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 SCHOOL ACCOUNTING 
 
 A Practical Bookkeeping System 
 for a Small City 
 
 By 
 
 J. A. ALLEN 
 
 Business Director of the Board of Education 
 Terre Haute, Ind. 
 
 Reprinted from 
 
 The American School Board Journal 
 
 cTWilwaukee, Wis. 
 
Copyright 1913, 
 By Wm. Geo. Bruce 
 
 EIREB FRO] 
 3FY3JQHT 
 
 MAY 3 1915 
 

 School Accounting 
 
 An authority says: "An account is a state- 
 ment in general of reasons, causes, grounds, etc., 
 explanatory to some event; a statement of facts 
 or occurrences." But, the definition of more 
 importance to one concerned in the keeping 
 of accounts is the definition that "An account 
 is a statement, an explanation or vindication of 
 one's conduct with reference to judgment there- 
 on." 
 
 In the keeping of accounts, as in everything 
 else, we should work with a clearly defined 
 object in view. An account is a record of trans- 
 actions with persons, property or things ar- 
 ranged to show a definite result. The results 
 are the things we are interested in. If an ac- 
 count is a record of transactions with persons, 
 property or things arranged to show a definite 
 result, the definite result shown may be juggled 
 to express what is in the mind of the one keep- 
 ing the account. This emphasizes the impor- 
 tance of system. Objections are often made to 
 some systems that the least variation in the 
 manner of carrying them out causes confusion. 
 This is one of the strongest arguments in favor 
 of system ; the more difficult it may be to depart 
 from the regular routine of carrying it out 
 makes it imperative that, once a system is in- 
 stalled, it be carried along without deviation. 
 
 Some of the best accountants are men who 
 have learned their lesson from actual experience. 
 It is undoubtedly true that a knowledge of 
 fundamental principles of accounting science is 
 indispensable in the creation of thorough sys- 
 tem. Practical experience, thorough analysis of 
 conditions and clear perception of what is most 
 essential in the business, and a clear under- 
 standing of what the final result should be are 
 equally important. 
 
 Especial Problems of School Accounting. 
 
 School accounting in its nature is peculiar. 
 Many conditions surround the question of ac- 
 counting in the schools that do not occur in a 
 
 private corporation. Each fund must be used 
 only for the purpose provided by law. One 
 fund may be used for a number of purposes, 
 while another may be for a specific purpose only. 
 The idea that one must merely be a bookkeeper 
 to step into an office and systematize the work 
 is an erroneous one; a fair knowledge of exist- 
 ing conditions is necessary. This is true in the 
 management of any office. When a business 
 man requires the services of an accountant, it 
 is seldom, indeed, that an outsider is brought 
 in to take the management of the office. Usu- 
 ally we find the head of the department is one 
 who has grown into the business, ofttimes start- 
 ing from the bottom and thereby gaining a 
 thorough knowledge of the work. "Make haste 
 slowly" certainly applies with peculiar empha- 
 sis in departing from established office methods 
 to the establishment of a new system. 
 
 In attempting to reconstruct the accounting 
 department of any office, and particularly a 
 school office, it is absolutely necessary that one 
 should thoroughly understand all the conditions 
 surrounding the work before an attempt is made 
 to change the form of accounting. Certain fun- 
 damental principles may be insisted upon from 
 the start, but it is a grave error to try to ac- 
 complish the task of establishing an entirely 
 new system in a short time; to do so causes 
 confusion, waste of energy and additional ex- 
 penses brought about by the use of books, forms, 
 etc., which later experience will prove to be in- 
 adequate for the purpose for which they were 
 intended. 
 
 School accounting embraces more than the 
 mere keeping of accounts, ranging from the or- 
 ganization of the working forces, outside of the 
 office, the buying and selling to departments, to 
 the management of the accounting. 
 
 A study of the systems in vogue in a number 
 of public offices discloses the fact that the sys- 
 tems of the business offices differ very greatly. 
 In fact, it is hard to find two cities using two 
 
systems that are at all similar, except as to fun- 
 damental principles. Being more familiar with 
 the system in use in the schools of Terre Haute, 
 the writer will endeavor to give as clearly as 
 possible a brief outline of the work as now car- 
 ried on. 
 
 Importance of Accounting. 
 
 The principle which the managers in the 
 business offices of schools should keep before 
 them at all times, is that they occupy a posi- 
 tion between the board and the public; their 
 conduct and manner of performing their duties 
 are often responsible for the standing of the 
 board members with the public. The manage- 
 ment of the financial department of a school is 
 either a protection or a menace to the board of 
 control. We should keep in mind that the 
 Board of Trustees is legally responsible for the 
 acts of those intrusted with the work. It should 
 also be borne in mind that the reputation of 
 the one placed in charge of the accounting de- 
 partment is at stake. We not only should be 
 careful in the keeping of accounts, but should 
 be able at all times to prove the correctness of 
 them. Probably more difficulties are brought 
 about through carelessness and through the 
 inability of the accountants to prove what 
 they have done than from any other cause. 
 This being true, it is very important that the 
 work not only be carefully done, but that it be 
 performed in such a manner that we are able 
 to prove beyond a doubt, at all times, that what 
 has been done is correct. 
 
 We should have a thorough understanding of 
 the system so as to be able to prove beyond 
 a doubt each step in all transactions. If pos- 
 sible, copies of the original entries should be in 
 the "Minutes" of the board. If this is done, it 
 places the responsibility entirely with the board 
 of trustees who approve the minutes. It is of 
 the utmost importance that all matters pertain- 
 ing to the receipts and expenditures be brought 
 before the Board of Trustees for its approval. 
 It would cause delay and would not be at all 
 practical for the board to pass on all expendi- 
 tures for repairs, supplies, etc., prior to each 
 transaction. But reports should be presented 
 to them for their consideration at regular per- 
 iods, the same to include a report of all work 
 of any description, all receipts and expenditures 
 
 and this should be made a part of the perma- 
 nent record of the board. As an additional pre- 
 caution, the board should be asked to scrutinize 
 their "Minutes" very closely. We find it a good 
 plan to make carbon copies of the minutes for 
 each member of the board. This enables them 
 to look over the record and suggest any changes 
 they desire. 
 
 The "Exhibit Ledger". 
 
 Journals and Ledgers are rapidly giving way 
 to the "Exhibit Ledger." With an Exhibit 
 Ledger, a simpler exhibit of all accounts can be 
 made. An Exhibit Ledger especially con- 
 structed for the work in school accounting is 
 one which shows the warrant number, the name 
 of the payee, the invoice number and the total 
 amount of the warrant in the order named. 
 This gives us the first division of the ledger. 
 Next in order, reading from left to right as 
 before, should follow the different funds, such 
 as library fund, tuition fund, sinking fund, 
 etc. To the right of this section should be a 
 column in which to show the balance of all 
 funds. The third section should show such ac- 
 counts as supplies, repairs, printing, lights, tele- 
 phone, coal, etc. The head of these accounts, 
 beside showing the name of the account, should 
 be numbered consecutively. It is advisable in 
 making an Exhibit Ledger of this kind to have 
 quite a number of blank columns, to the right 
 of the regular printed accounts, to take care of 
 any emergency that may arise. To the right 
 of these accounts should be columns headed with 
 the name or number of the school buildings, 
 and between each column, a smaller column 
 with the heading "Account Number". In the 
 third section it was explained that the different 
 accounts should be numbered. By having an 
 account number column in the fourth section it 
 is easy to check backward and forward. 
 
 It is often said that a system of accounting 
 adapted to the needs of a small office is im- 
 practicable in a large one. This is, in a great 
 measure, untrue, especially when Exhibit Led- 
 gers are used. The Exhibit Ledger here de- 
 scribed can be used in a city of 5,000 popula- 
 tion and is equally as valuable in a city of 
 200,000. Consider the advantages of having in 
 one book a true exhibit of all the business. Take 
 into consideration the time saved and the fact 
 
that the task of getting a trial balance at the 
 end of the month is no longer the nightmare of 
 your office. There is not an hour in the day 
 that you are not preparing your trial balance 
 with the use of the Exhibit Ledger, such as 
 here described. First, you have the total amount 
 of the warrant drawn, next the fund from which 
 it is paid. These two sets of columns must bal- 
 ance. The next distribution is to the different 
 accounts. The total of this set of columns 
 must balance with the fund columns and total 
 of warrant columns. The next distribution is 
 to charge the different items of expense to the 
 department or school for which the money is 
 spent. The total of these columns must bal- 
 ance with the total of the account columns, and 
 balance with the account of the fund columns 
 and with the total amount of the warrant col- 
 umn. The totals of all columns should be car- 
 ried forward. At the end of the calendar month 
 you have before you an exhibit of the work, 
 which with the use of a regular journal and of 
 ledger accounts, would take considerable time 
 to obtain. 
 
 Additional Uses of Ledger. 
 
 An Exhibit Ledger can be made to add to its 
 usefulness by using the same blanks before 
 described. Enter the month in the date column, 
 and in the total amount of warrant column enter 
 the expenditure for the month; in the fund 
 columns, show the total expenditure from each 
 fund; at the right of the fund columns enter 
 your balances; under the different accounts, 
 such as supplies, repairs, etc., as before enum- 
 erated, enter the amount chargeable to these 
 accounts, and further extend the work by show- 
 ing the distribution of expenditures to the de- 
 partments, schools, etc. At the end of the year 
 you have a true exhibit of the receipts and ex- 
 penditures, to whom paid, the cost of main- 
 tenance, supplies, etc., and the cost of main- 
 taining each department, without additional 
 work. 
 
 The laws of Indiana provide that all public 
 offices receiving and disbursing public funds 
 shall keep a book which shall show the name 
 of the payee, from what fund payment is made, 
 and daily balances. If an Exhibit Ledger, such 
 as before described, is used, it meets the re- 
 
 quirements of the law and no additional book is 
 necessary. 
 
 One of the columns in the exhibit ledger is 
 described as the invoice column. This is found 
 to be of great assistance in tracing an invoice. 
 If invoice books are used, the invoices are num- 
 bered consecutively and the number of the in- 
 voice is carried to the column in the exhibit 
 ledger. It is easy then to refer to the Exhibit 
 Ledger for any invoice by linding the number 
 and then finding the corresponding number in 
 the "Invoice Book". A still further check may 
 be had by making extensions in the invoice book 
 and taking the total at the end of the month, 
 which added to the payrolls which are usually 
 kept in the invoice book, will give the total 
 amount of the expenditures for the month, and 
 must balance with the total expenditures shown 
 by the Exhibit Ledger. 
 
 Buying School Supplies. 
 
 Particular care should be taken in ordering 
 goods and vouchering. Goods should be bought 
 only on an order issued from the office and a 
 duplicate of the order should be retained. Some 
 offices go farther than this and make out all 
 orders in triplicate and quadruplicate. This is 
 only necessary in securing the vouchers from 
 the different departments showing the transac- 
 tion. First, the placing of the order, second, 
 the receipt of the goods, third, a voucher as to 
 quality, fourth, a voucher as to entry in the 
 "Stock Book" of the goods received. A more 
 simple plan, and entirely satisfactory with us, 
 is to make the orders in duplicate, one to be 
 sent to the merchant and the other to be re- 
 tained in the office. When the goods are re- 
 ceived they should be entered into the stock 
 book kept for the purpose, showing the firm 
 making the delivery and the amount of material 
 delivered. The merchants should be required 
 to return the order to the business office along 
 with their invoice. This should go first to the 
 stock -keeper, who vouchers it, then to the per- 
 son in charge of prices, etc., who vouchers it, 
 and then to the bookkeeper. When the invoice 
 and original order is received from the mer- 
 chant, the original order should be compared 
 with the duplicate order retained in the office. 
 These duplicate orders are valuable in obtain- 
 
Fig. Al— Page A. 
 
 Fig. A2— Page B. 
 
 Fig. A6— Page F. 
 
 Exhibit Ledger Form Used in t 
 
 Fig. 1. A 1-2-3-4-5-6 represents a siDgle "page" of the "Exhibit Ledger'' used, in the 
 Terre Haute schools. Each warrant entered on Page A is distributed to respective account anc 
 
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 ■rre Haute, Ind., Public Schools. 
 
 chool so that the total outlay for each can be seen at a glance. The "ledger" permits of keep- 
 ag the books posted up at all times so that an accurate trial balance may be taken when desired. 
 
 7 
 
ing former prices, etc. If invoice books are not 
 used, a still better system is to have a single 
 sheet which should provide a space for the 
 vouchering, and after the proper vouchers have 
 been obtained the invoice should be attached to 
 this sheet. The sheet should be of proper size 
 to fold neatly to a convenient size of about 3x8 
 inches. These invoices and voucher sheets are 
 then filed and after receiving the return war- 
 rant from the bank, the cancelled warrant 
 should be attached to the voucher sheet and 
 invoice. This gives a complete explanation of 
 the transaction, provided the plan of obtaining 
 the board's approval of the different steps has 
 been secured. 
 
 Discounting Bills. 
 
 A custom in most cities, which should be 
 abandoned, is that of paying bills at stated 
 periods. No business house would try to en- 
 force such a rule as this. To do so means the 
 loss of considerable money as it is impossible 
 to take advantage of the discounts usually 
 offered. By all means, bills should be paid as 
 they fall due. To do this, it is advisable to have 
 an auditing committee consisting of one mem- 
 ber of the board. This will not work a hard- 
 ship on the board from the fact that it is sel- 
 dom necessary for the auditing committee to 
 meet more than twice a week to pass on the 
 bills before they are paid. By having but one 
 member of the board on the auditing commit- 
 tee, the work can be divided among the different 
 board members so as not to prove burdensome. 
 
 An objection is sometimes made to this plan 
 from the fact that it is necessary to give the 
 bead of the department of accounting a number 
 of warrants signed in blank. To overcome tbis, 
 the one in charge of the accounting department 
 should be under heavy bond, and the secretary 
 and treasurer should limit the number of war- 
 rants to the number that would probably be 
 
 needed. These warrants should be listed by 
 number, and when used a report should be made 
 to the auditing committee showing the number 
 used and the number remaining on hand. This 
 together with all invoices and a report showing 
 the complete transaction, should be placed be- 
 fore the auditing committee when his voucher 
 is secured. This completed exhibit should then 
 be presented to the board at its next meeting 
 for approval. 
 
 Monthly Statements. 
 
 Often one of the difficulties of the school 
 boards is that they do not at all times know 
 exactly where they stand as to finances, the 
 probable amount of expenditures for a given 
 period, and the receipts for the year. To over- 
 come this, it is a good plan to call a meeting 
 of the board just before the beginning of the 
 fiscal year to define a policy for the coming 
 year and to make appropriations to each de- 
 partment and to each account. If this is done, 
 the first entry in the exhibit ledger should be 
 the appropriations filled in at the head of the 
 column with red ink. 
 
 At the end of the month, two statements 
 should be prepared for the board and a copy 
 delivered to each member. First should be the 
 financial statement showing the receipts and 
 disbursements for the preceding month, the 
 balance at the beginning of the month, the bal- 
 ance in the different funds at the close of the 
 month, and the balance of all funds. The sec- 
 ond report should show the cost of operation 
 for the past month. It is possible to prepare 
 a report of this nature if careful attention is 
 given to details, without making it too large or 
 bulky. It can be prepared to show a true 
 exhibit and condition of the business at a glance. 
 The report should be ruled to admit all the 
 names of the schools or departments in the first 
 column to the left, commencing at the top 
 
 TERRE HAUTE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 Receipts and Disbursements for the Month of 191 
 
 
 
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 Fig. C. Monthly Report Form for Receipts and Disbursements. 
 
working to the bottom of the page. The dif- 
 ferent account heads should be in the columns 
 standing full length of the sheet. If this is 
 done it is easy to obtain a complete review of 
 the work for the preceding month. To prepare 
 these reports let us suppose that the schools 
 instead of being named are numbered. On the 
 first horizontal line will appear school number 
 one; second, school number two and so on down 
 the page until all the schools are enumerated. 
 In the columns at the top should appear such 
 items as supplies, books, repairs, heat, light, 
 telephones, etc. The total of the figures read- 
 ing from left to right of the school numbers 
 will give the cost of operation for that particu- 
 lar school for the month. The total of entries 
 under any particular account-column will show 
 the cost of the account for the month. The 
 total of the extensions at the extreme right of 
 the school number will give the cost of opera- 
 tion for the month. 
 
 Filing Papers. 
 
 Particular attention should be given to the 
 filing of all papers coming into the possession 
 of the business office. A very successful plan 
 with us has been to open a "Document Book" 
 wherein are recorded all papers filed, except 
 such papers as come before the board and are 
 kept with the proceedings of the board. These 
 papers are filed alphabetically. Instead of re- 
 ferring to the different files and searching 
 through a number of papers for the one wanted, 
 we first consult our document book. Suppose 
 the paper wanted to be a notice of "Street Im- 
 provement concerning the Deming School." In 
 our document book, under the D's, is entered 
 "Notice Street Improvement" file 16. This 
 system of keeping a record of all documents 
 filed is as essential in a small office as in a 
 large one. 
 
 We should not lose sight of the fact that in 
 our attempt to eliminate details to a minimum, 
 with the use of the Exhibit Ledger, that a num- 
 ber of supplementary books must be kept. A 
 cash book, of course, is indispensable. In con- 
 nection with the cash book should be used a 
 receipt book. All moneys received by the office 
 should be receipted for and the stubs retained. 
 These stubs assume vast importance at times, 
 
 especially when your office is undergoing an 
 investigation by the state department. 
 
 Teachers' Payrolls. 
 
 One phase of the work that has proven a 
 source of worry and dissatisfaction has been 
 the different methods of meeting the monthly 
 payrolls. This matter is not of as much impor- 
 tance in a small place where there is from ten 
 to forty persons to be paid, but when the num- 
 ber of persons increases to three or four hun- 
 dred, it becomes a different problem. Our meth- 
 od of handling this matter has proven very 
 satisfactory and has been approved by the state 
 department having charge of all public offices. 
 We prepare a payroll with the heading of "Re- 
 ceipt" at the top of the sheet. To the left is 
 the name of the employee; set opposite each 
 name to the right is the amount due each per- 
 son. This payroll is then sent to the bank with 
 a check to cover the full amount of the pay- 
 roll. Each employee calls at the bank and re- 
 ceipts for the amount specified in the payroll. 
 But one objection has been offered to this plan, 
 namely, that no bank can be found that cares 
 to do this work. An investigation, however, 
 will undoubtedly disclose the fact that the banks 
 are willing to do the work for the additional 
 business and prestige it gives them. However, 
 if it should be found that no bank cares to 
 handle the payrolls in this manner, it is pos- 
 sible for the business office to make payments, 
 drawing a warrant for the full amount and 
 placing the respective sums in an envelope to be 
 given to the employee when the payroll is signed. 
 This eliminates the stupendous task of drawing 
 a warrant for each individual, and mistakes are 
 reduced to a minimum, for the reason, that if 
 warrants are used, the name of each payee, with 
 the amount paid to them, must be copied from 
 the warrant into the proper book. With the 
 use of the above payroll plan but one entry is 
 necessary. Probably in the following order: 
 
 Teachers $31,000.00, distributed 
 
 to the following schools, and only the totals of 
 the different sums paid to the teachers of any 
 one school must be entered. This system of 
 meeting the payrolls saves time and work. It 
 is accurate and far less subject to juggling than 
 is the plan of issuing a warrant to each individ- 
 ual employee. 
 
Distributing Supplies. 
 
 As the business offices are in charge of work 
 other than the accounting, careful attention 
 should be given to all the different departments. 
 The question of supplies offers a loop-hole for 
 innumerable leaks. Leaks in any system should 
 be sought for, and when discovered should be 
 remedied at once. There is probably more 
 chance for leaks in furnishing supplies than in 
 any other department. To control this, all sup- 
 plies should be entered in a "Supply Book" im- 
 mediately upon receipt of the goods. Further- 
 more, each school and department should have 
 a separate account showing the amount of sup- 
 plies furnished them. Before any goods are 
 delivered to any department or school, a requisi- 
 tion from someone authorized to make it should 
 be in the hands of the business office. Suppose 
 the requisition is to come from the Deming 
 School and calls for chalk, pencils, ink, etc. 
 In our stock-book we would turn to the Deming 
 School account. This stock-book is ruled to 
 provide a certain number of deliveries each 
 month. We find that in the preceding months, 
 among other things, the Deming School has 
 been supplied with chalk, penci.s, ink, etc. 
 All that is necessary then, is to enter in the 
 proper column of the present month, the amount 
 of each item to be delivered. At the end of the 
 year the totals of the different columns will give 
 the total amount of each article delivered. The 
 total of each separate column for each school 
 or department will give the total amount of any 
 particular item delivered for the year. At the 
 end of the fiscal year the total of the inventory, 
 which should be taken at the beginning of the 
 inventory, plus the amount bought, less the 
 amount supplied to the different departments or 
 schools, should give the correct inventory for 
 the commencement of the next year. 
 
 Handling Labor. 
 
 Quite frequently a number of men, employed 
 by the day or month, as the case may be, are 
 under the charge of the business office. As it 
 is impossible to personally superintend all the 
 
 work, such as electrical work, carpenter work, 
 minor repairs, plumbing, etc., it is necessary 
 that some system be devised whereby the office 
 may check up on all work done. To do this we 
 use a time card showing first, the name of the 
 person doing the work, second, the place where 
 the work was done, third, the place where the 
 worker left to go to the place where the work 
 is to be done, fourth, the time it takes to go, 
 from the place the worker starts, to the place 
 where he does the work, and fifth, the amount 
 of time it takes to do the work, and tools broken 
 on the job. If some supplies are required to do 
 the job the order must come from the business 
 office and go to the stock room and the goods de- 
 livered to the one doing the work. 
 
 Whatever may be the system of accounting it 
 should be carried out faithfully; if this were 
 done there would be fewer defalcations. There 
 is no way in which dishonesty can be practiced 
 without detection, it cannot be covered up by 
 manipulating the accounts. Loose, indifferent 
 methods makes the one keeping them liable to 
 suspicion and so I wish to emphasize the im- 
 portance of keeping them properly. Do not be 
 lazy but insist on each day's work being per- 
 formed at the proper time. Laziness rather than 
 incompetency is the cause of disorder in public 
 offices. Do not be afraid of work, give full 
 measure and insist on all in the department 
 doing the same. 
 
 Do not depend on the bank to keep the bank 
 account ; require them to balance the bank books 
 at the end of each month and keep a list of un- 
 paid accounts. By doing this any discrepancy 
 between office accounts and the bank account 
 can be discovered at once and corrected. 
 
 It has been my purpose in this article to 
 show the value of Exhibit Ledgers in school 
 accounting and to emphasize the value of the 
 personality of a school accountant in relation 
 to such work; his keen sense of order and sys- 
 tem; his sound business judgment and tact; 
 his power of initiative and fibre of completeness 
 constitute an accounting system of value. 
 
 10 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 
 
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