 
 
ENGLAND. 115 
 
 ©f the treacherous cruelty of the English, appeared off 
 the western coast with a large fleet, and soon after oblig- 
 ed Ethelred to fly into Normandy, and made himself 
 master of the country. Canute, afterwards surnamed 
 the Great, succeeded Sweyn as king of Denmark and 
 general of the Danish forces in England. The contest 
 between him and Edmund Ironside, successor to Ethel- 
 red, was managed with great obstinacy and perseve- 
 rance ; but E'dmund being murdered by his two cham- 
 berlains, at Oxford, in 1017, Ca.nute was left in peace- 
 able possession ofthe whole kingdom. 
 Q. When did he die ? 
 
 A. In the H.th year of his reign ; and ofthe Christian 
 era 1036, leaving behind him three sons, Sweyn, who 
 was crowned king of Norway, Hardicanute,who was put 
 in possession of Denmark, and Karold who succeed- 
 ed his father on the P nglish throne. 
 Q. By whom was Harold succeeded ? 
 A. By his brother Ilardicanute, who after a short and 
 ingloiious reign of two years, was succeeded in 1041 by 
 Edward, surnamed tlic Confessor, a monarch of the 
 Saxon line, who was by general cojisent crowned king. 
 He died in 1066, and was succeeded by Harold, son of 
 the earl of f^.ent; but his pretensions were opposed by 
 William, duke of Normandy, who insisted that the 
 crown belonged of right to him, it being bequeathed to 
 )iim by Edward the Confessor. 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. He landed in Sussex, September 29, 1066, de- 
 feated the English troops at Hastings, (>ctober 14th fol- 
 lowing, when Harold, (who was the last of the Saxon 
 monarchs) was slain, and William assumed the title of 
 Conqueror, and was crowned at W^estminster Decern^ 
 ber 25th, 1066. 
 Q. When did he die ? 
 
116 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 A. In 1087, and was succeeded by liis son William' 
 II. He invaded Normandy with success, in 1089 ; but 
 was killed by accident, as he was hunting in New Fo- 
 rest, by Sir Walter Tyrrel, August 2, llOO, and was 
 succeeded by his brother Heniy I. who defeated his 
 brother Robert in Normandy 1107 ; took possession of 
 that country, and sent liim prisoner to England ; where 
 he detained him a prisoner, during the remainder of 
 his life. Henry's only son was shipwrecked and lost in 
 coming from Normandy in 1 120, and he died at Lyons 
 in 1135. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. His nephew Stephen ; though Henry by will had 
 left his dominions to his daughter Matilda, who had 
 married Henry IV'. emperor of Germany : the empe- 
 ror dying in 1127, she landed in England, claimed 
 her right and was crowned ; but soon after vvas defeated 
 at Wmchester in 1141. She retired to France in 1 147 
 and died in 1 167. 
 
 Q. When was Stephen crowned ? 
 
 A. In 1135. During the contest with Matilda, he 
 was taken prisoner by the earl of Gloucester ; but was 
 again recognized as king, taken from the dungeon, and 
 placed upon the throne. He made peace with Henry, 
 Matilda's son, in 1153. He died in 1 1 54, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Henry II. who invaded Ireland and conquered 
 it in 1 172, and took the, king of Scotland prisoner in 
 1175. His son Pichard rebelled against him, in 1185, 
 and he died of grief in Normandy, cursing his sons, July 
 .6, 1189. 
 
 Q, Who succeeded Henry II ? 
 
 A. His son Richard I. He conquerred the island of 
 Cyprus, and there married Berengera, daughter of the 
 king of Navarre in 1191 ; but in the year after he was 
 arrested near Vienna by the duke of Austria^ and ran- 
 
ENGLAND, 117 
 
 s«m-ed for 40,000/. He returned to England in March 
 1193, was wounded. with an arrow vX Chalus in Nor- 
 mandy and died April 6, 1 199. 
 Q. Who succeeded Richard ? 
 
 A. His brother John ; he 'divorced his wife Avisa, 
 
 and married Isabella, daughter of the count of Ango- 
 
 lesme, in 1200. In two years after, he took his ne- 
 
 ' phew Arthur who had a right to the crown, prisoner, 
 
 whom he murdered. He imprisoned the queen, and 
 
 banished all the clergy in 1203 ; was excommunicated 
 
 ; in the year following, and surrendered his crown to 
 
 j Pandolf, the pope's legate, in May 1213 ; was absolved 
 
 1 in July following, and obliged by the barons to confirm 
 
 magna charta, in 1215. He died in the following year. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded John ? 
 
 A. His son Henry HI. He married Eleanor, daugh.- 
 ter of the count of Provence, in 1236. In 1248, he 
 pledged his crown, plate, and jewels for money ; and 
 was obliged by his nobles, to resign the power of a so- 
 vcrci;^!, and sell Normandy and Anjcu to the French, 
 ill 12j8: was taken prisoner at Lewis in 1264; and 
 wounded at the battle of Evesham, in 1265. He died 
 in 1272. 
 
 Q. By whom was he succeeded ? 
 A. By his son Edward I. who married Eleanor, prin- 
 cess of Castile, in 1253. He was wounded m the Holy 
 land with a poisoned dagger, but recovered by his prin- 
 cess sucking out the venom, in 1271, and was proclaim- 
 ed king on the death of his father, in 1272. He landed 
 m England in July, and was crowned in August 1274. 
 In 1282 he reduced the Welsh princes ; in 1290 his 
 queen died of a fever ; nine years after which, he mar-^ 
 ried Margaret, sister to the king of France. He con- 
 quered Scotland in 1296, and died in 1307. 
 Q. Who succeeded Edward I ? 
 
118 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 A. His son Edward II. ^vho had been created prince 
 of Wales in 1 300, and was the first king of England's 
 son that had the title. He married Isabel daughter of 
 the king of France in January 1308, and was crowned in 
 February following. In 1310, the barons obliged him to 
 vest the government in tv;enty-one persons; and in 
 1325, he declared his queen and all her adherents ene- 
 mies to the kingdom. Fie was dethroned in January, 
 1327, and murdered at Berkeley-castle, in September 
 following. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. His son Edward III. wlio had married Philippa, 
 daughter of the earl of Hainault, in 1326, and accepted 
 the crow^n on his father's forced resignation. He claimed 
 the crown of France, in 1329; confined his mother Isa- 
 bel, and caused her favourite INIorlimer to be hanged, in 
 1330. Three years after, he defeated the Scots at Halle- 
 down ; and in 1339, he invaded France. In 1346, he 
 defeated the French at Crcssy, and his queen took the 
 king of Scotland prisoner. In the following year, he 
 took Calais after a year's siege : he instituted the order 
 of the garter, in 1349, and died in 1377. 
 
 Q. By Avhom was he succeeded ? 
 
 A. By his grandf)on Richard II. son of Edward the 
 Black Prince, who was created duke of Cornwall, in 
 1337, and was the first in England that bore the title of 
 duke. Edward was afterwards created prince of Wales, 
 in 1344. He defeated the French at Poictiers, in 1356, 
 and brought their king prisoner to London the year fol- 
 lowing. He married Joanna, countess dowager of Hol- 
 land, in 1362, and died in 1376. 
 
 Q. Before you proceed with the history of Richard 
 II. inform me who was the fourth son of Edward HI. as 
 from him Henry VII. descended ? 
 
 A. John of Gaunt was the fourth son of Edward IIL 
 
ENGLAND. 119 
 
 lie married Blanch, daughter of the duke of Lancaster, 
 in 1359, by whom he became possessed of that duke- 
 dom and title. She died in ten years after, and in 1372, 
 he married the daughter of the king and qu^en of Cas- 
 tile and Leon, and took that title. In 1396, he married 
 Catharine Swinford, by Avhom he had four children^ in 
 the lifetime of his former duchess, who were afterwards 
 made legitimate by act of parliament; and from the 
 eldest, Henry VIL descended. He died in 1399. 
 Q. Proceed with the history of Richard H ? 
 A. He was crowned in 1377, married Ann, sister to 
 the emperor of Germany in 1382, who died in 1395. 
 The year following he married Isabella, daughter of 
 the king of France. He caused his uncle Thomas, duke 
 of Gloucester, to be smothered in 1397 ; was taken pri- 
 soner by his cousin duke of Lancaster, and sent to the 
 tower on the 1st of September, 1399; on the 29th he 
 resigned his crown, and was succeeded by Henry IV. 
 In 1400, he was murdered in Pontefract castle. 
 Q. Who was Henry IV. 
 
 A. He was duke of Lancaster, and grandson of Ed- 
 ward III. He married ^tary, daughter of the earl of 
 Hertford, who died in 1394. He fought with the duke 
 of NorfMk in 1397, and was banished ; but returned to 
 England in arms, against Richard XL smd deposed him 
 on the 29tii of September, 1399, and was crowned on 
 the 13th of October following, when he iniitituted the 
 •order of the Bath. He married Joan of Navarre, widow 
 of the duke of Bretagne, in 1403, and died in 1413. 
 Q. Vvlio succeeded Henry IV. ? 
 A. His son, Henry V. He had defeated the Welsh 
 in two battles, in 1405. He claimed tlie crown of France, 
 in 1414, and gained the victory of Agincourt, in the 
 following year, in 1416, he pledged his regalia for 
 money to push his conquests ; was declared regent, and 
 
120 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 and married Catharine of France, in 1 420. He died in 
 1422. 
 
 Q, Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. His infant son Henry VI. He was proclaimed king 
 of France, in 142 2, was croM^ned at Westminster, in 
 1429, and at Paris, in 1430. He married Margaret, 
 daughter of the duke of Anjou, in 1445. Two years 
 afterwards, he ordered Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, 
 his uncle, to be strangled. He was taken prisoner at 
 Northampton and deposed, in 1 46 1, by his fourth cousin, 
 Edward IV ; was restored to his throne in 1470, and ta- 
 ken prisoner again, in 1471. His queen and son were 
 also taken prisoner soon afterwards, by Edward : his 
 son was killed in cold blood, and he was murdered in 
 the same year. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. Edward IV. who had been crowned in 1461. He 
 sent the earl of Warwick to demand the sister of the 
 the queen of France, and, in the mean time, married 
 Elizabeth, the widow of Sir John Grey, in 1464. He 
 was taken prisoner, by the earl of Warwick in York- 
 shire and expelled the kingdom, in 1470 ; returned and 
 gained a great victory at Barnet, in the following year, 
 and caused the duke of Clarence, his brother, who had 
 joined the earl of Vv^arwick, to be drowned in a butt of 
 Malmesey wine, in 147S. He dicid in 1483. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Edward IV * 
 
 A. His son Edward V. a minor of 13 years of age. 
 He was conveyed to the tower in May, 1 483, was d'-pos- 
 ed in June following,. and with his brother the duke of • 
 York, was supposed to be murdered in the tower soon 
 after. He was succeeded by his uncle Richard HI. duke 
 of Gloucester, brother to Edward IV. ; who was made 
 protector of England on the 1 7th of May, elected king 
 on the 20th of June, and crowned on the 6th of July* 
 
ENGLAND. 12i 
 
 1483. He was slain in battle, at Bosworth field, in 
 1485. 
 
 Q. By whom was Richard III. succeeded ? 
 
 A. By Henry VH. He defeated Richard HI. and was 
 crowned in October, 1485. The followingyear he mar- 
 ried Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. In 1502, his 
 eldest son Arthur died, and his queen, in 1503. He 
 married his daughter Margaret, to James IV. of Scot- 
 land, in 1 504, from whom James I. of England descend- 
 ed. He died in 1509. 
 
 Q. By whom was he succeeded ? 
 
 A. By his son, Henry VIII. who married Catharine, 
 infanta of Spain, widow of his brother Arthur, on the 3d 
 of June, 1509, and was crowned on the 24th following. 
 He received the title of Defender of the Faith, in 1521 ; 
 was styled Head of the Church in 1 53 1 . In the follow- 
 ing year he married Ann Bullen privately, and divorc- 
 ed Catharine in 1533. He was excommunicated by 
 pope Paul, in 1535, and Catharine, his first queen, died 
 in the following year. He beheaded Ann, his second 
 queen. May 19, and married Jane Seymore May 20, 
 1536, who died in the following year. He suppressed 
 the religious foundations in England and Wales, in 
 1539 ; married Ann of Cleves January 6, divorced her 
 July 10, and married Catharine Howard August 8, 
 1540. He beheaded her and lady Rochford in 1542 ; 
 married Catharine Par, his sixth wife in 1543, and died 
 in 1547. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Henry VIII. ? 
 
 A. His son Edward VI. He fell sick of the small-pox 
 and measles, in 1552, and died of a consumption at 
 Greenwich in the year following ; and was succeeded, 
 iigreeably to his will, by his cousin Jane Gray, who 
 was proclaimed on the 9th of July, 1553 ; deposed and 
 
 I. 
 
122 MODERN illSTORY. 
 
 sent to the tower on the 28th following, and beheaded 
 with lord Dudley her husband, on the 12th of February, 
 1554. 
 
 Q. By whose order was she beheaded ? 
 
 A. By the order of Mary, daughter of Henry VIII. who 
 had been crowned October 1, 1553. She married Phi- 
 lip of Spain the following year, and died in 1558. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Mary ? 
 
 A. Her half-sister Elizabeth, who had been sent pri- 
 soner to the tower, in 1554 ; was crowned January 15, 
 1559 ; imprisoned Mary of Scots, who had fled to Eng- 
 land for protection in 1568, and who on the 8th of Fe- 
 bruary, 1587, was beheaded. In the following year Eli- 
 zabeth defeated the Spanish Armada. In 1601 she be- 
 headed her favourite, the earl of Essex, and died at 
 Richmond, in 1603. 
 
 Q. Wlio succeeded Elizabeth ? 
 
 A. James I. who w^s crowned James VI. of Scotland, 
 in 1567; married Ann princess of Denmark, in 1589, 
 and was proclaimed king of England in March, and 
 crowned in July, 1603. He married his daughter Eli- 
 zabeth, to Frederick, prince palatine of the Rhine, in 
 1612, from whom George I. descended. He lost his 
 queen in 1619, and died in 1625. 
 
 Q. By whom was he succeeded ? 
 
 A. By his son Charles I. who married Henrietta of 
 France. Fie went to the House of Commons and demand- 
 ed five members, in Jan. 1642 ; raised his standard at 
 Nottingham, on the 25th of August following, and put ^}^ 
 himself into the hands of the Scots at Newark, on the 
 5th of May, 1645. He was sold by the Scots for 
 200,0001. on the 8th of August following ; escaped from 
 Hampton court in July 1 648, but was confined in Wind- 
 sor Castle, in December following, and removed to St. 
 James's on the 19th of January 1649; was brought to 
 
ENGLAND. 123 
 
 tfial the next day, condemned the 27thj and beheaded 
 at White-hall the 30th of the same month. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. Oliver Cromwell Avas proclaimed protector, De- 
 cember 16, 1653 ; elected king, but refused the title 
 May 8, 1657. He died at White-hall in 1658, and his 
 son Richard Cromwell was proclaimed protector ; but 
 he was deposed in 1659, and died it Cheshunt, in 
 Hertfordshire, in 1702. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Kichard Cromwell ? 
 
 A. Charles H. son of Charles I. He escaped into 
 Holland in 1648; landed in Scotland in 1650, was 
 crowned at Scone, January 1, 1651, restored to his 
 throne May 29, 1660, and crowned April 13, 1661. He 
 married Catharine, infanta of Portugal, in 1662, aiid 
 died in 1685. 
 
 Q. By whom was he succeeded ? 
 
 A. By his Ijrother James H. who had married Ann 
 Hyde in 1660; she died in 1671, and he married the 
 princess of Modena in 1673. He was crowned in A- 
 pril 1685 ; fled from his palace on the 12th of Decem- 
 ber, and left England on the 23d, 1688. He landed at 
 Kinsale in Ireland, March 12, 1689, and returned to 
 France in July, 1690. He died at Germain's in 1701. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded James H. ? 
 
 A, James, duke of ?iIonmouth, natural son of Charles 
 H. Lmded in England, June 11th, and was proclaimed 
 king at Taunton, June 20, 1685 ; but he was defeated 
 near Bridgewater- July 5, and beheaded on Tower-hill 
 July 15, following. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. William, prince of Orange, v/ho married MaiT, 
 daughter of James H. landed in England with an army. 
 November 4, 1688 ; was proclaimed king, and his prin- 
 cess queen, of England, F<ebruary 13, and crowned 
 
124 ?*ODERN HISTORY. 
 
 April 11, 1689. He landed at Carrickfergus on the 
 14th of June, and defeated James II. at the battle of 
 Eoyn, on the first of July 1650. lie lost his queen of 
 the snr}all-pox in 1694; fell from his horse and broke 
 his cellar bone, in Feljruary 1702, and died at Kensing- 
 ton on the 8th of March following. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded hira ? 
 
 A. His sister-in-law Ann, second daughter of James 
 II. who married prince (jcorge of Denmark, in 1683, 
 and was crowned April 23, 1702. She lost her son 
 George by a fever, in 1700 ; settled her revenue of the 
 first fruits and tenths on the pooi-er clergy, in 1704 
 passed the act of union, in 1707, and lost her husband 
 in 1708. She died in 1714. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded queen Ann ? 
 
 A. George I. elector of Hanover, who married So- 
 phia, daughter of the duke of Brunswick-zell, in 1682. 
 He was created duke of Cambridge in 1706, proclaim- 
 ed August 1 ; landed at Greenwich September 18, and 
 crowned October 20, 1714. He lost his queen in Ger- 
 many November 2, 1726, and died in June 1727. 
 
 Q. By whom was he succeeded ? 
 
 A. By his son George II. who married the princess 
 Wilhelmina Caroline Dorothea, of Brandenburgh-ans- 
 pach, in 1704. He was crowned October 1 1, 1727, and 
 married his son Frederick, to Augusta, princess of 
 Saxe-gotha in 1736. He lost his queen in 1737 ; defeat- 
 ed the French at Dcttingen, in 1743, and lost his son 
 Frederick in 175 1. lie died suddenly at Kensington 
 in 1760. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. The present George HI. who was born June 4, 
 1738, proclaimed October 26, 1760. Fie married Char- 
 lotte Sophia (born May 19, 1744) princess of Mecklen- 
 burg-streIitz,September 18, 1761, and both were crown- 
 ed September 22, following. 
 
ENGLAND. 125 
 
 Q. Give me some account of the government of Eng- 
 and ? 
 
 A. The king of Great Britain, though he is not m all 
 respects absolute, yet his dignity and power are very 
 great and extensive. He has the supreme right of 
 patronage through all England, called patronage-paw- 
 mount : he is supreme judge, or lord chief justice, and 
 the fountain whence all justice is supposed to be deriv- 
 ed. He alone has power to declare war ; to make peace, 
 leagues, and treaties ; to s'jnd and receive ambassadors, 
 See. He can convoke, adjourn, prorogue, remove, and 
 dissolve parliaments ; and can refuse his assent to any 
 bill which has passed both houses, without giving a 
 reason. He has the nomination of all officers at land 
 or sea; of all magistrates, counsellors, and officers of 
 state ; of all bishops, and other ecclesiastical dignitaries j 
 of bestowing all honours on the hipher and lower no- 
 bility. He has the power of determining rewards and 
 punishments, can pardon crimes, and remit the penal- 
 ties. He is the guardian of idiots ^md lunatics, the recep- 
 tacle of all estates when no heir appears, which then re- 
 vert or escheat to the king. All treasure trove, or mo- 
 nies, goods, 8cc lost, and the owners unknown ; all waste 
 ground and lands recovered from the sea ; all mines of 
 gold and silver, belong to the king. He is deemed by 
 the laws, God's vicegerent, and therefore is supposed to 
 have no imperfection ; and the law attributes to him a 
 kind of perpetuity ; for, he being a corporation of himself, 
 lives for ever He has also abundance of other preroga- 
 tives.— -The title of the king is. By the grace of God, of 
 the united kiutrdoms of Great Britain, and Ireland, 
 King, Defender of the Faith : and, since the time of king 
 John, he styles himself /[>,, in his. public instruments 
 and letters. The title of Sacred Majesty, or Most Ex- 
 
 L2 
 
126 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 cellent Majesty, is given to the king ; and in speaking 
 to him the term Sire, or Your Majesty, is used. 
 
 The eldest son of the king of England is born duke- 
 of Cornwall; afterward he is created prince of Wales, 
 a title first given by Edward V. to his eldest son. Since 
 the union of England and Scotland, his titles are, prince 
 of Wales, duke of Aquitaine and Cornwall, earl of Ches- 
 ter and Flint. He is reputed, in law, as the same person 
 with the king. 
 
 Next to the king and princes of the blood, are reck- 
 oned the great oiiicers of the crown, whereof there are 
 nine, as follow : 
 
 1. The Lord High vSteward of. England ; he was 
 formerly the highest oHicer under the king. His busi- 
 ness is to officiate at coronations, the arraignment of 
 peers, Scc/which when over, he breaks his white staff, 
 and with it his commission expires. 
 
 2. The Lord High Chancellor, Avho is, at present, the 
 highest person in the kingdom next after tliose of royal 
 blood, in civil affairs. His office is to keep the king's 
 great seal ; to moderate the rigour of common law ; to 
 judge according to equity, conscience, and reason ; and 
 to bestow all ecclesiastical benefices in the king's books 
 under 201. per arinum. 
 
 3. The Lord High Treasurer, who has the charge 
 and government of all the king's revenues kept in the 
 exchequer : he is superintendajit over all the officers em- 
 ployed in collecting the imposts, customs, tributes, £cc. 
 belonging to the crown. 
 
 4. The Lord President of the king's privy council, 
 "Whose office is to attend upon the king, to propose bu- 
 siness at the council table, and to report to the king the 
 transactions there. 
 
 5. The Lord Privy Seal, under whose bands pass all 
 
ENGLAND. 127 
 
 charters and grants, and pardons signed before they 
 come to the great seal ; with divers other matters 
 which do not pass by the great seal. 
 
 6. The Lord Great Chamberlain, who presents to the 
 king on the coronation-day all his robes, and other parts 
 of royal attire. To him belongs the care of providing 
 all things in the House of Lords in the time of parlia- 
 ment; also the government of the whole palace of 
 Westminster ; and the furnishing of Westminster-hall 
 against coronations, trials of peers, Sec. He disposes of 
 the s.\ ord of state to what lord he pleases to be carried 
 before the king, and goes himself on the right hand of 
 the sword next the king's person, and the Lord Marshal 
 on the left. 
 
 7. The Lord High Constable : whose power and 
 jurisdiction was anciently so great, that since 1521, it 
 was thought too much for any subject. This officer is 
 now created only on occasions of coronations, trials by 
 combat. Sec. His power and authority are the same with 
 the Earl Marshal, with whom he sits judge in the Mar- 
 shal's Court, and takes place of the Karl Marshal. 
 
 8. The Earl Marshal, whose office is to take cogni- 
 zance of all matters of wars and arms, to determine con- 
 tracts concerning dccnls of arms out of the realm upon 
 land, and of war witiiin the realm, which cannot be de- 
 termined by common law : he formerly had several 
 courts under him, but now only the Marshalsea. 
 
 9. The Lord Hii^h Admiral, who is intrusted with all 
 maritime affairs ; as well civil as military ; he hath power 
 to commissionatc a vice-admiral, rear-admiral, all sea 
 captains, and other officers at sea. To him belong all 
 penalties, amerciaments, goods of pirates, felons, Sec", 
 as also all stray goods, wrecks at sea, deodands. Sec. 
 
 These are the great streams of government, policy, 
 and rule, v^hich flow from the orijginal fountain, the 
 
128' MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 king, to the common people of the realm ; among 
 "vvhom it subdivides, in various ways, into lesser currents 
 of power and authority. 
 
 The great courts of judicature, civil and military, 
 are seven in number, as follow : 
 
 1. The Privy Council, which is that august assem- 
 bly wherein the kin;^ is advis»:d and counselled ; and 
 ■which consults for the honour, defence, safety and be- 
 nefit of the realm; not meddling with matters which 
 may be determined by the ordinary courts of justice, 
 but matters of complaint and sudden emergencies. 
 The members of this honorable council are such as 
 the king, of his own i)L'asure, shall choose ; and are 
 generally of the highest rank, eminent for wisdom, 
 inteu;rity, S::c. They sit at the council-board, when his 
 majesty presides ; and at all debates the lowest deli- 
 vers his opinion first, and the king last of all declares 
 his judgment. , 
 
 2. The Parliament, which is the most high and 
 honorable court, wherein the most supreme and abso- 
 lute power of the realm consists. This high court or 
 assembly consist of two parts or houses, called the 
 Higher and Lower House of Parliament. The mem- 
 bers are of three sort?, viz. the peerage and baroii]^, 
 who represent the hi;-,her part of tl\e commonwealth ; 
 the knights, citizens and burgesses, who represent the 
 lower part ; and the bishops or prelates, who represent 
 the clergy: over ail Avhich the king himself presides. 
 The place of meeting is in the king's ancient palace of 
 Westminster ; tlie lords in one room, and the commons 
 in another. The king, lords, and commons, must all, 
 or the greatest part, agree to the making of laws and re- 
 pealing them. When a bill has passed through both 
 houses, with consent, and received tlie assent of the 
 king, in parliament assembled, it is culicd an act of 
 
 I 
 
ENGLAND. 129 
 
 parliament, a statute and ordinance, a rule and law of 
 the land. 
 
 3. The Ili.^h Court of Chancery, because it is de- 
 signed to mitigate the rigour of the other courts of 
 judicature, is called the court of equity ; and is the origi- 
 nal of all other courts. The judge of this court is the 
 Lord Chancellor, or Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, 
 whose sentence is definitive without a jury of twelve 
 men. The judge has twelve assistants, called Masters 
 of Chancery, the first of whom is Master of the Rolls, 
 a place of great dignity. Another officer who continu- 
 ally attends the judge, is the Cltrk of the Crown, an 
 office of very high importance. There are also many 
 other officers in this court, which render suits very- 
 chargeable and tedious. 
 
 4. The Court of King's Bench, which is next to the 
 Parliament, is the highest court at common law. In it 
 are handltid the pleas of the crown, or all things which 
 concern the loss of life or member of any subject ; as 
 also all treasons, felonies, oppressions, misgovernments. 
 Sec. In this court arc iour judges, the first of whom is 
 called the Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench, 
 whose power and jurisdiction are very great. 
 
 5. The Court of Common Pleas, so called because 
 therein are debated the usual and common pleas between 
 subject and subject, according to the strictest rules gf 
 law. None but sergeants at law may plead in this 
 court. The first judge is called the Lord Chief Jus- 
 tice of the Common Pleas ; anS there are commonly' 
 three inferior judges. 
 
 6. The Court of Exchequer, in which are held two 
 courts, one of law, the other of equity. In this court 
 may sit the Lord Treasurer, the Chancellor of the Ex- 
 chequer, the Lord Chief Baron, three other Barons 
 of the Exchequer, and the Cursitor Baron. This court 
 
130 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 tries all causes relating to the king's treasury or re"v*e- 
 nue, as touching accounts, disbursements, customs, and 
 all fines imposed on any man. 
 
 7. The Court of Admiralty, \vhich is the principal or 
 ^supreme of the courts held by and under the Lord High 
 Admiral. It takes cognizance of all affairs, civil and 
 military, on the seas, which are Avithin the jurisdiction 
 of the common law : therefore the proceedings in this 
 court in all civil matters, are according to the civil 
 law, and run in the name of the admiral, and not of 
 the king, as in common law. In this court he has a 
 lieutenant called Judge of the Admiralty, who is com- 
 monly some learned doctor of the civil law. These are 
 the great and hi;^h tribunals, or courts of judicature, 
 established for the public administration of justice and 
 equity. 
 
 For the government of the several counties the king 
 has deputed and commissioned several officers with 
 power and authority to put in force and execute the 
 laws upon the subject. These are the justices of the 
 peace, whose office it is to charge and keep the peace of 
 the county, and to examine and commit to prison all 
 Avho break or disturb the same, and disquiet the king's 
 subjects. In order to this, they liold quarterly meet- 
 ings at some of the principal towns where a jury of 
 twelve men, called the grand inquest, is summoned to 
 appear, who, upon oath, are to inquire into the cases 
 of all delinquents, and to present them by l)ill guilty 
 of the indictment, or not i>;uiity ; the justices after trial, 
 punish the former or commit them for further trial at 
 the next assizes, and acquit the innocent. This is 
 called the quarter-sessions for the county, ^^herifis of 
 the county, or the high shcrifi". whose business it is to 
 execute the king's mandates, and all writs directed to 
 him out of the king's court, to impannel juries, to 
 
SWEDEN. 131 
 
 bring causes and criminals to trial, to see the sentences, 
 both in civil and criminal affairs, executed, and to wait 
 on and guard the judges twice a year in their circuits 
 for the assizes. Under the sheriff are various officers, 
 as under-sheriff, clerks, stewards, bailiffs, constables, 
 jailers, beadles. Sec Bailiff of the hundred, a very anci- 
 ent officer, but now of small authority. High consta- 
 ble was first ordained for the conservation of the peace, 
 and view of ^-mour : he disperses warrants and orders 
 of the justices of the peace to each petty constable. 
 Coroners are two in each county, who are to inquire, by 
 a jury of neighbours, how, and by whom, any person 
 came by a violent death, and to enter it on record as a 
 plea of the crown ; whence they have their name crown- 
 ers or coroners. The clerk of the market, whose office 
 is to keep a standard of all weights and measures ex- 
 actly agreeing with the king's standard in the Exche- 
 quer, to seal all weights and mciisures made exactly by 
 the standai-d in his custody, and to destroy such as are 
 otherwise. 
 
 SWEDEN. 
 
 Q. WHAT was Sweden noted for ? 
 
 A. For having been the native country of the fierce 
 and warlike Goths, \v]ios« emigrations effected the most 
 singular and rapid revolutions on the European conti- 
 nent, that history records. 
 
 Q. ^Vas not the kingdom of the Swedes originally 
 separated from that of tlie Goths ? 
 
 A. Yes ; but in 1 132, both nations with their several 
 dependencies, were united under Suercher, king of the 
 
132 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Ostrogoths, who was proclaimed king of the Swedes and 
 Goths. 
 
 Q. Were there any acquisitions made to this king- 
 dom ? 
 
 A. Yes; Magnus Smeck added Schonen, and the 
 adjacent territories ; but, at length, by his mal-admi- 
 nistration, his family were deprived of Ihe throne ; for 
 after Albert, duke of Mecklenburgh, his sister's son, 
 had been elected king, INIargaret, who was heiress to 
 the crown of Denmark and Norway, compelled him 
 to give up the kingdom to her ; and by the union of 
 Calmer,* in 1397, the same princess united the three 
 northern kingdoms under one head. 
 
 Q. Did not this union excite the indignation of the 
 Swedes ? 
 
 A. Yes ; and after several unsuccessful attempts, they 
 at length by the assistance of Gustavus Vasa, a Swe- 
 dish nobleman, shook ofli* the Danish yoke. 
 
 Q. What was it that particularly excited the Swedes 
 to engage in this revolt ? 
 
 A. A perfidious massacre, perpetrated at Stock- 
 holm, in the year 1520, by Christian II. 
 
 Q. Who was elected king ? 
 
 A. The brave Gustavus Vasa, who not only became 
 the founder of a line of monarchs of his own family, 
 but advanced the royal authority to a very great height. 
 The a'own was rendered hereditary to the issue of the 
 i-eigning prince, by the free consent of the states, and 
 it has accordingly been enjoyed by his descendants 
 ever since. In the early part of his reign, he embraced 
 the doctrines of Luther ; and died in 1560. 
 
 Q. What was the situation of the kingdom after his 
 death ? 
 
 • See Denmark in 1597. 
 
SWEDEN. 133 
 
 A. The division of it among his children ; the mal- 
 administration of his son John, with the propensity of 
 Erick, John's brother, and of Sigismund king of Poland, 
 the son of John, to popery, threw the kingdom into dis- 
 tractions, which v/ere not composed until Charles IX. 
 and his son Gustavus Adolphus effected it. 
 
 Q. When did Gustavus Adolplius come to the 
 throne ? 
 
 A. In 1621 ; after which the importance of Sweden 
 rose to its greatest height; his armies supported the 
 protestant interest in Europe, while his domestic poli- 
 cy established good order in his kingdom. He reduc- 
 ed the greatest part of Livonia, and penetrated so far 
 into Germany as to become formidable to the emperor ; 
 but in 1 632, he lost his life at the battle of Lulzen. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him? 
 
 A. His daughter Christina. She took from Norwr^y 
 and Denmark, the territories of Jemptland and Harjeda- 
 lan ; with the islands of Gothland and Oeland ; and, in 
 1648, added Upper Pomerania, Bremen, Verden and 
 Wismar to the Swedish dominions. In 1654, she re- 
 signed the crown, and was very instrumental in advanc- 
 ing to the throne her cousin Charles Gustavus, who, 
 in 1658, added Schonen, Halland, and other places to 
 the Swedish dominions. His son Charles XI. resum- 
 ed all the alienated crown-lands, and rendered himself 
 an absolute monarch. 
 
 Q. When did he die ? 
 
 A. In 1697, and was succeeded by his son Charles 
 XII. who being under fifteen years of age, a regency was 
 appointed ; but the uncommon talents of this young 
 prince soon procured for him the government, and 
 through his mediation the peace of Ryswick was con- 
 cluded before he had arrived at his seventeenth year. 
 In 1700, the Poles, Danes, and Russians, taking advan- 
 
 M 
 
134 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 tage of the kinj^'s youth, attempted recovering the do- 
 minions of which their ancestors had been deprived. 
 But the EngHsh and Dutch, sent a fleet into the Baltic 
 to his assistance, and compelled the Danes to conclude 
 a peace with him. 
 
 Q. In what m:inner did he conduct himself after- 
 wards ? 
 
 A. He marched against the Russians and Poles, 
 whom, at the'beginning of the war, he defeated in al- 
 most every engagement, with numbers very inferior to 
 those of his enemies ; and, in 1708, the glory of Swe- 
 den rost: to an unparalleled height. This young mo- 
 narch then held the balance of Europe, and might have 
 dictated to all its powers; but the superior address of 
 the duke of Marlborough, caused the forces of Sweden 
 to be directed against the Russians. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. The Czar, Peter the Great, improving by his for- 
 mer miscarriages, at length formed his troops to con- 
 quest : C'harlcs was defeated at Pultowa, in June, 1709, 
 and his whole army cut olT, or made prisoners, except 
 three or four hundred horse, with whom he escaped to 
 Bender in Turkey. Here he gave signal proofs of a des- 
 perate intrepidity, as incapable of fear, as it was void of 
 discretion ; and with a handful of men, performed pro- 
 digies of personal valour against the whole force of the 
 Turks : but was finaJly m^dc a prisoner. 
 
 Q. Did not the enemies of Sw^cden avail themselves of 
 this reverse of fortune in Charles ? 
 
 A. Yes ; the accessions of temtory which had been 
 made by the princes of the House of Vasa, were, dur- 
 ing his imprisonment, severed from that kingdom. A 
 p€:\cc being ratified, in 171 4, Charles regained his liber- 
 ty ; but his passion for war hurrying him into fresh broils, 
 
SWEDEN. 135 
 
 he met his death by a cannon-ball at the sie^c of Frede- 
 1 icshall, when he had invaded Norway, in 1718. 
 Q. Who succeeded m the throne ? 
 A. His sister Lhica Eleanor, by the fiec election of 
 the stAtcs ; but s!je first gave r.p al! pretensions to arbi- 
 trary power; and, in 1720, by the consent of the diet, 
 transferred the government to her husband Frederick, 
 hereditary prince of Ilesse Cassel ; but Frederick having 
 no issue, the states, in 1743, nominated Adolphus Fre- 
 derick, biihop of Fubec, his successor, who on the death 
 of f>cderick, in 1751, assumed the reins of government. 
 Q. Was there not a new form of government estab- 
 lished at this time ? 
 
 A. Yes; it consisted of fifty-one articles, rll tending to 
 a'jridge the powers of the crown, and to render the Swe- 
 disli sovereign the most limited monarch in Europe. 
 Q. Did the king passively submit to these restrictions ? 
 A. No; he determined to wrest from the senate their 
 assumed power, and to recover thai participation of au- 
 thority, which the constitution had as!;i;.jned to the 
 crown ; an.l witli this view proceeded to a measure which 
 was bold and decisive. 
 Q. What was that ? 
 
 A. He signed a declaration, in 1768, by which he for- 
 mally abdicated tlie crown of ';weden, and, by giving 
 l)jb!ic notice of this: step, at once suspended all the func- 
 tions of government. 'I'he senate were therefore com- 
 piled to consent to an aisem'jly of the diet, and the 
 lying's concurrence was requested to confirm the procla- 
 mation for that ptu'pose, which being given, he resum- 
 ed the reins of government. At the meeting of the diet, 
 ■which followed soon after, the king's views were in some 
 measure coincided with, but he did not ciTcct cvcrv 
 thing which he aimed at. 
 Q. When did he die ? 
 
136 I^IODERN HISTORY. 
 
 A. In 1771, and was succeeded by Gustaviis his eld- 
 est son, who, from the prepossessions of the people being 
 strongly in his favour, effected a revolution without 
 bloodshed, by which he deprived the nation of its liber- 
 lies and rendered himself an absolute monarch. In 1 792, 
 the king being at a masked ball, an assassin discharged 
 a pistol behind him ; in consequence of which, he lan- 
 j^uished a few days and expired. The day after the 
 king received the wound, he sanctioned an edict, by 
 which his brother, the duke of Sudermania, was appoint- 
 ed regent of the kingdom, and guardian of his only son, 
 then a minor, lacing fourteen years of age. This prince, 
 upon the death of his father, succeeded to the crown, 
 and is ROW Custavus IV. 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 Q. WHAT are thd first accounts of Denmark ? 
 
 A. The int'jrnal state of Denmark, during the earlier 
 periods of its history, furnishes nothing interesting. In 
 the eighth century, the Danes became formidable to 
 their neighbours by their piratical depredations on the 
 coasts of Llngland, Flanders, Normandy, and Germany ; 
 which desultory warfare was maintained for more than 
 two centuries, until their rude and savage manners being 
 somewhat meliorated, they became cultivators of their 
 native soil. 
 
 Q. Were there not other causes which concurred to 
 put an end to these outrages ? 
 
 A. Yes ; that redundant population, which had been 
 the means of pouring forth such swarms of plunder^rs^ 
 
DENMARK. 137 
 
 no longer continued ; many had fallen by the s\vord in 
 these hivasions ; conquests had been made, and emi- 
 grants had settkd on the acquired territories in vast 
 numbers ; the introduction of Christianity in tlie tenth 
 century, served also to abate their ferocity, while the in- 
 creased strength of the neighbouring states, and the 
 force they had acquired at sea, became too forniidablo to 
 be contended with. 
 
 Q. Who first rendered the nation conspicuous? 
 
 A. Canute, called the Great, who died in England, in 
 1036, advanced the kingdom to its highest pitch of pow- 
 er ; but the sovereigns who succeeded him, w ere little 
 distinguished until the close of the fourteenth century, 
 when Mavgaret obtained the regal power on the death of 
 Olauslll. who had united the kingdom of Norway to that 
 of Denmark. In 13S8, having defeated and taken prl- 
 soncr, Alficit king of Sweden, she was enabled to urge 
 her pretensions to that crown, and obtained possession 
 by the consent of the states, through the reprcseiUi.tiun 
 of the three kingdoms assembled at Calmar, hi 13'J7, at 
 which time a confederated constitution was formed of the 
 •greatest consequence to the northern states, and called 
 the tin ion of Calmar. 
 
 Q. How long did tlic^e kingdoms remaui in this situa- 
 tion ? 
 
 A. This wise and heroic princess, to whom liistori- 
 ans have given the distinguished appellation of the Semi- 
 ramis of the north, reigned over Denmark and Nor- 
 way twenty-six years, and over Sweden sixteen years. 
 A century afterwards elapsed without any thing highly 
 important occurring. In 1523, Frederick, duke of Hol- 
 stein, was raised to the throne by the voice of the people, 
 -who had deposed theu' king Christian II. for his cruelty 
 aod tyranny. 
 
 IM2 
 
138 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Q. When V.MS the crown of Sweden dismembered- 
 from that of Denmark ? 
 
 A. I)urhi2:thc rei in of Christian II. and was conferred 
 Upon Gustavus \'asa. rrederick I. havbig embraced the 
 doctrines of Luther, the tenets of that reformer spread 
 witli g;re'at rapidity throuijh the kinv^dom. From this 
 prince, all the succeeding kings of Denmark are lineally 
 descended. 
 
 Q. What event principally distinguishes the history 
 of this kingdom, since the reign of Frederick I. 
 
 A. The unprecedented revolution which took place in 
 the seventeenth century in the reign of Frederick III; 
 by which t!u' kingdom of Denmark v.as changed from a 
 state but little different from an aristocracy, to that of an 
 unlimited monarchy. A new constitution was establish- 
 ed by an edict consisting of forty articles, and entitled 
 the royal law of Denmark, by which the succession was 
 settled on the king's eldest son, and on failure of male is- 
 sue, in the female line. The kmgs of Norway and Den- 
 mark are therein declared to be above all human laws, 
 acknowledging in all ecclesiastical and civil affairs no 
 higher power, except the Supreme Being. 
 
 Q. What kin.;s have reigned since this revoludon ? 
 
 A. Christian V. Frederick IV. Christian Vl.and Fre- 
 derick V. The latter was succeeded, in 1766 by hisf 
 son Christian VII. the reigning prince. In 1772 a revo- 
 lution took place in the couit, by which the queen with 
 two of the ministers and other persons were arrested. 
 She afterwards r«idred to Ztll, where she died of grief, 
 
 iu irrt. 
 
RUSSIA. 139 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 Q. GIVE me an account of the origin of the Russian*? 
 
 A. Their origin is traced by Le Clue, to a colony of 
 Huns, who settled on the Borysthents, where they built 
 the town of Kioff. These, hov. ever, do not appear to 
 have had the ascendancy among those mixed people, 
 who, toward the close of the ninth century, became 
 blended under the general denomination of Russians. 
 
 Q. When did the Christian religion begin to spread 
 in Russia ? 
 
 A. About tlie middle of the tenth century. One of 
 the Czars named Wolodomir, man icd a sister of a Greek 
 emperor, from which time the tenets of the Greek 
 ciiurch have been the estab.ished religion of the coun- 
 try, five centuries elapsed after this event, during 
 which IMuscovy was scarcely heard of or known in Eu- 
 rope as a considerable nation. '1 he potent n»onarchs 
 of the Tartars, overri.n the Asiatic tLriitorics of that 
 unM ieldly empire, and struck terror to its centre. 
 
 Q. Who was the first prince that drove out these Tar- 
 tarian invad/ers ? 
 
 A. John Basilowitz, a prince sagacious, intrepid, and 
 enterprising; but blood-thirsty and tyrannical. Having 
 vanquished the Tartars, he reduced the power assumed 
 by the hereditary governors of provinces, and established 
 his own authority on their subjugation. In 1486, he tool^ 
 the title of sovereign of all the Russias, and laid claim 
 to Livonia. 
 
 Q. Were there any other invasions of this country ? 
 
 A. Yes J toward the close of the sixteenth century, 
 
140 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the Swedes taking aclvantai^e of the distractions which 
 then previiiled in tlvj Russian enipiiv, oljtained posses- 
 sion of the most vakiable parts of Livoiiia and tstho- 
 liia. 
 
 Q. Did hostihties continue for any length of time be- 
 tween tlie two nations ? 
 
 A. Yes ; with one sliort interval excepted, until )616, 
 when a peace was concluded. In 1613, the ancient line 
 of Czars was restored in the person of Michael Tiieodo- 
 rowitz, the sovereign power having been held by usurp- 
 ers for eighteen years. 
 
 Q. How long did Michael reign ? 
 
 A. Thirty-three years, and was succeeded l)y his son 
 Alexes, to whom he transmitted the empire greatly 
 strengthened and improved. Manufactures, arts and 
 discipline were introduced in this active reign ; and al- 
 though an unsuccessful war "was waged with Ciustavus 
 Adolphus king of Sweden, yet the boundaries of the em- 
 pire were extended. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. His son Theodore, m 1667, who after a servicea- 
 ble reign of seven years, on his death-bed nominated his 
 half-brother Peter, to the exclusion of his eldest brother 
 Ivan or John, whose imbecile mind disqualified him for 
 the arduous task of government. 
 
 Q. Did Peter obtain peaceable possession of the 
 throne ? 
 
 A. No ; their sister Sophia, a restless and ambitious 
 woman, excited civil commotions, which only subsided 
 on the death of John, in 1696 ; when Peter became sole 
 sovereign of all the Russias, and soon distinguished 
 himself as the father, and though not the actual foundes^ 
 yet the great former of the Russian empire* 
 • Q. What conquests did he make ? 
 
RUSSIA. 141 
 
 A. He recovered from Sweden the provinces which 
 had been v, rested from his ancestors. Kis zeal to hu- 
 manize and improve his subjects, led him to visit vari- 
 ous parts of Europe, and in England he obtained a tho- 
 rough knowledge of the whole art of ship-buiiding : as a 
 general, he grew gre^.t by his defeats ; and at length 
 completely triumphed over his formidable rival Charles 
 XII. when 8,000 Swedes were slain, and 16,000 made 
 prisoners. 
 
 Q. Was he not aided in his counsels by a distinguish- 
 ed female ? 
 
 A. Yes ; by his favourite Catharina, a nativeof Lithua- 
 nia, of very low birth, which, however, did not prevent 
 Peter from expressing his gratitude in the strongest 
 manner, by taking her to wife, and causing the ceremo- 
 ny of her coronation to be performed with the utmost 
 splendour and magnificence. On the death of his son 
 Alexes, who died when under sentence of death for 
 high treason against his father, he procured a recogni- 
 tion of his wife Catharina, as his successor, from the 
 several states of the empire. 
 
 Q. When did he die ? 
 
 A. In 1725. He was justly and universally distin- 
 guished by the appcllaiion of the Great; being one 
 of the most formidable sovereigns of Europe. In his 
 reign, and merely by his strenuous exertions, a Rus- 
 sian fleet first rode on the Baltic. His unbounded 
 power was employed in dispelling the torpid inactivity 
 of his subjects, and rousing them to commercial pur- 
 suits ; to facilitate which, the imperial city of Peters- 
 burgh was built. 
 
 Q. How long did Catharine hold the sovereignty ? 
 
 A. Two years ; after which she was succeeded by 
 Peter II. grandson of Peter the Creat, a minor of 1^ 
 
142 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 years of age ; but the young Czar dying of the small 
 pox ill If 30, he v/ds succeeded by Ann, dutchess of 
 Courland, and niecs to Peter the Great. 
 
 Q. What \Tas the conduct of this empress ? 
 
 A. She gave a decisive turn to the contests v/hich 
 then existed in Europe ; she assisted the emperor 
 Charles VI ; frustrated the schemes of the French 
 ministry, for placing Stanislaus on the throne of Poland ; 
 and procured the crown for his competitor Augustus, 
 at the same time that she triumphed over the Turks 
 and Tartars, the inveterate enemies of the Russians. 
 
 Q. By whom Vv'as she succeeded ? 
 
 A. By John III. an infant of two years of age ; but 
 he was deposed, by the general concurrence of all 
 ranks in the empire ; and the princess Elizabeth Pe- 
 trowna, daughter to Peter the Great, by the empress 
 Catharina, was raised to the imperial dignity, in 1741. 
 In the war which broke out on the continent in 1756, 
 she took a decided part in fovour of the house of Austria, 
 and was on the point of crushing the Prussian monarch 
 and possessing herself of his most valuable territories ; 
 but she was snatched suddenly away by death, in 1762. 
 
 Q. By whom was she succeeded ? 
 
 A. By her nephew Charles Peter Ulric, under the 
 title of Peter HI. The friendship which this princs 
 bore to the king of Prussia saved him from his im- 
 pending f.ite, and converted a formidable enemy into 
 a beneficial auxiiiary. 
 
 Q. Did Peter III. reign long ? 
 
 A. No ; an intemperate zeal which led him to at- 
 tempt cutting off the venerable beards of his clergy, 
 and to abolish some established and favourite mili- 
 tary fashions, joined to an imprudent attachment to 
 the countess "^'orontzoff, and a strong antipathy to his 
 wife and son, terminated his reign in a few months. 
 
RUSSIA. 143 
 
 The general odium ^vhich he had dravrn upon himself, 
 united all orders of his subjects against him ; he "was 
 seized and deposed, and his wife raised to the imperial 
 dignity, by the title of Catharine II. in 1762. 
 
 Q. What followed ? " 
 
 A. During her reign, a war broke out between Rus- 
 sia and the Porte, and in 1774 a peace was signed, 
 which produced the highest advantages to Russia. The 
 occurrences in Europe, since that peace, hare uniform- 
 ly contributed to raise the consequence and power of 
 this kingdom. 
 
 Q. Did she encourage men of science ? 
 
 A. Yes ; by her munificence, eminent professors 
 of the liberal arts were drawn te her court. A new 
 code of laws was formed for the Russian empire under 
 her auspices, by which the tediousness and indecision 
 of Russian jurisprudence was removed, and the country 
 relieved from the disgrace and oppression consequent 
 on legal chicane. Soon after the peace in 1774, she 
 also abolished various taxes, some of which had been 
 imposed during the war, and others that had been of 
 longer standing. 
 
 Q. Did she encourage immigration ? 
 
 A. Yes ; inviting prospects were held out to fo- 
 reigners, and such a general system of toleration adopt- 
 ed, as proved a fruitful source of population to the 
 Russian empire. It is cor.puted that twelve foreign 
 colonies have settled on the VVolgd : the families of 
 v/hich they are composed, have been estimated at more 
 than 6,000, professing different religions, and under 
 the influence of various customs and mannere. 
 
 Q. But were not the great qualities of this princess 
 sullied by her conduct toward Poland ? 
 
 A. Yes ; she seized an extensive territory which un- 
 questionably made a part of that kingdom, and caused a 
 
144 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 powerful army to proceed thither, in the most hostile 
 manner, for the express purpose of ovcrt\irning a new 
 constitution formed upon enlarged and equitable prin- 
 ciples- And she is supposed to have been acces- 
 sary to the murder of her deposed husband, which took 
 place soon after her accession to the throne. She died 
 in 1796, and was succeeded by her son Paul I. who, in 
 1801, was assassinated, and succeeded by his son Alex- 
 ander, the present reigning prince. 
 
 LIVONIA AND ESTHONIA. 
 
 Q. WHAT are the first accounts we have of Livonia 
 and Esthonia, which are now parts of Russia ? 
 
 A. The history of Livonia and Esthonia commences 
 "with the introduction of Christianity in the twelfth cen- 
 tury, before which time paganism prevailed. Some 
 merchants of Bremen being driven by stress of wea- 
 ther on the coast of Livonia, obtained leave of the 
 natives to erect a v/are-house for tlie reception of their 
 goods on the banks of the Duna, and in 1186 an Augus- 
 tine monk, named Meinhard, settled in the country, and 
 brought over many of the natives to the profession of 
 the Christian faith. A few years after, Canute V. king 
 of Denmark, subdued the province of Esthonia. Ke in- 
 troduced Christianity, erected churches in the country, 
 and sent priests to officiate in them. 
 
 Q. Hov/ did these countries become a part of Rus;iia ? 
 
 A. In 1721, Sweden ceded them forever to Russia; 
 at which time his czarish majesty engaged to preserve 
 and maintain the inhabitant??, in the enjoyment of all the 
 rights and privileges they had possessed, while under. 
 
POLAND. 145 
 
 the dominion of Sweden, and to permit the Lutheran 
 religion, with the churches and schools, and all the 
 endowments, to continue on the same footing as under 
 the Swedish government. 
 
 POLAND. 
 
 Q. What are the first accounts we have of Poland ? 
 
 A. This country either afforded no materials for the 
 historian, or it produced no writer to record its history, 
 for a considerable time after the other nations of Europe 
 emerged from obscurity. Nothing worthy of notice 
 is preserved, until Jagellon, grand duke of Lithuania, 
 obtained the sovereignty of Poland, in 1385. 
 
 Q. What foUov/ed his being elected king ? 
 
 A. He renounced the doctrines of paganism, to which 
 he had before adhered, and embraced Christianity ; 
 from which time it spread rapidly among the Poles. 
 He united the whole of his hereditary dominions to 
 those of Poland : in return for which the Poles ren- 
 dered the crown hereditary in his family ; but his male 
 liue terminated in the person of Sigismund Augustus ii% 
 1572. 
 
 Q. By whom was he succeeded ? 
 
 A. By Henry duke of Anjou, brother to Charles IX. 
 of France ; but upon the death of his brother, Henry 
 succeeded to the crown of France and abandoned that 
 of Poland. From this reign commenced the corre- 
 spondence between the French and Poles, which sub- 
 sisted, very little indeed to the advantage of the Poles, 
 for more than a century : but the increasing power of 
 
 N 
 
146 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 its northern neighbours has since entirely counteracted 
 the politics of the court of Versailles. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded to the throne after the resig- 
 nation of Henry ? 
 
 A. Stephen Batori, a prince of Transylvania, was 
 chosen, on account of the high reno\vn which he had 
 acquired. He recovered from the Muscovites, all that 
 tliey had formerly taken from the Poles ; after which he 
 settled the Ukraine, which in the Polish language, 
 signifies the frontier, and which was at that time a wild 
 and unprofitable desert. 
 
 Q. When did Stephen Batori die ? 
 
 A. In 1586, and was succeeded by Sigismund HI. 
 a prince of Sweden, who waged a long and unsuccess- 
 ful war with his native country. In his wars with the 
 Turks he was more fortunate. After a reign of forty 
 years, lie was succeeded by his eldest son Uladislaus 
 VII. w!.o was successful against the Turks, the Russi- 
 ans, and the Swedes. He died in 1 648, and was succeeded 
 l^y his brother Jolui Casiaicr. The elector of Branden- 
 burgh, in this reign, obtcdned from th.e Poles a renuncia- 
 tion of their sovereignty over Ducal Prussia, which he 
 held as a vassal of the crov.n of Poland. 
 
 Q. What was the conduct of Casimer ? 
 
 A. He attempted gaining an uncontrolable and abso- 
 lute sovereignty in Poland ; by wliich he excited a civil 
 v/ar, and was defeated by prince Lubomirski. After 
 draining the country of its current specie, which he re- 
 mitted to Frraice, he precipitately left the kingdom, 
 and follov. ed his wealth. Pie then made a formal re- 
 nunciation of the crov/n, and died two years after. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him? 
 
 A. IMichael Wiesnowiski, during whose reign the 
 Turks invaded Poland, and took the capital of Podolia, 
 but jt was restored in 1690. He died in three years 
 
POLAND. •' 147 
 
 after his elevation, and was succeeded by John Sobieski, 
 who cavried on a war against the Turks. 
 
 Q. What was his success ? 
 
 A. In 1675, with r:0 more than 5,000 men, he defeated 
 60,000 Turks and Tartars ; after which receiving a 
 reinforcement of 10,000 troops, he drove 100,000 of the 
 enemy out of Fodolia, and was crowned at Cracow, in 
 February 1676. The Turks, by these defeats, were 
 brought to acquiesce in terms of peace, which v.ere ob- 
 served during seven years: but in 1683, the Ottomans 
 invaded Hungary, and U\id siege to Vienna. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. The neighbouring princes, roused to action by the 
 impending danger, put their forces under the command 
 of Sobieski, whose army amounted to 40,000. With 
 these he attacked and defeated the Ottomans, whose 
 numbers were little short of 200,000. Tins decisive 
 stroke restored peace. Sobieski died, in 1696, and left 
 a son, prince James Sobieski ; but the Poles did not no- 
 minate him f.r their kinp;. 
 
 Q. What was tl.c consequence ? 
 
 A. An interregnum followed, after which Frederick 
 Augustus, elector of Saxony, was cliosen; but in 170j, 
 the Poles being encouraged by Charles XII. of Sweden, 
 declared the crown vacant, and chose Stanislaus 
 Leesensk, for thtir king ; to establish whom on the 
 throne, Charles of Sweden entered Saxony with a 
 powerful army, and compelled Augustus to save his 
 electorate, by abDndoning his pretensions to the crown 
 of Poland. The reverse of fortune, Iiov.ever, which 
 Charles experienced, in 1708, gave Augustus the 
 ascendency; and his competitor found it necessary, in 
 his turn, to quit tlie kingdon) . 
 
 Q. Did Augustus obtain peaceable possession of the' 
 crown ? 
 
148 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 A. No ; disputes and ill will prevailed between him 
 and the nobility from that time until his death, which 
 liappened, in 1732. Whether the house of Austria, or 
 that of Bourbon sjiould fix the succession to the throne 
 of Poland, then plunged Europe into a war. The house 
 of Austria supported the pretensions of Augustus, the 
 son of the deceased king : in which nomination the court 
 of Petersburgh also concurred. Bourbon aimed at 
 restoring the abdicated Stanislaus, whose d^^ughter, 
 the princess IMary, "".vas married to Louis XV. But 
 notwithstanding this alliance, his interest was not vigor- 
 ously supported by the court of Versailles ; and he was 
 finally driven out t)f Poland, and Frederick Augustus, 
 elector of Saxony, chosen king. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. In 1745, the king of Pinissia attacked him in his 
 hereditary dominions, nvade himself master of Dresden, 
 and forced the elector to accept such terms of peace as 
 were proffered. 
 
 Q. Did they afterwards coritinue upon terms of ami- 
 ty > 
 
 A. No : in 1756, Augustus having secretly become 
 a party in a confederacy formed by the empress queen, 
 and the king of France, to strip the king of Prussia of 
 the province of Silesia ; Augustus suddenly fell a victim 
 to the resentment of that monarch, who took possessivon 
 of Dresden his capital, and compelled his whole army, 
 consisting of 13,000 men, to surrender prisoners of 
 war. He died in 1763, and was succeeded by count 
 Poniatowski, who took the name of Stanislaus Au- 
 gustus. 
 
 Q. Wliat followed? 
 
 A. Soon after his elevation, the Russian troops enter- 
 ed his kingdom, on the plea of procuring a toleration 
 and other privileges for the Dissidents, who were of the 
 
POLAND. 149 
 
 Greek church, and for the Lutheran and other reformed 
 Christians. The biuei' enmity which subsisted between 
 tlie Roman Catholics and the Dissidents, kindled the 
 flame of a fierce, bloody and desolating civil v/ar, which 
 raged three years ; and in tlie midst of which the mi- 
 serable Poles were visited with a pestilence, whicli 
 swept off more than 200,000, of their number. 
 
 Q. Did tlie neic^hbouring powers take advantage of 
 their misfortunes ? 
 
 A. Yes ; they seized upon large districts of this un- 
 hq)py kingdom, amounting in extent and consequence 
 to one-third of the whole, and annexed tbcm to tl cir 
 own dominions. 
 
 Q. Describe the countiics which were thus forcibly 
 wrested ? 
 
 A. The claims of Austria comprehended the soutli- 
 ern p?.rt of little Poland, and tlie wiioie of Red Russia, 
 with Procuti-i. The district seized upon by tic cm- 
 press of Russia, v/as the whole cf Folish i.ivoria, and 
 that part of Lithuania which borders en the Russian em- 
 pire. The king of Prussia (whose country had formerly 
 been held in vassalage to Poland, and whose title of king 
 had been only recently acknowledged by the 1 cies) 
 took possession of all the western parts of l^omerania, 
 together with the whole of Pciish Prussia, except the 
 cities of Dantzic and -Thome. As these countries forin 
 the southern shores of the Baltic and give command of 
 the Vistula, they are rendered highly in^iportant. Thp 
 political views of the monarch of Prussia hereby be- 
 came much enlarged, being dhected to commercial 
 and maritime objects. Tiie king of Poland, unable to 
 make any efiicctual opposition to this usurpation, gave 
 his sanction to the partition m 1772. 
 
 Q. Did not the exertions of the king, contribute very 
 
 N 2 
 
150 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 esr^entially to render effectual a new constitution whicti 
 "vvus settled for Poland ? 
 
 A. Yes ; but this noble plan of a free and equitable 
 ' government, was rendered ineffectual by the lawless 
 and tyrannic interference of the empress of Russia, wha i 
 sent a large army into the country for the express pu^-^ 
 pnse of compelling an independent people to reject a 
 form of government, to which, in 179 1, they had acced- 
 ed with great unanimity, and to restore the ancient estab- 
 lishment with all its exploded defects and incongruities. 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. The interference of Catharine was too powerful 
 to be resisted ; the new constitution was therefore over- 
 thrown in 1793, and the empress, who had formed a 
 plan in conjunction with the king of Prussia for a second 
 partition of this country, now effected it. This measure 
 gave great umbrage to many of the Poles, who in 1794, 
 took up arms u-ider the brave Kcsciusco. But although 
 he was successful at first against the king of Prussia, he 
 was eventually defeated and taken prisoner by the Rus- 
 sians, who on the fourth and fifth of November following, 
 took Warsaw by storm., amidst the most unrelenting and 
 barbarous slaughter. The king formally resigned his 
 crown at Grodno, in 1795, and was a kind of state 
 prisoner until his death, wliich took place on the 1 Uh of 
 February 1798, at Saint Petersburgh, in the 66th year 
 of his age. Poland has since remained in the pos- 
 session of a foreign force, and its provinces, as has beeti 
 stated, are divided among the partitioning powers. 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 Q. What was the situation of the Gennans in the first 
 peri;:d of their history ? 
 
 A. In the early ages of the world, they were divided 
 
GERMANY. 154. 
 
 into many petty nations and principalities, some govern- 
 ed by kings whose power w^as limited, others by such as 
 were absolute ; some of their princes w^ere elective, 
 said others hereditary ; some aristocratical and demo- 
 cratical governments were also found among them. 
 Many of these states and kingdoms frequently united 
 imder one head or general, both in their offensive and 
 defensive wars. 
 
 Q. What was their character at this time ? 
 
 A. They expressed an extraordinary regard for mora- 
 lity, and were very strict in their mode of v/orship, choos- 
 ing their priests out of the nobility, who were not en- 
 tirely ignorant of moral philosophy and physics, and 
 were usually called to councils of state. Vv^omen were 
 also admitted to the pri jstly office, and both were treat- 
 ed with the most profound respect by the kdty. 
 
 Q. Were they conc[uered by the Romans ? 
 
 A. Yes ; but the Romans met witii such resistance 
 that they were contented with making the Rhine and 
 the Danube the boundaries of their conquests ; and ac- 
 cordingly built fortresses and stationed garrisons on 
 the banks of both those rivers, to prevent the incui*- 
 ^ions of the Germans. 
 
 Q. Did they not break through these boundaries ? 
 
 A. Yes ; about a century after Constantine the v*reat, 
 the Franks, Burgundians, and other German nations, 
 passed the Rhine, and dispossessed the Romans of all 
 Gaul, Rhactia, andNoricum, which they shared among 
 them ; but the Franks prevailing over the rest, at length 
 established their empire over all modern Germany, 
 France, and Italy, under the conduct of Charlemagne, 
 or Charles the Great, in the latter end of the eighth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Q. What was the situation of the conquered Germaa 
 nations ? 
 
15^ MODERN HISTORY* 
 
 A. They had at first hereditary dukes of their own, 
 and were governed by their own laws ; but Charles put 
 an end to the former, and governed the countries by 
 counts and royal missionaries. The ancient diets were, 
 however, still reitained. In 800, Charles revived the 
 dignity of Roman emperor, and conferred it upon 
 himself and family ; but his successor Louis, divided 
 the empire among his sons, which occasioned much 
 disturbance. An accommodation, however, took place 
 in 843; by which Louis the German, obtained all 
 Germany as far as the lihine, with the three towns of 
 Spires, Worms, and Mentz : and thus Germany bti- 
 came an independent kingdom. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. His son Louis the younger, who shared his pater- 
 nal kingdom with lis brothers, Carlmun and Charles. 
 13at Charles surviving his brothers inherited their 
 kingdoms, and obtained the imperial dignity, together 
 with all Italy pjid France. 
 
 Q. What was his character ? 
 
 A. He governed in so weak a manner, that, in 887, he 
 was deposed by the German states, who constituted Ar- 
 nulph, Carlman's natural son, Mng of Germany ? 
 
 Q. What conquests did he make ? 
 
 A. He defeated the Normans, who had committed 
 great devastations in Germany ; and by the assistance of 
 the Huns, subdued the Bohemians ; but afterwards, by 
 the death of his son Louis, his family became extinct. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. The German states, in 9 1 1, rtiised a duke of Fran- 
 conia, named Conrad, to the throne. He was succeed- 
 ed by Henry duke of Saxony. 
 
 Q. When did the male race of the Saxon kings and 
 emperors end? 
 
 A. In Henry II. A. D. 1024. The states aftervfar^s 
 
GERMANY. 153 
 
 elected Conrad II. who, by means of bis son, annexed 
 
 I the kingdom of Burgundy to the empire, rendered Po- 
 
 ,1 Jand subject to his doniinion, and in a treaty with Den- 
 
 |i mark, appointed tlie river Eider, as tlie boundary of the 
 
 *' German empire. 
 
 Q. What viras the conduct of his successor Hen- 
 ry III ? 
 
 A. He deposed three popes who had set up against 
 each other, and supported a fourth against them. But 
 Henry IV. was put under the bann by the pope, in 
 consequence of which he was deposed by the states. 
 Q Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. His son Henry V. but in 1 122 he was obliged to 
 renounce all pretensions to the investiture of bishopricks, 
 which had been claimed by his ancestors ; and in him, 
 became extinct the male line of the Franconian em- 
 perors. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. The pope caused I.otharius, duke of Saxony, to 
 be elected ; but he was not acknowledged by all Germa- 
 ny for their sovereign, till after a ten years war. In 
 1152 Frederick I. became emperor, and effectually ex- 
 ercised his sovereignty over the see of Rome by virtue 
 of his coronation at Aries, reserving also his dominion 
 over that kingdom, and obliging Poland to pay him tri- 
 bute, and to take an oath of allegiance. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A.Henry YI. Philip III. and Otho; the latter of 
 whom, being deposed by the pope, was succeeded by 
 Frederick II. whom historians extol for his learning, 
 wisdom, and resolution. He was five times excom- 
 municated by three popes ; but prevailed so far against 
 Gregory IX. as to depose him from the papal chair. 
 
 Q. What was the subsequent state of the empire ? 
 
 A. About the middle of the thirteenth century, it 
 .was rent asunder by factions, each of w-hich supported 
 
154 MODERN HISTORYV 
 
 a particular candidate for the imperiu,! dignity : these. 
 were William earl of Holland, Henry of Thuringia, 
 Richard earl of Cornwal, brother to Henry HI. of Eng- 
 land, and Alphonzo king of Castile. At this time the 
 great officers of the household laid claim to a right of 
 electing the emi>eror, to the exclusion of the princes 
 and great towns, or without consulting any other mem- 
 bers of the empire, the distracted state of which, serv- 
 ed to confirm this claim. Gregory X. who then filled 
 the pontifical chair at Rome, cither considering such 
 claim as valid, or desirous of rendering it so, gave di- 
 rection to those great cfiicers, exhorting them to choose 
 an emperor, and by that means to terminate the trou- 
 bles in Germany ; since which time they have been con- 
 sidered as the sole electors. 
 
 Q. When did Germany recover from its distracted 
 state ? 
 
 A. In 1273 ; at which time count Rodolphus of Haps- 
 burg, from whom sprung the house of Austria, was ad- 
 vanced to the imperial dignity. Charles IV. of the 
 Austrian family, lived to see his son Wenzel elected 
 king of the Romans. 
 
 Q. Who succe 'sided Charles ? 
 
 A. His son Wenzel or Wenceslaus ; biit being disso- 
 lute and cruel, he was deposed after a reign of 22 years. 
 Three successive princes followed, whose reigns v/erc 
 short; and at length, in 14.il, Sigismund w^as unani- 
 mously chosen emperor, who. in 14 14, caused a general 
 council to be convoked at Constance, in v/hich three 
 popes were deposed, and a new one set up. 
 
 A. Did not some of the reforrrxcrs suffer death at 
 this council? 
 
 A. Yes; John Huss, and Jerom of Prague, v/erc 
 condemned and burnt, although the emperor had grant- 
 ed them a passport, and was engaged by the ties of 
 
GERMANY. 155 
 
 honour and conscience for their safe return to their 
 country ; which so exasperated the Hussites of Bohe- 
 mia, that they raised a formidable army, and under the 
 conduct of Zisca their general, defeated his forces in 
 fourteen battles. 
 
 Q. WIio succeeded Sigismund ? 
 
 A. Albert, and then Frederick duke of Austria. His 
 son Maximilian was chosen king of the Romans during 
 the life of his father, and afterwafds obtained from the 
 pope the imperial crown. During his reign the empire 
 was divided into ten circles. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. In 1519, Charles V. surnanied the Great, son of 
 Philip king of Spain, and grand-son to Maximilian, 
 was elected emperor. Pie procured Luther's doctrine 
 to be condemned, and in his reign the disciples of that 
 great reformer obtained the name of Protestants, from 
 their protesting against a degree of tl.e imperial diet 
 in favour of the Catholics. 
 
 Q. What were this emperor's conquests 1 
 
 A. He is said to have been ^ ictorious in seventy bat- 
 tles : he had the pope and French king- prisoners at the 
 same tim.e, and carried iiis armies into Africa, where 
 be conquered the kingdom of Tunis. He compelled 
 the Turks to r^iisc the siege of Vienna, u;ade war on the 
 Protestant princes, and took the elector of Saxony and 
 the prince of Hesse prisoners ; but after a reign of 
 thirty-eight years, he resigned the empire to his brother 
 Ferdinand I. and the kingdom of Spain to ids son Phi- 
 lip n. and retired to the convent of St. Justus in Estra- 
 madura in 1556. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Ferdinand 1. 1 
 
 A. His son Maximilian II. in 1564, and diecl In 
 1575, when the government of the empire devolved 
 upon his son Randolph II. who was succeeded by his 
 
156 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 brother Matliias, in whose coronr.tionoath, it was for the 
 first time inserted, that the electors for the future should 
 be entitled to elect the king of the Romans, even 
 against the will of the emperor. 
 
 Q. When did he die ? 
 
 A. In 16-9, and was succeeded by his cousin Fer- 
 dinand de Gretz. In this reign of Ferdinand II. in 
 1618, the thirty years war broite out, which aimed at 
 destroying the Protestants. 
 
 Q. By whom was he succeeded ? 
 
 A. By his son Ferdinand III. in 1637, who maintain- 
 ed the war for eleven years ; but having suffered many 
 severe defeats, and his best generals having perished in 
 the service, a regard to his own personal safety induced 
 him to ask for peace, which was signed at Munster, in 
 1 648, and which brought back to Germany its lost tran- 
 quillity, secured the rights of conscience, and tended 
 very much to reconcile the jarring interests of Europe. 
 
 Q. When did Ferdinand III. die ? 
 
 A. In 1657, and was succeeded by his son Leopold. 
 I. vrhodied in 1705, and was succeeded by his son Jo- 
 seph I. The next emperor was Gharlcs VI. his bro- 
 ther, in 1711, and in 1713 he published the ordinance 
 called the Pragmatic Sanction, to secure his hereditary 
 dominions to his daughter Maria Theresa. 
 
 Q. When did Charles VI. die ? 
 
 A. In 1740, without a male heir, anc in 1742 Charles 
 VII. of Bavaria, was chosen emperor ; but after an un- 
 happy reign in which he was continually at war, he died 
 in 1745, and was succeeded by I'rancii I, grand duke 
 of Tuscany, v/ho had married Maria Theresa, daughter 
 of Charles VI. 
 
 Q. When did he die ? 
 
 A. In 1765, and was succeeded by his eldest son Jo- 
 seph II. When this prince attained to the imperial dig- 
 
GERMANY. 157 
 
 iiity, he was distinguished by a steady and active atten- 
 tion to every department of government, and introduc- 
 ed a variety of salutary reforms into the state. He ren- 
 dered the condition of the lower orders of men in his 
 hereditary dominions, less wretched and servile, by alle- 
 viating that cruel vassalage in which they \^ere held 
 by the feudal lords of the soil ; while a free and un- 
 reserved toleration was granted to all sects and every 
 denomination of Christians : But the expectations 
 which were raised by this conduct were in some mea- 
 sure frustrated by a more full developement of his cha- 
 racter, in which activity without efficiency, enacting 
 laws and abrogating them ; forming great designs, and 
 terminating them in mean concessions, appeared con- 
 i-picuous. On the death of the elector of Bavaria, in 
 1777, in whom the ancient family of Gulielme or Lu- 
 dovice of Bavaria terminated, the emperor laid claim to 
 a considerable part of that electorate, founded on a 
 vague right which had been set up, but not co>itcndcd 
 for, by Sigismund, in 1425. 
 
 Q. Did he meet with any opposition ? 
 
 A. Yes ; the king of Prussia as elector of Brandeh- 
 burg, opposed these pretensions, on the ground of pro- 
 tecting the empire in its rights, privileges, and terri- 
 torial possessions, against all encroachments ; but tke 
 emperor not being induced by negociation to relinquish 
 his designs, they led their formidable armies in per- 
 son, to decide the dispute by arms. 
 
 Q. What was the result ? 
 
 A. The campaign closed without any general action ; 
 and during the following winter, the courts of Peters- 
 burg and Versailles interposing their good offices, terms 
 of peace Were adjusted at Teschen in Austrian Silesia, 
 by which the house of Austria acquired a territory of 
 
 O 
 
153 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 about seventy English miles extent, and in breadth hali 
 that space ; the rivers Danube, In, and Sa.ltZtL, separate 
 this district froin the rest of Bavaria. Joseph II. was 
 succeeded by Leopold II. in 1790, who in 1794 was 
 succeeded by Francis II. 
 
 PRUSSIA. 
 
 Q. WHAT are the first accounts we have of Prussia ? 
 
 A. The name of Prussians was unknown till the 
 tenth century. In that age, the kings of Poland attempt- 
 ed the conversion of the pagan Prussians to Christi- 
 anity. Some centuries after, the Prussians ravaged 
 Culm, Cujavia and Masovia, which occasioned Conrad, 
 duke of Masovia, to apply to his allies for assistance. 
 But their efforts proving ineffectual, he applied to the 
 German knights of the Teutonic order, who, in 1230 
 obtained the palatinates of Culm and Doberzen for 20 
 years, and afterwards forever, with absolute authority 
 over any future conquests in Piussia. 
 
 Q. What were the conquests made by these knights ? 
 
 A. After a contest of half a century they subdued 
 the whole country. But a war broke out between them 
 and the Lithuanians afterwards, which was attended 
 with the most dreadful outrages. These knights made 
 rcli^^ion the cloak of their ambitious vic\vs, and under 
 the pretence of propagating the gospel of peace, com- 
 mitted the most inhuman barbarities. But in 1410, 
 their intemperate zeal received a terrible check ; for 
 after a most bjoody battle they were totally defeated. 
 
 Q. Did this country remain subject to the Teutonic 
 order ? 
 
PRUSSIA. 159 
 
 A. Xo ; in 1454, one half of it revoked and declared 
 for Casimer III. king- of Poland, which occasioned a 
 fresh effusion of blood. But a peace v>'as concluded in 
 1466, by which it was agreed, that the part afterwards 
 called Polish Prussia, should continue a free province 
 under the king's protection ; and thut the knights and 
 the grand master should possess the other part, ac- 
 knowledging themselves vassals of Poland. 
 Q. Did they quietly submit to this yoke ? 
 A. No ; they soon endeavoured, but in vain, to throw 
 it off. After a six years contest, which terminated in 
 1525, it was agreed, by a pe\ce concluded at Cracow, 
 that Margrave Albeit, graiid master of the Teutonic 
 order, should be acknowledged duke of the cr.st part of 
 Prussia, which he was to hold as a fief of Poland, and 
 which was to descend to his male heirs. Thus ended 
 the sovereignty of the Teutonic order in Prussia, after 
 it had subsisted 300 years. 
 
 Q. What was the religion of the new duke ? 
 A. lie had embri^ced Luthcranism, and favouri^l 
 the introduction of the reformed religion into iiis dc- 
 minions. He founded the university of Koningsberi.;. 
 The duchy of Prussia v.as afterwards added to the 
 electoral house of Brandenburg, wiih wiiich it had been 
 Jong closely connected. 
 
 Q. What was the subsequent state of this country ? 
 A. The reign of the elector (ieorge ^ViIIiam, was 
 unhappily distinguished by the calamity of a thirty 
 years \7ar, in which Prussia sufrcred much from the 
 ravages of the Swedes ; but his son I'rederick William, 
 was freed fioni vass.\Ia:^e by Casiaic:' king of Poland ; 
 and with his descendants declared independent and so- 
 vereign lords of tliis part of Prussia. lie also obtained 
 a grant of the lordships of Laucnburg and Britow, to be 
 
160 MODERN «ISTOUY. 
 
 held in the same manner as they Had formerly been by 
 the duke of Pomerania ; and havinc^ further extended the 
 •power of his electoral house, he obtained the title of the 
 Orcat ? 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. Frederick the son of Frederick William the Great, 
 raised the duchy of Prussia to a kingdom, and on the 
 I8lh of January 1701, in a solemn assembly of 
 tne states of the empire, he placed the cro\Mi on his 
 ovn head and ou that gf his consort ; soon after which, 
 he was acknowledged king of Prus!?ia, by all the other 
 Christian powers, except Poland. His son Frederick 
 U. who ascended the throne in 1713, greatly increased 
 the ]X)puIation of his country, by the favourable recep- 
 tion he gave to the distressed and persecuted Saltz- 
 l>urgcrs, as liis grandf:ahcr had done by making it an 
 •a'^ylum to the Hugonots, when driven out of France 
 by the revocation of the edict of Nantz, in 1 68 1. 
 
 O. Who succeeded liim ? 
 
 A. Frederick 111. in 1740. This monajxh rendered 
 liis kingdom foi-midablc by his valour and uncommon 
 ])rudence ; and promoted the happiness of Ids subjects, 
 ]>y an amendment, and simpliiication of the laws, the 
 increase of commerce, and many wise regulations. 
 But his depredations on Poland, and his arbitrary and 
 unjust violation of the guaranteed privileges of Dantzic, 
 as Vvcll as the oppressions •which the city of Thum 
 endured, will transmit his name to posterity, sullied 
 and degraded. 
 
 Q. What foUov.-cd ? 
 
 A. On the death of the emperor Charles VI. he led a 
 large anny into Silesia, and carried on a war for some 
 time against Maria Theresa, daughter of the late empe- 
 ror, who was married to the grand duke of Tuscany ; 
 but in 1742, a treaty betAvcen the queen of Ilungarx 
 
PRUSSIA. 
 
 161 
 
 aiid the king of Prussia was signed at Bresbce, by 
 which she ceded to b.im Upper and Lovvcr Silcsiii, with 
 the county of Ghtz in i3ohemia. 
 
 Q. What was the state of his military forces ? 
 
 A. In 1756, he had 150,000 of the best troops in 
 Europe ; at which time a league was formed against 
 him by the empress queen, and court of ^'ersaiiles : 
 Augustus, king of Pohmd and elector of Saxony, had 
 secretly become a party to this confederacy, the ob- 
 ject of which was to subdue the Prussian dom.inions, 
 and partition them among the contracting powers. 
 
 Q. Did Frederick obtain information of thi^i cor.fedc- 
 
 racy ? 
 
 A. Yes ; and pioceeded witli no less spirit than 
 cfTcct to avert it. He marched a powerful army into 
 the electorate of Saxony, compelled the troops of tlie 
 elector to lay down their arms ; became master of Dres- 
 den, entered the palace, got possession of the corre- 
 spondence which had been carrymg on against him, 
 and published to Europe the authentic documents 
 which he had thus obl;intd, and \\hich justified him 
 fully in the hosliiilies he had commenced. 
 
 Q. Did the war then terminate ? 
 
 A. No ; it raged afterwards \\ith great fury, and the 
 empress of Russia joined the confederacy against 
 Eredcrick : But his unparalleled exertions, judicious 
 measures, and personal bravery ; which were supported 
 by the wealth and arms of Great Britain, finally bafiled 
 ail the attempts of his enemies : and the general peace, 
 which was ratified in 1763, termmated his labours in the 
 field. 
 
 Q. When did he die ? 
 
 A. In 1786, at the age of 74, and was succeeded by 
 
 his nephew Frederick IV. who in 1797 was succeeded 
 
 by Frederick V. 
 
 O 2 
 
16 2 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 IIUXCAUV. 
 
 O. V.'IK) 'a cTL' the ancient inhabitants of Hungary r 
 
 A. I'hc western inhabitants of Hungary Mere origi- 
 iially called Pannonians, a'^.cl the northern Jazygians ; 
 but the Romans having reduced Tannonia, kept it 
 nearly 400 years, when the \'andals drove ihem out, 
 and kept it 10 years; and in ZV5, when they advanced 
 toward Ciaul- the (lolhs look possession of their settle- 
 ment : iliese in their turn, were obliged to resiq^n their 
 View possessions to tlie Hu!is, who had likewise driven 
 liiem fVoni their anci^ni iiabitations. 
 
 q. U'liat followed? 
 
 A. In 888, the Huns, under the name of Hungarians* 
 tiu de a second irruption into Pannonia, as auxiliaries 
 :o Arnulph, enii>eror of the west-, and Leo, emperor of 
 the east, against the Bulgarians and Sclavonians, whom 
 they reduced. They had seven commanders, and both 
 Cermany and Italy afterwards felt the terrible efiects 
 of their ferocity ; but by degrees, their manners be- 
 came more civilized, especially touard the end of the 
 tenth century, when Ceysa, their prince, embraced the 
 Christian religion. In 997, his son Stephen bcQame 
 the first king of Hungary, to which he annexed Tran- 
 sylvania, as a province : after his death he was ca- 
 nonized. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. A succession of twenty kings, natives of the 
 country, the last of whom was Andrew HI. who died 
 in 1301. After these followed a succession of twelve 
 forei'ni sovereigns, the last of whom, Louis H. fell in 
 iin un.succc&tilul battle*agaiast the Turks. 
 
FRANCE. 163 
 
 Q. Ta whom did the kingdom devolve after the 
 death of Louis II. ? 
 
 A. To the house of Austria ; under whom arose a 
 most bloody intestine war, which lasted for a long time, 
 and in which the country was equally ravaged by the 
 Turks and Austrians. In 1687, it became an heredi- 
 tary kingdom to the archducal house of Austria ; and 
 it was agreed at the diet in 1722, that in case of failure 
 of male heirs, the princesses should succeed. 
 
 Q. Did any thing of this kind take place ? 
 
 A. Vcs. The emperor Charles \T. dying in 1740, 
 ins eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, ascended the 
 throne, and was crovrncd in 174 I. She was consort to 
 the emperor I'rancis Stephen, whom the states of the 
 kingdom also invested with the joint sovereignty. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Maria Theresa ? 
 
 A. Ilcr son Joseph II. emperor of Cermany, in 1780, 
 jmd he dying in 1 /90, his next brother, Peter Leopold, 
 grand duke of Tuscany, became king of Hungary ; but 
 dying five months after his elevation, he Mas succeeded 
 by his son Francis. 
 
 IRAXCE. 
 
 Q. 13Y whom was France anciently inhabited ? 
 
 A. By the (eltx, on whom the Romans first confer- 
 red the name of Ciauls. In the fifth century, the I3ur- 
 gundians, Visigoths, and Bretons, settled in several 
 parts of Gaul. These were followed by the Franks 
 from (iermany, who, under Merovic and Childeric, 
 conquered a part of Gaul, and, under Clovis, extended 
 their dominion from the Rhine to the mouth of the 
 
164 MODERN HISTORV. 
 
 Loire : on the death of Clovis, liis four sons divided his 
 kingdom among them. 
 
 Q. In what manner were the lands of Gaul distri- 
 buted, on being conquered by the Franks ? 
 
 A. They were distributed among their officers ; and 
 these with th€ clergy, formed the first great councils 
 or parliaments. In 739, Charles Martel usurped the 
 sovereignly. The Saracens who had made themselves 
 masters of the south of France, penetrating into the 
 heart of the kin<;dom, were entirely defeated by him; 
 in consequence of v/hich he considered himself as the 
 deliverer of Christendom : and such was his popularitv, 
 that with the consent of the people, and even of the 
 pop.^, he assumed the dominion of France ; and after 
 deposing the king, rendered himself an absolute prince, 
 by depriving the nobility and clergy of their share in 
 the government. 
 
 Q. By whom was he succeeded ? * 
 
 A. By his son Pepin, who restored the privileges 
 of the clergy, on their agreeing to exclude the former 
 race of kings. Pie also divided the provinces among 
 his principal nobility, allowing them to exercise sove- 
 reign authority in their respective governments ; till 
 at length, assuming a kind of independency, they only 
 acknowledged the king as their head : and this gave 
 rise to the numerous principalities and their several 
 parliaments, every province retaining the same form 
 of government that had been exercised in the whole, 
 and no laws were made or taxes raised, without the 
 concurrence of the nobility and clergy. 
 Q. Who succeeded Pepin ? 
 
 A. His son Charles, known by the name of Charle- 
 magne, or Charles the Great. He conquered Italy, 
 Germany, and part of Spain ; and was crowned empe- 
 ror of the Romans, by pope Leo III, in 800. From 
 
FRANCE. 
 
 165 
 
 Iiim descended the race of kings, caHed the Carolovi- 
 
 nian line. 
 
 Q. When was Germany separated from France ? 
 
 A. About eighty years after the death of Charle- 
 magne, which happened in 814. 
 
 Q. How long did the Ca4'olovinian race of kings con- 
 tinue sovereigns of France ? 
 
 A. Until the reign of Louis V, when, in 987, Hugh 
 Capet, a popular nobleman, assumed the throne, and 
 began the Capetine.lhie of monarchs. 
 
 Q. Did any remarkable event take place about this 
 
 time ? 
 
 A. Yes ; the crusades or expeditions to the Holy 
 land, for the recovery of Jerusalem from the Saracens, 
 being preached up, by order of the pope ; the princes 
 of every kingdom in Europe engaged in these falsely- 
 called Holy wars, in which Christianity M-as to be 
 propagated ]jy fire and sword ; and in which several 
 hundred thousand Christians perished : and although 
 they at length took Antioch, Jerusalem, and several 
 other places, yet they were all wrested from them in the 
 course of two hundred years. Louis IX. called St. 
 I^ouis, with most of the nobility, were taken prisoners 
 in Egypt, on one of these expeditions, and their ran- 
 soms were rcited at an immense sum. He had two sons, 
 J'hilip and Robert ; from the elder, who was the third 
 king of that name, and surnamed the Hardy, the king* 
 of the house of Valois were descended, which line com- 
 menced in the person of Philip Vl. A. D. 1388. 
 
 Q. When was the kingdom Navarre added -to the 
 crown of France ? 
 
 A. In 1285, by the marriage of Phihp IV. with Jane» 
 queen of Navarre ; and in 1344, Hubert count Dauphin 
 of Vienna, transferred his doniinions to the crown of 
 
166 MODERN HISTORY* 
 
 FVance, on condition that the king's eldest son should 
 ever after be styled Dauphin. 
 
 Q. Who invaded France about this time ? 
 
 A. Edward III. king of England, Avho laid claim t® 
 the crown of France, on account of his being descended 
 in a direct line from Philip IV. In 1346, he obtained 
 a victory at Cressy, in Picardy, and the next year took 
 Calais. In 1356, the French v.ere defeated at Poiclicrs, 
 by Edv/ard the Black Prince, and king John and his son 
 Philip taken prisoners to England. On his return, 
 notwithstanding the deplorable state of his kingdom, he 
 would have been persuaded to begin a crusade ag&inst 
 the Turks, but his son v*ho was left in England as a 
 hostage having escaped, John, who was a scrupulous 
 observer of all his engage^ments, returned to London, 
 where he died. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. His son Charles V. who raised the kingdom to a 
 state of prosperity by the wisdom of his government. 
 He engaged in a fresh war with England, and reco- 
 vered all the lost provinces except Calais. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. Charles \'I. who soon after was seized with a khid 
 of phrensy, which occasioned France to be torn by 
 the factions of his uncles the duke of Burgundy and 
 Orleans ; the latter of whom v/as assassinated in the 
 streets of Paris, by order of the former, which laid the 
 foundation of a civil war : and Henry V. of England, 
 availing himself of the advantage, invaded France, and 
 .obtained a victory at Agincourt in 1415. 
 
 Q. Did a reconciliation take place ? 
 
 A. A conference was held in 1419, for that purpose, 
 when the dauphin and duke of Orleans caused the 
 -duke of Burgundy to be murdered. 
 
 Q. What followed ? . 
 
FRANCE. 167 
 
 A. The queen, and Philip tiie young duke of Bur- 
 gundy joined the English, witii whose assistance Henry 
 inade an abnost entire conquest of France ; and a parlia- 
 ment being held at Paris, the king of England was 
 made regent of France, during t!ie life of Charles "S'l. 
 and declared successor to that crown. But Henry V. 
 of England dying, left an infant son Plenry V"I. who was 
 crowned at Paris, in 1431. Charles the dauphin, how- 
 ever, afterwards Charles VII. caused himself also to be 
 proclaimed king, and recovei^d all the countries that 
 had been taken by the English. 
 
 Q. When did the first line of the house of Valois 
 become extinct ? 
 
 A. On the death of Charles VHI. who died in 1498 ; 
 on which the crown descended to Louis XH. duke of 
 Orleans, surnamed the Father of the people. He died 
 in 1515, and was succeeded by Francis I. His reign, 
 which continued 32 years, exhibits an important period 
 in the history of P^urope. He was a formidable com- 
 petitor with the emperor Charles V. for territory, pow- 
 er and renown ; but was at length compelled to yield 
 to his more powerful, crafty, and successful rival. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. His son Henry H. v:ho married Catharine of 
 the liouse of Medicis. In his reign the trench re- 
 gained Calais, which had been possessed by the Eng- 
 lish, something more than two centuries. After his 
 death, his three sons, Francis II. Charles IX. and 
 Henry III. successively mounted the throne. Under 
 the first the religious disputes began to break out in 
 France ; the Protestants vrere persecuted ; and under 
 Charles IX. these disputes occasioned tv/o civil wars ; 
 after the conclusion of which, in August 1572, was 
 perpetrated the barbarous massacre of Paris, Henry III. 
 
168 moder:n history. 
 
 who succeeded Charles IX. being thought to favour the 
 Protestants, was assassinated by one Clements a monk. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. Henry IV. king of Navarre ; in whose reign 
 France enjoyed the fruits of a wise administration, and 
 in some measure regained her former strength ; but 
 Henry being a Protestant, rras obstinately opposed by 
 the popish party ; and although he changed his religion 
 in order to conciliate the attachment of his subjects, 
 yet having passed the edict of Nantz, for the tolera- 
 tion of the Protestants, who in France were called Hu- 
 gonots, he was assassinated in the streets of Paris, by 
 Ravaillac, a monk, in 1610. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. Louis XIII. a minor of nine years of age ; Mary 
 de Medicis, his mother, being declared regent, she in- 
 vaded the liberties of the people, and revived the perse- 
 cution against the Protestants, which occasioned ano- 
 ther civil war. Cardinal Richlieu was, a few years after, 
 appointed prime minister : he entirely subbued the par- 
 liament of Paris, and overthrew all remains of liberty. 
 The king when not quite fifteen years of age, married 
 Ann of Austria, infanta of Spain, who was nearly his 
 ov/n age. 
 
 Q. When did he die*? 
 
 A- In 1643, andv/as succeeded by his eldest son Lou- 
 is XIV. an infant not quite five years of age ; the 
 queen dowager being appointed regent during' his- mino- 
 rity, and cardinal Mazarine prime minister. 
 
 Q. What was the reign of this prince ? 
 
 A. It was the longest and mcftt splendid in the 
 French monarchy : in it he carried the power of France 
 to its greatest height. To his kingdom he added the 
 provinces of Alsace and Rousillon, with a considerable 
 part of the Netherlands, the earldom of Burgundy and 
 
FRANCE. 169 
 
 the principality of Orange. He alr.o enlarged bis do- 
 minions in America and Asia, and placed his grand-son 
 Philip of Anjou, on the throne of Spain ; Avhile naviga- 
 tion, and manufactures were improved throughout the 
 kingdom. 
 
 Q. But did not his ambition and cruelty lead him to 
 unwarrantable lengths ? 
 
 A. Yes ; in 1689 he invaded the palatinate of the 
 Rhine, and burnt and destroyed all the fine towns in it. 
 He also repealed the edict of Nantz, and began a se- 
 vere persecution against the Protestants, who fled into 
 England, Prussia, and other countries. 
 
 Q. Did he not meet with a great reverse of fortune ? 
 A. Yes; the duke of Marlborough divested him of 
 many conquests, exhausted his treasures, vanquished 
 his armies, and spread want and Avretchedness over his 
 dominions. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. Lewis XV. in the year 1715, and was crowned at 
 Hheims in 1722, a prince who united in himself the two 
 opposite vices of avarice and prodigality, who, while he 
 expended large sums in fruitless wars, and that system 
 ' of intrigue by which the cabinet of France affected t9 
 direct the affairs of Europe, had a private treasury of 
 his own in which he gratified his avarice with contem- 
 plating an accumulation of property, extorted by the 
 most uniust means from the peasantry of France. 
 
 Q. What was the situation of France at the close of 
 his reign ? 
 
 A. Tii.e most complete system of despotism pervaded 
 every department of tlie government, the king levied 
 taxes by his sole authority ; the people were grievously 
 oppressed, being liable to be forced to work on any of 
 the pv;blic improvements, and imprisoned at the will of 
 
 P 
 
170 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the king or his ministers, to be condemned by the most 
 venal courts of justice. Yet so wel! guarded were tliese 
 abuseS; that they never could have been destroyed, had 
 not the ambition of successive monarchs counteracted 
 the arraiigements of this corrupt but ingenious system 
 of despotism^ by their passion for war, and the ruin- 
 ous practice of funding the public debt. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Lewis XV. in the government 
 of France ? 
 
 A. Lewis XVL in 1774 ; a prince whose heart was 
 formed by nature of the best materials, and who from 
 his first accession to power appeared to make the hap- 
 piness of his people, if not the principal, at least one of 
 the great objects of his government, and had the state 
 of the finances not been irretrievably bad, the reform in 
 the administration which he effected would have immor- 
 talized his name. He removed the duke d'Aiguillon, and 
 all the faction of the countess du Bavre from his coun- 
 cils ; he recalled the count Maurepas v,diom the vici- 
 ous policy of the late reign had banished from the 
 court ; he restored the parliaments, the meml.ers of 
 which had been removed from court by the fears or re- 
 sentment of the late government ; he abolished that hor- 
 rid engine of tyranny, the question by torture, and the 
 most oppressive feudal privileges within his domains ; 
 he disbanded the corps of Mousquetaires, the body ^ 
 guard of the royal person : th.is spirit of reform com- 
 mencing with the court, was afterwards carried to an 
 Enthusiastic excess by tlie nation. 
 
 Q. What were the causes which led to tlie extraor- 
 a ..... 
 
 dlnary change that took place durmg this reign r 
 
 A. The disorders into which the fatal wars of for- 
 mer reigns had thrown tlie nation, and the derangement 
 CI the finances which they had produced, were such 
 that neither the integrity of that upright statesmartTur- 
 
r 
 
 FRANCE. 171 
 
 got, nor the tcilentsof a Necker, were ever able to re- 
 pair. In this situation, a circumstance occurred which 
 to a country already burdened with debts and taxes, 
 ccuid only be productive of total ruin. 
 
 Q. What was this ? 
 
 A. The unfortunate war which was kindled between 
 Great Britain, and her North American colonies. In 
 this contest, the court of France took a decided part in 
 favour of the Americans ; in consequence of which it be- 
 came fashionable in that country, to admire the spirit of 
 liberty which had led the British colonies to emancipate 
 themselves from the shackles of the mother country ; 
 while the French troops, who were sent to this conti- 
 nent, as allies of the United States, %vere every v. here 
 witnesses of the benefits resulting from the principles of 
 freedom enjoyed by those colonies. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. Upon the triumph of the United States in theii* 
 Independejice, and the return of the military to France, 
 the misunderstanding imd contentions which for sever- 
 al years, had subsisted between the king and his parlia- 
 ments, were by no means abated, by the sentiments 
 which had now spread throuc^h the nation- The dis- 
 tressed state of the finances, made it necessary for the 
 king to assemble the notables, consisting of a selection 
 from three estates of the kingdom, the nobility, the cler- 
 gy, and the commonalty. This meeting produced 
 strong remonstrances against grievances, without any 
 effectual offers of relieving the exigencies of goveru- 
 menu 
 
 Q. Was the nation satisfied ? 
 
 A. No ; it elemanded a general deputation from the 
 provinces and principal towns in the kingdom, which 
 should give to the people at large a substantial weighs 
 in tlie constitution, by rendering their concurrence ne- 
 
172 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 cessary to the framing of laws, and their authority 
 dreadful to corrupt and profligate ministers. Great had 
 been the sufferings, and hitherto, submissive the behavi- 
 our of the nation : oppressed by a weight of taxes, le- 
 vied in the most rip;orous manner, and so extremely 
 misapplied that they were fiir from rendeiing the pub- 
 lic revenue adequate to the expenditure ; bowing down 
 the nt'ck to a haughty nobiiit)', who were themselves 
 exempted from those contributions. At length the 
 feelings of men prevailed over the habits of patient ac- 
 quiescence, and they determined no longer to submit 
 to these oppressive burdens. 
 
 Q. What was the situation of the king ? 
 
 A. Rendered unpopular, rather through the miscon- 
 duct of the queen-consort and her favourites, than by 
 any overt act of his own, he vainly attempted to sup- 
 press this rising sentiment of discontent. The most ar- 
 dent and active spirit of liberty was every where spread. 
 Neither the bulwarks of kingly authority > nor the 
 moiuids of the nobility and clergy were able .to repel 
 the mighty torrent : it bore down all before it with an 
 irresistible impetuosity. Tb.e national assembly (the 
 three orders of the states having now adopted that de- 
 nomination) limited the prerogatives of the king, anni- 
 hilated the rank of nobility, and confiscated the property 
 of the clergy. The king assented to these measures, 
 and appeared much disposed to conciliate the affections 
 of his people ; but all was insufficient, and his situation 
 became increasingly perilous. His friends advised him 
 to leave Paris, but he was intercepted in his flight and 
 brought back, where he was tried by the national 
 assembly, and condemned to die. He was executed 
 on the 21st of January, 1793, and on the 16th of Octo- 
 ber following his queen shared a similar fate. In Sep^ 
 tcmber 1792 royalty had been abolished and republican-- 
 
FRANCE. 173 
 
 hm Incepted. This revolution, wliich Ll fiist cLuced but 
 little blood-shed, was eventually attended ^\i^:h the ut- 
 most disorder, and the most unprecedented scenes ci 
 savage cruelty. 
 
 Q. Had Frcince%any other enemies to contend v.ilh, 
 besides those v, i;hin her own dcminions ? 
 
 A. Yes ; the powers of Europe were almost wholly 
 combined against her ; and notwithstanding her domes- 
 tic troubles, she astonishingly triumphed over her ene- 
 mies. The frenzy for liberty v*'hich pervaded her ar» 
 mles displayed ilself with great effect in the tield. Ita- 
 ly, Switzcrlcind and Holland were overrun, and Kgypt 
 invaded. But general Bonaparte, who commanded the 
 forces hi that country, and whose success in arms had 
 be;^ll unrivalled, abruptly quitted the army and return- 
 ed to France, where on the 9th of November 1799 a 
 rev'oluUon ensued, which placed him at the head of 
 the government under the title of Fiist Consul. 
 Q. What followed? 
 
 A. In 1803 a general peace was restored, by the de- 
 finitive treaty which was signed at Amiens on the 27th of 
 JVlarch : but this peace was soon after interrupted by a 
 declaration of hostiiiiies between r'r^aice and England, 
 which has since produced a combination of m.ost of the 
 European pov^ers against France. Curing these events, 
 Bonaparte rendered himself sovereign of France, with 
 a more elevated title than had been possessed by any 
 of its mtonarchs since the time of Charlemagne. A 
 resolution was brought into the French Tribunate, which 
 was immediately sanctioned, and sent to the Conserva- 
 tive S.endte, com. prised in the following terms. That 
 Napoleon Bonaparte shall be declared Emperor of the 
 French, and that the title, together with the imperial 
 povrer, shall be hereditary in his family^ in the male 
 
 P2 
 
174 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 line and in the ordei* of primogeniture. It here met 
 with very little opposition, and ^vas pronounced as ah 
 act of the existing government, and he was crowned 
 bv Pius Vll. in 1801. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 Q. AVfl AT are the first accounts of Spain ? 
 
 A. The r,borigincs of tlus country, as fur ls we can 
 learn from history, were the Ccltcc and Iberians, who 
 became blended in the common name of Celliberians. 
 In very early times the Phoenicians resorted to the 
 ^vestern and southern coasts of Spain for the purpose 
 of commerce. The Carthaginians, who sprang from 
 the same origin, afterwards subdued the country, and 
 held it for a considerable time, agahist all tbe efforts of 
 tbe Romans to dispossess them ; but they Avere at 
 length compelled to yield to their inflexible rival, 
 
 Q. What follo\\'ed the destruction of the Roman 
 empire ? 
 
 A. The northern nations passed the Pyrennees, and 
 overran Spain ; but the \^isigoths commanded by their 
 king Atolphus, gained the ascendancy. A race of Go- 
 thic kings succeeded during three centuries ; until, in 
 711, Vitizza died, whose reign had been distinguished 
 for the dissoluteness of the clergy, which he openly 
 countenanced, and for the opposition which he shewed 
 to the authority of the pope. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. Roderick He was a v/arlike prince, and maintain- 
 ed a severe contest with the Saracens, who had subdue^l 
 
SPAIN. 175 
 
 Africa and crossed the Mediterranean in great numbers 
 for the purpose of conquering Spain. In 714, he was 
 slain, in one of the most bloody battles which history 
 relates, and in which the invaders were victorious. The 
 Visigoths, under a prince named Pelagius, withdrew 
 into the northern parts of the kingdom, where they 
 gradually formed themselves into a number of petty 
 states, and amidst private animosities maintained a 
 desultory war with the Saracens, whose strength be- 
 came no less impaired by intestine divisions. 
 
 Q. How long did the Saracens hold the southern 
 provinces of Spain ? 
 
 A. Until about the middle of the thirteenth century ; 
 when they retained no other territories than the pro- 
 vhiccs of Granada, Mercia, and Valencia. In 1463 the 
 latter of these were almost wholly wrested from them, 
 together with the peninsula of Gibraltar, which was 
 conquered by Henry of Castile : and at length, by a 
 concurrence of circumstances favourable to the Gothic 
 race, who were now known by the name of Spaniards, 
 an end was put to the disunion which had so long pre- 
 vailed among the northern kingdoms, and such a de- 
 gree of strength was acquired by the several states be- 
 coming united under one king, that the Saracens were 
 no longer able to maintain their ground. 
 
 Q, When did the several provinces or kingdoms of 
 Spain become united under one king ? 
 
 A. In 1479, Ferdinand V. marriod Isabella, which 
 united the two monarchies of Casiile and Arragon ; and 
 caused at different times, all the other kingdoms of 
 Spain to centre in one family. 
 
 Q. To -what part of Spain were the Saracens, who 
 were afterwards called Moors, confined at this time ? 
 
 A. They were circumscribed within the limits of the 
 kingdom of Grenada, which was amazingly populous 
 
176 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Although one of smallest provinces into which Spain 
 ■was divided, it is said to have contained at that time, 
 three millions of inhabitants ; who were industrious and 
 ingenious, and were distinguished for the high cultiva- 
 tion which they bestov.ed on their lands, the flcurish- 
 ing state of their manufactures, and their extcnsivq^ 
 commerce with the pons ©f the Mediterranean. 
 
 Q. What wa'i the character of F'erdinand ? 
 
 A. He was a prince endowed with great polidcal sa- 
 gacity, and cnttrtainod very comprehensive views ; he 
 was crafty in the cabinet, and enterpricsing in the field ; 
 hi* ambition war, only equ. lied by his bigotry. His 
 thirst oi dominion was insatiable, but he disdained to 
 reign over any subjects !)Ul such as professed the Catho- 
 lic fui^.h ; to secure which, tliat dreadful engir-c of ig- 
 norance and tyranny, the inquisition, was instituted by 
 him. 
 
 Q. Did he extirpate the !\rcors? 
 
 A. Yes ; ten years were employed in the conquest 
 of Grenada, v/hen it was at len;:^tii effected. Such of 
 the ]Moors as remained in tlie kingdom, and refused to 
 profess Christianity, were put to death. Sixtus IV. who 
 then filled the papal chair, ccm-^crred on I'erdinand, the 
 title of "the Catholic'"* which was afterwards made he- 
 reditary to the kings of Spain. 
 
 O- What was the character of his consort Isabella? 
 
 A. She possessed the milder virtues which adorn hu- 
 man nature, and v. \i:h essentially benefit mankind with- 
 out attracting wonder or admiration. She was successfully 
 applied to by Columbus, to patronize an attempt to dis- 
 cover another hemisphere ; an event, which in its con- 
 sequences has effected a greater change in the man- 
 ners, the interests, and the politics of Europe, thaii 
 any other, if we except the powef of papacy. 
 
SPAIN. 177 
 
 Q. \V'hen did [sabella die ? 
 
 A. In 1504, and her husband in 1516, after having 
 annexed the kingdom of Naples and Navarre to his 
 Spanish sovercip,nty. His daughter Joanna married 
 Philip of Austria, from whom descended Charles V. 
 who became the greatest prince in Europe. He was at 
 once emperor of Germany, king of Spain and Naples j 
 held very valuable territories in the north-v.estern parts of 
 Italy, and was sovereign of the whole lov/ countries, as 
 well as those which were afterwards called the Seven 
 United Provinces ; and gained a further enlargement 
 of his dominions by the conquest of Mexico and the 
 possession of Peru. 
 
 Q. Did he not resign his dominions ? 
 A. Yes; at length disgusted with the pomp of power 
 tilld the projects of ambition, he resigned the empire to 
 his brother Ferdinand, and his hereditary dominions to 
 ]iis son Pliiiip II. and retired to the monastery of Saint 
 Juste, in the province of Estremadura, where he lived 
 in a determined ignorance of all transactions which 
 piissed in the world. 
 
 Q. What was the cliaractcr of Philip II ? 
 A. Accustomed to rule with a despotic sway, he be- 
 held with great displeasure, the principles of the refor- 
 mation spreading among his subjects in the seventeen 
 provinces of the Netherlands, while the power of the 
 clergy, the ignorance and superstition of the people, 
 but, above all, the vigilance and severities of the inqui- 
 sition, effectually excluded them fi'om Spain. The first 
 object of Philip's reign was to enlarge his dominions on 
 the side of France, but the death of his consort, queen 
 Mary of England, which happened in 1556, greatly 
 disconcerted the ambitious schemes which he had form- 
 ed. By this event he lost all his power m England, as 
 vrgll as an useful ally against France. 
 
178 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Q. What was his conduct towards his subjects in 
 the Netherlands ? 
 
 A. Determined to exterminate Protestantism, he com- 
 raenccd a furious persecution, v/ldch causii;ig his sub- 
 jects to revolt, he sent the duke cf x\lva to reduce them 
 to obedience. This man was equally distinguished 
 for his military t:;i!ents, and the obdurate cruelty of 
 his heart. By superstition taught to consider barbarity 
 as meritorious, he consigned with a pitiless apathy, 
 many thousands to the hands of the executioner ; 
 while in the field, his sword was ever reeking with 
 the blood of the Protestants. 
 
 Q. \Vhat was the conduct of the Flemings ? 
 
 A. Rendered desperate by the secret fraud and open 
 violence, which their eneini^S b^d practised against 
 them, and being assisted by Elizabeth of England, and 
 by France, they defended themselves with uncon- 
 querable fortitude. Phihp, impatient of this long pro- 
 tracted war, fitted out, in 1538, the most formidable 
 fleet that had ever sailed upon the ocean ; and to 
 strengthen this force v»'ith the energy of religion, the 
 pope (Sixtus V.) bestowed on it his benediction, and 
 stiled it the invincible armada. It consisted of 1 30 ships, 
 most of which from their large size were unwieldy. 
 
 Q. Did they succeed in their expedition ? 
 
 A. No ; a violent tempest to which they were ex- 
 posed, and the attacks of their enemies ; reduced theiTi 
 in the course of one month, after they set sail from Co- 
 runna, to no more than fifty-three ships ; twenty thou- 
 sand persons having perished in the expedition. Alva, 
 unable to subdue the revolted Flemings, was recalled 
 to Spain, and employed by Philip, a few years after, in 
 the conquest of Portugal, which he effected, and that 
 kingdom remdned annexed to the crown of Spain for 
 about sixty years. 
 
SPAIN. 179 
 
 Q. When did Philip die? 
 
 A. In 1598, and was succeeded by his son Phiiip III, 
 who reigned for upv/ards of 22 years, without the am- 
 bition or the crimes of his father. He transmitted the 
 kinj^dom to his son Philip IV. in v.hose reign the duke 
 of Eraganza recovered to Portugal its independence in 
 r'640. A peace was also entered into with the Dutch, by 
 which the king of Spain acknowledged the Seven Uni- 
 ted Provinces to be free states. This king married his 
 daughter Maria Theresa, to Louis XIV. of France, in 
 1660, and died in 1665. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. Charles II. an infant of four years of age ; during 
 whose minority, the queen dowager, Mary Anne of 
 Austria, governed the kingdom. The king when 
 eighteen years of age, married a daughter of Philip 
 duke of Orleans, who by her mother v/as grand-daugh- 
 ter to Charles I. of England ; but this marriage produc- 
 ing no issue, on the death of Charles II. which happen- 
 ed in 1700, the succession to the crown of Spain was 
 contested between Philip duke of Anjou, second son of 
 the Dauphin, and grand-son to Louis XIV. whom the 
 deceased king had in his will named for his successor, 
 and the arch-duke Charles of Austria, brother to the 
 emperor Joseph. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. The jealousy which prevailed on account of the 
 increasing power of the French monarchy, occasion- 
 ed a grand alliance to be formed between the maritime 
 powers, and the house of Austria, to prevent the duke 
 of Anjou from obtaining the crown of Spain, and to 
 place that diadem on the head of the arch-duke Charles. 
 This occasioned a long and destructive war; but the un- 
 expected de?th of the emperor Joseph in 1711, chang- 
 ed the political state of Europe ; and Charles succeed- 
 
180 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 ing his brother in the empire, the idea of maintaining 
 the balance of power in Europe, which had procur€d 
 such powerful support against the pretensions of Phi- 
 lip, now pointed out the bad policy of suffering the em- 
 pire and the kingdom of Spain to be once more held 
 by the same sovereign. This, together with the reverse 
 of fortune which had happened to Charles, by the de- 
 feat of Almanza, occasioned the peace of Utrecht, 
 which confirmed the crown of Spain to Philip, but strip- 
 ped it of all those valuable appendages which had been 
 for many years annexed to that mionarchy. The town 
 of Gibraltar, and the island of Minorca, were at this 
 time ceded to the crown of Great-Britain : the Nether- 
 lands and several valuable possessions in Italy passed to 
 the house of Austria, and others to the duke of Savoy, 
 who then obtained the title of king of Sicily ; but that 
 island being afterwards exchailged for Sardinia, the 
 title underwent a like change. 
 
 Q. What was the situation of Spain after this war for 
 the succession ? 
 
 A. Her strength and resources were greatly exhaust- 
 ed ; but Cardinal Alberoni, an Italian,who became minis- 
 ter to Philip V. soon after he married the princess Eliza- 
 beth, daughter of the duke of Parma, in 1714, laboured 
 indefatigably to restore the kingdom to something of 
 its former consequence. By his attention and superior 
 talents, the Spanish navy was greatly augmented and 
 rendered respectable. The designs of tliis statesman 
 were so bold raid so extensive, that for a short term 
 they appeared likely to effect great changes in the poli- 
 tical system* of Europe ; but a powerful British fleet was 
 sent into the Mediterranean, which withovit any previ- 
 ous declaration of war, attacked the naval force of 
 Spain, near the island of Sicily, took or destroyed the 
 greatest part of their ships, procured the dismission of 
 
PORTUGAL. 181 
 
 the minister, and at the same time formed the quadru- 
 ple alliance between the powers of Great-Britain, 
 France, and Holland, in conjunction with the emperor. 
 
 Q. When did Philip V. die ? 
 
 A. In 1746, and was succeeded by Ferdinand VI. 
 who reigned 1 3 years, and dying without issue, was 
 succeeded by his half brother Charles III. then king 
 of the two Sicilies. 
 
 Q. What was the character of this king ? 
 
 A. The merit of his reign consisted rather in 
 some useful internal regulations for the improve- 
 ment of his kingdom, than in the system of politics 
 which he pursued. In a contest with Great Britain, 
 Tvhich took place during his reign, the Havannah was 
 lost, and the Manilla captured ; but at the time when 
 the peace which followed was negociated, the Havan- 
 nah was restored to Spain. 
 
 Q. When did he die ? 
 
 A. In 1788, and was succeeded by his eldest soft, 
 the king of Naples, who is now Charles IV. 
 
 PORTUGAL. 
 
 Q. GIVE ma a short view of the early settlement of 
 Portugal ? 
 
 A. It passed from the Phoenicians and Carthagini- 
 ans into the hands of the Romans 250 years before 
 Christ, and the emperor Augustus made it a Roman 
 province. Toward the beginning of the fifth century, 
 the Alans, and afterward the Swabians and the Visi- 
 goths, successively made themselves masters of this 
 
 Q 
 
182 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 country. In the eighth century it was overrun by the 
 Moors, but was gradually wrested from them by the 
 Christians. Henry, duke of Burgundy, distinguished 
 himself by his eminent services against the Moors^ and 
 was created earl of Portugal by Alphonso VI. king of 
 Castile, who left him that kingdom in 1110. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. His son Alphonso Henriques, who obtaining a sig- 
 nal victory in 1 136, over the Moors, Was created king 
 of Portttgal by the people ; and in 1181, at an assem- 
 bly of the states, the succession of the crown was settled. 
 
 Q. What followed? 
 
 A. In 1383, the legitimate line of this family becom- 
 ing extinct in the person of Ferdinand ; John I. his 
 natural son, was two years after admitted to the crown ; 
 and in his reign the Portuguese made settlements in A- 
 friqa, and discovered the islands of Azores. In 1482 
 his great grand-son John II. received the Jews, who 
 had been expelled from Spain, and gave great encou- 
 ragement to navigation and discoveries ; afterward, in 
 the reign of king Emanuel, Vasco de Gama discovered 
 a passage to the East Indies by doubling the cape of 
 Good Hope. 
 
 Q. Vv'hat other discoveries were made by the Portu- 
 guese ? 
 
 A. In 1500, Brazil was discovered by Don Pedro Al- 
 varez. They also made very valuable discoveries in the 
 East Indies, where they soon erected forts and suhdued 
 the neighbouring inhabitants, and at the same time car- 
 ried on a sanguinary w^ar in Africa. The pov/er of Por- 
 tugal was then at its height; but in 1580, on the de- 
 cease of Henry the Cardinal, the male line of the royal 
 family became extinct, and in the sycceeding year the 
 kingdom was subdued by Spain. 
 
PORTUGAL. 183 
 
 Q. "What was the consequence ? 
 
 A, They lost most of the advantages which they had 
 obtained under their own monarchs ; their possessions 
 in the East Indies, in Brazil, and on the coast of Africa, 
 were neglected, and many of them v/rested from them 
 by the new repubHc of Holland, and by other maritime 
 powers : while at home they -were much oppressed ; 
 but in 1640, they shook off the Spanish yoke, by elect- 
 ing John duke of Braganza for their king. 
 
 Q. What followed? 
 
 A. This prince, who assumed the title of John IV. 
 drove the Dutch out of Brazil, and from him ail suc- 
 ceeding kings of Portugal have been descended. Al- 
 phonso VI. his son, was dethroned by his brother Peter, 
 who, in 1668, concluded a treaty with Spain, by which 
 Portugal was declared an independent kingdom. This 
 is said to havebe«n effected by the mediation of Charles 
 II. of England, who had married the infanta Catharine, 
 sister to Peter. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. His son John V. in 1706 ; and in 1729 a double 
 marriage took place between the courts of Spain and 
 Portugal, a prince of each court, marrying a princess of 
 the otlier. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded John V. ? 
 
 A. His son Don Joseph, who had married the infan- 
 ta of Spain. During his reign, a variety of misfortunes 
 visited the kingdom. In 1755, there was an earthquake 
 and conflagration at Lisbon ; and in 1758, the king very 
 narrowly escaped assassination from a conspiracy which 
 was formed against him ; in consequence of which, the 
 noblest blood of Portugal was poured out on the scaf- 
 fold ; and in 1762, the united force of France and Spain 
 threatened to overrun the kir.gdom, but was prevent* 
 ed by the interference of England. 
 
184 MODERN HISTOUT. 
 
 Q. Who was appointed prime minister upon the acr 
 ( cssion of Joseph to the throne ? 
 
 A. The marquis de Pombal, under tjic name of Car- 
 valho. He had becu employed in an inferior depart- 
 ment of the state, during the latte*' part of the former 
 reign ; but now, such was the confidence reposed in him, 
 that the whole management of public affairs was impli- 
 citly entrusted to him. 
 
 Q. Did he merit the hicjh tiTist reposed in him ? 
 
 A. When he became first possessed of power, he 
 wa& apparently patriotic; but was, in reality, influenced 
 by narro\v and selfish motives. He began by establish- 
 ing manufactures of various kinds : he enacted, that one 
 third of the vmeyards should be converted into corn- 
 fields, to feed the inhabitants with native bread, instead 
 of importing corn from foreign markets j he made use 
 of every means to reduce the enormous wealth of the 
 clergy, which had arisen to such an height as to be 
 supposed equal to that of the crown ; he laid the power 
 of the inquisition under certain restrictions, and made 
 its proceedings subject to the control of the civil juris- 
 diction ; v/Uilc his antipathy to the Jesuits caused tl^at 
 order to be expelled the kingdom. Such spirited pro- 
 ceedings, could not fail to create many malcontents ; 
 but if measures so salutary had been pursued on a truly 
 patriotic principle, the greatest advantages must have 
 been derived from them ; no such consequences, how- 
 ever, followed. His great object was, not so much to re- 
 form abuses, as to direct them into a new channel : ma- 
 nufactures were indeed established, but founded on the 
 avaricious views cf the minister, under whom the nomi- 
 nal proprietors acted as agents. After having lessened 
 the growth of vines, he made the wines produced in the 
 kingdom, subject to an unjust and rapacious monopoly ; 
 and when France and Spain declared war against Por- 
 tugal in \7CZ, the national strength of tlie kingdom 
 
PORTUGAL. 185 
 
 was quite inadequate to its defence : the army was un- 
 disciplined, and witiiout sufficient clothing or arms. 
 The murmurs that were circulated during this adminis- 
 tration, were silenced by unrelenting severity : the pri- 
 sons throughout the kingdom were crowded with those 
 who had become objects of the minister's vengeance ; 
 and the treatment they received there, would have add- 
 ed ignominy to the history of a Dionysius. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Joseph ? 
 
 A. His daughter Maria Frances Isabella, princess of 
 Brazil, the present queen, in 1777 ; who, in 1760, had 
 married her u'»cle Don Pedro, her father's brother; the 
 pope's dispensation having removed the impediment 
 arising from consanguinity. The eldest son by this 
 marriage, the prince of Beira, in 1776, when fifteen 
 years of age, married his mother's youngest sister, the 
 princess IVIaria Bentdicta, who was then 31 years of 
 a:,'-e. 
 
 Q. Did the marquis de Pombal continue prime mi- 
 nister after the accession of Isabella ? 
 
 A' No ; one of her first acts was, to order him to be 
 seized, and an exact inventory to l)e taken of his effects, 
 which were found to exceed 600,000/. sterling ; his life, 
 however, was spared ; but he was sent into banishment. 
 The queen of Portugal not long since, sunk into a state 
 of insanity, from which she is not likely ever to reco- 
 ver ; and the affairs of the government are entrusted to 
 a reurent. 
 
 Q2 
 
IBO M-ODERN HISTORY. 
 
 UNITED PROVINCES. 
 
 Q. GIVE me the general outlines of the United Pro- 
 vinces ; 
 
 A. They were originally comprehended within the 
 Netherlands, which, with that part of Germany which 
 lies west of the Rhine, was possessed by the Romans, 
 who called it Gallia Beigica ; but upon the decline of 
 the Roman empire, the Goths, and other northern na- 
 tions took possession of these provinces, and erected 
 s^iveral small governments, which were a kind of limit- 
 ed monarchies, v/hose sovereigns were stiled dukesj 
 counts, or lords. These provinces afterwards be- 
 came subject to the house of Burgundy, from whom 
 they passed to the house of Austria. Charles V. was 
 the first prince of this house, and as he v/as king of Spain, 
 tmperor of Germany, and duke of Burgundy, he had 
 diSererit interests from those of his predecessors, and 
 treated the people of the Netherlands with great scve* 
 rity. 
 
 Q. Relate more, particularly his conduct towards^j 
 them i* 
 
 A. The reformation gaining ground in these pr<)- 
 vinces, he published very rigorous edicts against tho&e 
 who separated from the Romish church ; and Grotius 
 afiirms, that during Charles's reign, above a hundred 
 thousand persons suffered death for their religion ; but 
 the number and courage of those who embraced the 
 doctrines of the reformation, instead of being diminished 
 by t.he horrors of persecution^ daily increased, and some- 
 times the people rescued out of the hands of the officers. 
 
UNITED PROVINCES, 187 
 
 those who were led to execution. Thus the Nether- 
 lands became extremely alienated from the house of 
 Austria, and their discontents increased on Charles's 
 abdicating his throne in favour of his son Philip II. 
 
 Q. What was the cause ? 
 
 A. He treated them with still greater austerity than 
 his father had done ; would admit only of the Popish 
 reliiaon, and urged with fresh rigour, a sanguinary 
 persecution against those who were called heretics : a 
 court, resembling that of the inquisition, was instituted, 
 and to these cruelties, were added insupportable taxes ; 
 but at the time when Philip left the Netherlands, he 
 appointed the prince of Orange governor over four of 
 those provinces. The house of Nassau, of which the 
 prince of Orange was a branch, derived its respective 
 titles from the eleven counties of the principality of 
 Nassau, in the imperial circle of the Upper Rhine. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. These oppressions being exercised with the most 
 tyrannical fury by Ferdinand of Toledo, duke of Alva, 
 whom Philip had created governor ; the Netherlands 
 made a strong effort for their freedom, and William, 
 prince of Orange, in conjunction with his brother, 
 count Louis, of Nassau, undertook the defence of the 
 inhabitants in their struggle for religious and civil liber- 
 ty : In consequence of which, the states of Holland in 
 their own names, confirmed the stadtholdership, a title 
 .equivalent to lieutenant, on the prince of Orange, and 
 several other towns and provinces declared for him. He 
 first united them, in 1576, in one general association, 
 under the title of the pacification of Ghent. 
 
 Q, Was this union permanent ? 
 
 A. No, it was soon dissolved ; but he exerted himself 
 in forming a more durable alliance, which he accom- 
 plished in 1579- In that year, the celebrated league of 
 
188" MODEl^N HISTORY." 
 
 Utrecht was concluded, which gave navi;e to tlie United 
 Provinces, and became the basis and plan of Iheir con- 
 stitution. In 158 1, the prince of Orange was treache- 
 rously shot by an assassin, 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. The United Provinces continued to maintain the 
 liberty to which they had raised themselves, and being 
 supported by the Entj^lish, baffled all the attempts of the 
 Spaniards. Their commerce arrived at such a pitch, 
 that in 1602, their celebrated Fast India company was 
 established ; and in 1609 the Spaniards, discouraged 
 by the ill success of a tedious war, ai-jreed to an armis- 
 tice for twelve years, andin the first article of the treaty, 
 acknowledged the Lnited Netherlands to be a free and 
 independent slate. DYn-ing this truce, the republic at- 
 tained to a degree of power wiiich it has never since 
 exceeded. 
 
 Q. Who was stadtholder at that time ? 
 
 A. Prince Maurice of Nassau, the second son of the 
 first stadtholder, who was succeeded in 1625, by his 
 h^ilf brother prince Frederick Henry. This prince 
 greatly distin;j;uishcd himself in the war which had 
 been again renewed, and which termirfated in 1648, by 
 the peace of Munster, or Westphalia : Phihp IV. king 
 of Spain having renounced all claim to the United Ne- 
 therlands. Frederick v/as succeeded by his only son 
 William. 
 
 Q. What followed I 
 
 A. In 1652, a war broke out between the United 
 Provinces and England, which terminated two years 
 after by a treaty, excluding the Housj of Orange from 
 the sladtholdership of these provinces. In 1665, ano- 
 ther war was kindled with England, which continued 
 until the treaty of Breda : the states of Holland and 
 West Friesland then passed an edict, by "which they 
 
UNITED PROVINCES. 189 
 
 abolished the staclthcldership in tlieir province. When 
 France formed a design of seizing on the Spanish Ne- 
 therlands, the United Prorinces entered into an alliance 
 Avifeh England and Sweden for the defence of those 
 countries, by which France, in 1G68, was compelled to 
 agree to the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle ; but she soon af- 
 ter look a severe revenge by breaking that alliance. 
 Q. In what manner ? 
 
 A. Louis XIV. formed the design of extending his 
 possessions in the Netherlands by the conquest of tlie 
 Seven United Provinces ; and for this purpose, per- 
 suaded the king of England to enter into a private trea- 
 ty, by which he engaged to assist him in the conquest 
 of Holland, in consideration of becoming Iiis pensioner, 
 and being enabled to become an absolute monarch in 
 his own kinijdom. 
 
 Q. Did hostilities commence ? 
 
 A. Yes ; without even a colourable pretext. Wil- 
 liam princft of Orange was then twenty -two years of 
 age, and the exigencies of the times caused him to be 
 chosen stadtholder ; but he liad no force equal to the 
 well-trained armies which approached his country. 
 Q. When was this ? 
 
 A. In 1672. The French passed tho Rhine without 
 much opposition ; the provinces of Utrecht, Overyssal, 
 and Gucldres, surrendered, and deputies were sent 
 from the republic to implore peace ; but the terms 
 offered them were so humiliating and oppressive, that 
 they resolved to defend their country, their property, 
 and their lives, to the last extremity. The prince of 
 Orange acted with the most noble patriotism, while his- 
 unwearied attention introduced discipline among his 
 troops, and taught them to face their enemy with 
 firmness. The great naval commander Dc Kuyte]-, 
 at the same time, caused the fleet of the republic to 
 
190 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 triumph over the combined force of France and Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Q. What followed? 
 
 A. The stadtholdcrship was declared hereditary in 
 the family of Orange, and the prince found means to 
 unite the emperor, the empire, and the king of Spain, 
 in a league to support the Dutch against the king of 
 France ; and, in 1678. the peace of Nimeguen was sign- 
 ed, and all the conquests which had been made in the 
 Republican Provinces were restored, in consideration 
 of a considerable sum of money being paid for the 
 restitution. This William was the fifth stadtholder, and 
 the third of that name ; he married the princess 
 Mary, eldest daughter of James II. of England, and be- 
 came king of that country. 
 
 Q. When did he die ? 
 
 A. In 1702, king of England and stadtholder of the 
 United Provinces, and was succeeded in the United 
 Provinces by John William prince of Orange, who 
 died in 1751, and was succeeded by his son William V. 
 when only three years of age ; the princess DoWager, 
 his mother, who was princess royal of England, being 
 the eldest daughter of George II. was appointed go- 
 verness and guardian to the young prince. In 1766, 
 William having arrived to 1 8 years of age, took upon 
 himself the administration of public affairs. 
 
 Q. What was the effect of the treaty between Hol- 
 land and the United States which took place in 1780? 
 
 A. The court of London cancelled all treaties of 
 commerce and alliance, which then subsisted between 
 that kingdom, and the United Provinces, and soon after 
 issued a declaration of hostilities against the Republic, 
 which proved extremely injurious to the possessions 
 and wealth of the Dutch. 
 
 Q. Waat followed ? 
 
UNITED PROVINCES. 191 
 
 A. The republican, or anti-scadtholderian party, 
 which had subsisted for a long time before, found in the 
 ministry of France the most warm support, while the 
 courts of London and Berlin were no less attentive 
 to the claims of the Orange party. Internal dissen- 
 sions thus fomented by foreign interference, rose to a 
 destructive height ; and each party imbibed the most 
 rancorous spirit against the other. In consequence of 
 which, it Was thought no longer safe for the prince and 
 princess to reside at the Hague ; they therefore retired 
 in 1785 to Nimeguen. 
 
 Q. Was he re-instated ? 
 
 A. Yes ; by the aid of the king of Prussia, their ci- 
 vil commotions terminated with very little bloodshed, 
 and the Stadtholder returned to Hague accompanied 
 with the princess and their children. But in 1792, 
 the United Provinces joined the allied powers ggainst 
 France, and in 1795, they were overrun by the French, 
 under whose influence the people obliged the Stadthol- 
 der to abdicate his authority, and established a republi- 
 can form of a government. It is now called the Bata- 
 viati republic. 
 
 SWITZERLAND 
 
 Q. WHO were the first inhabitants of Switzerland ? 
 
 A. The Helvetians. They were a Gaulish or Celtic 
 people, and Helvetia, which received its name from 
 them, was divided into four cantons or territories. Juli- 
 Vis C^sar first reduced the inhabitants under the domi- 
 nion of the Romans, who retained their power until 
 the fifth century, when the country was overnm by the 
 
192 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Burgunclians and Germans, and at length became unit- 
 ed to the German empire. But, about 1300, the em- 
 peror Albert I. not only refused to confirm their anci- 
 ent privileges, without deigning to assign any cause 
 for his refiisal, but set over the Swiss two noblemen 
 who were alike stigmatized for their -avarice and arro- 
 gance : their administration becoming insupportable, 
 the people addressed their petitions and complaints to 
 the emperor, but without success. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. The people universally expressed their abhorrence 
 of the tyrants ; and the inhabitants of Uri, Schwitz 
 and Underwald, united in order to defend themselves 
 to the last extremity. For this purpose they chose 
 three cofnmanders, gentlemen of approved courage 
 and abilities, who secretly agreed to surprise and de- 
 molish the castles in which the governors resided. 
 
 Q. In what manner did the three cantons unite ? 
 
 A. They joined in a league for ten years, which 
 gave birth to the Helvetic confederacy ; the emperor 
 Albert, however, determined totally to reduce these 
 places by force of arms, and for that purpose hasted 
 to Braden to begin his preparations ; but being on his 
 return murdered by John of Hapsburg, the design was 
 dropped, until the house of Austria invented other 
 pretexts for fallin.^ on the united cantons. 
 
 Q. What event followed of importance ? 
 
 A. In 1315, Leopold, duke of Austria, attacked the 
 confederates with an army of 20,000 men, but was de- 
 feated at Morgarten, in the canton of Schwitz, although 
 the whole Swiss army did not amount to more than 
 1 300 men. Upon this event, they entered into a per- 
 petual alliance, under the common name of Switzers ^ 
 
SWITZERLAND. 193 
 
 Tirhich name has been extended to all the other cantons 
 and their alhes, on their bcinij received into the union. 
 
 Q. Did the Svvitzers revenge themselves upon their 
 governors ? 
 
 A. No ; the firmness and intrepidity v/ith which they 
 conducted themselves in the recovery of their lil^erty 
 were equalled only by the moderation \vhh which they 
 behaved to their tyrannical rulers, whom they conducted 
 out of their territories, and contented themselves with 
 exacting an oath from them, that they would never 
 more set foot in that country. 
 
 Q. When did the other cantons join the confederacy ? 
 
 A. Lucern acceded to the alliance in 1332 ; Zurich 
 and Claris in 13j1 ; and they were joined by Zug and 
 Bern in 1352. For 125 years this confederacy was 
 composed only of these eight cantons; but in 1481, 
 Freyburg and Solothurn were admitted into the con- 
 federacy ; and in 1501, Basil and Schauffhauscn ; and 
 in 1531 Appenzel also acceded to it. 
 
 Q. How far does the federal union extend ? 
 
 A. No farther than is necessary for their mutual de- 
 fence, and the accommodating of differences, which 
 may arise between two or more towns or cantons : 
 in all other affairs they are left to their liberty. Thus 
 the whole Helvetic confederacy properly consists of 
 thirteen distinct republics, or free states, united by 
 oath for their mutual security and defence. For some 
 centuries it supported itself in an absolute freedom 
 and independency ; made wars, concluded treaties, 
 received and sent envoys from and to the several 
 European powers ; entered into alliances with them ; 
 gave what form they thought proper to their consti- 
 tution ; enacted laws and ordinances, both in tempo- 
 ral and spiritual affairs ; and exercised all the various 
 prerogatives of sovereignty. But a revolution took 
 
 R 
 
194 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 place in 1797 through the influence of the arms of 
 France, and the coimtry is now in a very unsettled 
 fttate. 
 
 GENEVA. 
 
 Q. GIVE me some account of the republic of Ge- 
 neva ? 
 
 A. It was the last of the allies of Switzerland, and 
 is of but small extent. Exclusive of the city of Geneva, 
 it does not contain above eleven parishes, eight of 
 v/hich v.'ere partly under the jurisdiction of the duke 
 of Savoy ; but it was notwithstanding, a considerable ally 
 of the Swiss cantons. This republic although occu- 
 pying a very small space on the continent of Europe, 
 has recommended itself to the notice of mankind, on ac- 
 count of the distinguished virtues, and the love of li- 
 berty, whicli have ohaj-acterised its citizens. In 1798 
 Geneva was annexed to the French republic* 
 
 THE ECCLESIASTICAL STATE IN ITALY. 
 
 Q. YOU have formerly giAen me an account of Italy 
 and of its triumphs over the rest of the world, as well 
 as of its downfal through eiTeminacy and luxury ; what 
 is the present situation of the inhabitants of that coun- 
 try ? 
 
 A. The softer arts have now taken place, and seem 
 the chief employment of the modern Italians. The 
 
ECCLESIASTICAL STATE. 195 
 
 firist painters who distin.:>uished themselves were gene- 
 rally also statuaries and architects, and their works are 
 still the admiration of the curious. The invention of 
 engraving is claimed by the Italians ; but that honour is 
 justly due to the Germans alone ; for Andrew Manteg- 
 na, who died in 1517, was the first that applied himself 
 with success to this art in Italy. This country, howe- 
 vei', has produced great men in all sciences, and former- 
 ly gave birth to those orators, poets, and historians, 
 whose writings will be revered as long as polite learn- 
 ing and elegant composition, are considered as the or- 
 naments of human nature. 
 
 Q. What part of Italy is that which is termed the 
 Ecclesiastical state or territory of the pope ? 
 
 A. It is bounded on tlie N. by the dominions of 
 Venice ; on the E. by the Adriatic ; on the S. E. and S. 
 by the kingdom of Naples and the Mediterranean ; and 
 on the \V. by the grand dutchy of Tuscany and the ter- 
 ritories of INIodcna : 240 miles from N. to S. and from 
 1 20 to 20 wide. 
 Q. What is the situation of this Ecclesiastical state ? 
 A. It is but ill cultivated, poor and thin of inhabitants, 
 the city of Bologna only excepted. Trade and manufac- 
 tures have been but little encouraged, and ccnsequent- 
 ly but little attended to. The multitude of convents 
 which prevented the increase of inhabitants ; the many 
 hospitals that habituated the people to idleness ; the 
 inconceivable wealth in the churches and convents, 
 which lay dormant, without the least advantage to the 
 public ; and the inquisition, which Avould not permit the 
 want of inhabitants to be supplied by those of another 
 religion, have been some of the great causes of the 
 wretched condition of the papal dominions. 
 
 Q. What was originally considered the privileges of 
 the pope ? 
 
196 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 A. Accoixling to the ancient canon-law, he was 
 the supreme, universal, and independent head of the 
 ciiurch, and invested with soverei;;nty over all Chris- 
 tian communities, and every individual member. Ke 
 claimed a rii;ht to prescribe laws to the whole world. All 
 soverei;;ns were to pay him homai^e. He has deposed 
 both disobedient and ill-governing princes, and i.\iven 
 their dominions to (Uhcrs. He claimed a right to exa- 
 mine any person promoted to a kingdom, and might 
 require an oath of allegiance from liim. On the vacan- 
 cy of a throne, the government has devolved to him ; 
 and he has assumed the right over states, to use both 
 the temporal and spiritual sword. This is a short 
 sketch of the extravagancies in the political system of 
 the court of Rome, which, notwithstanding its impiety 
 and absurdity, has been ambitiously obtruded on the 
 world ; and was for ages tyrannically put in practice. . 
 Q. Are these maxims admitted in the present day ? 
 A. No; the reformation, the increase of learning", 
 and the spirit of free inquiry A\hich lias spread over 
 the world, has occasioned them to be treated with the 
 utmost contempt, by the rational part of Christendom ; 
 and the pope has been wholly stripped of that unbound- 
 ed power which he so arropantly assumed. 
 
 Q. Has not this occasioned tiie abuses, with which 
 the reformers justly charged the court of Rome, to be 
 greatly removed ? 
 
 A. Ves ; princes, insteafl of being treated with threats 
 and anathemas, are now addressed with gi'eat civility 
 and condescension ; the clergy and monks have become 
 more enlightened and moderate ; and although their 
 zeal for bringing over Protestants to their church has 
 not diminished ; yet they do not use such violent and 
 cruel means as they ibrmeriy did, except in a few 
 countries more bigotted than tlie rest ; nor do they 
 
NAPLES AND SICILY. 197 
 
 U'eat those who dissent from them with such uncha- 
 ritable language and virulence. Protestants of all de- 
 nominations are received with urbanity in those coun- 
 tries, and the learned of all religious persuasions main- 
 tain an epistolary intercourse with each other, upon 
 principles of friendship and candour. 
 
 Tin: KiNGDorii or naples and sicily. 
 
 Q. WHERE is the kingdom of Naples situated, and 
 by \\ horn was it first peopled ? 
 
 A. The kingdom of Naples joins the Ecclesiastical 
 state on the S. E. and comprises all tlie southern part 
 of the peninsula of Italy. It is separated fiomthc island 
 of Sicily by a narrow strait, called the Faro: the 
 provinces of which the kingdom consists were peopled 
 from (ireece. It became a part of tiie dominions of 
 the Roman republic, and afterwards of tlic emperor. 
 In the fifth century Naples and Sicily were overrun by 
 the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, and llerulians. In 800, Na- 
 ples was subdued by Charlemagne : the Saracens af- 
 terwards took Sicily, and frequently committed great 
 ravages in Italy j but it was at length conquered by 
 tlie Normans in the eleventh century. Tancred the 
 Norman, and his twelve sons, having greatly contribut- 
 ed to effect this service, the pope bestowed on them a 
 part of the kingdom of Naples ; and Rodger, the grand- 
 son of Tancred, was made king of the two Sicilies, or 
 the kingdom of Naples and island of Sicily. 
 
 Q. Who was the last legitimate descendant ©f 
 Rodger ? 
 
 R2 
 
198 MOUEllN HISTORY. 
 
 A. Constanlia, the wifti of tlie emperor, Hemy I\'. 
 who dying in 1 198, the succession devolved on her son 
 Frederick II. empei'or of Germany ; and thus the 
 kinf.^lom fell to the Iionse of Swahia. But on the death 
 ot his son Conrad IV. the pope being determined on 
 the expulsion of the house of Swabia, offered the kinc^- 
 dom to Charles of Anjou, who at length was establish- 
 ed on tlie throne. 
 
 Q. Vv'hat f<3l!owed ? 
 
 A. In 1504, Ferdinand the Catholic, king- of Spain, 
 obtained possestiion of the kingdom ; and Naples conti- 
 nued to be governed by Spanish viceroys, till the begin- 
 ning of the last century. 
 
 Q. What change then took place ? 
 
 A. In 1707 it was coj.qucred by prince F.ugcne for 
 Charles III. afterwards emperor, by the title of Charles 
 VI. and was confirmed to him by the treaty of Utrecht ; 
 and the island of Sicily was ceded to the duke of Sa- 
 voy, v.'ho afterwards exchanged it for that of Sardinia, 
 and was acknowledged kin;y by that name. 
 
 Q. Did it remain long in the possession of the em- 
 peror ? 
 
 A. No; it was conquered by the infant of Spain, Don 
 Carlos ; and in 1735, the emperor, by a formal instru- 
 ment, ceded the kingdom of Naples and Sicily to him 
 and his heirs, as an equivalent for which, he was invest- 
 ed v/ith the dutchies of Parma and Flacentia. In 1788, 
 the king of the two Sicilies succeeded his father Charles 
 III. in the kingdom of Spain, and resigned his Italian 
 kingdom to his second sou Ferdinand IV. 
 
VENICE. 199 
 
 Q. WHO were the founders of the republic of Ve- 
 nice ? 
 
 A. About the middle of the fifth century, the Veneti, 
 a people inhabiting a small district of Italy, a few Padu- 
 ans, and some peasants en the banks of the Fo, to es- 
 cape the fury of Atliia, repaired to the marshes and 
 small islands which lay on the western coast, at the bot- 
 tom of the Adriatic (]ulf. Soon after the city of Padua 
 sent a colony thither, and appointed some of their citi- 
 zens to act as xnagistrates, who held their dignity for a 
 year, and were succeeded by others. 
 
 Q. Were there not other emigrations to this place ? 
 
 A. Yes; on the taking of Aquileia by the Huns un- 
 der Attila, a multitude of wretched fugitives increased 
 the population; and in 452, the city of Venice v/as 
 founded. 'J'he \''enetians at length became an indepen- 
 derit republic, and in a course of years obtained the 
 territories of Padua. 
 
 Q. Did the republic increase in power ? 
 
 A. Yes; even the commotions which agitated in a 
 greater or less degree, most part of the continent of 
 Europe, during the three centuries which succeeded 
 its establishment, so far from involvincr Venice in wars, 
 or endangering its security, signally promoted its wealth 
 and its power. The genius of the people stimulated by 
 unparalleled advantages of situation, prompted them to 
 commercial pursuits, and they soon became the great-" 
 est maritime state on the globe. 
 
 Q. What was the form of government ? 
 
200 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 A. Its original form M^as purely democratical, which 
 subsisted for 150 years; a chief magistrate was then 
 made choice of, upon whom was conferred the title of 
 duke, which has since been corrupted to doge : this dig- 
 nity was elective and held for life ; he was even entrust- 
 ed with the power of nominating to all offices, and of 
 making peace and declaring Mar. 
 
 Q. Did any change take place in the manner of 
 electing the doge ? 
 
 A. Yes ; ill 11 73, the council of forty, which at that 
 time was the only tribunal at Venice, found means to 
 new model tho government, by gaining the consent of 
 the people to delegate the right of voting for magii^- 
 trates, which each citizen possessed, to 470 persons call- 
 ed counsellors, who received the appellation of the 
 grand council ; and acting as delegates of the people, 
 became what the general assembly of the people, until 
 that time, had been. 
 
 Q. What was the consequence ? 
 
 A. By this artful innovation the democracy became 
 subverted, and an aristocracy, in its fullest and most 
 rigid form, v»as introikiced, by restricting the power of 
 the doge, and introducing a variety of officers, (all of 
 whom, in a short time, were chosen from among the 
 nobility,) v.hich effectually controled both the prince 
 and the people. 
 
 Q. Did the Venetians increase their territories ? 
 
 A. Yes, they extended them into Lombardy, Istria, 
 and Dalmatia, and became masters of many of the 
 islands in the Archipelago, particularly of Candia ; they 
 were also m.asters of Morea, and in the beginning of the 
 thirteenth century, Dandolo, tlieir doge, in conjanction 
 with tl'e French, took Constantinople from' the Turks, 
 About this time they engrossed a lucrative trade in the 
 manufactures and productions of the East Indies, which 
 
VENICE. 201 
 
 they procured at the port of Alexandria, and conveyed 
 to every markjet of Europe. 
 
 Q. Did the commerce and power of the Venetians 
 continue to flourish ? 
 
 A. No ; towaid the end of the fifteenth century they 
 began to decline. The PoriUi^uese havini^; sailed round 
 the Cape of Good Hope, and found tiie way to the East 
 Indies by sea, that valuable trade was acquired, first by^ 
 the discoverers, and afterward by the Dutch and Eng- 
 lish. In the beginning of the sixteenth century, the 
 pope, the emperor, and the kings of France and Spain, 
 joined in the famous league of Cambray, which threat- 
 ened the subversion of the Venetian state ; but she 
 made a noble stand against her numerous and powerful 
 enemies, and retained her independence ; with the loss, 
 however, of all her possessions in the Ecclesiastical 
 state, and the JNlilanese. In the seventeenth century, 
 Venice was engaged in a war witii the Turks, during 
 which she lost Candia, and afterwards all other places 
 and districts whicii they had taken from the Turks. 
 
 Q. Has not this republic been of longer standing than 
 most others ? 
 
 A. Yes; no republic in the history of the world, has 
 subsisted for so long a space of time ; it has continued 
 upward of thirteeu hundred years, amidst many foreign 
 wars, aiid intestine commotions ; and, as its mdepen- 
 dencc was not founded on usurpation, nor cemented 
 with blood, so its descent from that elevation and 
 power which it had once attained, to its present con- 
 tracted state, instead of degrading, rv-'fiects the highest 
 lionour on the government as well as the people. 
 None of the causes which subverted the famous re- 
 publics of antiquity, effected the decline of this state. 
 No tyrants enslaved, no demagogues deluded, no lux- 
 uries enervated them, 'i'hey owed tb.cir greatness to 
 
202 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 their industry, bravery, and maritime skill ; and their 
 decline, to the revolutions which pursuits of science had 
 produced in the nations of Europe. 
 
 Q. But did not the French revolution affect ihi« 
 country ? 
 
 A. Yes ; it was overrun by the French, and at the 
 peace of 1801, was given up to the emperor of Ger- 
 many. 
 
 GENOA. 
 
 . Q. BY whom was Genoa possessed in ancient times ? 
 
 A. By the Ligurians, and the city of Genoa was the 
 capital of Liguria : it was destroyed by Mago the Car- 
 thaginian, but rebuilt by the Romans, and on the de- 
 cline of that empire, fell under the power of the Ostro- 
 goths, out of whose hands it was rescued by th^- famous 
 Belisarius, and rendered subject to the eastern empire. 
 In 670, it was sacked by the Longobardi ; but being af- 
 terwards rebuilt, continued under that dominion till 
 they were expelled Italy by Charlemagne. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. It erected itself by degrees into an independent 
 state ; and soon after its power became so increased by 
 its flourishing trade, that in 805, it reduced the island of 
 Corsica. In the twelfth century the Genoese subdued 
 half Sardmia, and the city of Syracuse in Sicily. 
 
 Q. Did they not join the Greeks in an expedition 
 agamst Constantinople ,? 
 
GENOA. 5203 
 
 A. Yes ; by their assistance, the Greeks subverted 
 the dominion of the Latins in Constantinople, and estab- 
 lished the imperial family on the throne. In recom- 
 pense for their services, the Greek emperor gave them 
 Pera, the chief suburb of Constantinople, to be held as 
 a fief of the empire, together with such exemption from 
 accustomed duties on goods imported and exported, as 
 gave them a decided superiority over every competitor 
 in trade. The Genoese availed themselves of this fa- 
 vourable situation, surrounding their new settlement 
 with fortifications, and rendering their factories on the 
 adjacent coasts, places of strength. They were masters 
 of the harbour of Constantinople more than the Greeks 
 themselves. The whole trade of the Black sea came 
 into their hands ; and they took possession of the 
 Chersonesus Taurica, the modern Crimea, and render- 
 ed Kaffa, the chief seat of their trade with the east. 
 
 Q. What was the consequence of these acquisitions? 
 
 A. Genoa became the greatest commercial power in 
 Europe, and if the enterprising industry, and intrepid 
 courage of its citizens, had been under the direction of 
 wise domestic policy, it might have long held that rank ; 
 but never was there a contrast more striking, than be- 
 tween the internal administration of the two rival repub- 
 lics of Venice and Genoa ; in the former, government 
 was conducted with a steady systematic prudence ; 
 in the latter, it was consistent in nothing, but a fondness 
 for novelty, and propensity to change. 
 
 Q. What other acquisitions did they make to their 
 territories ? 
 
 A. In the thirteenth century they added to their con- 
 
 . quests, the towns of Albenza and Savona, wiiii others 
 
 in their neighbourhood ; but being engaged in a long 
 
 and expensive war with Venice, which lasted until 
 
 It 1381, they were so wealtened, that they became unable 
 
204 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 to maintain the possession of" Crimea, from which 
 they were entirely driven by the Tartars in 1474. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. The republic suifered many severe shocks from 
 ■the intestine divisions which arose respecting the form 
 of government, which so debilitated the state, that the 
 people were obliged to put themselves sometimes 
 under the protection of the duke of iViilan, and at 
 others, under that of tlie kings of France ; but the 
 latter having treated them with intolerable rigour, 
 Andrew Doria, in 1528, rescued his country out of 
 their hands, and established its present form of govern- 
 ment : after which Genoa generally confederated with 
 Spain. 
 
 Q . Did not this involve them in quarrels with France ? 
 
 A. Yes ; in 1684, the capital w^as bombarded by the 
 French, when the republic, to save it from total destruc- 
 tion, was obliged to submit to the most humiliating 
 terms, one of which v>^as, that they should disarm 
 all their gallies except six, and fit out no more, without 
 the French king's consent. 
 
 Q. Did they not afterwards enter into an alliance 
 with that country ? 
 
 A. Yes ; they entered into an alliance with France, 
 Spain, and Naples, and, in 1745, declared war against 
 the king of Sardinia, who dtmanded their giving up 
 the marquisate of i inale, which they had purchased of 
 Charles VI. emperor of Germany, in 1713, and which, 
 in 1743, his eldest daughter, queen of Hungary, ceded 
 to the king of Sardinia. 
 
 Q. Were they successful ? 
 
 A. No ; in the following- year they were severely 
 beaten by Great Britain and the queen of Hungary. 
 The king of Sardinia made himself master of all the 
 
GENOA. 205 
 
 Riviera di Ponente ; several Genoese ports were bom- 
 barded by the English fleet, and the imperialists seized 
 on the city of Genoa ; but after a severe loss on both 
 sides, they were driven out by the inhabitants. 
 
 Q. When was the tranquillity of the republic restored ? 
 A. In 1748, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle : but a 
 war with Corsica, which had been occasioned by their 
 revolting, was continued ; and the expenses incurred 
 by this war, being found to exhaust the public trea- 
 sury, the government was induced to sell and transfer 
 that Island to the French in 1768. A conveyance 
 founded in injustice, and for the accomplishment of 
 which many thousand lives were lost. 
 
 Q. What were the territories of the republic after 
 the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ? 
 
 A. The Riviera di Levante, Riviera di Ponte, and 
 the Marquisate of Finale. It consists of an extensive 
 tract of country, stretching along the coast of a capa- 
 cious gulf in the Me<iiterranean, which is now called 
 the Gulf of Genoa. The form of government in this 
 republic, like that of Venice, was aristocratical ; the 
 chief person was called the doge or duke, to which 
 dignity no person Avas promoted till fifty years of age. 
 Q. What change has taken place in this country ? 
 A. It was overrun by the French, and at the peace 
 of 1801, Genoa and the adjacent county formed a part 
 of the Ligurian republic j but it is now united to 
 France. 
 
206 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 SAVOY AND SARDINIA. 
 
 Q. What \rere the dominions of the king of Sardinia ? 
 
 A. They were the diitchy of Savoy, the principality 
 of Piedmont, in which is the city of Turin the capital, 
 the province of Nice, the dutchy of Montferrat, with 
 several districts formerly belonging to the dutchy of 
 Milan, and the island of Sardinia, which confers the 
 regal title on the duke of Savoy. 
 
 Q. By whom was Savoy formerly possessed ? 
 
 A. By the Allobroges, and was not brought under 
 subjection to the Romans until the time of Augustus, 
 On the decline of that empire it was conquered 1)y the 
 northern nations, and afterwards became incorporated 
 with the kingdom of Burgundy. Charlemagne then 
 possessed himself of it, and conferred it on Hugh, 
 duke of Saxony, w^hom he created duke of Savoy, 
 and prince of Piedmont, in which family those dignities 
 have been transmitted to the present time. When 
 Louis XIV. carried the desolations of war into Italy, 
 Victor Amadaeus II. duke of Savoy, who had joined the 
 first grand alliance which was formed at the Hague 
 In 1690, and who commanded the confederates, engag- 
 ed Catinat at the head of the French army near Turin ; 
 the French, however, gained a very decisive victory. 
 But in 1695, the French monarch concluded a separate 
 peace with the duke of Savoy, by which the latter 
 recovered Nice, and several other territories. 
 
 Q. Did the duke of Savoy join in the second grand 
 alViance ? 
 
 «A. Yes ; and the consequence was, the reduction of 
 
SAVOY AND SARDINIA. 207 
 
 the county Nice, with the greatest part of Piedmont ; 
 and, in 1706, the French laid siege to Turin, but 
 prince Eugene attacked and routed their army, relieved 
 the place, recovered Piedmont, and saved Italy. This 
 great general was of the house of Savoy. By so de- 
 cisive a victory, the duke recovered his lost territories. 
 
 Q. What advantages did he gain by the peace of 
 Utrecht ? 
 
 A. Sicily was ceded to him, and he was acknowledged, 
 by the powers of Europe, king of that island. He after- 
 wards, in 1718, exchanged the island of Sicily for that 
 of Sardinia with the court of Spain, of which he took 
 the title of king. 
 
 Q. What foUowed ? 
 
 A. In 1723, he published a body of laws for the use 
 of his subjects, which greatly relieved them from vex- 
 ation and tedious sidts ; and in 1730, he resigned his 
 crowTi to his eldest son Charles Emanuel, prince of 
 Piedmont. 
 
 Q. What was the nature of his reign ? 
 
 A. On the death of Augustus king of Poland, he 
 leagued with France against the house of Austria. 
 At the battle of Guastalla, in 1734, the imperialists 
 •\vere commanded by count Koningsegg, and the French 
 and Piedmontese, by the king of Sardinia, who, by his 
 bravery and conduct, obtained a decisive victory. A 
 peace was concluded, in 1735, to which the king of 
 Sardinia acceded, although the conditions were unfavour- 
 able to his interests. On the death of the emperor 
 Charles VI. the king of Sardinia declared in favour of 
 the queen of Hungary. By the war which followed he 
 acquired some additional territories. 
 
 Q. State the particulars ? 
 
 A. The ninth article of the treaty of Worms, entered 
 into by the king of Great Britain, the queen of Hunga 
 
208 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 fy, and tlie king of Sardinia, gave to the latter the mar- 
 quisate of Finale, then possessed by the Genoese, which 
 was to be made a free port ; but in the campaign of 
 ir4'4-, the Spanish and French combined army, passed 
 the Var, and took the town of Nice. The next year 
 the Spanish and French courts leagued with the republic 
 of Genoii, to attack the dominions of the king of Sardinia. 
 In 1716, the king, having received some assistance from 
 the queen of Hungary, drove the French from the pla- 
 ces they had taken, and shut them up in the city Placen- 
 tia ; v/hich brought on the battle of Rottoffredo, in 
 which tjic French opened a passage for a flight out of 
 Italy, abandoning Genoa to the resentments of her ene- 
 mies. They were followed by their allies into France. 
 The king of Sardinia then took Savona and Finale, and 
 the next year gained the battle of Exilles, by which the 
 flam33 of war were prevented from once more spreading^ 
 into the heart of Italy. 
 
 Q. Did he not gi/o up some of hi^ acquired territo- 
 ries at the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ? 
 
 A. Yes ; he engaged to restore to the republic of Ge- 
 noa, and to the duke of Modena, whatever had been ta- 
 ken from them, which deprived him of Savona and 
 Finale, as well as all that had been stipulated in his fa- 
 ^our by the treaty of Wonns ; but the dutchy of Savoy 
 and county of Nice were restored to him. 
 
 Q. By whom was he succeeded ? 
 
 A. By his eldest son Victor Amadseus III. who 
 was born in 1726. In 1729, the French overran Sa- 
 voy, and annexed it to the territories of the republic. 
 
 Q. Give me a short account of the island of Sardinia ? 
 
 A. It has undergone many changes with respect to 
 its government ; it was once subject to the Carthagini- 
 ans ; the Romans held it next, and kept possession of it 
 until the decline of the empire, when, in the ninth cen« 
 
TUSCANY. 209 
 
 lury, It fell into the hands of the Saracens, who were af- 
 terward expelled by the Genoese and Pisans, from which 
 time they were governed by petty princes of their o^vn. 
 
 Q. Did this island escape the troubles which soon after 
 agitated Europe ? 
 
 A. No ; it sufifererd greatly during the wars between 
 the Pisans and Genoese, as well as afterward, during 
 those between the emperors of Germany and the popes. 
 Boniface Ylll. at last granted it, in 1298, to James 
 king of Arragon, whose son Alphonso IV. after much 
 opposition, made himself master of it in 1324. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. From this time it continued under the dominion 
 of Spain, and was governed by a viceroy, till 1708; 
 when the Knglish making a conquest of it for Charles 
 III. afterwards emperor, by the title of Charles Xl. it 
 M'as confirmed to him by the treaty of Utrecht. In 1717 
 it was recovered by the Spaniards, and the next year the 
 emperor exchanged it for Sicily with the duke of Savoy, 
 who was put in possession of it in 1720. 
 
 FLORENCE OR TUSCANY. 
 
 Q. HOW is Tuscany situated ? 
 
 A. The grand dutchy of Tuscany, of which Florence is 
 the most considerable part, both with respect to extent 
 and populousness, but to which Sienna and Pisa are add- 
 ed, borders on the Mediterranean, which here receives 
 its name from the dutchy, and is called the Tuscan sea ; 
 it is also bounded by the Ecclesiastical state, the dutchy 
 of Modena, and the republic of Lucca, 
 
 S2 
 
210 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Q. What was Tuscany originally called ? 
 
 A. Etruria, or Tuscia, from its ancient inhabitants 
 the Etrurii or Tuscani ; but the present dutchy does not 
 comprehend all the ancient Etruria. This country fell 
 under the dominion of the Romans about 455 years be- 
 fore Christ ; the Ostrogoths afterward possessed it in 
 the fiRh century, and then the Lombards, who were driv- 
 en out by Charlemagne in 800, when it had acquired 
 the name of Florence ; after which it became subject to 
 the German emperors; but in the thirteenth century it 
 became an independent state. 
 
 Q, What followed ? 
 
 A. Toward the conclusion of the fourteenth, and in the 
 beginning of the fifteenth century, John de Medicis, a 
 nobleman of Florence, distinguished himself by his 
 wisdom, his wealth, and his popularity ; he was the found- 
 er of the Medici family, which flourished for more than 
 three hundred years ; the lineal descendants from his 
 eldest son Cosmo, in the male line, continuing for more 
 than a century, and those of Lorenzo, his second son, 
 subsisting two centuries aftei ward. From this ancestor 
 have sprung more men distinguished for genius, capaci- 
 ty, ambition, taste, and patronage of the fine arts, than 
 from any other family in Europe ; while most of them 
 were not less characterized for their licentiousness and 
 unprincipled profligacy ; many of their women likewise,. 
 were highly celebrated for their personal charms, their 
 litrength of mind and accomplishments, as well as fo.r 
 their advantageous marriages, and illustrioits descen- 
 dants. 
 
 Q. When did Cosmo the son of John die ? 
 
 A. In 1464. He obtained the title of the Father of 
 his country, and the Reviver of the arts. He was suc- 
 ceeded by Lorenzo, grand-son of John, called the Mag- 
 nificent, and Father of the Muses, who died in 1492 j 
 
tuscanV. 211 
 
 having escaped the fate of his brother Julian, "who was 
 killed m the church of Saint Rafiarata, in 1478, by an 
 assassin, who with others, had undertaken to despatch 
 both the brothers, in order to promote the political in- 
 terests of pope Sixtus IV. but failing in their attempt 
 upon Lorenzo, they were immediately executed. 
 
 Q. Had not these two brothers the honour of having 
 each a son raised to the papacy ? 
 
 A. Yes ; John the second son of Lorenzo, was the 
 famous Leo I'C. and Julio, the posthumous and illegi- 
 timate son of Julian, within two years after the death 
 of Leo, succeeded by the title of Clement VIL From 
 the eldest son of Lorenzp, descended Lorenzo, duke of 
 Urbino, who is supposed to have been the father of 
 Alexander, the first duke of Florence, and his daughter 
 Catharina married Henry H. of France. 
 
 Q. What was she distinguished for ? 
 
 A. For her cruelty and superstition, which the dread- 
 ful massacre of Paris in 1572, too fully attested. She 
 was mother of the three succeeding kings of France. 
 
 Q. When was Alexander Medicis created duke of 
 Florence ? 
 
 A. In 1531, by the emperor Charles V. who after- 
 wards gave him Margaret, his natural daughter, in mar- 
 riage. Alexander was succeeded by Cosmo I. descend- 
 ed from the younger branch of the family of John Me- 
 dicis, who in 1569, was declared grand duke of Flo- 
 rence, by pope Pius VL which v/as ratified by the em- 
 peror on condition of his holding it as a fief of the em- 
 pire. 
 
 Q. Was not this country distinguished for litera- 
 ture. 
 
 A, Yes ; during the sixteenth century it was deserv- 
 edly celebrated; and scarcely equalled by any other 
 
212 M0DE41N HISTORY. 
 
 country in Europe. Florence was in that century called 
 the Athens of Italy. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Cosmo I.? 
 
 A. His third son Francis, whose daughter Mary, mar- 
 lied Henry IV. of France, from whom all the suc- 
 ceeding kings liavc descended. In 1587, Francis was 
 poisoned by his brother Ferdinand, a cardinal, who be- 
 came tliird great duke, and transmitted that dignity to 
 his son Cosmo II. Three lineal desccixlants followed, 
 namely, Ferdinand II. in 1621, Cosmo III. in 1G70, 
 and John Gaston in 1723, who was the seventh great 
 duke ; and at his d^ath, in 1737, the male line of the 
 house of Medicis became extinct. 
 
 Q. In what manner was Tuscany disposed of? 
 
 A. During the life of John Gaston, the infant Don 
 Carlos, afterwards king of Spain, was declared his 
 heir, and assumed, w^ith the consent of the duke, the 
 the title of hereditary grand duke of Tuscany ; but at 
 the conclusion of the war, by which he acquired the 
 kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, it was stipulated by 
 the treaty of Vienna, that the grand dutchy of 
 Tuscany should be given to Francis, duke of I^r- 
 rain, in exchange for that dutchy, which was yielded 
 to the kin^ of Spain after the death of Stanislaus, the 
 abdicated king of loland. 
 
 Q. Has there not a change taken place since that 
 time ? 
 
 A. Yes; in 1799, Tuscany was seized by the French, 
 and by the treaty of peace in 1 801, it was converted in- 
 to a king:lom \mder the appellation of Etruria, and was 
 bestowed upon Louis I. tiic hereditary prince of Far- 
 jna. In 1803 he was succeeded by his queen, Mary. 
 
SAINT MARINO. 213 
 
 THE REPUBLIC OF SAINT MARINO. 
 
 Q. WHERE is the Republic of Sidnt Marino ; 
 ' A. It is enclosed by Romagna and Urbino, and lies 
 at no great distance from the Adriraic sea ; it consists 
 of a very high craggy mountain, with some eminences 
 rising near its foot. The town, the seat of this repub- 
 lic, is seated on the summit of this lofty mountain, 
 where it is generally hid among the clouds, and the 
 streets are sometimes covered with snow, when it is 
 clear and warm weather in the country around. 
 
 Q. In what manner are the inhabitants supplied with 
 water ? 
 
 A. There is said to be neither spring nor rivulet in 
 the whole dominion ; but the people are well provided 
 with large cisterns and reservoirs of rain and snow 
 water. This republic has three castles, five churches, 
 and three convents ; and is supposed to contain about 
 five thousand inhabitants. 
 
 Q. State the particulars of its origin ? 
 
 A. Saint Marino, by birth a Dalmatian, and by trade 
 a mason, was employed in the reparation of Rimini, 
 situated in its neighbourhood, and after he had finished 
 his work, retired to this solitary mountain, as finding 
 it very proper for the life of a hermit, which he led 
 in the greatest rigour and austerities of religion. He 
 had not been long here before he was said to have 
 wrought a miracle, which joined with his extraordina- 
 ry sanctity, gained him such esteem, that the princes 
 of the country made liim a present of the mountain, 
 
214 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 to dispose of at his own discretion ; and his reputation 
 quickly peopled it, and ^ve lise to the republic which 
 calls itself after his name. 
 
 Q. How long has this republic existed ? 
 
 A. Nearly 1400 years, in which time all the other 
 states of Italy, have frequently changed their mastere, 
 and forms of government. Their whole history is 
 comprised in two purchases made of a neighbouring 
 prince, and in a war in which they assisted the pope 
 against the lord of Rimini. Possessing a territory nei- 
 ther extensive, nor convenient, Ihey have hitherto escap- 
 ed the rapacity of neighbouring princes. There is but 
 one road by which to ascend their mountain, and they 
 have a very severe law against any one who shall enter 
 the town by another path, lest a new one should be form- 
 ed on the sides of it. 
 
 THE TURKS. 
 
 Q. WHO are the Turks? 
 
 A. They arc of Tartarian or Scythian extraction. 
 The nation to which the name of Turks has been pe- 
 culiarly given, dwelt between the Black and Caspian 
 seas, and became first known in the seventh century, 
 when Heraclius, emperor of the East, took them into 
 his service ; in which they so distinguished themselves 
 by their fidelity and bravery in the conquest of Persia, 
 that the Arabian and Saracen caliphs, had not only se- 
 lect bodies of them for guards, but their armies were 
 composed of them. Thus gradually getting the power 
 iTito their hands, they set up and dethroned caliphs at 
 
THE TURKS. 215 
 
 pleasure. By this strict union of the Turks with the 
 Saracens, or Arabs, the former were brought to em- 
 brace the Mahometan religion, so that they have now 
 become intermixed, and have jointly enlarged their 
 conquests ; but as the Turks became superior to the 
 Saracens, they subdued them. 
 
 Q. What was the origin of the Ottoman empire ? 
 
 A. Genghiskan, at the head of his horse, issued out 
 of Great Tartary, and made himself master of a vast 
 tract of land near the Caspian sea, and even of all Per- 
 sia, and Asia Minor : incited by his example and suc- 
 cess, Schah Solyman, prince of the town of Nera, on 
 the Caspian sea, in 1214, passed Mount Caucasus with 
 fifty thousand men, and penetrated as far as the borders 
 of Syria ; and although he was stopped there by the 
 Genghiskan Tartars, yet in 1219, he penetrated a se- 
 cond time into Asia Minor, as far as the Euphrates. 
 Othman, his grand-son, made himself master of several 
 countries and places in Lesser Asia, belonging to the 
 Grecian empire : and having in 1300, assumed the 
 title of emperor of the Othmans, called his people after 
 his own name. 
 
 Q. What conquests did he make ? 
 
 A. Among many other towns, he took Prusa, in Bi- 
 thynia, in 1326, which Orchan, his son and successor, 
 made the seat of his empire. He was succeeded in 
 1360, by his son Amurath, who took Ancryra, Adria- 
 nople, and Philippopolis ; and in 1362, overran Ser- 
 via, and invaded Macedonia and Albania. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. His son Bajazet, who was successful both in Eu- 
 rc'pe and Asia ; but in 1401, he was routed and taken 
 prisoner by Tamerlane. Mahomet I. afterward suc- 
 ceeded to the throne, whose son Amurath H. distin- 
 guished himself by several important enterprises, par- 
 
216 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 ticularly in 1444, he gained a signal victory over the 
 Hungarians near A'arna. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. Mahomet II. the greatest of all the emperors, in 
 1453, made himself master of Constantinople ; and re- 
 duced the "whole Grecian empire under his dominion : 
 subduing twelve kingdoms, and two hundred towns. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him : 
 
 A. Bajazet II. and afterward Selim I. who enlarged, 
 the Turkish empire in Europe, Asia, and Africa ; and 
 Solyman I. became not less famous for his victory over 
 the Hungarians, than for his body of laws. 
 
 Q. Were the succeeding emperors equally success- 
 ful ? 
 
 A. No ; for although Mahomet IV. subdued Candia, 
 and laid siege to ^^ienna, yet be met with ill success in 
 Hungary: and in the reigns of Solyman II. Achmet 
 II. and IVIustapha, the Hungarians and Venetians were 
 so successful against the Turks, that Mustapha II. in 
 1699, was compelled to conclude the peace of Carlo- 
 witz. And Mahomet III. in 1718, agreed to the peace 
 of Passarowitz ; but Achmet \\ by the peace of Bel- 
 grade, in 1739, re-annexed Servia, a part of Wallachia, 
 and Choczin to the empire. 
 
 Q. Some time after this, war was declared by the 
 Turks against Russia, what was the cause ? 
 
 A, Catharine II. empress of Russia, soon after her 
 elevation, began to make it a favourite object in her 
 plan of politics, to gain a dictatorial ascendancy over 
 the king and diet of Poland. This she effected, partly 
 by the intrigues and persuasive bribes of her miiiisters 
 at the court of Warsavr^ ; and partly by marching a 
 powerful army into that kingdom. But as soon as tJKis 
 measure was taken, the Porte took the alarm, and sti- 
 mulated by jealousy of its northern rival, resolved to 
 
THE TURKS. 217 
 
 support the liberties and independence of the Foles. 
 These resolutions being formed in the divau of Con- 
 stiintinople, Obreskow, the Russian resident there, 
 was, according to the constant practice of the Turks 
 on such occasions, committed a prisoner to the castle 
 of the Seven Towers, and war was declared acainst the 
 empress of Russia, in 1768, and the most vigorous pre- 
 parations were made to collect the whole force of the 
 empire. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. The court of Russia was far from seeking a rup- 
 ture with the Port, being fully employed in important 
 objects nearer home ; but being unable to prevent a war, 
 two armies, amounting to 150,000 men, were formed, 
 at the head of the largest of which, prince Gallitzin 
 crossed the Niester, and entered Moldavia, with a view 
 pf becoming master of Choczin. 
 
 Q. Did he immediately succeed? 
 
 A. No ; the prudent measures taken by the Turkish 
 vizier, frustrated all his attempts, and obliged him to 
 repass the Niester. But the impatience of the Turks 
 to pursue these tidvantages, and to transfer the seat of 
 war into Podolia, excited a general disgust at the cau- 
 tious and circumspect conduct of their leader ; in con- 
 sequence of which he was removed, and Maldovani Ali 
 Pacha, a man precipitate and incautious, appointed in 
 his stead ; who by repeated attempts to cross the Nies- 
 ter in sight of the Russian army, lost, in the short space 
 of a fortnight, 24,000 of his troops ; which spread such 
 general discontent through the army, that, renouncing 
 all subordination, the troops retreated tumultuously to- 
 wards the Danube, and no less than 40,000 men are said 
 to have abandoned the standard of Mahomet, in this 
 precipitate flight. 
 
 T 
 
218 MODERN HISTORY. * 
 
 Q. .What followed ? 
 
 A. The Turkish nrovinccs of Tvloldavia and V/alla- 
 chia were overrun by the Russians, and most of the 
 places of strenc^th became an easy pr*. y to the conquer- 
 or. Thus the campaign Avhich opened so auspiciously 
 for the Ottomans, by tlie rashness and folly of their 
 leader, ended in their disgrace and ruin. 
 
 Q. What was the furtlier progress of the war ? 
 
 A. The czarina caused a large fleet of Russian men 
 of war, commanded by count Orlow, to proceed from 
 the Baltic to the •Mediterranean, for the purpose of an- 
 noying the Turks on their extensive coasts in the Le- 
 vant. But through the unskilfulness of the Russians at 
 this time in maritime affairs, they did not arrive at the 
 scene of action until the spring of 1770. The l^n-ks, 
 to whom the sea has ever proved a fatal element, for 
 some time, had no force capable of opposing the ene- 
 my ; so that Morca w as exposed to their ravages, and 
 several places of strength were taken. 'J'he Creek inha- 
 bitants every where joyiklly received the invaders ; but 
 at length, an army of Albanians being collected, drove 
 the Russians to their ships, and having recovered the 
 whole country, chastised the revolt of its inhabitants, by 
 the lawless vengeance of a licentious soldiery. 
 
 Q. Which way did the Russians proceed after being 
 driven from Morea ? 
 
 A. They advanced into the I-lgcan sea, and passing 
 the straits which divide the island of Scio from the 
 coast of Xatolia, were met by a Turkish fleet of su- 
 perior force. A furious engagement ensued on the 
 5th of July, in which the Russian admiial Spiritef, 
 encountered the captain Pacha, in the Sultana of ninety 
 guns ; the two ships, running close together, grappled 
 each other. The Russians, by throwing hand grcnados, 
 set the enemy's ship on fire, which rapidly spread, and 
 
THE TURKS. 2 19 
 
 soon reached the Russian ship. This dreadful spec- 
 tacle suspended the action between the fleets, until both 
 ships blew up. Only twenty-tour Russians were saved, 
 among whom were the admiral, his son, and count 
 Theodore Orlow. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. Although each fleet was equally affected by this 
 event, yet it infused a panic among the Turks, which 
 the Russians did not partake of. During the remain- 
 der of the day, the Turks maintained the action ; but on 
 the approach of nii^ht, the captain Pacha, who had es- 
 caped from tiic Sultana, contrary to the advice of his 
 oiFicers, gave orders for each sliip to cut its cables, and 
 run i.Uo a buy on the coast of Natolia, l^Jar a small towuj 
 called Chisme. 
 
 Q. Did they all comply with these orders ? 
 
 A. No ; Ilossein Dey, who had raised himself, by his 
 talents for war, to be second in command, saved his 
 ship by bravely forcing his way through the enemy's 
 sljips. 
 
 Q. What became of the remainder of the Ottoman 
 forces i 
 
 A. The Russian fleet soon after blocked them up, 
 and began a furious cannonade ; which being found in- 
 effectual, a fire ship was sent in at midnight, on the 
 7th of July, which by the intrepid behaviovu' of lieute- 
 nant Dougdale, grappled a Turl;ish man of war, and the 
 wind at that moment being vcjiy high, the whole Otto- 
 man fleet was consumed, except one man of war and a 
 few-gallies that were towed oflMjy the conquerors. T!ic 
 Russians the next morning entered the harbour, bom- 
 barded the town, and a castle that protected it ; when 
 a shot happening to blow up the powder magazine, 
 both the tQwn and castle were reduced to a heap of rub- 
 bish. Thus, through the fatal misconduct of a com* 
 
220 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 niancler, there was scarcely a vcsti:^e left, in a few 
 hours, of a town, a castle, and a fine fleet, which had all 
 been in existence the day before. 
 
 Q. Did the Russians pursue their advantage over 
 the 'J'urks ? 
 
 A. No ; their fleet, during the remainder of the war, 
 was only employed in making descents on the Turkish 
 ib!ands, whicli was done with little or no success. The 
 great Kus.ian army havin;^^ passed the Danube, found 
 its progress in Buli^aria stopped by the range of moun- 
 tains which intersects that country, while it was conti- 
 nually harassed by detachments from the Turkish 
 c.imp. The expenses of the war were severely felt by 
 each empire, and althou;!;h that of lUissia had gained 
 the ascendancy, no beneficial consequences had been 
 realized. In this state of aflairs, tlie grand seignior, 
 Mustapha III. emperor of thj Turks, died, in January 
 1774. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 A. His brother Abdulhamet : and the war was carri- 
 ed on with spirit ; but a large Turkish army command- 
 ed by Reis Lffendi, being disgracefully defeated by ge- 
 neral Kamcnski, the Port was compelled to receive 
 tjrms from the conqueror. A peace M'as signed in 
 July 177 1 ; by which the Russians obtained a free na- 
 vigation in all the Turkish seas, together with a passage 
 throu^^h the Dardanelles: Russian consuls were like- 
 wise to reside in the Turkish sea ports. 
 
 Q. AVas a permanent peace established ? 
 
 A. No ; the ambition of Catharine led her to meditate 
 new sehemes for the subvei-sion of the Turkish empire ; 
 to promote which, she made a progress from Moscow 
 to the Crimea. While on her journey, she received a visit 
 f:om the emperor of Ciermany, Joseph II, which, there 
 was ground to suppose, had for its object the mode of 
 
THE TURKS. 221 
 
 -•attacking the Turkish empire, and the manner of divid- 
 ing; it when conquered. 
 
 Q. Did the Turks remain inactive ? 
 
 A. No; the Port took the alarm, and, determining- 
 not to wait the maturation of its enemy's counsels and 
 force, published a manifesto, dated August 178 7, and 
 commenced hostilities agiunst the empress of Russia. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. The emperor soon after led a very formidable army 
 against the Turkish fastnesses on the frontiers of Hun- 
 gary ; but his progress was opposed, and his measures 
 frustrated, by the valour and conduct of the Turks. The 
 war with Russia was chiefly maritime, and the seat of it, 
 the Black sea ; but here, neither success nor glory accru- 
 ed to the Turkish arms. The Russians Ijccame masters 
 of Ocsakow, and in every conflict at sea were decisive- 
 ly su[>crior. 
 
 Q. Was this war viewed with indifference by the 
 other great powers of Kurope ? 
 
 A. No ; the subjugation of the Turkish empire, and 
 th.e vast increase of power which Russia would accjuire 
 by p^ossessing the niost valuable, because tlie most com- 
 mercial, part of it, were considered as revolutions in 
 which the other powers of Europe were deeply interested. 
 In consequence of which a close alliance was formed be- 
 tween Great Britain and Prussia, havhig for its chief ob- 
 ject, the rescuing of the Turks from the destruction which 
 hung over them, by restoring peace to that pai-t of Eu- 
 rope. The losses and disgraces which the emperor sus- 
 tained, rendered him anxious to terminate the war ; and 
 tlie empress of Russia, ihrou^^^h the mediation of the Bri- 
 tis'a court, at length acceded to terms of peace, by the 
 conditions of whicli very important t(jwns and districts 
 were added to her dominions, which her anns had pre- 
 viously obtained. 
 
 T 2 
 
:222 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Q. As the reliijion of the Turks, Mahometanism, is chf- 
 ferent from that of which you have before spoken, give 
 mc some account of the founder? 
 
 A. Mdhomet, or more properly Mohammed, was 
 born m 569. He sprang fi*om the tribe of Koraish and the 
 family of Ilashem ; liis grandfather, uncles, and lineal 
 ancestors were pruices ; his fiimily possessed by heredi- 
 tary right, the custody of the Caaba at Mecca, which 
 r.-as a phice of worship resorted to by the Arabians, long 
 befoix* the time of Mahomet. 
 
 Q. Proceed with his character ? 
 
 A Notv/ithstanding the respectability of his descent, 
 being left an orphan when very young, and being in low 
 circ'imstmc'js. he was recommended to Khadijah or Ca- 
 digaa noble and rich widow, for her factor, he having' 
 been bred to mciThanclize ; in which capacity he acquit- 
 ted himself so well, that he gained the affections of his 
 Riistress, and by marryhig her, became as rich a mer- 
 chant as any in Mecca. J lis natural strength of mind 
 and intrepidity of spirit, prompteil him to form great 
 designs when h-s fortunes improved, although it is said 
 he was so illiterate as not to be capable of reading or 
 wriling. 
 
 Q. Did not his want of learning prove a great impedi- 
 ment to him Sn effecting his designs? 
 
 A. No ; it strongly promoted them : for this artful A- 
 rab, who must unijuestlonably have merely aftVcted this 
 g-'oss ignorance ; insisted tlixit tiie writings which he pro- 
 duced as revelations from (Jod, were cleared of all impu- 
 tation of being forgeries : for such elegance of style, and 
 excellence of doctrine, could not originate from a man 
 alike incapable of writing or reading. His followers, 
 therefore, instead of being ashamed of their master's ig- 
 norance, gloried in it, as an evident proof of his diviue 
 
THE TURKS. 225 
 
 missten, and scrupled not to call him, as he is styled in 
 the Koran itself, the illiterate prophet. 
 
 Q. What was the state of the world at that time ? 
 
 A. The purity and simplicity of the doctrines of Christ, 
 had been contaminated and perverted by the artful wiles 
 of priestcraft ; which caused the grossest impositions to 
 be i)ractised upon an ignorant laity. Pomp, splendour, 
 and unintelligible worship, were substituted for the de- 
 votion of the heart ; while the prayers offered up to ima- 
 ginary and fictitious saints, had effaced all just notions 
 of the attributes of the deity. 
 
 Q. Did Mohammed acq\iaint himself with the state 
 of rcli -ion at that time ? 
 
 o 
 
 A. Yes ; he had made two journeys into Syria, where 
 he had informed himself of the principles of Judaism, 
 and the jari'on which bore the name of Christianity. It 
 is probable that his mind was naturally prone to religious 
 enthusiasm, and that he was a devotee before he became 
 :\n i:apostor. His first design seems to have extend- 
 ed no farther than to bring the wild, intractable, and ar- 
 dent Arabs to acknowlcdi^c one Cod, and one king, but 
 he afterwards went much greater lengths. 
 
 Q. What was his creed ? 
 
 A. He declared there was one God, who created the 
 world, and all tilings in it ; that he had sent various pro- 
 phets into the world to teach his will to mankind ; 
 among whom Moses and Jesus were the most eminent j 
 but that the endeavours of these had proved ineffectual, 
 ' and that God had therefore now sent his last and great- 
 est prophet, with a commission more ample than what 
 Moses or Christ had been intrusted with. He had 
 commanded him not only to publish his laws, but to sub- 
 due those, who were unwilling to believe or obey them ; 
 and for this end, to establish a kingdom upon earth which 
 should propagate the divine lav/ throughout all the 
 
224 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 world : that God had designed utter riiin and destruction 
 to those uho refused to subn^it to him ; but to his faith- 
 ful followers, had t^iven tike spoils and possessions of all 
 the earth as a reward in this life, and had provided them 
 hereafter a paradise of all sensual enjoyments. These, 
 ■with the prohibition from drinking strong li(|uors, and the 
 doctrine of predestination, were the principal articles of 
 his creed. 
 . Q. What was the success of his doctrine ? 
 
 A. It was implicitly embraced by many of his cour- 
 trymen ; but the inhabitants of Mecca, who were fami- 
 liar with the person of Mahomet, were sufficiently con- 
 vinced of tlie deception, and the more enli;_jhtcned of 
 them entered into a design of cutting him off; but get- 
 thig notice of their intention, he fled to Medina, where 
 the fame of his miracles and doctrine, which as is usual 
 vas greatest at a distance, gained him a cordial reception. 
 From tliis (light, wliich took place in the 622d year of 
 Christ, and 10th of Mahomet's ministry, his followers 
 compute their time, and the era is called the Hegira. 
 By the assistance of the inhabitants of Medina, and 
 others whom Kia insinuation and address daily attached 
 to him, he brougiit over all his countrymen to a belief, 
 or at least to an acquiescence, in his doctrine. The con- 
 ta.2,ioii spread, and his principles were received over A- 
 rabi'i, Syria, Egypt, and Persia. ^ 
 
AMERICA. 225 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Q WHO first discovered America? 
 A. Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa, TTh# 
 had been early trained to a sea-fan lij^^ life ; and having 
 a<:quired every branch of knowledge connected with 
 that profession, was ne less distinguiahed by his skill 
 and abilities, than for his intrepid and persevering spirit. 
 Q. In what manner did he discover it ? 
 A. When about forty years of age, he formed the 
 great idea of reaching the East Indies by sailing west- 
 ward ; but, as his fortune was very small, and the at- 
 tempt required very effectual patronage, desirous that 
 his native country should profit by his success, he laid 
 his plcui before the senate of Genoa ; but the scheme ap- 
 pearing chimerical, it was rejected. lie tlicn repidred 
 to the court of Portugal, but was equally unsuccessful 
 in his application. 
 
 Q. To whom did he next apply ? 
 A. To Ferdinand and Isabella, king and queen of 
 Arragon and Castile, where at length Isabella declared 
 herself his patroness, while her husband I'erdinand, 
 declining to partake as an adventurer in the voyage, 
 only gave it the sanction of his name. Thus the supe- 
 rior genius of a woman, effected the discovery of one 
 lialf the globe. 
 
 Q. AVhen did he enter upon his voyage ? 
 A. He set sail on the Gd of August 1492, from port 
 Fidos, in the province of Andalusia j and after pro- 
 
226 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 cecding to the Canary ishinds, he immediately left 
 the usual track oi' navi;c;ation, holding his course due 
 west, and strct'ihed into unfrequented seas. In this 
 course he continued for t^vo months, without falling in 
 with any lands ; which occasioned a spirit of discon- 
 tent and mutiny among his seamen, that it was not in 
 his power wholly to suppress. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A lie was reduced to the necessity of entering into 
 m solemn engagement to abandon the enterprise, and 
 return hom^-, if land did rw>t appear in three days. liut 
 such unqucstionahle indications of land had appeared as 
 rendered this stipulation in my way hazardous. T locks 
 of land birds, \shich were incapable of stretching far 
 out to soa, were seen ; bruichcs of trees, and canes 
 newly cut were taken up, with a piece of carved limber ; 
 and to conHrm this hope, the ships were coming Into 
 soundings. At. !c:.'j^h ihc appearance of land changed 
 thtar despondency, into the most exulting rapture. 
 
 Q. What was it tlicy first discovered? 
 
 A. An ii.land, abounding with inliabitants, who ap- 
 peared in all the simplicity of nature, their manners 
 kind, gentle, and \msuspccling. Columbus named it 
 San Salvador : it is one of the cluster which beai's the 
 general name of Bahamas; and it is only four degiecs 
 to the south of the island (jf Comora, one of the Canaries 
 from which he took his depaitinc. 
 
 Q. Which way did he direct his course from San 
 Salvador ? 
 
 A. lie proceeded to the south, and saw three other 
 islands, v.hich he named St. Mary of the conception, 
 P'erdinandina, and Isr.bella. At length he arrived at a 
 large island, which he learned from some of the natives 
 ©f San Salvador, w horn he had taken v ith him, was called 
 
AMERICA. 227 
 
 Cuba, but he gave it the name of Juanna. He next 
 proceeded to an iilund ^-rhich he called Kspagniola, in 
 honour of the kingdom by Avhich he was employed, 
 and it still bears the name of llispunola. He built a 
 fort here, and formed a small settlement. He then 
 returned home, having on board some of tlie natives 
 ^vhom he had taken from the different islands : steer- 
 ing a move southern course, he fell in with some of 
 the Caribbec islands, and arrived at the port of Palos on 
 the !5th of March 1493. 
 
 Q. Was he not received by the inhal)itants with the 
 highest marks of satisfaction ? 
 
 A. Yes ; when the prosperous issue of his voyage 
 was known ; when ihcy beheld the strange people, 
 the unknoNvn animals, and singular productions, brought 
 from the countries which had been discovered ; the 
 effusion of joy was general and unbounded. The bells 
 were run;^, the cannon fired. Columbus was received 
 at landing with royal honours, and all the people in 
 solemn procession, accompanied him and his crew to 
 the church, where they returned thanks to Heaven, 
 which had so wonderfully conducted, and crowned with 
 surcess, a voyage of greater length, and of more im- 
 portimcc, than had been attempted in any former age. 
 He was afterwards received at court by I'erdinand luid 
 Isabella, with the highest marks of respect ; and letters 
 patent were issued by them, coiifinning to him iujd to 
 his heirs, all the privileges contained in a capitulation 
 which had been executed before his departure, and his 
 family was ennobled. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. Ferdinand, desirous of securing what he had 
 before been unwilling to venture for the obtaining, 
 applied to the pope Alexander VI. who then filled the 
 papal chair, to be invested with a right in these new 
 
228 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 discovered countries, as well as all future discoveries hi 
 that direction ; but in order that there should be some 
 appearance of religion in the measure, he founded his 
 plea upon a desire for converting the savage natives to 
 the Romish faith. 
 
 Q. What was the pope's reply ? 
 
 A. Being a native of Arragon, and willing to con- 
 ciliate the favour of Ferdinand, he readily granted a re- 
 quest, which, at no expense or risk, tended to extend 
 the consequence and authority of the papacy. He 
 therefore bestowed on Ferdinand and Isabella, all the 
 countries inhabited by infidels which they had dis- 
 covered, or should discover ; but as it was necessary to 
 prevent this grant from interfering with one not long 
 before made to the crown of Portugal, he appointed 
 that a line supposed to be drawn from pole to pole, 100 
 leagues to the westward of the Azores, should serve as 
 a limit between them. 
 
 Q. When did Columbus make a second voyage ? 
 
 A. He set sail from the port of Cadiz on the 25th of 
 September, 1493 ; and when he arrived at Espagniola, 
 had the affliction to find, that all the Spaniards whom 
 he had left there, amounting to thirty-six in number, 
 had been put to death by the natives, in revenge for the 
 insultfl and outrages which they had committed upon 
 them. 
 
 Q. What was the further conduct of Columbus ? 
 
 A. After tracing the plan of a town, near a spacious 
 bay, which he gave the name of Isabella ; and appoint- 
 ing his brother, Don Diego, to preside as deputy gover- 
 nor in his absence ; he sailed on the 24th of April, 1494, 
 with one ship and two small barks, to make farther dis- 
 coveries. In this voyage, he was employed five months, 
 and fell in with many small islands, on the coast of Cu- 
 
AMERICA. 229 
 
 ua, but with nothing of any importance; except the 
 island of Jamaica. 
 
 Q. Did Columhiis continue upon amicable terms 
 with the natives. 
 
 A. No ; soon after his return to Hispaniola, he re- 
 solved to make war upon them. The natives having 
 jexperienced every lawless act of violence from their 
 invaders, were rendered extremely inveterate, and 
 thirsted for revenge ; a disposition which appears to 
 have been foreign to their natures. Having collected 
 his full force, he attacked them by night, while they 
 were assembled in a wide plain, and obtained a most 
 decisive victory, without the loss of any of his men. 
 
 Q. In what manner did he obtain such a signal vic- 
 tor)' ? 
 
 A. Beside the effect of cannon and fire arms, the 
 noise of which was appalling, and their effect against a 
 numerous body pf Indians, closely drawn together, in 
 the highest degree destructive, Columbus had brought 
 over with him a small body of cavalry. The Indians 
 who had never before seen such creatures, imagined 
 the Spanish horses to be rational beings, and that each, 
 with its rider, formed but one animal : they were asto- 
 nished at tlieir speed, and considered their impetuosity 
 and strength as irresistible. 
 
 Q. Had not the affrighted Indians another formidable 
 enemy which terrified and destroyed them ? 
 
 A. Yes ; a great number of the largest and fiercest 
 species of dogs which were then bred in Europe, had 
 been brought hither, which, set on by their masters, 
 rushed upon the Indians with the fierceness of savage 
 beasts, and where ever they came, the miserable na- 
 tives threw down their* weapons, without attempting 
 resistance, and fled with all the speed which terror could 
 excite. 
 
 U 
 
230 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Q. What was the conduct of the Spaniards to the na- 
 tives v/ho survived this battle ? 
 
 A. Those who were made prisoners, were indiscri- 
 minately consigned to slavery, and such as preserved 
 their freedom, fled into the mountains and inaccessible 
 parts of the island, which not yielding them sufficient 
 means of subsistence, they were compelled to obtain 
 a portion of food from their cruel pursuers, by procure 
 ing gold dust, in order to support life ; a tribute being 
 imposed upon them which was rigorously exacted. 
 These wretched remains of a free people, thus driven 
 from fruitfulness and amenity ; compelled to labour for 
 the support of life ; a prey to despondency which the 
 recollection of their former happiness shai'pencd, and 
 which their hopeless situation rendered insupportvible, 
 died in gicc.t numbers, the innocent victims of Euro- 
 pean avarice. 
 
 Q. Did Columbus return to Spain ? 
 A. Yes, and found that his enemies had been active 
 and successful in impressing Ferdinand and Isabella 
 with unfavourable sentiments of his conduct ; but he so 
 far recovered his credit, that a squadron of six ships was 
 fitted out, with which he proceeded on a third voyage, 
 in May 1498. 
 
 Q. What was his success ? 
 . A. Taking a more southern course, he discovered 
 the island of Trinidad, on the coast of Guana, near the 
 tSSouth of the great river Oronoko. The swell occa-? 
 sioned by this vast river pouring its waters into the 
 ocean was so great, as to expose the ships to extreme 
 danger ; but after long combating the currents and tre- 
 mendous waves, with doubtful success, he conducted 
 his squadron safely through a narrow strait, which se- 
 parates that island from the continent ; this he called 
 Bocca del DragO; the dragon's mouth. 
 
AMERICA. 231 
 
 Q. Vvhat conclusion did Columbus draw from the 
 discovery of this river ? 
 
 A. That such a vast body of water must flow through 
 a country of immense extent, and tliat he was now ar- 
 rived at that continent, which it had long been the ob- 
 ject of his wishes to discover. Full of this idea, he 
 'stood to the west along the coast of those provinces now 
 known by the names of Paria and Comana. He land- 
 ed in several places, and had some intercourse with the 
 natives, who resembled those of Hispaniola in their ap- 
 pearance and manner of life. Thus, says Dr. Robert- 
 'son, Columbus had not only the glory of discovering to 
 mankind the existence of a new M^orld, but made con- 
 siderable progress toward a perfect knowledge of it, 
 and v/as the first man who conducted the Spaniards to 
 that vaat continent which, has been the chief seat of 
 their empire^ and the source of their treasures in that 
 quarter of the globe. 
 
 Q. Which M'ay did Columbus after\yards direct his 
 course ? 
 
 A. To Hispaniola ; and on quitting the continental 
 coast, fell in with the small island of Cubagua, and 
 the larger one called Margarita, not far from it. 
 These afterwards became remarkable for their pearl 
 jfishery. 
 
 Q. Did the enemies of Columbus continue to injure 
 him at the court of Spain ? 
 
 A. Yes ; they wholly destroyed his credit with the 
 king and queen, and Francis de Bovadilla, was ap- 
 pointed to repair to Hispaniola, with full powers to 
 inquire into his conduct. This commission Bovadilla 
 exercised in the most arbitrary and severe manner ; 
 for, without having recourse even to the form of a judi- 
 cial inquiry, he divested Columbus of all authority ; 
 and putting him m chains, sent him a prisoner to 
 
252 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Spain. But the authority thus exercised was not lon^. 
 held ; Bovadilla was superseded, and the govern- 
 ment given to Ovando, who, however, proved in tlic 
 sequel to be but little less inimical to Columbus. 
 
 Q. Was this violent conduct approved by Ferdinand 
 and Isabella ? 
 
 A. No; they endeavoured by outward marks of at- 
 tention and respect, to wipe off the ignominy which had 
 been cast upon the discoverer of America ; but it is 
 prob:ible he v/oulcl never have prevailed upon them to as- 
 sist him in the undcrtaldng a fourth voyage, had it not 
 been for the discovery made by the Portuguese of sail- 
 ing to the East Indies, by doubling the Cape of Good- 
 Hope ; but as it had ever been his firm belief that the 
 country which he had discovered was not far from the 
 East Indies, and that there was a more direct way thi- 
 tlier by a I'O'Jte T,'hich i'.e f>J.i'wCl. out, he prevailed upon 
 his noble patrons to assist him in ascertalnhig this im« 
 portant point. 
 
 Q. When did he set sail ? 
 
 A. On the ninth of May 1502, but without being in- 
 vested v.i-h any authority in the country wliich he had' 
 discovered. When he arrived at Hispitniola, he found 
 Ovando little inclined to afford him assistiince ; he 
 thercfoie soon quitted the island, and steering to- 
 wards the continent, explored all the coast from Cape 
 Gi\.cias^ Dies southward, until lie arrived at a harbour, 
 v^hich on accouiit of its beauty and security he called 
 Porto Bello. While thus coasting he went ashore at 
 several places, and sometimes proceeded up the country, 
 but did not penetrate so far as to cross the Isthmus 
 v/hich separates the AthuUic from the Pacific ocean. 
 Q. Was it not bis design to have settled a colony to 
 the west of Porto Bello ? 
 
 A. Yes ; but the scheme was so much disrelished 
 
MEXICO. 233 
 
 by his people that he could not effect it, and he ^vas 
 therefore deprived of the honour of planting the first 
 colony on the continent of America. He afterwards 
 suffered many hardships, chiefly from the neglect of 
 Ovando, and soon after his return to Spain, his gre:it 
 patroness Isabella, queen of Castile, died ; but this most 
 able navigator did not long survive her, he dying at 
 Valladolid, on the twentieth of May 1506, in the fifty- 
 ninth year of his age. 
 
 f MEXICO. 
 
 Q. WERE there not other adventurers beside 
 Columbus, who early ventured into those unfrequented 
 seas ? 
 
 A. Yes; in 1499, some merchants of Seville, who 
 obtained the royal license for the undertaking, entered 
 into a partnership with Olonso Ojeda, who had accom- 
 panied Columbus on his second voyage, to undertake 
 discoveries, and traffic with the natives, in that part of 
 the southern continent, which Columbus had coasted, 
 and in some parts had landed upon. The second in com- 
 mand was Americus Vespucius (Amerigo Vespucci, 
 according to Dr. Robertson) a Florentine of good abi- 
 lities and considerable maritime knowledge ; although 
 entirely inexperienced in the new navigation. They 
 proceeded to the coast of Paria, and ssdled westward 
 to Cape de Vela. 
 
 Q. What was the result of this voyage ? 
 
 A. Tittle advantage was derived to the adventurers, 
 
 U2 
 
23 i MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 and no new countries traced; but Americus Vespucius 
 drew up a narrative of the voyage in so entertaining a 
 manner, that the novelty of the subject caused it to be 
 universally read : new productions of nature, new ani- 
 iTkals, and a new race of men were broue;;ht into notice. 
 His assuming consequence, was so artfully managed, 
 that the world was led to consider him as the discoverer 
 of that continent, a part of which he had described : 
 thus was the unquestionable right of Columbus super- 
 seded, by the artful unfounded pretensions of Ameri- 
 cus Vespucius ; and although utterly unmerited, pro- 
 cured him immortality, by causing the whole conti- 
 nent, extending through all climates, and ovci- more 
 th:ui a J.iindr^d degi-ces of latitude, to obtain the name of 
 America. 
 
 Q. \Vhat followed ? 
 
 A. Ojeda and Americus \^espucius, soon after made 
 a second voyage, in which they proceeded more to the 
 westward ; but that proved liku' the former, unpro- 
 tilable ; whil-j Olonso Xegno, another navigator, train- 
 ed under Columbus ; about the same time, made a very 
 lucrative voyage to the co.'.st of Paria. 
 
 Q. Did Ojeda become discouraged by these two un- 
 profitalJc voya.^i'.'S ? 
 
 A. No ; having, been appointed, by Ferdinand, go- 
 vernor of the continental country, from Cape Gracias a 
 Dios, to Cape Vela, he entered on a third voyage. 
 Diego de Nicuessa, who had acquired a large fortune at 
 Tlispaniola, obtained at the same time, the appointment 
 of governor of all the country, from Cape de Vela to 
 the gulf of Darien. Ojeda, upon his arrival, took pos- 
 session of the country in the most hostile manner. 
 
 Q. Did the natives make no resistance ? 
 
 A. Yes ; more than seventy of Ojeda's followers were 
 slain in one attack ; and the reception which Nicuessa 
 
 i 
 
MEXICO. 235 
 
 Viiet with, was equally unfavourable. At length a fee- 
 ble settlement was formed at Santa Maria, near the 
 gulf of Darien, under the command of \'asco Nugnes 
 de Balboa. 
 
 O. A\'hat was his conduct to the natives ? 
 
 A. He treated them with much more kindness and 
 liberality than the Spaniards had generally done ; and 
 he gained his recompense ; for they informed him of a 
 rich country to the south-east, and a vast body of water 
 beyond it. 
 
 Q. When did Balboa set out in search of this coun- 
 try ? 
 
 A. In 15 13, attended by one hundped and ninety 
 men, and twelve Indians who served as guides. With 
 immense labour and perseverance, he travelled over 
 tiie mountains, thickly covered with wood, for twenty- 
 five days, when he arrived in sight of a mountain, which 
 the Indians, who were his guides, assured him would, 
 on its summit, bring to view a great sea. Thus stimu- 
 lated, all dit^iculties were surmounted, and the whole 
 party had ascended nearly to the top, when BcUboa call- 
 ed to halt, and proceeding alone to the utmost height, 
 was the first European who beheld that expansive body 
 of water, now named the Pacific Ocean, lie had no 
 sooner beheld the rapturous sight, than he fell on his 
 knees, and lifthig up his hands and eyes to Heaven, he 
 returned thanks to God, who had conducted him to a 
 discovery so beneficial to his country, and so honourable 
 to himself. These stronij; sensations being gratified, he 
 descended to tiie shore, and took possession of the vast 
 deep, in the name of the king his master. The spot 
 on which this discovery was thus made, is now called 
 the gulf of St. Michael. 
 
 Q. In what mariner did he proceed ? 
 
23G MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 A. After having ascertained the existence of the great 
 Pacific ocean, and reached the confines of the exten- 
 sive country, afterward known by the name of Peru, he 
 despatched an account of these important acquisitions to 
 Spain, with a requisition of a thousand men, to enable 
 him to accomphsh the conquest of the country. 
 
 Q. Did Ferdinand attend to the remonstrance of Bal- 
 boa? 
 
 A. Yes ; transported with the prospect of opening; 
 a commerce wish the East, by a course westward 
 of the line of dcmarkation, drawn by pope Alex- 
 ander VL and by that means procuring a considerable 
 portion of that lucrative trade, which the Portuguese at 
 that time monopolized, he determined to prosecute 
 the measure pointed out by Balboa, but to deprive him 
 of the merited glory and wealth which the execution of 
 such a grand dcsir;n would confer on the conductor. 
 Thus did ingratitude no less debase the cabinet, than 
 cruelty the progress of the conquest. 
 
 Q. Who was chosen to supersede Balboa ? 
 
 A. Pedrarias Davila was appointed [i^ovcrnor of Da- 
 rien, and sent out with fifteen ships and twelve hundred 
 men ; besides v.hich fifteen hundred persons eagerly 
 presented themselves as volunteers. But upon their 
 arrival, the rainy season set in, which spread disease 
 among the unseasoned Europeans, while a great scar- 
 city of provisions deprived them of necessary relief; in 
 consequence of which, six hundred persons perished in 
 the course of a month. 
 
 Q. Did those who survived th»; influence of the cli- 
 mate, conduct themselves respectfully to the natives ? 
 
 A. No ; they penetrated into the country in quest of 
 gold, and disduming the example of mildness and con- 
 ciliation which Bali)oa had set them, they treated the 
 natives with the utmost haugliliness and severity. 
 
MEXICO. 237 
 
 Their rapacity and cruelty receiving no check from 
 the authority of the governor, all the country for a con- 
 siderable extent was desolated. At lenL;,th, the repre- 
 sentations and remonstrances Vvhich Ualboa sent to 
 Spain, had such influence upon Ferdinand., that he was 
 appointed lieutenant-governor of the countries upon the 
 south sea, \A ith very extensive powers, and Pedrarias 
 was enjoined to support him. 
 
 Q. Did a reconciliation take place between them ? 
 
 A. Yes, by the interposition of Quevels, bishop of 
 Darien ; but in 1517, through the jealousy of Pedrarias, 
 Balboa was seized, and brought to trial upcn charges 
 of disafiection to the king, and evil designs against the 
 governor ; for which lie received sentence, and was exe- 
 cuted. 
 
 Q. Did Pedrarias, notwithstanding his misconduct, 
 continue himself in power ? 
 
 A. Yes, chiefly from the strof.g suppcit which he 
 received from the bishop of 13urgos; and he soon after 
 obtained pern.ission to remove the colony from Santa 
 Mai'ia, to Panama, on the opposite side of the isthmus. 
 
 Q. Were there any other expeditions undertaken 
 about this time ? 
 
 A. Yes ; early in 15 17, a voyage to the continent was 
 undertaken, from the island of Cuba, by Francisco Her- 
 mundes Cordova ; he landed on the peninsula of Yuca- 
 tan, where a casique received him with apparent kind- 
 ;iess; but some Indians who lay in ambush rushed 
 upon his party ; they were, however, intimidated by 
 tlie fu*e-arms and cross-bows of the Spaniards and soon 
 fled. Cordova, on quitting the country, took with him 
 two of the natives, likewise t)ie ornaments of a small 
 temple. The natives of Yucatan were the first In- 
 dians who were seen with clothing ; they wore cot- 
 ton garments. 
 
238 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Q. Which way difl Cordova proceed ? 
 
 A. To CampcLichy, on the same peninsula ; where 
 tlie natives attacked him with great fury, killed forty- 
 seven Spaniards, and Cordova himself was desperotely 
 wounded. This discomfiture occasioned the ships to 
 return to Cuba ; and soon after their arrival, Cordova 
 died of his wounds. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. Four sliips were fitted out by Velasquez, under 
 the command of Juan de Grijalva: they sailed from 
 the port of St. Jago de Cuba in April, 15 18. The first 
 land they reached was the island of Cozumel, on the 
 eastern coast of Yucatan, but without landing thty pro- 
 ceeded to Potonchan, on the opposite side of the penin- 
 sula ; where they landed for the purpose of avenging 
 on the natives, the death of their countrymen. 
 
 Q. What was the conduct of the Indiajas ? 
 
 A. They fotight with great fury, and notwithstand- 
 ing the whole Spanish force was disembarked, the vic- 
 tory was gained with much difficulty, and they were 
 compelled to return to their ships. In proceeding to 
 the westward, they were struck with amazement at the 
 beauty of the country, and plainly perceived houses 
 built with stone, white and lofty. In the warmth of 
 their admiration, they conceived these to be cities 
 adorned with towers and pinnacles ; and one of the sol- 
 diers happening to remark that the country resembled 
 Spain in its appearance, Grijalva gave it the name of 
 Mew Spain, amidst universal applause. 
 
 Q. Where did they next land ? 
 
 A. To the west of Tabasco, in the province now nam- 
 ed Guaxaca. The people there received them with a 
 degree of homage rising to adoration ; and they obtained 
 in six days, golden ornaments of curious workmanship, 
 to the value of fifteen thousand pesos, for which they bar- 
 
MEXICO. 239 
 
 tcred European toys of small value. The natives in- 
 formed them by signs, that they were subjects of a great 
 king, named Montezuma, whose dominions extended 
 very far. After touching at some other places along 
 the coast, he returned to Cuba,, having been about six 
 months on his voyage. 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. The information brought by Grijalva, of the rich 
 and extensive kingdom which bore the name of Mexi- 
 co, rendered Velasquez eager to undertake important 
 discoveries in that direction ; to effect which, he cm- 
 ployed a considerable part of his fortune. The impor- 
 tance of his enterprise, however, did not induce him to 
 conduct it in person ; but as in the former expedition, 
 committed it to another. Ferdinando Cortes, a native of 
 Estremadura, was made choice of. 
 Q. What was his character ? 
 
 A. He united to the hardy and inflexible soldier, a dis- 
 position incapable of despondency, and a mind ever 
 fruitful in expedients ; he possessed such engaging 
 manners, as gained him the esteem of all, while he 
 maintained, without appearing to seek it, a dignified 
 ascendancy ; but his penetration and address enabled 
 him to discern the views and dispositions of others, 
 while, with apparent frankness, he cautiously conceal- 
 ed his own. 
 
 Q. When did he set out on his voyage ? 
 A. On the 1 8th of November, 1518, and proceeded to 
 Trinidad, a small settlement on the same island ; but 
 Velasquez had, by this time, become so jealous of Cor- 
 tes, that he sent orders to deprive him of his commis- 
 sion ; he had however so entirely gained tlie attach- 
 ment of the officers, that it was not thought proper to 
 enforce the order. From Trinidad he proceeded to 
 
240 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the Havanna, whither \'clasc]uez forwarded his mandate, 
 but the authority was there openly opposed. 
 
 Q. ^yhixi force had Cortes ? 
 
 A. lie had eleven vessels, the larg-est of which was 
 100 tons, and called the Admiral; seven of the others 
 were small open barks. On board of the whole were 
 617 men, of which 508 were soldiers, 109 seamen and 
 artificers. Only 13 of the soldiers were armed with 
 muskets ; 32 were cross-bow men, and the rest had 
 swords and spears. There were likewise 15 horses, 
 10 field-pieces, and 4 falconets, or small pieces of artil- 
 lery. 
 
 Q. What was the further conduct of Cortes ? 
 
 A. He proceeded to the island of Cozumel, and from 
 thence to the river of Tabasco, where the natives shew- 
 ed great animosity ; but beint^ soon subdued they sued 
 for peace, were m«ide to acknowledjj^e the king of Cas- 
 tile for their sovereicrn, and fumished a supply of provi- 
 sions, some cotton garments, gold, and 20 female 
 slaves. 
 
 Q. What followed? 
 
 A. Proceeding westward to ?.t. Juan de Ulloa, a ca- 
 noe approached Cortes's ship, in which were two per- 
 sons of distinction, who addressed him with great re- 
 spect ; but the language in which they spoke was entirely 
 unknown, until one of the female slaves, afterwards 
 named Dorina Marina, understanding it, explained it 
 hi the Yucatan dialect. It appeared they were deput- 
 ed from Tcutilc and Pilpatoc, the two officers entrusted 
 with the government of the province by the great mo- 
 narch IMontezuma. and were sent to inquire what w^ere 
 his intentions in visiting the coast. The two govern- 
 ors came the next day, to enforce the same inquiry. 
 
 Q. What was the conduct of Cortes ? 
 
MEXICO. 241 
 
 A. He treated them with great respect, but required to 
 be introduced to Montezuma. At this interview, the 
 Mexicans presented Cortes Avith fine cotton cloth, 
 plumes of variously coloured feathers, with ornaments 
 of gold and silver to a considerable value; the work- 
 manship of which appeared as curious as the materials 
 were rich ; and during the interview some painters in 
 the train of the Mexican chiefs, were employed in deli- 
 neating, upon white cotton cloths, figures of the ships, 
 horses, artillery, soldiers, and every other striking nov- 
 elty. 
 
 Q. Was advice forwarded to Montezuma ? 
 
 A. Yes; but the emperor absolutely declined receiv- 
 ing a visit in his capital, and requested that the Spani- 
 ards should immediately quit his coast ; to qualify the 
 refusal, however, a train of an hundred Indians, laden 
 with presents from Montez.uma, were introduced to 
 
 Cortes. 
 
 Q. What was the nature of these presents ? 
 
 A. Their magnificence astonished the Spaniards : the 
 manufactures of cotton were of a texture so fine as to 
 resemble silk ; and pictures formed by various feathers, 
 so skilfully and elegantly arranged as to produce the 
 most pleasing effect, and bear a competition with the 
 works of the pencil in Europe. To these pieces of cu- 
 rious workmanship, were added two large round plates, 
 the one formed of massive gold, designed to represent 
 the sun, the other of silver emblematical of the moon. 
 
 Q. Did Cortes submit to the requisition of Montezu- 
 ^ma, by retiring from his coasts ? 
 
 A. No ; he replied in a resolute tone, that he must be 
 introduced to the prince, otherwise he should incur 
 the anger of his sovereign, who had sent him thither for 
 that purpose. ^-.i,,,^ 
 
242 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. More presents of i^rcater value were sent, accom- 
 panied with a positive requisition that the Spaniards 
 should immediately quit the country. Cortes employ- 
 ed the interval of negocialion in constructing a fortifi- 
 ed town on the coast, which he called Villa Rica de la 
 vera Cruz, and of gaining a knowledge of the state 
 of the country and of its inhabitants ; and at length 
 peremptorily refused to quit the country, and persist- 
 ed in demanding an audience of the emperor. The 
 Mexicans, astonished at his boldness, withdrew, and 
 all intercourse from that time ceased. 
 
 Q. What was the state of the Mexican empire when 
 the Spaniards invaded it ? 
 
 A. It had arisen to a degree of splendour which few 
 countries had ever attained to in so short a time. Ac- 
 cording to the tradition of the natives, it had only sub- 
 sisted 130 years, in which time all the dependant pro- 
 vinces in the country had been subdued, and J^rought 
 under one sovereign, whose dominions extended 500 
 leagues from E. to W. and 200 from N. to S. 
 
 Q. In what manner did Cortes afterwards proceed ? 
 
 A. As he acted under no legal authority, the appoint- 
 ment which he had received from the governor of Cu- 
 ba having been revoked, he assembled the principal 
 persons in his army, from among whom a certain num- 
 ber were chosen, who were to form a government 
 \mder the authority of the king of Spain, without ac- 
 knowledging any dependancc on Cuba. To the govern- 
 ment so formed, Cortes resigned his commission ; and 
 he was unanimously chosen by it, chief justice of the 
 colony, and captain general of the army, under the au- 
 thority of the king's name, until the royal pleasure 
 should bo further known. 
 
MEXICO. 245 
 
 Q. What was the first step taken by Cortes after re- 
 ceiving his new appointments ? 
 
 A. He formed an alliance with the two casiques of 
 Zempoalla, and Quiabishm in that neighbourhood, who 
 being impatient of tlie yoke imposed on them by Mon- 
 tezuma, had l)een prevailed upon to assist the Spanuuds 
 against the Mexican power : and the Totonaqucs, a 
 fierce people inhabiting the mountainous part of the 
 countiy, submitted themselves to the crown of Cas- 
 tile. 
 
 Q. Did not Cortes inform Ferdinand of this new 
 
 establishment ? 
 
 A. Yes ; he pci-suadcd the newly appointed magis- 
 trates to address a letter to the king of Spain, for the 
 purpose of justifying their own conduct in establishing 
 an independent colony, and rcnovmcing the authority of 
 the governor of Cuba. He then began his march from 
 Zempoalla on the 16th of August 1519. On entering 
 the country of the Tlascalans, a fierce and warlike 
 people, he was attacked by a large body of troops, who 
 rushed upon the Spaniards w ith great impetuosity, but 
 were not able to make any impression, although they 
 wounded some of the Sp;;iuards and killed two horses. 
 In a second attack he so cfiectuully defeated them, that 
 they acknowledged themselves vassals to the crown of 
 Castile, and furnished him with GOOOof their best war- 
 riors, who acted tis auxiliary troops in their operations 
 against the Mexicans, towards v horn they retained the 
 most deadly antipathy. 
 
 Q. In what manner did Cortes proceed? 
 A. On the fifteehth of October 1519, he directed his 
 force toward the city of Cholula, which was held by all 
 the people cf Mexico as a place of peculiar sanctity, 
 and the favourite residence of their imaginary gods ; 
 pilgrimages were made thither from all parts ; and a 
 
244 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 a greater numbtr of human victims r/ ere offered up in 
 its principal tcniplc than in that of ^Mexico. 
 
 Q. Did not the Cholulans concert a plot, to attack the 
 Spaniards by sm'prise, and cut them off? 
 
 A. Yes; but the design was timely discovered, 
 ffhieny by the iiUcllijence which Marina found mean* 
 to obtain ; and Cortes determined to strike terror into 
 the Mexicans, by the severe vengeance which he 
 should take upon this occasion. He took measures to 
 draw together the chief magistrates and leading men 
 to his camp, when a furious onset v/as made on the un- 
 i.uspec:ing uud secure inh..bitants, who, struck with ter- 
 ror, and incapable of resistance, fell by an indiscriminate 
 and merciless slaughter. He then ket at liberty the 
 magistrates wham he had in his possession, informed 
 tliem of the knowledge which he had of the plot, de- 
 clared his resentment fully sati>iried, and that he was 
 disposed to render them his friendship and protection. 
 The Indians no less astonished than terrified, conclud- 
 ed that the Spaniards possessed the power of penetrat- 
 jiig into the secret thoughts and most hidden designs of 
 men. 
 
 Q. What followed?' 
 
 A. Cortes proceeded without opposition to the city 
 of Mexico, which was only twenty leagues from Cho- 
 lula. Upon approac;hing it, a large number of persons 
 of superior rank came forth from the city, and ap- 
 proached him in the most respectful manner ; these 
 were the harbingers of the emperor's approach, who 
 soon after appeared carried in state. Cortes advanced 
 to receive him in the most respectful manner. As 
 the Spaniards proceeded to the quarters assigned them,, 
 they frequently heard the crowd pronounce Teulcs, 
 Divinities. In the evening Montezuma paid a visit to 
 the Spanish chief, and brought presents of the most 
 
MEXICO. 245 
 
 costly kind. As these outward incUcations of regard 
 could only be considered as dictated by fear, e^ ery pre- 
 caution was taken to guard against surprise; to 
 confirm suspicion, Cortes had received advice from 
 Villa Rica, that Qualpopoca, a INIexican general, 
 had fallen upon a party of revolted Indians, to support 
 v.'hom, F.scalantc, who had been left to command the 
 garrison, had marched out, and an engagement had 
 taken place, in which, although the Mexicans were 
 defeated, th.e governor and seven of his men had been 
 mortally wounded, andji Spaniard taken prisoner, whose 
 head they cut off, and carried in triumph throu-h the 
 districts, to convince the people that the invaders were 
 not immortal. 
 
 Q. What was the conduct of Cortes ? 
 A. Sensible of the imminent danger to which he was 
 exposed, he determined on the despcrutc measure of 
 seizing tl e person of the empercr, and keeping him u 
 prisoner in the Spanish camp. To effect this, he made 
 a proper distribution of his troops, arranging at proper 
 stations, his Tlascakm allies, and tlun proceeded to 
 visit the emperor in his paluce ; where he charged him 
 with having given orders for the attack which had been 
 made upon the Spaniards, and demanded reparation. 
 Q. What followed? 
 
 A. The astonished monarch, disclaimed having gifen 
 the sanction of his authority for the attack, and gave or- 
 ders that the aggressors should be brought prisoners 
 to Mexico. Cortes expressed his assurance of the 
 king's sincerity ; but told him, to remove all apprehen- 
 sions from his Spanish followers, it became necessary 
 that he should quit his palace, and take up his residence 
 in the Spanish quartcrp., where every attention and ho- 
 mage should be paid him, which comported with his 
 
 X2 
 
246 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 royal dignity. Montezuma was struck dumb and me- 
 tionless at this speech ; but recollecting himself repli- 
 ed, he should not so far forget his own consequence as 
 tamely to submit to be made a prisoner, neither would 
 his subjects permit such an insult to his person and au- 
 thority. One of the Spanish officers ir an enraged 
 tone, exclaimed, let us waste no more time, but either 
 seize him instantly, or stab him to the heart. 
 
 Q. What was the conduct of the emperor ? 
 
 A. Appalled at the impassioned and threatening ges- 
 tures and aspect of the speaker, he instantly compliedj 
 and was conducted into the Spanish quarters, where 
 his principal officers visited him as usual, and the busi- 
 ness of the state, proceeded for a time in its common 
 course; but Cortes, proceeding from one step to another^ 
 at length brought Montezuma to submit to the morti- 
 fying degradation of acknov/iedi^ing himself the vas- 
 sal of Castile ; to hold his crov/n under him as superior, 
 and to become his tributary ; to which the chief men 
 of the empire were brought to assent. 
 
 Q. Did Velasquez attempt regaining his lost authori- 
 ty over Cortes ? 
 
 A. Yes J he gave to Pamphilode Narvaez, the com- 
 mand of a large force, and empowered him to seize up- 
 on Cortes and his principal officers, and send them to 
 Cuba: Narvaez landed on New Spain in April 152Q, 
 and sent a priest to Sandoval, who had succeeded upon 
 the death of Escalante, to summon him to surrender 
 \'era Cru.z ; but the governor seized him and his at- 
 tendants, and sent them prisoners to Mexico. 
 
 Q. Did Cortes approve of the measure i* 
 
 A. No ; he received the priest and his attendants with 
 |:he utmost apparent kindness, expressed the strong- 
 r:st disapprobation of the governor's severity towards 
 them ; and gained them so- to his interest, that they 
 
MEXICO. 247 
 
 ifiiparted witiiout reserve, every thing which he wish- 
 ed to know, respecting Narvaez, and the purpose he 
 came to effect. He then sent his chaplain with over- 
 tures of accommodation, which, as he expected, were 
 contemptuously rejected ; but he was more successful 
 in secretly gaining over some of the followers of that 
 commander. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. Negociation being thus at an end, Cortes left 159 
 men in the garrison at Mexico, under the command of 
 Pedro de Alvarado, to whom he committed the cap- 
 tive monarch, and with all the other force he could 
 collect he advanced toward his rival. On his march 
 tov/ard the coast, he was joined by Sandoval and the 
 garrison of Vera Cruz ; but his whole force after this 
 junction did not exceed 250, v/hiie that of his rival 
 amounted to 800 soldiers and 80 horsemen. 
 
 Q. What was the result ? 
 
 A. The rainy season had set in with great violence, 
 and Cortes seized this opportunity to fall upon the 
 troops of Narvaez in the dead of the night, when, secure 
 in the superiority of their numbers, and the impracti- 
 cability of active operations, amidst tempests which 
 they were unable to withstand, the usual circum- 
 specdon of camps was much relaxed. The assailants, 
 surmounting the difficulties arising from the darkness 
 of the night, began a furious onset on their countrymen, 
 and spread consternation wherever they came. But 
 as it was neither the interest nor disposition of tlie vic- 
 tors to shed blood, the soldiers of Narvaez were soon 
 brought to lay down their arms, which induced their 
 officers to surrender on terms. This complete vic- 
 tory was obtained with the loss of only two soldiers on 
 the part of Cortes, and two officers and 1 5 soldiers in 
 the army of Narvaez, who, with ei few who still adhered 
 
248 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 to him, were made prisoners : the rest enlisted under 
 the banners of Cortes. 
 
 Q. What \vas the situation of Mexico ; 
 
 A. Alvarado to whom had been left the command of 
 the garrison, regardless of his small force, attacked the 
 Mexicans, witli brutal ferocity, when assembled on one 
 of their chief festivals, and massacred them without 
 distinction, stripping- ihem of the rich ornaments which 
 they wore in honour of the occasion. This unprovoked 
 attack i-oused the whole city to arms : they destroyed 
 two brigantines which (.'ortes had some time before 
 erected on the lake, and attacked the garrison, although 
 their beloved and revered monarch wa^ detained there 
 as an hostage. Cortes being apprised of the perilous 
 situation to which his people had brought themselves, 
 Ttiarched back his accumulated force with haste to their 
 assistance ; and, confiding in his power, he disdained 
 any longer to yield to temporising measures : all ap- 
 pearance of respect to IMontezuma, Avas tlicrefore laid 
 aside. Instead of disapproving the sanguinary out- 
 rage, committed by his officer, he spoke of the Mexi- 
 cans in the most contemptuous and menacing manner. 
 
 Q. What effect had this upon them ?. 
 
 A. They flew to arms, and attacked the Spaniards in 
 everv direction, with an impetuosity unknown btiore. 
 Although numbers were swept away yet otiiers eagerly- 
 rushed forward to supply their places, and the onset 
 was maintained with unabating fury. The general, 
 to strike terror inlo the assailants, made a powerful sally 
 which he conducted in person, but in this his former 
 good fortune forsook him ; a second was not more 
 successful. As his last resource he brought forth the cap- 
 tive monarch, after having properly instructed him how 
 to address the people, in order to prevail on them to 
 
MEXICO. 249 
 
 lay aside their animosity, as tliey bore down to a fresh 
 assault upon tlie building. 
 
 Q. What effect had this stratagem ? 
 
 A. The appearance of the emperor, checked for a 
 moment the impetuous torrent ; but all respect for his 
 person and character, was soon renounced, and their 
 rage rekindling, two arrows entered his body, and a 
 stone directed at him, struck him to the ground. When 
 brouglit to his apartment, and recovered from the 
 shock, he felt all the depth of ignominy to which he 
 was sunk from his height of grandeur ; and resolving 
 no longer to drag on a life of infamy, all the attentions 
 which Cortes and his ofliccrs paid him, he returned 
 with contempt, rejected all sustenance, rent the ban- 
 dages from his wounds with indignant scorn, and in 
 this paroxysm of remorse and rage, he expired. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. The only means of safety remaining to the Spani- 
 ards, was in a retreat, which they attempted in the 
 night ; but the Mexicans, suspecting their intention, 
 were prepared to follow them. Ihc causeway which 
 led from the city being broken down, and every impedi- 
 ment effected to check their march, tliey fell upon 
 them with an extirpating impetuosity. The Spaniards, 
 wiio had been accustomed to spread destruction ancj 
 terror around them, experienced a total defeat. Their 
 artillery, ammunition, and baggage were lost, with the 
 chief part of the rich plunder, which had excited them 
 to perpetrate all their ciimcs and cruelties: Besides 
 2000 Tlascalans, according to Castillo, 870 Spaniards 
 perished, and only 440 escaped, who foimd a friendly 
 asylum in the province of Tlascala. 
 
 Q. Was Cortes wholly discouraged ? 
 
 A. No ; although reduced to the most degraded 
 situation, liis spirit remained unsubdued. He despatched 
 
'250 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 iin officer to Hispaniola and Jamaica to engage adven- 
 turers, and to procure horses, gunpowder, and stores ; 
 he employed Indians to cut donn timber in the forests 
 of Thiscala, for building bri::antines, which he intended 
 carrying in detached parts to the lake of Mexico. 
 While these measures were taking, two vessels entered 
 the harbour of N'cra Cruz, Avith a reinforcement of 
 men, and a supply of miiitury stores. 
 
 Q. Who were they sent by ? 
 
 A. By \''elas(|uez to his general Narvaez, in full con- 
 fidence of the prosperous issue of his expedition. Three 
 ships afterwards arrived fitted cut by the governor of 
 Jamaica, aixl one from Spdin with military stores 
 which was fitted out l)y private adventurers. With 
 this reinforcement, and 10,000 Indians his allies, he set 
 out on his second expedition against Mexico, on the 
 2Sth of December 1520, six months after his fatal 
 defeat. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Montezuma? 
 
 A. His brother Qualavaca, a man of eminent brave- 
 ry and distinguished talents, who had conducted the at- 
 tacks which had been made ujxjn the Spaniards in the 
 capital. He endeavoured by the most soothing repre- 
 sentations, to recover to his interest, all the country 
 powers which had formed alliances with Cortes; and 
 prepared with great diligence and ability to oppose him ; 
 but in the midst of these noble exertions to deliver his 
 country from merciless plunderers, the small-pox ter- 
 minated his life, (iuatimozin the nephew of Monte- 
 zuma, who had married his daughter, was then elected 
 to the Mexican throne. 
 
 Q. What was the success of Cortes ? 
 
 A. He first subdued Tezcuco, the second city in 
 Mexico, situate about twenty miles from the capital, on 
 the banks of the lake, where he fixed his head quarters ; 
 
MEXICO. 251 
 
 in three months after which thirteen brigantines were 
 completed and hiunched on the lake : and about the 
 same time, four ships arrived at Vera Cruz, with two 
 hundred soldiers, and a supply of ammunition and 
 arms. 
 
 Q. What was the amount of his force after receiv- 
 ing- this addition ? 
 
 A. He had eii^ht hundred and sixteen foot soldiers, and 
 eighty-six horsemen, three battering cannon, and fifteen 
 field pieces, beside a numerous body of Indians, w hich 
 was allotted to each division. With these, he commenc- 
 ed his operations against the city of Mexico ; and on the 
 third of July lo2 1, put his whole force in motion, with 
 a design to make a general assault. The division 
 which he led on in person, bore down every thing be- 
 fore it, by resistless bravery and force, and entered the 
 city : Julian de Alderebe, who had arrived with the last 
 troops from liispaniola, was directed to fill up the 
 chasms and ij:aps in tiie causeway, as the main body 
 advanced, in order to secure a retreat if their safety 
 demanded it ? 
 
 Q. Did he attend to his trust? 
 
 A. No ; he rushed forward to the fight, which being 
 observed by Guatimozin, he availed himself to the ut- 
 most of this indiscretion. By his orders, the Mexicans 
 gave way and drew the Spaniards into the central part 
 of the city, while a band of his choicest warriors pro- 
 ceeded to the breach in the causeway, to cut off the 
 enemy's retreat. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. When he had brought his design to the fit mo- 
 ment for execution, Uie priests in the great temple, re- 
 ceiving the appointed signal, sounded the awlul drum, 
 which was consecrated to their imaginary (*od of war ; 
 whose sounds diffused universally, a desperate and mad- 
 
252 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 dcnini^ fury : instanUy tlu y rushed upon the Spauiardi, 
 now bei^innini^ to be exliuusted by a conflict so severe 
 and so long susi.aincd ; their impetuosity was not to be 
 withstood, and a retreat was all that could be effected ; 
 but when they reached the causeway they found them- 
 selves deprived even of this means of safety. 
 
 Q. Wluit was the conduct of Cortes : 
 
 A. Perccivinvj every thing to be lost, he bent his 
 whole attention to save such as were plunged into the 
 water ; while thus employed, six Mexican captains 
 seized him, and were hastening away with their inesti- 
 mable prize, when two of his own oftkers rescued him 
 from captivity at the price of their own lives. Several 
 Spaniards perished in the disorderly retreat, and more 
 ■were made prisoners, wlio were supposed to have suf- 
 fered a cioiel death. 
 
 Q. Did not this discomfiture lead Cortes lo change 
 his mode of attack ? 
 
 A. Yes ; instead of aiming at the possession of the 
 city by one decisive onset, he determined to proceed by 
 gradual approaches : his brigantincs having the com- 
 mand of the lake, cut oft' nil supplies from the adjacent 
 country by that means, while the Indians in his service, 
 as effectually inlcrsepted every thing by land. Famine 
 now began to sweep away great numbers, as two hun- 
 dred thousand persons were supp ^sed to have been shut 
 up in the city. 
 
 Q. What was the conduct of (iuatimozin. 
 
 A. His :li.:^nificd mind ixjecled all overtures of peace, 
 and he determined to perisli in defending his empire 
 and its capital. But .vhen the siege had continued 
 seventy-five days, and the Spaniards had penetrated 
 into the centre of the cily, all hopes were lost, and the 
 Mexican chiefs prevailed on him to attempt eflecting 
 his escape, from a place consigned to destruction, and 
 
MEXICO. 25S 
 
 l)y his presence to cxcile ihc distant provinces to rise 
 inarms; but the penetrating^ vigilance of Ccrtcs frus- 
 trated the plan, and the unfortunate monarch was cap- 
 tured ; after which all resistance on the part of the Mexi- 
 cans ceased. 
 
 Q. Did the possession of the city p;ratify their expec- 
 tations ? 
 
 A. No ; it only served to disappoint their hopes ; for 
 instead of becoming masters of inexhaustible treasures, 
 they were recompensed with very inconsiderable acquisi- 
 tions; and Cortes, to appease their discontents, added to 
 his numerous acts of atrocious cruelty, that of causing 
 Ciuatimozin, and his chief favourite, to be put to the tor- 
 ture, in order to extort from them a confession where 
 the wealth of the imperial city was concealed ; but no 
 agonies could shake the constancy of the emperor, nor 
 would he suffer his companion in torture, to make any 
 confession. 
 
 Q. Was Cortes acknowlcd;^ed by the king of Spain, 
 after adding these valuable territories to the Spanisli 
 monarchy ? 
 
 A. Yes; Charles V. fully sensible of the merits of 
 
 Cortes, and the further services which he was capable of 
 
 . rendcrinj;, notwithstanding the claims urged by \'elas- 
 
 quez, appointed him captain-general, and governor of 
 
 New Spain. 
 
 Q. What was the treatment which the Mexicans re- 
 ceived from the Spaniards, after they were brought un- 
 der subjection ? 
 
 A. It was cruel and oppressive beyond description ; 
 and when their sufferings drove them to acts of vio- 
 lence, these furnished a pretext to reduce them to sla- 
 very. Hut the nobles who were incapable of bodily la- 
 bour, were put to death in the most cruel manner ; and 
 
 Y 
 
^54 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 tlic ni?.o;nann-nous (Uratimozin, with two of the mo&l 
 considerable persons in the empire, were publicly handl- 
 ed, from a suspicion wliicli was without proofs, that lie 
 was formin*^ cicsis^ns to raise an insurrection. 
 
 Q. Did Cortes continue in favour with the king of 
 Spain ? ^ 
 
 A. No ; the commissioners who were nominated to 
 receive the royal revenue, to pay the salaries of officers, 
 and to transmit the residue independent of the gover- 
 nor, observine^ the absolute power which he exercised 
 over the conquered country, represented him to the em- 
 pei'or as a tyrant, who souu;ht to render himself inde- 
 pendent in the country which he had conquered, and 
 which he ruled with a rod of iron. Charles, alarmed at 
 their representations, appointed Ponce de Leon, to 
 s'jizc tlie person of Cortes, and if necessary, send iiiui 
 prisoner to Spain ; but the death of Leon, soon after iiis 
 arrival, defeated the attempt to displace liim. 
 
 Q. What was the conduct of Cortes ? 
 
 A. To avoid a proscculion on the spot where his 
 triumphs 'nad been so splendid and decisive, he deter- 
 mined to repair to Castile, wlierc he arrived in 1328, 
 and appeared with a splendour which suited the con- 
 queror of a i^rcat kingdom. His arrival in Spain, re- 
 moved at once every suspicion and fear which had been 
 entertained with respect to his intentions; and he was 
 received as a pcrsoji whom a consciousness of his ov/n 
 innocence had ijrjught into tlie presence of his master, 
 and who was entitled by the eminence of his services, 
 to the highest marks cf distinction and respect. The or- 
 der of St. Jago, the title of marquis del \'aiie de Guaxa- 
 ca, and the grant of an ample territory in New Spain, 
 were succciisivcly bestowed upon him ; and as his man- 
 ners were correct and elegant, although he had passed 
 f1ie greatest p.''.rt of his life among rough adventurers, 
 
MEXICO. 255 
 
 the emperor admitted him to the samj familiar inter- 
 course with himself, that was enjoyed by noblemen of 
 the first rank. 
 
 Q. Did these honoiu's and distinctions fully satibfy 
 Cortes ? 
 
 A. No ; he wished to obtain the government of New 
 Spain, with ample powers ; but such authority was re- 
 fused him by the emperor, who only gave him a license 
 io prosecute new discoveries, and invested him with the 
 military department. The chief power m civil affairs, 
 was entrusted to a court called the audience of New 
 Spain. 
 
 Q. When did Cortes return there ? 
 
 A. In 1530, where he continued ten years, and then 
 revisited Europe in extreme disgust. His reception 
 on his second arrival was very different from the for- 
 mer. The emperor cxpeclini^ no further services, was 
 no longer familiar ; but though his behaviour was no 
 more than distantly civil, yet his ministers thought it 
 not worth while to pitserve that decorum. In this irk- 
 some situation, he dragged out about the last seven 
 years of his life, dying on the ~d December 1 j 17, in tlio 
 ()2d ytar of his a^e. 
 
 PKIIU. 
 
 Q. WHO were the first fortunate adventurers to the 
 South of Panama. 
 
 A. Francisco Pizarro, a Spaniard of low birth and no 
 education, whose strength of body and daring spirit led 
 him to becom J a soldier in his youth ; Diago de Alma- 
 gro, another soldier of fortune, and H.;rmando Luque, 
 
256 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 a priest ; these three agreed to throw their properly 
 into one joint stock, with which they fitted out a small 
 vessel, havino; on board one hundred and twelve men, 
 in which Pizarro embarked on the 14th of November, 
 1524, and Almagro, in another vessel, some time after 
 followed him. It was a considerable time before a junc- 
 tion was formed, and Pizarro and his party experienced 
 in the voyage the most severe sufferings. 
 Q. Where did they first land ? 
 
 A. On the coast of Peru, three degrees south of the 
 line. Here they saw a stately temple, and a palace be- 
 longing to the sover-eign of the country, which bespoke 
 the opulence and civilization of the inhabitants. They 
 brought away some gold and silver vessels, and two of 
 the natives, one of whom afterwards served as an inter* 
 preter. 
 
 Q. What was the next step which they took ? 
 A. Having failed in gaining the necessary support 
 from the Spanish American settlements, Pizarro pro- 
 ceeded t,o Spain, to solicit aid of the government, but 
 could obtain no farther support, than granting a sanc- 
 tion to the expedition, by the royal liccBse, and an ap- 
 pointment of governor of the new settlements which 
 might be made ; and Almagro lieutenant-governor ; for 
 v/hich Pizarro engaged to raise two hundred and fifty 
 men, to provide the ships, and likewise the military 
 litores. 
 
 Q. At what time did they sail ? 
 
 A. In February 1531, when the three partners could 
 only procure three small vessels, and one hundred and 
 eighty soldiers ; thirty -six cf whom were horsemen. 
 Pizarro took with him his three brothers, Ferdinand, 
 Juan, and Gonzalo. He landed his troops in the bay 
 of St. Matthew. As the only distinguished quality 
 v,hich this leader possessed v/as a brutal hardness of 
 
PERU. 257 
 
 iTiind and body, he made no attempt to conciliate the 
 natives, but on the contrary, attacked them where ever 
 a present advantage was to be seized ; which caused the 
 Peruvians to abandon their habitations, and fly up the 
 country. 
 
 Q. Did not this measure deprive him of the neces- 
 sary supplies of provisions for his men ? 
 
 A. Yes ; but after enduring severe hardships, which 
 excited loud discontents, he reached the province of 
 Coaque, where he surprised the principal settlement, 
 and seized vessels and ornaments of gold and silver to 
 the amount of thirty thousand pesosj with other valua- 
 ble spoils. He immediately despatched a ship to Fa- 
 nama, with a large remittarice to Almagro, and conti- 
 nued his march along the coast, 
 
 Q. What was his success ? 
 
 A. He scarcely m.et with resistance until he attacked 
 the island of Puna, in the bay of Guayquil, which was 
 populous, and the people fierce and warlike. They de- 
 fended themselves with great bravery, and he spent six 
 months in reducing them. He then rcturn.cd to Tum- 
 bez, where the sickly state of his small arniy compelled 
 him to remain three months. 
 
 Q. What v/as the extent of the empire of Peru, at 
 the time of this invasion ? 
 
 A. It extended fifteen hundred miles along the Pacific 
 Ocean, from north to south, and was bounded by the 
 Andes, on the east. The Incas or lords of Peru, by a 
 tradition of the country, were said to have sprung from 
 the sun. The reverence paid to them v/as unbounded ; 
 they were not only absolute monarchs, but were revered 
 as divinities ; but the power which they thus possessed, 
 is represented to have been uniformly exercised with 
 mildness, liuana Capac, the twelfth monarch of the 
 Incas, was celebrated like his predecessors, for his vir- 
 
 Y2 
 
258 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 tiies and taknts ; he was a warlike prince, and brought 
 the kin^^doni of Quito under j.is subjection. Until this 
 time, the descendants of the sun (as they were styled) 
 had, in no instance, interniarried with tfie people of the 
 country ; but Iluana Capac married thedaugluer of the 
 vanquished monarch of Quito, from whom sprang 
 a son nai^ie.l Atahualpa, This son, on the death of his 
 f ither, about 15 30, succeeded to that kingdom ; while 
 Ikiascar, t.iiOther son, by a princess of the royal race, 
 succeeded to all the other dominions. 
 
 Q. What was the consequence of this dismember- 
 Dicnt of the empire ? 
 
 A. It produced a civil war, during which Atahualpa 
 vanquished his rival; and to strengthen himself in pow- 
 er, put to deat!i all of the royal race, descended from 
 his father, that he could seize either by force or strata- 
 gem, lluascar only excepted, who having been takea 
 p;*isoaer, was suffered to live, t))at he might issue or- 
 ders under the direction of the conqueror. Informa- 
 tion of this state of affairs was communicated to Pizar- 
 ro at St. Michael, by a message sent to him by Huas- 
 rar, soliciting hi"; aid a.rainst his brother Atahualpa, 
 whom he represented as a rebel and an usurper. 
 
 Q. Did he comply with the request ? 
 
 A. Yes ; nothing could have been more acceptable 
 to the Spanish invader, than such intelligence ; and he 
 immediately proceeded toward Caxamalca, twelve days 
 march from the coast, where Atahualpa was encamp- 
 ed : on his way, he was met by an officer with valuable 
 presents, who arrived from Atahualpa, with proffers of 
 liis alliance, and assurances of fi iendship. 
 
 Q. What was the conduct oi Pizarro ? 
 
 A To delude the Inca, he asserted that he was sent 
 by a very powerful monarch, and that his design in ad- 
 vancing, was to offer him his assistance. On entering 
 
PERU. 259 
 
 Caxamaica, he took possession of a large court, sur- 
 rounded with a strong rampart, and despatched his bro- 
 ther Ferdinand, and an officer, to the camp of the Inca, 
 ^vhich was about a league from the town, for the pur- 
 pose of confirming his declaration of the pacific disposi- 
 tion with which he was come, and to request an inter- 
 view, 
 
 Q. In what manner were they received ? 
 
 A. They met with the most cordial reception, and the 
 monarch returned for answer, that he would visit the 
 Spanish commander the next day, in his quarters. The 
 decent manners of the Peruvians, the reverence which 
 they paid to tlieir sovereign, but still more, the profu- 
 sion of wealth which every where appeared, struck the 
 Spaniards with astonishment. The report which they 
 made to Pizarro on their return, determined him to 
 seize upon the person of the Inca on the ensuing visit, 
 and to pour destruction on his unsuspecting subjects. 
 
 Q. AV'as the Inca in any measure aware of the strata- 
 gem v.'hicli was formed against him ? 
 
 A. Xo ; although he was stained with the blood of 
 hii kindred, he was not laugiit by his own crimes, to 
 entertain the smallest suspicion of the machinations 
 which were formed against him ; but his whole aiLcn- 
 tion was directed to impress upon his foreign visitors 
 an admiration of his magniticCiice and power. 'I'hc 
 procession was in the highest style of pomp. 400 men, 
 in an uniform dress, preceded as harbingers. The 
 Inca was seated on a throne or couch, adoiTicd witli 
 plumes of various colours, and almost covered with 
 plates of gold and silver, enriched with precious stones ; 
 which was borne on the shoulders of his principal at- 
 tendants. Some of the chief offic;crs of his court v»'ho 
 Were carried in the same manner, followed him Several 
 bands of singers and dancers accompanied this grand 
 
260 -MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 procession ; and the whole plain was covered ^vith 
 troops, ^^'hicll were supposed to amount to 30,000 men. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. As the Inca entered the Spanish quarters, Val- 
 verdc, a dominican friar, who was chaplain to the ex- 
 pedition, advanced toward him with a crucilix wi one 
 hand, and a breviary in the other ; and in a lon^j^ dis- 
 course, endeavoured to explain the principles of the 
 Christian fiith, exhorting him to embrace that religion, 
 to acknowledge the supreme jurisciictian of the pope, 
 and to yield submission to the king of Spain, to whom 
 the pope had given the empire of Peru. 
 
 Q. What was the coiiduct of Atahualpa? 
 
 A. lie liitened with great attention to the insolent 
 harangue, but declared that although he wished to 
 become the friend of the king of Spain, he would not 
 be his vassal : and then expressed a desire to know 
 where the wonderful doctrines of which he had lx;en 
 speaking were to be found. Valverde presented to 
 him his breviary, und informed him they were con- 
 tained in that book The Inca opened it eagerly, and 
 applied it to his ear. Tiiis book, says he, is silent ; 
 it tells mc nothing ; and then threw it disdainfully on 
 the ground. The furious ecclesiastic, turning towards 
 the Spaniards, instantly cxcl.vimed, Vengeance, Chris- 
 tians ! the word of Gtx' is profaned ; kill those impious 
 dop-s, who despise the religion of the cross. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. The signal of ass.iult was gi«/en, the martial music 
 struck up ; the two ficUl pieces were discharged ; at 
 the same time that the musketry spiead destruction 
 and terror, tl.e cavalry rusiied out and opened a way 
 for the infantry to advance sword i;i hand, I'he fury 
 of this unlooked-ibr attack, deprive 1 tl.e Peruvians of 
 the power of resistance. More them 4000 Indians 
 
PERU. 
 
 26 i 
 
 were slain, and the Inca taken prisoner, without any 
 loss on the part of the assailants. 
 
 Q. What means did Atahualpa take to obtain his 
 liberty ? 
 
 A. He offered as a ransom, to fill the apartment in 
 which he was confined, with vessels of gold and silver 
 as high as he could reach : its dimensions were 22 
 feet by 16. Pizarro agreed to the conditions ; and tlie 
 Inca immediately despatched messengers to every part 
 of his dominions where gold had been amassed, and the 
 people, anxious to obtain the enlargement of their sove- 
 reign, cheerfully delivered up whatever was in their 
 possession. The greatest part of the stipulated con- 
 tribution was thus collected, and the remainder collect- 
 ing in the different provinces. But the sight of such 
 vast piles of gold excited a maddening impatience in 
 the soldiers ; and their leader not less solicitous for 
 possessing it, could no longer refrain from issuing orders 
 for mching it down ; and the 25th of July, 1333, was 
 appointed for dividmg the booty. 
 
 Q. What was the amount ? 
 
 A. After setting apart the fifth, due to the crown, 
 and 100,000 pesos as a donative to the soldiers, who, 
 agreeably to advice received by Pizarro, had arrived with 
 Almagro at St. Michael's; there remained 1,528,500 
 pesos to Pizarro and his followers, at that time not in- 
 ferior to as many pounds sterling in the present century. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. The Inca now claimed the fulfilment of the con- 
 tract, and to be set at liberty j but Pizarro disregarded 
 his engagement, and with a temper more cruel than 
 his predecessor and , great exemplar Cortes, could 
 not conceal his savage disposition even under the dis- 
 guise of assumed complacency. Almagro, and his fol- 
 lowcrsj soon after arrived, and expressed great dissatis- 
 
262 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 faction at the share assigned to them of the Inca's ran- 
 som, and v.cre jcidous of what, hi future, might be ac- 
 quired by those who were about his person. They 
 therefore iniiistcd upon his immediate death, as the only 
 means of placinj]^ them on an equal footinj^ with the 
 other adventurers. A form of trial in consequence 
 took place, and the wretched Atahualpa was put to 
 death. Tlie enoL'mity of these proceedings occasioned 
 several of the followers of Fizarro, openly to declare 
 their abhorrence of such a ^iolatiGn of idl law, moral 
 and divine. 
 
 Q. Who succeeded Atalmalpa ? 
 
 A. One of his sons was named Inca of Peru and 
 Quito, by Tiziu'ro ; but the people of Cuzco received 
 Manco Capac, a brother of Huascar who had been assi\s- 
 sinated by the order of Atahualpa. Usurpers however 
 arose, upon the death of Atahualpa, in every part of 
 the empire, each actuated by tlie rage of destroying 
 every descendant of the sun that they could any wliere 
 seize upon. 
 
 Q. What followed? 
 ^ A. Pizarro, having received large additions of strength, 
 and confidhig in the dissensions which tore the empire, 
 marched agidnst Cuzco, which fell an easy prey to bis 
 rapacity, and which furnished him with riches surpass- 
 ing tliose, that the delusive covenant for the ransom of 
 Atahualpa had extorted. Eenalcazar, governor of St. 
 Michael, being continually strengthened by the arrival 
 of new adveiiturers, resolved to attempt the conquest 
 of Quito : and after a toilsome march through a moun- 
 tainous country entered the capital ; l)ut the treasure 
 expected to be found tlierc, the hopes of possessing 
 which, had animated and supported the party to bear 
 their sufferijit^-s, had been carried ofi'by the natives 
 
PERU. 263 
 
 Q. Who was despatched with the coin due to the 
 crown ? 
 
 A. Ferdinand Pizarro, who, on his arrival in Spain, 
 aetonished the nation Mith the profusion of gold and sil- 
 ver which he delivered into the public treasury. An ac- 
 quisition so great and miexpected, so seasonably recruit- 
 ed the emperor's cofiers, whicli were exhausted by his 
 schemes of boundless ambition and persecuting tyranny, 
 that it removed every ground of scruple how it might 
 have been obtained. Honours and appointments were li- 
 l)erally conferred in recompense for such essential servi- 
 ces : Francisco Pizarro received a confirmation of his 
 authority, with additional powers and privileges, and a 
 faither - extent of 70 leagues along the coast, to the 
 southward of the former grant. Almagro was appoint- 
 ed adelantado or governor, with jurisdiction over 200 
 leagues of country farther to the southward than those 
 granted to Pizarro. Ferdinand was invested with the 
 military order of St. Jago, and returned to Peru. 
 Q. ^V hat followed? 
 
 A. Almagro, by an agreement between the parties, 
 undertook the conc[ucst of Chili, which he invaded at the 
 head of 570 men. The route he cliose was over the 
 Andes : in his march he was exposed to the severest 
 hardships, under wliich many of his followers perished ; 
 and when tlius worn down with extreme fatigue, they 
 fmind the natives prepared to oppose them ; while ro- 
 bust bodies, undaunted courage, and v, ai like habits, ren- 
 dered them formidable enemies. Much time was there- 
 fore spent in subduing them. 
 
 Q. What was the further conduct of Pizarro ? 
 A. Considering the Peruvians as fully conquered, he 
 turned his attention to estal)lisi;ing a form of govern- 
 ment in the extensive provinces which he had acquired. 
 lie divided the coimtry into districts, appointed magis- 
 
264 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 tratesy courts of justice, and the mode of collecting the 
 revenue, working the mines, and the treatment of the 
 Indians. He further extended his views to founding a 
 city, which should be the capital of a great empire. The 
 situation he made choice of, was the valley of Rimac, 
 one of the most extensive and best cultivated spots in 
 Peru. The city is now known by the name of Lima. 
 Here he erected a magnificent palace for his own resi- 
 dence, and stately houses were soon constructed for his 
 principal officers. 
 Q. When was this ? 
 
 A. About 1536. The spirit of the Peruvians, which, 
 until this time, had appeared so abject, now began to 
 burst forth, and to excite a general combination to oppose 
 their tyrants. Manco Capac found means to carry on 
 a secret correspondence, and at the celebration of a 
 grand festival, the plan which had been fully matured 
 wdthout any suspicion being excited, appeared in a ge- 
 neral insurrection ; the standard of war was erected, 
 ■ and all the warriors throughout the empire, were in 
 arms j many Spaniards were massacred, and the city of 
 Cuzco was attacked, in which were the three brothers 
 of Pizarro, with a garrison consisting of no more than 
 170 men. At the same time the new city of Lima was 
 invested, and all communication between the two places 
 cut off. The siege of Cuzco continued nine months, 
 in the course which, Juan Pizarro with several other 
 persons of note were slain, and Munco Capac obtained 
 possession of half the city. 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. Vv^hen the besieged were driven to the last extre- 
 mity, Almagro with his detachment appeared. He had 
 received the royal patent, which t.ppointed him govern- 
 or of Chili, and defined its limits, within which he was 
 fully assured Cuzco lay, and he appeared before it, to 
 
PERU. 265 
 
 gain its possession by force of arms from Pizarro, who 
 had contended that it was wiiliin his jurisdiction. After 
 defeating and dispersing the Peruvians, he made him- 
 self master of Cuzco, when the two surviving brothers 
 ofPizArro, Ferdinand, and Gonzalo, became his pri- 
 soners. 
 
 Q. What was the fate of the new city of Lima ? 
 
 Ar Pizarro having received large remforcements from 
 the Spanish colonies, totally routed the Peruvians, after 
 which he sent 500 men under the command of Alonzo 
 de Alvarado to the relief of his brothers at Cuzco, of 
 whom he had heard no tidings for nine months. 
 
 Q. Did Alvarado effect the escape of Pizarro's bro- 
 thers ? 
 
 Q. No ; the superior generalship of Almagro, ena- 
 bled him to baffle the attack ; he surprised Alvarado by 
 night, took him prisoner, and several of his principa 
 officers ; but instead of pursuing his advantage, and 
 inarching immediately to Lima, he resolved to wait the 
 approach of his enemy al Cuzco. Pizarro in the mean 
 time amused him with negociation, while Gonzalo and 
 Alvarado escaped from confinement and repaired to 
 Lima. Pizarro, secured from all apprehensions concern- 
 ing one of his brothers, proposed to Almagro, that the 
 justice of their respective claims should be I'eferred to 
 the court of Spain, and that his captive brother Ferdi- 
 nand should be liberated, and deputed en the part of the 
 governor, and accompany the deputies sent on the part 
 of Almagro. 
 
 Q. Did Almagro suffer himself to be imposed upon 
 by so shalloAv an artifice ? 
 
 A. Yes : but Ferdinand had no sooner regained his 
 liberty, than his brother the governor threw off the 
 mask, and declared that the possession of Peru must be 
 
 Z 
 
26G MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 held by him ^vho could obtain it by force of arms ; to 
 effect which he raised 700 men, and gave the command 
 of this armament to his two brothers. 
 
 Q. What followed? 
 
 A. Almagro waited their approach in the plains of 
 Ciizco ; each party was eager to engage, while the 
 mountains, which encompassed the plain, were covered 
 with Indians assembled to behold the gratifying specta- 
 cle of the self-destruction of the Spaniards. The event 
 of the battle was the entire defeat of Almagro's party, 
 and himself made prisoner, in 15 38. lie was afterwards, 
 upon being tried for high treason, and condemned, 
 strangled in prison, and then publicly beheaded. He 
 left one son by an Indian woman of Panama, 'whom he 
 appointed his successor in his government. This 
 youth was then at Lima. 
 
 Q. Did the conduct of the Pizarro reach Spain ? 
 
 A. Yes ; and although Ferdinand arrived there soon 
 after, he in vain attempted to erase the impression wliich 
 the charges brou'ght against him and his two brothers 
 had made. lie was taken into custody and kept in con- 
 finement for twenty years ; and Christoval Vaca de Cas- 
 tro, a judge in the royal audience at Valladolid, was 
 sent to restore tranquillity, with large discretionary pow- 
 ers. 
 
 Q. What became of the son of Almagro ? 
 
 A. In 1 j41 he had arrived to manhood ; having been 
 educated with great care, and possessing engaging man- 
 jiers, the followers of his father placed their hopes of ob- 
 taining reflrcss in supporting him, and overthrowing the 
 tyrant. Tlie leader of these malcontents was named 
 Herrada ; U^c plot was fast ripening, and the proceed- 
 ings ha\ing been noticed by some of the adherents to 
 the governor, he was cautioned to be on his guard ; but 
 disdaining to attend to their apprehensions, the security 
 
PERU. 
 
 267 
 
 in vhlch he reposed b.imself proved fatal; for Herra- 
 da at the head of 1 8 men, entered his palace, in open day, 
 putting to death all who opposed them, till forcing 
 their way into the tyrant's recess, he fell, after having 
 resolutely withstood for some time, the foirce of the as- 
 
 sail ants. 
 
 Q. What followed ? 
 
 A. The country was thrown into the most violent com- 
 motion : the engaging manners of young Almagro pro- 
 cured him many adherents, but the attachments to the 
 late governor predominated. His brother Gonzalo Fi- 
 zarro, who had superseded I]enalcazar in the govern^ 
 ment of Quito, was not at hand to assert his right to the 
 vacant government; and Vaca de Castro in the mean 
 time arrived. He prf)diiced the royal appointment wh.ich 
 constituted him governor, and his authority was acknow- 
 Icdged wherever he came. In September 1 542, a deci- 
 Mve battle was fought between the army led on by dc 
 Castro, and the followers of young Almagro, who was 
 taken, and publicly beheaded at Cuzco. 
 
 Q. Did not Charles V. turn his attention to the dis- 
 tracted and oppressed state of the country ? 
 
 A. Yes; he catised a body of laws to be framed for 
 America, which tended to lessen the power of the new 
 settlers, and which exempted the Indians from personal 
 service : they were not compellable to carry the bur- 
 dens of travellers, to labour in the mines, or to dive in 
 the pearl fishery. The humane Las Casas, who had 
 long been the distinguished friend of the oppressed In- 
 dians, had been consulted by the emperor on this inter- 
 esting point. He sent Francisco Tello de Sandoval to 
 Mexico to co-operate wiih the viceroy there ; at the 
 same time he sent Balsco Nugncz Vela, to Peru as go- 
 vernor with the title of viceroy, and appointed a ccuit of 
 roval audience composed of four eminent Idwvers. 
 
26S MODERJ^ HISTORY. 
 
 Q. What effect had these new regulations ? 
 
 A. In Mexico, tlicy produced no open act of opposi- 
 tion, but in Peru, they excited the most violent ferment : 
 hut Nugnez \'ela entirely disregarded the opposition he 
 might have to encounter. Confiding in the plenitude 
 cf his power, he disdained to assume a gentleness of 
 manners, in order to cfTect his determined purpose of 
 carrying into eflcct tlie lav/s he was sent to introduce ; 
 he therefore began to exercise the functions entrusted 
 to him in the highest style of uuthoiity. Tlie Indians 
 were every where declared to be free, as he proceeded 
 to Lima ; and when he arrived there his consequen- 
 tial deportment disgusted a people who were little accus- 
 tomed to reverence legal autliority. Several persons of 
 rank \Yere confined, and some put to death without any 
 form of trial. The former governor \'^aca de Castro, 
 was seized, imprisoned, and c\cn pi;t in chains. 
 
 Q. Did not a conduct so rash and imprudent frustrate 
 ihe iutenlitms of the governor? 
 
 A. Yes; aru.1 the Spaniards, who were rip^ for a revolt, 
 were soon unanimous in a leader, (ionzalo Pizarro 
 was named at Cuzco, procurator general of the Spanish 
 nation in Peru, and was empowered to lay their gene- 
 ral remonstrances before the royal audience at Lima, 
 wh.cn after ba\ing made himself master of the royal 
 treasure, levied soldiers, and seized a large train of ar- 
 tillery, he immediately proceeded and in a battle which 
 he fouglit against Xugnez, he was slain : his head cutoff 
 and placed o!i the public gil^bet at Quito. Kvery thing 
 then submitted to Pizarro. his authority in Peru was ac- 
 knowledged ; his i'eet rode in triumph on the South sea ; 
 he had taken Panama, and garrisoned Nombrc De Dies, 
 on the opposite side of Isthumus, which gave him pos- 
 session of the only course of communication at that 
 time used between Spain and Pi^ru ; elated with this vast 
 
PERU. 269 
 
 accession cf power, he guve l.imself up and his fcllou- 
 ers to the most licentious indulgencies. 
 
 Q. What followed? 
 
 A. Charles V. fully sensible that lenient and tempo- 
 rising measures alone Avould secure to him the valuable 
 possession of Peru, he appointed Pedro De La Gasca, 
 v*hose disposition was entirely different frcm that of his 
 late viceroy, and who would accept of no other official 
 appointment than that of president of the court of au- 
 dience in Lima, and declared that he would receive no 
 salaiy ; but required very c!vtcnsive powers to settle 
 the government cf Peru, which were granted him, and 
 he eets;dl in May 15 -16. 
 
 Q. Did he meet wit!i opposiuon ? 
 
 A. Yes ; Pizarro.ipon hearing of his-arrival at Pana- 
 ma, determined to oppose his entrance into Peru ; but 
 the fleet declaring in favour of Gasca, and his forces 
 deseithig him, he was mu<le prisoner and the following 
 day beheaded. And Gasca, after having done every 
 thing, which moderation, disintei esledness and wisdom 
 dictated, set out for Spain in 1550, having committed 
 the government of Peru to the coiu't of audience. 
 
 Q. What was his reception in Sp;dn ? 
 
 A. He was received by the emperor, with the most 
 distinguished marks of esteem, and being promoted to 
 the bishopric of Palencia, he passed the remainder of 
 his days in the tranquillity of retirement, respected by 
 his country, honoured ivy hiu sovereign, and beloved 
 by all. 
 
 Q. What was the subsequent state cf that country ? 
 
 A. It was not to be supposed that salutary laws should 
 
 be uniformly submitted to in succeeding years, by such 
 
 men as the Spaniards settled in Peru ; but although in 
 
 surrections and rebellions did break out, which at dif- 
 
 Z 2 
 
270 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 fercnt limes created much commotion and misery in 
 the country, yet the power of the Spanish monarchy 
 gradually acquired strength and ascendency ; a more 
 quiet and tractable race of men succeeded to the fierce 
 despoilers of the unhappy Indians, iuid the tyranny of 
 despotic regal rule has now for two centuries, been ful- 
 1 stablished there, as in every other part of the Spii- 
 nish possessions in the western world. 
 
 NORTH AMLRICA. 
 
 Q. W IIKN was N'orth America discovered ? 
 
 A. 'riic Knglish, conducted by John Cabot, in 1497, 
 found the way to that coutUry, soon aflcr Columbus 
 had successfully crossed the ocean ; but as the torrents 
 in North America, brought down no gold, and the In- 
 dians were not bedecked with any costly ornaments, 
 no attempts v. ere made to explore the country for near 
 a century after its discovery. Sir I'rancis Drake, who 
 traversed the whole circumference of the globe in 
 1577, gained some knowledge of the Eastern shore of 
 the northern continent, as he had before of the western 
 parts of the Tacific ocean, about the same parallel : 
 but Sir Walter Raleigh, was the first who explored the 
 coast, bestowed on it a name, and attempted to settle a 
 colony in 1 584. 
 
 Q. Did the improvcmeiU of the country immediately 
 follow this attempt ? 
 
 A. No ; the lands were overspread with thick woods ; 
 the caprices of a savage race were to be soothed, their 
 jealousies of new settlers to be removed, or their power 
 to be opposed. And at that time colonization made a 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 271 
 
 small part of the system of government, so that there 
 were few stimulants to abandon a native soil, for the 
 purpose of seeking possessions in another hemisphere : 
 but at length a powerful incentive arose, stronger than 
 the influence of kings, the love of ease, or the dread of 
 misery, licligion, which had long been converted into 
 the most powerful engine that human subtility ever 
 made use of to subjugate the mass of mankind, no 
 sooner ceased to be so perverted, than by its own proper 
 force, it impelled large bodies of people to renounce 
 every present enjoyment, and to settle in the dreary 
 \s ilds of a far distant country. 
 
 Q. Inform me in what manner it had this effect ? 
 A. When England, by a very singular concurrence 
 of circumstances, threw off the papal yoke, state poli- 
 cy so predominated in the measure, that tlie conscien- 
 ces of men were siili required to l)cnd lo the discipline, 
 conform to the ceremonials, and assent to tht doctrines, 
 which the governing powers established. Although a 
 dissent from the church of Rome was considered as 
 meritorious, yet a dissent from the church of England 
 was held to be heretical, and an offence to be punished 
 )y the civil magistrate. The human mind, awakened 
 rom a long suspension of its powers by a Wickcliffe, 
 fartlicr enlightened by an Erasmus and ?vIelancthon, 
 and at length called forth into energy by the colUsion of 
 those two ardent and daring spirits, Luther and Cal- 
 vin, then began to bend all its attention tov/ards religi- 
 ous inquiries ; and exercised all its powers in such pur- 
 suits. Ilencc arose a vast diversity of opinions, which 
 gave rise to numerous sects and denominations of 
 Chiistiuns; but as the protestant establishment in Eng- 
 land held it essential to preserve a unity of faith, those 
 novel opinions oUaioed no more quarter there than un- 
 
272 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 der the papal power, which occasioned numerous emit 
 grations to the western world. 
 
 Q, What part of North America was considered 
 belonging to England ? 
 
 A. The eastern coast, comprehending a vast extent 
 of country, which was then known by no other names 
 than those of north and south VirginiA. Here the per- 
 secuted religionists easily obtained a royal grant of a 
 very extensive tract of land, whither they repaired, not 
 to amass wealth, nor to extinguish the inhabitants ; but 
 to subsist by industry, to purchase security by an ho- 
 nourable intercourse with the natives, and to acquire 
 strength, undc-r the auspices of freedom. 
 
 Q. \Vere these professions wholly realized ? 
 
 A. No ; a spirit of intolerance, in the early settle- 
 ment in some pni ts, too mucli prevailed, and insidious 
 arts were practised on the Indians, which soon excited 
 their rancorous animosity, llie Spaniards had found 
 the southern division of this vast continent, peopled 
 %vith a pusillanimous and defenceless race of men, 
 whom they sacrificed to their ambition and avarice ; the 
 European settlers on the coast of North America, were 
 not actuated by such a cruel and exterminating spirit ; 
 they had juster notions of the rights of man. They also 
 found the inh.abitants of this country possessing very 
 different characteristics ; expert in the use of offensive 
 weapons, sagacious, persevering; not insensible of kind- 
 ness conferred, but implacable when offended, and ever 
 gratifying their revenge, by means the most artful, con- 
 cealed, and cruel. These Indians soon discovered a 
 fondness for spirituous liquors; with which the artful 
 traders were too ready to supply them. By the exces- 
 sive use of these, their natural ferocity was increased, 
 their passions inflamed, their best principles perverted ; 
 
UNITED STATES. 273 
 
 diseases never before known intrcduced, their lives 
 shortened, and their numbers greutly reduced. 
 
 Q. Were the improvements in this country rapid, af- 
 ter the emiycjrations of which you have been speaking? 
 
 A. They were: no age of barbarism mvoived in ob- 
 scurity and ignorance the early period of their exist- 
 ence. Arts and sciences were cultivated before their 
 v/oods were cleared. Their minds were enlarged with- 
 out their manners being depraved. The fostering hand 
 of the mother country, nursed tlie rising genius of the 
 colonies, and an immense expanse of country taught 
 them to contemplate on futurity with exultation. Their 
 towns were built far from the din of war ; their peo- 
 ple had multiplied amidst the blessings of peace ; their 
 situation and employments rendered them robust and 
 enterprising, without becoming sanguinary. The in- 
 roads of the Indians were confined to their back settle- 
 ments, and served to keep them attentive w ithout en- 
 dangering the general safety. The apprehensions from 
 the encroachments of the French were dispelled, 
 soon after they had been seriously entertained, and the 
 fortunate termination of that four years contest served 
 to teach them to value a security which afterwards, fur a 
 considerable time, was uninterrupted 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 Q. WHAT first gave lise to the independence of 
 the United States ? 
 
 A. The British Parliament attempted to raise a reve- 
 nue from the colonies by taxation, which having occa- 
 sioned repeated remonstrances for redress without ef- 
 
ig74 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 feet, they were excited to resistencc, and joined toge- 
 ther for their mutual defence. A Congress was held at 
 Philadelphia, in September 1774, and was composed of 
 delegates elected by the representatives of each pro- 
 vince. A war soon after took place, and on the fourth 
 of July 1776, Congress, by a solemn act, renounced 
 allegiance to the king of Great Britain, and declared 
 the Amerfcan colonies to be independent states. 
 
 Q. Was the war still continued ? 
 
 A. Yes, for nearly eight years; during which time 
 great valour and magnanimity were displayed, and 
 much hardship endured by the states ; each of which, 
 except New-Hampshire, at different limes during the 
 contest, became the seat of war. Great Britain, after 
 expending immense sums of money and losing many 
 thousands of her subjects, at length relinquished all 
 claim to the dominion of the United States, and 
 peace was established in 1783. France, early in the 
 contest, acknowledged her independence and lent her 
 aid. In 1778, a confederation had been entered into, 
 but being found insufficient for the t^oveniment and se- 
 curity of the United States, a new constitution was 
 formed in 1787, and organized, in 1789. 
 
 Q. What is tlie form of government in the United 
 States ? 
 
 A. Republican, and is vested in a President and two 
 Councils under the denomination of Congress. The 
 President and \'"ice President arc chosen for the term 
 of four years by electors, who are appointed by the peo- 
 ple for that purpose. The Senate or superior council 
 consists of two senators from each state, who are cho- 
 sen by the legislatures of the states, and continue in of- 
 fice six years. The House of Representatives is- elect- 
 ed by the people every second year. The legislative 
 power is vested in Congress, thv'^ executive power in 
 
UNITED STATES. 275 
 
 the President, and the judicial power in one supreme 
 court, and in such inferior courts as Congress may from 
 lime to time ordain and establish. Tlie Judges of the 
 supreme and inferior courts, hold their offices during 
 good behaviour. Each state has also its peculiar form 
 of government, consisting commonly of a Governor, a 
 Senate, and House of Representatives, annually chosen. 
 Q. Who was the first President of the United States ? 
 A. George Washington, who had been comman- 
 der in chief of the American army during the revolu 
 tion. He was twice unanimously elected, and upon de- 
 clining a third election, was succeeded by John Adams. 
 Thomas Jefferson has been since elected, and is 
 now in his second term of office. George Washing- 
 ton died on the fourteenth of December, 1799, and 
 in the 68th year of his age, universally lamented. 
 Q. What are the boundaries of the United Slates ? 
 A. They are bounded on the north by Lower Canada 
 and the lakes, east by the Atlantic ocean, south by 
 the Floridas and the gulf of IMexico, and west by the 
 westeni boundary of Louisiana : they arc (exclusive 
 of Louisiana) 1400 miles long, and from 700 to 1200 
 broad, and contained at the last census taken in 1800 
 5,305,G66 inhabitants. In the United States there is no 
 national established religion, but all enjoy perfect liber- 
 ty of conscience in worshipping the Almighty. The 
 merchants of the United States extend their trade to al- 
 most every part of the world. They export flour, grain, 
 fish, beef, pork, live-stccl;, tobacco, rice, iron, indigo, 
 lumber, flaxseed. Sec and import dry goods, hardwares, 
 tea, coflec, sugars, spices, and wines. The number 
 of slates, besides extensive ten-ilories not yet si^fficicntly 
 populous to a\ithorize their admission into the union 
 as additional states, is seventeen. Their names, with 
 their population, capitals, chief towns, rivers, Stc. arc 
 as follows. 
 
276 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 
 V. 
 
 OOOOOOOCOOOOOOOQ 
 
 oogoqooooogogopjC> 
 
 ^ «^, o o "<*• o 
 
 k^ t< '^j r- '^< O 
 
 Q O 
 
 d 
 
 
 3 C O Z 
 
 !2 c 2 > ■" 
 • c «« o *" 
 
 n c 
 
 
 to 
 
 c J.: fc t^ rt r:: 
 
 ^ • ■* rt ^ O 
 
 W) 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 •»». 
 
 ' 
 
 <3 
 
 
 ,V 
 
 
 L^ 
 
 
 V. 
 
 j= 
 
 
 4-1 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 ■^^ 
 
 c 
 
 
 H 
 
 C 
 
 > 
 
 
 c 
 
 -' C u ^ ^ 
 
 
 C O J3 -C 
 
 > = -f . Ji ^ 
 
 o 
 U 
 
 c 
 
 HJ 
 
 4-> 
 
 I-, 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 vh 
 
 o 
 
 lAI 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 3 
 
 r. 
 
 O 
 
 c 
 
 S 
 
 jS 
 
 •-H 
 
 Ui 
 
 Uc 
 
 U 
 
 o 
 
 C3 
 
 ooooooooooooooooo 
 ooooooooooooooooo 
 
 00_0«H O M <^<i^^'^;~^*^0 O O O "t" 
 00«or<^»oOOH-0'0'^C)Or^rf>ooc*^ 
 
 M M *r C4 »0 c« O COOO '^^ CO M « C*T 
 
 
 C ~ " 
 
 3 ^ 
 
 S2" 
 
 '' u C rt 
 
 K. c <« ^ c i^ •^ '^ "^ r*^'!-' T^ J— ry :- i- -c 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 27 
 
 
 5? 
 
 c5 
 
 x^ U U 
 
 rt t; £ 
 
 "C - !r* 
 
 l-i c Ji 
 
 ^ s i 
 
 ;i^ HM^ u 
 
 c 
 c 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 C 
 
 o 
 . c 
 
 
 o 
 
 rt 
 
 . C 
 
 U^ u 
 
 O 
 
 C 3 1 
 
 3 o :i 
 
 ^-ci 
 
 ■ - ri 
 
 S.1 
 
 ii 
 
 . - O 5 ,-J ,' 
 
 "5 o 
 O c 
 
 22 
 
 
 4-1 U 
 
 C X 
 
 3 
 
 ?-> 3 
 
 rt rt 
 
 C/3 
 
 
 . - -ij -^ 
 
 
 ' "- i; 5 £ 
 
 C rt c ^2 o 
 rt > rt lij u 
 
 rt 
 
 rt -^ 
 rt O^ C 
 
 2- 9- "2 
 
 4 s 
 
 c 
 
 rt 
 
 oJ Q U 
 
 n v•^^ 
 
 rt o 
 
 35 Cii yo O h 
 
 - «-• 
 
 r^ '■'5 
 
 rt ii u rt 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 n z: 
 bo u 
 
 
 t; 3 
 
 •- bO 
 
 r: c 
 
 cS 
 
 e 
 
 3 
 O 
 
 E 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 rt 
 
 H 
 
 2 • 
 2cg 
 
 bX) 
 
 3 
 
 c2 
 
 {^ u u 
 
 
 c -'^ 
 
 
 bJO 
 
 C 
 -, ^ S -3 
 
 rs be c t; 
 2 ^ ■£ 'ii: 
 
 u ^ 
 
 ■5Q h xT rt 
 
 > J3 
 
 O lU 
 
 rt .ii -5 o ^ A 
 
 Oh 
 
 Wi-J2 SJ 
 
 ^- o ta .S - -^ 
 
 3^ 
 
 bO - -W 
 
 3 -i4 C c. 
 
 ^ >- c 
 
 O 
 
 .S 
 
 bO 
 
 
 li o 
 
 o 
 
 l-l 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 
 "-' .G C ■ 
 
 be 
 u 
 3 
 
 c s ? "^ -a 
 
 o o «J " "" 
 « 3 -^ 
 
 C 
 O 
 
 
 li Ui 
 
 G 
 O 
 
 tti 
 
 U 
 
 " -» a ^ t^ r •-• I. 
 
 bc^ tf ^ j=: « . 
 
 5 -,o w bo -*rj 
 
 ^ o 2 >-» 3 7^3 a 
 
 u 4J rt ^< rj j^ Q 
 
 t^^^-i c rt s 
 
 rt - ^ "3 ~ -^ 
 i«! u ^ O - o ^ rt 
 
 5 rt i. bf 3 > 2 .s 
 
 «J Ji ^^ 2 3 rt o J2 
 
 U^ 
 
 , , jv* ^ 3 rt Q ^^ 
 
 o 
 
 U 
 
 (J o c c 
 
 :a 
 
 2;>^!^UZZ?i « S >2wOHUJo 
 
 Aa 
 
278 FEUDAL SYSTEM. 
 
 FEUDAI. SYSTEM. 
 
 Q. AS government and laws are rendered more con- 
 ducive to general happiness in modern, than they were 
 in ancient times ; as the manners of society have ex- 
 perienced a very great improvement in proportion to 
 the wide diffusion of knowledge, and the faculty of 
 communication; as na\igation has enlarged the inter- 
 course of mankind by the discovery of a new world ; 
 and as, moreover, the Kght of reformed Christianity 
 has dispelled much of the darkness of superstition in 
 some nations, and beamed witli splendour upon others : 
 it must surely be a subject of pleasing inquiry, to in- 
 vestigate the causes, which have contrilxiled to pro- 
 duce such extraordinaiy, and such beneficial effects. 
 Enumerate some of those whicli are the most striking 
 in the history of Europe ? 
 
 A. The establishment and abolition of the Feudal 
 system, the crusades, the institution of chivalry, the 
 reformation, and the revival of leaniing. 
 
 Q. What gave rise to the first of these institutions ? 
 
 A. The inhabitants of the north of Europe and Asia, 
 who issued in great multitudes from their native fo- 
 rests, durinj^ the fourth and fifth centuries of the Chris- 
 liiui era, and who overturned the Roman empire, intro- 
 duced a new species of government into the conquered 
 countries, wluch is known by the name of the feudal 
 system. 
 
 Q. What was the plan of the feudal constitution ? 
 
 A. Every freeman or soldier, for the terms were 
 at that period synonymous, upon receiving an allot- 
 ment of conquered lands, bound himself to appear in 
 arms against the common enemy, whenever he should 
 lie called upon by his commander. This military ser- 
 
FEUDAL SYSTEM. 279 
 
 vice v/as the condition upon wliich every one received, 
 and the tenure by which he continued to possess, his 
 lands ; and this obligation was esteemed both easy and 
 honourable. Tlie same service, which a soldier owed 
 to his officer, was due from an olTicer to his king. The 
 king obliged tho:;e among whom he distributed the 
 conquered lands, to repair to his standard ^^ith a num- 
 ber of followers in proportion to the extent of their 
 respective estates, and to assist him in all his expeditions. 
 Thus a feudal kingdom conveys rather the idea of a 
 military thrji a civil establishment. The victorious 
 army taking their posts in diRerent districts of a coun- 
 try, continued to be arranged undey its proper oflicers, 
 and to be subject to martial law. 
 
 Q. What was the principle of policy, upon which this 
 singular establishment was founded ? 
 
 A. Self-defence. The new settlers in a country wish- 
 ed to protect themselves not only against the attacks of 
 the inhabitants whom they had expelled from tlieir 
 possessions, but againbt tlie more formidable inroads of 
 fresh invaders. 
 
 Q. Was not this system replete with many evils ? 
 
 A. Yes ; the po verful vassals of the crown soon ac- 
 quirc:d that laud as unalienable property, which origi- 
 nally was a grant duiing pleasuie, and appix)prLited to 
 themselves titles of lionour, as well as places of trust. 
 In process of time they obtained the power of sovereign 
 jurisdiction, both civil and criminal, within tlieir own 
 domains ; they exercised the privilege of coining money, 
 and carried on wars against their private enemies. 
 Barons possessed of such enormous jx^wcr disdained to 
 consider themselves as subjects, and the consequence 
 was, that a kingdom was broken into as many separate 
 priiicipalitics as it contained powerful nobles. Innu- 
 merable causes of jealousy and discord subsisted be- 
 
280 FEUDAL SYSTEM. 
 
 twcen ll^icm, and gave lisc to constant wars. Every 
 country in liiirope either wasted or kept in continual 
 alarm duiinj^ these feuds, was filled with castles and 
 places of strength, erected for the security of the 
 despotic chieftidn, not against foreign invasion, but 
 donnestic hostilities. The laws enacted by princes and 
 magistrates cornmunded no degree of respect, and the 
 right of retaliation and revenge, was considered as an 
 inherent privilege of those fierce and haughty chief- 
 tains. 
 
 Q. What was the situation of the common class of 
 society ? 
 
 A. They v/ere reduced to all the miseries of slavery. 
 The peasant was considered as tlie mere produce of 
 the soil, and v.as transferred from one lord to anothor 
 with the utensils and cattle of his farm ; and the king, 
 stripped of almost every prerogative, and possessing 
 little more than the empty title of sovereign, had nei- 
 tli^r pov/er to protect the innocent, nor to punish the 
 guilty. A general anarchy, destructive of all the com- 
 forts, which men expect to derive from a state of soci- 
 ety, prevailed. And to complete and confirm these 
 evils, the progress of time gradually fixed and rendered 
 venerable, an estaljlishmcnt, which originated in vio- 
 lence, and was continued with every species of des- 
 potism and injustice. A system which was as hostile 
 to the intellectual as to the moral improvement of the 
 mind ; which banished science and the arts, sunk 
 mankind in gross ignorance, obscured the sacred light 
 of Christianity in the thickest darkness of superstition, 
 and was favourable only to the growth of those steru 
 virtues which are characteristic of uncivilized nations. 
 
 Q. What length of time did this deplorable state of 
 society exist ? 
 
 A. FroiTv the seventh to the eleventh century. From 
 that era may he d «tcd the return of govcrnmentj lawfjj 
 
CRUSADES. 281 
 
 aiid manners, in a contrary direction. The eftect of 
 the Crusades and chivalry upon the feudal system 
 was favourable; and in succeeding times a Aiu'iety 
 of causes began to operate, which checked the licen- 
 tiousness of tiie barons, softened the ferocity of their 
 manners, luid finally put a period to their domination. 
 
 CRUSADES. 
 
 Q. STATE the particulars respecting the Crusades? 
 
 A. Judea, or the Holy Land, was the highest object 
 of veneration to Chriblians of the middle ages. There 
 had lived the son of (io:l ; there he had performed the 
 most astonishing miracles, and there he had sufiercd 
 death for the sins of the world. His sepulchre was 
 pi-oscrved at Jerusalem ; and as a degree of venera- 
 ti**n was annexed to this consecrated place, nearly ap- 
 proaching to idolatry, a visit to it was regarded as the 
 most meritorious service, which could be paid to hea- 
 ven ; and it was eagerly frequented by crowds of 
 pilgrims from every part of Europe. The zealous 
 travellers to Palestine were long exposed to insults, ex- 
 tortions, and cruelty of the ferocious and hostile inha- 
 bitants : but at length their complaints roused the Eu- 
 ropeans to attempt their expidfcion. 
 
 Q. Who was the first mover of this great project ? 
 A. Peter, surnamed the Hermit, a native of Amiens 
 in Picardy. Armed with the authority of pope Ur- 
 ban H. he traversed the countries of Europe, and with 
 rude but pathetic eloquence described the injuries he 
 had received in lus pilgrimage to the holy sepulchre. 
 He quickly kindled the ardour of persons of all ranks. 
 The first converts to this active missionary became the 
 warmest advocates for the expedition. And during its 
 
 Aa 2 
 
282 CRUSADES. 
 
 continuance, great numbers, chiefly consisting of pea- 
 sants, ill provided with necessaries, and whose igno- 
 rance magnifitrd the hopes and diminished the dan- 
 gers of the undertaking, perished in the forests of Hun- 
 gary or on the plains of Asia. Of the first Crusaders, 
 300,000 are said to have fallen a sacrifice to their fa- 
 naticism, before a city was rescued from the infidels. 
 
 Q. Did not this discourai^c the Europeans ? 
 
 A. No ; rather more strongly stimulated than deter- 
 red by this catastrophe, Baldwin, earl of Flanders ; God- 
 frey of Bouillon ; IIugh» count of Vermandois, brother 
 to the king of France ; Raymond count of Thoulouse ; 
 Ivobcrt duke of Normandy, the eldest son of William 
 the Conqueror ; Bohemond and Tancred, who were 
 likewise princes of the Norman race, set out upon the 
 enterprise : all vere cl.iefs of high renown, famed for 
 their prowess in arms, and stimulated by the same in- 
 treirid and fanatical spirit. They were followed by their 
 numerous adherents and vassals, whose services were ei- 
 ther prou^pted by zeal and attachment to their respec- 
 tive lords, or purchased with rewards and promises. 
 
 Q. What wab the result of their expedition ? 
 
 A. After sunVring various hardships and losses, the 
 crusaders at length reached the walls of Jerusalem. 
 Forty days were employed in the siege of the city, at 
 the expiration of which, they took it by assault ; and for- 
 getful of the lessons of mercy taught by their great Mas- 
 ter, whose ensign they bore, they indulged in the rage 
 of promiscuous slaughter, and put all the Jews and 
 Turks, of every age and sex, to the s>vord ; and as a 
 striking instance of the depravity and inconsistency of 
 unredeemed natuie, while their hands and their wea- 
 pons were reeking with the blood of their fellow crea- 
 ^J^es, they surrounded and pressed forward to the re- 
 puted tomb of the Messitdi, and throwing their arms 
 
CRUSADES. 283 
 
 from them, and prostralintj themselves on the earth, 
 they embraced with rapture and tears the sepulchre of 
 the Prince of Peace. Godfrey of Bouillon, the most 
 worthy of the heroes of Christendom, was proclaimed 
 king of Jerusalem. In imitation of his Saviour, he was 
 crowned with thorns ; he rejected the appenda{j;es of 
 royalty, and contented himself with the modest title of 
 defender and baron of the holy sepulchre. His compa- 
 nions, with the exception only of Tancrtd and his adhe- 
 rerits, returned to Europe. 
 
 Q. Did Godfrey hold peaceable possession of Jeru- 
 9L\]cm ? 
 
 A. No; after the departure of his companions, the 
 Turks insulted the garrison, and the short reign of God- 
 frey, which continued only for one year, did not give 
 hinrtime to secure the stability of his ntw kingdom. 
 Baldwin, his successor, surrounded by the exasperated 
 Mahometans, was compelled to solicit reinforcements 
 from the kingdoms of Europe for the support of his de- 
 clining power ; and the fruits of this first crusade, were 
 comprised within the little tei litory of Jerusalem, the 
 dc minion of which was bounded by the term of four- 
 score years. 
 
 Q. Did the wars improperly tci-med the holy wars, 
 cease at that time? 
 
 A. No ; they continued to be recommended in the 
 letters of the pope, and tlie sermons of the clergy, with 
 unabated aixJour and zeal. St. Bernard, famed for his 
 clo^iuence and enthusiastic piety, and the great influence 
 which he had obtained amongst the people, flourished at 
 the beginning of the twelfth century. Armed with the 
 authority of the pope Eugene III. he rekindled the ex- 
 piring flame of military fanaticism. ^Vith a voice, that 
 was in every place obeyed without delay, he called the 
 nation to the protection of the holy sepulchre. The fame 
 
284 CRUSADES. 
 
 ©f his pretended miracles and predictions removed eve- 
 ry doubt of success from the minds of his credulous hear- 
 ers; insomucii, that all who were able to bear arms 
 Mere eager to join in the undertaking. 
 
 Q. Did Bernard become a leader in the expedition 
 which he so zealously recommended ? 
 
 A. No; he pi'udently declined an appointment, which 
 woidd eventually have exposed him to the ridicule, and 
 probably to the resentment of his followers. Conrad III. 
 emperor of Germany, and Louis \'I1. king of France, 
 were the principal agents in the second crusade. The 
 expedition took place in 1 147. Their cavalry was com- 
 posed of 110,000 knij^hts, iuid their immediate attend- 
 ants ; and if even the li.^ht-armed troops, the women 
 and children, the priests and monks, be excluded from 
 the nu'.nber of their tHeciive forces, their number will 
 rise lo four liundred thousand souls. The f.dal errors 
 ofiheir predecessors sug:^ested the safer expedient of a 
 voyage, in preference to a march huo Palestine, and 
 the sea-ports of Genoa, Pisa, and ^'enice, were from this 
 time freciacnted by the crusaders for that purpose. In 
 the Italian states they found more cultivated manners, 
 and greater knowl'jd;j;e than their own country could 
 boast; so that in them, as well as in the metropolis of 
 the east, the most strikinj^ examples of civilizaiton and 
 refinement were furijished to these rude adventureis. 
 
 Q. What was the event of this enterprise ? 
 
 A. U proved more disastrous to tlie cause of the cru- 
 saders, than their first expedition. Manuel, the empe- 
 ror of the Greeks, is accused by his own subjects j of 
 givin"- intelligence of their plans to the Turkish sultan, 
 and of providing tliem with treacherous guides. And 
 the conduct of the Christian leaders was dictated by no 
 sound policy, or vigorous co-operation. Louis of France 
 had scarcely passed the Bosphorus, when he was met by 
 
CRUSADES. 285. 
 
 the returning- emperor, "vvho had lost tlie greatest part^ 
 of his army in a battle on the banks of the Meander. 
 The kin.i^ of France advanced through the same coun- 
 try to a similar fate ; and was glad to shllter the relics 
 of his army in the sea-port of Sataiia. At Jerusalem 
 these unfortunate monarchs met to lament their sad re- 
 verse of fortune. Their martial trains, the slender 
 remnants of mighty armies, were joined to the Christi- 
 an powers of Syria ; and a fruitless siege of Damascus, 
 was the final effort of the second crusade. 
 
 Q. By whom was the third crusade undertaken ? 
 
 A. By Frederick Barbarossa, emperor of Germany, 
 and the kings of England and I ranee, and was most re- 
 markable for the victories of Saladin, tlie temperate, and 
 generous chief of the Saracens. His life exhibited a 
 series of actions, which his rivals in arms would have 
 done Well to have imitated, and which, far frum dis[.;rac- 
 ing, would have reflected honour upon their characters, 
 lie appears not to have been deficient either in literature 
 or science ; and, in the progress of his conquests, he 
 ' respected the arts. When he retook Jerusalem, he 
 treated his captives not only with clemency, but even 
 with kindness. 
 
 Q. Was not Uiciiard of England also distinguished 
 for his military prowess ? 
 
 A. Yes ; he displayed on all occasions of danger and 
 enterprise, the most heroic courage ; but he was oblig- 
 ed to conclude a truce ^^ith Saladin, in consequence of 
 I'hilip of France taking advantage of his absence, and 
 invading his territories in Normandy. Saladin was al- 
 lowed to retain possession of Jerusalem on condition 
 that the holy sepulchre should be open to the visits of 
 ('hristian pilgrims without molestation or tribute. Rich- 
 ard embarked for Europe to endure a long captivity, 
 aud find an early grave j and the space of a few months 
 
286 CRUSADES. 
 
 afier his dcpdilure from the holy Iiind tcrmuiated the? 
 life of Saludin. 
 
 Q. Whiil was the luimber of these crusades ? 
 
 A. Historians have recorded the details of no less 
 than seven, includinr^ a period of 175 years ; in v.hich 
 time numerous armies were led to disgrace the Christi- 
 an name in the cast. The two lust crusades were un- 
 dertaken by Louis IX king of France, whose fleet con- 
 veyed a wcll-tippointed and numerous army to the coasts 
 of E'^ypt ; and there, after an ineffectual display of valour, 
 he was made prisoner, with the greatest part of his no- 
 bles. The king of I'rance was loaded with chains, but 
 Ids deliverance, with that of many of his soldiers, -Was ob- 
 tained by the restitution of Damietta, and the payment 
 of an immense sum of gold. After sixteen years of re- 
 pose this enterprising and bi",otcd monarch again em- 
 barked from l>ance, and undertook the wild project of 
 baptizing the king of Tunis. On thv; bavren sands of 
 Africa, his army, exhausted by fatigue, and sinking un- 
 der the influence of a burning climate, was quickly re- 
 duced to inconsiderable numbers. Louis expired in 
 his tent, and at the moment of his death, his son and 
 successor gave the signal for retreat. 
 
 Q. Where did the Christians resort after the loss of 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 To the city of Acre, about seventy miles distant, 
 which became the metropolis of the Latin Christi- 
 ans ; but to avenge the plunder of some Mahometan 
 villages, and the murder of some Syrian merchants, the 
 sultan Khalil besieged and stormed it, and 60,000 Chris- 
 tians were doomed to death or captivity. The loss of 
 Acre was in fact the loss of the Holy land j and the mc- 
 Jnorable year 1291 terminated the folly, fanaticism, and 
 unprofitable valour of the Christians in the crusades. 
 
 Q. State the advantages which resulted from, these 
 unfortunate v.ars ? 
 
Crusades. 287 
 
 A. Rude and imperfect as the crusaders were, they 
 could not travel throu;^h, and continue in so many inter- 
 estinij countries with indifference ; or behold their vari- 
 ous customs and institutions, without acquiring infor- 
 mation and improvement. Among the Greeks they 
 surveyed the productions of the fine arts, and the valu- 
 able remains of antiquity, the magnificence of the east- 
 ern court, and the models of extensive and curious ma- 
 nufactories. In Asia they beheld the traces of the 
 knowledge and arts, which the patronage of the Caliphs 
 had diffused through the empire. Every object which 
 struck their attention pointed out a far higher state of 
 improvement than their own countries had reached ; eve- 
 ry object, therefore, while it excited the wonderof them 
 all, could nut fail to excite a spirit of imitation among 
 those who were active and ingenious. As these new 
 scenes presented themselves, their eyes were gradually 
 opened to a more extensive prospect of the world, and 
 they acquired new modes of thinking, felt a sense of 
 new wants, and a taste .for new gratifications. 
 
 Q. Were there not other benefits ? 
 
 A. Ves ; various advantages which were neither fore- 
 seen nor expected were derived from the crusades. In the 
 course of their expedition they acquired a taste for the 
 arts and sciences ; and the example of the Arabian and 
 Syrian merchants taught them the value of trade and 
 the use of several manufactures. In the superior refine- 
 ments of Cairo and Constantinople, they discovered va- 
 rious commodities worth importing into Europe. Erom 
 this period is dated the inlroduclion of silk and sugar, 
 which were conveyed into Italy from Greece and Er 
 gypt, and the advantages which resulted from a more 
 enlarged and adventurous traffic to the Pisans, the (je- 
 nocsc and the Venetians, who laid the foundation of the 
 modern commerciai system. 
 
288 CRUSADES. 
 
 Q. What effect had the crusades upon property ? 
 
 A. The most beneficial effects were visible in the al- 
 teration which they occasioned, by the emancipation of 
 vassals from the tyranny of their lords, and by increas- 
 ing the independence of the feudal tenants. Many of the 
 great barons, unable to support the expenses incurred 
 by their expeditions to Palestine, sold their hereditary 
 possessions. The monarchs of different countries took 
 advantage of thesex)pportunitiesof annexing considerable 
 territories to their dominions, and purchased them at a 
 small expense. The fiefs also of barons who died in the 
 holy wars without heirs, reverted to their respective so- 
 vereigns. By these possessions the royal power increas- 
 ed in proportion as that of the nobility declined. 
 
 The great cities of Italy, which had beglm to turn 
 their attention towards commerce, were impatient to 
 shake off the yoke of their insolent lords, and to estab- 
 lish such government, as would make property secure, 
 and the exercise of industry safe and easy. They pur- 
 chased or extorted large immunities and grants from 
 the emperors of Germany ; and other countries, parti- 
 cularly France, followed their example. The great ba- 
 rons were eager to lay hold of this new expedient for 
 raising money, by the sales of charters of independence 
 and enfranchisement to the towns within their domains ; 
 and, in order to procure immediate relief for their exi- 
 gencies, disregarded the consequences which might re* 
 suit from the establishment, and the ascendancy of mu- 
 nicipal power. Thus commenced the privileges grant- 
 ed to corporations, and the rights acquired by commu- 
 nities of citizens. The benefits which accrued to the 
 public at large by these concessions, were of the high- 
 est importance, as they were favourable to regularity 
 and good order, to the extension of freedom, and the 
 exertions of diligence ; the more exact and uniform ad- 
 
CHIVALRY. 289 
 
 ministration of justice, and the comfort and happiness 
 of the inferior classes of society. 
 
 CHIVALRY. 
 
 Q. WHAT is chivalry ? 
 
 A. Chivalry, although commonly considered as a 
 ^Yhimsical institution, the result of caprice, and the 
 source of extravagance ; and althoug hin Spain, under 
 the influence of a romantic gallantry, it gave birth to a 
 series of wild and extravagant adventures which have 
 . been deservedly ridiculed ; yet it was an institution 
 which naturally arose from the state of society in those 
 times, and had a very powerful effect in alleviating the 
 evils of the feudal system, and refining the manners of 
 the European nations. In times when robbery and op- 
 pression universally prevailed, it supplied in many 
 instances, although imperfectly, the place of law; and 
 in the hands of valour was the instrument of humanity 
 and justice. 
 
 Q. When did this institution originate ? 
 A. If chivalry be considered only as a simple cere- 
 mony, by which the youths who were destined for 
 military life received their first arms, the custom was 
 known among the ancient Germans, and was established 
 in France in the reign of Charlemagne, at the com- 
 mencement oF the ninth century ; but chivalry, con- 
 sidered as a civil and military institution, is as late as 
 the eleventh century. France claims the merit of 
 giving this institution its specific character, at the time 
 when that Idngdom was recovering from the dis- 
 
 B b 
 
290 CHIVALRY. 
 
 orders which followed the extinction of the second race 
 of its ir.onarchs. The royal autliority began again to 
 be respected, laws were enacted, corporations were 
 founded, and the numerous fiefs held by the great barons 
 tinder the ^crown, were governed with greater regula- 
 rity. It was in this state of affairs, that the sovereigns 
 and the great lords were desirous of strengthening the 
 feudal ties by adding to the ceremony of doing homage, 
 that of giving arms to their young vassals, previous to 
 their first military expeditions. Every gentleman who 
 was designed for the profession of arms, was trained 
 by a long preparatory course of discipline and ser- 
 vice in some noble family, and was, during his youth, 
 the companion of some warrior of renewn. 
 
 Q. What were the ceremonies which attended his 
 knighthood ? 
 
 A. They were solemn and impressive ; they com- 
 bined the rights of religion with the forms of feudal 
 duty. The candidate for this distinction, accompa- 
 nied by his sponsors and his priest, passed the night 
 previous to his initiation, in watching his arms, and 
 in the duties of prayer. The next morning he re- 
 paired to the bath, the >yater of which was intended 
 to serve as an emblem of the purity of his profession. 
 He then walked to the nearest church, clothed in 
 white garments, and presented his sword to the mi- 
 nister officiating at the altar, who returned it to him 
 with liis benediction. After taking the accustomed 
 oaths to his sovereign, or feudal chief, he was invested 
 by the attendant knights and ladies with certain parts 
 of his armour. The sovereign then rising from his 
 throne, conferred upon him, while kneeling, the honour 
 of knighthood. 
 
 Q. What were the advantages of knighthood ? 
 - A. The privileges attached to it were numerous 
 
CHIVALRY. -91 
 
 and important, and its duties arduous and indispensable. 
 To protect the ladies was an cssentlui part of them. 
 Incapable of takin^g- arm5 for th2 preservation of their 
 prop2rty, and de^litute of the means to prove the pu- 
 rity of their characters, if attacked by malevolence or 
 slander, they would frequently, in those uncivilized 
 times, when law and justice were silenced by violence 
 and force, have seen then* lands become a prey to 
 some tyrannical neij^hbour, or have had their reputa- 
 tion blasted by the breath of calumny, if some knight 
 had not come forward in their defence. To the suc- 
 cour of the distressed, the protection of orphans, the 
 emancipation of captives, and the chastisement of op- 
 pression, he likewise dedicated liis sword and his life. 
 Thus in t]i2 institution of chivalry were blended valour, 
 humanity, justice, honour, courtesy, and gallantry. 
 
 .Q. Were not the combined effects of these soon 
 visible upon the manners of that martial age ? 
 
 A Yes ; the horrors of war were softened, when hu- 
 manity began to be esteemed the ornament of knight- 
 hood. More condescension, aud more affability were 
 introduced, when courtesy was recommended as the 
 most amiable of knightly virtues. A rigid adherence 
 to truth, and the most religious attention to every 
 engagement, became the distinguishi:ig characteristics 
 of every gentleman, because chivalry was regarded as 
 the school of honour. The dispositions and sentiments, 
 which this institution prodviced, were so deeply rooted, 
 that they continued to predominate, long after the spi- 
 rit of cliivalry had evaporated, and the institution 
 began to decline and degenerate. Tlie love of action, 
 the spirit of benevolence, and a more correct mode 
 of thinking — ihe virtues wliich had cither given it birth, 
 or been associiited with it, when once directed to ob- 
 jects that fired ambition, and interested tlie affections, 
 
292 CHIVALRY. 
 
 were not likely to be short in their duration, or partial 
 in their effects, The refined assiduities of men natu- 
 rally directed the attention of women to themselves, 
 as well as to their admirers. The acknowledt^ement 
 of the importance of the female character, produced a 
 considerable improvement in female education. Thus 
 gradually was the merit of the sexes raised, and they 
 were better entitled to the estimation of each other. 
 The men, quitting the insipidity of artificial com- 
 pliment, and the hyperbolical style of passion, which 
 had marked the intercourse of feudal times, became 
 more attentive to simplicity and truth, more engaging; 
 in their address, and softer in their manners. The 
 women became sensible of the importance of support- 
 ing a dignity of behaviour, of improving their talents 
 for conversation, aiid of adorning the charms of nature 
 with elegant accomplishments, and the graces of affa- 
 bility and complaisance. Thus a great change of man- 
 ners was effected by following up a leading principle 
 of the institution of chivalry? and giving a conspicuous 
 place to the female sex in the ranks of society. The 
 passion of love purified by delicacy, Avas heightened by 
 the pleasures of sentiment and imagination ; the sphere 
 of conversaUoTi was enlarged and meliorated ; it gained 
 ii'ioi'c propriety, more vivacity, more wit, and more 
 variety ; social intercourse was divested of formality, 
 and became regulated by the laws of true politeness, 
 
THE REFORMA.TION. 293 
 
 THE REFORMATION OF RELIGION. 
 
 Q. WHAT were the effects of the reformation ? 
 
 A. There is perhaps no occurrence recorded in the 
 annals of mankind, since the first publication of Christi- 
 anity, which has had so considerable an influence in 
 vindicatin,:^ the ri:^hts of conscience, in liberaun.5 the 
 powers of tlie mind from the tyranny of superstition, 
 and in the promotion of general knowledge, as the re- 
 fo'ination of reli.:^ion in the sixteenth century. Pre- 
 vious to tliis event, all Europe bowed beneath the 
 yoke of the church of Rome, and trembled at the 
 name of her sovereigns. The laws, which were is* 
 sued from the Vatican, held emperors, kin^^s, and all 
 their subjects, in the chains of obedience, or rather 
 slavery ; and to resist their autliority, or to examine 
 their reasonableness, required a vigor of understanding-, 
 and an energy of character, of which for many ages 
 few examples were to be found. 
 
 Q. Who was the first most noted reformer ? 
 
 A. Martin Euther ; born at Eisleben in Saxony, m 
 in 1483. He first devoted himself to a monastic life in 
 a convent of Augustine friars, and afterwards was ap- 
 pointed by Frederick, elector of Saxony, professor of 
 philosophy and theology in the new university of 
 Witemberg. Having found a copy of the bible, 
 which had long been neglected, in the library of his 
 convent, he abandoned all other pursuits, and devoted 
 himself to the study of the scripture. The light of 
 truth beamed on his mind — he saw that Christianity 
 was not to be iear;.e:i from the writings of the school- 
 men, or the decrees of c;eneral councils j but from the 
 
 B b 2 
 
•294f THE REFORMATION. 
 
 authority of tlu: sacred writings alone, uncontaminatca 
 by the inventions of men. An opportunity was soon 
 offered him of shewing his zeal for truth, and his ar- 
 dour for its propagation. The Dominican monks were 
 at that time employed by pope Leo X. to sell indulgences 
 for all offences and crimes, for the purpose of recruit- 
 ing his exhausted treasury. Luther, Avith great bold- 
 ness of manner, and strength of argument, preached 
 against the irregularity of their lives, and the vicious 
 tendency of their doctrines. The more he examined 
 the claims of the church of Komc to its empire over 
 ihe reason and conscience of mankind, the more he 
 ascertained their weakness. The discovery of one er- 
 ror naturally led him to the detection of others ; and 
 from refuting the extravagant tenets concerning in- 
 dulgences, he proceeded to expose such as were main- 
 tained respecting pilgrimai^cs and penances, the inter- 
 cession and worship of saints, the abuses of auricular 
 conftssion, and many other doctrines which have no 
 foundation in scripture. 
 
 Q. AVliat were the effects of his arguments ? 
 
 A. They made a deep impression upon his hearers> 
 and his fame was soon spread not only through Ger- 
 many, but various other parts of Europe. At the same 
 time that by his sermons he was diffusing the principles 
 of the reformation ; nothing proved more fatal to 
 the interests of the church of Home, or more sub- 
 versive of its opinions, than his translation of the bible 
 into the German language. The great advantages 
 l^hich resulted from this translation, encouraged the 
 advocates for the reformation in other countries to 
 follow this example, and by publishing versions in 
 their respective languages, they materially promoted 
 the general cause- 
 
THE REFORMATION. 295 
 
 Q. Were there not some who preceded Luther, that 
 vrere advocate-s for the reformation, and others uho 
 were hiscotemporuries, that gave him important assist- 
 ance ? 
 
 A. Ves ; Waldus, in the twelfth century, Wickliff 
 in the fourteenth, ancl Huss in the fifteenth, inveiarhed 
 against the errors of popery witli great boldness ; and 
 Mehmcthon, famed for his genius, learning, and piety, 
 uas the author of the confession of Augsburg, presented 
 by the protestants to the emperor Charles V. at the 
 diet held in that place. 13ucer introduced the doctrines 
 of Luther into the imperial cities upon the Rhine ; and 
 OlaUS disseminated them with equal zeal in Sweden, 
 his native country. Zuinglius and Calvin, not inferior 
 to Luther in zeal and intrepidity, were active in Switzer- 
 land ; arid however they disagreed in their doctrines, 
 and whatever diiTcrence marked some of their opinions, 
 thc-y firmly unitjd in the promotion of this great and 
 perilous design. 
 
 Q. What causes led to the success and popularity of 
 the reformed opinions ? 
 
 A. There were many M'hich contributed to this eflfect. 
 The schisms in the churcli of Rome, the profligate 
 characters of the popes, and the dissolute lives and 
 intolerant dispcjiitioijs of the clergy, had made the 
 people disgusted >\ith an establislimcnt, which under 
 the mask of religion not only encouraged immorality, 
 but granted indulgences for great and flagrant crimes. 
 The recent invention of printing gave rapid circulation 
 to the writings of the reformers, and particularly to the 
 various versions of the bible , and the revival of learning 
 conduced to open the minds of men to free inquiry 
 and critical researches. But the great cause into which 
 
296 THE REFORMATION'. 
 
 all the rest may be resolved, was the supreme dircctioil 
 of Divine Providence, which at this period, shed tiic 
 beams of truth upon a lon^-ben"u];hted world. 
 
 Q. "NV^iiat cficct hud the reformation upon the sove- 
 reign pontiffs. 
 
 A. It not ojily narrowed their dominions, but obliged 
 tliem to adopt a different mode of conduct, and to rule 
 by new maxims of policy. Their behaviour was bent 
 to the urgency of the times : from having been long 
 tyrannical and imperious, tliey becimc condescending, 
 gracious, and mild. Since the reformation, they have 
 continued to govern rather by address and manage- 
 ment, than by doipo'ic authority ; and such has been 
 the great decline of their power, that from wielduig 
 the sceptre of Europe, and being tlie arbiters of all 
 its aflfiiirs, they have bcjn reduced to a levol witii the 
 petty princes of Italy and Ciermany. 
 
 Q. Wsls not literature and the sciences promoted in 
 the Romisli clunxh, by the reformation ? 
 
 A. Yes ; it was found important to combat the refor- 
 mers with their own weapons, and to efTace^he asper- 
 sions, which they threw upon the ignorance and licen- 
 tiousness of the Papists. Hence the attention of the 
 Romish clergy iias been directed to the cultivation of 
 useful and elegant learning, to a degree unknown in 
 former ages ' 
 
 Q. Was there not a similar change in their morals ?• 
 
 A. Yes; they found it was necessary to silence the 
 clamour of their enemies, by a sfip^rior propriety of 
 conduct. They endeavoured to reach the standard, 
 which the reformers, eminent for the purity, and even 
 the austerity of their manners, had set iij). ^iuch were 
 the beneficial effects of an event, which, in apolitical as 
 •well as r» li ">us point of view, is a distinguished ob- 
 iect of regard and admiration. I'he reformation in its 
 
THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 297 
 
 gradual advancement and repeated revivals, has vindi- 
 cated the rights of reason and conscience ; has tauglit 
 the duty, and diiTuscd the blessings of toleration; and 
 while it has held forth the scriptures tljeniselves, as the 
 proper and exclusive standard of religious opinions, it 
 has disseminated the genuine principles of Christianity, 
 purified the faith, improved the manners, and increased 
 the virtue of mankind. 
 
 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 
 
 Q. WHEN did ihe revival of learninp: take place? 
 
 A. Alfred the Great, of England, and Charlemagne, 
 emperor of Germany, who flourished in the ninth cen- 
 tury, shed a strong and vivid lustre over the age in ^vhich 
 they lived. They encouraged learning both by their 
 example and patronage ; but their endeavours were not 
 sufficiently effectual to overcome the gross ignorance 
 of their times. The schools, which they erected, were 
 confined to churches and monasteries, and the contract- 
 ed notions of the monks, who presided over them, ren- 
 dered them wholly inadequate to the task of diffus- 
 ing knowledge in any extensive circle. The reign of 
 barbaricm and ignorance continued, witli little intermis- 
 sion, till the learning, which the Arabians had introduc-. 
 cd into Spain, began to spread through the rest of Eu- 
 rope. 
 
 Q. What did this learning principally consist in ? 
 
 A. Arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, chemistry, me-^ 
 dicine and the philosophy of Aristotle. Several enlight- 
 ooed scholars, who had studied under these Arabians, 
 
298 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 
 
 undertook atthebcg-inning of the eleventh century, the 
 education of youth, particularly in the cities of Italy, 
 and afterwards in those of France, England, and Ger- 
 many. To the prevalence and permancy of these brjln- 
 ches of knowledf^e, the establishment of the universi- 
 ties of Europe, so general in the thirteenth century, 
 was eminently conducive : some, however, were founded 
 rather earlier ; and Paris, and Oxford, carry their pre- 
 tensions to antiquity so hi.jh as the reigns of Charle- 
 magne and Alfred. 
 
 Q. Which of the great seminaries of education, me- 
 rits the title of Mother of the universities ? 
 
 A. Bologna. It was within her walls, during the tu- 
 mults and the disorders of the eleventh century, that 
 learning first attempted to raise her head. In tlie suc- 
 ceeding agCj the almost incredible number often thou- 
 sand students were assembled there, and each country 
 in Europe had its resident, regents and professors. The 
 studies of the civil and canon-law constituted the favour- 
 ite, and almost the exclusive objects of application. Pa- 
 ris directed the attention of her scholars to theology, and 
 nearly with an equal degree of reputation. Oxford be- 
 gan at this time to acquire celebrit,-, and to rival, or lea- 
 ther to surpass its cotemporary universities in the abi- 
 lity of its professors, and the concourse of its numljers ; 
 for in 1340, according to the historian Speed, they 
 amounted to not less than 30,000. Many other uni- 
 vcrsities were not long after founded, particularly in Ita- 
 ly and France. 
 
 Q. What were the reigning subjects in these semi- 
 naries ? 
 
 A. Logic and scholastic divinity. The works of Aris* 
 totle were perused with the greatest avidity ; and the 
 disquisitions of the commentatoi-s upon his di^.lectics, 
 were so favourably received, th.at their authors almo'iC 
 
THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 299 
 
 totally eclipsed the fame of their great master him- 
 self. The syllogistic mode of reasoning was applied to 
 every topic, without discrimination, as tlie best instru- 
 ment in the hands of a subtle disputant to frame the 
 most specious argument, and to perpkx the plainest 
 truths. To make nice distinctions, between one word 
 and another, to separate subjects by infinite divisions, not 
 as the real nature of things, but as fancy suggested ; 
 and to draw conclusions which had no moral whatever, 
 were the incessant pursuits of the schoolmen. 
 
 Q. Who were the most celebrated pf these dispu- 
 tants ? 
 
 A. Lanfranc, Abelard, Petrus Lombardus, Thomas 
 Aquinas, and Duns Scotus : — And while an attachment 
 to the ceremonial and ritual observances of the church 
 of Rome, and the most implicit subserviency to its 
 edicts, and the decrees of its councils, usurped the place 
 of obedience to pure and practical Christianity ; the bul- 
 ky volumes of these schoolmen filled every library, and 
 exercised the understanding of every student. Tiiese 
 were the speculations, which, however dry in pomt of 
 style, and unimproving in point of matter, as they were 
 patronized by the dignitaries of the church, and pursued 
 by men of strong and vigorous minds, engrossed for 
 centuries, the whole attention of universities, interested 
 courts, and were celebrated in every part of Europe. 
 
 Q. When do we discover the first dawnings of mo- 
 dern literature ? 
 
 A. In the cultivation of the language of Provence, and 
 the rude productions of l!ie Ti'oubadours. The first of 
 this order, whose name stands recorded, was William 
 count of Poitou, a nobleman, who distinguished himself 
 by his proAvess in the crusades. IMany of the men of 
 rank, who embarked in the first expedition to tiie holy 
 land, were of that number. And however excepti- 
 
300 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 
 
 onable such writings are justly considered in the pre- 
 sent day, their romances, composed upon the striking 
 subjects of gallantry, war, satire, and history, first awaked 
 Europe from its ignorance and lethargy, amused the 
 minds of men with grotesque and lively images and de- 
 scriptions, and taught them to think, reflect, and judge, 
 upon subjects of imagination. The Troubadours occu- 
 pied the middle place between Gothic ignorance and 
 Italian excellence ; and after this period, literature is 
 indebted to them for raising the earliest fruits of Euro- 
 pean genius, and inspirin;jthe moderns with the love of 
 poetry. The commencement of the crusades, and the 
 close of the fourteenth century, mark the limits of their 
 celebrity. The romance which had its rise in the man- 
 ners of chivalry, fell into disrepute as soon as that in- 
 stitution began to decline. In the fourteenth century 
 men of genius arose in Italy, who resolved to cultivate 
 their native toninie, and to combine with its elegance, 
 the charms of imagination, and the acquirements of 
 classical learning. 
 
 Q. What followed in the succeeding century ? 
 
 A. The subversion of the Roman empire in the 
 east, and the discovery of the art of printing happened 
 nearly at the same period of time. After Constantinople 
 was taken by the Turks, in 14 53, Chrysoloras, Deme- 
 trius Chalcondyles, Johannes Andronicus, Callistus 
 Constantius, Johannes Lascaris, Gaza of Thessalonica, 
 and many other learned Greeks fled into Italy for shel- 
 ter and protection. Into this country they conveyed 
 the valuable works of their ancient writers, which had 
 been preserved in the metropolis of the east. They 
 were eagerly followed by the best Italian scholars, who 
 quickly imbibed a taste for the g-races of genuine poe- 
 try, eloquence, and history. A more useful and sublime 
 philosopny was goon aaopted ; and the scholastic subtil- 
 
THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 297 
 
 ties of logic, and the empty Speculations of metaphysics, 
 Avere gradually superseded by the useful principles of 
 moral philosophy, the maxims of sound criticism, and 
 the acquisitions of elegant learning. 
 
 Q. Was this new kind of erudition encouraged by 
 the popes ? 
 
 A. Yes; they gave it the highest degree of patronage, 
 conceiving its encouragement as an excellent expedi- 
 ent to establish their authority. Such was their liber- 
 ality to scholars, that the court of Rome on a sudden 
 changed its austere character, and became the seat of 
 elegance and urbanity. Nicholas the Fifth, about 1440, 
 offered public rewards at Rome for compositions in 
 the learned languages, appointed professors in the 
 Belles Lettres, and employed intelligent persons to tra- 
 verse all parts of Europe in search of the classic ma- 
 nuscripts, which were concealed in the libraries of mo- 
 nasteries : and Leo X. was conspicuous for his ardour 
 and munificence in the cause of literature. The beau- 
 tiful and sublime ideas which the Italian artists had 
 conceived from the contemplation of ancient statues and 
 temples, were invigorated by the descriptions of Ho- 
 mer and Sophocles. 
 
 Q. Were not these improvements soon received 
 in other countries ? 
 
 A. Yes ; they spread their influence over France, 
 England, Spain, and Hungary. The Greek tongue was 
 introduced into England by William Grocyn : he was 
 fellow of New College Oxford, and died about 1520. 
 To Germany must be allowed a large and distinguish- 
 ed share in the restitution of letters. And the me- 
 chanical genius of Holland added, at an auspicious mo- 
 ment, to all the fortunate events in favour of science, 
 an admirable invention, for to that country the world 
 is indebted for the discovery of the art of printing-, 
 , ■ C c 
 
298 THE UEViVAL OF LEARNING. 
 
 The oiiginal inventor was Laurentius John Coster of 
 Jrlaerlem, wlio made his first essay v. ith wooden types 
 about the year 1450. 
 
 Q. Did the art of printing soon spread through Eu- 
 rope ? 
 
 A. Yes ; it passed to Rome in 1463, and the Roman 
 type was in a sliort time brou;:;ht to great perfection, 
 At the close of the sixteenth century, various editions of 
 books in Syriac, Arabic, Persian and Armenian cha- 
 racters, were published. This admirable discovery was 
 made at a period the most favourable to its reception 
 and improvement. Not only a taste for polite learning 
 began to be fashionable in ihe fifteenth century, but ma- 
 ny persons of the first rank in several parts of Europe, 
 and particuhirly in Italy, distinguished themselves 
 by their love of letters, and their patronage of eminent 
 scholars. As books were thus multiplied, a taste for 
 reading became more general ; and it is very remark- 
 able, that tlic refoi mation of religion, and the revival of 
 classical learning, were reciprocally advantageous ; they 
 reflected mutual light and afTorded mutual assistance. 
 
 Q. Was not the dawn of the reformation in Eng- 
 land obscured by the bigotry of the sanguinary Mary ? 
 A. Yes ; and there were few circumstances in her 
 reign favourable to the growth of polite erudition. It 
 is pleasing however to select one event from the cala- 
 mitous history of her tim.es, vrhich happily concurred 
 with some preceding establishments to diffuse classical 
 knowledge. In 155 i, Trinity college in Oxford was 
 founded by Sir Thomas Pope ; who in the constitution 
 of this society principally inculcates the use and necessi- 
 ty of classical literature, and recommends it as the 
 most important and leading object in his system of 
 academical study. In the subsequent reign of Eliza- 
 beth, an accurate acquaintance with the phrases and all 
 
THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 299 
 
 the peculiarities of the aiicieiit poets, lilotoriaiis, and 
 orators, vv'as made an indkpensable raid almost the 
 principal object in the education, not only of a genile- 
 man, I)ut even of a lady. Auiciig the females of higli 
 distinctiun, who asph'ed to the rcnutaticii cf clasbi' 
 cal scholars^ the queen herself, ar.d the beautiful and 
 unfcrtuniitc lady Jane Cirty, who had f.dlcna victim to 
 the cruelty of queen Mary, were the morA conspicuous, 
 
 Q. Did not this fashion exhibit itself in many ludi- 
 crous extravagancies ? 
 
 A. Yes ; it was conspicuous in various publications, 
 in the shows and p:i^e:.nts exliibited durin.^- the progress 
 of the queen through different parts of her dominions, 
 and in the entertainments held in honour of her, where- 
 in emblems allusive to classical mythology were con- 
 stantly introduced. A relish, however, for reading was 
 first excited in her reii^n, by the numerous translations 
 of the Greek and Roman authors, and of Italian tales 
 into English ; and the works of the writers who flourish- 
 ed in the reign of queen Ann, particularly Addison, Swift, 
 and Dryden, divested learning of its stiffness, revived a 
 just taste for the classics, and had great influence in mak- 
 ing the perusal of books a popular anmsement. Since 
 that time, books of all hinds, in every civilized country, 
 have been pi'oduced, and the press has supplied the 
 means of niultiplyinr;; them to a degree which exceeds 
 the power of calculation. 
 
 Q. Ir, not the press subject to great abuse ? 
 
 A. Yes ; it is too frequently made the instrument for 
 the propa.^ation of insignificant^ licentious, and pernici- 
 ous works, destructive to morals and hostile to religion. 
 It has perhaps done more mischief by the diffusion of 
 the principles of anarchy and atheism in the present age, 
 tlian the sword or the cannon ; hut, happily for mankind, 
 the antidote grows in the s.^mc soil, where the poison 
 
3C0 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 
 
 sprinc;s up in such luxuiiance. Let us consider what 
 the presB has effected, and what it may still produce for 
 the advantac^e, tlic instruction, and the delight of man- 
 kind. Its benLfita arc as extensive as they are various. 
 It Is, the safeguard of liberty, when used to protect the 
 constitution against the cibals of party. It is the t.lly of 
 religion, when it supplies the world with the productions 
 of the learned and the pious, who labour to disseminate 
 the precepts of genuine Christianity. It furnishes the 
 means of rational improvement and amusement in the 
 houi^ of leisure and of sickness ; communicates instruc- 
 tion to the young and entertainment to Ihc old, and. 
 spreads these enjoyments far and wide, to every people 
 of the globe. We have therefore sufficient cause to be 
 thankful that we are born at a time in which we are res- 
 cued from the gross ignorance that enveloped our ances- 
 tors : when the light of pure religion and useful know- 
 ledge is diffused around us, and when, provided that our 
 moral improvement keep pace, in a due degree, with 
 our intellectual proficiency, we may be virtuous as well 
 as enlightened ; and under the inestimable blessing of 
 liberty of conscience, may pursue in tranquillity, the im- 
 provement of the understtUiding and the heart, so as to 
 become useful a.s well as happy. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 
 
 Of Remarkabh' Evnita^ Discoverirs and Inven'Aons^from 
 the Crea'.Um to the Year 1804. 
 
 Befcie Cbrif. 
 
 4004 The crestion of the world, ;:nd Adam and Hve. 
 
 4003 'ihe birth of Cain, the firft who w as horn of woman. 
 
 3017 Enoch for his piety, is tranfluted to hcavtn. 
 
 23481 he old world is deftroyed by a deluge which contiriued 
 
 377 days. 
 Z248 The tower of Babel is built about this time by Noah's 
 
 pofrerity, upon which God miraculoufly confounds their 
 
 lanoruage, and thus difptrfcs them into different nations. 
 a237 About this time, Noah is, with great prob^-bility, fupjiofed 
 
 to havq parted from his rebellious ofTspring, and to have 
 
 led a colony of fome of the more trainable into tiie eaft, 
 
 and there cither he, or one of his fuccelTors to have 
 
 founded the ancient Chinefe monarchy. 
 !2234 The celeflial obfervutions are begun at Babylon, the city 
 
 which firft gave birth to lear'iing and the fcitnccs. 
 ai88 Mifraim, the fon of Mum, founds the kingdom of Egypt. 
 192a The covenant of God made with Abram, when he leaves 
 
 Haran to go into Canaan, which begins the 430 years of 
 
 fojourning. 
 1897 The cities of Sodom and'Gomorrah are deftroyed for their 
 
 wichedncfs, by fire from heaven. 
 1836 The kingdom of Argos, in Grcec"-, begins under Inachus. 
 l8a2 Mijmnonj the Egyptian, invents the letters. 
 
 c: C 2 
 
502 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 Befor: Clrijl. 
 
 1715 Prometheus firft ftruck fire from flints. 
 
 1635 Jofeph dies in F-gypt. 
 
 1574 Aaron born in Hgypt; I490, appointed by God firft high 
 prieft of tlie Ifraelitts. 
 
 15 7 1 Mofes, brother to Aaron, born in Egypt, and adopted by 
 Pharaoh's daughter, who educates him in all the learnhig 
 of the Egyptians. 
 
 1556 Cccrops brings a colony of Saites from Egypt, into Attica, 
 and begins the kingdom of Athens in Greece. 
 
 1546 Scamander comes from Crete into Phrygia, and begins the- 
 kingdom of Troy. 
 
 1503 Dv-'luge of Deucalion in Theffaly. 
 
 1496 The council of Aniphidynns eftablifhed at Thermopylae. 
 
 1493 C:admus carried the Phenician letters into Greece and 
 built the citadel of Thebes. 
 
 1 49 1 Mofes performs a number of miracles in Egypt, and de- 
 parts from that kingdom, together with 600,000 Ifrael- 
 ites, befides children, which completed the 430 years fo- 
 jnurning. 
 
 1490 Sparta built by Lacedemon. 
 
 1 485 The firft fliip that appeared in Greece, was brought from 
 Egypt by Danaus, who arrived at Rhodes and brought 
 with him his fifty daughters. 
 
 1480 Troy built by Dardanus. 
 
 145a The Pentateuch, or five books of Mofes, are written in the 
 land of Moab, where he died in the year following, aged no. 
 
 1406 Iron is found in Greece, from the accidental burning of the 
 woods. 
 
 1344 The kingdom of Mycenx begins. 
 
 1326 The Ifthmian games inftituted at Corinth. 
 
 1325 Egyptian canicular yearb-gan July 20. 
 
 1307 The Olympic games inftituted by Pelops. 
 
 ^300 The Lupercalia: inftituted. 
 
 1294 The firft colony came from Italy into Sicily. 
 
 1264 Thefccond colony came from Italy into Sicily.. 
 
 1252 The city of Tyre built. 
 
 1243 A colony of Arcadians condudled by Evander into Italy. 
 
 1225 The Argonautic expedition. 
 
 1204 The rape of Helen by Paris, which gave rife to the Tro- 
 jan war ending with the deftrudion of the city in 1 184. 
 
 J 1 76 Salamis in Cyprus built by Teuctr. 
 
 1 152 / fcanius builds Alba Longa. 
 
 1130 The kingdom of SIcyon ended. 
 
 II24 Thebes built by Boeotians. 
 
 1115 The mariner's compafs known in China. 
 
 jj04The expedition of Heraclidse into Peloponnefus ; the mi- 
 gration of the Dorians thither, and the end of the king- 
 dom of Mycenai. 
 
 ^ici The kingdom of Sparta commenced. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 303 
 
 Before Chrijl. 
 
 1070 The kingdom of Athens ended. 
 105 1 David befieged and took Jerufalem. 
 1044 Migration of the Ionian colonies. 
 10.5 The temple is folemnly dedicated by Solomon. 
 996 Solomon prepared a fleet on the Redfca to fend to Ophir. 
 986 Samos and Utica in Africa built. 
 979 The kingdom of Ifrael divided. 
 
 974 Jerufalem taken and plundered by Shilhak king of Egypt. 
 911 The prophet Elijah flourilhed. 
 894 Money firft made of gold and filver at Argos. 
 884 Olympic games reflored by Iphitus and Lycurgui. 
 873 The ait of Sculpture in marble found out. 
 869 Scales and meafurcs invented by Phidon. 
 864 The city of Carthage, in Africa, founded by queen Dido. 
 821 Nineveh taken by Arbaces. 
 814 The kingdom of Macedon begins. 
 8ci The city of Capua in Campania built. 
 799 The kingdom of Lydia began. 
 
 786 The fhips called Triremes invented by the Corinthians* 
 779 The race of kiiigs in Corinth ended. 
 776 The era of Olympiads began. 
 760 The tphori eftablifhed at Sparta. 
 758 ^vracufe built by Archias of Corinth. 
 754 The government of Athens changed. 
 753 Lra of the building of Rome in Italy by Romulus. 
 746 The Era of NabonalTar commenced on the 26th of Fe- 
 bruary ; the firft'day of Thoth. 
 746 The government of Corinth changed into a republic. 
 743 The firft v/ar between the Meffenians and Spartans. 
 724 Mycenx reduced by the Spartans. 
 
 723 A colony of the Meffenians fettled at Rhegium in Italy. 
 721 Samaria taken, after a three years fitfge, and the kmgdom 
 
 of Ifrael fmifhed by Salmanazcr king of Affyria, wh» 
 
 carries the ten tribes into captivity. 
 72c The firft eclipfe (;f the Moon on record. 
 713 Gela in Sicily built. 
 
 703 Corcyra, new Corfu, founder of the Corinthians. 
 702 Ecbatan in Media hu.lt by Deioces. 
 685 The fecond MefTenian war under Ariftonienes. 
 670 Byzantium (now Conftantinople) built by a colony of 
 
 Athenians. 
 666 The city of Alba deftroyed. 
 648 Cyrene in Africa founded. 
 634 Cyaxares befieges Nineveh, but is obliged to raife the (lege 
 
 by an incurfion of the Scythians, who remained maftefs 
 
 of Afia for twenty-eight years 
 624 Draco pubbfhed his inhuman laws at Athens. 
 610 Pharaoh Necho attempted to make a canal from the Nile to 
 
 the Red fea,but was not able to accomphlh it. 
 
304 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 Btfore Chriji. 
 6c7 By order of the fame monarch, fome Phenlclans failed from 
 the Red fea round Africa and returned by the Mediter- 
 ranean. 
 
 606 The firfl captivity of tlie Jews by Nebuchadnezzar, Nine- 
 veh deftroyeci by Cyaxarcs. 
 
 600 Thales, of Miletus, travels into Egypt, confults the priefts 
 of ]Memphis, acquires the knowledg-e of geometry, af- 
 tronomy, and philofophy ; returns to Greece, calculates 
 > eclipfes, gives general notions of the univerfe, and main- 
 tains that an only fupreme intelligence regulates all its 
 motions. ATaps, globes, and the figns of the zodiac, in- 
 vented by Anaximande^r, the fcholar of Thales. 
 
 598 Jchoakin, king of Judah, is carried away captive, by Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, to Babylon. 
 
 594 Solon made archon at Athens. 
 
 591 I'he Pythian gr.mes inftituted in Greece, and tragedy flrft 
 aiSlcd. 
 
 588 The firfl irruption of the Gauls into Italy. 
 
 586 The city of Joriifalem tahen, after a fiege of 1 8 mont^. 
 
 581 The lait captivity of the Jews by Nebuchadnezzar. 
 
 581 The Ifihmian games rellored. 
 
 580 Money firfl: coined at Rome. 
 
 571 Tyre taken by Nebuchadnezzar after a ficge of thirteen 
 years. 
 
 566 The firfl ccnfus at Rome, when the number of citizens was 
 found to be 84,000. 
 
 562 The firtl comedy at Athens adled upon a moveable fcaffold. 
 
 55^ Cyrus the firfl king of Perfia. 
 
 f^l'i I he kingdom of Babylon finifhed, that city being taken 
 by Cyrus, who, in 536, gives an cdiifl for the return of 
 the Jews. 
 
 534 The foundation of the temple laid by the Jews 
 
 526 Learning is greatly encouraged at Athens, and a public li- 
 brary firfl founJed. 
 
 ^^-^ The fecond edicl to rebuild Jerufalem. 
 
 515 The fecoi:d temple at Jerufalem is finifhed under Darius. 
 
 510 Hippias banifhed from Athens. 
 
 509 Tarquin the VIl. and lafl king of the R-omans, is expelled, 
 and Rome is governed by two confuls, and other rej-ub- 
 lican magiflrates, until the battle of Pharfalia, being a 
 fpace of 461 years. 
 
 50f; The firfl alliance between the Romans and Carthaginians. 
 
 507 The fecond cenfus at Rome, 130,000 citizens. 
 
 504 Sardis taken and burnt by the Athenians, which gave oc- 
 cafion to the Porfian invafion of Greece. 
 
 498 The firil dictator appointed at Rome. 
 
 497 Saturnalia inflitutcd at Rome. The number of citizens 
 150,700. 
 
 493 Tribunes created at Rome J or in 488 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TAELE. 305 
 
 Before Chrlji. 
 490 The battle of Marathon, September 28th 
 .J 86 -(Efchylus, the Greek pcet, firft gains the prize of tra- 
 gedy. 
 483 Queftors created at Rome. 
 481 Xerxes, king of Pcrfia, begins his expedition againft 
 
 Greece. 
 480 The defence of Thermopylae by Leonidas, and the fea fight at 
 
 Salamls. 
 476 The number cf Roman citizens reduced to 103,000. 
 469 The third MeiTenian war. 
 
 466 The number of Roman citizens increafed to 124,214. 
 458 Lzra is fent from Babylon to Jerufalem, with the captive 
 
 Jews, and the vtiTels cf gold and filver, &c. being fevcnty, 
 
 weeks of years, or 490 years before the crucifixion of 
 
 our Saviour. 
 56The Ludi Seculares firft celebrated at Rome. 
 454 The Romans fent to Athens for Solon's laws. 
 451 The Decemvirs created at Rome, and the laws of the twelrc 
 
 tables compiled and ratified. 
 449 The Decemvirs banifhed. 
 
 445 Military tribunes, with confular power, created at Rome. 
 443 Ccnfor* created at Rome. 
 441 The Batterijig Ram invented by Artemoncs. 
 432 The Metonic cycle began July 15th. 
 431 The Pcloponnefian war began and lafted 27 years. 
 430 The hiftory of the Old Teftament finifhcs about this time. A 
 
 plague over the known world. Malachi the laft of the 
 
 prophets. 
 405 The Athenians entirely defeated by Lyfander, which occa- 
 
 fions the lofs of the city and the ruin of the Athenian 
 
 power. 
 401 The retreat of the 10,000 Greeks under Xenophon. The 
 
 thirty tyrants expelled from Athens and democratic govern- 
 ment rcftored. 
 400 Socrates, the founder of moral philofophy among the Greeks, 
 
 believes in the immortality of the foul, a ftate of rewards 
 
 and punifhmcnts; for which, and other fublime dodrincs, he 
 
 is put to death by the Athenians, who foon after repent 
 
 and ercdl to his memory a ftatue of brafs. 
 399 1 be fcaft of Ledifternium inftituted. Catapults invented 
 
 by Dionyfius. 
 394 The Corinthian war begun. 
 390 Rome burnt by the Gauls. 
 387 The peace of Antalcidas between the Greeks and Perfians. 
 
 The number of Roman citizens amounted to 152,583. 
 384 Dionyfius begins the Punic war. 
 379 The Boeotian war commences. 
 377 A general confpiracy of the Greek ftates againfl: the Lace- 
 
 dt:Bionians. 
 
506 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 Before Chr'Jl. 
 373 A great c.rtliquake in Pclopor.ncfus. 
 
 371 The Laeedemoniaiis defeated by Epaminontlas at Lcuv5lra. 
 
 367 Pru;tors cftabl'-fhed in Rome. The I>icinian law puffed. 
 
 363 Epaniinondas killed at the battle of Mantinca. 
 
 359 The Obliquity of the ecl-ptic obferved to be 23"^ 49' 10''. 
 
 358 'I'he focial v. ar btgan. 
 
 357 Dionyfius expelled from Syracufc 
 
 A traiifit of the moon over Mars obferved. 
 
 356 The facred war begun in Greece. Birth of Alexander the 
 Great. 
 
 343 Dionyfiis II. expelled from Syracufe. Commencement of the 
 Syracufian era. 
 
 338 Philip of Macedon, guins the battle of Chxronaca, and 
 thus attains the fovcreignty of Greece. 
 
 2)2 S Thebes taken and rafed by Alexander the Great. 
 
 334 The Perfians defeated at Granicus, May twcnty-fecond. 
 
 2,2,i They are again defeated at Iffusin Cilicia, Odtobcr. 
 
 33 Z Alexander takes Tyre and marches to Jerufalem. 
 
 331 Alexandria built. 
 
 330 Alexander takes Babylon and the principal cities of th« 
 Pcrfian empire. The calippic period commences. 
 
 328 Alexander paffes Mount Caucafus and marches into India. 
 
 327 He defeats Porus an Indian prince, and founds fevcral cities. 
 
 326 The famous fedition of Corey ra. 
 
 324 His family exterminated and his dominions parted by hi« 
 officers. 
 
 323 Alexander the Great dies at Babylon. 
 
 315 Rhodes almoft deftroyed by an inundation. 
 
 311 The Appian way, aquedu«fls, <Scc. conftrudled at Rome. 
 
 308 The cities of Greece recover their liberties for a short time. 
 
 307 Antloch, Selcucia, Laodicca and other cities founded by bo>- 
 leucus. 
 
 501 Antigonus defeated and killed at Ipfus. 
 
 299 The firft barbers came from Sicily to Rome. 
 
 294 The number of effedlive men in Rome amount to 270,000. 
 
 293 The firfl fun-dial erected at Rome by Papirius Curfor. 
 
 285 Dionyfius, of Alexandria, began his agronomical era on the 
 26th of June, being the firft who found the cxadl folar 
 year to conCil of 365 days 5 hours and 49 minutes. The 
 watch tower of Pharos at Alexandria built. Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus, king of Egypt, employs 72 interpreters to 
 tranflate the Old Teflament into the Greek language, 
 which is called the Scptuagint. 
 
 284 The fcundations of the Achaean republic laid. 
 
 283 The college and library founded at Alexandria. 
 
 482 The 'I'arentine wr.r begins. 
 
 2oO Pyrrhus invades Italy. 
 
 279 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 2*8, 222^ 
 
 469 The firft coining of filver at Rome. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 307 
 
 Before Chrijl. 
 
 i6s The number of Roman citizens augmented to 292,424. 
 264 The firft Punic war begins, and continues 23 years. The 
 
 chronology of the Arundelian marbles compofed. 
 261 A tranfit of Mercury over the Bull's horn ; the planet 
 
 being in 23^ of y^, and the fun in 29^30' fS 
 260 Provincial queftors eftablifbed at Rome. The Romans 
 firll concern thcmfelves in naval affairs and defeat the 
 Carthaginians at fea. 
 255 Rcgulus, the Roman conful, dcf^^atcd and taken prlfonft" 
 
 by the Carthaginians under Xantippus. 
 252 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 297,897. 
 247 Another cenfus. The number of citizens, 251,212. 
 246 The records of China deflroyed. 240 Condufion of the firft 
 
 Punic var 
 240 Comedies firft a<Sled at Rome. 
 237 Hamilcar, the Carthaginian, caufcs his fon Hannibal, at 
 
 nine years old, to fwear eternal enmity to the Romans. 
 236 The Tartr^rs expelled from China. 
 235 Rome at peace with other nations. The temple of Janus 
 
 fhut. 
 231 Corfica and Sardinia fubdued by the Romans. The firft 
 
 divorce at Rome. 
 230 The obliquity of the ecliptic obfcrved by Eratofthencs to 
 
 be 23^51' 20". 
 224 The Coloflus at Rhodes overturned by an earthquake. 
 219 The art of furgery introduced at Rome. 
 218 Commencement of the fccond Punic ys-ar. Hannibal paflcs 
 
 the Alps and invades Italy. 
 216 The Romans defeated at Cannae, May 21ft. 
 214 Syracufe befieged by Marcellus. 
 
 209 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 227,107. 
 ao8 Afdrubal invades Itaiy ; but is defeated and killed. 
 206 Gold firft coined at Rome. 
 202 Hannibal defeated by Scipio at Zama. 
 201 Conclufion of the fecond Punic war. 
 194 Sparta and Hither Spain fubdued by the Romans. 
 192 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 243,704. 
 191 Antiochus defeated by the Romans at Thermopylx. 
 190 The firft Roman army enters Afia, and from the fpoils of 
 
 Antiochus brings the Afiatic luxury firft to Rome. 
 188 The Spartans obliged to renounce the inftitutions of Ly- 
 
 curgus. 
 179 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 212,805. 
 173 The Jewifti high-priefthood fold by Antiochus Epiphanes. 
 170 Paper invented in China. The temple of Jerufalem plun- 
 dered by Antiochus. 
 169 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 327,032. 
 168 The firft library credled at Rome. 
 165 The temple of Jerufalem purified by Judas Maccabeus. 
 
308 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 Before Chr'ijl. 
 l6a Hipparchus began his aflronomlcal obfervations at Rhodes. 
 l6i Philofophers and rhetoricians banifhed from Rome. 
 150 The third Punic war commenced. 
 
 146 Corinth deftroyed. Carthage, the rival to Rome, is rafed 
 to the ground by the Romans. A remarkable comet 
 appeared in Greece. 
 143 Hipparchus began his new cycle of the moon, conflfting of 
 
 111,035 days. 
 141 The Nuniantine war commenced. 
 135 The hiftory of the Apocrj'pha ends. 
 133 Numantia deftroyed by Scipio. 
 
 124 A ccnfus at Rome. The number of citizens 390,736. 
 105 The Cimbri and Teutones defeated the Romans. 
 102 The Teutones and Ambrones defeated by Marius. 
 88 Rome bcfieged by the chiefs of the Marian fadion. 
 82 Sylla created perpetual didlator at Rome. 
 69 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 450,000 
 66 Cataline's confpiracy. 
 ^^ Julius Cxfar makes his firft expedition into Britain. Craf- 
 
 fus defeated and killed by the Parthians. 
 51 Gaul reduced to a Roman province. 
 50 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 320,000. 
 48 The battle of Pharfalia, between Cxfar and Pompcy, in 
 which the latter is defeated. The Alexandrian library, 
 confiding of 400,000 valuable books, burnt by accident. 
 45 The war of Africa, in which Cato kills himfelf. The folar 
 
 year introduced by Caefar. 
 44 Cxfar, the greatefl of the Roman conquerors, after having 
 fought fifty pitched battles, and flain 1,192,000 men, !ss 
 killed in the fenate houfe by confpirators. 
 42 The republicans defeated at Philippi. 
 
 31 The battle of AAium fought in which Mark Anthony 
 and Cleopatra are totally defeated by Odlavius nephew 
 to Julius Ca;far. 
 30 Alexandria in Egypt is taken by Odtavius, upon which 
 Antony and Cleopatra put themfelvcs to death, and 
 Eg^'pt is reduced to a Roman province. 
 29 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 4,101,017. 
 27 Odavius, by a decree of the fenate, obtains the title of 
 Auguftus Caefar, and an abfolute exemption from the 
 laws, and is properly the firft Roman emperor. 
 19 Rome at the height of its glory. The temple of Jerufalem 
 rebuilt by Herod. Agrippa conftrudled the magnificent 
 aquefluvSts at Rome. 
 8 A cenlus at Rome. The number of citizens 4,233,000. 
 5 The temple of Janus ts (hut by A.uguflus, as an emblem 
 
 of univerfal peace, and, 
 Jesus Christ is born, on the 25th of December. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLli. Slit 
 
 After Chrtji. 
 
 I The vulgar Chriftian era commenced from January, t>ie 
 
 Saviour of the vi-'orld being then live years of age. 
 8 Jefus Chrift difputes with the doAors in the temple. 
 14 A cenfus at Rome, 4,037,000 citizens. 
 
 16 rvlathematicians and magicians expelled from Rome. 
 
 17 Twelve cities in Afia deilroyed by an earthquake. 
 27 Pilate made governor of Judea. 
 
 29 Jefus baptized in Jordan by John. 
 2il He is crucified at Jerufalem. 
 ■^}) St. Paul converted. 
 
 39 St. Matthew writes his gofpel. Pontius Pilate kills himfelf. 
 
 A conjundion of Saturn, Jupiter and Mars. 
 
 40 The name of Chriftians firil given to the followers of Chrifi: 
 
 43 Claudius Cacfar's expedition into Britain. 
 
 44 St. Mark writes his Gofpel. 
 
 50 London is founded by the Romans : 368, furrounded by 
 
 ditto with a wall, fome parts of which are ftill obfervable. 
 ijl Caradacus, the Britifh king, is carried in chains to Rome. 
 52 The council of the apoilles at Jerufalem. 
 
 55 St. Luke writes his gofpel. 
 
 56 Rotterdam built. 
 
 ^9 The emperor Nero puts his mother and brothers to death. 
 
 — Perfecutes the Druids in Britain. 
 
 60 Chrlftianity introduced into Britain. 
 
 61 Boadicea, the Britilli queen, defeats the Romans, but is con- 
 
 quered foon after .by Suetonius, governor of Britain. 
 
 62 St. Paul is sent in bonds to Rome — writes his epiflles be- 
 
 tween 51 and 66. 
 
 63 The ads of the apoftles written. 
 
 — A great earthquake in Afia. 
 
 64 Rome fet on fire, and burned for fix days; upon which began 
 
 (under Nero) the firft perfecution againft the Chrifl:ians. 
 
 65 Many prodigies feen about Jerufalem. 
 
 66 St. Peter and St. Paul put to death. 
 
 70 While the fadious Jews are dcftroying one another with 
 mutual fury, Titus the Roman general, takes Jerufalem, 
 which is rafed to the ground and the plough made to pafs 
 over it. 
 
 73 The philofophers banifhed from Rome by Vcfpafian. 
 
 79 The cities of Pompeii and Herculanium deftroyed by an 
 
 eruption of Vefuvius. 
 
 80 The capitol and Pantheon at Rome deftroyed by fire. 
 83 The philofophers expelled Rome by Domitian. 
 
 85 Julius Agricola, governor of South Britain, to proted the 
 civilized Bxitons from the incurflons of the Caledonians, 
 builds a line of forts between the rivers Forth and Clyde ; 
 defeats the Caledonians under Galgacus on the Grampian 
 hills; and firft fails round Britain, which he difcovers to be 
 an ifl&nd. 
 
 Dd 
 
314 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 ////.,• chr:j}. 
 
 86 The Capitoline games inftltuted by Domltlan. 
 88 The Secular games celebrated at Rome. 
 
 95 The empire of the Huns in Tartary cleftroyed by the Chinefc. 
 — The Evangelift John banifhcd to Patmos. 
 
 94 The fecond pcrfccution of tlie Chriftians under Domitian. 
 
 96 St. John the Evangtlilt wrote his revelation — his gofpcl 
 
 in 97. 
 103 Dacia reduced to a Roman province. 
 105 A great earthquake in Afia and Greece. 
 107 The third perfecution of the Chriftians under Trajan. 
 
 114 Armenia reduced to a Roman province. A great earth- 
 
 quake in China. 
 
 115 Aflyria fubducd by Trajan. An infurredion of the Jews 
 
 who murdered 200,000 Greeks and Romans. A violent 
 earthquake at Antioch. 
 
 120 Nicomedia and other cities fwallowed up by an earth- 
 
 quake. 
 
 121 The Caledonians reconquer from the Romans all the South- 
 
 ern parts of Scotland ; upon which the emperor Adrian 
 builds a wall between Ncwcaftle and Carlifle ; but this 
 alfo proving ineffeiftual, Poilius Urbacus, the Roman ge- 
 neral, about the year 134, repairs Agricola's forts, which 
 he joins by a wall four yards thick. 
 
 130 Jerufalem rebuilt by Adrian. 
 
 13 Z The fecond Jcwilh war commenced. 
 
 135 The fecond J ewifh war ends, when they were all banlfhed 
 Judca. 
 
 139 Juftin writes his firft apology for the Chriftians. 
 
 1 41 /\ number of herefies appear about this time. 
 
 146 The worfti'p of Serapis introduced at Rome. 
 
 15 2 The emperor Antoninus Pius ftops the perfecution againft 
 the Chriftians. An inundation of the I'yber, and an 
 earthquake at Rhodes. 
 
 163 The fourth perfecution of the Chriftians under Marcus Au- 
 relius Antoninui. 
 
 166 The Romans fent ambafladors to China. 
 
 16*8 A plague over the known world. 
 
 188 The cap'tol at Rome deftroycd by lightning. 
 
 191 A great part of Rome deftroyed by fire. 
 
 ao3 The fifth perfecution of the Chriftians, under Severus. 
 
 105 .-\ji earthquake in Wales. 
 
 209 Severus's wall in Britain built. 
 
 218 Two comets appeared at Rome. The courfe of the moil re- 
 ir.arkable from eaft to weft. 
 
 22 2 About this time the P.oman empire begins to decline. The 
 Barbir'ans begin their irruptions and the Goths have an- 
 nua! tribute not to moleft the empire. 
 
 125 Mather icians allowed to teach publicly at Rome. 
 
 236 The fixtii oerfecution of the Chriftians under Maximin. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 3l5 
 
 Afur Chrlji. ^ 
 
 241 The Franks firft mentioned in hiftory. 
 250 The feventh pcrfecution, under Decius. 
 ijz A dreadful peililence broke out in Ethiopia, and fj>read over 
 
 the world. 'Jhe eighth pcrfecution, under Gallus. 
 253 Furope ravaged by the Scythians and Goths. 
 158 The ninth perfecution, under Valerian. ^ 
 260 Valerian is taken prifoner by Sapor, king of Perfia, and flead 
 
 alive. 'Jhe Scythians ravaged the Roman empire. The 
 
 temple of Diana at Ephefus burnt, 
 a 61 A great plague throughout the Rom;:n empire. 
 262 Earthquakes in Lurope, Afia, and Africa, and three days of 
 
 d?.rknef3. 
 
 273 The Romans took Palmyra. 
 
 274 Silk firll brought from India; the manufaflory of it intro- 
 
 duced into Europe by fome monks, 551 ; firft. worn by the 
 clergy in England, Iji34. 
 
 276 Wines lirfl made in England. 
 
 277 The Eranks fettled in Gaul. 
 
 284 The Dioclefian era commenced Auguft 29, or September 1 7. 
 
 287 Caraufius proclaimed emperor of Britain. 
 
 289 A great comet vifible in Mefopotamia for 29 day?. 
 
 291 Two emperors and two Cafars marched to defend the four 
 
 quarters of the empire. 
 297 Alexandria deftroyed by Dioclefian. 
 303 The tenth perfecution under Dioclefian. 
 306 Conftantine the great begins his reign. 
 308 Cardinals full began. 
 
 312 Peftilcnce all over the E:'.ft. Cycle of indudlon began. 
 
 313 The tenth perfecution ends by an edivft of Conftantine, wno 
 
 favours the Chrillians, and gives full lil)crty to their religion. 
 
 314 Three bifliops or fathtTs are fent from Britain to afiill at the 
 
 council of Aries. 
 
 315 Crucifixion abolifhed. 
 
 321 Obfervation of Sunday enjoined. 
 
 323 The firfl: general council at Nice, when 318 fathers attended 
 au^ainft Arius, the founder of Arianifm, where was compof- 
 ed the f.imous Nicene creed, which we attribute ti> them. 
 
 328 Conftantine removes the feat of empire from Rome to By- 
 zantium, which is thereafter cr.lled Conflautinople. 
 
 330 A dreadful perfecution of the Chriftians in Pwrfia, which kill- 
 
 ed forty years. 
 
 331 Conflantine orders all the heathen temples to be deftroyed. 
 354 300,000 Sarmatians revolted from their mafters. 
 
 341 The gofpel propagated in Juhiopiaby Foumcntiu!-. 
 344 Neoc.-efarea ruined by an earthquake. 
 351 "I'hc heathens firft called lagans. 
 
 "338 An hundred and fifty cities in Afia aud Gr.cc: ovcrtyned 
 by an earthquake. 
 
316 CHRONOLOGICAL rABLE. 
 
 After Chrljl. 
 360 Firft monaftery founded near Politicrs in France by Martin. 
 
 363 The Roman cir.peror Julian, furnamcd the Apoftate, endea- 
 
 vours in vain to rebuild the temple of jtrufalem. 
 
 364 The Roman empire is divided into the Eaftern (Conftanti- 
 
 nople the capital) and Weftern (of which Rome continued 
 to he the capital) each being now under the government of 
 different emperors. 
 
 373 '^ be Bible tranflated into the Gothic language. 
 
 376 The Goths fettled in Thrace. 
 
 379 The cycle of Theoj liilus commenced. 
 
 390 A fiery column feen in the air for thirty days. 
 
 400 Cells invented by biH^op Paulinusof Campagnia. 
 
 401 Europe overrun by the Goths under Alaric. 
 404 Another irruption of the Goths. 
 
 406 The third irruption of the Goths. The Vandal.-,, Alans, and 
 Suevi, fpread into France and Spain, by a concefTion of Ho- 
 norius, emperor of the weft. 
 
 408 The Chriftlan religion propagatwl in Pcrfia. 
 
 409 Rome taken and plundered by the CJoths, ^\.uguft 24. 
 41 2 The Vandals begin their hingdom in Spain. 
 
 413 The kingdom of Burgundy began in Alface. 
 
 414 The kingdom of 'i'houloufe founded by the ViCgoths. 
 417 Tiie Alans extirpated by the Goths. 
 
 419 Afany cities in Palcftine dcftroyed by an earthquake. 
 
 420 The kingdom of France begins upon the Lower Rhine, un- 
 
 der Pharaniond. 
 
 411 The falique law promulgated. 
 
 4*6 The Romans reduced to extremities at home, withdraw their 
 troops from Britain, and never return, advifing the Britons 
 to arm in their oavu defence, and truft to their own valour. 
 
 43a The Gnfpe! preached in Ireland by St. Patrick. 
 
 444 All Europe ravaged by the Huns. 
 
 446 The Britons now left to thcmfelves, are greatly haraffrd by 
 
 the Scot? and Picls, upon which they once more make their, 
 CGn:plairit to the Romans ^which they entitle the Groans of 
 the Britons,^ but receive no affiftance from that quarter. 
 
 447 Atfila furnamcd the Scourge of God' with his Huns ravage 
 
 the Roman empire. 
 
 4^9 Vortigern, king of the Eiitons, invites the Saxons into Bri- 
 tain, againft tlie Scots and Picls. 
 
 452 The city of Venice founded. 
 
 455 'I'he Saxons having rcpulfed the Scots and Pi(5^s, invite over 
 more of their countrymen, and begin to eftabliih thcmfelves 
 in Kent, under Hengift. 
 
 476 The weftern empire is finiflied, 523 years after the battle of 
 Pharfali-i ; upon the ruins of v.'hich feveral new ftates arife 
 in Italy and other parts, confifling of Goths, Vandals, Huns, 
 and other barbarians, under whom literature is extinguifh- 
 ed, and the works of the learned are deftroved. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 317 
 
 After Chrljl. 
 480 A great earthquake at Conftantinople, which lafled 40 days. 
 493 Italy reduced by Theodoric king of the Goths. 
 496 Clovis, king cf France, baptized, and Chriftianity begins in that 
 
 kingdom. 
 5c6 The Jewifh talmud publifhed. 
 508 Prince Arthur begins his reign over the Eritons. 
 310 Paris made the capital af the French dominions. 
 
 515 Conftantinople belieged by Vitalianus, whofe fleet is burnt 
 
 by a fpcculum of brafs made by Proclus. 
 
 516 The computing of time by the Chrillian era is introduced by 
 
 Dionyfius the monk. 
 
 517 rive years drought and famine in Paleilinc. 
 519 A bearded comet appears. 
 
 52^ The codex of Juflinian, the eaflcrn emperor, is publifhed. 
 
 .534 The kingdom of the Vandals in Africa cor.us to an end, af- 
 ter having continued 105 years. 
 
 536 Tlie manufadure of filk introduced at Confl:intincplc by two 
 Indian monks. 
 
 '■40 Antioch deflroycd by the Perfians. 
 
 541 Bafalius the lail conful cledlcd at Rome. 
 
 542 Antioch rebuilt- 
 
 543 ;\.n earthquake all over the world. 
 
 ^-^^o An earthquake in Paltfliue and Syria. The kingdom of 
 
 Polan.d founded. 
 551 An earthquake in Greece, attended with a great commotion 
 
 in the fea. 
 553 The empire of tlie Goths in Italy d'-ftroycd by Narfes. A 
 
 great earthquake at Conftantinople. 
 5J7 Another violent eartliquake at Conftantinople, P.omc, &c. 
 
 A terrible plague all over Europe, Afia, and Africa, wliich 
 
 continues near fifty years. 
 568 The Lombards founded a kingdom in Italy. 
 369 The Turks firft mentioned in hiflory. The exarchate of 
 
 Ravenna begins. 
 575 The firft monarchy founded in Bavaria. 
 
 580 Antioch dcftroyed by an earthquake. 
 
 581 Latin ceafLd to be fpokcn about this time in Italy. 
 584 The origin of the fiefs in I-rance. 
 
 588 The city of Paris deftroyed by fire. 
 
 589 Rome overflowed by the Tiber. 
 
 593 Tb.e Gafcons eftablifhcd themftlves In the country called by 
 their name. 
 
 596 John of Conftantinople affumes the title of univerfal bifhop. 
 
 597 A-uguftin the monk went into Er.gland with forty monks, 
 599 A dreadful peftilencc in Africa. 
 
 6c4 St. Paul's church in London founded. 
 
 605 'J lie ufe of bells introduced into churches. 
 
 606 Here begins the power of the popes, by the conccflions of 
 
 Phocas, the emperor of the eaft. 
 D d 2 
 
31b CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 After Chrijl. ^ / 
 
 (i%l Muhomet, the falfe prophet, flies from Mecca to Medina, in 
 Arabia, in tlie forty-fourth year of his a^c and tenth of his 
 miniftry, when he laid the foundation of the Saracen eni- 
 pire, and from whom the Maliometan princes to thii day 
 claim cheir defcent. His followers compute their time from 
 this era, which in Arabic is called hegira, i. e. " The Flight." 
 
 628 All academy founded at Canterbury. 
 
 6t,2 The era of Jcfdcgird commenced June r6. 
 
 637 Jcruiulem is taken by the Saracens or followers of Mahomet. 
 
 6-11 .Alexandria in Egypt is taktn by ditto, and the grand library 
 there burnt by orvler of Omar their caliph or prince. 
 
 643 The temple of Jeriifaicm converted into a Mahometan mofque. 
 
 6^2) '^^^ Saracens now extend th.tir conquefls in every fide, and 
 retaliate the barbarities of the CJothsand Vandals upon their 
 poftcrity. They take Rhodes, and deilroy the famous Co- 
 lofl'us. England invaded by the Danes. 
 
 660 Organs firit ufed in churches. 
 
 663 Glafs invented by a biiliop, and brought to England by a Be- 
 nedi^iline monk. 
 
 669 Sicily invaded, and Syracufc deftroyed by the Saracens. 
 
 6!>'j The "Britons, after a brave llruj^gle of near 150 years, are to- 
 tally expelled by the Saxons, and driven into Wales and 
 Cornwall. 
 
 6^3 The Saracens take Cartilage and expel the Romans from 
 Africa. 
 
 ^co Cracow built, and the fjrft prince of Poland eledled. 
 
 704 The firft province given to the Pope. 
 
 713 The Saricens conquer Spain. 
 
 714 France governed by Charles Martcl. 
 
 718 The kingdom of Aflurias in Spain founded by Pclagio 
 71 y ChrilHanity promulgated in Germany. 
 
 726 The controverfy about images begins, and occafions many 
 
 infurredlions in tiie eafttrn empire. 
 
 727 Tax of Peter's pence begun by Ina king of WelTex. 
 732 Charles Martel defeats the Saracens near i'ours. 
 735 Inditution of the office of Pope's Nuncio. 
 
 746 Three years pellilence in Europe and Afia. 
 
 748 The computing of years from the birth of Chrift began to 
 
 be ufed in hiflnry. 
 740 The race of Abbas, become caliphs of the Saracens, and 
 
 encourage learning. The empire of the Saracens divided 
 
 into three. 
 752 The exarchate of Ravenna abolifhed by Aftolphus king of 
 
 the Lombards. 
 755 Commencement of the Pope*8 temporal dominion. 
 762 The city of Bagdid upon the Tigris, is made the capital for 
 
 the caliphs of the houfc of Abbas. Burials, which former • 
 
 ly ufed to be in highways, pernjitted in towns. 
 792 An academy founded in Paris. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 319 
 
 After Chriji. 
 
 794 The Huns extirpated by Charlemagne. 
 
 797 Seventeen days of unuiual darknefs. 
 
 8co Charlemagne king of France, begins the empire of Germa- 
 ny, afterwi-rds called the weftern empire ; gives the pre- 
 itnt names to tlie winds and months, endeavours to reftore 
 learning in Europe, but mankind are not yet difpofed for 
 it, beiiig folely engroffed in military enterprifes. 
 
 801 A great eartliquake in France, Germany and Italy. 
 
 807 January 31. Jupiter eclipfcd by the Moon. March 17, a 
 large fpot 1>. en on the fun for eight days. 
 
 8c8 The firil defcent of the Normans on France. 
 
 i, 25 The obliquity of the ecliptic obfcrved by Benimula to be 
 
 826 Harold, king of Denmark, dethroned by his fubjeds for be- 
 ing a ChrilVian. The kingdoms of Navarre and Arragon 
 founded. 
 
 832 Painter- banifhed cut of the eafhern empire. 
 
 8;^6 The Flemings trade to Scotland for filh. 
 
 840 The Scots and Pi^.s have a dccifive battle, in wliich the for- 
 mer prevail, and both kingdoms are united by Kenneth, 
 v»hich begins the fecond period of the Scotufh hiftory. 
 
 842 Germaiiy feparated from the empire of the Franks. 
 
 846 An eatthqua' c over the grtateft part of the known world. 
 
 861 Ruric the liril prince of RulTia began to reign. 
 
 864 The Danes begin their ravages in Kngland. 
 
 867 Chriflianity propagated in Bulgaria. 
 
 860 1-gypt becomes independent on the caliphs of Bigdad. 
 
 872 Bells and clocks firil ufed in Conftantiiiople. 
 
 873 France dillrcffed by locufts and peftilence. 
 
 874 Iceland peopled by the Norwegians. Scotland invaded by the 
 
 Danes. 
 
 875 A bearded comet appears in France. 
 
 878 Alfred the Great, after fubduing the Danilh invaders (againft 
 whom he fought fifty-fix battles b/ fe.i and land, compofes 
 his boJy of laws ; divides England into counties, hundred?, 
 ty things ; in 8^0 ereds county- courts, having founded the 
 nniverfity of Oxford in 886 
 
 880 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Albategni to be a3'^3 j' 
 
 826 The Hungarians settled near the Danube. 
 
 891 The firft land tax in England. 
 
 895 The monaftery of Cluny founded. 
 
 905 A very remarkable comet appeared in China. Rome taken 
 by the Normans. 
 
 911 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved to be 23** 33' 30". 
 
 912 The Normans eltabliftied thcmfelves in Normandy. 
 
 913 The Danes become mafters of England. 
 015 The univerfity of Cambridge founded. 
 923 Fiefs cftablifliel in 1 ranee. 
 
 925 Sigefroi elcdcd marquis of Brandenburg. 
 
320 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 /fler Chrijl. 
 928 The marquifate of Mifiila cftabliflied. 
 937 The Saracen empire is divided by ufurpation into feven kin^^ 
 
 doms. 
 941 Arithmetic brou<rht into rurope. 
 ii()i Candia recovered from the Saracens. 
 967 Aiitioch recovered from the .Saracens. 
 969 The race of Abbas extinguifhed in Egypt. 
 975 ^'ope Boniface VII. is dcpofed and banifhed for his crimes. 
 977 Greece, Macedon, and Thract ravaged by the Bulgarians 
 
 for ten ye.irs. 
 
 'ihe Bolieniians fubducd by Otho. 
 
 979 Coronition oath firfl ufed in Enghmd. Juries firfl inflituttd 
 
 in ditto. 
 985 The Danes under Sueno invaded England and Scotland. 
 987 The Carlovingian race in France ended. - 
 991 Tlie figures in aritlmieric are brought into Europe by the 
 
 Saracens from Arabia ; letters of the alphabet were hitherto 
 
 ufed. 
 993 A great eruption of Mount Vefuvius. 
 995 Kiighmd invaded by the Di-nes and Nor\vegi:\ns. 
 Cj.jij Otho III. makes the empire of Germany elective. 
 999 BoUlbius, the firR king of Poland. 'J he obliquity of tlic 
 
 elliptic obftrvcd by A.b<>ul W'afi and Abu lEimed to be 
 
 1000 Paper madeof cotton ragswas in ufe, tint (.f linen rag* in li 70 : 
 
 the manufactory introduced into England at Ueptford, I^J'IS. 
 1002 The emperor Henry adumed the title of king of the Roma.-s. 
 1OC5 All the old churches are rebuilt about this time in a new 
 
 munr.er of architeiTiure. 
 1006 A plague in I' urupe for three ycais. 
 J007 A great eruption of Vefuvius. The obliquity of the e:li])tic 
 
 obferved by Albatrunius to be 23° 33'. 
 1 01 4 Suono the Dane bt eomesmaftcrs of England. September 28, 
 
 alniofl; all Flanders laid undir water by a ftorm. 
 1 01 J Children forbidden by law to be fold by their parents in Eng* 
 
 land. 
 1 01 7 Rain of the colour of blood for three days in Aqultain. 
 1022 A new fpccies of mufie invented by Arttin. 
 1035 Togrul-beg or Tangrolipix the Turkifli fultan, eflablifhed 
 
 himfelf in Korafan. i he kingdoms of Caflile and Ar- 
 
 ragon began. 
 
 1040 The Danes, after feveral engagements with various succefs, 
 
 are about this time driven out of Scotland, and never again 
 return in a hoflile manner. Smyrna dcflroyed by an earth- 
 quake. 
 
 1041 The Saxon line rcftored under Edward the Confeffor. 
 1043 The Turks become formidable and take poffefTion of Perfia- 
 
 The KuiTians come from S.ythia and land in Thrace. 
 IOJ4 Leo IX. the firit pope that kept up an army. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 321 
 
 /IJtcr Chrijl. 
 
 loss The Turks take Bagdad, and overturn the empire of the Sa- 
 racens. 
 
 1057 Malcolm III. king of Scotland, kills the tyrant Macbeth at 
 Dunfinnan, and marries the princcfs Margaret, fifker to 
 Edgar Athcling. 
 
 1 061 Surnames appointed to be taken in Scotland by a parlia- 
 ment held in Forfar. 
 
 1065 The Turks take Jerufalem from the Saracens. 
 
 1066 The conqucfl of England by William (furnamed the Baf- 
 
 tard) duke of Normandy, in the battle of Haftings, where 
 Harold is flain. 
 1070 The feudal law introduced into England. 
 
 1075 Henry IV. emperor of Germany and the pope quarrel about 
 
 the nomination of German bifhops. Henry, in j'cnance, 
 walks barefooted to the pope, towards the end of January. 
 
 1076 Juftices of the peace firrt appointed in England. An earth- 
 
 quake in England. Afia I\Iinor, having been two years 
 under the power of Solyman, is from this time called Tur- 
 key. 
 
 1080 Doomfday-book began to be compiled by order of William, 
 from a furvey of all the eftatcs in England, and finifhed in 
 1086. The tower of London built by ditto, to curb his 
 EngHfli fubjevHs •, numbers of whom fly to Scotland, where 
 they introduce the Saxon or Englifli language, are pro- 
 te(fted by Malcolm, and have lands given them. 
 
 1086 The order of Caithufians ellablifhed by Bruno. 
 
 1090 The dynafty of Bathineens or Aflaflius begins in Irak, and 
 
 continues for 117 years. 
 
 109 1 The Saracens in Spain, being hard preflcd by the Spaniards, 
 
 call to their affillance Jofeph king of Morocca ; by which 
 the Moors get polTeirion of all the Saracen dominions in 
 Spain. 
 1096 The firfl: crufade to the holy land is begun under feveral 
 Chriftian princes, f; drive the infidels from Jerufalem. 
 
 1098 The order of St. Benedi6t inilituttd. 
 
 1099 Jerufalem taken by the crufaders ; Godfrey elecfled king of 
 
 it ; and the order of knights of St. John inftituted. 
 mo Edgar Atheling, the laft of the Saxon princes, dies in Eng- 
 land, where he had been permitted to refide as a fubjedt. 
 I-,earning revived at Cambridge. Writing on paper made 
 of cotton common a1)out this time. 
 
 1118 The order of the knights Templars inftituted to defend the 
 
 ftpukhre at Jerufalem, and to prote6l Chriftian ftrangers. 
 
 1 1 19 Bohemia creeled into a kingdom. 
 1132 The kingdom of Portugal began. 
 
 1 137 The pandc<5l of Jullinian found in the ruins of Amalphi. 
 1141 The fadions of the Guelphs and (Jibellines prevailed about 
 this time. 
 
322 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLi:. 
 
 /fur Cbriji. 
 
 J 143 Tlic Koran tranflated into Latin. 
 
 1 1 44 7'lie Peripatetic philofophy introduced into Germany. 
 
 1 15 1 'Die canon law cuilevflcd by Crratian, a monk of Bologna. 
 
 IT54 Chriflianity introduced into Finland. 
 
 1 156 The city of Mofiow in RulFia founded. 
 
 1 1 60 'ihe order of the Carmelites inftituted. 
 
 11^)3 London bridge, confifting of I'; frnall arches, firft built of 
 
 ftonc. 
 1 164 The ' cutonic order of rtligious knights begins in Germany. 
 II 71 J'hc (lynafty of f atcmite* endc*l in Kgypt ; the fovereigns of 
 
 this country henceforth called v'^ultans. 
 1 1 72 Henry H. king of England (and firft of the Plantagencts) 
 
 takes pofl"?flion of Ireland, -which from that period, has been 
 
 governed by an Englifh viceroy, or lord lit utenaut. 
 1 1 76 England is divided by Henry into fix circuits, and juftice is 
 
 difpenfcd 1 y itinerant judges. 
 
 1 179 The univjrfity of Padua founded. 
 
 11 80 Glafs windows began ts be ufcd in private houfcs in England. 
 
 1 181 The laws of Ingland are digcfted about this time by Glan- 
 
 ville. 
 Jl8z Pojic Alcxan.ler III. coinpelLd the kings of England and 
 
 France to hold the llirrups of his faddle when he mounted 
 
 his horfe. 
 1 1 83 7000 Albigenfts maflacred by the inhabitants of Berry. 
 
 1 186 A conjundiion of all the planets at fun rife September l6th. 
 
 The fun in 30^,.] ; Juplt- r in 2^3' -i; Veuus in 3° 49' ; Sa- 
 turn in 8^ 6 ; Mercury in 4*^ lo' ; Mars 9*^ 8 ; tall of the 
 Dragon 18 ',23'ii: 
 
 1 18 7 Jerufalem taken by Sahdin. 
 
 1192 J'he battle of Alcalon, in Judea, in which Richard, king of 
 England, defeats Saladin's army, confifllng of 300,000 
 combatants. 
 
 1194 Dicu et mon Droit, firft ufed as a motto by Richard, on a 
 
 vielory over the French. 
 
 1 195 Denmark and Norway laid waflc by a dreadful tempcft. 
 II98 Inftitution of the order of the Holy Trinity. 
 
 I iCO Chimnies were rot known in England. Surnames now 
 began to be ufcd firft among the nobility. Univerfity of 
 Salamanca in Spain found'^d. 
 
 1204 Conftantinoplc tak;n by the French and Venetians. 'Fhc 
 inquifition eftabliflied. 1 he empire of Trcbizond cftablifhed. 
 
 1208 London incorporated, and obtained their firft charter for 
 
 cleding their lord mayor and other magiftrates from king 
 John. The order of Fratres Minores cftablifhed. 'I'he 
 pope excommunicates king John. 
 
 1209 'Fhe works of Ariftotle imported fr.)m Conftantinople into 
 
 Europe. The filk manufadure imported from Greece int« 
 Venice. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 523 
 
 Afttr Chrijl. 
 
 I210 The works of Ariftotle condemned to be burnt at Paris. 
 The emperor Otho excommunicated by the pope. Vio- 
 lent ptrfccution of the Albigenfes. 
 
 1215 Magna Charta is figned by king John and the barons of 
 
 hngland. Court of common pleas eftcbliihcd. Orders of 
 the Dominicans and Knights Hofpitallers founded. The 
 dotflrine of tranfuhftantiation introduced. 
 
 1 216 King Alexander and the whole kingdom of Scotland excom- 
 
 municated by the pope's legate. 
 1220 Aftronomy and geography brought into Europe by the Moors. 
 
 1222 A great earthquake in Germany. 
 
 1223 A comet of extraordinary magnitude appeared in Denmark. 
 
 1226 A league formed againft the Albigenfes by the French king 
 
 and many prelates and lords. 
 
 1227 The Tartars, under Gingis-Khan, emerge from the northern 
 
 parts of Afia, overrun all the Saracen empire, and carry 
 death and defolation wherever they march. 
 
 1228 1 he univcrfity of Thuuloule founded. 
 
 1230 'I'he kingdom of Denmark diftrcflcd by pedilence. The 
 kingdoms of Cafliile and Leon united. PrufTia fubdued by 
 the Teutonic knights. Univerfity of Naples founded. 
 
 1 13 1 The Almagofl of Ptolemy tranllated into Latin. 
 
 1233 The inquifition, begun in 1 204, is now trulled to the Do- 
 minicans. The lioufes of London and other cities in Eng- 
 hnd, France, and Germany, ftill thatched with llraw. 
 
 1238 The univcrfity of Vienna founded. 
 
 1231; A writing of this year's date on paper made of rags flill extant^ 
 
 1241 The Hanfeatic league formed. Tin mines diicovered in Ger- 
 many. 
 
 1245 -A clear redflar, like Mars, appears in Capricorn. 
 
 1250 Painting revived in Florence by Cimabue. 
 
 1 25 1 Wales fubdued, and Magna Charta confirmed. 
 
 I2J3 The famous aflronomical tables are compofed by Alonfo 
 
 king of Caftile. 
 1256 The order of the Auguftiucs cflabliflied. 
 1258 The Tartars take Bagdad, which finifties the empire of the 
 
 Saracens. 
 1260 The fcdl of Fhgellnntes appeared in Italy. 
 
 1263 Acho king of Norway invades Scotland with 1 60 fail, and lands 
 
 20,000 men at the mouth of the Clyde ; but they arc cut 
 to pieces by Alexander III. who recovers the wftern ifles. 
 
 1264 The commons of England firft fummoned to parliament about 
 
 this time. 
 
 1268 The Tartar? invade China. 
 
 I26y The Hamburg company incorporated in England. The ob- 
 liquity of the ecliptic oblerved by Cozah Nafirodni to be 
 23° 30'. 
 
 1474 The academy of Florence founded. 
 
324 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 After Chrijl. 
 
 1273 The empire of thcprefent Auftrian family begins in Gtrnfta- 
 ny. The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Cheou king 
 in China, to 23° t,},' 2,9"- 
 
 ll-jj^ The firft; commercial treaty betwixt England and Flanders. 
 
 1279 King lidward renounced his riglit to Normandy. The mort- 
 main ai5V pafTcd in England. 
 
 1282 Lewellin, prince of Wales, defeated and killed by Edward 
 I. who unites that principality to England. A great pefti- 
 lence in Denmark. 8,000 rrench murdered at the Sicilian 
 Vefpcrf.. Academy de la crufca founded. 
 
 1284 Edward II. born at Carnarvon is the firlt prince of Wales. 
 
 1285 Alexander III. king of Scotland dies, and that kingdom is 
 
 difputed by twelve candidates, who fubmit their claims to 
 the arbitration of Edward king oi England ; which L\ys the 
 foundation of a long and defolating war between both na- 
 tions. 
 
 1290 The univerllty of Llfbon founded. 
 
 1291 Ptolemais taken by the Tuiks. End of the Crufades. 
 
 1293 There is a regular lucceflion of Englifh parliaments from this 
 
 year, being the 2 2d of Edward 1. 
 ^294 Parliaments eftablifhed in Paris. 
 
 1298 The prefent Turkifh empire begins in Bithynia under Otto- 
 
 man. Silver-hafted knives, fpoons, and cups, a great lux- 
 ury. Tallow candles fo great a luxury that fplinters of 
 wood were ufed for liii,hts. Wine fold by apothecaries as 
 a cordial. The Scots defeated by the Englilh at Falkirk. 
 
 1299 An earthquake in Germany. Spcdtacles invented by a monk 
 
 of Pila. The year of jubilee iuftitutcd by Boniface VIII. 
 1302 The mariner's compafs invented or improved by Giovia of 
 Naples. The unlverfity of Avignon founded. 
 
 1307 The beginning of the Swifs cantons. Coal firfl ufed in Eng- 
 
 land. 
 
 1308 The popes remove to Avignon in France for 70 years. 
 
 1310 Lincoln's inn focicty eftablifhed. The knights of St. John 
 take polTeflion of the ifle of Rhodes. 
 
 1314 The battle of Bannockburn, between Edward II, and Robert 
 
 Bruce, which eftablifhcs the latter on the throne of Scotland. 
 The cardinals fet fire to the conclave and feparate. A va- 
 cancy in the papal chair for two years. 
 
 1315 Germany afflided with famine and peftilencc. 
 
 1319 The unlverfity of Dublin founded. 
 
 1320 Gold firft coined in Chriftcndom ; 1344 ditto in England. 
 
 An earthquake in England 
 1323 A great eruption of Mount Etna. 
 
 1325 The firft treaty of commerce between England and Vcuicc 
 1330 Gunpowder invented by a monk of Cologne. 
 1332 The pope accufed of hercfy. 
 
(i^HRONOLOGlCAL TABLE. ; £25 
 
 .//7.r CLyijl. 
 
 j;,j6 Two Brabant weavers fettle at Ycrk, whicli,fays EdwarJ III. 
 
 Hiay prove of great benefit to us and our fubjciils. 
 1337 The lirft comet whofe courfe is ut."fcribcd with an aftrono- 
 
 mical cxadlncfs luircpe infefted hy locufts. 
 1340 Heralds college jnftituted in England. -Copper money Crft 
 
 ufcd in ^'cotland and Ireland. 
 J 344 The firft creation to titles by patents ufed by Edward III. 
 I'?45 Edward III. has four pieces of cannon, v«"hich gained Iiini the 
 
 battle of Creffy, 
 1347 The battle of Durham, in v/hich David, king of the Scots, is 
 
 taken prifoner. 
 T349 The order of the Garter inflituted in England by Edward 
 
 III. altered in 1557, and confifts of 26 knights. 
 135 a The Turks firft enter Europe. 
 
 1353 Afia and Africa defolated by locufts. 
 
 1354 The money in Scotland till now the fame as in England. 
 1336 The brittle of Poictiers, in which king John of France and his 
 
 fon'are taken prifoner? by Edward the Black Prince. 
 
 1357 Coals firft brought to 1-ondon. 
 
 1358 Arms of England and I'rance firft quartered by Edward III. 
 
 Univerfity of Cologne founded. Tamerlane began to ' 
 reign in Perfia. 
 
 1362 The law of pleadings in England changed from French to 
 Englifli as a favour of Edward HI. to his people. The mi- 
 litary order of Janizaries eftabliflied among the Turks. 
 
 1365 Theunivcrfities of Vienna and Geneva founded. 
 
 1369 John Wickliffc an Englifhman begins to call in queftion the 
 
 dodrines of the church of Rome about this time, whofe fol- 
 lowers are called I^ollards. 
 
 1370 The office of Grand Vizir eftablifhed. 
 
 1377 Inundation of the fea in Flanders. 
 
 1378 Greenland difcover.'d by a Venetian. 
 1381 Bills of exchange firft ufed in England. 
 
 1384 1 he firft a<5l of navigation in England; no goods to be ex- 
 ported or imported by Englifhmen in foreign bottoms. 
 
 1386 A company of linen weavers from the Netherlands eftabhfli- 
 
 edinl^ondon. Windfor caftle built by Edward HI. 
 
 1387 The firft Lord High Admiral of England inftituted. 
 
 1388 The battle of OtterbMrn between Hotfpur and the earl qf 
 
 Douglas. Bombs invented at Venloo. 
 1391 Cards invented in France for the king's amufcmtnt. 
 1399 Weftminftcr abbey rebuilt and enlarged. • Weftniinftcr hall 
 
 ditto. Order of the bath inftituted at the coronation of 
 
 Henry IV. renewed in 1725, confifting cf 38 knights. 
 140a Tamerlane defeats and takes prifoner Bajazet the Turkifh 
 
 Sultan. 
 1405 T^e Canary iflands difcovered by Bathencourt a Norman. 
 
 E e 
 
32'3 LURONOLOCilCAL TABLE. 
 
 4/yer Co riff. 
 
 1410 Ciuilci-Jiall, London, built, ruiutiiig ui oil culuurs invented 
 
 at Brugc-> by Julin Van-i.y:k. 
 
 1411 Th • univcrfity of St. Aiidrv.vv*s in Scotland founded. 
 141 z Algebra brought iVom AruKia into Europe. 
 
 1415 Tbc battle of Agimourt gained over tlie Ircnch by Heury 
 
 V. of I'.ii^land. 
 1410 '1 he illand of Madeira difcovered by the rortugucfc. 
 1 42 1 1 he revenue of hngland amounted 10 /^J5,754. 
 14*8 Ihc fiegc of Orleans, the Hrft blow to the Hnglifli power in 
 
 I'lance. 
 1 43 1 A great cartlujuake at Lifbon. 
 1431 <-^reat inundat:o::s in Cjjr.'nany. 
 143 7 I'lc obliquity of the ecliptic obfervcd bv Ulug Beg to be 
 
 23'' 30' 17". 
 144c Printing invented by L. Kotter at Hacrlcm in Holland; 
 
 brougljt into Lnglur.d by W. Cuton, a mcreer of Loudon, 
 
 I47i- 
 1446 1 he \ atican libr.iry fouuiltd at Rome. The fea breaks in at 
 
 l>)rt iu H«)lland, and drowns 100,000 people. 
 I4J3 Conftantinople taken by i!.e Tiirk's, which ends the caftcrn 
 
 empire J I 23 ycarb from its dedication by Conliantint the 
 
 Circat, und azo6 years from the foundation of Rome. 
 1434 The univerfity of (;lafgow in Scotland founded. 
 1457 Cilafs firft manufidured iu England. 
 1460 hngravir:g and etching on copper invented. The cd)li<iu»ty 
 
 of tlie ecliptic oblcrvtd by I'urbachius, and RegiomoiK.-.nus 
 
 to be 23" 29'. 
 1473 '1 he ftudy of the Greek lanjjuage inlrodu-td Into Iraiije. 
 1477 'J he un»verfity of Aberdeen m Scotland founded. 
 1479 Union of the kingdoms of Airagon an«l Calliie. 
 
 1482 The coaft of Guinea diLoveicd by the I'oitugucfe. -\ court 
 
 of inquiliion ireiiled in .^evillc. 
 
 1483 Richar-l 111. king of i.ngland and laft of the I'latagcnets, ift 
 
 defeated .lud killed at the battle of Eof worth, by Henry 
 ('I'udorj \'II. which puts aii end to the civil wars between 
 the houfes of York and LancaAcr, after a coattft of 30 
 years, and the lofj of IOO,ock3 nien. 
 
 I486 Henry eftablifhe* lifty yeomen of the guards, the firll {land- 
 ing army. 
 
 1489 Maps ;uid foa charts firft brought to England by Barth. 
 Columbus- 
 
 l4;o William Groceyn introduces the ftudy of the Greek language 
 into England. The Moors, hitherto a formidable enemy to 
 the native Spaniards, arc e.itlrely fubdued by l''erdin:ind,and 
 becr.me fubjects to ihat prin:c on ccitain conditions, 
 iv'hich are ill obfervcd by the Spaniards whofc clergy ufe 
 the inciuiiiiion in all its tortures; and in 1 609, near one 
 million of the Moors are driven from Spain to the oppofitc 
 I ••ft ttf .Vfrica, {roin wlun.-c they originally came. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL 'I'AEI.L'. 3^7 
 
 J/Ur Clriji. 
 
 1492 An-'crica Hi ft difcovcroJ Ity Co!u:nhus, a Cknocfc in the fcrvicc 
 
 of Spam. '1 he Moors expelled from Grun.ida, which they 
 
 had poffL-rTed upvr.rds of oO : years. 
 
 1495 The vcntrcul dileafi introduced into F.urope. 
 
 1496 The Jews and Moors haniftied out of I'ortugal. 
 
 14^7 The Portuguefe firll fail to the Kaft Indies by the Ci'pe of 
 Good Hope. South America explored by Anu-ricus \'tfpu- 
 fius, from whom it has its name. 
 
 1499 ^^•^'■i'* America difcovered, for Henry VII. by Cabot a Ve- 
 n,.tian. 
 
 IjOO Maximilian divides t!)e empire of Crermany into fix circles, 
 and adtls four more in 15 12. I'razil difcovered by the 
 Portu^ucfe. Florida difcovered by John Cabot an Knglifli- 
 man. Paintinjr in Chiaro Obfcuro dilcovired. A great 
 plague in Eiij;land. 
 
 1505 Shilim^s firft coined in England. 
 
 IJC7 l he illand of Madag.ifcar difcovered by the Portugucfe. 
 
 1509 Gardening introduced into England from the Net hci lands, 
 frf>m whence vegetables were imported hitherto. 
 
 XjIoThc obliquity of the ecliptic obfeived by Wcrncnus to be 
 23,'' 28' 30'. 
 
 Jjljlhe battle of flowdcn in which James IV. kmg of Scot- 
 land is killed, with the flower of his nobility. 
 
 J514 Caonon bullets of ftone ftill in ufc. 
 
 15 ij The fitll Poly*; lot i:ib!e printed at Alcala. 'I h« kingdom of 
 Navarre .innextd to that of Callile by Ferdinand. 
 
 J516 ! he kingdojuof Algiers feized by liarbarofla. 
 
 13 I 7 Martin Luther beg ui the reformation. Egypt is conquered 
 by the Turks. '1 he kingdom of the Mam Juki s in Egypt 
 ovi rthrown by the Turks, 
 
 151}? Difrovery of New Spain, and the ftiaita of Magellan. 
 
 1521 Henry Vil. for hib writ-iigs in favour of popery, receiv<rs the 
 title of Defend', r of tl.- faith from his Holineft. 
 
 IJZZ Rhodes taken by the Turks. The firit voyage round the 
 world performed by a fuip of Magellan's Iquadron. 
 
 J526 The inquifition cftablilhed in Portugal. Luthcranifni 
 cflablilhcd in (iermany. 
 
 1527 Fome taken a:id plundered by the imperial army, 
 
 1513 Pop^r}- t.bollflicd in Sneile!i. 
 
 152;; The numc of Pr«;teft.mt t .kes its rife from the reform- 
 ed proteftir.g againll the church of Rome, at the diet of 
 Spires in Gerirai'.y. 
 
 I/ 30 Union of the Prctertants at SmalL-aldr, December Z.Z. Se- 
 cretary of flatc*s office eftabliflied in England. 
 
 15.^- -^ great earthquake at Lifbon. 
 
 1532 Ths court of fcnion inp.itutidin Scotland. 
 
 l\y\ Infurredion of the Anah-ptiils in Weftphalia. 
 
 1/34 The reformation takes place in England, under Henry VIII. 
 Biirbaroifa fei::cd on the kingdom (»f 'lurji. 
 
5 -28 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 Jl/ter Chrijl. 
 
 ^535 'Lhe reformation introduced into Ireland. The foclety of 
 -jcfuits formed. 
 
 1539 '^f^^'^ firlt En^-.lifii edition of the bihle authorifed, the prcfcnt 
 
 tranfiatlon finifaed in 16x1. About this time cannon be- 
 gan to be ufed in Ihips. Six hundred and foity-five religious 
 houfes fupprcfTed in Lnglmd and Whales. 
 
 1540 The variation of the compafs difcovered by Sebaftian 
 
 Cabof. The obiiqaity of the ecliptic obfcrved by Coper- 
 nicus to be 23= 28' Z'^. Society of the Jefuits ellabliflicdj 
 Sept. 27. 
 ■^543 Silk fiotkitigs firfl worn by the French king ; firft worn 'n 
 England by queen Ehzabeth, 1561 ; the llecl frame f < r 
 weaving invented by the Rev. Mr. Lrce of Saint John's 
 colle;:e Cambridge, 1589. Pins firil ufed in England, be- 
 fore which time the ladies ufed fkewers. Iron cannon and 
 mortars made in England. 
 
 1544 Good lands let in England at one fhlUing per acre. 
 
 1545 The famous council of Trcrit begins, and con.tinucs 18 years. 
 
 1547 Firlt law in England ef(;ablifhing the inttrefl of money at 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 1548 The reformation gained ground in Poland. 
 
 1549 Lords lieutenants of counties inftituted in England. 
 
 i5jo Horfe guards inflituted in England. The bank of Venice 
 efl:abliflied about this time. 
 
 155a Books of geography and aftronomy deflroyed in England as 
 being infeAed with magic. The book of common prayer 
 ellablifhed in England by aiSl of Parliament. 
 
 1554 The kingdom of Aftracan conquered by the Ruffians. 
 
 1555 The Ruffian company eftabliflied in England. 
 1558 Queen Elizabeth begins her reign. 
 
 ? \6o The reformation in ."-cotland completed by John Knox. 
 
 1561 J^ivonia ceded to Poland. 
 
 1563 Kniv-^afirft made in England. 
 
 Is ^5 Revolt of the Low Countries. Multa attacked by the 
 
 Turks. 
 1566 1 he 39 articles of the church of England edablilhed. 
 7568 Queen Mary imprifoned in J'.nglancl. Liberty of cjfcrcifmg 
 
 the reformed religion granted to the Low Countries^ 
 1569 Royal exchange fjrir built. 
 
 1571 The ifland of Cyprus taken by the Turks. They are defeated 
 
 at Lepanto. 
 
 1572 The great m.afTacre of Proteflants at Paris. A new flar 
 
 in Caffiopaeia cbferved by Cornelius Gemma. It appeared 
 
 in November and difappcared in March. 
 1576 The exercife of the Proteftant rtligion authorifed in France. 
 
 This toleration followed by a civil war. 
 J570 'I'he firft treaty of alliance betwixt England and the State? 
 
 General, January 7. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 529 
 
 After Chrijl. 
 
 1379 -Fht '^"tch fliake off the Spanlfh yoke, and the republic of 
 • Holland begins. Englilh Eaft India company incorpo- 
 
 ^•ri'o— -e^abiiihcd, i6co. Turkey company incorporated. 
 Ij8o S;r ■n'.rncis i>rake returns from his voyage round the world, 
 
 beinp- thv fiiic .Ene:lifh circumnavigator. Parochial regif- 
 
 ttr ilVi; appointed in England. The kingdom of Portugal 
 
 fcJzed by r'hil'pof Spain. 
 Ij8l Copper money iiiil: ufcd in France. 
 158?, Pope Gregory introduces the new ftyle in Italy; the 5th of 
 
 October being counted 15. 
 1383 Tobacco firfl brought from Virginia into England. The 
 
 firft propofal of fettling a colony in America. 
 15S7 Mary queen of Scots is beheaded by order of Elizabeth; after 
 
 18 years imprifonment. 
 Ij88 The Spanifn Armada deiiroyed by Drake, and other Englifn 
 
 admirals, rienry IV. paffcs the edicl of Nantes tolerating 
 
 the Protefcaiits. 
 1588 Duelling with fmall fwordb introduced into England. 
 IJ89 Coaches firft introduced into England ; hackney ad, l6p3/j 
 
 increafed to 1000 in 1770. 
 
 1590 Kand of penfioners inflituted in England. Telefcopes in- 
 
 verted by Janfen, a fpeclacle-makcr in Germany. 
 
 1591 Trinity ccilege, Dublin, bjunded. 
 
 1593 A great plague in London. 
 
 1594 The Jefuits expelled from France. The obliquity of the 
 
 elliptic obferved by Bygius to be 23*^ 30'. 
 159'' The fame obferved by Tycho-Brache to be 23° 29' 25". 
 
 1596 A great earthquake at Japan. 
 
 1597 Watches firft brought into England from Germany. 
 
 1598 The edidl of Nantes by Henry IV. of France. 
 
 1602 Decimal arithmetic invented at Bruges. 
 
 1603 Queen Elizabeth (the laffc of the Tudors) dies and nominates 
 
 James VI. of Scotland as her fucceffnr ; which unites both 
 kingdoms tmder the name of Great-Britain. 
 
 1605 The gunpowder plot difcovered at Weftminfter; being a 
 
 plot to blew up the king and both houfes of Parliament. 
 
 1606 ( aths of allegiance fiift adminiflered in England. 
 
 1608 Colonies fent from England to Virginia. 
 
 1609 The independency of the United States acknowledged by 
 
 Spain. 
 
 1610 Galileo, of Florence, firft difcovers the fatellites about the 
 
 planet Jupiter, by the telefcope lately invented in Ger- 
 many. Henry IV. is nnirdered at Paris, by Ravaillac a 
 prieft. Thermometers invented by f'iebel, u Dutchman. 
 
 161 1 Baronets firft created in England by James I. May 23. 
 
 161 2 The rcrth-wefl pafTage to China attempted in vain by the 
 
 Englifh. 
 
 J) e 2 
 
330 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 Aft^r Chrijl. 
 
 1614 Napier of Marchcfton, In Scotland, invents the logarithms. 
 
 .Sir Hugh Midalc'ton brings the new river to London 
 
 froin Ware, 
 1616 The firft permanent fettlenient in Virginia. 
 l6if^ W. Harvey, an EngiifTiman, confinns the doiSlrine of the 
 
 circulation of the blood, which had been firft broached by 
 
 Scrvetius, a French ph)iician,in 1553- 
 
 1620 The btoad filk manufaCiure from raw filk, introduced into 
 
 En^UinJ. Bcirbadoes difcovercd by Sir William Cour- 
 teen. Navarre united to France. Coppernioncy firft intro- 
 duced in F^nglund. 
 
 1621 New England planted by the Puritans. The two parties of 
 
 whigs i.nd tories formed in England. 
 l6i2 The I'alatiaatc reduced by the Iniperialifls. 
 
 1623 The knights of Nova Scotia inilituted. 
 
 1624 M..ll'acre of the EDglifii at Ambiiyna. 
 
 1625 King Je^mes d c.-;, an-a is I'ucceedcd by his fon Charles I. The 
 
 ifland of L;:vbadoes, the tirll Englifh fcttlement in the 
 Weil-Indies, is planted. 
 
 1 63 1 The tranfit of Mercury over the fun's diflc, firft cbfervcd by 
 
 Ciaffcndi. A great eruption of Vefuvius. 
 
 1632 'Fhe battle of Lutzen, in which Guftavus Adolphus, king of 
 
 Sweden and h-.ad of the Piotefiants in Germany, is killed. 
 
 1633 Galileo condemned by the inquilltion at Rome. Louiliana 
 
 difcovercd by tht French. 
 J635 Province of Alaryland planted by Lord Baltimore. Regular 
 
 pods eftablifhed fron\ London to ScotLnd, Ireland, &•:. 
 1636 A tranfjt of Mercury over the fun's dilk ohferved by Caflini. 
 
 1639 A tranfit of Venus over the fun's diik firft obfcrved by Hor- 
 
 rox, November 24. O. t>.3h 15' P. M. 
 
 1640 King Cbarles difobliges his .^cottifh fubjcds ; on which their 
 
 army under general l^ellcy, enters England, and takes New- 
 caftle, being encouraged by the male contents in England. 
 'J'he nvallacrc in Ireland, whe-n 40,000 Englilh Proteftants 
 were killed. 'J'he independence of Portugal recovered by 
 John duke of Eraganza. 
 
 1642 King Charles impeaches f:v:- refractory members, which be- 
 
 gins the civil wars in England. 
 
 1643 Excile on beer, ale, <Scc. firft impofed by Parliament. Baro- 
 
 meters inveritk d by Torricelli. 
 
 1648 A new ftar obfervcd in the tail of the Whale by Fabricius. 
 
 1649 Charles I. beheaded by Cromwell at White-hall, January 30, 
 
 aged 49. Pendulums firft applied to clocks by Huygens. 
 
 1651 The fociety of Friends firft appeared in Fhigland. 
 
 1652 The Dutch colony at the Cape ot Good Elope eftablifhed. 
 1654 Cromv/eil allunxcs the protedorftiip. Tl;e air-pump invent- 
 ed by Otto Guerickc of Magdeburg. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 331 
 
 T^fc ?hf *En<.lim under admiral Penn, take Jamaica from the 
 ' ^^ Spama^^^^^^^^ obfcrved by Huygens. 
 
 ,658 Crr^ll dies and is fucceeded in the protedorfh.p by h. 
 
 fon Richard. , , c u , or 
 
 1660 King Charles II. isreftoredby Monk, ^^"^^^"^fZ/.X^^f 
 my, after an exile of twelve years •" France and Holland. 
 The people of Denmark being oppreffed by the nobles, fu. - 
 rend<^ their pnvUeges to Frederick III. ^vho becomes ab- 
 
 1661 ThfoLUqulty of the echptlc obfcrved by Hevellus to be zf 
 
 1662 The /oval fociety eftablifhcd at London by Charles IF 
 
 X663 C-^olin' planted'; 17.8, divided into feparate governments. 
 
 Prunia declared ir.dependent of Poland. 
 1664 'Fhe New Netherlands m North America conquered from the 
 
 Swedes iiid Dutch by the Enghlh. 
 i660he plague rages in London, and earr.csrff 68.000 perfons. 
 1066 Ihe grcttfire of London began September a, and contmued 
 three days, in ^vhich were deftroyed 13,000 houfesand 400 
 ftreeti. Tea firft ufjd in England. 
 1667 The peace of Breda, which confirms to the Enghlh, the New 
 ^ Nethcrlamb, now the flutes of Pennfylvama, iNew \oik, 
 and New Jerf^y. 
 
 ,/58 Ditto Aix la Chapclle. 
 
 11 -,t Jam..V Park pLntcd and made a theroughfarc for public 
 
 ufe by Charles IF 
 i66q The illand of Cundia taken by the Turks. 
 1670 'Fhe Englifh Hudfon's Bay company h-.corporated. ^t^eoh- 
 liquity of the ecliptic obfcrved by Mengo.i to be 23° ^8' 24 • 
 l6-> Louis XIV. overruns a great part of Holland, when the Dutch 
 ' " opened their Iluices, being determined to drown their coun- 
 try, and retire to their f.ttlements in the Fall Indies. A- 
 fiian company eftabUaied. The obliquity of the ecliptic 
 obftrvcd by Richer to be zf 28' 54"- 
 
 1677 The micrometer invented by Kirchcr. ^1 a 
 
 1678 Tl.- peace of Nlmeguen. The habeas corpus zA paTed. A 
 
 flrangc darkiufs at noon-day, January 12. 
 
 l68o A grc.t comet appeared, and from its nearnefs to o^ir earth 
 alarmed the inhabuants. It continued vifible from Novem- 
 ber 3, to March 9. William Penn, a Qu.ikcr, receives a 
 charter for planting Pennfylvania. 
 
 16?, 3 India flock foldfroni 360 to joo per cent. 
 
 1685 Chark. IF dies aged 55 years, and is fucceeded by his brother 
 lances IF Ihe duke of Monmouth, natural fon to Chai^les 
 II. rail's a rebellion, but is defeated at the battle of Sedg- 
 more and beheaded The edid of Santes is revoked by 
 Louis XIV. and the 1 rotcftants are greatly diftrtfled. 
 
 16S6 The Newtouii-n philolophy pubUihed. 
 
323 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 
 
 '■P^>- Chnjl. 
 
 1687 ihc palace of Vcrfailles, near Paris, finiflied by Louis XIV. 
 
 1683 The revolution in Great Britain begins, November 5. King 
 James abdicates and retires to France, December 3. King^ 
 William and queen Mary, daughter and fon-in-law to 
 James, are proclaimed February 16. Vifeount Dundee 
 fb.nds out for James in Scotland, but is killed by general 
 Aiaclcay at the battle of Killycrankie, uj>on which the 
 Highlanders wearied with repeated misfortunes difperfe. 
 Smyrna uellrcyed by an earthquake. 
 
 168^ The land-tax palVcd in Fnglaud- The toleration a<5t pafled 
 in ditto. Several bifnoj.s are deprived for not taking the 
 oaths to William. William lulicr, who pretended to 
 prove the prince of Wal:rs fpurious, was vot.d by the com- 
 mons to be a notorious cheat, impollor and faile accui^r. 
 
 1689 lipifcopacy abolifhed in Scotland- 
 
 169D Tlie battle of the Boync, gained by William aii^ainft Janiis in 
 Ireland. 
 
 16^1 Th'j war in Ireland finiihed by fiirrender of LiriKriA to 
 William. 'I'he obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by rlam- 
 fttad to be 2;,'' 2S' :,.". 
 
 lfy<)Z The Fngliih and Duteh fleets, commanded by adniiral Ruf- 
 fcl, defeat the French llect off La Hngue. The niaffairc 
 of (;leticoe in Scotiand, January 31, (). S. Earthquakes in 
 F.rgland and Jamaica, September 8. Hanover made an 
 eled: rate of the er.>pire. 
 
 16^)3 Bayomtb at the end of loaded muCiets firft ufcd by the Frjnch 
 atri'nfl (he confed-^rates in the battle of Twrin. Bank of 
 Fjighud eftablilhed by king William. The firll j.ublic 
 lotrery was drawn this year. 
 
 1694 Oiieea Mary dies at the a<^e of 33, and William reigns :1o!k>. 
 Stamp duties inilitutcd in England. 
 
 1696 i'he peace of Kyfwiv.^. 
 
 1699 The Scots iLtrled a co'ony at the ifthmusof Dancn in Ameri- 
 
 ca and called it Caledonia. 
 
 1700 Ch-'.rlcsXil. of Sweden begins his reign. King James 11. 
 
 dies at St. Gcrmains, in the 68th year of his age. 
 
 1 701 Pruflla creeled into a kingdom. Society foi the propagation 
 
 of the gofpcl in foreign parts eftablilhed. - 
 
 1702 King William dies, aged 50, and is fuccceded by queen An- 
 
 ne, daughter to James II. wh». with the emperor and ftates 
 general, renews the war againll France and Spain. The 
 French fent colonies to the MiflifTippi. 
 
 1703 The obUquity of the ecliptic obferved by Bianchini to be 23"^ 
 
 1704 Gibraltar taken from the Spaniards by admiral Rookc. 'I he 
 
 battle of Blenheim won by the duke of jViarlLorough and 
 Alhes again ft the French. The court of exchequer in- 
 ftituted in England. 
 1706 The treaty of union betwixt England and Scotland, fignc'l 
 
eHRONOLOGlCAL TABLE. 3 5 J 
 
 Jf:c> Chrljl 
 
 ^Jufy ia. The battle of Rumllieo ^von by Marlborough and 
 the allies. 
 
 1707 The fiift Britifh parliament. The allies defeated at -Umanza. 
 
 1 7c8 Minorca te:ken from the Spaniards by general ::tanhope. I ho 
 
 bi^tlc of Oiidenarde won by Marlborough and the AUic 
 
 1709 Peter the Great Czar of Mofcovy, defeats Charles XII. at 
 
 Poltowa, who flies to Turkey. The battle of Malplaquct 
 won by Marlborough and the Allies. ^ 
 
 1 710 Queen Anne changes the whig miniftry for others more fa- 
 
 vourable to the interea of her brother the late Pretender. 
 The Cathedral church of St. Paul, London, rebuilt by bir 
 Chriftopher Wren in 37 years, at one milhon cxpciifc,by a 
 duty on coals. The Englifh South Sea company began. 
 
 1 71 2 Duke of Hamilton and Lord MohunkiUed ma duel m Hyde 
 
 Park. 
 
 1713 The peace of Utrecht, whereby Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, 
 
 New Britain, and Hudfon's Bay, in North America, were 
 yielded to Great Britain ; Gibraltar, and Minorca, in Eu- 
 rope, were alfo confirmed to the faid crown by this treaty. 
 
 1714 Queen Anne dies, at the age of 50, and is fuccccded by George 
 
 \. Intereft in England reduced to 5 per cent. * 
 
 1 715 Louis XIV. dies and is fucceeded by his great grand-fon Lou- 
 
 is XV. the late king of France. The rebellion in Scotland 
 begins in September, under the earl of Mar, in favour of 
 the Pretender. The adjon of Shcriffmuir, and the furren- 
 der of Prcflon, both in November, when the rebels dii- 
 perfe. The obliquity of the ecliptic obfcrvcd by Louvdlc 
 
 tobea3° 28' 24". ^ , , ^ 
 
 \1\(i The Pretender married the princcfs Sobicfca grand-daughter 
 of John Sobieflci late king of Poland. An ad puffed for 
 Septennial parliaments. 
 
 1 7 18 Sardinia erefted into a kingdom, and given to the duke of 
 Savoy. 
 
 I 719 'I he Miffiflippi fchcme at its height in France. Lombc s lilk- 
 throwing machine containing 25>5^6 wheels eredted at 
 Derby in England : takcsuj) one-eighth of a mile ; one water- 
 wheel moves the reft ; and in 24 hours it works 31 8,504,(;6o 
 yards of organzine fi k thread. 
 
 1720 The South-fea fcheme in England, begun April 7, was at its 
 height at the end of June, and quite funk about Septem- 
 ber 29. A great earthquake in China. 
 
 J 724 An earthquake in Denmark. 
 
 1727 King George dies in the 68th year of his sge, and is fuc- 
 ceeded by his only fon George II. Inoculation fir ft tried 
 on criminals with fuccefs. Ruflia, formerly a dukedom, is 
 now eftablifhed as an empire. The aberration of the fixe<i 
 ftars difcovcred and accounted for by Dr. Bradley. 
 
 J7^2Kouli Kha» ufurps the Pcrfian throne, conquers the Mogul 
 
S34 CHRONOLOGICWI- TAlil.I.. 
 
 Jfur CLyiJI. 
 
 t:r.p:rf,;:nd returns with two hiindrcii ana tiiirty-onr mllii- 
 on lltrling. ."locral pulilic-ipiriccd gc.itlcmcu bc^iii the 
 fcitlciiunt of (ieorj^ia in North America. 
 
 I7,?3 The Jefuits cxpiUcd from Paraguay. 
 
 J 736 Capt. Portcous having ordered his foidicrs to fire upon the 
 poi)ul;ice at an cxcoution of a fnnigj;lr:r, is himfelf h..ngcd 
 by the mob at Hdinbiirj^. A trar.fit «>f Mcti-iiry oblcrvcd by 
 C'ulliui. 
 
 1737 A drc;i(lful hurricane at tljc mouth of the G.in^cs, Ovft. 10. 
 
 173^ WcdminflcF bridge, tonliHing of 15 arches, bcgu.'. ; fiuilh- 
 cd in 1750, at the expenfj «.f >C389i^oo defr..ycJ by parli 
 ament. The order of .St. Januarias eftablifhed at N:.pLs. 
 
 J 739 Letters of Marque ilTuedout in Britain cgainft Spain, Jn y 21. 
 and war dcclarcil OvStohjr 23. 1 he empire of Imlollan ru- 
 ined "by Kouli Khan. An intcnfc iVoit in Britain. 
 
 1743 T1>t- battle t)f Dcttingen won by the Englilh and Allies in 
 
 f.:vour of th.c f^ctn of Hungary. 
 — — • A dreadful plague in .Sicily. 
 
 1 744 War declared agiinft France. Commodore Aiifon returns 
 
 from his voyage round the world. 
 174J The Allies lofc the battle at Fontc.ioy. The rebellion break? 
 
 out in Scotland, and the Pretender's army defeated by the 
 
 duke of Cumberland at CullmUn, April 16, I 746. 
 1746 Britiih linen company crcCted- Lima dcftroycd by an carth- 
 
 quak^. 
 T"'47 Kouli Khan murdered. 
 I74JJ The peace of Aix-1 i-ChapJle, by whicli a rcftitution of all 
 
 places taken during the war was to be made on all fides. 
 
 1749 The intereft on the Britiih funds reduced to three per cent. 
 
 Britiih hcrrinj^-lir.iery incorporated. The colony of .Nova 
 ircetia fouuded. 
 
 1750 Earthquake in >r.;iland. 
 
 1731 Frederick prince of Wales, father to his prefent majefVy,died. 
 Antiquarian fo..iety at London incarporated. 
 
 1752 The new ftyle introduced into Great Britain, the 3d of Sep- 
 
 tember belnj; counted the 14th. 
 
 1753 The Britiili Mufeum creded at Montagire-houfe. Society ol 
 arts, manufaolurts a:.d com iiercc inftituted in London. 
 
 I7J4 A dreadful eruption of Mou'it ttna. A great ojrtiiquaI:e 
 
 at Conftantir.uple, Cairo, &c. S-.'ptember 2. 
 1755 Quito in Peru delhoyed by an eartliq-juke, April 28. Liiben 
 
 dtfftroyed by an earthquake, November 1. 
 I7j6 One hundred and forty-fix I'ngliihnieii arc confined in the 
 black hole at Calcutt.i in the Kail Indies hy order of the na- 
 bob, u!;d 123 ff.und dead next n orning. Mi'.rine fociety 
 ellablifhed at London. 'I be king of Pruliia commenced hof- 
 tilities in the month of Aiiguft ia :f :\xony. Defeats the Auf- 
 * rrians at Lo. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. o35 
 
 JfL-r ar:l\. 
 
 1757 Damien attempted to aflafllniuc th^* French king. The king 
 of PruHu invades Bohemia ; d. leats the Auftrians at 
 RcIchtMiburoh April 21, and at Prague May 6. Repulfed 
 by count Daun at Kolin, June 18. I'ie Allies defeated by 
 the Trench at Haftenheck, July 26. Convention of Cloftcr- 
 feven, September 8. The king pf Prullia defeats the 
 French and Aufl:^ian^ at Rolbach, November 5. 1 he Pruf- 
 fians def;:ated near Brellaw, November aa. The Auftrians 
 defeated at Lifl'a, December 5. 
 
 1758 Sor.egal taken by the Britilh, May i. They take Louif- 
 
 buro-, July 27. liic king of PrulFia defeats thr RulTians at 
 Zorndorf, Auj^aift 25. Is defeated by count l)aun at Hoch- 
 Kirchen, O<^tober 14. Gorce taken by Commodore Keppel, 
 December 29. Attempt to alTaflinate the king of Por- 
 tugal, December 3. 
 
 1759 General Wolfe is killed in the battle of Qy^bcc, which is 
 
 gairei'. by the Eritifh. 
 
 The iVench defeated by prince FerdiT'aiid at Bergen, April 
 13th. Gaudr.loupe taken by the Britifli May firft. King of 
 Prufha defeated by the Rulhansat Cunerfdorf, Auguft 12. 
 
 1759 The French fleet defeated by admiril Hawke, November 
 20th. Balbcc and Tripoli dellroycd by an earthquake, De- 
 cember 5. 
 
 I 760 King George II. dies 0<5tobcr 25, in the 77th year of his age, 
 and is fuccccdcd by his prcfent majefty, who, on the 22d 
 of September 1 76 1, niarried the prineefs Charlotte of 
 Meckicr.burgh Strelitz. Blackfriars bridge, confiding of 
 nine arches begun; finifhcd 1 7 70, at the expcnfe of 
 ^151,840 to be difchargcd by a toll. A trar.fit of Venus 
 over the fim, June 6. Earthquaktsin .^yria, Ot*^ )bcr 13. The 
 king of Pruflla defeats the Auflrians at Torgau, Nov. 3. 
 
 1761 Pondicherry taken by Col. Coote, J.inuary ij. Belleifle fur- 
 
 rendered to the Britifli, Febniary 4. 
 
 1762 War declared againrt Spain. Pc'er III emp. ror of RufTia, is 
 
 depofed, imprifoned and murdered. American philofophi- 
 cai foci'.ty eftabliflicd in Philadelphia George Augullus 
 Frederick, prince of Wales, born Augufl lath. Martinico 
 furrendered to the Britifh, Feb. 4. Havann;.h furrender- 
 rdto ditto, Auy^. 12. Manilla take»i by ditto, Ocflcber 6. 
 
 1763 Thr defmitivc treaty of peace between (Jreat Britain, France, 
 
 Spa::;, and Portugal, concluded at Paris February ic; '.vhich 
 eonfirYns to CJrt^at Britain the exten.'ivc prt^vinces of Ca- 
 nada, i^aft and Weft Florida, and part of Louifiana, in 
 N ordi America: aifo tlie iflands of Granada, 6t. Vincent, 
 Dominica and Tobago in the Weft Indies. 'I'he Jefuits 
 expelled from France. 
 r-'64 The parliament granted £10,000 to Harrifon for hie difco- 
 
556 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLH. 
 
 After Chrljl. 
 
 very of the longitude by his time-piece. Famine and refti- 
 Icnce in Italy. An earthquake at Lifbon. 
 
 1765 His mijefty's royal charter palTed for incorporating the focic- 
 
 ty of artin.3. An a6l pafled for annexing the fovereignty of 
 the ifland of Man to the crown of Great Britain. 
 
 1766 April 21, a fpot or macula of the fun more than thrice the 
 
 bignefs of our earth, paffcd the fun's centre. The American 
 ftamp-a<5l repealed March 18. A great earthquake at 
 Conftantinoplc. The Jefuits expelled from Bohemia and 
 Denmark. 
 
 1767 The Jcfuits expelled from France, Spain, Venice, and Genoa 
 
 i^-pril 2. 
 Martinico almoft deftroyed by an earthquake. The Protef- 
 tants tolerated in Poland, November a. 
 
 1768 Academy of painting eftaoliflicd in London. The Turks 
 
 impriftiij th*' Riiflian ambaflador, and declare war againft 
 that empire. The Jefuits expelled from iNaplce, Malta and 
 Parma. 
 
 1769 Paoli fled from Corfica, June 13. The ifland then reduced 
 
 by the Treiich. 
 
 1770 An earthquake at St. Domingo. 
 
 177 1 Dr. Solander and Banks in his Britannic Majefly's fhip the En- 
 
 deavour, Lieut. Cook, return from a voyage round the 
 world, having made feveral important difcoveries in the 
 South feas. An emigration of 500,000 Tourgouths from 
 the coaft of the Cafpian fea to the frontiers of China. 
 
 1772 The kirvg of Sweden changes the conftitution from arifto- 
 
 cracy to a limited monarchy. The pretender marries a 
 princefsof Germany, grand-daughter of Thomas late earl 
 of Aylefoury. The emperor of Germany, emprefs of Ruflla, 
 and the king of Pruflia ftrip the king of Poland of a great 
 part of his dominions, which they divide among them- 
 felves, in violation oi^ the moft folemn treaties. 
 
 1773 Captain Pliipps is fent to e\plore the north pole ; but hav- 
 
 ing made 81 ciegrees, is in danger of being locked up by 
 the ice, and his attempt to difcover a paflage in that quar- 
 ^ter proves fruitlefs. The linglifti Faft-India comprny 
 having by conqueft or treaty, acquired the extenfive pro- 
 vinces of Bengal, Orixa, and Babar, containing 13 millions 
 of inhabitants, great irrcgularitjes arc committed by 
 their fervants abroad ; upon which government tnter:''-:-res 
 and fends out judges, &c. for the better udmirufrration of 
 juftice. The war between the Ruffians and tht Tr.rks 
 proves difgraceful to the latter, who lofe the ifli-ndsin the 
 Archipelago, and by the fea are every where unfiiccefslul. 
 The fcciety of Jefuits fupprnTed by the Pope's bull, Au- 
 guft 2J. 
 
 1774 Peace is proclaimed betv/ecn the Rufllans and the lurks. 
 
 The Britifli parliament having paffcd an ad laying a duty 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 337 
 
 After Chrijl. 
 
 f>i three-pence per pound upon all teas imported into 
 America, the colonifts, confidering this as a grievance, 
 deny the right of the Britifli parliament to tax them. The 
 American colonies fend deputies to Philadelphia, who af- 
 fume the title of The Congrefs of the I'hirtecn United Pro- 
 vinces. 
 
 1775 The American war commences. A»5lion at Bunker's Hill, 
 
 June 7th. 
 . 1 he Spaniards land near Algiers and are defeated, July 8th. 
 
 1776 The cor.grtfs declare the United States of America independ- 
 
 ent of the crown and parliament of Great Britain, 4th July. 
 
 The Americans receive a dreadful defeat at Long Ifland, 
 
 Augufl Z7th. 
 
 1777 Philadelphia taken by the Britifh, Odl. 3d. 
 
 General Burgoyne with his army furrender to the Americans. 
 
 1778 Philadelphia evacuated by the Brit ilh, June 18. 
 
 1779 A moft extraordinary eruption of Vefuvius, Augufl 8th. 
 
 The fioge of Gibraltar begun by the Spaniards, July 8th. 
 
 1780 Jan. 14th, 6 h. A. M. the thermometer fufpcnded in tlie open 
 
 air at Glafgow, (lood at 46° below o. 
 • The Spanifh fleet defeated by Admiral Rodney, Jan. i6th. 
 
 Charlefton furrendered to the Britifli, May 1 2th. 
 
 A dreadful infurreilion in London, and riots in many other 
 
 places of the kingdom. 
 A great number of Britifli fliips taken by the combined fleets 
 
 of France and Spain. 
 
 Lord Cornwallis defeats the Americans at Camden. 
 
 A dreadful hurricane in the Leeward Iflands, 06t. 9th. 
 
 An extraordinary ftorm of wind in England. 
 
 War declared againfl; the Dutch, Dec. 20th. 
 
 1 78 1 A terrible engagement between the Dutch and Britifli fleets 
 
 near the Dogger Bank, Aug. 5th. 
 — — Lord Cornwallis with his army furrender to the united forces 
 of France and America, OA. 1 8th. 
 
 1782 Minorca furrendered to the Spaniards, February 4th. 
 
 'i'he French fleet under De GrafTe defeated and alniofl: dc- 
 
 flroycd by Admiral Rodney, April I2th. 
 — — - The Spanifli floating batteries before Gibraltar entirely de- 
 
 flroyed, Sept. 12th. 
 
 1783 Preliminaries of a' general peace figncd. America declared 
 
 independent, Jan. 20th. 
 
 A dreadful earthquake attended with many extraordinary 
 
 circumftanccs, in Ita'y and Sicily. 
 
 The Sun obfcurcd by a kind of fog during the whole fura^ 
 
 mer. 
 
 A volcanic eruption in Iceland furpafling any thing re- 
 corded in hiftory. The lava fpouted up in three places to 
 the heiglit of two miles perpendicular, and continued thus 
 for two months ; during which time it covered a trad of 
 E e 
 
338 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 After Chrtji. 
 
 3600 fquare miles of ground, in feme places more than 
 
 100 feet deep. 
 " A large meteor appears to the northward of Shetland, and 
 
 takes its dire(5lion fnuthward, with a velocity little inferior 
 
 to that of the earth in its annual courfc round the fun. Its 
 
 tra(5l obferved for more than 1 000 miles. 
 1787 General Convention meet at Philadelphia for the purpofe of 
 
 forming a new conflitution which was afterwards adopted 
 
 by all the ftates. 
 1789 Firft Congrefs meet under the federal conflitution, March 4th. 
 
 States General opened at Paris, April 25. 
 
 Baftile demolifhed by the people, July 14th. 
 
 Conflitution of Trance framed, Auguft 6th. 
 
 1792 Royalty abolilhed in France and republiranifm adopted. 
 
 1793 Louis XVI beheaded on the 2ifl; of January. The queen 
 
 of France fhared a fimilar fate on the i6th of 0(5lober. 
 1799 General Bonaparte declared firft conful. General Wafliing- 
 
 ton died on the 14th of December. 
 1802 A general peace in confequenee of the treaty figned at 
 
 Amiens on the 27th of March. 
 1804 Napoleon Bonaparte declared emperor of the French and 
 
 crowned by Pius VII. 
 
 RJa'^^ 
 
 n