m i ni m i w i n i m m m I » win Wm rzl'l * *■*. A FIRST BOOK IN CAN HIS WITH AN BEGINN UTHWORT Class _^L_ Book Cop>Tight N?. 1 COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. STATUE OF LIBERTY IN NEW YORK HARBOR A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY WITH EUROPEAN BEGINNINGS BY GERTRUDE VAN DUYN SOUTHWORTH AUTHOR OF "THE STORY OF THE EMPIRE STATE," "BUILDERS OF OUR COUNTRY," ETC. ILLUSTRATED D. APPLETON AND COMPANY NEW YORK CHICAGO 1917 (fyu^\ *' fr>A^ fir 77/E SAME AUTHOR Builders of Our Country. Two volumes. Book I, pages xiv, 274, cloth. Book II, pages xiv, 300, cloth. With many illustrations and maps. 65 cents each. The Story of the Empire State. Illustrated, pages x, 213 ; cloth, 80 cents. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY New York Chicago Copyright, 1907, 1909, 1917, by D. APPLETON AND COMPANY NOV 20 1917 ©CU479149 DEDICATED TO JOHN AND NANCY PREFACE The Committee of Eight of the American Historical Association has recommended the teaching of European Beginnings of American History for the entire sixth grade of our grammar schools, and has outlined a course cover- ing the work. The author of this book has met the essential require- ments of the Committee of Eight, but, believing that a sixth grade child will not make the association between the European Beginnings of our history and our own history, if the two are not given in close connection with- out the break of a summer vacation, she has taken the liberty of shortening the time allotted to the study of European Beginnings, and has combined this subject with American history for a year's course. The book, then, tells a simple story of the growth of civilization among the Greeks, the Romans, the French, the Spaniards, the Germans, and the English, and ex- plains how each of these nations has influenced our government, our laws, our architecture, and our manner of living. This introduction is followed by brief accounts of the lives of men who by their actions have made for themselves places in American history. vii PREFACE The biographies have been chosen to give a connected narrative throughout, and by so doing the book offers in addition to the biographical plan — which without question appeals strongest to beginners — all the advan- tages of chronologically arranged texts. It is hoped that these stories will so interest American children as to arouse a genuine desire for further knowl- edge of the stirring events which have helped in the building up of the United States. Gertrude Van Duyn South worth, June 1, 1917 CONTENTS CHAPTEB PAGE I. Greece and Alexander the Great 1 II. Italy. The Romans ...... 9 Hannibal . ■ 11 Julius Caesar ...... 14 Augustus Caesar . 21 III. The Germans. Alaric ....... 25 Charlemagne — The Beginning of France 29 Roderick and the Goths in Spain 31 IV. Britain, or England. Hengist and Horsa . 34 Augustine ...... 36 Alfred the Great . . . . . 38 William the Conqueror 40 Richard the Lion-Hearted and His Brothel John ...... 48 V. Christopher Columbus. Europe in the Thirteenth Century . 55 Columbus's Plan .... 57 The First Voyage . 62 Other Voyages .... 65 VI. John Cabot ...... 68 IX CONTENTS CHAPTEK PAGE VII. The Spanish Conquests and Explorations. Ponce de Leon ..... 71 Balboa 72 Hernando Cortez ..... 74 Hernando de Soto . . . . .75 VIII. English Explorers after Cabot. Sir Francis Drake ..... 79 Sir Walter Raleigh ..... 83 IX. John Smith. The Jamestown Colony and the Adventures of John Smith 88 Life in Jamestown ..... 90 Pocahontas ...... 92 The Indians 95 X. Miles Standish and the Pilgrims. Why the Pilgrims Left England . .101 The Pilgrims in America .... 103 XL Governor Winthrop and the Puritans. The Puritans Come to America . . Ill Roger Williams . . . . .115 King Philip's War 118 XII. Henry Hudson and the Dutch in America . 123 Peter Minuit 127 Peter Stuyvesant . ' . . . .129 XIII. The Early French Explorers. Champlain . . . . . .134 The Attack on the Iroquois . . .137 Joliet and Marquette — the Great Canoe Trip 140 La Salle's Plans and Early Explorations . 144 La Salle Reaches the Gulf of Mexico . . 147 La Salle's Attempted Settlement . . 148 x CONTENTS CHAPTER XIV. Lord Baltimore. Maryland ...... XV. William Penn. The Quakers ...... The Settlement of Pennsylvania XVI. General James Oglethorpe. Georgia ....... XVII. Nathaniel Bacon ..... XVIII. Benjamin Franklin. Boyhood ...... Early Life in Philadelphia Franklin the Citizen .... XIX. Montcalm and Wolfe. French and Indians Wars Montcalm and Wolfe — The Close of the War XX. Patrick Henry. 'God Save the King!" The First Breach XXI. Samuel Adams. The Stamp Act The Boston Tea Party Lexington and Concord Bunker Hill .... XXII. George Washington before the Revolution His Boyhood ..... The Surveyor .... Governor Dinwiddie's Messenger Great Meadows and Fort Necessity Braddock's Campaign Second Attack on Fort Duquesne xi 151 157 159 164 167 173 175 179 185 189 198 201 206 208 211 214 217 220 222 225 227 231 CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE XXIII. George Washington, Commander and Presi- dent. Commander in Chief .... 233 The Campaign Before Boston and Around New York 234 The Retreat Across New Jeresy . 238 The English Plan and Burgoyne's Advance 241 Burgoyne's Surrender .... 243 In Pennsylvania ..... 244 Yorktown ...... 247 XXIV. Nathanael Greene. His Early Life 251 In Washington's Army .... 252 In the South 255 XXV. Alexander Hamilton. Steps to Fame 259 Depreciation of the Currency . . . 260 The New Constitution and Financial Reform 262 The Duel and Hamilton's Death . . 265 XXVI. Thomas Jefferson. Author of the Declaration of Independence . 268 President 271 XXVII. Daniel Boone. The Young Hunter 275 The Wilderness Road and Boonesborough . 277 XXVIII. Eli Whitney and Robert Fulton. Eli Whitney 281 Travel in Colonial Days . . . .284 The Boy Fulton 285 The Clermont ...... 286 xii CONTENTS CHAPTER XXIX. XXX. Oliver Hazard Perry. Before the War of 1812 The Victory on Lake Erie Andrew Jackson. The Emigrant's Boy Lawyer and Fighter President 291 292 296 298 301 XXXI. Henry Clay and Daniel Webster Early Training of Henry Clay In Congress The Great Pacificator Daniel Webster's Early Days In Congress 303 304 305 309 311 XXXII. Samuel F. B. Morse and His Successors. Methods of Signaling . . . .316 Samuel Morse and the Telegraph . .317 Cyrus W. Field and Marconi . . . 320 Alexander Graham Bell and the Telephone . 322 XXXIII. Abraham Lincoln before 1861. Lincoln's Birthplace .... 324 Lincoln the Boy 325 Lincoln Starts Out for Himself . ■ .328 Lincoln the Lawyer ..... 332 Lincoln the Politician .... 333 XXXIV. President Lincoln and the Civil War. The Division of the Union . . .338 July, 1861— September, 1862 . . .341 January, 1863— April, 1865 . . .344 Lincoln's Death ..... 346 xiii CONTENTS CHAPTER XXXV. Ulysses S. Grant. XXXVI. XXXVII. Younger Days .... . 350 Farmer, Business Man, and General . . 352 Lieutenant General and President . 355 Honors and Death .... . 359 Robert E. Lee. Before the Civil War . 361 Commander of the Confederate Forces . 362 Surrender ..... . 366 David Glasgow Farragut. Midshipman ....... . 369 Officer in the Navy . . 370 New Orleans . . 371 Mobile Bay ..... . 372 XXXVIII. XXXIX. XL. George Dewey. "The Hero of Manilla" . Thomas A. Edison. Newsboy and Telegraph Operator The Inventor . The United States of America Review Questions Chronology . . . . Tables. Explorers and Discoverers The Thirteen Original Colonies The Growth of the United States Important Wars Explanation of Diacritical Marks Pronouncing Index 376 380 382 385 389 409 414 416 417 418 420 421 xiv ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS (Map) Showing How Romans as Priest Bartholdi's Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor Frontispiece Greek Costumes and Furniture . A Greek Ship Alexander Taming His Horse, Bucephalus A Greek Soldier .... Alexander's Empire . Bronze Statue of a Roman Orator, Dressed .... A Roman Soldier Hannibal Crossing the Rhone The Temple in which Caesar, When a Boy, Served Julius Caesar (B. C. 100—44) Early Britons. Showing Costumes and Weapons Ancient British War Chariot Cesar's Funeral A Street Scene in Rome A Gladiatorial Combat (From a Pompeian Mosaic) Scene in the Colosseum in Rome Gallic Horsemen Alaric Entering Rome Goths Sweeping Through Italy . Charlemagne .... Remains of Roman Wall in England Saxon Invaders of England Norman Monastery . King Alfred .... Northmen's Ship Harold Taken Prisoner Norman Church in England Vassal Taking Lath . Feudal Castle . XV 2 3 5 6 7 10 11 13 15 16 17 17 18 20 20 23 26 27 28 30 33 35 37 38 41 42 43 44 45 ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS (Map) (Map) (Map) (Map) Drawbridge of a Feudal Castle . A Tournament .... Mounted Knight in Armor King Richard Landing in Palestine A Crusader .... King John Signing the Magna Charta Trade Routes to the Far East in the Time of Columbus Marco Polo ....... The Part of the World Known at the Time of Columbus Toscanelli's Map Ships of the Northmen . . ... The Santa Maria ...... Columbus Claiming the New Country in the Name of Spain Sebastian Cabot when an Old Man Balboa Reaches the Pacific Ocean Hernando Cortez ...... Hernando de Soto ...... The Route of De Soto . . . De Soto Discovering the Mississippi River . Sir Francis Drake ...... Ferdinand Magellan . . Admiral Drake Seizes Eight Peruvian Ships Sir Walter Raleigh . . . . . Setting up the Standard of Queen Elizabeth in Virginia A Rude Interruption ..... The Coast of Virginia ..... "Captayne John Smith, Admirall of New England" Pocahontas Saving John Smith .... An Indian Palisaded Village .... Calumet, or Indian Peace Pipe .... Indian War Club ...... Indian Stone Ax ..... . Indians Making a Canoe from the Trunk of a Tree James I of England ...... Departure of the Pilgrims from Delft Haven, July, 1020 Miles Standish .... The Mayflower in Plymouth Harbor Plymouth Rock The Flag of New England Used by the Plymouth Colony The Pilgrims Going to Church ..... xvi (Map) ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS PAGE John Winthrop 112 The Chief Settlements Made in New England Between 1620 and 1675 {Map) 114 Roger Williams Received by the Narragansett Indians . .116 Rhode Island (Map) 118 Indians Surprising a Settlement' . ..... 120 Flag of the Dutch East India Company .... 123 Henry Hudson ......... 124 Purchase of Manhattan by Peter Minuit . . . .128 The Dutch and Neighboring Settlements . . (Map) 130 Old Dutch Fort '131 The Wrath of Stuyvesant 132 Jacques Cartier ........ 134 Samuel Champlain ........ 135 Territory Explored and Settled by the French . (Map) 136 Champlain's Battle with the Iroquois ..... 139 Marquette and Jcliet Floating Down the Mississippi . . 141 The Burial of Marquette 143 Robert La Salle 145 Bronze Sun-Dial and Compass ...... 146 Map of Maryland (Map) 151 Cecil Calvert 152 Governor Calvert Bartering for Land on Chesapeake Bay . 153 William Penn 158 The First Settlements of Pennsylvania and New Jersey {Map) 160 Penn Making the Treaty with the Indians .... 161 Treaty Belt Given to Penn by the Indians . . . .162 James Oglethorpe ........ 165 Bacon Confronting the Governor in the Square . . . 169 The Ruins of Jamestown . . . . . . .171 The Birthplace of Franklin ...... 173 Franklin's Arrival in Philadelphia . . . . .176 Franklin and His Printing Press . . . . .177 Facsimile of the Title Page of Poor Richard's Almanack . 178 Franklin and His Kite . . . . . . .181 Benjamin Franklin ........ 183 The Present Territory of the United States as Claimed by the French, English, and Spanish in 1749 . . (Map) 186 The Disputed Territory (Map) 187 Montcalm . 189 2 xvii ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS PAGE The French Forts on the Northern Frontier . . . 190 The Siege of Quebec . . . . . . . . 194 Death of General Wolfe ....... 195 George III of England 199 A Colonial Stamp ........ 201 Patrick Henry Addressing the House of Burgesses . . 202 Patrick Henry 204 Samuel Adams ........ 207 The "Boston Tea Party" 210 The First Battlegrounds of the Revolution . . (Map) 211 The Ride of Paul Revere 212 The Stone which Marks the Place where the First Shot was Fired 213 The Burning of Charlestown During the Battle of Bunker Hill 215 A Page from One of the Books Used by George Washington . 218 Washington Surveying ....... 220 Washington Climbing Out of the Frozen Stream . . . 224 Braddock's March 229 Retreat of Braddock's Army ...... 230 Washington Taking Command of the Army at Cambridge, 1775 235 The Revolution in the Middle States . . . (Map) 236 Washington Crossing the Delaware ..... 239 The Flag of the United Colonies, 1775-1777 . . .240 The First Flag of the United States, Adopted January, 1777 . 240 The English Route from Canada . . . (Map) 242 The Surrender of General Burgoyne ..... 243 Washington and Lafayette at Valley Forge .... 245 Where the Revolution Ended .... (Map) 247 Surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown, Va., October 19, 1781 248 President and Mrs. Washington ...... 249 Nathanael Greene . . . . . . . .251 The Siege of Charlestown ....... 254 Touching off the First Gun at the Siege of Yorktown . . 257 Alexander Hamilton ........ 259 Continental Bills 261 Washington Taking the Oath of Office as the First President . 264 First Money Coined by Congress ... . . . 265 Thomas Jefferson 268 Signing of the Declaration of Independence . . . . 269 xviii ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS (Map) The Liberty Bell as it Looks To-day The State House in Philadelphia where the Declaration of Independence was Signed . . . ... The Territory of the United States Before and After the Louisiana Purchase ..... (Map) Pioneer Settlements on the Western Frontier Daniel Boone Bringing His Family and the New Settlers Over the Wilderness Road . Eli Whitney A Section of the Cotton Gin Traveling by Stage Coach . Robert Fulton . The Clermont Railroad Travel in New York State in 1831 Where the Battle of Lake Erie was Fought Commodore Perry Leaving the Lawrence Jackson Refusing to Clean the Boots of the British Officer General Jackson Keeping Watch of the Enemy from the Roof of His Headquarters in New Orleans Andrew Jackson ..... The Birthplace of Henry Clay . Emigrant and Freight Wagon of Pioneer Days Henry Clay ...... Daniel Webster ..... The House of Representatives in the Days of Webster and Clay Signals by Means of the Heliograph ..... The First Telegraphic Message Sent by the Morse System . H.M.S. Agamemnon Laying the First Atlantic Cable Transatlantic Wireless Station at Cape Breton The Telephone Exchange at a Central Office Where Lincoln was Born . Sarah Bush Lincoln — Lincoln's Stepmother Lincoln Reading at Night . Lincoln's Trip to New Orleans on a Flatboat The Western Territories in 1854 A Scene at the Lincoln-Douglas Debates The Inauguration of Lincoln Firing on Fort Sumter The Merrimac and the Monitor . President Lincoln and His Son "Tad" xix (Map) PAGE 270 271 272 276 278 281 283 284 285 288 290 292 294 297 300 301 303 304 307 310 313 317 318 320 321 322 324 326 327 329 334 335 339 340 342 345 ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS (Map) (Map) Ford's Theater, where Lincoln was Shot House where Lincoln Died U. S. Grant The Civil War in the West The War in the East The Surrender of General Lee The Tomb of General Grant Robert E. Lee A Pontoon Bridge .... T. J. Jackson ..... House where General Grant and General Lee Arranged the Terms of Surrender Farragut Entering Mobile Bay . The Maine ..... Dewey on the Bridge of the Olympia . Thomas A. Edison .... Telegraph Instrument PAGE 347 348 351 353 356 357 359 362 364 365 367 373 376 377 380 381 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY WITH EUROPEAN BEGINNINGS GREECE AND ALEXANDER THE GREAT Century after century, as far back as you can think, yes, and even much farther than that, this old world has been turning on its axis and journeying around the sun. Not all this time, but for many of the centuries, on different parts of the earth's surface, men and women have lived and fought and worked and played and died, and left behind them traces of what they did. Some of the things they did or made have greatly helped the people coming after, and the story of how it has all worked out is wonderfully interesting. But it is a long story, too long to be told from the beginning. So to commence with, take Alexander the Great and the lands and people of his day, and let us see what has come down to us from those far-off times and how it came. In the days when Alexander the Great ruled Greece only a fragment of the world was civilized. The coun- tries of Greece, Italy, Asia Minor, and Egypt, bordering on the Mediterranean Sea, were the important centers of civilization. Tribes of barbarians lived on the out- 1 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY skirts of these lands. Of other lands and peoples little was known. The Greeks were the most cultured of the ancient nations. The natural beauty of their country made them love beautiful things. They erected wonderful temples and public buildings, and filled them with statues of marble and gold. They built huge amphitheatres, where thousands of people assembled to hear and see dramas and to witness athletic games and chariot races. They built beautiful monuments in memory of their heroes, and carved works of art from stone. Yet they lived in simple houses, only the nobility having elaborate palaces. Greek Costumes and Furniture. Believing that a beautiful body was the sign of a beautiful soul, the boys of Greece were trained in wrestling, jumping, running, and many other sports. Once in every four years a great festival was held at Olympia, and from daylight to dark, youths from all parts of Greece vied with each other in running, wrestling, boxing, throwing the discus and in four-horse chariot races. To win at the Olympian games was to be honored for life. GREECE AND ALEXANDER THE GREAT Always a graceful people, the Greeks wore loose flow- ing garments which added to the grace and dignity of their movements whether they were performing solemn religious rites or merely walking about the market-place. In early, early times people who wanted to write had to express their ideas by drawing pictures. Then, long before the days of Alexander, an Eastern people, called the Phoenicians, brought to the Greeks an alphabet. This alphabet the Greeks improved to suit their needs and used it in writing. Our own alphabet comes from theirs. The Greeks wrote poetry, plays, philosophy, his- tory, and wonderful stories of the deeds of their heroes, many of which we still read and study. Some of their sculpture, painting, and literature has never been equaled. Men of to-day can only imitate them. A Greek Ship. The Greeks were not only an artistic people; they were adventurous and brave. Since so large a part of their peninsula country was coastline, many of them could see the shiny sea from where they lived, and they felt the call of the sea. They built great ships and sailed about the Mediterranean, sometimes for adventure, some- times to carry on trade with other countries. And as 3 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY time went on, they founded colonies on neighboring shores, in southern Italy, Sicily, the isles of the JEgeeui and in Asia Minor. The people of Greece were not, as you might think, united as we are in the United States. Steep mountain ridges and long arms of the sea divided the country into many valleys and plains, so that small groups of people were separated from each other and formed independent kingdoms or states. One of the strongest of these states was Athens, where each man had a voice in making the laws and ruling the state, much as the men of America have to-day. Each of the Greek states was self centered, caring much for its own glory and little or nothing for the glory of Greece as a nation. The spirit of rivalry was keen, especially between Sparta and Athens, these states con- stantly struggling for supremacy. So things went until at length, in the year 338 before Christ, King Philip of Macedonia conquered all the Greek cities, made himself master of Greece, and succeeded in partially uniting the states. Philip's country of Macedonia lay north of the penin- sula of Greece. Here the people were for the most part rude peasants, though the customs of the Greeks had been introduced into court life. Philip's son, Alexander, lived at court and studied with Greek teachers and learned all the ways of the Greeks. Until he was eight years old he took gymnasium ex- ercises and played outdoor games which would make him strong in body. His education was like that of the Greek boys — training in music, literature, philosophy, painting, and gymnastics. Of course he could not study electricity, and other subjects which boys of to-day study, because at that time these things were not known. 4 GREECE AND ALEXANDER THE GREAT Alexander became an agile, sturdy little fellow, eager for knowledge, and intensely interested in all the wars in which his father fought, and all the battles which he won. He was afraid that when he grew up there would be no countries left for him to conquer. Alexander Taming His Horse, Bucephalus. Two years after Philip conquered Greece, he died, and Alexander, who was then twenty years old, became king in his place. Alexander now discovered that his father had indeed left many countries for him to conquer. To the east lay Persia, and it soon came to be Alexander's chief ambition to form a mighty empire of Persia and all the east. The Greek army of nearly 40,000 was the largest ever before assembled in history. In 334 B.C. Alexander led this army against Persia. The Greeks conquered everywhere 5 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY they went because of Alexander's splendid generalship and his many schemes for defeating the enemy. In battle after battle they were victorious, and year after year they pushed farther into Asia. They learned much of Persian customs, and added to their limited knowledge of the geography of the world. In turn the Persians learned Greek customs from them, since Alexander took care to establish Greek cities through- out the land he conquered. At first these cities were little more than resting places for his worn out soldiers, but later many grew into great centers of trade, and from them Greek thought and influence spread in every direction. Alexander also invaded Egj^pt, and at the mouth of the Nile founded the city of Alexandria, which became the great exchange market for the goods of Europe and Asia, as well as a famous center of learning. In his thirty-second year Alexander died, ending a re- markable career. He had conquered the land east to the Indus River. The Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, the Indus River, the Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, and the Mediter- ranean Sea formed natural boundaries for much of his em- pire. And in the south he had added Egypt to the Greek possessions. He left a vast empire of great wealth and power and has ever since been known as Alexander the Great. 6 A Greek Soldier. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Summary The Greeks were lovers of the beautiful, and much of their art and literature has come down to our day. One of the greatest inventions of all time was the alphabet, which the Phoenicians brought from the East. The Greeks improved this for their own use, and the alphabet we use to-day is based upon that of the Greeks. From the Greeks the world first learned that every citizen should share in making the laws which govern his country. Under the leadership of Alexander the Great, the Greeks became a world power, and by conquest spread their territory east into Persia and south into Egypt. II ITALY THE ROMANS West of Greece there lies the boot-shaped peninsula of Italy. Long before the days of Alexander many dif- ferent races of men had migrated to Italy and there lived in a semi-barbarous manner. But with the passing of years the people grew more civilized. One tribe, the Etruscans, excelled in knowledge and power. They built roads and stone walls, parts of which exist to-day. No one can read the inscriptions on these walls, for no one holds the key with which to translate the ancient language of the Etruscans. In time an even greater people came to succeed the Etruscans. These were the Romans. Fifteen miles from the mouth of the Tiber River, which flows from the center of Italy southwest to the sea, stood seven hills. The site was an ideal one for a city: the elevation made a natural fortress; trading vessels could come up the river; the spot was far enough from the sea so that the pirates could not easily reach it. Three Italian tribes settled here. They united and called themselves " Romans." In the early days (753 B.C.) these tribes built a village of mud huts, and built a wall around two hills. They called their village Rome. The Romans were shepherds, for the most part, and pastured their flocks below the hills. At night they returned to the hills to escape the fevers and the wild beasts of the lowlands. 9 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY The Romans were at first constantly on the defensive. The neighboring tribes made war upon the city and it was necessary for the little stronghold to struggle bitterly to live. Sometimes victorious, sometimes sadly beaten, Rome passed through the early stages of her history. At length the city not only held her own but began attacking her enemies. Slowly and surely the Romans conquered, and, while enlarging the city itself, extended their author- ity over the country near at hand. This done, they pushed on and on until they finally gained control of all of Italy. The early Romans lived very plainly. Their houses had but one large room, which was divided by thin board partitions. Their food and clothing were of the simplest. The men wore sandals and a single coarse woolen garment which came to the knees and was called a tunic. Over this, on special occasions, they wore a toga, or long sort of robe made of white woolen cloth. They spoke the Latin language. The father of a Roman family ruled absolutely in his house, and might banish his chil- dren, sell them as slaves, or even put them to death. Unlike the Greeks, who loved beautiful things, the Romans liked practical things. They bent their efforts to perfecting a system of government, to developing agri- 10 Beonze Statue of a Roman Ora- tor, Showing How Romans Dressed. ITALY culture and roads, and to acquiring wealth by trade. In time, however, when they had conquered the Greek cities of southern Italy, they carried home some of the wonder- ful Greek sculpture, some Greek ideas in building temples and theatres, learned to use the Greek alphabet, and adopted many of the Greek ways into their own life. There were two classes of Romans: the Patricians, or the nobility, and the Plebeians, or the common people, and there were many civil wars due to the quarrels between these two classes. The Patricians were determined to keep the power in their own hands. The Plebeians wanted equal rights with the Patricians. So in the his- tory of Rome we find constant disagree- ments, constant changes in government. Yet every Roman was loyal to the state. The ties of religion and of race bound the people together, so that they united against a foreign enemy and always up- held the honor of Rome. . A Roman Soldier, HANNIBAL After the Romans had conquered all of Italy their most dangerous rival was the city of Carthage. Carthage, on the north coast of Africa, was separated from the toe of the peninsula of Italy by only a narrow strip of sea and the island of Sicily. Like Rome, Carthage was a city of great power, and had control of much of northern Africa, parts of Spain and Sicily and of the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. The Carthaginians were a commercial people who had many trading vessels and acquired much wealth by their commerce on the sea. The two cities 11 A FIEST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY became bitter rivals, and in 264 B.C. began a great war called the First Punic War. To conquer Carthage, the Romans built a fleet of more than 100 ships, and, although unfamiliar with naval warfare, they were victorious in many sea fights. After twenty-four years of fighting, sometimes on the African coast, sometimes in Sicily, sometimes on the sea, the Romans subdued the Car- thaginians and took from them the island of Sicily, which became Rome's first province. Carthage, although subdued for a time, was still a sworn enemy to Rome. And at last there came a great military general to lead the Carthaginians against Rome in a new war, the Second Punic War. This man was Hannibal. Hannibal's father fought in the first war be- tween Carthage and Rome. And so great was his hatred of the Romans that he made Hannibal, then nine years old, swear to spend his life trying to overthrow their power. This oath Hannibal never forgot, and when he became a man and was made commander of the Car- thaginian army in Spain he felt that his chance had come to conquer the hated Romans. He resolved to carry the war into the very heart of Italy, to the city of Rome itself. He chose a roundabout route, and decided to lead his great army north of Italy, and thence south over the treacherous Alps mountains. The Carthaginians used elephants on which they rushed upon the foe and broke their ranks. These elephants added much to the difficulties of the journey as great rafts had to be built to carry them across the Rhone River, and now and again in crossing the Alps many hours were lost cut- ting mountain pathways wide enough for them to pass through. In other places the path was so narrow and steep and slippery that hundreds of horses and men missed their 12 ITALY 13 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY footing and fell over the precipices, to be dashed to pieces thousands of feet below. Hostile mountain tribes, from high above them, rolled great masses of rock upon the army as they struggled upward. Altogether, the journey across the Alps was full of peril and cost Han- nibal dear. But at length, after terrible suffering, his army reached Italy, where it stayed for fifteen years. Pushing ahead, mowing down the Roman forces as they went, ravaging the country, the Carthaginians ad- vanced on Rome. The outcome looked very dark for the Romans. But the Roman people and their allies stood firm in defense of their capital. At length the Romans sent a part of their army into Africa. Then Hannibal was forced to abandon his campaign in Italy and return home to defend Carthage. From this point on, Rome was not only out of danger but turned the tables and warred successfully against Carthage. At last, in 202 B.C., the mighty Hannibal bowed his head in defeat. Rome had broken forever the strength of Carthage. And later the Romans completed their vic- tory by burning Carthage to the ground. JULIUS C/ESAR With Carthage, her strongest rival, overthrown, Rome was mistress of great power. But people who have tasted wealth and glory usually crave for more, and so Rome was not content with her conquests. Great armies were sent into all the countries around the Mediterranean, and Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece, and much of southern Europe fell before them and became Roman provinces, ruled by Roman governors. All the land which is now France, Belgium, and Switzerland was then called Gaul. And into Gaul the 14 ITALY The Temple in Which Cesar, When a Boy, Served as Priest. Roman troops were led by Julius Caesar, "the greatest of all the Romans.' ' While conquering Gaul, Caesar first came into contact with the great German race which was later to overthrow the magnificent Ro- man empire. The Gallic tribes were always fighting each other, and some years before, certain tribes who were get- ting the worst of affairs had asked the Germans to come over the Rhine and help them. This the Germans had done gladly; only when the battle was ended, they had refused to return to their own side of the Rhine. Instead they had seized upon lands belonging to the Gauls and settled there. Such an arrangement was not to Caesar's liking. So he decided that he must drive the Germans back to their old homes. Even the brave Roman soldiers lost courage when they heard stories of the terrible size and bravery of the " barbarians." To the smaller, dark-skinned Roman soldier these huge warriors, with their fair skins and long light hair, must indeed have seemed scarcely human. But Caesar, nothing daunted, led his legions into battle with the Germans and defeated them and drove them out of Gaul. To subdue the men of Gaul was no easy task. And for several years Caesar carried on almost continual war- fare with the different tribes. At last, however, he suc- ceeded in thoroughly conquering the land, and the Gauls 15 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY began to adopt Roman customs. Since the Romans had accepted Greek ideals of beauty and education, the Gauls received the benefit of Greek culture as well as Roman ways of government and life. Just northwest of Gaul, across the English Channel, lay the British Isles. The natives were a wild, hardy race. Like most half -savage people, the Britons were di- vided into tribes. And the different tribes fought each other almost constantly and could only be forced to unite in the presence of some common danger. They made rough weapons and house- hold articles and wore a coarse cloth which, with the skins of the animals they killed, made up their scanty clothing. As these Britons were distant cousins of the Gauls, quite naturally, from time to time, they helped their kinsmen to fight against the Romans. So useful was their help that before Caesar succeeded in subduing the Gauls, he was forced to make two brief invasions into Britain. The first time the Roman army sailed to the British Isles was in the year 55 B.C. The natives of the islands had never seen an army as great as Caesar's. But they rushed boldly on the invaders and tried their utmost to keep them from landing. All in vain, however, as Ca?sar's warriors leaped to the shore and soon drove the Britons away. The Romans stayed in Britain only a few weeks. 16 '(■•'- vB V ^ll* m ^ »■.'.■ j -Ty ■■ - ~U^fl Julius Cesar (b.c. 100-44). ITALY Winter was near and there were too many other things to do. The next year Caesar again sailed to Britain. On this second visit he remained a little longer and gave the people a more defi- nite idea of Rome's power. But it was not until nearly a hundred years afterward that the Romans really brought the Britons under their control. Caesar's two land- ings merely pre- pared the way. In the days of Julius Caesar, when Rome was all for conquest, it is no wonder that backed by his well-trained legions Early Britons Showing Costumes and Weapons. a successful general, should receive much honor and glory. After a campaign which had added new lands to Rome's empire, such a con- queror was wel- comed home by a " triumph." A tri- umph was a great public celebration. It began with a magnificent procession where were shown the captured treasures and the prisoners taken in war. 17 Ancient British War Chariot. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY And the conqueror, with a laurel wreath on his head, rode at the head of his soldiers, who sang and shouted his praises. After the procession gorgeous banquets were held, rewards were given the soldiers, and offerings were made to the gods. Such • a triumph was given Caesar, Rome's greatest general by far, on his return from conquering Gaul. And then, because of his ability, his rank, and his popu- larity, the people of Rome made Caesar dictator. Cesar's Funeral. Rome was called a republic, but the man who held the dictatorship was really an absolute ruler. For a time Caesar governed Rome with wisdom and justice. But in spite of all he had done for his country, he had many enemies, some who were jealous of his great 18 ITALY authority, others who feared that he might become king and so end the republican form of government. While seated one day in the senate, he was suddenly over- powered and stabbed to death. At his death Caesar left a wonderful nation. At the time of her greatest extent, the Roman empire included the territory bounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the Rhine, Danube and Euphrates rivers, and the Sahara desert. Rome had conquered the world. She was approach- ing the height of her glory, but later this very magnificence was to prove her downfall. She had stately public build- ings, beautiful temples filled with rare statues, huge public baths, and wonderful roads which took the place of our railroads and have lasted to this day. Over them horsemen carrying important news or letters dashed with desperate speed. Realizing the value of education, Rome preserved the literature of the Greeks and added to it. Many of her great soldiers and statesmen were famous orators and writers. Julius Caesar wrote an account of his battles in Gaul, and this book is one of the first that Latin scholars now study. As there were no printing presses, all the copying was done by slaves. The slaves wrote from dictation on long strips of thin paper. The strips were then fastened to two light, round sticks. When reading, a stick was held in each hand and the strip of paper was unrolled from one stick and rolled upon the other. Thousands of Greek prisoners lived as slaves in Roman homes. These slaves were often brilliant scholars, far better educated than their masters, and they taught Greek learning and customs to the members of the Ro- man household. Many Greek words were adopted into the Latin language and from the Latin have come to us. 19 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY As Rome grew greater, more slaves were brought in, more wealth was gained from captured cities. The A Street Scene in Rome. Roman nobles gave themselves up to new luxuries. All the work was done by slaves, so there was no way for the poorer classes to earn a living. These people gath- ered in the cities and lived as beg- gars, supported by gifts of grain from the state, and amused by public entertainments in the vast Roman theatres and circuses. Such entertainments were sometimes very beautiful, sometimes very brutal, always very costly. 20 From a Pompeian Mosaic. A Gladiatorial Combat. ITALY There were dances, chariot races, battles between spe- cially trained men called "gladiators," or the fights of wild beasts brought from distant countries. The simple life of Rome was gone. Through its very hardships the early way of living had bred a race of brave, vigorous men. But the descendants of these former Romans lived only for feasting and amusement, and gradually as the years went by they lost their splendid patriotism, and the glory of Rome was on the wane. AUGUSTUS C/ESAR For thirteen years after Caesar's death Rome was given over to war among her leaders. It was an un- happy time. At last one of Caesar's grand-nephews suc- ceeded in putting down all other rivals and gained control of affairs. So great was his power that he was in reality a king. This man's name was Octavius, but the Romans called him Augustus, or "The Majestic." He was made emperor, and the Republic of Rome became an empire. Augustus was a great and wise ruler. He set himself to improving conditions within the empire rather than to conquering more land. He encouraged education, held the nobility in check, relieved the poorer people, and built many beautiful public buildings. Indeed this time was so peaceful and prosperous that it is often called the "Golden Age." Many of the new buildings were temples. The Greeks and Romans were religious people, and their faiths were much alike. Both had many gods. They worshipped a god of the sun, a god of war, a god of the sea, and the like. The Romans also included their emperor in their worship because of the great power he possessed, which made him somewhat like the gods. These early religions were observed with elaborate cere- 21 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY monies. Temples were built for the gods and rich gifts and sacrifices were offered to them. Then, during the peaceful reign of Augustus, Jesus Christ was born in the little town of Bethlehem. And from this quiet spot in the Roman province of Judea came a religion which was to replace all the wonder stories of Greek and Roman mythology. The followers of Christ were called Christians. At first their number was small and they attracted little notice. But the few who did believe in the teaching of Christianity were so sincere that they felt that they should tell others about their faith. So they made their way to different parts of the empire and even to Rome itself. Here, as everywhere, the simple belief of the Christians appealed to those who heard about it, and after a time there were many Christians and the Roman officials became alarmed. Though the Christians were quiet and peaceable, they held secret meetings and refused to worship the emperor. These two things were against the Roman laws and therefore could not be allowed. So the Christians were persecuted. Their homes were taken from them, they were stoned and crucified and many were burned to death. But though for years they were cruelly tortured and killed, still the religion spread. Finally the Roman Emperor Constantine made it the national religion in 325 A.D. Later, when Rome had lost her control of world affairs, we find her still powerful as the head of the Christian church. The Roman Empire lasted for about five hundred years after the rule of Augustus. All the time the nation was growing weaker. The nobility lived in extravagant style while the poor starved. No one's life was safe, for the emperors ordered people killed in order to seize their 22 Scene in the Colosseum in Rome. 23 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY property, and the emperors themselves were murdered by their political enemies. Everyone distrusted everyone else, and crime and oppression terrorized the whole land. Sometimes a good ruler would try to improve things, but his reign was not long enough to make the reforms lasting. The first Christian emperor, Constantine, changed his capital from Rome to Byzantium. This city he renamed Constantinople. Finally the empire was divided into the East and West empires. One emperor ruled the western empire and another took charge of the eastern, with its court at Constantinople. The old Roman Empire had grown weak and shaky. The Romans could no longer drive back the wild tribes on their northern and western boundaries. By 476 A.D. the western empire was a conquered nation, and the new rulers of Europe were the Germans. Summary The Romans were a practical people who built wonderful roads, cultivated their land, adopted into their lives the best of Greek art and literature, made wise laws, and, while building up a mighty empire, carried all these things into the lands they conquered. People now use Roman law. Our divisions of countries, states, cities and townships are based on Rome's system of managing her vast territories. Many words in the different modern languages came from the Latin of the Romans. Just as the Greeks first taught the world the value of every man's having a voice in the government, so Rome has taught us national patriotism. The Greek loved and served his state. The Roman loved and served the whole Roman Empire. When we Americans claim we have a government of the people, by the people, and for the people, in our .United States, we show that these two great lessons of the Greeks and Romans have come down to us through the centuries. 24 Ill THE GERMANS ALARIC Beyond the Danube and the Rhine lay the land of the Germans. Just as the general term " studies" is divided into many subjects — arithmetic, geography, spelling, and so on — so the general name " Germans" included many different divisions or tribes, — Franks, Goths, Vandals, Angles and Saxons. These barbarians, as they were called, were very un- like the Romans. They were a big, strong race, with long light hair, fair skins, and blue eyes. A German village was just a group of clearings made in the dense forests and the houses were rough huts. The men spent their time hunting and fighting, while the women and children raised grain for food and took care of herds of cattle. For governing purposes they were divided into groups, with some man who was braver or stronger than the others for their chief. On matters of general interest, such as war with a neighboring tribe, each man was ex- pected to give his frank opinion, for the Germans be- lieved that all men held equal rights and should be free to express their ideas. Even the women could offer advice, as the Germans held their women in high respect. And well they might, for besides doing most of the work, the women went with- the tribe to battle, where they 25 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Gallic Horsemen. cared for the wounded, urged their husbands on to vic- tory, and even occasionally dashed in and helped them fight. The Romans first came upon the Germans when Caesar was fighting in Gaul. You remember that he found them settled south of the Rhine and succeeded in driving them back to their own side of the river. But during the later days of the empire the Germans again came over the Ro- man border. They needed more land for grazing and hunting, and they were eager for a share in the wealth of which they had heard. Sometimes they fought with the Romans. Sometimes they came peace- ably, somewhat as immigrants come to us to-day. They settled in Gaul or northern Italy, and in return for land, fought in the Roman army against her enemies. The most civilized of the German tribes were the Goths who lived in the eastern part of Germany just north of the Danube. About four centuries after the birth of Christ, these Goths heard that they were to be attacked by the Huns, who were terrible little Asiatic warriors. In terror they rushed into Italy and asked the Romans for permission to settle there. They came in great numbers, sweeping everything before them. At first the Romans promised protection to the Goths. But the promise was not kept. The Goths were cruelly treated by Roman officials, who starved them and forced them to sell their children as slaves. Finally the angry 26 THE GERMANS Goths rose against the Romans and defeated them at the battle of Adrianople. For a time after this victory they settled down on the lands they had won and remained quiet. But about twenty years later they wanted more land and when the Romans refused to grant it, they chose for their leader a brave young Goth named Alaric, and again made war on Rome. Alaric Entering Rome. Alaric was an able leader. He knew he could not capture the great walled city by a direct attack, so he drew his army around it and waited to starve the Romans into submission. This he succeeded in doing, and the people had to pay an enormous ransom before he would lead his army away. Then, again and again Alaric asked for more land and provisions for his people. But the foolish emperor re- fused to make terms with the Goths, and two years 27 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY after his first siege, Alaric captured Rome in earnest. He ordered his soldiers to respect the churches, but they destroyed or carried off nearly everything else of value. It was in 410 A.D. that the Imperial City fell before the German invaders, and from this time on, all Italy was at their command. The Gothic armies swept down through the peninsula, leaving the country a waste behind them. Not long afterwards this great leader died. The story is told that his followers turned aside the course of Goths Sweeping Through Italy. a river and made his grave in its bed. Then they let the waters flow back in their channel, that no one might ever know where Alaric was buried. No new leader could take his place. The Goths drifted through the country, some settling in small groups where the land appealed to them, some going to south Gaul and Spain, where they became the ancestors of the modern Spaniards. But the Goths were not the only Germanic invaders of Italy. Different tribes were continually crossing the 28 THE GERMANS border to conquer and destroy, and finally to settle down and mingle with the original inhabitants. A little more than half a century after Alaric captured Rome, the great Roman Empire had been stamped out, but her influence lived on. Many art treasures were buried in the ruins of over- thrown cities and were thus preserved until modern times. In some country districts old Roman ideas and customs were kept. The Roman captives succeeded in influencing their fierce masters a little, as the Greeks had softened the early Romans. Rome had become weakened through indulgence. A brave, physically strong race was needed to carry on world civilization. To the Roman law and government the Germans added respect for womanhood, and the belief that each man shomld be free to live according to his own ideas. CHARLEMAGNE— THE BEGINNING OF FRANCE With the coming into power of the Germans, we have the beginnings of some modern European countries. Towards the close of the fifth century the Franks, a German tribe from the German side of the Rhine, ap- peared in northern Gaul. Here under a bold ruler named Clovis they succeeded in conquering Roman ter- ritory and brought under their power German tribes to the east and south. The land they won was called Frankland, and later, France. Clovis united many small kingdoms into one strong one, with a capital at Paris. He was a pagan king, but his beautiful wife Clothilde was a Christian. One day a great battle was going against Clovis. He had prayed to his own gods for victory, but in vain. At last, in despair, he called on the God Clothilde worshiped, and promised to become a Christian if the battle would turn 4 29 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY in his favor. He defeated his enemies and kept his word. As he was very powerful, his adoption of Chris- tianity spread this religion throughout the Frankish territory. After Clovis' death his kingdom was divided amongst his sons, and for a long time a period of bad gov- ernment followed. Three hundred years later came Charles the Great or Charlemagne. Charlemagne was a strong, just king, and during his reign he added to his realm most of modern Germany and the western half of Austria. He punished crime, encouraged learn- ing by founding many schools, and governed with wis- dom and kindness. He was so great a king that even the powerful church rec- ognized his authority and asked him to come to Rome to decide a church dispute. Here he was crowned emperor of Rome and France by the pope. Charlemagne did much toward uniting German and Roman customs, and benefited not only his own country but people of later times by his appreciation of learning. But after his death his empire was broken up. France 30 ^p$^^^^^S§KS^5rS ^M^mm pSJff jftf * wfe^ll K K& ?*•• "Kx ll|fl |-<**,;: & til '■ ]% — ^ h\x ^^^f*^~^/r~rrT~ • ' ". *■* f**- ■ t V \. - - CHARLEMAGNE. THE GERMANS for a long time sank back into misrule, and robbers and brigands ran riot over the land. The nation was not strong enough to advance by itself, and no great leader came forward to carry on the work of Charlemagne. RODERICK AND THE GOTHS IN SPAIN While the Franks were laying the foundation of the France of to-day, certain of the Goths had located in Spain. But these Spanish Goths did not long have things to themselves. Out in the land of the Arabs a new religion arose, with Mohammed as its prophet, and the Arabs, who were bold and fearless, set out to spread this new religion by the sword. Westward they swept through Syria, Egypt, and all northern Africa, and then, joined by the Moors, they crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and entered Sp in. At this time one Roderick was king of the Goths of Spain. Many of his people were not loyal to him, and gladly surrendered to the Moors. This left Roderick and his nobles to fight the Moors almost alone, and naturally it was not long before their small forces were defeated, Roderick was slain, and the Moors and Arabs were left to rule in Spain. Under their rule things improved wonderfully. They established schools and universities where mathematics, geography, and astronomy were studied. And they brought into Spain rice, sugar, cotton, and silk. But best of all they brought to Europe the Arabic numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, which in time replaced the old Roman numerals for business use. But what of the Goths all this time? After Roderick was killed,' some of his followers surrendered to the Moors, who allowed them to keep their old homes, but many of 31 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY them fled to the mountains, there to wait until they were strong enough to drive the Moors away. After many, many years that time came, and they left the mountains and slowly, little by little, regained their lost land. At last Spain consisted of three great kingdoms, Portugal, Aragon, and Castile. Then Queen Isabella of Castile married Ferdinand of Aragon, thus joining the two most powerful divisions. And together these rulers succeeded in driving the Moorish chief from his strong- hold of Granada, and built up a united and prosperous country, which for a long time was in advance of the rest of Europe. Summary In early times the many tribes of the German race lived to the north of the Roman Empire. Driven by the Huns or in search of new land they crossed the Danube and Rhine and took possession of the western kingdom of Rome. The Franks conquered northern Gaul and changed its name to France. Other Germans settled in Spain. To the Germans we owe the idea of personal freedom in the expression of beliefs. The Arabs brought to Europe the Arabic numbers, and did much to further learning in western Europe. IV BRITAIN, OR ENGLAND While Europe was breaking up and forming again in new divisions, the British Isles were having troubles and triumphs in their turn. Being separated from the main- land was at first an advantage, as the difficulty of crossing Remains of Roman Wall in England. the channel protected them from invasion. Later this separation proved a drawback, for Britain was cut off from the more advanced civilization of the continent. For almost a hundred years after Caesar's two visits the Britons were left to their wild life. Then Rome seized the territory, established fortified towns, built 33 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY roads, enforced Roman government and introduced Christianity. Britain remained a Roman province for three and a half centuries. This brought her to the time when the Germans began to cross the frontiers of the Roman Em- pire. Rome was forced to withdraw the soldiers stationed in Britain, to protect the home boundaries, and the Britons were left at the mercy of any enemy who might come. The strength of the native Britons had been so broken by the Roman conquerors that the people were practically defenseless. HENGIST AND HORSA After the Roman armies left, roving bands of Ger- mans from the mainland made raids on Britain's coast. But the worst invaders were the Picts and Scots. These were strong tribes from Scotland and Ireland, whom even the Romans had failed to subdue. It is near this period that legendary history places the wonderful British hero, King Arthur, and his Twelve Knights of the Round Table. Many beautiful stories are told of the adventures of this king and his court, but unfortunately it seems difficult to base them on facts. At any rate King Arthur and his followers, though models of chivalrous knighthood, were unable to save Britain from the fierce northern enemies who killed and plundered till the poor Britons longed for the return of their stern Roman masters. But Rome was too busy with home affairs to respond to their pleas for help. So, in despair, the Britons asked the Germans to come and drive out the Picts and Scots, and offered them land in return for defense. Now it happened that at this time two men, named 34 BRITAIN, OR ENGLAND Hengist and Horsa, were powerful leaders of a Germanic tribe called the Jutes. And, tempted by the Britons' offer of land, Hengist and Horsa decided to lead their followers to Britain. In the year 449 they landed and set themselves to overcoming the Picts and Scots. But hardly was this done and their reward granted to them, before other Germans began coming in great numbers to join Hengist and Horsa. Saxon Invaders of England. These other Germans were the Saxons and the Angles. And at once they and the Jutes concluded that they would not stay on the land earned by defeating the Picts and Scots, but that they would conquer all of Britain and have it for their own. Since they were less civilized than the tribes which . 35 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY had overrun Italy and France, they did more damage when they undertook to conquer Britain. Cities were laid waste, splendid Roman buildings were ruined, and even the churches were burned to ashes. The Britons were killed or enslaved or driven from the land and nearly all traces of Roman civilization were wiped out. Not only did the Saxons and Angles set up their own language, religion, and customs, but they changed the very name of the country they had vanquished. Britain was no longer called Britain, but Angleland, which name was later shortened to England. AUGUSTINE All this time Christianity was growing more powerful in Europe. And in the Middle Ages, the period which followed the coming of the Germans, the church became a great ruling force, to which even the most tyrannical European kings submitted. In England, however, after the coming of the Ger- mans, Christianity was destroyed for a while. This grieved the pope, so in 597 he sent a good and wise monk named Augustine with forty other monks to England to convert the people. Augustine landed in the south of England in the kingdom of Kent and asked permission of the King of Kent to preach Christianity. The king received the monks kindly and not only granted Augus- tine's request but promised the monks his protection and offered them a home in his capital of Canterbury. There they had their monastery, there Augustine began his great work, and from there Christianity gradually spread. As more and more people became converted, churches and monasteries were built throughout the country. The 36 BRITAIN, OR ENGLAND followers of Augustine brought with them Roman litera- ture and culture, and, as the years passed, schools were established in the monasteries where pupils were taught to read Latin and to write. The monks who lived in the monasteries were men who had promised to devote their lives to prayers and Norman Monastery. kind deeds for others. In the terrible times of bloodshed which were to come a little later, these monasteries were almost the only places where learning and ideals of peace and self-sacrifice were preserved. Under the teaching of Christianity, and through con- tact with Rome by means of traders and missionaries, the people of England gradually began to change from their cruelty and ignorance. But just as England was creeping up, and her wild conquerors were learning the arts of peace, new foes appeared. 37 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY ALFRED THE GREAT The foes which next fell upon England were the Northmen or Vikings. They, too, were distant kinsmen of the German tribes, but they came from the cold north — Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. They were bold, sturdy, pagan warriors, who sailed the seas in long, swift ships. Courage and en- durance were their great virtues and savage cruelty their worst fault. They worshiped the old Norse gods Odin and Thor, and believed that beautiful maidens on fiery steeds rode from the shining halls of Valhalla to carry brave warriors back to the gods. Their songs or sagas tell wonderful stories of great daring. These Vikings made sudden raids on English towns and were far away again toward their own "Land of the Midnight Sun " before any thing could be done. As they found how helpless the English were, their visits became more frequent, and the whole land lived in constant terror of these fierce ' ' sea kings." The Danes especially grew bolder and bolder and pushed their way farther and farther in- land until at last they seized the whole country northeast of the Thames and threatened to push on across the river. 38 King Alfred. BRITAIN, OR ENGLAND Then in 871 a Saxon king, Alfred the Great, came to the throne of Wessex, which was the most important of the seven kingdoms into which England was at that time divided. Alfred was different from former kings. Not only was he a brave and able soldier, but he later proved to be a wise and just ruler. Before he could make his country prosperous he knew he must check the ad- vance of the Danes. He fought many battles against them and each time he was defeated, until his army was almost discouraged. At last, however, Alfred was vic- torious. The Danes were too numerous for him to drive them out of the land, but he forced them to make an agreement, whereby they were to receive the north- eastern part of England on condition that they leave the rest of the country in peace. The Thames was to be the boundary. The Danes tried often to break the treaty, but Alfred was strong enough to keep them under control. Having won a period of peace for his kingdom, Alfred set about teaching the English to become a better race. He encouraged religion and education, even sending to the continent for wise scholars who could teach him and his people. Alfred himself learned the Latin language, that he might translate the most .important Latin books of the time into t Anglo-Saxon for the benefit of those who could not read them otherwise. He also had the best laws of the country collected into one book so that all might know what their privileges were. And to him is given credit for inventing one of the earliest clocks. This "clock" was nothing more nor less than six can- dles, each candle long enough to burn for just four hours. This was a very crude arrangement, but it enabled people to tell time at night or in a storm, when, before, they could only measure the hours by the position of the sun in the sky. To shield the candle flame from wind, it was 39 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY protected by thin strips of ox horn. So King Alfred's candle clock was also the foundation for the horn lanterns which later came into such general use. Still another thing which Alfred the Great did for England was to build a fleet of war vessels to protect his land from further invasion, and this fleet was the begin- ning of the great English navy which later won for England the proud title of Mistress of the Seas. Under Alfred, the English made great advances, and after his death for a hundred years they were ruled by strong kings, who continued drawing the country to- gether into one great nation. But these other kings were not as successful as Alfred in repressing the Danes, and in 1016 the Danish king Canute had himself crowned ruler of England. Canute was brutal in winning the crown and murdered or exiled many nobles who he feared might hold him back. Once he possessed the throne, however, he became a very good king indeed, and during his reign Anglo-Saxons and Danes dwelt together in comparative good-fellowship. To repeat, then, first the Britons were conquered by the Romans, from whom they learned many things. Then the German tribes overthrew the Romanized Britons and swept away much of the Romans' work. But again England struggled up to a civilization which included Briton, Roman, and German ideals. And at this point came the Danes, or Danish Northmen. WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR England was not the only country the Northmen found to their liking. Dashing down the coast of Europe, these huge sea kings had learned to covet the sunny lands of France, so different from their own rugged country. And time and again they had invaded French 40 BRITAIN, OR ENGLAND territory. At last, one hundred years before Canute became king of England, northern France was given to a band of Northmen on the condition that they swear allegiance to the French king; that is, that they promise to obey him as their overlord. After that, this section Northmen's Ship. was called Normandy and the people Normans, which was really the softer southern pronunciation of the name Northmen. The dukes, or rulers, of Normandy grew in time to be as powerful as any king; and at last one of them, William of Normandy, became king in reality. But it was king of England and not of France. This is how it happened. About fifty years after the reign of Canute, the Eng- lish throne was held by Edward the Confessor, who died without leaving anyone of his blood to succeed him. He had appointed his chief adviser, a great nobleman called Earl Harold, to reign in his place, and Harold was crowned as soon as the king was dead. But William of 41 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Normandy insisted that Edward had once promised the throne to him, and that Harold himself had sworn a solemn oath to help him get it. On these very slight claims William came from northern France to seize the English throne. Harold Taken Prisoner. Harold tried to defend his rights, but he was killed at the battle of Hastings in 1066, and the victorious William, Duke of Normandy, marched to London and forced the bishops to crown him king of England. History knows him as William the Conqueror — a title well befitting his character. He was like his Viking fore- fathers, a giant in size and strength, and he had a will that overcame all obstacles. He was stern and cruel, but he held his kingdom firmly together, and brought 42 BRITAIN, OR ENGLAND Anglo-Saxons, Danes, and Normans under one central government. And this union was what was needed. Realizing that his new subjects hated their Norman conquerors, he took the lands and estates from the Eng- lish people and gave them to Norman nobles, in return for their oath to obey and serve him always. Thus William made the Norman barons responsible for order being kept throughout his possessions, and he could count on their loyalty, as upon it depended all their wealth. He placed fortified castles in all important towns, filled them with Norman sol- diers, and gave them Norman com- manders. In this way there was small chance of an uprising among the English people. Norman Church in England. William was a harsh king. He taxed the people heavily, keeping account of all their property in a great record called the Doomsday book. Other hated things were the use of the French language; the curfew, which meant that all fires must be put out when the curfew bell sounded at dusk ; and the destruction of many villages 43 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY to furnish ground for great forests where none but the king might hunt. Yet in spite of these harsh laws the Norman conquest was, after all, a good thing for England. The rude buildings which stood before the conquest were replaced by the more elaborate Norman architecture. The Nor- Vassal Taking Oath. mans were a quicker, more intelligent race than the stolid Anglo-Saxons, and the gradual intermingling of the two types made the great English nation of to-day. Under the Normans England was more alive, more up with the times than she had ever been before. The system of land grants and obedience to an over*, lord used by William was the great method of govern- ment in England and on the continent for many years. It was known as the Feudal System. 44 BRITAIN, OR ENGLAND Under the Feudal System the king was supposed to own all the land in his kingdom, vast tracts of which he granted to his great and loyal nobles. In place of paying rent for their land these nobles knelt before the king and, putting their two hands between his, solemnly swore to be faithful to his service and to defend his cause even unto death. Just so long as they kept this oath, the land was theirs, and they were known as vassals of the king. Such a vassal lived on his land in a great castle which, though it contained all the comforts then known, would seem grim and gloomy and forlorn to-day. Feudal Castle. The castle was surrounded by high, thick walls and outside the walls was a deep ditch or moat which could be filled with water, and so prevent an attacking enemy from getting to the walls. A drawbridge across the moat was the only entrance to the castle. When the bridge 5 45 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY was drawn up the castle was entirely cut off from the outside world. So you see that each castle was really a fortress. That he might have loyal supporters to help him pro- tect his castle, the vassal of the king divided his land among lesser nobles and knights, who became his vassals just as he was the king's. These estates were called manors. They, too, were divided into still smaller parts and these parts were allotted to men called serfs. A serf was al- lowed the use of his strip of land and was promised protection. In return, he must give a good share of all he raised to the lord of the manor and must work a great part of his time on the land which the lord reserved for himself. The serfs, who lived in wretched huts, had no legal rights and were transferred with the land as if they were cattle. This was cruel and unjust, and the wretched lower classes had no opportunity of changing their way of living. The whole country was divided between the rude magnificence of the nobles and the suffering of the common people, who must slave to furnish the wealth of their masters. In the towns, conditions were a little better. But the streets were only dirty, narrow lanes. The shops and houses were dark, low buildings huddled together within the town walls. People did not travel any more than they could help, for roads were poor and the forests 46 Drawbridge of a Feudal Castle. BRITAIN, OR ENGLAND inhabited by bands of outlaws, men who could not earn an honest living or would not stand the tyranny of the nobles. Fighting was the greatest career, and knights and nobles gloried in battle. A boy who wanted to be a knight began his training when he was only seven, and even then he could not be- come a knight till he was twenty-one, and had vowed to obey and protect the church, to be true to his lady, and to defend the weak and helpless. The center of gai- ety was the court. Tournaments or mock battles, hawking and hunting, were the chief amusements. Nearly all learning was con- fined to the church, which, closely united to the state, had be- come a great power. But the days of chivalry, of brave knights and beauti- ful ladies, of great monasteries and brilliant courts, of bands of outlaws like the celebrated Robin Hood, who lived a life of gay adventure in the king's forest, were, after all, times of discomfort, danger, and wretched con- ditions. With all their glamour, they lacked most of the common necessities of our modern life. 47 A Tournament. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED AND HIS BROTHER JOHN One of the most celebrated names on England's long list of chivalry is that of Richard the Lion-Hearted, king of England. (W •'W§M§-k_ <& ^'-'^mmff^^L pfl& l^Sw™ ^IhInw t\irik _ Mounted Knight in Armor. Richard and his brother John were sons of Henry, who first introduced the idea of trial by jury. Richard was the older, so after Henry's death, he succeeded to the throne. But instead of managing his kingdom, the 48 BRITAIN, OR ENGLAND new ruler went around the country looking for adven- ture. About this time the Crusades were causing great ex- citement. The Holy Land had been captured by infidel ■•ssfcifewi^tsi. ... ^j^,^ : : ■ *-" .:■ -' ?; . King Richard Landing in Palestine. Turks, and all Christian lands were called upon to rescue the city of Jerusalem. King Richard found in the Cru- sades plenty of work for him to do. He raised all the money he could from his subjects and started for Pales- tine with a great army. 49 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Long after Richard's death, which occurred as he was returning from one of his several trips to the Holy Land, the war between the Turks and the Christians continued. Sometimes one side was victorious, some- times the other. Finally Palestine was left to the Mo- hammedans. The Crusades had failed in their main purpose, but they had accomplished something more important. They encouraged travel and trade, drew the Christian nations together, and spread learning and an exchange of ideas. After Richard's death John became ruler of England. Richard had been away from his country a good deal, but he was brave and kind and the people were proud of theii crusader king. John was to- tally different in every way from his brother. He was selfish, cruel, and cowardly. He cared nothing for his sub- ^ jects, and his unjust taxef pressed heavily on everyone. John did not even spare the powerful bishops, but seized the rich church lands for himself. So matters went from bad to worse until the Pope, to punish him, ordered the churches closed. No marriage ceremony or burial service could be held. Such an order in a time when everyone thought the church had supreme power over their future life was a terrible thing. But even this failed to bring John to submission. It was only when the Pope threatened to deprive him of his crown, 50 A Crusader. BRITAIN, OR ENGLAND and had already asked the French king to attack Eng- land, that John restored the church lands and promised reform. For the greater part of his subjects, however, matters were not improved. Finally his own nobles rose against fB$m>v r \ l L] "'' -'"' 4* $W /^f jaS&yp 1 \( ™ MHH ; King John Signing the Magna Charta. him. The result of their rebellion was the signing of the Magna Charta, or Great Charter, at Runnymeade in 1215. This was one of the most important steps in English 51 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY history. The Great Charter was the foundation of the freedom of the English people and the rights which were based upon it benefited the common people as well as the nobles. The necessity for consent to taxation and justice for everyone in the king's courts were two of the chief articles. With the signing of this document by John, the people made their first step toward popular government. Not many years after, another great step forward was taken by another English ruler. This was the calling of the first Parliament to counsel with the king. Up to that time there had been the Great Council, but only nobles and bishops could attend the Great Council. The Parliament included, besides the nobles and bishops, two men from each of certain cities and two from each county or shire. Don't you see that now the common people were beginning to have a voice in the government through the men who represented them? And much as their ideas and their desires were brought out in the Parliament of England by their representatives, so in America to-day the ideas and desires of the people in different parts of our land are carried by their repre- sentatives to our national Congress at Washington. The rest of England's story is mainly the struggle between the kiiag, the nobles, the church, and the people, for control, until we have the formation of the strong, vigorous nation which our own country claims as the motherland. Summary About a hundred years after Caesar's visits to Britain, that land was conquered by the Romans. They built roads, forti- fied towns, established Roman government and introduced Christianity. Three and a half centuries later, the Jutes, 52 BRITAIN, OR ENGLAND Angles and Saxons, all German tribes, swept over Britain and wiped out nearly all traces of Roman civilization. Then, just as these barbarians were learning to give up their wild ways and England was once more beginning to thrive, came the Danes. While the Danes were conquering England, other Northmen were invading northern France, which was given them under the name of Normandy. In 1066, William, Duke of Nor- mandy, conquered England and was crowned king. This was the fourth conquest of England. Early in the thirteenth cen- tury a tyrannical king was forced to sign the Magna Charta, and some years later the first Parliament was called. The privileges granted by the Great Charter were for both the common people and nobles. Two of the privileges were trial before punishment and no taxation without consent. The Parliament included men from all walks of life and marked the beginning of representative government such as we have in America to-day. General Summary From Rome we have received the basis for our present sys- tem of government and law and the great lesson of love for our whole country instead of some one little part. We still study, imitate, and admire their literature, engineering, and architecture, and many of their words have become part of our own tongue. Greece gave us high ideals of beauty and education, and taught us that each man should have a voice in making the laws of his land. To the German race we are indebted for the idea of personal liberty. The Arabs gave us the Arabic numbers. And from the East came Christianity. Each race gave some great gift, and all these gifts have been handed down to us of to-day by our ancestors, who came across the ocean from their different countries, to help build up this wonderful new land. Although England is the country with which we are most 53 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY closely associated, many adventurers from other lands explored and helped to settle our America. And just as the best of Greek, Roman, and German civilization and ideals were carried over to England, so from England and the European nations which sent their people to our shores, these same ideals and tested policies were brought to us. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS EUROPE IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY In spite of all the Crusades had done to increase travel, the people of Europe knew little of the world in the year 1200. They thought that the earth was a great square. Around the four sides of the square, as anyone could see, were the four blue walls of sky. And resting on the four blue walls were the heavens, where dwelt God Trade Routes to the Far East in the Time of Columbus. and his angels. The lands known to Europeans formed the center of the square. On the west the land ended in water. On the east lay Cathay; but about Cathay the people of Europe knew nothing. They thought of it as a 55 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY great bog or swamp, full of dreadful beasts, hobgoblins, bugaboos, and monsters, which roamed about howling in a way to make one's hair fairly stand on end. Gradually, however, the merchants of Italy pushed farther and farther east to increase their commerce. And Marco Polo. by the end of a hundred years a Venetian named Marco Polo had actually found his way to the very heart of Cathay. What the Europeans called Cathay, we call China; and in the thirteenth century China was no more a swamp than it is to-day. Marco Polo found a mighty people liv- ing in China, possessed of a mighty empire, and ruled by a 56 COLUMBUS mighty ruler. Their lands were rich in mines of gold and coal; and ebony, bamboo, corn, silk, and spices were plentiful. When Marco Polo returned to Italy, he wrote a book telling about his travels; about the riches of China and Japan; and, most important of all, about a great sea that lay even farther east than China. COLUMBUS'S PLAN By the beginning of the fourteenth century the Italian cities had built up a flourishing trade with India. Among the most important of the trade centers were the repub- lics of Genoa and Venice. Genoa sent her cargoes to India by way of Constan- tinople and the Black and Caspian seas. But suddenly, about the middle of the fifteenth century, her trade route was cut off. Constantinople was captured by the Turks, and the Turks would not allow ships from Genoa to sail into the Black Sea. It was a dreadful blow to the pros- perity of the republic. Some new course must be found. But where and by whom? When this disaster befell Genoa, the same questions were continually being asked in other lands than Italy. Portugal was among the most eager of the seekers for a new route to the East. Her hope was to find a passage around the southern part of Africa; and year after year she sent her ships farther and farther down the western coast of that continent searching for a southern passage. From time to time on such voyages there was to be seen among the Portuguese sailors a tall, handsome, ruddy young seaman with long flowing hair and commanding blue-gray eyes. Christopher Columbus, he was called. Columbus was born in Genoa, probably about the year 57 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 1436. He was the son of a wool comber. Until his tenth year Christopher helped his father in his trade. Then he spent four years in the University of Pavia, learning mathe- matics, reading, writing, and the laws of navigation. On leaving Pavia he was sent by his father to sea. For some time he sailed up and down the Mediterranean in merchant vessels. But later he went to Portugal, and from there sailed, not only far south along the shores of Africa, but also north even as far as Iceland. The Part of the World Known at the Time of Columbus. (Shown in white.) By the time Columbus sailed the seas the compass had come into use, thus enabling sailors to tell at any time which way to turn to get home. Then, too, the explorers had maps of the world. But many of the maps were very queer and had pictures of dreadful sea serpents and horrible monsters drawn be- tween the countless little islands. This was due to the stories told by sailors, who were very superstitious. In the dark nights when they were out upon the sea, they would imagine all sorts of creatures moving' in the dark- ness beyond. These stories were fully believed, and wherever a sailor had seen such sights they were put down on the map. 58 COLUMBUS The great trouble was that very few people knew the real facts. Most of them still thought that the earth was a flat surface, surrounded on all sides by a large ocean. A very few learned men thought differently. These few said that the earth was round, as we know it to be. But even they made mistakes. They believed the world to be much smaller than it really is. They knew nothing Li llllffj i inn \WW\Vm h lllm \\\\\\\\Im \\\\\\\\\\VtT\ HI I/mm / / ^ UU\\\\\\\M ■ u/niulH jttA\\\\\\fA /»/ //////// ^ ■ III =*& c « T u iw\\\\\m LIU*. / fuLl 1 ^#t/ j To ° R, fTn Mr \ \!*°^i\ \§\ \ Q 1 1 1 1 iJJlJX _iniMiy 1 1 1 1 /4f/%y_j~ T^fll Jit -===&VU4 \\\T\\m /lO / / / / / dfl i JmW^ t /*ff I 1 UL\ ^ #Tt\ 1 / WJf3 11 H M" & 11, JM \ \ \ \ "? \ i«o §|j2?>4 iio I 130 (*ia» -^4^0 j ^r 8 o ■• ffyf / /• / «b / so / a> / 10 / / \ Y^A \ \ \ \ \ \0| \ fSpp III////////// erfitaft / 11/////// iLFfA III ///////// = -j III ///////// \^\3f\T\ \=^3\\m ^T 1 11////////// rlr 5 ^^ \\\\\ Will///////// \\\\\ II 1 1 II 11/// \\\\\ II Willi II 11/// ToSCANELLl's MAP. (Restored and simplified.) about America, and thought that only one ocean — the Atlantic — separated Europe from India and China. Paying close attention to all he could see or hear of such matters on his many trips, Columbus came to think the same as the wise men; and this belief opened big possibilities to him. Born in Genoa and sailing under the flag of Portugal, is it any wonder that he was easily fired with the desire to find a new route to India? Plans began to form in his mind and fairly to take possession of him. Once, when he was visiting the Azores, the inhabitants 59 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY showed him some bits of curiously carved wood and branches of unknown trees that had been driven ashore by the western seas. They also told him of two drowned men the waves had washed up, whose appearance was altogether different from any European's. Such things could have come only from a country to the west, reasoned Columbus. And the stories confirmed him still further - * - ■ -- «:*-«»» «*■ > afisis iH ■— '--'■- -~ =£- ^ ~'% )■ "iiiy III! Y^fe HBi': ^iLfe^^SM 91 lk#§ " ^ ^s ^^tltes^ *' • -U.MU .— Sss^S^s^P . Ships of the Northmen. in his growing belief that to sail west was the way to reach India and China. Finally he wrote to a noted astronomer of Florence, named Toscanelli, and asked his advice. Marco Polo's stories of the wealth of China and Japan, and, above all, what Marco Polo had written about a sea beyond, had so influenced this Toscanelli that he too had tried to plan some way of reaching these lands. His plans and those of Columbus proved to be the same. When he answered Columbus's letter he sent with his reply a map of the 60 COLUMBUS world made by himself and showing the course that he believed would lead to China. Like the maps of the other learned men, Toscanelli's map showed only three continents — Europe, Asia, and Africa. Where America lies he drew China and Japan. And he too made the distance much too short. Some think that in Iceland Columbus must have heard of the discovery of a land to the west. The people who lived in Iceland were the Northmen. Centuries before the time of Columbus these Northmen had sailed west from their Norway and Denmark homes. And not only had they settled in both Iceland and Greenland, but they had even pushed on still farther west to a land they called Vinland. This Vinland probably lay somewhere on the New England coast, but no one really knows its where- abouts. Surely if Columbus did hear of such a land he could not have understood where it was. He accepted Toscanelli's map as accurate and longed to test the plan of sailing directly west to China. But he was poor and had not the money to carry out such an enterprise. Where could he turn for help? First he tried Genoa and Venice. The people only laughed at his wild plans. They thought he must be mad. Then he went to Portugal. But neither would the Portuguese listen. Instead they ridiculed him and asked if he really believed that the earth was round and that people on the other side walked with their heads down. In spite of all this opposition Columbus was not dis- couraged. He now went to Spain where King Ferdi- nand and Queen Isabella reigned. For seven long years Columbus stayed there trying to persuade the King and Queen to give him ships to cross the ocean. At last Queen 6 61 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Isabella promised that Spain would furnish the necessary money, and offered to pawn her own jewels if her country could not give him enough. THE FIRST VOYAGE On the 3d of August, 1492, Columbus left the port of Palos with three vessels, the Pinta, the Nina and the Santa Maria. This last was the flagship, and was the only one with an entire deck. Although the largest of the fleet, the Santa Maria was not over ninety feet long and twenty feet wide. It had been no easy task to find men to man these ships. In order to get sailors, convicts were taken out of jail and promised their liberty if they would go with Columbus. Others, the King forced to go. The vessels arrived at the Canary Islands the 12th of "August and stayed there three weeks, as the Pinta needed repairs. When they were again out upon the sea and no land was in sight, the fears of the sailors rose. What horrible monsters would they meet? What if they should fall off the edge of the earth! What if this wind that carried them on so swiftly should prevent their going home! 62 The "Santa Maria." (Flagship of Columbus.) COLUMBUS As the weeks passed and no land appeared, a mutiny threatened to break out. But Columbus, noticing this restlessness and growing fear among the men, encouraged them from day to day with new hope. After a few weeks they came into a region where the air was soft and balmy. Queer objects were floating out 1* k^- :,*$ * ft ' $'*'' M* ''" Y Columbus Claiming the New Country in the Name of Spain. to meet them — sticks carved with strange figures, and once a branch of berries. Now the men were very happy, and all kept a diligent lookout for land. One evening a sailor spied something dark against the horizon. "Land!" he shouted. When morning came, there, stretched before them, was the New World. Red- skinned natives were running excitedly up and down the shore wondering who these strange white people were. This was the 12th of October, 1492. The crew went 63 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY ashore and, falling on their knees, kissed the ground in their great joy. With much ceremony Columbus unfurled the banner he had brought with him and took possession of the country in the name of Spain. He gave the island the name of San Salvador. "This island must be a little north of Japan/' thought Columbus. It was a beautiful spot, but there were cer- tainly no traces of the great palace with the golden roof; of the courtiers of the king laden down with silk and pre- cious jewels, or of the busy wharves crowded with vessels, which Columbus had expected to see when he should touch the shores of Japan. Evidently he must sail a little farther before he could see these wonders. Cruising about, still looking for Japan or the coast of China, Columbus discovered the islands of Cuba and Haiti. To the whole group he gave the name Indies, and so naturally he called the natives Indians. Early Christmas morning, before it was light, a cry went up from the deck of the Santa Maria. The flagship had struck on a sand bar just off the coast of Haiti. All efforts to set her free were useless. Soon the waves had broken to pieces the best and largest of Columbus's little fleet. What if another such accident should happen, and there should be no way to send word back to Spain that he had at least reached the islands near Japan and China! Frightened by this thought, Columbus determined to sail for home. With the largest ship gone, all the sailors could not now be carried, so forty men were left in Haiti. On the 12th of March Columbus arrived in Palos. News of Columbus's good fortune soon spread over Spain and Portugal. Everybody was eager to welcome the great man. They forgot all the mean things they had said 64 COLUMBUS about him and were ready to praise him for what he had done. You can imagine how the King and Queen felt when Columbus presented himself at their court. He told them all about the New World and what he had seen there. He showed them all the curious things he had brought — the wonderful birds, unknown fruits, and, above all, sev- eral natives from the new country. Columbus was recog- nized as a hero. The King gave him the title of "Don" and treated him almost as an equal. But the great honors lavished upon the successful ad- miral soon made enemies for him among the jealous cour- tiers. One day at a dinner given in his honor Columbus was telling about his voyage. Another guest remarked that he did not think there was anything so very won- derful about discovering the Indies. With quiet dignity Columbus took an egg and, turning to the man, asked, "Can you stand this egg on end?" Why, no, he couldn't; and neither could any other guest at the table> although they all tried. When the egg was handed back to Columbus he struck it lightly on the table, cracking the shell just enough to make it stand upright. Then everyone laughed to see how easily it could be done. " Just so easily anyone could have discovered the In- dies after I had shown the way," said Columbus. OTHER VOYAGES When in September, 1493, Columbus sailed upon his second voyage, he had no difficulty in getting sailors. Everybody was eager to see the new land and share in its riches. The fleet consisted of seventeen vessels and fifteen hundred men. 65 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY This time Columbus landed on the island of Porto Rico. But when the people found no gold lying around, they began to murmur and criticise their leader. Columbus, as always, told them to hope and wait. When he went back to Spain after nearly three years, most of the men who had come with him stayed on the islands. Columbus still believed he was near the coast of Japan or China, and never during his lifetime did he know that he was the discoverer of America. But now no royal welcome was given the returning explorer. You see that even from his second trip he had brought back no gold and none of the wealth of the East; and that is what the Spanish people wanted. He was an upstart and a fraud. However, as Queen Isabella still believed in him and encouraged him, Columbus fitted out six vessels and in 1498 started on his third voyage. This time he sailed far- ther south and discovered the Orinoco River. Leaving the Orinoco River, Columbus cruised to the West Indies. There the colonists had turned against him, and when he came among them they put him in chains and sent him back to Spain. Columbus wore his chains with dignity and patience. But when he reached Spain the Queen was so indignant at his treatment that he was immediately released. In 1502 Columbus made one more voyage. Again he returned without having reached the Chinese Empire and with no gold. Isabella soon died, and the King took no more notice of the great man. Columbus was now an old man, his health was broken, and he was very poor. In 1506 he died. He had discov- ered a new world, and all the thanks he received was to be ignored. Through his efforts, Spain became one of the wealthiest 66 COLUMBUS and strongest countries in Europe. She founded great colonies across the ocean, which carried on a wonderful trade with the Old World. And not Spain alone, but all Europe, profited indi- rectly by the discoveries of Columbus. Even before his death different nations began sending out explorers to plant their banners on any lands they might find and thus to extend their power in the New World to the west. You would suppose that our continent would have been named after Columbus. Instead it was called Amer- ica after a certain Florentine adventurer, Americus Ves- pucius, who crossed the ocean after Columbus, and who wrote a book about his travels. Summary In the middle of the fifteenth century the capture of Con- stantinople by the Turks cut off the trade route from Europe to the East, and voyagers began to look for a new passage. — ■ Christopher Columbus of Genoa was one of the few who believed that the earth is round, and that by sailing westward one could reach China and India. — Possibly he knew that, two centuries before, Marco Polo by traveling east had found China and the Pacific. He did not know that, five centuries before, Northmen, voyaging west, had discovered a continent between Europe and Asia. — Aided by Spain, Columbus crossed the Atlantic, August 3- October 12, 1492. He landed on islands he called the Indies, and left a colony on one of them. — Columbus made three later voy- ages to the West Indies and discovered the coast of South America. — America was named after a later voyager to this con- tinent, who wrote a book about his travels. VI JOHN CABOT Considering how slowly news generally traveled from country to country in the time of Columbus, the report of his first voyage seems to have spread with wonderful rapidity. Before long England knew all about it, and the English King was saying to himself, "If Spain has really sent ships to the west and reached these islands off the coast of China, why cannot England do the same'. And why cannot we have some of the wealth of China and Japan? I will see that we do have, and I will see that the English flag is planted in this distant land." England always wanted, and took measures to get her full share of whatever offered itself. Still in this in- stance Henry VII probably acted more promptly than he otherwise would have, because he felt that he had at hand just the right man to help him out. This was John Cabot, and he too was full of enthusiasm over the possi- bilities of a western voyage. Cabot was born in 1450, probably in Genoa. He moved to Venice while still young, and later became a citizen of that city. To become a citizen of Venice he had to reside there fifteen years, and during that time he made his living by drawing maps and charts. In 1490 he and his wife left Venice and settled in Bristol, which was at that time the chief seaport of England, and the center of traae with the fisheries of Iceland. Cabot was soon a great favorite with King Henry; and 68 JOHN CABOT seeing the King's interest in the voyage of Columbus, he added to it by telling things about China learned from the merchants of Venice. Then Cabot suggested that, if King Henry would fit out a ship to cross the Atlantic, he would gladly sail in command of such an expedition. So it was agreed, and in May, 1497, John Cabot, and his son Sebastian, with one vessel and eigh- teen men set sail from Bristol. On the 24th of June the coast of Labrador was sighted. Where they landed is not definitely known, but probably it was near the island of Cape Breton. Cabot planted the flag of England and took possession of the land in the name of the English King. This planting of the English flag laid the foundation for the English claims in the new continent. Great was the rejoicing when Cabot returned to Eng- land with the tale of his discoveries. The people of Bris- tol were extremely proud of their "Great Admiral/' as he was now called. Whenever he walked the streets, dressed in silks and velvets, great crowds would follow him. He was especially loved by children, who crowded round him to hear him tell of his wondrous voyage. In 1498 John Cabot determined to undertake another 69 Sebastian Cabot when an Old Man. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY voyage, and in April of that year he and Sebastian sailed with five or six ships. They sailed much farther north in the hope of finding a short passage to India. But the extreme cold of the northern region "chilled their en- thusiasm," as Sebastian said; so they turned and sailed south along the American coast. Only one of the six ships returned to England; and it is feared that John Cabot was lost at sea, as nothing more was ever heard of him. Summary In 1497, England sent John Cabot to find a western passage to China. — John Cabot and his son Sebastian explored the coast of Labrador and claimed the land for England. — The next year they tried a more northerly route, but, not finding a westward passage, sailed south along the coast of North America. VII THE SPANISH CONQUESTS AND EXPLORATIONS PONCE DE LEON The discovery by Columbus of a supposed sea route to Asia aroused the Spaniards both young and old. Many, attracted by the hope of gold or the love of adventure, left Spain for the new land. Colony after colony was planted in the West Indies. Colonial governors were appointed; and practically a new, but crude, Spain was established. Then, feeling that noth- ing was too great to attempt with the long sea voyage safe- ly over, the boldest of the adventurers sailed away again, each bent upon finding what seemed to him most desirable. One of these Spanish seekers was called Juan Ponce de Leon. He had come to the new land with Columbus on his second voyage and, remaining, had been made Gov- ernor of Porto Rico. This was very fine, but the Gov- ernor had his own reasons for not being perfectly happy. He was growing old, and to enjoy this new life thoroughly, a man should have the vigor of youth. If only he were young again! With this great wish in his heart, Ponce de Leon one day heard of an island on which was a marvelous fountain. Whoever should drink of the water of this fountain, no matter how old he was, would find himself young again. Here was just what Ponce de Leon wanted above all else. He determined to find the Fountain of Youth at any cost. The Spanish 71 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY King gave him permission to go in search of the island and, if he found it, to become its governor for life. So Ponce de Leon had three splendid ships built with his own money and, when they were completed, started on his travels. This was in 1513. One day the sailors spied land. On approaching, they found it to be a glorious country, full of splendid groves and beautiful wild flowers growing in the tall grasses and along the low shores. And the singing of the birds among the branches sounded sweet indeed. It was Easter Sunday, called by the church Pasqua Florida, or Flowery Easter; so, in honor of the day, and also because of the beautiful wild flowers, Ponce de Leon named the country Florida. He landed where St. Augus- tine now stands and took the land in the name of the King of Spain. He explored the country for many miles along the coast. But beautiful as it was, its birds and wild flowers failed to tell him where to find the Fountain of Youth. So this poor knight had to sail back to Porto Rico, an older and wiser man than when he left. In 1521 Ponce de Leon sailed again for his flower prov- ince to found a colony. But the natives were hostile. When the Spaniards landed, a storm of poisoned arrows greeted them. Many of the soldiers were killed. Ponce de Leon himself was wounded. A few who managed to escape to their ships bore their leader with them. They sailed to Cuba, and there Ponce de Leon died — an old man still. The Fountain of Youth has never been discovered. BALBOA One day there came to a certain Indian village on the Isthmus of Panama, a party of Spaniards. At their head 72 THE SPANISH CONQUESTS marched Balboa, the commander of the Spanish-Panama settlement. So great a guest must be received with all possible ceremony. The visitors were welcomed to the home of the chief himself, and every honor was showered upon them. The Spaniards, in turn, were on their best be- havior. Cordial greetings, compliments, and expressions of lasting friendship filled the air. Then the Indian chief was moved to show even more Balboa Reaches the Pacific Ocean. plainly his love for the white man. So he gave Balboa seventy slaves and much gold. As if by magic all was confusion. The greedy Span- iards began to quarrel over the gold, and hot words put a sudden end to the pleasure of a moment before. With offended dignity the Indians watched and lis- tened. At last the chief's son rose and said, "Brothers, your actions lead us to think you set great value on this yellow stuff, since you quarrel over it. If this be true, why do you not go to the southland, on the shore of the 73 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY great western sea, where there is more than enough for all?" Why not, indeed? This simple question resulted in Balboa's going in search of the new sea. His journey was a hard one. Over rocky hills and through vine-entangled forests he and his men made their way day after day. At last they came to the foot of a great mountain. While his companions rested, Balboa climbed up — up, until the very top was reached. And, behold! there lay below him a sight no other European had ever seen — the glittering waters of the Pacific Ocean. Afterwards Balboa waded knee-deep into this greatest of seas; and there, drawing his sword, he struck the water with its blade and solemnly claimed the ocean with all the lands washed by its waters as the property of Spain. This was in 1513. HERNANDO CORTEZ Some few years after Balboa's wonderful discovery, an exploring expedition, which had sailed from Cuba, re- turned to that island. The leader had startling news to tell. He and his men had been to Mexico and had found there many won- drous things. The country was ruled by the Aztecs — a race of Indians who worshiped the sun and moon and the god of war. Unlike the natives of the West Indies, the Mexican Indians had beautiful temples and palaces; and they boasted of the endless gold to be had in their country. So gold had been found at last! Nothing more was 74 Hernando Cortez. THE SPANISH CONQUESTS needed to make Mexico seem an enchanted country to the Spaniards. No time was lost in getting ready a new expedition and in choosing for its leader a brave, daring young Spanish soldier named Hernando Cortez. Unlike Ponce de Leon, Cortez set out, not merely to follow a will-o'-the-wisp, but to make an actual conquest. How well he succeeded may be judged from the fact that in August, 1521, the Aztecs surrendered their capital, — the city of Mexico, — and Mex- ico became a Spanish land. HERNANDO DE SOTO Young Hernando de Soto was counted among the most courageous of the Spanish soldiers who risked their lives in making explorations and conquests in the new lands. And to him, in return for his services, Charles V of Spain gave the governorship of Cuba. Yet De Soto was not. con- tent. Though rich he wanted more gold. So in 1 539 he fitted out an expedition and, taking six hundred men and two hun- dred horses, sailed west, landed on the eastern coast of Florida and began a march inland. The Spaniards were nat- urally very cruel. They car- ried with them fetters to bind the captured, and blood- hounds to bring back runaway prisoners. The soldiers seized the poor natives, chained them in couples and, driving them like beasts, forced them to carry the baggage. 75 Hernando de Soto. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY If an Indian refused to act as guide or in any way dis- obeyed, his punishment was terrible. The least he could hope for was to have his hands chopped off. Death by torture was the common fate. It is no wonder that such treatment made the Indians hate the Spaniards and in turn lose no chance to do them harm. Owing largely to this bitter feeling, De Soto's journey was full of dangers almost from the very start. He had hoped to find a country full of gold and had promised his soldiers great rewards. But they were doomed to disappointment. The Indians would tell them very little and, when forced to act as guides, would often lead them into some swamp and, slipping away, leave them to get out as best they could. Two years were spent in making this tedious march across the states of Florida, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. Still no quantity of gold was found, and still the brave but brutal leader would not turn back. One spring day in 1541, the Spaniards, worn out and discouraged, were making their way through a dense forest. Suddenly through an opening in the trees they caught the blue gleam of a river. Hurrying to its banks De Soto beheld the mighty Mississippi, the Father of Waters. The object of his long search was gold; but had De Soto found merely what he sought, his name would not 76 The Route of De Soto. THE SPANISH CONQUESTS have had so large a place in our history. To be known as Hernando de Soto, the first white man to behold the Mis- sissippi River, is a distinction not to be equaled by the find- ing of untold wealth. Not realizing what the discovery meant, De Soto was still bent on continuing his search for gold. Perhaps it lay De Soto Discovering the Mississippi River. just across this great river. At any rate he would find out. Soon all hands were busy building rafts to carry the little army to the other side. There the weary search began again. For many months De Soto wandered over the country on the west bank of the Mississippi. Still no gold. With the disap- pointment and the hardships he was fast wearing out. Then he caught a fever and soon died. The condition of his followers was pitiful. Between their sorrow at the loss of their leader and their fear of the Indians, they did not know where to turn. 7 77 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY De Soto had told the Indians that he was a Child of the Sun, and that death could not touch him, so they had a wholesome fear of him. What if they should find out now that De Soto was dead! Nothing was more likely than that they would at once attack and kill his men. In some way his death must be kept secret. So, prompted by fear and moving like ghosts, the men wrapped their leader in a cloak, weighted it down with sand, and at midnight silently lowered him into the quiet waters of the Mississippi River. Then, telling the Indians that he had gone to heaven for a short visit and would soon be back, they broke camp and started for home on foot. Later they made boats and floated down the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico. Of the gay six hundred who sailed away from Cuba in 1539, only three hundred, half-starved and wretched, reached the Spanish settlements in Mexico to tell the story of De Soto's great discovery. Summary Spain established colonies and governments in the New World, from which further explorations and conquests were made. Ponce de Leon, Governor of Porto Rico, in his search for the Fountain of Youth, explored and named Florida, 1513. Balboa, commander of a settlement in Panama, discovered the Pacific Ocean, 1513. Cortez, a Spanish soldier from Cuba, conquered the Aztecs in the City of Mexico, 1521. De Soto, governor of Cuba, discovered the Mississippi River, 1541. 78 VIII ENGLISH EXPLORERS AFTER CABOT SIR FRANCIS DRAKE Sixty years after Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean, another man looked down from a Panama mountain peak on the same wonderful view. He was an Englishman named Francis Drake. And as he looked out on the shin- ing blue waves he thanked God that he had been per- mitted to be the first Englishman to see this mighty ocean and prayed that he might "sail once in an English ship on that sea." As a boy, Drake was apprenticed to the owner of a channel coaster. It was hard service, and the boy had a bad time. Still he did his duty so well and seemed so at home on the sea that he completely won the old skipper's heart. When the man died, he left his ship to Drake. For the first half of the sixteenth century Spain had practically ruled the seas. Her ships had come and gone across the Atlantic, and her trade had been the greatest of any of the European nations. But about the middle of the same century Elizabeth became Queen of England; and under her reign, England, too, grew to be a maritime power and sent out ships to build up her trade with foreign lands. Was it not natural that, hearing of the thrilling voy- ages of these ships, young Drake should not long be con- tent with a mere channel coaster? Before a great while he sold his vessel and started on a slave-trading journey be- 79 A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY tween Africa and the West Indies. This was in 1567, the year Drake was twenty-two years old. Later he made three other voyages on which he raided Spanish ships, took Spanish prisoners, and made himself a veritable terror to the Spanish settlements in the West Indies and along the Gulf of Mexico. It was on the last of these voyages that Drake first beheld the Pacific Ocean. Years before, in fact during the very time Cortez was busy conquering Mexico, an adventurous navi- gator, a Portuguese, sailing under the Span- ish flag, had made a wonderful voyage. This bold sailor was Ferdinand Magellan. Down the eastern coast of South Ameri- ca he had slowly made his way until he had reached the straits which now bear his name. Then, passing through the straits, he had entered the Pacific, had crossed that great ocean, and had discovered the Philippine Islands. Here Magellan was killed by the natives; but his sailors, going on, had reached Spain in 1522, being the first to circum- navigate the globe. Francis Drake now planned to reach Peru, a rich Spanish possession, by following Magellan's course. In November, 1577, he embarked from Plymouth with five 80 Sir Francis Drake. ENGLISH EXPLORERS AFTER CABOT ships and one hundred and sixty-four men. For fifty- four days they saw no land. Then the shores of Brazil came in sight. At last the Straits of Magellan were reached and Drake passed through them. His flagship, the Golden Hind, was the only one of his fleet that entered the Pacific. The other ships either had turned back or had come to grief on the rocks. To attack the Spanish ports of Peru with one ship certainly seemed foolhardy. But Drake per- haps realized that these ports had no real defense. You see the Spaniards themselves car- ried their cargoes across the Isthmus of Panama, be- cause a southern route was considered very dangerous and very long. And without doubt it never entered a Spanish mind that any foe would come that way, or that defense was needed. So, sailing bravely up the coast of Chili, Francis Drake, in his single ship advanced on Peru. It seemed almost as if the Spanish gold, silver, and jewels must have been just waiting to be seized. Into port after port the Golden Hind dashed and came out again richer by enormous sums. Ship after ship fell an 81 Ferdinand Magellan. A FIRST BOOK. IN AMERICAN HISTORY easy prey to the English captain. Surprise was on every hand, resistance nowhere. At last, with plunder valued at millions of dollars, Drake was satisfied. Now he turned his attention to searching for some new passage by water from the Pacific to the Atlantic. Carefully examining the shores, he sailed north along the coast of California as far as the bay of San Francisco. Here he gave up his search and resolved to go home by way of the Pacific. According to custom, however, be- fore starting he took possession for Queen Elizabeth of the land he had been explor- ing, and called it New Albion. After crossing the Pacific Ocean, Drake rounded the Cape of Good Hope and sailed once more into the Plymouth port, in September, 1580. In recognition of his services Queen Elizabeth paid Drake a visit on the Golden Hind. As was fitting, Drake had a splendid banquet served in her honor. Then Eliza- beth asked Drake to kneel before her, and in the presence of his many guests she knighted the brave mariner, who had first carried the English flag around the world. 82 From an old print. Admiral Drake Seizes Eight Peruvian Ships Laden with Silver. ENGLISH EXPLORERS AFTER CABOT SIR WALTER RALEIGH Sir Walter Raleigh was a brave and gallant Eng- lish knight who lived during the reign of Queen Elizabeth. The story is told that one day, as the Queen approached the place where he was waiting with a crowd to see her pass, she paused before a muddy spot in the way. Raleigh, without a moment's hesitation, slipped his velvet cape from his shoulders and spread it out for her to walk on. This little act of courtesy greatly pleased Queen Eliza- beth, and ever after she remembered her gallant knight. Raleigh was born in a seaport town of Devonshire in 1552. Here large sailing ves- sels used to anchor to load and unload their Sir Walter Raleigh. cargoes. When a boy, Raleigh was like all other boys. There was nothing he enjoyed quite so much as going down to the wharves and hearing the sailors tell thrilling stories of the sea and the strange countries they had visited. Then Raleigh would say to himself, " When I am a man, I, too, will discover some new land." And though he never dis- covered a new land, he did much in attempting to found an English colony in America. Since the Cabots crossed the Atlantic, England had 83 A FIKST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY not sent out many exploring expeditions. But, as you know, Spain had done so; and her colonies were growing stronger than those of any other European nation, and her trade was greater. Never the best of friends with Spain, England natu- rally did not like to see Spain gaining more power than she herself across the sea. So, not to be outdone, the English made plans for planting colonies in America and for carry- ing on a larger trade with that country. Walter Raleigh was one of the men most enthusi- astic over these plans. It cost much money to send out a colony, but Raleigh was rich and a great favorite with the Queen. So he asked her to grant him a charter. This the Queen gladly did. Everything seemed to promise success to the future colonists. But to make assurance doubly sure, Raleigh thought best to send an exploring party ahead, so that when the colonists reached America they would know what to expect. With this in view, two vessels sailed away from England in 1584. Their anchors were cast just off the island of Roanoke; and going ashore the English found the climate delightful, the vegetation rich, and the Indians most eager to welcome them. Queen Elizabeth was so delighted when she heard of the glorious regions across the sea, that she named them Virginia, in her own honor. Elizabeth was not married and was proud of her title, "The Virgin Queen." Now there was nothing to delay the sending out of the colony, and soon the well-laden ships were on their way. In time Roanoke was reached, and the men and their goods were put safely ashore. So far so good. But from this time matters did not progress. The colonists were lazy. Instead of exerting themselves in tilling the ground and building homes, they 84 ENGLISH EXPLORERS AFTER CABOT wasted their time and lived on what they could get from the Indians. Of course the Indians did not like this arrangement. The English were only a burden to them, and constant quarrels arose. The next year Sir Francis Drake sailed up to Virginia to see how the colo- nists were getting along. He found them almost desti- tute and terribly homesick; and, yielding to their pleadings, he car- ried them back to England. As far as found- ing a colony was concerned, the ex- pedition had proved a failure. However, it brought about two results which became of great value to England. On their return, Sir Walter's colonists presented him with two kinds of plants which they had found growing on Roanoke Island. One was the potato, which, up to this time, the English had never known. They tried it and liked it so well that it has ever since been raised in their land. The other plant was tobacco, which the colonists had tried and had deemed worthy of being carried all the way to England. 85 From an old print. Setting up the Standard of Queen Elizabeth in Virginia. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY Sir Walter tried the tobacco; and he, too, liked it. An amusing tale is told of what happened to Sir Walter one day as he was smoking. His servant, who had never before seen smoke come out of anyone's mouth, came into the room. He glanced at his master, thought he must be on fire, and rushed for a jug of water, which he promptly poured all over Sir Walter to put out the fire. A Rude Interruption. In 1587 Sir Walter Raleigh made another effort to colonize America. This time the colonists included women and children as well as men. Soon after they landed on Roanoke Island, a little girl was born. She was the first child of English parents to be born in America. Her name was Virginia Dare, and she was the granddaughter of John White, the Deputy Gov- ernor of the colony. 86 ENGLISH EXPLORERS AFTER CABOT Before long Deputy Governor White sailed back to England for new supplies. When he started, the colonists told him that, if, for any reason, they left Roanoke Island, they would carve on a tree the name of the place where he could find them; and that, if they, were in any trouble when they moved, he would see a cross cut above the name. Three years passed before Governor White came back to the island, and by that time there was no one to receive him. He could not find a single one of the colonists. Their homes were deserted, and the harbor was empty. Not a trace was left excepting the word " Croatoan " cut into the trunk of a tree, but there was no cross over the name. Croatoan was the name of an island not far away. But though search after search was made, not one of the missing colonists was ever found on that island or any- where else. Saddened and disappointed by the fate of his colonists, Sir Walter Raleigh gave up his idea of personally founding an English settlement in America. His experiment had cost him over forty thousand pounds. However, he still held firmly to his belief that this country would one day be an English nation. Summary The expedition of Magellan, a Portuguese sailing under the Spanish flag, was the first to complete a voyage around the world, 1522. — Drake, an Englishman, circumnavigated the globe, 1580. On his way he explored the Pacific coast of the Americas. Raleigh, an English noble, tried, 1584, to establish a perma- nent colony in America. He was not successful, but England claimed the region and named it Virginia. 87 IX JOHN SMITH THE JAMESTOWN COLONY AND THE ADVENTURES OF JOHN SMITH In the year 1606 the London Company was formed in England to make settlements in America, and on the first day of January, 1607, this London Company sent out three vessels with one hundred and five colonists, all men. One of these was a wonderful man named Captain John Smith. John Smith was born in 1579, in England. His life was one of continuous adventure, much of which he tells in his autobiography. Many think that his accounts of his daring adventures and narrow escapes from death were exaggerated; but he was nevertheless a wonder- ful man, and his life as he tells it is very interesting. When yet a boy, Smith was anxious to travel and see strange lands, so at the age of fifteen he sold his books and ran away with the money. He went over to the continent of Europe and fought in the Dutch and French armies. He soon tired of this and thought he would like to go on a ship; so he boarded a vessel sailing to Italy. A severe storm arose; and the sailors, thinking him the cause of the tempest, threw him, like Jonah, into the sea. But young Smith was a fine swimmer and after a hard struggle reached an island. 88 JOHN SMITH A passing vessel picked him up. This ship was a war vessel. It soon met an enemy, and a battle ensued. Smith fought so bravely that he was given a share in the plunder of the captured vessel. Still looking for other adventures, our young hero turned his steps toward the east, where he joined the Aus- trian army, which was fighting the Turks. For his bravery he was made a captain. Ill luck soon overtook him, however. He was wounded in a bat- tle and left on the battlefield as dead. Lying there with dead and dying men on all sides, he was finally found and his wounds cared for. After a while, Smith was taken to Constantinople and sold as a slave. A Turkish lady aided him, but he was cruelly treated by her brother. One day while Smith was threshing grain, this cruel master rode up and insulted him. In his anger he smote the man and killed him. Then he swiftly exchanged his ragged clothes for those of his master and, hiding the body under some straw, fled. 89 SCALE OF MILES The Coast of Virginia. A FIRST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY After traveling through other countries our adventurer arrived in England, just as the fever of American 3oloniza- tion was at its height. He, too, determined to go to America, and sailed with the London Company's settlers in 1607. LIFE IN JAMESTOWN The colonists had been told to put ashore on Roanoke Island, where Raleigh's ill-fated colonists had been. But a storm drove the ships into Chesapeake Bay, and the newcomers sailed up a beautiful river which they named after King James. It was now the middle of May. The place looked in- viting; the shores were covered with beau- tiful flowers and shrubs, and so the colonists determined to settle there, and named the settlement Jamestown. But it was not an easy task — this found- ing a colony. The hot Virginia sun and a terrible fever killed half of the settlers. Many of the Jamestown colonists were men of wealthy families and had never had to work. They thought manual labor a disgrace. But it soon became evident that some must work, or all would starve. The warm climate 90 From the original engraving in John Smith's " Historie of New England, Virginia, and The Summer Isles," published in 1624. JOHN SMITH had tended to make them all languid. Many were really lazy and preferred to search for gold than till the soil. John Smith soon showed these idle " gentlemen " how to hew trees and build huts. In his book he says, "The axes so oft blistered their tender fingers, that many times every third blow had a loud oath to drown the echo." Smith did not like to hear the men swear, so he devised a plan to make them refrain from it. He told them that at night, for every oath, he would pour a can of cold water down the swearer's sleeve. At first it was very hard to get enough food. So to keep the colonists from starving, Smith explored the coun- try, visited different Indian tribes, and bargained with them for such supplies as they could furnish. These settlers had no idea of the greatness of this country. A map of that time showed Virginia as a mere narrow strip of land between the Atlantic and the Pacific. Believing this to be true, Captain Smith decided to visit the Pacific and went on many exploring trips to the west of Jamestown in the hope of find- ing it. On one of these expeditions, Captain Smith and a few of his men fell into the hands of hostile Indians. All of his companions were killed, but Smith was saved by his pres- ence of mind. He diverted the Indians' attention by show- ing them a compass. The Indians had never seen anything like it before. They thought it marvelous. Then Smith wrote a message on a piece of paper and asked his captors to send it to Jamestown. When the Indians found that this wonderful prisoner "could make paper talk" to his friends, they were a little afraid of him and considered it wiser not to kill him, but to take him to their mighty chief, Powhatan. 91 A FIKST BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY POCAHONTAS When John Smith was led as a captive before Pow- hatan, the great chief sat before his fire, dressed in rac- coon skins. On either side of him sat the squaws, and in front of the squaws stood the grim warriors, straight and stiff. It was a terrible moment for poor Captain Smith. Would they kill him at once, or could he still hope to save his life by amusing the Indians? Again the compass was brought out, and once more it worked a charm. The chief concluded to keep this entertaining person a prisoner. Now, Powhatan had a little daughter twelve or thir- teen years old. Her name was Pocahontas. She was a beautiful girl and her father's pet. She was allowed to spend much time with the old chief's prisoner; Smith told her strange stories, made whistles for her, gave her strings of beads, and so won her lasting love and affection. But before very long the novelty of the prisoner's com- pass and the marvel of his writing wore away. Smith had nothing new with which to amuse the Indians. They grew tired of him, and Powhatan ordered him to be killed. The day of the execution arrived. The whole tribe came. Smith was forced to lay his head on a block of stone. An Indian had just raised the hatchet for the fatal blow when Pocahontas rushed to Smith and, throwing her arms over his head, begged her father to spare his life. The old chief could never refuse his little daughter anything; and so Smith's life was spared, and he was sent back to James- town. When Captain Smith reached the colony again, he found it in a sad condition. During his imprisonment, matters had gone from bad to worse. With him away the lazy would not work, and nothing seemed to have been done. Sickness and famine had once more attacked the 92 JOHN SMITH settlers, and death was everywhere. Fortunately a vessel with provisions and more colonists soon anchored in the bay. But many of the newcomers were " fine gentlemen " like the first settlers. They too refused to do their share.. "We have not come here to work/' they boldly asserted. a Ttpw hefuhie&cdjg cfihi:ir\tn