m ''Hi ^ii!l-)Ol■llies, Esq., New Orleans ; Carver Cotton Gin Company, liridge water, INIass., and others. The writer wishes to state that tlie information in this volume has special reference to United States methods and to American cotton. While comparisons have been given with the conditions obtaining in other countries, yet where it is not especially specified, the writer refers to the United States sys- tems and practices. Even in this, it has not been possible to give one standard system of cultivating, ginning, and baling, ecjually applicable to all the States, but an attempt has been made to render the information sufficiently comprehensive. The author would ask the reader to remember that systems and practices differ, not only in the different states, but in the different counties of each state, if not on the different ftirms in each county. As has before been stated the l)ulk of the matter in the volume was written prior to 1S97 ; it has since formed the subject matter of many lectures to the students in the Lowell Textile School. The author invites correspondence with reference to any portion of the book and any suggestion or additional informa- tion that might be embodied in future editions. Christopher P. Brooks. LowKLL, Mass., Mai/, 1898. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig. Frontispiece; The End of the Day .... to face title 1. Young Cotton Plant 2, 3, 4. Branches from Cotton Plant . .... • 5. Cotton Plant showing leaves, flowers, closed and open bolls 6. Longitudinal and Transverse Section of Egyptian Cotton Pod 7. Cotton on the Seed 8. Microscopic View of Cotton Fibres .... 9. Ripe aaid Unripe Cotton Fibres 10. Flax and Ramie Fibres 11. Wool and Cotton Fibres 12. Wool and Hair 13. Cotton Fibres Under Chemical Action 14. Diagram to Scale — Cotton Crops of 1895-96 15. American Cotton Fibres 16. 17. Comparative Lengths of Cotton Fibres to Scale. . 18, 19. Sea Island Cotton, longitudinal views and sections 20. Orleans or Gulf Cotton, American, longitudinal views 21. Benders Cotton, American, longitudinal views . 22. Uplands Cotton, American, longitudinal views . 23. Texas Cotton, American, longitudinal views 24. Brazilian Cotton, sections 25. Pernambuco Cotton, Brazilian, longitudinal views 26. Maranham Cotton, Brazilian, longitudinal views 27. Rough Peruvian Cotton, longitudinal views 28. Egyptian Cotton, sections 29. Brown Egyptian Cotton, longitudinal views 30. Brown Egyptian Cotton, sections 31. Broach Cotton, Indian, longitudinal views . 32. Oomrawattee Cotton, Indian, longitudinal views 33. Dhollerah Cotton, Indian, longitudinal views . 34. Scinde Cotton, Indian, longitudinal views . Page. page. 25 27,29 31 33 34 35 43 44 45 46 47 50 55 51,52 56 57 58 59 60 60 61 62 63 65 65 67 67 69 14 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig. .35, 36. Indian and Other Asian Cottons, sections 37. Tinnivelly Cotton, longitudinal views 38. Comparative Sectional Views of Different Cottons 39. China Cotton, longitudinal views 40. China Cotton, sections 41. The Vegetable Lamb ..... 42. Portrait of the " Barometz," or " ycythian Lamb" 43. Picking Cotton 44. A View on the Chattahoochee River at Columbus, Ca. 45. Convicts "Working on County Road, near Atlanta, Ga. 46. Map of the United States 47. North Carolina Cotton Mill Help .... 48. Georgia Convicts . . 49. New and Old. A Nortlirop Loom in South Carolina 50. Cotton Mills to the Cotton 51. Why Some People Cannot Make a Living in Arkansas 52. Hand Spinning and Weaving in the South 53. New Cotton Field 54. Old Cotton Field 55. A North Carolina Chain Gang 56. Cultivator with Stalk Cutting Attachmeni 57. 58. Wooden Plow Stocks 59. Steel Beam Plow 60. Plow Blades or Plow Shares 61. Steel Beam Plow with Middle Burster 62. A Cotton Field 63. Disc Cultivator .... 64. Cotton Field and Peach Orchard Together 65. Cultivator with INIiddle Burster . 66. Dowlaw Cotton Planter ... 67. Cotton Planter and Fertilizer 68. Riding Cultivator ..... 69. A, An LTnpicked Cotton Field — Morning B, The Same Field Picked — Evening 70. Cotton Field in Flower 7L Cotton Picking 72. Cotton Picking in the Late Fall 78. Cotton Picking 74. Pickers Waiting for Cotton to be Weighei 75. Weighing Cotton from the Pickers 76. Mosaic Disease, or Yellow Leaf Blight 77. Anthracnose 78. 79. Root Rot and Arceolate Mildew 80. Root Galls 81. Transformations of Cotton Bull Worm PauE. 74 75 76 77 77 96 97 99 101 103 112 111 113 115 117 119 121 123 125 127 131 133 133 135 137 139 141 143 145 147 149 151 153 153 155 157 159 161 163 165 169 169 171 173 175 COTTON. CHAPTER I. THE BOTANY OF COTTON. — LIFE HISTORY OF THE PLANT. — STRUC- TURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE FIBRE. THE COTTON AND COTTON FIELDS OF THE WORLD. Cotton is the most wideh' manufactured of all fibres, and the cotton plant has been cultivated for countless ages.. The vegetable fibre, known to commerce as cotton, sometimes called cotton wool, is the fruit of a plant belonging to the order of the Malvacaa% to which belong the mallow, the hollyhock and the okra. The cotton plant belongs to the genus Gossypium, and the number of species from a botanical })oint of view is variously stated as from four to eighty-eight. Species of Cotton, Prof. Parlatore, an Italian botanist of high authority, names seven varieties, as under : — 1. Gossypium Barhadense, embracing the long-staj)led Barbadoes, Sea Island, Egyptian and Peruvian cottons. 2. Gossi/pium lierbaccmn, embracing the cottons of India, Siam, China, Italy, etc. 3. Gossijpiuvi hirsutum, the original cotton of Louisiana, and also of the variety known in commerce as uplands. 4. Gossypium arboreum, found in Ceylon, Arabia, South America, etc. 5. Gossypium Peruvinnum, embracing the native varieties ot Peruvian and Brazilian cottons. 6. Gossypium Tahitense, found in Tahiti, the Society Islands, etc., and, 7. Gossypium Sandwichensc, including the cottons found in the Sandwich and adjacent islands. 18 COTTOX. [chap. I. LiiiiiL'Us ()rii;iii;illy ^;i\c' only live species of the cotton plant, ])r. Bowman, the leading- English authority on the cotton filjre, gives three, vvliile Dr. Forbes Koyle gives four. Dr. Koyle's classitication includes; — Gossj/pluiii lirrhdccuiii. Gossypiii III iir/iorrii III . GosSj/j)in III J)iirh(i(IriiNc. (to-^sI/jiIii III Jii rsnfii III. These are the inur varieties principally known to commerce, and although there are possibly additional species they are not of very much importance. Dr. Koyle says : — "The first mentioned of these species, gos^ypinm her- hacevrii grows from four to six feet high, bearing a yellow flower. The seeds are covered with a short grey down, whilst the fibre it bears is classed short. It is found native or exotic in Egypt, Asia Minor, Arabia, India and China. The short stapled variety of Egyptian cotton is of this s})ecies. The Indian cottons are the product of a variety named by Lamarck the G. Indicuiii. This grows from eight to ten feet high, and, like the allied species generally, bears a yellow flower, the seeds being downy, and the fibre short-stapled and very white. The gossypiuni arboreuni when full grown attains a height of from fifteen to twenty feet, from which fact it derives its name. The flowers are red, the seeds covered with a greenish-colored fur, and enveloped in yellowish-white fibre. It is found in Egypt, Arabia, India and China. The gossypiiuii hirsufum is a shrubby plant, its max- imum height being about six feet. The young pods are hairy, the seeds numerous, free, and covered with firmly adhering green down under the long white wool. The gossypiiiiii Barhadense grows to the height of from six to fifteen feet. Its flowers are yellow, and its seeds black and smooth, being quite destitute of the hair that distinguishes several members of the species. As implied by its name, it is- CHAi'. I.] SI'KCIKS OF COTTON. 19 a native of Barl)atloc'S, or has been cnltivated there lor a long- time. The cottons most highly esteemed in commerce belong- to this species, having probably undergone only slight modifi- cations as the result of climatic influences and variations in the method of cultivation. The Sea Island and Bourbon cottons, from which the fine yarns used in the manufticture of lace are made, the long-stapled Egyptian, and several other good varieties, are said to be from this stock, as they possess many points of identity or resemblance. If this is so, it has, however, undergone considerable alteration by its transfer to new localities and changes in the method of cultivation." The above is, as before stated, the description of Dr. Forbes Royle, but the writer does not consider it reliable in all cases. For example, it is very clear that the gossypium herbacciini is largely cultivated in the United States although Dr. Royle does not mention the fact, while the gossyjiium arboremn so widely cultivated in Central and South America, is credited to the Orient. Doctor Walter H. Evans sa\-s in Bulletin 33 of the United States Department of Agriculture : — "Among the species recognized to be of more or less economic importance are G. arboreum, G. neglectum, G. Brasiliense, G. hcrbaceum, G. Barbadense, and perhaps a few others. In North America only the herbaceous cottons are cultivated to any extent. The shrubby and arboreous are grown occasionally as curiosities, but they seldom or never produce any lint in regions having as low a mean temi^erature as the cotton belt of the United States. The determination of the species of cotton grown in the United States presents some peculiar difficulties. The authori- ties differ widely regarding the specific origin of the short- staple or upland cotton, while more nearly agreeing on that of the Sea Island cotton. The latter is generalh' considered as having originated from G. Barbadense, a technical descrip- tion of which is given. 20 COTTON. [chap. I. (r. B(ifJ)(iden^e Linn, was originally described as having leaves, three-lobed, entire. A more amplified compiled de- scription is as follows : Shrubby, perennial, six to eight feet high, but in cultivation herbaceous and annual or biennial, three to four feet high, glabrous, dotted with more or less prominent black glands. Stem erect, terete, branching. Branches graceful, spreading, subpyramidal, somewhat an- gular, ascending, at length recurving. Leaves alternate, petio- late, as long as the petioles, rotund ovate, subcordate, three to five lobed, sometimes with some of the lower and u})per leaves entire, cordate, ovate, acuminate ; lobes ovate, ovate- lanceolate, acute or acuminate, channeled above, sinus subro- tund, above green, lighter on veins, glabrous, beneath pale green and glabrous, three to five veined, the midvein and sometimes one or both pairs of lateral veins bearing a dark green gland near their bases. Stipules erect or spreading, curved, lanceolate-acuminate, entire, or somewhat laciniate. Peduncles equal to or shorter than the petiole, erect, elongating after flowering, rather thick, angled, sometimes bearing a large oval gland below the involucre. Involucre three-parted, erect, segments spreading at top, man3^-veined, l>roadly cordate-ovate, exceeding half the length of the corolla, nine to eleven divided at top, divisions lanceolate, acuminate. Calyx much shorter than the involucre, bracts cup shaped, slightl}' five-toothed or entire. Corolla longer than the bracts. Petals open, but not widely expanding after flowering, broadly obo- vate, obtuse, crenate or undulate margined, yellow or sulphur colored, with a pur[)le spot on the claw, all becoming purplish in age. Stemens about half the length of the corolla, the tube naked below, anther bearing above. Style equaling or exceed- ing the stamens, three to five parted. Ovary ovate, acute, glandular, three, rarely four to five celled. Capsule a little longer than the persistent involucre, oval, acuminate, green, shining, three, rarely four to five valved. A^alves oblong or ovate-oblong, acuminate, the points widel}^ spreading. Seed CHAP, i] SPECIES OF COTTON. 21 six to nine in each cell, obovate, narrowed at base, black. Fiber white, three to four or more times the length of the seeds, silky, easily separable from the seed. Cotyledons 3'ellow- ish, grandular ])unctate. Species which have been considered synonyms of G. Barh- ade)ise and to which the above description will apply are G. frutescens Lasteyr., G. fuscum Roxb., G. r/Iabrum Lam., G. Jam- aicensc Macfad., G. JavcDiicum Blume, G. mariihnum Todaro, G. uif/nim Hamilton, G. oligosperiiium INIacfad., G. percnne Blanco, G. Peruvianum Cav., G. punctatum '^chnm. and Thonn., G. racemosum Poir., G. religiosum Parlatore, G. viflfoliam Roxb., and perhaps others. This species is indigenous to the Lesser Antilles and probably to Ban Salvador, the Bahamas, Barbados, Guada- loupe, and other islands between 12° and 2()° north latitude. By cultivation it has been extended throughout the West Indies, the maritime coast of the Southern States, Central America, Porto Rico, Jamaica, etc., southern Spain, Algeria, the islands and coast of western tropical Africa, Egypt, Island of Bourbon, East Indies, Queensland, New South Wales, etc. It ma}' be cultivated in any region adapted to the olive and near the sea, the principal requisite being a hot and humid atmosphere, but the results of acclimatization indicate that the humid atmosphere is not entirely necessary if irrigation be employed." It will have l)eeii noted that two species, viz. ; the //".s.s-//- jnuin arhorciiiii and Penirlcniuni really belong to the class of trees as distinguished from the remainder of the species which are merely shrubs. The tree cottons are cultivated as peren- nials as distinguished from the gossjjpii(m liirsufnm, r/ossi/piHni lierbaceum and other species, which are cultivated as annuals. Some measurements of the trunks of the tree cottons taken in Porto Rico, West Indies have been supplied to the writer by Mr. H. G. Kittredge and are : — Diameter of the stem at the ground, after one and one-fourth year's growth, one and one- 22 COTTON. [cii.M'. I. fourth inches ; after two and one-half year's growth, two inches ; after five year's growth, five inches. The seeds of the tree cotton are in ki(lney-sha})ed cki.sters and thus tlie cotton is often called '■ kidney cotton." United States Species. It is usually considered in the United ^States that the cotton j)lant which is chiefl}^ cultivated belongs to the species herhaceum, and it is so believed by most of the leading agriculturists. Some botanists consider that the gossypium Jiirsutum variety is the u})land cotton of the United States and distin- guish it from Inrhiiceiiin by the green tinted down covering the seeds, but it is not by any means true that the whole of the mainland cotton of the United States is raised from the green seeded variety. It fact quite a large quantity of the seeds carry the grey down, which is supposed to denote the f/ossi/piuni JicrhdcoDit. It is the experience of many farmers that if they plant green seeded cotton and use the seeds from the same })lant year after year, that there is a gradual change from green seeded to grey seeded cotton, the conclusion being that the gossypbim Inrsiitin)! was originally a sport from the gos-si/pium herhaccinn. It is probable, there- fore, tliat ilie gosxi/jtinin licrhacrK in and i\ic gossi/pin in Jiirsntiini are not distinct varieties, but that the supposed distinctive fea- tures of the two varieties are more attributable to soil and cultivation than to being separate varieties. To this vari- ety, liri'haccinih or hlrxnfiim. wliichever may be the correct name for it, the l)ulk of the cotton plants as cultivated in the United States belong. It has been noticed by the seed crushers that the green seed comes more from the northern than from the southern cotton growing states. 'J'here is, however, a strip of land along the coast of South Carolina and Florida, with adjacent islands, where gos.^gphiin B. I. extensively as its western congener, and is found in cultivation in nearly the same regions." Life History of the Cotton Plant. The habit or life history is approximately similar in h()i\\^^]^ G^iW^acmrrr-mi^the-f^ Jt^imutii^^i ; germination occurs ra})idly, and the first appearance of the plant above the ground is from four to fourteen days from sowing. The young plant shown at Fig. 1 was photo- graphed a few hours after its appearance and the unfolding of the first two leaves. Two periods in the life of this plant may be distinguished. The first extends from the time of planting, which in South Carolina is about the middle of April to the middle of sum- mer. This is the time in which the plant makes its growth of stalk and foliage, and gathers nourishment, which will later be stored up in the seed. During this period tropical con- ditions are favorable, namely, the deposit of moisture on the soil from frequent rather than from long-continued rains, high temperature with small daily variation, plenty of sunshine, little wind, and a high relative humidity of the atmosphere to reduce evaporation to a minimum. During this period everything possible is done to prevent loss of water from the soil ; grass and weeds are scruj)ulously excluded, and the sur- face of the soil is frequently stirred to conserve the moisture and increase the temperature. In the second period the temperature rapidly falls and the rain fall diminishes ; this is the fruiting- season of the cotton crop, when every effort should be mad(^ to produce seed and lint rather than stalk and foliage. Evfery means is taken to dry up the soil, cultivation ceases, and the soil is allowed to become hard and compact to favor evkporation of the mois- ture. The exact date of the first sowing and the appearance of the first fiower with the commencement of the gathering of the crop are given in another chapter, but it may be advisa- ble to indicate something further of the life history of the cotton plant. Usually about forty days after the plant shows CHAP. I.] LIFE HISTORY OF THE COTTON" PLANT. 27 Fig. 2. Brandies frorq Cottori Plar;t, A —White flower. B — Red flower. C — Square. D — Young boll or capsule. Fig. 3. Braqcb,es fron\ Cotton Plaqt. A— Mature holls or capsules. B — Open bolls. 28 COTTON'. [chap. I. above the around there appears the first square or bud. From the formation of this bud, twenty-four to thirty day.s elapse before the appearance of the flower. The bud or square is shown on Fig. 2 at C, and again on Fig. 4 at C. The flower on the first day of the opening of the bud is yellowisli white and has five petals. One peculiarity of the cotton plant is in the change of color of the flower. This, which on the first day is of a shade varying from a dull white to a canary, is found on the second day to be of a distinctly pink or reddish hue ; tlie flower drops off on the third or succeeding day. The white flower is shown at A, Fig. 2, and again at A, Fig. 4, whiU^ the red flower on the point of dropping oft' is shown at B, Fig. 2. After the petals fall on the third day, there remains the small boll enveloped in the calyx ; this develops until it becomes about the shape and size of a small hen's egg, and fifty to sixty days from the appearance of the fiower it bursts. Bolls in the early stage are shown on Fig. 2 at D, and on Fig. 4 at E. Large ones almost ready to burst may be found on Fig. 3 at A. An interesting view of a cotton plant bearing squares, flowers, closed and open bolls, is shown in Fig. 5. There is a popular superstition \ajnqn^tlie_CQlored popula- ^ tion that twenty-seven days elaps^r^W^i the bud or square to > the flower, the flower remaifis thr^YVs on the plant, and that forty-seven days more elapse, atX^ie^-expiration of which period the boll has burst and the cotton is ready for picking. '^ While this may be accurate in many cases, the exact time -^ varies with the season and with climatic conditions. A self-explanatory diagram of an Egyptian cotton boll is shown at Fig. 6, taken from Dr. Bowman's valuable mono- graph on the Cotton Fibre. When the boll bursts it exposes three to five cells, divided by membraneous walls, and each of these cells contains seeds which are attached by filaments to the stem of the plant. The filaments ultimately disappear, leaving the seeds loose in ^ I.] LIFE HISTOin' OF THE COTTON PLANT. 29 Fig. 4 Braqcti frorq Cottoq Plaqt. A — White flowt r. C — Square. D — Leaf. E — Young: boll or capsule. oO COTTON. the cavity covered Avith cotton. Each seed is entirely envel- oped by the cotton fibres attached to it, just as tlie human hair is attached to the head. The seeds vary in ininiber from thirty-two to thirty -six in each pod or Ih)]]. The view on Fig. 7 at A shows an empty pod or capsule, !> is the seed cotton out of one cavity of the pod just as it appears after it has been removed by the fingers of the cotton picker, C shows the individual seeds with fibres of which the mass B is composed. In the next view, at D, is a reproduction of sections of these seeds with the fibres radiating in all directions, each attached at one end to the seed. The appearance of the boll before bursting is shown clearly on Fig. 3 at A, while at B bolls of almost similar size and growth are shown as having just burst. Botanists differ as to the exact cause of the bursting of the Ijoll, but it is probably due to the increased space occupied by the fibre as it ripens and drys. The cotton |)lant l)egins to fiower in June and continues to do so until the early frost of winter. The writer has seen newly opened fiowers as late as Octo- ber 11th in the most northern part of the cotton belt, but flowers are probably seen even later than this. ( )f course these late flowers do not produce fruit. As a rule no flower opening- after the first week in September bears fruit. Structure of the Fibre. It may be news to many interest- ed in the cotton fibre to learn that the fibre itself, although apparently of such small diameter, is quite a complicated structure when examined under a microscope. The simplest description of a thoroughly develoi)ed cotton fil)re is perhaps that of a collapsed tube with corded edges twisted many times throughout its length and having the appearance of an elongated cork-screw or carpenter's auger. According to one authority a perfectly constructed fibre is composed of four distinct parts : ( 1 ) An outside membrane which forms the hard outside skin of the fibre; (2) the red cellulose or olea- CiiAi". I.] I'IFK HISTORY OF TITP: COTTON PLANT. ■M Fig. 5. Cottori Plaqt sl:\oWirig leaves, floi per\ bolls. 32 COTTON. [chap. 1. ginous deposit which forms about 85 per cent, of the fibre ; ( 3 ) a central sj)iral fibre of a harder nature than the rest of the fibre, and ( 4 ) a matter secreted in the centre tube similar to that which occupies the core of a quill. Covering the outside membrane is what we might term a viscous varnish, but what is generally known as cotton wax. Tins wax amounts to about one-half per cent, of the whole. Tlie views shown in Figs. 15 to 40 represent cotton fibres from various parts of the world, and the twisted formation which has been previously described is readily recognized. It is the fact of the existence of these convolutions which assists in the forma- tion of a strong thread from a comparatively weak fibre such as cotton. In the formation of a thread the convolutions inter-lock with one another and hel}) to resist any tension put on the yarn. These convolutions are less and less frequent as the fibre is less matured, and are almost altogether absent in the immature fibre, which has merely the appearance of a fiattened ribbon when examined under a microscope. This immature fibre is transparent and has a glossy appearance, so that when it exists in any quantity in a bale of cotton it can be readily detected with the naked eye. It has the feature of not taking dye so readily as ripened cotton. The reason of the existence of this immature fibre may be because some obstruction has been caused to the fiow of sap in the i)lant, or some accident has occurred by vvliich the twigs carrying the cotton bolls have been bruised or broken, or that the cotton has been gathered without having had time to fully ripen after the bursting of the boll. It is of great importance that the existence of the immature fibre should be detected in the samples from which the cotton is purchased. One of the best views of the cotton fibre under the micro- scope that I have seen is given at Fig. 8. Dr. Bowman describes a typical cotton fibre as " a long tubular compound vegetable cell, from 1,200 to 1,500 times as long as it is broad. The outer or enswaithing sheath of this CHAP. I.] STRUCTURE OF THE FIBRE. 33 Fi^. 6 Lorigitudiqal aqd Trar\verse Sectioi] of Egyptian Cottoq Pod. A — Stem. B — Section of Calyx. C — Section of Carpel. D — Mid web with seeds attached. E — Section of Seeds. G — Plexus of young Cotton Fibre. 34 COITON. [(•ir\i'. I. CHAP. I.] STRUCTURE OF THE FIBRE. 35 is a continuous liber cell of pure cellulose, similar to those which occur at the outside of the cambium-layer of dicotyle- dons, or the cells which form the outer part of the fibro- vascular bundles of inonocotyledons, and which are also found in the branches of those containing no spiral structures ; and the inner or thickening layers of the tube consist of second- ary cellular deposits u})on this outer epidermic layer, or else are formed bv a uradual thickenino- of that laver itself arising Fig. 8. Microscopic Yie-W of Cottoq Fibres. from the consolidation of the protoplasm or juices which sup- ply nutriment, and whicli, by in some measure preventing the collapse of the thin outer sheath, strengthen and render it more elastic and expansible. The extreme outer layer appears to be formed of a continuous membrane, since no power which I have been able to apply to the microscope has enabled me 36 COTTON. [chap. I. to detect even the most minute openings through its sub- stance, and it is on this elementary pellicle that the cellular layers which appear to form the thickness of the tube walls are deposited in such a manner that they are, while united to it, still capable of being separated from it into distinct lamina?. I am aware that there are many botanists who make a dis- tinction between the primary layer of liber cells and the thin pellicle which forms the sheath of such a vegetable hair as cotton, but, after all, the difference is one only of degree and not of kind, since it is extremely probable that the thickening of these hair walls arises from the successive deposits which occur within them during the process of growth, exactly in the same way as within the liber cell of wood fibre, only that these secondary deposits are not concentric like the layers within the liber cell of wood fibre, but consist in the development of a series of cells one over the other, whose walls are collapsed in upon each other, and which do not, except with the use of reagents, usually exhibit any signs of cellular structure ; and in section from their extreme tenuity they can hardly be distinguished from a thickening of tlie outer pellicle or sheath itself Hence, in the process of growth from the first formation of the hair within the boll to the mature fibre as it is fully ripe and ready for picking, we have every possible stage of this formation presented to us, from the immature fibre, where the thickening of the outer sheath has not yet begun, up to the perfectly ripe cotton. In that stage of early growth, either within the unopened l)oll or just after its first opening, whore the length of the tube is almost reached, a cross section of the hair presents us with a single line like the cross section of a steel band, presenting no structure or, at most, only a single line to indicate that it has any internal opening, the same as would be exhibited by an exceedingly thin tube squeezed flat under such pressure as to completely collapse the tube and form it into a ribbon. As CHAI'. I.] MEASUREMENTS OF THE COTTON FIDRE. 87 the development of the hair proceeds the thickness of the tube walls increases, and the ribbon-like structure gives place to a more and more distinct tubular form, when a central opening- appears down the centre of the oval hair section. In the i)erfectly ripe cotton the tubular form is distinctly seen in section, although from the want of strengthening layers in the spiral form, which always give increased rigidity, the shape is ver}^ seldom cylindrical ; indeed, I have never seen it so except at the extreme end of the fibre, where there appears to be a tendency to form a more solid structure on nccount of the less diameter of the tube in proportion to the thickness of the walls." Measwrements of the Cotton Fibre. ^lany measurements have been made by various observere, among whom are Dr. Bowman, mentioned above, the well known English authority on cotton and wool fibres, H. Monie, Evan Leigh, O'Neill, M. Deschamps, and others, but the measurements do not agree in all cases. The fact is that cotton fibres even from the same seed vary considerably in length and relatively in diameter, and only approximate measurements can be given. The diameter of a cotton fibre varies from to^ttt to toVVt of ^m inch, and the length of the fibre from h inch to 2^ inches. Dr. Bowman is the authority for stating that there are 140,000,000 fibres in a jiound. Some very interesting measurements, admirable in their completeness, were made in connection with the tenth census of the United States by Pi'of. Ordway, and refer entirely to American cotton. The general average for cottons of the United States is given by him as follows : f inches 1.10 ^^"-^'UmillitBeters lioVo '"ill i meter oi. xi ( grains Strength \ '^ * i grams 27-8!) 0.91 28.00 125.60 8.14 3S COTTON. This was o])tain('(i from detailed follows : — [clIAI'. I stMtistics by states as AVERAGES P^OR EACH STATE. StKtC. Alabama Arkansas Arizona California Florida.. Georgia Indian Territory Louisiana .... Mississippi Missouri North Carolina. South Carolina. . Tennessee Texas Virginia Total 60 13 4 19 45 52 2 24 18 6 94 26 7 72 450 1427 1.14.-5 1.192 1.66'.) n.910 *1.572 1.140 1.267 1.282 1.260 1357 *1.996 1.131 1.380 1.366 0.789 0.965 0.745 0.827 0.854 0.806 1.023 0.862 0.810 0.907 0.695 0.766 0.821 0.819 0.883 1027 1.036 0.969 1079 1 :]84 1.066 1 .081 1.069 1.047 1.098 1.058 1.234 0.992 1.075 1.060 0.896 0917 0.957 0.921 0.793 0.913 0905 0.882 0.957 0.890 0.929 0.957 0.898 0.897 0.945 ^ S= e bD oj o to 03 (50 (U , 10, 11 and 12. These have been prepared by Mr. Henry G. Kittredge, the editor of " The Textile World," Boston, Mass., from investigations made by him on the nature of textile fibres. Figure 9 shows an immature cotton fibre a week before the opening of the boll, immediately before the opening of the boll, and also some considerable time before the opening. It also indicates the convolution of the cotton fibre as exemplified in American Uplands, Peruvian and Japanese cottons. The flax fibre from which linen yarn is made, and also the ramie or China grass fibres are shown on Fig. 10. The flax fibre is built up of fibre bundles only noticeable under the microscope and which are indicated in Fig. 10, which has been magnified four hundred times. The wool fil)re is shown in Fip-. 11 and it ■•] OTIIKK Fir.KKS. 43 will be noticed especialh^ on the third fibre, the American merino wool, that it is covered with scales overlapping one another. If a section were pre[)ared it would show saw-like edges. The existence of these serrations accounts to a large extent for the felting property of wool and for the fact of woolen goods shrinking after being wet. Fig. 12 shows a Fig. 9. Ripe ar\d Unripe Cottoq Fibres. transverse section of wool fibres, while Fig. 11 shows trans- verse sections of cotton fibres. In addition to the microscopical test another is made by l:)urning a small portion of the yarn or fabric : in the case of cotton, this usually burns with a flash, leaving a ver}^ light ash. Animal fibres, on the contrary, such as silk and wool, 44 COTTON. [ciiAi-. J. burn more slowly, emitting an offensive odor and leaving a curled bead, or lump of carbonized matter. Chemical tests may also be made by wliicli the nature of the fibre may be determined without any doubt. In applying chemical tests to determine the fil)re of which a yarn or fabric is manufactured, the first test is to find out R a Tn 1 e 5 3 1 2 4 1 : , ' 4-. . 1 Fig. 10, Flax arid Rarriie Fibres. whether it is an animal or vegetable fibre. The best test for this purpose is to boil the material in caustic potash lye, e. g. a solution containing about five per cent, of the caustic soda. After boiling about ten minutes, it will be found that all the animal matter is dissolved, and then the material must be washed in Avater to remove the caustic soda. Whether the I.] OTHER FIBRES. 45 fibre mixed with the cotton is wool or silk, the test removes either of these animal substances. Fig. 13, which is another view prepared by Mr. H. G. Kittredge, exhibits fibres at different stages of dissolution under Schweitzer's solution, previously named as an ammonia- cal solution of oxide of copper. INlr. Kittredge sa.ys : — ogctiohi of Coftoi'i Fibrps A'at ure fn) mat are " This is the only known liquid in which cellulose dissolves without undergoing a chemical change, and its peculiar action on cotton is something of very recent discovery and publicity. Charles O'Neill, an English chemist of repute, was attracted to the action of this solution upon the cotton fibre, thirty-four years ago, but his inferences were disputed or held in doubt for 46 COTTON. [chap. I. many years, or until 1883, when so excellent an authority on the use of the microscope as John Butterworth, of Shaw, England, confirmed the correctness of Mr. O'Neill's observa- tions, which are diauraminatized at '' O " and "()()" Fiff. 1;]. The results of Mr. Butterworth's experiments inspired me to try them, and I was happily successful ; but the phenomenon Split Hum an Han- Fig. 12. Wool ar\d Hair. at C is something I have never been able to get, owing, possi- bly, to my not using strong enough magnifying power. The longitudinal stride, as seen in hgurc (), and evolved at A, can be seen while the fibre is undergoing its transformation, but not otherwise. The binding threads at B form a feature of intense interest to the observer as the fibre i)asses through its meta- CHAI'. I.] ()Tin:i; i'ii'.i;i:,s. 47 inoi'phic career. If the solution is strono- and the swelHng of the fibre rapid, these thread-like bands sometimes Ijurst and throw out tiny ends, as will be seen at I). The striated character of the tiljre and the internal spiral core is seen in figure O ( ). Figures X to XXXXX are true rej)resentations of cotton fibres at moments of cessation to the infiuence of Cotton.- rdeo.1 "0 0" Fig. 13. Cortoq Fibres Under Ct^erqical fictior^. Schweitzer's solution. These were obtained under a magnify- ing power of 400 diameters. The thread-like bands are to be seen at B, the exj)anded stride at A, and the spiral core at C. Figure XXXXX shows a fibre that has assumed a knotted twist, one of the many shapes cotton fibres take in their convulsions when submitted to the action of the foregoing solution. The 48 COTTON. [chap. i. bands B seem to be of tougher substance than the rest of the fibre, as they sometimes are alone left in the field of vision. The query, of course, naturally arises, what are the functions or meanings of these bands or rings, and core? The problem thus presented remains unsolved. Still it possesses this advan- tage, that any fibre having these characteristics is assuredly cotton and nothing else. My observation has been that an ammoniacal solution of oxide of copper acts quicker upon new than upon old cotton. This I attribute to the outside membrane of old cotton being less soluble, or more difhcult of penetration, due to the hardening of the waxy covering." Bleached flax has about the same chemical composition as bleached cotton, and it is difficult to tind a chemical test that is of any service in indicating the difference between the fibres. Perhaps the best chemical test is to again use the caustic soda solution of considerable strength. In this case, the linen becomes deep yellow wliile the cotton is only slightly tinged. There are certain dyes which, when applied cold, give a very deep shade on silk, a light shade on wool, and an almost colorless effect on cotton. Magenta is one of these dyestuffs. With a judicious combination of chemical and microscopi- cal tests, the nature of the fibre entering into the manufacture of any fabric can be accurately determined. Strength of the Cotton Fibre. The strength of individual cotton fibres varies from 75 to 300 grains, according to the kind of cotton, the distance between the points of suspension in making the test, and the portion of the fibre selected for the test. The fibre being weaker at the end furthest from the seed of course supports a smaller weight when the test is made with the points of suspension at each end of the fibre. This is proved by five different experiments on the same fibre of Sea Island cotton. 1st test 1.7 inch broke with 18.1 grains at .5 inch from one end. 2d test l.O " " " 70.9 " " .1 " " " " 3d test .8 " " " 97.1 " " .1 " " " " 4th test .5 " " " 126.2 " " .2 ' " 5th test .2 " " " V.\?,.o " CHAP. I.] COTTONS OF THE WORLD. 49 The first tost was made with 1.7 inch between the points of suspension when the fibre broke with a strain of eighteen grains. The fifth test had only .2 inch between the points of suspension and the fibre supported I'-VA grains. Taking an average of about rl inch between the points of suspension and selecting that portion of the fibre furthest away from the tapering end, or in other words, nearer to the root, the average breaking weights have been found to be as under: — Edisto Sea Island 83.9 grains Another sample, Sea Island . . . 90.0 Third sample, Sea Island 102.6 " Amerie-an Upland Cotton .... 104.5 Egyptian 108.0 American Mobile Cotton .... 118.8 American Orleans 139.7 Pernambuco, Brazilian .... 140.2 Dhollerah, Indian 141 9 " Comptah, Indian 163.7 " Cottons of the "World. While the cotton crop of the United States is the most important in the world, and the most useful, in fact, b*eing of such importance that the price of American cotton practically controls the price of other cot- tons, there are numerous cotton fields in various parts of the world where extensive crops are raised, and the product used for purposes for which American cotton cannot be utilized. The most im[)ortant cotton growing countries after the United States are India, Egypt, China, and Brazil. A diagram ( Fig. 14 ) shows the proportion of cotton raised in several countries to the world's crop in 1895-6, from information supplied by Col. Shepperson. Sea Island cotton of the United States represents the highest as regards quality, is spun in the finest yarn, and used very largeh^ for thread, laces, and fine cambrics. Next approaching in fineness of quality and length of staple is the Brown Egyptian cotton, so called because of its brownish tinge, which is a distinctive feature of this fibre. This is 50 COTTON. [CIIAI'. I. CHAI'. I.] COTTONS OF THP: WORLD. 51 td O 02 03 CC CO T ffl 'B (D 2 ro n 5' si s; ^ 2! -•"■ fo fo ;; fo M kH S 3 3 3 ?4 w o. :i. " a ■■2. H ►^ O « IQ- u ?3 p3 cc OD > <; 5' g 11 5- E a. (t 2 '< 3 ft 5 2 'T! g o )< Hj E= M ^ m '^. 5-' 5 2. w - Ol COTTON. [chap. i. very largely used for tine cotton yarns and goods of all vari- eties. Among other long staple cottons, which are not impor- tant commercially, are the Tahiti Sea Island, the Peruvian cotton, the White Egyptian, and the Egyptian ( Jallini cottons. The next grade of cotton of any importance is known as Bra- zilian. It has a staple somewhat longer than the average American cotton, but is somewhat rough in appearan-ce and touch. The American cottons form the next class as regards quality, varying from the fine Mississippi cottons, Peelers, Benders, to the short clean Uplands cotton. China produces one of the largest crops of cotton, after the United States, which is almost all consumed in that coun- try. It is a beautiful white cotton, somewhat harsh to the touch, but unfortunately for its commercial importance is comparatively short staple, being about the length of the shortest American Upland cotton. The East India crop is also large, but is regarded as being both the dirtiest and the shortest staple cotton produced. Owing to the long seasons of considerable heat required in order to bring cotton to maturity, this fibre can only be profitably cultivated in certain regions bordering on the north and south of the equator. This is usually described in text books as being the regions bounded by the line of latitude 45° north and 35° south of the equator, l)ut no such arbitrary divisions can be made, as the isothermal lines have to betaken into account ; for instance, a line drawn along 45° north lati- tude, includes such districts as New England, portions of Nova Scotia and Canada, wdiere it is impossible to grow cotton, while if the lines were drawn about 38° north latitude, which is the northern limit of cotton grown in the United States, it would exclude i)0]'tions of Turkestan, Southern Italy, Greece and other districts where it is possible to cultivate the cotton plant with success. Thus an isotherm must be followed along the lines of equal temperature in the northern hemisphere, and another isothermal line in the southern hemisphere. CHAP. I.] COTTONS OF THE WOKLD. 53 54 ('(/rTox. [chap. I. This practically iiiclades on the American continent, all the southern states of the Union, including portions of Vir- ginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, all of Georgia, South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas and parts of Indian Territory, Southern California and Florida, Mexico and Central American Republic ; also in South America, Peru, the Argentine, Brazil, Venezuela, Guiana. In Europe, the Islands of Malta, Sicily and southern por- tions of Spain, Italy, parts of Greece and Turkey. In Asia, includes Arabia, Persia, Turkestan, India, China, Japan and some of the islands in the Malay Archipelago. In Africa a very large region is suited for the cultivation of cotton, but at present it is cultivated only in Egypt, in some of the countries on the western coast and a little in South Africa. In Australasia, (Queensland is suited for the cultivation of cotton, as also are the Fiji Islands. A diagram on page 50 gives the quantities grown proportionately in each of the lead- ing cotton producing countries of the world, and is instructive in showing the relative importance of these countries, according to the quantities they raise. Figs. 16 and 17 are two views showing the relative lengths of staple of cottons from various countries, and below will be found a table showing the relative importance of cottons raised in various countries according to quality : A list of the more important varieties, with the best cot- tons first, is : — Sea Island. Peruvian. Brown Egyptian. Brazilian. American. Chinese and Indian. This list could be largely extended, but further details are given on succeeding pages. CHAP. 1.] SEA ISLAND COTTON. £)5 Sea Island Cotton. Sea Island cotton is the name used connnei'cially to indicate the United States Sea Island cotton. This is grown on Edisto, St. Helena, Port Royal, James and John Islands oil' the coast of South Carolina, St. Simon and Cumberland Islands off the coast of Georgia, and others. It is recognized as being the best cotton that is grown in any part of the world. Very careful attention is given to its cultivation and ginning, (|uality being considered before quantity, and thus Sea Island cotton has a long, hue, strong and silky staple with comparatively regular convolutions, of a diameter from j_ o <^ <9 _.3 d_ ^ ^ H=^ .^ (A) G3 ^ / o D (3 y (01 %: Fig. 15. Americau Cotton Fibres, sections to scale lOBo inch between parallel lines. 1. Gulf or Orleans. 4. Peelers. 2. Benders. 5. Nashville. 3. Memphis, (>. Allan seed. .0004 to .000(3 of an inch, ranging in length from one and three-eighths to two and one-fourth inches. It is largely used for thread and lace making purposes, and is regularly spun from loOs to 400s yarn, and occasionally even for commercial purposes as high as 600s. It is said that numbers 2150s were spun from Sea Island cotton at the great exhibition of London in 1851. The leading American market for Sea Island cotton is Charleston, South Carolina. Where a very strong fibre is required for heavy yarns Sea Island is sometimes used, as for example, the linings of bicycle 56 COTTON. [CIIAI'. I. tires, sail clotli, and so on. Figs. 18 and 1*.) show views of Sea Island cotton as seen under the microscope. Sea Island cotton is ginned altogether by the roller gin. The crop is about 1)3,000 bales per annum. The variety Flor- ida Sea Island, so called, is grown on the mainland of Florida from Sea Island seed. This is somewhat inferior to the Sea Island proper. It is a very useful cotton for yarns which require to be a little better than those made from Egyptian cotton. It has a white, glossy, strong fibre, a little coarser Fig. IS. Sea Island Cotton, extra fine. Long- itudinal views to scHle j^„r, in^'t' between parallel lines. Fk;. 19. Sea Island Cotton. Sections to scale jiiVis inch between parallel lines. 1. E.xtra fine. 3. Florida. 2. Tahiti. 4. Georgia. than strict Sea Island, and is nut quite so carefully cultivated. It is suited for yarns from 150s to 200s. Other Sea Island cottons are described under African and Australian cottons. See Tal)le of Long Staple Cottons. American Cotton. While the above Sea Islands cottons are American, this name is seldom a})plied to them, but is used to indicate the typical cotton of the world, which is grown in the Southeiii States of the American Union and used in all parts of the world where cotton spinning mills exist. The cotton described commercially as American is suited for CHAP. I.] AMERICAN C'( )TT()X. O/ medium numbers of yarn, is usually clean, fairly regular in length of staple, satisfactorily graded, and consequently is one of the most reliable and useful cottons for a manufacturer's use. The quantity is greater than that produced in all other parts of the world together, and consequently the price of American cotton in Liverpool, which is the greatest market for it, regulates the price of cotton throughout the world. American cotton may be divided into three important classes : New Orleans or Gulf cotton. Uplands or Boweds, and Texas cotton. # Fk;. 'JO. (Jrleans or Gulf CoUon, Aineriean. Longitudinal views to scale iiAjit 'iich between parallel lines. New Orleans or Gulf cotton usually consists of cotton raised in the basin of the Mississippi river, including the states of Louisiana, Mississippi, parts of Arkansas and Alabama. The name Gulf cotton is more usually applied in America from the fact that most of this cotton is shipped to ports on the Gulf of Mexico, especially New Orleans. In Europe the word New Orleans is usually applied, and is derived from the shipping port of that name. This style of cotton may be subdivided into others, known as Memphis, Benders, Allan-seed, Peelers and so on ; these being the names originally intended to repre- sent certain styles of cotton, but which have been very much misapplied of late years. 58 ("OTTOX. [chap. I. New Orleans or Gulf cotton (Fig. "iO) is from one to one and one-fourth inches in length of staple, from .0004 to .0007 of an inch in diameter, and is usually used for yarn from '28s to 44s warp and from 50s to 70s filling or weft. It is not usual to spin below these numbers, unless higher grade yarns are required. The lenders or Bottom Land cotton (Fig. 21) supposed to be grown at the bends of the Mississippi River, which are occasionally flooded and consequently well fertilized by the silt of the river, is one of the best grades of New Orleans cotton, and is used for the hio-lier numbers named Fig. 21. Benders Cotton. American. Longi- tudinal views to scale iJoo incli between lianillel lines. above. Peelers is a somewhat similar cotton, is used for similar yarns, is bluish-white rather then ci'eam colored, and some- what resembles short Florida Sea Island. Uplands cotton ( Fig. '12 ) is gi'own in the undulating country between the ocean and the mountains in the states of Georgia, North and South Carolina, Alrginia and Alabama. It is usually used for filling yarns or weft yarns between numbers 30s and 40s, although it may be spun up to 45s or 50s if required. The length of the staple is from three-fourths of an inch to one inch and the fibre in diameter is from .0006 to .0007 of an incli. This cotton is usuallv verv clean. CHAP. I ] CENTKAL AND SOUTH AMERICAN COTTONS. 59 The cultivation of Texas cotton (Fig. 23) is largely on the increase, and for coarse warp yarns this is the most suitable style of cotton. In dry seasons it is apt to be somewhat harsh and brittle, and cannot be relied upon as well as New Orleans or Uplands cotton. The staj^le is usually from seven-eighths to one inch in length, sometimes exceeding this, in diameter from .0005 to .0007 of an inch. Numbers 2()s and 32s warp yarns and 32s to 40s filling yarns are often made from Texas cotton, although it is eminently nseful for warp. Central and South American Cottons. The cotton croj) of ^ ^ ■^\ \ ^ % ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ H T^K^ ^fe ^ %=^ h-cf"—-' — ' ^^ s52ii '^'^ \^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^i^^^J ^ ^ A ^^E ^t:r- -^ ^<^ ^ ^ ^"^ itJ^^S ^ ^ Fk;. 22. Uplands Cotion, American. Longi- tudinal views to scale ig'on i"ch between parallel lines. Mexico is not of very "^great importance, being about 50,000 bales of 500 pounds each. The] cotton is usually clean, of cream color, but is not very strong. The staple is usually har.sh, and is the fruit of the cotton tree, which is a perennial. Undoubtedly a very much larger area can be used for the cultivation of cotton, especially in the zone along the Gulf of Mexico. The largest production of cotton is in the Laguna District in Central Mexico, about 400 miles from the United States frontier, in the province of (Jajaca, in C'ompeche and Yucatan. 60 COTTON. [CIIAF. I. Formerly a large quantity of cotton was raised in the West Indian Islands, Hayti or San Domingo, i\.nguilla, Porto Rico, and also in the British possessions in the northern part of South America, British and French Guiana, the principal vari- eties of which being Surinam, Berbice, Cayenne, Demerara ; also in the states of Columbia, Guatemala and Honduras and the countries now forming the Greater Republic of Central America. Owing to the increase of cultivation of sugar, and for other reasons, the growth of cotton has diminished considerably, until now there is very little grown in these countries, except- 6? O ^0, c? <9 Q=p ^(^ a © jJCI &"^ I & o Fig. 23. Texas Cotton, American. Longi- Fig. 2-J. Brazilian Cotton. Sections to scale tudinal views to scale ^o^on inch between ^^^^ inch between parallel lines, parallel lines. ^ Rio Grande. 4. Maceio. 2. Paraiba. 5. Ceara. .".. Maranham. 6. Periiambuco. ing what is used in home manufactures,- and it is somewhat rare to find any -of these cottons in any of the open markets of the world. The sta})le is generally smooth and fine, the cotton runs from one and one-eighth to one an()08 of an inch in diameter. It is usually used for warp yarns from 40s to 70s, one German authority giving 80s as possible numbers to be made from it. Some of the Rough Peruvian is very "high colored," and some of it," Red," is Fig. 27. Rough Peruvian Cotton. Longitu- dinal views to scale To'on iucli between parallel lines. raised on copper soil. Tlie Smooth Peruvian, an exotic from American seed, is of much shorter maximum length of staple, and more generally resembles Orleans or Gulf cotton, and is used for somewhat similar numbers. The Peruvian Sea Island, so called, is grown on the mainland from American Sea Island seed, and ranks almost equal to the Florida Sea Island. The length of staple is about one and one-half inches, in diameter from .0004 to .0007 of an inch, and is used for 100s to 150s yarn, usually for doub- ling purposes. It is not quite so clean as the so called Sea Is- land cotton from other countries. 64 COTTON. [tliAP. I. Mr. Fr. Jac. Andres, of Boston, says, regarding Rough Peruvian cotton : — •' The nati\'e variety is a product of the ' (tossi/jiiinn I\'rit- viainmi,^ a perennial shrub growing from ten to fifteen feet high, and found in the tropical countries of South America, and most abundantly in the coast districts. It flowers and bears fruit for about seven years, though most abundantly and of the best quality after the rainy seasons in the second, third and fourth year's growth. The cotton yielded by this plant is long, strong, rough, crinkly staple (called vegetable wool), and therefore excellently suited for admixture with wool for many purposes of manufacture. Its price has no relation whatever to the value of other descriptions of cotton, but is regulated by the price of ' wool ' and the supply of liough Peruvian cotton." Egyptian Cotton. Among African cottons, the Eg3q3tian, of course, is the most important and the most valuable. For- merly it was cultivated only in the lower parts of the Nile valley, but during the last twenty years very great strides have been made in introducing the cultivation of cotton in upper and middle Egypt. Great attention has been given by the government to improve the methods of cultivation. Five to ten years ago there were probably more varieties of cotton cultivated in Egypt than in any other countr}^, including Gallini from Sea Island seed, Brown Egyptian from indigen- ous seed, and White Egyptian from American seed, but expe- rience has shown that the Brown Egyptian, known on the continent of Europe as Mako, or sometimes Jumel, is the most suitable and profital)le for cultivation. This is a variety of cotton which lends itself admirably to the processes of combing, and is used very largely in Europe, especially in Russia. The imports also in the United States are increasing year by year. One objection to the Brown Egyptian, or Mako, is its color. This varies from a dark cream to a brown, according to the variety of the cotton, and is caused by the presence of CHAP. I.] EGYPTIAN COTTON. 65 endochrome associated with the celhilose forming the fibrous sheath. One feature of this cotton is that its diameter is very regular. The size of the crop and the quality of the fibre depend very largely on the annual over-flow of the Nile, although the irrigation works, which are now being constructed under the guidance of the British government, are helping to render the farmers somewhat more independant of the annual flood. Extensive irrigation and drainage systems are in course of construction, which will doubtless greatly increase the area ,'^ (S) 'A jL^-dlL 3 % Fig. 2S. Egyptian Cottons. Sections to scale yo'oij inch between parallel lines. 1. Brown Egyptian. 3. Gallini. 2. White Egyptian. 4. .\shmouni. 5. Smyrna, Asia Minor, cotton. Fig. 29. Brown Egyptian Cotton. Longi- tudinal views to scale y^^s inch between parallel lines. of cotton culture. Moreover, other crops are being abandoned to some extent and cotton substituted for them. The present production in Egypt is about 577,500,000 })ounds of fibre, practically the whole of which is exported, and 22,275,000 bushels of .seed, of which the greater part is exported. Mako-Jumel, the name given to the variety of cotton first cultivated, experienced man}' changes and evolutions in Egypt, gradually changing its color to yellowish brown, and this new variety was known as Ashmouni, from the valley of 6G ('OTTON. [CHA1>. I. Ashmoun, where this change was first noted. The princi])al varieties of Egyptian cotton are the Ashmouni, Mitafifi, Ixuiiia, Abbasi, and Gallini (Fig. 2. Mercerised. •2. Bleached. 4. Dyed. Fig. 31. Broach Cotton, Indian. Longitudi- nal views to .scale ^^Ti inches between parallel lines. farther south of Cairo, and Ui)per Egypt is about ")00 miles from tlie Mediterranean. The Delta is the district in which most of the P]gyptian cottons are cultivated, but considerable (juantities are raised in the Fayoum di.strict in Middle Egypt and also in Tpper P'gypt. In the Delta fogs are fretjuently the cause of a set back in the progress of the crops, and of damage to the plant and fibre. Egyptian cotton is from one and one-eighth to one and three-eighths inches in length and is usually spun in oOs to 100s 68 COTTON. [chap. I. warp yarn and 70s to 150 filling yarn, while a large (juantity is used for doubling or ply yarns. Fig. 30 shows sections of brown Egyptian cotton in the raw state, and again bleached, mercerised and dyed. Cotton is grown in other parts of Africa to a small extent, as for example, on the west coast, especially in Liberia, where some cotton of about one inch length of staple, of rather high color, dirty and irregular, somewhat resembling Brazilian cotton, is produced, but not much of it is exported ; and a small quantity is also grown in Natal and South Africa. The continent of Asia ranks next after America in quan- tity of cotton raised, India,. China, Japan, Corea, Turkestan and Asia ]\Iinor all contributing to this. Indian Cotton. India ranks, and perhaps always will rank, next to the United States as a cotton producing country. With an area of 1,367,000 square miles, lying south of the thirty-fifth degree of north l€«g4^t4«and wholly within the cot- ton belt, India is twice the size of that i)artof the United States known as the Cotton States, and possesses a good cotton soil, although hampered by an uncertain and discouraging climate. Bounded on the east, north and west by mountains, with moun- tain chains traversing the central territory, and subject to two periodical wet seasons, portions of her territory are rendered unfit for cotton growing, either by excessive rain fall, which in some sections amounts to -"JOO inches per annum, or by the lack of mois- ture in others, where the annual rain fall is scarcely an incli. Although cotton has been cultivated there for fully 4,000 years the increase in prodnction was but slight until stimulated by the diminished supply from the United States between 1861 and 1805. During the cotton famine of this period, the culti- vation was pushed to its utmost extent, but when the United States regained its supremacy in cotton culture, the production of cotton in India was not pressed with so much vigor. At pres- ent the attention of the ryots has been turned to the produc- tion of the more profitable indigo and linseed, and it is probable CHAP. I.] INDIAN COTTON. GO tluit the i)roduetion of cotton will further decrease. The average yield in India varies in the different provinces from 40 to KM) pounds of clean cotton per acre, dependent on the seasons. The part of liritish India, or Ilindostan, where cotton is raised, embraces four principal cotton regions ; the valley of the Ganges, the Deccan, western India and southern India. The Ganges valley is again divisible into two parts, the lower Bengal district and that of the northwest provinces, including Doab and Bundelcund, lying on both sides of the Ganges and Jumna rivers. Fig. :i2. Oomravvutlee Cotton, Indian. Longi- tudinal views to scale jJoo inch between parallel lines. In lower Bengal the cultivation of cotton is not of great importance. In the plain.s of Bengal, which are so fertile in other produce, the production of cotton is very considerable, and very little is exported. The cotton raised here in former times, though short in staple, was- the tinest known in the world, and formed the material out of which the very delicate and extremely beautiful Dacca muslin was manufactured. This interesting and indefinite variety of Gossypium herbaceinn i.^ known as Dacca cotton, and what little is raised is used at home in the looms of a few weavers at Bazitpore, and seldom finds its way to Calcutta. 70 (,'OTTON. [C1IA1>. I. The border lands of the Ganges are too low and marshy, and the rain fall too great, for the successful cultivation of cotton, but tlic hills back from the river are suital)le for this purpose, as they are better drained. The Doab and Bundelcund districts produce almost tlie entire crop of the northwest provinces, and furnish about 70,000,000 pounds of cotton for export, which is good " Indian cotton." The climatic character of these districts is " first a flood and then a drought," with an inclination to an insuffi- ciency of rain, in great contrast to that of lower Jk'ngal. The Deccan, Central India, is the great cotton section of of India. It occupies the triangular area lying south of the A^indhya mountians, in latitude 23° north, and extends to the valley of tlie Kistna, at 1()° north, with the eastern and western Ghauts on either side. It is an elevated tableland of undulat- ing surface, having soil of great excellence and richness and of a consistency to retain moisture for a long time. Nearly all the cotton for export is raised witliin this region and finds its market at Bombay. The Deccan may be divided into Xagpore, Hyderabad, Berar and Dharwar districts. The soil in the valleys of Nagpore is a rich black loam which becomes very sticky and muddy during the rainy season, and hard and cracked during the dry season, in this respect very much resembling some of the Alabama soils. In the hilly portions there is red clay soil. The cotton grown within this district is very fine and soft, indicative of a moist and equable climate, especially that produced in the valleys of the Wurda and its tributaries. Some of it is known commercially as Hinghunghat cotton, from the chief town of that section, and is considered to possess the highest qualities of any Indian cotton. Hyderabad is a plateau with a surface more or less hilly, and a general elevation of 2,000 feet above the sea level. The soil between the hills is remarkably fertile, and along the CHAP. I.] INDIAN COTTON. 71 Kistna, Godavery, and Wiirda rivers and their tiilnitaries is to be found some of the most productive soil of India. Berar is an elevated valley through which flow several large streams that enter into the Godavery, and drain a coun- try the .soil of which is unsurpassed in richness, depth, and adaptability to the cultivation of cotton. From this section comes the cotton known as Oomrawattee, or " Oomras " (Fig. Dharwar is another good cotton district, being especially suited to the acclimatizing and culture of American cotton. Fig. 33. Dhollerah Cotton, Indian. Longi- tudinal views to scale j^os inch between parallel lines. The extent of territory is small, but, being nearer the sea and possessing a tolerable uniformity of atmospheric moisture, the combination of climate and soil is better adapted for the pro- duction of cotton than any other part of the Deccan, and con- sec{uently than any other region of India. Western India is of no special interest in this connection, not being a heavy producer of cotton, except in the provinces of Scinde, Cutch, and Guzerat. The soil of these provinces varies in richness and productiveness from sand to deep black alluvium. The greatest drawback to the cultivation of cotton 72 COTTON. [ciiAP. I. in this region is tlie extreme heat and the drought succeeding a rainy season of small precipitation — three to ten inches in Scinde and Cutch, though parts of Guzerat have a yearly fall of 40 inches. Southern India, or the southern part of the Madras Presi- dency, is best represented in cotton culture by the provinces of Coimbatore and Tinnivelly, which border on the western Ghauts, where the atmosphere is humid. The cotton raised in the latter province is the best grown in Southern India. Although India has always produced large quantities of cotton, and made most beautiful and delicate webs from its fibre, exporting these flibrics to all parts of the world, it is only within the past 100 years that she has exported any consider- able quantity of raw cotton. The table of short staple cottons gives the dimensions of fibres and suitability of Indian cottons for various yarns. Several views of Indian fibres, as they appear under the microscope, are shown in this chapter. Their study is inter- esting as showing the great variation that exists in fibres even of the same variety in diameter, thickness of the corded edges, and number of convolutions. The transverse sections of eleven varieties of Indian cottons, shown in Figs. 35 and 30, indicate this variation very clearly. Indian cotton has the reputation of being the lowest class cultivated. This is largely owing to the great carelessness in cultivation. The fields are not properly prepared for cultiva- tion, the cotton is not well ginned, and is often adulterated with Hindoo freehold estate to a large extent. The Broach cotton ( Fig. 31 ), which generally has a white and good staple, the Tinnivelly cotton ( Fig. 37 ), which is creamy and shorter, and the Dhollerah ( Fig. 33 ), which is dirty, but has a good staple, are usually considered to be the best of Indian cottons, while Bengal cotton is probably the dirtiest cotton on the face of the earth. The variety known as Hinghunghat is often mentioned in text books, but seldom CHAP. 1.] INDIAN COTTON. seen on the market, and is usually considered to be the high- est prade of Indian cotton. If it is now cultivated to any extent it must be retained in Bombay for the use of the local mills. Previous to about 1888, Indian cotton was a very impor- tant article of consumption in England, but its consumption has gradually fallen off during the cheapness of American cot- ton, and it is now only exported in large quantities to the con- tinent of Europe. The reason of this is partially because the spinning of lower numbers is carried on to much greater ex- Fi»i. o4. Sciade Cottou, Indian. Longimdi- nal views to scale io\jo iii<*h between paral- lel line.s. tent ill Germany and other European continental countries than in England. The name often applied to Indian cotton is 8urat, the name of a small port on the coast of Broach, in the Presidency of Bombay, and the name 8urat is usually understood to refer only to Bombay Presidency cottons. A table is given under the heading of short staple cottons containing details of the varieties of Indian cotton, district where grown, length and diameter of staple, and suitability for various purposes. 74 COTTON. [chap. 1. Other Cottons. The cotton production of China is found to be surprisingly large on investigation. Judging from tlie rarity with which this cotton is found in the cotton markets of the world, one does not expect to find a quantity equivalent to 1,300,000 bales of 500 pounds each raised annually and almost entirely consumed in tlie country, yet this is the esti- mate of the most reliable authorities. It is also estimated that 400,000 bales of 500 pounds each are raised in Corea. This cotton ( Figs. 39, 40 ) is usually clean, has a short, rough \5mm G O G ^/^ o a^ Q o / ^ , /^ (?&) I o (5) ® Fig. oo. Indiaa aud other Asiau Cottons. Sections to scale ioV,o iuch between parallel lines. 1. Rangoon. 3. Broach. 5. Tinnivelly. 2. Assam. 4. Bengal. 6. Dharwar. FiG.oCi. Indiwn Cotton. Sections to scale tn^jo inch between parallel lines. 7. Compta. 9. Hinghunghat. 8. Oomrawattee. 10. Scinde. 11. DhoUerah. staple, but is not used for numbers finer than 12s or 14s till- ing when manufactured on power machinery. It is about three-fourths of an inch long. Another part of Asia where cotton is now largely culti- vated and where increasing (|uantities are being raised every year is Asiatic Russia and Turkestan. The cotton is grown largely from American seed and is shipped overland to Kussiaii mills. It is said that about one-third of the supply of cotton for the Russian mills is now obtained from the above coun- tries, a greater portion of it being conveyed a large section of CHAl'. ],] OTIIKR COTTONS. iO its journey ou the backs of camels. The cotton is about one inch in lengtli, is of good color and grade, and somewhat rough. Tlie amount of cotton raised in Japan is comparatively unimportant, as that country imports more cotton than she grows. Japanese cotton is usually less than three-fourths of an incli in length of staple, and somewhat resembles Chinese cotton in its cleanliness. In the Island of Java a small quantity of a very short, dirty cotton is raised, suited for numbers 4s and 6s yarns, of a Fig .S7. Tinnivelly Cotton. Longitudinal view to scale lo'oo i'^ch between parallel lines. coarse, rough staple about three-eighths of an inch to five- eighths of an inch in length, and one of the shortest cottons grown. The Phillipine Islands cotton is almost one inch long, smooth and of a good color. In Australia there is a small (juantity of cotton raised in tlie Clarence river district and in Queensland, which is said to be of good staple and clean, while in the Fiji Islands in Aus- tralasia, and also in the Tahiti Islands, a fairly good grade of Sea Island cotton is raised, of a simihir or rather Ijetter grade 76 COTTON. [chap than Florida Sea Island cotton, and the same description applies to it to a large extent. A shorter stapled variety is grown in Hawaii. The European cottons are comparatively unimportant ; a small quantity is raised in Spain, some in Italy in the neigh- borhood of Naples, some in Greece, and a little in the islands of Malta and Sicily. This cotton is usually al)out three- fourths of an incli in length of staple. Fig. 38. Comparative sectional views of different cottons, to scale in'nii inch be- tween parallel lines. 1 Tahiti, Sea Island. 7. Lagos, African. 2. Brown Egyptian. 8. China. 3. GulforOrleans(Am.) 9. Red Peruvian. 4. Rough Peruvian. 10. Shows the ex- 5. Maceio, Brazilian. treme variations 0. Sciude, Indian. in the first eight samples. The Levantine cottons, grown in the neighborhood of Smyrna, Asia Minor, and on the island of Cyprus, with which may be included Turkish ( Ivoumelian ) and Persian cotton on account of their resemblance to the others, are very important European cottons. A description of them will be found in the tables given later in this chapter. CHAP. 1.] OTHER COTTONS. Smyrna cotton is the most important with regard to quantity grown, but the Persian cotton is of the most value, resembhng Indian, but being superior to the best Indian cotton. Some cottons are naturally of a high color, as, for exam- ple, red Northern and Coconada Indian cottons, red Guatemala cotton, red Peruvian cotton from Peru and Nankin, which has been variously stated to be cultivated in China and America, but really is only grown in the latter countr3\ A well known Liverpool broker says that he has imported Nankin cotton from America, and it was so called on account Fit;. o'J. China Cottou. Lousitudinal views to scale xn\iij incli between parallel lines. Fi<;. 40. China Cotton. Sections to scale ^(j'oi, inch between parallel lines. of its resembling the color of Nankin cloth formerly used for breeches. The writer has seen Nankin cotton which was said to have been grown in Alabama in ISOO. The name being- similar to tliat of a Chinese port has led to the assumption that it was a China cotton. The letter appended proves that Nankin cotton Avas formerly grown in the United States : — Atl.anta, Ga., Feb. 5, 18U8. Dear Sir: — In May, 1895, wlien ananging for our great international exposition, I conceived the idea of securing a bale of Nankeen cotton raised in time of slavery, bring it here and have it carded, spun, and woven by old "Foh de Wah " women in the old-fashioned way on the exposition 78 COTTON. [chap. i. grounds. I wrote to almost every port jjoint in tliis country and Europe and finally found a bale at New Orleans that was raised by an old African, named Guinea George, alias George Washington, on Frog Level Plantation in Alabama, near the Louisiana line. He raised, picked and ginned it in 1860, and kept the bale at his home all through the years of " Hard Tack and Bullet." Sometime after the war he shipped the bale to New Orleans, and, as there has been no demand for Nankeen cotton since the war, it has remained there until I bought it and brought it here for the above named purpose, and have a portion of the bale here now. I heiewith enclose you a sample of the cotton. Yours truly, Hp:nky H. Smith. The reproductions of microscopical views of cotton tibres in this cliapter ( Fig.s. 15 to 40) are used by the courtesy of Mr. Abraham Flatters of Longsight, Manchester, England, whose excellent work in micro-photography, especially of fil)res, is now receiving deserved, if tardy, recognition. Tables of Cotton Characteristics. Four tables are printed herewith which have been gradually compiled b}' the author during the last fifteen years, largely from personal observation and investigation. They give all the known cottons under their trade names and state where the cotton is grown, the length of staple, the diameter in I0,0()0ths of an inch, the characteristics and appearance of the cotton, the numbers of yarn into which it is usually spun, and whether these yarns are for warp ( twist ), filling ( weft ), or })ly yarns ( doubling ), with other information. With reference to the yarns named in the tables the author would state that they are intended to indicate the num- bers usually spun for commercial purposes. For special yarns which have to be strong or of a high grade the cotton may be used for lower numbers ; or for special or local reasons, may be possibly spun into higher numbers, or into warp, filling, or ply yarn wliei'e not so specified, ])ut these are unusual cases, and are not considered in formulating the tables. The cottons are divided into four kinds : Long stai)led, medium to long stapled, medium stapled and short stapled. CHAP. I.] LONG STAPLED COTTON. 79 « (U >> -i* 8 " ,? i si 3 q; w S''" C 2 ?S 3 >. g I-- O 610 n W> w C Sec 'S — ^i5 ^ ^ 1^ *-■ 3 r !£> I^ -r lO -f ^ 3 u o c (s a, !i s >. . 3 oi ■a • C ^-3 P 80 COTTOX. [chap. I. 30 « 5 ^ K^ v^ a q3 ^)!l^ . at-t. «-2 OS 0) 'W ^ SSw) "S § ^J^.S' c» beg g.S g •- B E -S a ~ 3 M-i (L> 23 or O tx, '-'•5 Olt/D 3=S 000 00 o (N (N (M C^l C^l C^l (M o CO CO COCOCOCOCC'^ 0) 1) ■>-,*J " ^u, brown Rich d long, fine. Light b Brown ; weak. Almost and sil ;^ :i5; ii ? a; &>^ '*^. W W 0^0 a 6? 3 si OS 0) !- 3 O g ■ 6S, CD ^ 5 5 ( Ph pq i> ■w ^ ;^ ii £• lU 0) oj 0) > > C c •r-t g- a. oo CO -wS *J c^ S'"' 'O'"' "S '3 CO M ■a a . aj s 03 tu 2 c3 !>.3 tc CJ S 03 "O o S'S ^ 03 3 ^ 6C> 5 j3 •- "S ■~ 0) ♦e a .r-t O o O c3 ID ■O -1.^ o S CO i co^ 00 o o g s^ ^ ;2? \i o tH 1— < is o o O o O ■«^ voo -^ "^^ ^ -^ ^ ^ ^ r-l rH _J- •r o •d a OS d eS S .Si .2 t> 3 a P^ 0) ■o as g .S . . »s §03 .a H <<< a .S .S '"^ 11 1 ^ S a a -3 0) 0) >. ^ t-i OS < < a ■P S S 53 1 < , ■— -^ ^ — ■— — , — ^■- -, ,-^-~ ^ ir. t4 c be 1 « ii =3 "s. 6 o os' 03 9 -J ai= 3 c ^iS St^ ■^ 03 :a g g 33 O .553 03 cS c o C 03 CO 5 fe -; =! C oi oJ •- =3 ^ -< O M CK CO P5 Cm ►ii 82 COTTON. [CIIAI'. I. S c >% S3 OJ ^ a a "u a ^ cS ■d > ^ 0) ii 8 tc 3 •a 3 s S 0/ a c ^ o 2 'bis (U c : 01 ^ OJ X .4^ ^ ^ OX! a OJ .2i a 5 a K'>^ 5 0; o> ■£ >- ^ .S a) o 0) Q>J . o it ^ c cS i 3 o 02 a Q > ;» ^ >< o s s a .^ g w o.o bb 'qj ■3 "S "53 0) "3 s n ;= ^ ^^ .Q ^ a '"' ^^ f— 1 •2 2 £ C3 5 a =3 5 5 — a c "^ 3 s ^ Xi ^ S '^ ^ "^ z, r-i 61 ■M C-l s "^ "^ ^ s ? >> o t, o _o X Q) iS o "3 "3 "1 "a! a; ^ ^ X 00 S a O '■J OS 5 5 06 5 5 -I" 5D B o f3 H a ft z 3 a 0) c c 53 ^-£ 6 1 ^ J3 03 tc ^ a-= 5 2' 3 =i r-'<3> 3 a 03

X t-\ VX xx^S ^ ^"c^ ;?^ ~i\ ^ ^'^- o o c o -S ^ ■S*^ -4^ -1^ M\"" ^ i i^ K\ :^:^:^ i i;?^^ ^ \^ \?< "5 X a CO a a c o O 0) Oi o o a ■ ■ .^ a ? 0) Ph i a oj s s t. t. !h >! t-. >. 3^ i 11 1 a a; 1 ja II a e s os'-S S aaa P3 . _d 5 5S g c a 555 Q CO d pa m3 H II 03 Q s 03 < CHAP. 1.] SHOKT STAPLED COTTON. 83 .2 cS -s s (£ 2^ X c ■d o S3 0) 3" o S 3 ^ O) _: 3 M 3 3 3 > o a ~ o c u 3 be tJC M c St O OJ a> QJ >. s ^ o ^ ~ o 1 .2 < ^*j 5 3 T" X .T^ .tn .t^ .■^ "C s e.2 s oj >% x>. >. ';;;_ »3 (m 3 oi fH ^ t^ O 5 d _S 0) 0) o 0) < fc^ P5ft ir. w >> > > to - — - - % s o 2 X .^ o •s. o '*' cc o o _c *^ V «5 & •V >i ^ ^^ uT ■ >.-s -v ^ ^ ^ o 0) > 3 r* o _o .3 r~ C 3 o .« ^ o a o =3 "a o ■ ? 3 1 (/'lean and smoot Weak and dirty. Bright ere a 11 color, leafy a strong. Creamy, dull a o -a ^ a; ^ 6 't-t ■^ a o o i s o :5 o £ 3 > > 1 3-«" 5 03 .S 5 c3 ^1 a 1 3 3 a ^ o •7- ^ ;i^ ^^.^:r ^ - ;i^ o o '"' ^ 5 2 °2 S ;5^ 3 o •< o 2 ° Ss 2^ >:^ ^ ^ ^ 5S.i 5 5: ^^^^ i^ a £ !/'. O o C./ O •v c 3 a ^ £ < > o llipine Isla of Java, sia. I Minor. ^ X c; Q> eg o c3 ^ ll cj X X 3 !^ of Cyprus, of Malta, imelia. gliborhood dIps. 'S 5 ^ 1 O ::r Ill 1 ^ ^ o p c3<: "x 6 tc J^ • < < ■i. o •3 a O a3 ■y. o b .■c 5-H 3* o p 03 3 2 s X 3 i c3 hillipin ava. ersian. myrna. z X 3 is 5 3 Is. = 5 Jiijaca. vji'nis. [alta. urkish. aliaii. o o o H H i<-5h^ CQ ;2 -< a cc ^S'^' ' •'U^ci^ w 84 COTTON. [CIIAI'. I. > c s ■5 -r x i •5 t^ ;= l^ X = i. ft o S5 'x X 3 5 Q 03 ;3 w 5 c ■^ " c 5 >. = i 5 ■cj Si c a c X 3 — ^ Ei 1 3 o .2S X C 5 3 S'H a; 03 a' S u 3 3 t. ^ 0) ° ^.2 03 — 1 •£5 11) t_ So is .0 a >-' > 5 >Z1 £ oj S.2 . 9 ^ X .2 03-5; o "^li !»l M ri !l << 5 , o _>. d be ^ "^ a p ^ /•* D C; >■ Sa, S a ^ '^ •Si c si) g c3 I- a 1^ s d s 6 > £^ 4i c O o o _o _o _o c ; ; - ~ - 5-^ S i 1 i 1 i s i < ■_^ o O -¥ " -^ •^ § p c o o 9 3 -i-> .^ ■*-> CO - - - * - - o H ■^ 1 M i X 5i ^ !»> ■o >.. ^ f-t . t-l o ^ > SjO "5 > 5 tH . s 0) q; 0) i _a; >. ^ 1^ "3 s'^ "3 ^ "3 » 03 a "3 ^ r^ ;- a o > b£ oi cS a> ■5.5 c3 0) a • ft ^ o3 s 03 0: S ^ ^ ~ .1 5 03 n 03 ^•;2 S s -1 03 ^ s ci c of a a to hnx a OS (h X ;3 « M 3^ 3| a o3 < .3 z S.5 « s g c ^ —■- 3 a3 a -0 c g o 1 c e o i 3 h a d o a u c/: ^ -^ S'^ S oi i x'S ^ S c3 o =s Ol-C o^ ^ CA ^ X -C '^ p^ i:: — 1 'a _3 s OS |i 5 la s 6 O a; < p. ^ 5~ 22 "3 < ^1 z cc CHAi'. I.] SP:LKrTION AND CLASSIFICATION. 85 Selection and Classification of Cotton. Tlie selection of cot- ton from sain[)k'.s, or the judging of cotton, is a matter of con- siderable importance and in order to become thoroughly proficient requires a long period of practice to produce the trained eve and hand necessary to distinuuish the gradations and differences in quality, which add to, or detract from, the market value of the fibre. This is not of so much importance in the southern markets, where the bales are usually on hand to be referred to in case of dispute, but in the northern states, and in any country where cotton is largely purchased from sam- ples, it is of the utmost importance. This also applies to the large European cotton markets, such as Liverpool, Havre, Bre- men and Genoa. Although large stocks of cotton are kept in these ports, cotton is seldom, or never, purchased from the examination of the bale, l)ut from parcels containing small pieces of cotton from each bale, technically known as " papers of sam[)les." It is customary in well managed mills, on both sides of the ocean, to take sam[)les of each new lot of cotton that arrives at the mill, sometimes a sample from eveiy bale, and at other mills only from a certain number of bales out of each hundred. The samples are then compared with the buy- ing sam[)les to see if the cotton is e(jual to the quality pur- chased. In judging cotton from a sample or in selecting cotton with a view to purchasing it from sam[)les, the tir.st thing to do is to investigate the authenticity of the sample. If it is a factor's sample or a merchant's sample it is not usually con- sidered to be as reliable as a broker's sample ; in fact, it is customary to consider that a seller's sample, especially if it be an American sample, is at least a quarter grade bettor than the cotton may be expected to turn out. The points then to be determined are : First, the grade of the sample ; second, the staple ; third, the color ; fourth, the amount of sand ; fifth, the amount of dampness ; sixth, whether the cotton is even running or not. These points are arranged 86 COTTOX. [chap. I. iu the order of their usual importance. Tliis is not neces- sarily accurate in selecting cotton for some purposes ; for instance, in cotton to be used for filling yarns, the color is more important tlian in cotton for warp yarns. As the warp yarn has to be sized, it somewhat spoils a good colored sam- ple, or hides the defect of a dull colored cotton. In either case, the length of sta})le may be the most important point to consider, where it is desired to i)roduce a strong yarn with- out regard to its appearance. American cotton is usually graded according to a stand- ard agreed upon in all the leading cotton markets of the world, the highest grade being fair, followed by six other grades, the lowest being ordinary. The seven full grades of American cotton are : Fair. Middling fair. Good middling. Middling. Low middling. Good ordinary. Ordinary. This gradation is not sufficiently fine for the cotton mer- chant, and consequently each grade is sub-divided into two half grades, one of which has the prefix "strict,"' and each half grade sub-divided again into (juarter grades, with the pre- fixes " fully " and "barely," thus, taking the grade middling, we speak of strict middling, fully middling, middling, barely middling. The middling is the full grade, the strict middling is the half grade, tlie fully and barely middling are the (juar- ter grades ; in other words, strict is a half grade higher than middling, fully middling is a quarter grade higher than mid- dling, barely middling is a quarter grade lower than middling. The same is done with each of the other grades ; thus we may speak of strict low middling, fully low middling, low middling, and barely low middling, low middling being the full grade. CHAP. I.] SELKC'TIOX AM) CLASSIFIfATIOX. 87 A list cau be made up giving twenty-six of these grades, half grades, and quarter grades, for American cotton exclu- sively, including what is known as low ordinary, the only one lower than ordinary. These grades represent standard samples tliat are kept at the New York Cotton Exchange, du})licates of which are at the various markets throughout the United States. The same system of grading is maintained in Liverpool and other con- tinental cotton markets in name only. As a matter of fact, while the same names are used in Liverpool, the Liverpool grading for strict low middHng to middling fair inclusive, is half a grade lower or more lenient tlian in New York ; thus, a middling in New York would be graded a strict middling in Liveri)ool, while for grades below strict low middling it is quarter to half a grade higher or more strict than in New York. In case of Brazilian, Egyptian, and other grades of cot- ton, other systems of classification are adopted. The grades of American cotton usually quoted on the Liverpool Cotton Association reports are : Middling fair, fully good middUng, good middling, middling, low middling, good ordinary, ordinary. Of Sea Island cotton : Extra fine. Fine. Medium Fine. Good medium. Medium. Common. Ordinary. Of Egyptian cottons : Extra fine. Fine. Good. Fullv (rood fair. 88 COTTOX. [chap. I. Good fair. Fair. Middling foir. jNIiddling. (3f Brazilian cottons : Fine. Good. Good lair. Fair. Middling fair. Middling. Of East Indian cottons : Superfine. Fine. Full}^ good. Good. Fully good fair. Good fair. The best grades are those at the top of the list in each case. A specimen weekly report of the Liverpool Cotton Asso- ciation is bound in with this book. Grade really means the appearance of the cotton as regards cleanliness, and the above system of grading depends on the appearance of the cotton as to its freedom from leaf and other impurities ; some graders consider what is known as bloom or brightness of the cotton, which add to, or dis- coloration, known as " otf color," or "tinges," which detracts from, the grade. This method of valuing the bloom and color is more an American custom than a European one. After determining the grade, tlie next thing to do in judging cotton is to find the staple. The word staple usually means average length of the bulk of the fibres forming the bale assessed, and it is found by taking a small portion of cot- ton in the way hereafter described, preparing a tuft of fibres from CHAP. I.] SELECTION AND CLASSIFICATION. 89 wliich the very short fibre lias been removed, and then measur- ing the average length of the fibres remaining. There is some- thing more which is usually implied by the word " staple," and that is strength of the fibre. This is determined by hold- ing the tuft between the finger and thumb of the two hands and breaking it. The word " staple " may, therefore, be taken to mean the average length of the fibres forming the bale, and it is also understood to include the strength of the iibre ; thus we have the expressions, "length of staple" and "strength of staple." After the staple has been determined, it is necessary to discover the amount of sand and dirt in the cotton. This is often done by raising the cotton from the paper that holds it and noticing the amount of sand remaining on the paper, this sand having ftillen out by the repeated handling of the cotton. It is, perhaps, better to hold the handful of cotton as high as one's head and shake it so that the sand, if there is any, can be seen to fall from it. Another test is that for dampness. This can only be detected in the sample paper, if the samples are newly drawn, in which case it can be felt by the hand. If the samples have been lying around the oftice for some time the dampness evaporates and cannot be detected unless it has previously been so great as to cause a slight formation of mildew on the cotton, in which case it is indicated by the smell. The bloom of cotton is the rich bright creamy appearance which it has, especially in the early part of the year. This bloom is only found on certain growths of cotton and adds somewhat to its value, especially where it is to be used for mak- ing weft or filling j^arn, or where the goods into which it is to be made are to be sold in their unbleached or undyed state, tech- nically known in Europe as '' in the grey," and in some parts of America as " in brown." " Tinges," " high colored," or " off colored," ought to be looked for. These are caused, where the cotton has become tinged Avhile on the plant, through rain ^^0 COTTON'. [tirvp. 1. stains, or by liaviiig lalleii on the ground, having become mixed with some of the red clay of the cotton field. These bales ought to be avoided, and in case of purchasing from a sample containing some of these tinged bales, an agreement for a reduction in price on the bales ought to be arranged, or a con- dition made that these bales will be thrown out before ship- ment of the quantity purchased. The last point, and one which is important, is to see that all bales are somewhat alike. Usually a sample paper is made up of a handful of cot- ton from each one of the lot of bales ; by testing first one sample and then another it is discovered whether the lot of cotton is even running ; occasionally, however, if not graded properly l:)}^ the cotton fiictor, a lot of cotton is found to be mixed.. Some bales may be higher grade than others, some may be longer stapled than others, and even in the same bale an abnormal variation in length and strength of staple may be found. Cotton of this kind ought to be avoided altogether as it is almost impossible to make satisfactory yarn out of cotton mixed in this manner. Gin damaged cotton ought also to be avoided. This is referred to in another chapter. As has before been stated, constant practice is necessary to become a good judge of cotton. Even experienced cotton graders and cotton buyers improve year by year in their judg- ment of the fibre, until some of them, by a quick glance or the slightest touch, can determine at once whether the cotton is suitable for their purposes or not. It is not an unusual thing for a cotton buyer in a market like Liverpool to become so expert as to be able to examine samples in a single morning representing tens of thousands of bales. Usually the grade is first mentally determined, then a small handful of cotton is grasped by both hands, having the thumbs uppermost, and pulled apart. One half is thrown away, and the ends of the fibres which pnjject from the other CHAP. I.] SKLKCTIOX AND CLASSIFICATION. 91 piece are grasped between the thumb and first finger of the right hand, and tlie left hand is employed in removing short fibres or fud from the tuft. The tuft of cotton, now much les- sened in size, is grasped by holding the other ends of the fibre in the left hand, while the right hand removes further short fibres or fud. By these few quick movements an experienced cotton tester has arrived at a small tuft of fil)res laid ]»ai-allel, which can be first measured, usually with the eye only, and afterwards grasped firmly between the first finger and thumb of each hand, the thumbs being uppermost, and broken by a short strong pull. By always taking the same amount of cot- ton in the hand at once, and reducing it to the same size of a tuft, the cotton man fixes a standard of length and strength for himself by which he can assess the value of almost any kind of cotton. After the grade and staple have been d-eter- mined in the manner just named, a test is made for sand and for uneven running ; the appearance as to bloom, color and evidences of gin damage are noticed, completing the test of the cotton, by which time a cotton expert should have made a mental estimate of its value. A good deal more can be said on this subject, but we will close this description, merely stating that local circumstances often affect the judgment on a lot of cotton ; for instance, a good north light is the best to judge cotton in, as the light is more regular than any other. Cotton should not be purchased from a sample wrapped in paper with a blue lining, as this causes the cotton to appear better than it really is. The same system of judging cotton applies to all growths, although some cottons require to be observed more carefully for impurities than American cottons. In other cases, such as Brazilian, reruvian, China, or Assam cottons, it is necessary to observe the roughness of the fibre, as those are often used to mix with wool, and the rougher and more wiry, the more valuable is the cotton. 92 COTTON. [chap. I. History of Cotton Cultivation. The cultivation of cotton liad undoubtedly its home originally in the East Indies; cer- tain references are made to cotton in some of the Hindoo reli- gious works, written over four thousand years ago, which indicate clearly that cotton was known, spun and woven in those days. The historian who endeavors to trace the history and development of such a gigantic industry as the cotton trade, becomes, as it were, the explorer of a mighty river. As he traces its course, he niay come across a broad expanse which gives the impression that it is the main stream, and that if it be followed far enough the source will easily be found ; but a few miles higher up this stream may divide into almost equal parts, and higher still other tributaries may flow in, almost indistinguishable by their size from the main stream, until nearer the source, the main river is lost in many subsidiary supplies. Thus it is, inversely, with the earliest stages of the history of the cotton cultivation. The information is very scant, and what we can trace is not alvvays reliably based, as it is on the insufficiently })roved tales of early travellers, on references in profjine literature, clouded by the use of technical words and trade names which often materially differ from those of our own age. Perhaps the best method of tracing the history of the cotton industry is to find where cotton was first cultivated for the sake of its fibre, for we may depend upon it, that the country where it was first grown would also be the first to manufacture it. Each nation was isolated from the other, and scarcely able to connnunicate with, much less to transport the raw material from, one countr}^ to be manu- factured in another, returning the manufactured goods. Taking this line of argument we ma}'' dispose of any sup- position of the cotton manufacture ( and consequently the cultivation of the plant for its fibre ) having had an American or even European origin. Cotton fibres and cotton ftibrics were known in Europe long before the date of Columbus' CHAl'. I.] HISTORY OK COTTON CULTIVATION. 93 voyage of discovery, and it is not recorded that the cotton phmt was found in North America by any of the early ex- plorers. Cotton was certainly grown centuries ago in Spain and Italy, but there are records that its cultivation was only intro- duced into the former country from the East Ijy Abdurrahmah the Great so recently as the tenth century. In Africa, the only country which can have a shadow of a claim to the par- entage of tlie cotton industry is Egypt, and here, we find that although Pliny, the historian, relates that the cotton plant was known there in the time of Christ, yet his evidence is unsup- ported, and classical scholars consider that he was referring to another })lant. It is quite certain that it did not become an im})ortant object of cultivation in Egypt till the introduction of cotton growing by Mahomet Ali Pasha, in 1821, resulting in the first exports to England in 1823. We also find that during the first and second centuries of the Christian era, large quantities of Indian cottons were imported into Egypt, and a further proof of the fact that the manufactures of ancient Egypt were linen, and not cotton, is found in the result of the long scientific discussions which took place many years ago, as to the material of which mummy wrappings were composed. It was finally decided that they were linen and not cotton, after the peculiar form of the cotton fibre had been discovered by the aid of the microscope. In China, we find that although cotton is now grown there to an enormous extent, it was only introduced into that country about 600 years ago, and at first it was only cultivated for the sake of its beautiful flowers. In the year 502 A.D. it is recorded of one of the Chinese Emperors that he had a robe of cotton. This must have been a remarkable possession for the record to have been handed down as a wonder to the present time. The cultiva- tion and manufacture of cotton was so little known in China in 1295, when the country was visited by Marco Polo, a cele- brated traveller of Venice, that he does not even mention it. 94 COTTON. [chap. I. altlioiigli he minutely describes the inhabitants and tlieir habits, stating^ in one place that they were clothed solely in silk. We may also omit the continent of Australia, for, as it was only discovered in 1699, it evidently cannot have origi- nated cotton growing and manufacture. Having exhausted the list of countries where cotton is or has been a recognized product, with one exception, that of India, we may come to the conclusion that there is the country of origin, where cot- ton was grown, spun, and woven at least two thousand years ago. There can be no doubt of India being the early country of cotton, China that of silk, and Egypt that of flax. The early seat of the cotton trade in India is borne out by all or almost all the evidence that we can adduce. It is a matter of regret that the period covered by reliable history of India and the Hindoos is limited, and as compared with that of other nations we arrive much sooner at a period of ftible and legend. It is chiefly b}' the religious books of the Hin- doos that we can trace out their customs and habits. In one of these books, the Rig Veda, supposed to have been written fifteen centuries before the time of Christ, or three thousand four hundred years ago, we find a reference to threads in the loom, and there is in this book also a reference to sizing. Also 800 years before, or 2700 years ago, in another of their sacred books, cotton is very frequently mentioned under its name of Kurpas, or Kupas, which name is still in general use in India. The fabrication of cotton goods must have attained a high perfection in India several centuries before the Clu'istian era, for it is stated by the ancient Greek historian Herodatus, who was born 484 years before Christ, regarding the Hindoos, that : " They possess likewise a kind of plant wdiicli, instead of fruit, |)roduces wool of a finer and better quality than that of a sheep, and of this the Indians make their clothes." CHAP, i] lUSTOKY OF COTTON CULTIVATION. 95 This historian, a most relial)le one according to modern opinion, does not mention cotton as being used by any of the then known nations — Greeks, Komans, Egyptians, Assyrians, Jews. We may conckide that its manufacture w^as at tliat time confined to Eastern countries, perhaps India only. A further and greater proof of the early origin of a well- developed cotton industry in India is the history of the voyage of Xearchus, one of the admirals of Alexander the Great, re- corded by two different historians, Strabo and Arrian ; this mighty conqueror, shortly before his death, despatched one of his admirals on a voyage of discovery on the river Indus, and on that ocean now known as the Indian Ocean, about 327 B. C. The history of this voyage is carefully related, and a part of it reads thus : " The Indians wore linen garments, the substance whereof they were made growing upon trees, and this is indeed flax, or something much wdiiter and finer than flax. They wear shirts of the same, which reach down to the middle of their legs, and veils which cover their heads and a great part of their shoulders." It was no doubt owing to the voyages organized by Alex- ander the Great that the fabrics of India first became known as articles of clothing in Europe, Asia-Minor, and Egypt. In the year lol A. I)., Arrian, the historian, relates that Indian cottons, muslins, plain and figured, and raw cotton for stuffing couclies and beds, were landed in Egypt from India. Cotton is not mentioned in the Bible, except in one single instance, and in that case it is only named in the Hebrew, and is not referred to in either of the English translations by the name of cotton. We have often references in the Bible to wool and linen, to spinning, weaving and dyeing, to looms and to shut- tles, but the only reference to cotton is in the Book of Esther, where the palace of Shushan is described as possessing white, green and blue hangings. The word hangings in Hebrew is 96 COTTON. [chap. I. Karpas, or in Greek, Karpasos, and the similarity between this word and the word named above, as the name used for cotton from time immemorial in India, viz. Kurpas, is at once seen. Thus the passage in Esther should describe the decora- tions as " white and violet colored cottons." This is a subject of a marginal note in the revised version. Here is another C^^^* P s \Utii ^ '^1 M ^ yl _J--= * «^^ ^m^ »i^ < '"VI tL '^-n^;^- Fig. 41. Thie Vegetable Larqb. After Sir John Mandeville. proof of the fact of Indian cloth being exported at so early a date, namely, 521 B. (!'. Persia being nearer India would have cotton fabrics earlier than Egypt, and the Indian name being applied to the cloth, stamps the country of origin. In Europe, about the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, cotton was so little known that there were several superstitions believed regarding it. One was that its seed was useful as a cure "for asthma, coughs, dysentery, and wounds," and was CIIAI'. I.] HISTORY OF COTTON CULTIVATION. 97 a good remedy in case of poisoning, while the oil of the cot- ton seed was recommended to take away spots or freckles, in fact, it was a cure-all, and reminds us of a patent medicine circular of modern times. Another curious superstition regarding it was as to its mode of growth : this was nothing more or less than that the cotton wool was really the wool of lambs that grew and lived Fig. 42. Portrait of xl\e " Barorqetz," or " Scyth|iari Lan^b. attached to Ijranches of trees. Of course the only knowledge of tibrous substance possessed by our forefathers in those days was that of ordinary wool or of flax, and no doubt their first impression of an}'' other fibre would be something that re- sembled the wool of the shee}) or the hair of the goat. This belief was fostered or more })robably established by one Sir John Mandeville, described as a man of learning and sub- stance, of the town of St. Albans, in Herefordshire, who in the year 1322 left his native city, became a globe trotter, and did •'8 COTTOX. [chap. I. not return for tliirty-tbur years. In his report of his journciv he states that he travelled through all tiio then known kingdoms of the world, and among other things diseovered this vegeta- ble lamb. His account in his own words is : " Now shall I say you of countryes and isles that be beyond the countr3'e that I have spoken of. Passing beyond Cathay and India and Bachary is a kingdom tliat men call Caldeya, that is a fair countrye and there growetli a maimer of fruit as though it were gourds, and when they be ripe men cut tliem in two and men find within a little beaste in Hesh and in bone and in blood as though it were a little lamb with wool outside it. Men eat both the fruit and the beaste and that is a great mar- vel. Of that fruit I have eaten, although it were wonderful, but I know that God is marvelous in all his works." Sir John's drawing is reproduced at Fig. 41. Another account is by Baron Xon Herberstein, an ambassador to the Court of Maximilian. His account is tluit the seed when put in the earth grew a ])lant resembling a lamb, and attaining to the height of 2^ feet. It had a head, eyes, ears and all other parts of a body as a newly born lamb. It had an exceedingly soft wool, which was used in the manufacture of head cover- ings. It was rooted b}^ a stem in the middle of the body and devoured the surrounding herbage and grass, and lived as long as tliat lasted ; when there was no more within its reach, it died. A representation of this animal is shown at Fig. 42. Fables of the kind that I have related appear in many of the traveller's tales of the Middle Ages, and there is no doubt that this ridiculous tale achieved much popularity. History of Cotton Cultivation in the United States. \\'itli reference to the introduction of cotton growing in the L nited States, it was not until the year 1021 that it was cultivated for the sake of the fibre in this country. In the southern half of the continent, Magellan, while circumnavigating the globe in 1519, found the Brazilians using cotton in making their materials for their beds ; cotton fabrics were sent from n^^: ^_ '. -s. v;:^ v?'- ^ i&j i' 1^' ^^*<^ ««'v ^-^Wi^..^ I />•'-. ^i-;.''. .•^■;v-!aKEjLs^-/-tf^''^--^ ]0() COTTON. [cir.M'. i. ]\Iexico to Spain in the same year as presents to Em})eror Charles Y. The year 1021 is regarded as the birth year of cotton cul- ture in the United States. It had previously been found growing;- in a wild state, however, in various portions of the South, more particularly in the country bordering upon the ]Mississip{)i ( Meschachebe ) and its mau}^ tributaries. A volume entitled " Purchas's Pilgrims" thus records the fact: "Cotton seeds were first jdanted as an experiment in 1621, and their plentiful coming up was, at that early day, a subject of interest in America and England." A tract called " A Declaration of the State of ^"irginia," })ulilished in London in 1020, mentions cotton wool as one of the commodities of the " collony." A list of articles "to be had in the ^^irginia collony," in 1021, mentions "cotton wool UnitiMl States. lUit that wliich was lirst sent into tlic l'aii;hsh niai'kct- was vitv inipciTcct ly cdcancd, and, in consc- (|iionci', was lor some timt' nscd oidy I'oi' spinnini;- low num- bers. It was soon |)(M'c('i\'('d, howcvei', that tlic cotton |.i,rown ujion the coast, termed Sea Island cottcrii, had a longer and liner staple than that which was produced farther up the countrw and known hy the name ot" I'pland cotton. lUit some years idapsed helbre it was ascertained to he ol" a (piality in every respect superior to that which was lu'ouglit from the Isle of r)OUrhon, the only cotton then used for tlu^ tiiiest (pialities of yarns, hut which is now almost- su|)ersede(l by the Ibmier. American cotion is generally distinguished by the names of Sea Island, I'pland, New < )rleaiis, AlaF)auia, Tennessee, etc. Sea Island cotton is the linest that is imported into this country, or, indeed, that- is known, and takes its name from being grown upon small sandy islands contiguous to the shores of (leorgia and ('arolina, aiul on the low grounds bor- dering on the sea. The principal islands art' situated l)etween Charleston and Savaiuiah. It- is a line silky cotton, having a. yellowish tinge, both long and strong in the staple, and used only foi- spinning the linest (|ualities of yarn, oi' tor a supei'ior (piality of power loom wai'ps. IJut its (pialities ditler so much, that the linest specimens are often more than double the price of the int'ei'ior sorts. Its close vicinity to the sea exi)osi^s it to the inclemencies of the weather, by which it is often injured, eonse(piently that which is thus damaged sells at a nnich lowei- price than the better kinds. rpliiixl cotton is a diirer(Mit spcn-ies tVom Sea Island, and is gi-own in N'irginia, North and South ('arolina. and (Jeoi'gia ; and for a considerable time the cultivation was coidined to these states. C1IAI-. I.] AMERICAN COTTON ( T]/!! V ATlON. 105 As the planting extended to the south, tlie (jiiality varied in some resj)ects, and the cotton received the name of its place of growth ; hence, New Orleans cotton, Alnhama, Ah)bile. Thiii which is known in the market by the name of New Orleans, is a very superior cotton, clean, soft, and of a glossy and silky appearance, rather short in staple, and incorporates freely with other cottons of a longer staple. It is grown upon the banks of the Mississi})|)i, and sent in great ([uantities into the English market, where it ranks in price and quality about equal to the common qualities of Ih-azil cottons. Alabama and I'pland rank next to New^ Orleans, and are soft, short, and weak in staple. The cultivation of cotton wool is carried to a verv areat extent in the United States at present. The quantity exported from this country is estimated at about o5(),000,000 ft)S. yearly,, and apparently still increasing. The quantity consumed by the American manufacturers is now about 90,000,000 Bbs* The total quantity grown in the United States is estimated to be nearly 500,000,000 fts. yearly, the value of which must be about £9,000,000. This article alone furnishes one-half of the whole exports of the United States." As has been before stated the above was written in 1S;32. 106 COTTON. [chap. II. CHAPTER II. THE AMERICAN COTTON BELT. PEOPLE OF THE COTTON P.ELT. LAND TENURE IN THE COTTON P,ELT. AREA OF AVAILABLE COTTON LAND IN THE UNITED STATES. The American Cotton Belt. In the southeast corner of the continent of North America lies that section of the coun- try known as the South — "The Sunny South" — as it is affectionately called by its inhabitants, and by the Northerners who make it a winter resort. The South, so-called, is all situated within the boundaries of the United States, but does not include the whole of the geographical southern states, excluding New Mexico, Arizona, and Southern ( 'alifornia, which, although as near the equator as South Carolina and Georgia, are not included in the terri- tory called the "South." It is in this country that the fibre known to commerce as American and Sea Island cotton is grown, and it is from this section that the world has principally drawn its supply of raw cotton for two generations. The cotton growing states bordering on the Atlantic are : A^irginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia and Florida ; on the Gulf of Mexico, Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama, with the inland states of Arkansas and Tennessee, the latter being connected with the ocean by means of the great Mis- sissippi River, — " The Father of Waters," — flowing into the Gulf of Mexico. Kentucky, though i)art of the South, is omitted in the above list, as the production of cotton is so small as to very slightly affect the total, and the same remarks as to production apply to California, Indian Territory and Arizona. CHAP. II.] TlIK A>rKKI('AX COTTON P.ELT. 107 * ' The tract of country sj)ecitied as above, and shown on the map, Fig. 46, may be called the cotton producing sec- tion of the South, and is approximately 1300 miles from the most easterly to the most westerly point, and 500 miles from the north to the south, being in the form of an irregular rhoml)oid. The northern portion of the Cotton States is divided by a range of mountains, the southern termination of which is called the Alleghanies, the Blue Ridge and the Cum- berland mountains, and comprises the highest peaks in the United States east of the Rockies. These mountains jut into the cotton belt as above defined, and lie almost midway be- tween the eastern and western boundaries of it. From the mountains in all directions slopes an undulating country of gradually lessening elevation, descending on the east to the Atlantic Ocean, on the west to the Mississippi, and on the south to the Gulf of Mexico, all of which Abaters are at a dis- tance of about 350 miles from the mountains. It is these ele- vated undulating plains that on the eastern side especially have acquired the name of Uplands, and given that name to a much used class of cotton. East and w^est of the JNIississippi lies a flat tract of country, including the states of Louisiana, A rkansas and Mississippi, intersected by numerous bayous and watered by many streams flowing into the Mississippi River. ■ The mountain region contains many beautiful vistas, such as were described as " long drawn beautiful valleys and glori- ous highlands " by Lord Coruwallis, after marching through this country on the last occasion of a British army being found south of the Great Lakes ; but away from the "mountainous region, it is country that cannot be classed as i)icturesque, as the groves of pines or fir trees covering knolls of red soil in- tersected by gullies become extremely monotonous to the trav- eller, especially in the winter season. Even when the monot- ony is relieved by a river it is a liquified repetition of the land view — a muddy red stream fringed by the same unfailing- pines and flowing between banks of red clay. In the spring lOS COTTON. [chap. II. find .summer, the luxurious vegetation in most sections gives a charm to many of the views, decorating them with beautiful green and an ocean of flowers, which remain until scorched by the intense heat of the summer sun, when the vegetation fades, the ground is dried up and ])arched, and, by fall, only the forests of pine and firs relieve the monotony of the red soil until another spring returns. AVith the exception of a few hot summer spells, wlien clothing is from a utilitarian view unnecessary, when at night even a sheet or coverlet is an encuml)rance, and when sleep will not be tempted until morning on account of heat, or be- cause of the mosquitoes, the climate is exquisite. The winter season is not cold as a rule ; when snow falls it is only to a depth of an inch or two, and it readily clears away, while the morning sun easily breaks up any frost that shows itself during the night. The air at mid-day at Christmas time is as balmy as a New England May-day. Spring is early and summer long, and it is this fact that admits of cotton raising. Cotton is a plant that requires an early start and long season to bring its fruit to maturity. In the South, it is not unusual to have hot weather begin in ^Vpril and May, lasting almost without intermission until September. June and July are usually extremely hot, and those who are able take refuge in the mountains of Georgia, North and South Carolina. Cotton flourishes best when the nights are warm as well as the day, but this advantageous feature, from a cotton rais- ing point of view, is of distinct disadvantage to the human race. Some of the effects of the weather on the cotton crops are treated of later. The fall, winter and early spring are delightfully pleas- ant, with balmy warm days and evenings, and a touch of chilliness in the morning air. The cotton plant is grown throughout all this region. In some districts it is the staple article of cultivation, while in CHAP. II.] PKori.K <)l' Till-: COTTON 15ELT. 109 others it is cultivated as a surplus crop, or in specially favored plats. We find it in the stiff calcareous and otherwise pro- fusely fertile buckshot soil of the great valleys and uplands, as well as on the brown loam bluff and timbered table lands, in the stiff red clay lands of the uj^lands, and even to some extent on the sandy soils of the coast region. The country is sparsely populated. The population of North and South Carolina, Alrginia, Georgia, Florida, INlissis- sippi, Louisiana, Alabama, Texas, Arkansas and Tennessee was only 14,050,29") in IcSlM), or 24 people to the S(|uare mile. Compare this with 278 to the square mile in Ahissachusetts, or 540 to the square mile in England. In North Carolina the whole population is only that of Philadelphia, of Berlin ( Germany ), or of ^Manchester and Liv- erpool ( England), while the area of the state is 48,580 square miles, or larger than England, and considerably larger than New England, excluding Maine, yet it has only three cities of 20,000 inhabitants. The states bordering on the Gulf of Mexico and the Mis- sissippi river possess fine cities, but the description that applies to one southern state is largely applicable to another, and the figures regarding North Carolina, given above, indicate what possibilities of expansion and progress yet exist in the whole of this practically undeveloped territory. People of the Cotton Belt. The population is largely composed of native born Americans, there being perhaps a smaller proportion of foreigners in the South than in any other section of the Ignited States. Many of the whites are descendants from the original settlers who won the country from their Indian predecessors in the days when deer and bufialo swarmed over the cotton fields of today. These i)eo})le have inherited or evolved qualities that are characteristic of SQuthern as compared with northern people in all countries, whether in the old world or the new. Men more genial, women more bcautil'ul. and ])otli more 110 COTTON. [ciiAr. ii. sentiiiKMital, geiUTOus and hospital)le, as a rule, tlian })eople of more iiortheni latitudes, who are more rugged in speech, sterner in manner and more industrious and enter})rising. At the present time there is a continual influx of northern and foreign settlers, but they are not sufficiently numerous to visibly affect the characteristics of the southern peo})le, although in many instances pecuharities of the original race, from which residents of certain districts are descended, can be traced, as for instance, wdiere the country or a section of the state was originally settled by Swiss, by Scotch Presbyterians, by Ulster Irish, or French Huguenots. The better class of white people are largely descendants of merchants or planters, who before the war, cultivated large areas of land under cotton, sugar and tobacco, by slave labor. These people, impoverished by the war, are only now begin- ning to recover from its effects, but many of them are building up businesses as merchants ( which in the South includes every variety of store-keeper), as flouring millers, cotton dealers, owners of saw mills, and even cotton, w^oolen and hosiery mills. There is a very large sprinkling of a very poor class of whites, particularly around the l>lue Ridge mountain region, who are s})oken of in Georgia as " crackers," whose existence as available cheap labor affords a possibility for a great increase in the manufacturing industries which would not otherwise be possible. These people when on the mountain farms are dreadfully poor, are in almost all cases so ignorant that the}^ cannot even read or write, and carry, especially tlie women, a gaunt, anxious, haggard appearance, wdiich indicates an unceasing struggle for a bare existence. Their habits are primitive, and such old world industries as hand spinning and weaving are still known among them. At the mills they are much more pros})erous and their condition rapidly improves. A group of North Carolina cotton mill hel}) is shown at Fig. 47. CHAP. II.] I'EOPLE OF Tin-: COTTOX ];klt, 111 112 COTTON. [chap. II. Hitherto, these people have cultivated small Iknns on the share system on the upland slopes of the mountains, and are now u'lad of the opi)ortunity that is being afforded them of findino- work in the cotton mills that are springing u}) all over the South, and which it would not be possible to run without drawing on a class of labor such as this. There are three states — Mississippi, Louisiana, and South Carolina — where the colored people out-number the white. While a large proportion of the population in every southern state consists of the colored descendants of the slaves, only a small percentage of the colored people consists of the real " slave negro." The hard working, civil, virtuous, well trained "uncle" and "auntie" of " befo' tlie wah " times is fast disappearing, and is almost as scarce as a " Crimean \et- eran," and their place is being taken by an undesirable class of lighter colored, lazier, and more thriftless colored people. Formerly the African had to work from compulsion, but now hunger is often the only incentive to labor. The charac- ter of the present day negro is seen in the ill-cultivated farms, the crowds of loafers at the street corners and store doors, or the heavy percentage of " colored " on the chain gang, as shown in several views throughout this book. Even the negro belonging to this class considers himself or herself superior to the " cracker" or " white trash " type of white men previously named, as abundant instances show. The future relation of the colored to the white race is one of the sternest problems that the southern legislators will have to deal with. The bulk of the cotton that is raised is produced l)y these two classes of people, the negroes or the poor whites, working for the better class planters, or working for themselves on the share system previously named. Another resident in the South, who ought not to be for- gotton, for on the farm he is always to be found with the negro, is the mule. The colored farmer alwaj's })refers a mule C. I". HKOOKS. Fig. 40- Map of the United Stales of Hrrierica 'I 1 14 COTTON. [C1IA1>. II. to a horse, and it is a standing joke in the Sontli liow well these two work together. The wagons in the n})land countries are almost always drawn Ijy nuiles, or "mountain canaries," a name which anyone who has ever heard them sing will thoroughly understand. As the southern mule is singing bass, tenor, alto and treble in one long-drawn note, its owner is apt to caution you to " keep away from de business end of dat ar mule." An odd combination of the new and the old is shown in Fig. 49, where are seen an ox and two mules drawing the latest production of the weaving mechanics art — a magazine or Northrop loom — over the rough country roads of South Carolina, for which view I am indebted to the Draper Com- pany, Hopedale, Mass. Land Tenure in the Cotton Belt. The cotton crop is now raised principally by small farmers. Before the war the plantations were large, and the position of a cotton planter with broad acres and numbers of slaves was an important one. At the time of the war all the planter's wealth was in slaves and land, and when freedom came, he, in many cases, lost both. The loss of capital represented Ijy the slaves, which, on an average, were worth a thousand dollars each, was enormous, and the immediate etfect of this was a great depreciation in the value of land, for there was not labor enough in the country to cultivate it. The negro, always fond of idleness, has never worked since the war as he did before it, and, apart from the planter's own family, the whole population was small, consisting chiefly of small farmers who had their own lots to cultivate, and the white men who had been employed on large plantations as millers or mechanics. Land previously worth |20 to $30 per acre fell to f-i or $o, and some of it lay fallow for many years. $5 = £1. Out of these circumstances has been evolved the renting of small farms, sections of former plantations, to both white and colored farmers, on what is known as the share system. CHAI'. 11 ] LAM) TKNTRK IX THE COTTON T5ELT. 115 o f I hi ('(('I'lnN. ('ii|i|<' lli.it i,s iHiw liir;j,i'|\ iiii|ili;j, in llir in'W iiin\'ciiiciil i<[' •■<'nll(iii Mills In III!' ( 'nlliiii." 'riic sliiii'e syslcni ih iinilniili|niiliii Id llic cniinlry, a ta\' nii tlir cnllivalui and a s(MM(tiis aildiluai hi llic |irif(' of cnllcHl ^'l•| il has liccli a lUlCOHHliry evil, I'dl (III III) iillicr s\s|ciii niiild ^iifli cniiiiinitis cnips lia\'c liccn laiscil diinti^, Ilii' last lliiity years in a (•(uinliy iin |ni\'ci'islicd liy \\ a r and li\ (Jic loss nl' alinnsl all ils caiHlal 'riif s\s|fiii \arifs in diMcicnt -rclions of llic cdunlrN , lad, it is usually on llic lia-^is nf Ihc land (i\\ iicr lakin;j, liis r<'nt in a iioi'timi cf llic cinii The |ii(i|i(itl khi \aries in Narioiis disi riels, accnrdine Id whclhci' Ihc ci'dii is iiid>4ly coiii dr cotton, wliellier Ihc land dwner |>i-d\ides fell i li/cis, nniles. |tlon;4hs, dT iidl, and aeedi-diiij^ Id Ihc Idcalidii dl Ihc land. The a\('l'ajjc in a ni.iiilici- dl' Ihe slates is ihal ahdiil diic Idiitih or diiclhiid dt ihe eid|i is c(|ni\alenl to Ihc rent df Ihc land, thai aiidlhci diiclhii'd of Ihc (a'd|i is e(|ni\alenl lo Ihe sll|i|ily dl' t'cl't lll/efs, ha I'll W a I'c, liinles, i in | ilciiielils. \'rrt\ I'dl' Ihe .sldck, and lilaeksniil ITs woik, lca\ in^ t'ldiii diic lliird In li\'c I w elniis as hciiic a Jaif e(|ii i \a Ictil Idf ihe lahdi' <\\' rais- ing Ihe el'dp. I''|-diii lliese | la I'l icii la I's Ihe I'dl ld\\ i iili,' inslanees can he i,'i\eii : In dlle case (he ne\' I he eidji The iiia\niiiiiii eidp ihat is c(.nei-ally raised i> u--ually i.ANi) tk.\i;i:k in tiik cotton kklt. 1 1 §4s4i|^'%- 118 COTTON. [cil.M'. II. considered to be o<>(l |>()iiiids ol' lint, or one Itale to the acre. From tliis the crop diininisli(!s to a very small amount, the average over the wliole cotton Itelt being less than Lfod pounds, or half a bale to the acre. As an instance of the ])roducts per aci'e which it is rea- sonable to expect under ihe best cultivation in this section, the prennum list of a county fair hehl in eastern Xoi'th (aro- hna contains the following limitations : " For largest yield of lint cotton upon one acre, not less than oOO j)ounds." •• For largest yield of corn, not less that fifty bushels." " For largest yield of rye, not less than thirty bushels." "For largest yield of sweet potatoes, not less than 2;j0 bushels." A bushel of corn (maize) weiglis fifty-six pounds; of rye, fifty-six pounds ; of sweet potatoes, sixty pounds ; and of cotton seed, thirty ])Ounds. The rents for cotton forms when paid in cash seem some- what excessive, for example: — land valued at $5 to $(j an acre is rented frequently for .$2.00 ; that valued at |4 is rented for |2 ; and in anothei- case, that valued at |1() is rented for $4. Of course it must be borne in mind that the whole of the fai-m is not figured in estimating the rental, as some of it is not fit for cultivation, and also tliat the landlord is not always able to collect his rent, but even considering these points, the cash rental appears excessive in ])i-oportion to the valuation. The name "jdanter" is largely dying out and in its place the word "farmer" is used. A planter was at one time a kind of feudal lord, with broad acres, a fine mansion and slaves. Now the fai-mers often live in a cabin on a jtatch of a few acres. Most of the cotton that is now growm is raised on small farms, which can ])e cultivated l)y the farmer and his family an Itis. of cotton ; a farm can be rented by the pay- ment of one bale out of each two, three, or four raised, and the current price of cotton has come to be the standard of value. The winter is usually a dull season in the cotton dis- tricts. The time in some cases is employed in household industries. There are still to be found in some parts of the South the old spinning wheels and hand looins on which yarn and cloth are prepared from home grown wool, of which a view is given at Fig. 52, for which I am indebted to Mr. Jos. M. Wade of Boston. The occupation for the men is gunning or hunting, anglice, shooting quails and other game. During the last forty years there has been great improve- ment in cotton culture; formerly the virgin soil was culti- vated and after it was exhausted a move was made to new ground, which was exhausted in turn, but the tendency now is to stay on one ftirm, and by means of deep ploughing, heavy feitilizing, and by giving great care to the cultivation of the cotton the increase of crop per acre reduces the cost per pound. When new land has to be cleared it involves considerable expense, especially if away from the railroad. In this case the lumber that is cut is not worth the hauling to the I'ail- road, and is burned on the site or stored for fuel. In a coun- try where a large tree can be bouglit foi' ten cents there is obviously very little value attached to the mateiial forming the virain forest. &f% J t p' 126 COTTON. [CIIAP. II. 'I'he clearing of new laud is performed ]>}' tlie I'armer and hi.s family until lie reaches the point when the logs are too heavy for him to move, and there is then occasion for an old- fashioned log rolling. It is only on an occasion like this, a camp meeting, or a visit to the market town, that farmers get together in any large numbers. The log rolling especialh', although now decreasing in popularity with the advent of the steam log pullers and other machinery, is still an occasion for much whiskey drinking and hilarity. By the aid of a large number of men the logs are rolled into huge piles and burned. In some sections of tli^ country it is not the custom to fell all the trees, the large ones, the monarchs of the for- est, are left standing, and the bark is stripped from them for some, height from the ground, so as to kill them, and they are brought down at last by a wind storm. A newly cleared field with the gaunt trees still standing is shown at Fig. 53, and an old field at Fig. 54. The cost of clearing land is usually about $5 an acre when away from the railroad ; if the land is sufficiently near the railroad to enable the wood to be hauled there and sold, the cost of clearing is somewhat reduced, and the wood brings from sixty -five cents to two dollars a cord, according to the locality. For fuel it is usually estimated that two cords of wood efjual one ton of coal. Available Area of Cotton Land in the United States. There is still a great area suited for cotton in this country which is not cultivated. In 18. III.] COTTON' ('rr/rui;E. 131 132 CUTTON. [ciiAP. III. ~)9 and 61 ), and they cost from five dollars ( one pound ) upwards. The fanner usually has quite an assortment of plow shares or blades which he attaches to the stocks for different purposes, some of which are shown on Fig. 00. These blades are often worn out by a few days continuous plowing, and the quantity and assortment disposed of at the local hard- ware store in plowing time is sur})rising. For the illustra- tions. Figs. .")() to (31 and also Figs. Go to 69 inclusive, the author is indebted to ]\lessrs B. and F. Avery, Louisville, Ky. To break up thoroughly a two-horse or two-mule team is used, and a plow to give as deep a cut as two mules can pull. This depends on the land, but may be from eight inches to eleven inches deep. The plow in this case turns the soil over on one side, burying all vegetation. (_)ne object in breaking up as early as possil)le is to get the vegetation of the previotis season turned under while it is yet green and the sap is in it, so as to give it a better chance of decaying, thus saving fer- tilizer; another is to open up tlie soil to the action of the frosts of January and February, which pulverize the earth and destroy the insects secreted in the soil. AVhile the fall plowing is generally admitted to be beneficial it is not com- monly practiced throughout the cotton belt except in Georgia and Arkansas, and occasionally in other states. Some farmers in rolling country object to fall or winter breaking up on account of the tendency to wash-outs during the winter rains. The work of preparing the soil begins in earnest in the spring, usually about IMarch, a time being chosen when the soil is not wet after rain. It may happen that the farmer gets two weeks plowing continuously or that his work is con- tinually being interrupted by rain. If the breaking up has not been performed in the {>re- vious fall or winter, the old stalks are clubbed down, and, if small, turned in with the soil, or, if large, burned. The latter is a wasteful plan, but there is not now time for the large stalks to decay before the seed time, and their presence in the CHAl'. III.] CUTT(.)N CULTURE. l;j;i Fig. 59. Steel Bearq Plow. 134 COTTOX. [CIIAI-. 111. ground during cultivation disturbs tlie young plant. The ground is then broken up with a two-horse plow having a deep cut, as previously described. The best opportunity now presents itself for inserting broad cast the natural manures — cotton seed, which has been composted with vegetable matter, acid phosphate and kainit, or may be the manure consists merely of barn-yard manure, marsh muck, if available, coarse refuse fertilizers, or sweep- ings from cotton seed oil and fertilizer mills. If fertilized rough cast, then the hari'ow usually used is a wooden frame toothed harrow, or one of the many machines for pulverizing the soil, by means of rolls on a sliaft or shafts, as shown in Fig. 63. Tlie next process is bedding-up. Especially on new land, the making of the first furrow, or laying-off furrow, is a mat- ter of some considerable importance. It may be that a special laying-off furrow is made with a shovel plough, to locate the beds, but more often the first cut towards bedding-up lays off the bed. Especially on uneven ground, laying-off or terrac- ing is of much importance, as by a proper arrangement of the furrows to give good surface drainage, washouts during heavy rains and undesirable accumulations of water are prevented. Where possible the water should drain to a branch (small stream ). The recognized and accepted mode of cultivating cotton through all the South is in elevated ridges or beds, varying in the distances apart according to the habit of the plant as to height and foliage. On rich bottom lands, where the plant attains a height of from six to ten feet, as for example in the bottom lands of the Mississippi River, the furrows are usually six feet apart, diminishing on |)oor land or more northern lati- tudes, as in North Carolina or \'irginia, to two and one-half feet. An average over the cotton belt would be about four feet. The next work is to form these beds. This is done by a one-horse turning plow, with a large cut, and the bed is CHAl'. 111.] COTTON crLTniE l;5.-) G — Middle Burster. Fig. 60. Plow Blades aqd Plow Si^ares. l-*)<) COTTON. [ciiAi>. HI. formed l»y plowing along the tield, throwing the soil one way, and down the opposite side of the bed, throwing the soil to meet the previous furrow ; or it may be tliat two plows are used, one taking each side of the bed and throwing up the soil to meet that thrown up l)y the plow preceding. This is I'epeated sometimes twice. By this means tlie compost of manure thrown broadcast is turned into the l)ed. The operation of "splitting middles out" is now per- formed, which consists of running a furrow along the center of the bed, throwing the soil to each side to receive the ferti- lizer, if any, and later the seed. On small farms this is usu- ally done with a special tool attached to the plow, as shown at Fig. 61, but on large up-to-date farms a sulky, with middle- burster attachment, is often used, as shown at Fig. 05. The operation of " bedding-up " is now completed. The succeeding operation is manuring the beds by means of commercial fertilizers, which are in the form of a powder. The most ap})roved plan is to fertilize by means of a machine, consisting of a hopper carrying the fertilizer suspended on a frame, like that of a wheelbarrow, and usually arranged with a movable bottom to the hopper, alternately opened and closed by the revolutions of the wheel. This is done by the bottom of the hopper being suspended by two rods which rest on a series of projections on the wheel. As the wheel revolves, these rods drop from one projection to another, and as the bot- tom of the hopper opens, fertilizer drops on the shoot and is distril)uted regularly. Two shoes behind the machine cover up the fertilizer. This is advisalde rather than to lay the cotton seed in actual contact with the fertilizer, some kinds of which are so strong as to damage the tender i)lant in the early days of its germination. The more primitive method of fertilizing is by means of a fertilizer tube. This is a tin tube some five or six feet long, with a funnel at the upper end. The field hand using this carfies the fertilizer in a bag suspended from his or her waist CHAP. III.] FKirriLIZKKS. 137 or shoulder, and feeds the tube by haud tlirough tlie funnel, the lower end of the tube resting in the place where it is desire(l to de[»osit the fertilizer. Fertilizers. There are many varieties of these fertilizers. Barn-yard manure is used alone to some extent, but it is also the practice to use cotton seed in many districts, com})osted with acid phosphate and stable manure, sometimes with the addition of other litter and lime. The seed is killed by the heating of the compost, and is applied broadcast over the land Fig. 61. Steel Bean) Plow witl) Middle Burster. before breaking up, as before described, or in the drill at the rate of a quarter of a ton to a ton per acre. Still these coarse manures only form a small })roportion of the fertilizers u.sed annually. What are known as commercial or artificial ferti- lizers are most largely in use. These are substances which contain available phosphoric acid, nitrogen or potash, in the best form for assimilation by the growing plant. In consequence of the demand for a cheap fertilizer, there is frequently only from twelve to twenty per cent, of plant food available in tliese manures. There are manv varieties of 138 COTTON. [(llAl'. 111. them ; they may be imjiorted manures, such as German kainit, which is an impure ])otash, or as Peruvian guano ; they may be domestic fertilizers, removed from some other j)arts of America, such as phosi)hate rock from the deposits in Florida and South Carohna ; or the fertiUzers may be of local ]n-oduction, as for exami)]e, cotton seed meal. More usually, a commercial fer- tilizer is a cond)ination of these substances, mixed at the local fertilizer works, usually run in connection with a cotton seed oil mill. There are many other substances wliicli are of great value as })lant ibods, and which are only suited to certain dis- tricts. Among these are dried blood, bone meal, horn and hoof waste, from the stock yards of Kansas City and Chicago. It is very necessary that careful selection of fertilizers should be made ; insufficient attention is at })resent given to this important matter. The selection of fertilizers depends upon many circumstances, such as the nature of the soil, or location of the land, the latitude of the state in which the cotton is grown, and the state of cultivation of the farm. In the more northern latitudes, fertilizer is required that will force the crop and bring it to early maturity in consequence of the shortness of tlie season, while in the southern latitudes a fei1i- lizer should be selected which will cause strong growth of the plant rather than unusually early marketing of the staple, for there is usually in the more southern states sufficient time to })ick all the cotton tliat a plant will make. The decision as to a suitable fertilizer to use should be deter- mined by analysis. It is not the object of this book to recom- mend fertilizers, but any cotton planter desirous of finding the best manure to use on his land has generally at his call expert analysts in connection with his state department of agriculture. By submitting samples of his soil, and a statement of his agri- cultural conditions, he can obtain local expert advice which will be of great value to him. It is undoubtedly advisable to buy fertilizers on the result of analysis. Frequently an appar- ently high priced fertilizer may be cheaper than a low priced CHAP. Ill] FKHTIIJZKKS. 139 140 COTTON. [cilAi-. HI. one. A fertilizer that has the hxrgest })ercentage of phmt food is ultimately of less cost to the fsirmer, in consequence of his saving the cost of freight, handling and liagging, a large per- centage of useless material. Most of the southern states have state laws for the protection of the farmer in regard to the purity of fertilizers, and many states levy taxes on tlie handling of fertilizers, in order to maintain tlie control of the analyses and to prevent fraud. The quantity of fertilizer used on each acre of land is also a matter for local decision. The best results of fertilizing are not obtained in the first year or even in the second year ; the fertilizer used the first year has an influence on the second and third years, and the system of continued fertilizing improves the yield more in the third and fourth years in proportion to the amount of fertilizer used than in the first and second. As has been before stated, some lands do not require any fertiliz- ing, other lands require from half a ton to a ton per acre. The quality of the fertilizer and the state of the land determine the quantity to Ijo used. Cotton Culture, In cases where it is desired to dispense with as much work as possible and where cotton is [)lanted on the same ground year after year, even the j^reliminary break- ing up is dispensed with and the first or laying off furrow is run down the alley of the former year's cotton. Manure com- posts are laid in the first furrow and the new bed made ])V turning the soil on top of this. Still another plan is to l)ar ott' the old bed and run the new furrow through its center; this brings the plants on the same spot each year. It is a debatable point whether the practice of planting on ridges is as advisable as it is to plough the land deeply and then sow the seed on the level ground. The ridge system has grown up with the system of light tillage, wherel)y the surface of the land receives only perhaps a two or three inch scratching, but a Ijed is formed ten inches deep or more by the soil being thrown up on each side. A good seed bed is thus CHAP. 111.] COTTON cri/rr ]ril in the vast majority of districts. In some of the favored districts of ]\Iississi})pi, Louisiana and Texas, where the season is abnormally long, seed is planted in the latter part of Marcli. In the heart of the cotton belt April Tst is accepted as a suitable date ; in North and South Carolina and Tennessee it is considered unwise to plant before April loth ; while in the extreme northern edge of the belt, as in ^"irginia, planting is deferred to the last days of April or early in May. It has long been an accepted rule among the planters that when tlie dogwood blooms seed time has come, while another is that seed time will come ninety days from when the katydid is first heard. Selection of Seed. The selection of seed is a matter of im[)ortance. The too common method of saving seed for planting is to take a sufficient numl)er of bushels just as they come from the gin, or, perha})s, to buy them from an oil mill. No attention has thus been given to the selection of individual plants from which these seeds came, and tho.se from the poor- est, least prolific, and latest maturing are all taken together with those from the best ; seeds from less prolific plants will .have greater vitality and so produce stronger plants than those from the more prolific plants, and when this })rocess is repeated for a few generations it is sure to result in a marked decrease in yield and a deterioration in quality. A process of selection has been practiced for many years by wide-awake planters and the result is an immense num- ber of "agricultural" varieties, ofcour.se, not botanical ones. Cotton is a plant wdiich sports easily, which responds (juick- ly to any differences in environment, soil, climate, treatment -^ i vA - <- • . 144 COTTON. [ciiAi-. III. and fertilizers, and which can be greatly moditied in form and habit in a very few successive crops. The flowers are large and open, so cross fertilization is not only common, but u^ual. By selecting seed from plants showing good yield, earl}'- fruiting, length and fineness of sta[)le, by planting these seeds separately and again selecting the best, several very fine strains of seeds have been oljtained and are usually known by the names of the planters who originated them. By far the larger number of names of varieties now in cultivation are simply synonyms of other names. C'hanges of names are commonly made by using the name of the person from whom seed is purchased, giving a new name to an old variety for advertising purposes, substituting a local name for one in general use, or transferring names froni one locality to another. Often several varieties receive the same name. The leading varieties are Allen Seed, Bates, Boyd Prolific, Cherry Cluster, Cook, Dickson, Drake Cluster, Okra, Peterkin, Taylor, Smith, Peeler, Texas Storm Proof, and Herlong. Two tables are here given from l>ulletin 33 of the United States Department of Agriculture. I. Classification of varieties according to time of matu- rity. Early. Medium. Late. Bailey. Brooks Improved. Cherry Cluster. Dickson. Drake Cluster. Early Carolina. Grayson Early Prolitie. Huiinicutt. Jenkins. Kieth. King. Matthews. Oats. Okra. Ozier. Peerless. Pittmau. Welbora Pet. Williamson. Zellner. Barnett. Bates Big Boll. Hen Smith. Boyd Prolific. Brannon. East. Eureka. Grifflih. Hawkins. Herlong. Jones Long Staple. Magruder Marvel. Mattis. Moon. Peterkin. Peterkin Cluster. Petit Gulf. Pollock. Six Oaks. Allen. Barnes. Bates Favorite. Brag. Long Staple. Catawba. Champion Cluster. Cobweb. Colthorp Pride. Cook. Ellsworth. Ethridge. Jones Improved. Mammoth Prolific. Marston. Minter. Peeler. Southern Hope. Texas Storm Proof. Truitt Premium. Willis. CHAT, in.] SELl'".! rioX Ol" SKKD. 14.-) Fig. 65. Caltivator "Witli Middle Burster. l-i() COTTON. [CIIAI'. III. ir. Relative rank as regards yield of different varieties : Haggerman Texas Wool Taylor Braniiaii Peturkiii Fishlmrn TlKimas Keith Drake Cluster Excelsior King Boyd Prolific Truilt Premium. . Barnett Duncan Huunicutt Jones Improved. . Peerless Texas Storm Proof Early Carolina. . . Bailey Rogers Diclison Deering Peterkin Cluster. . Shine Early Welboru Pet Ben Smith Dean Crawford Peerless 149 143 177 140 171 149 157>^ 134 15-2 1.54 173 1.56 161 126 129 134 135 143 176-- 126 132 122 141 150 124 132 185 139 105 155 101 105 96 102 70 95 101 101) 88 84 76 68 40 S3 86 74 82 76 69 83 79 94 74 80 80 61 73 73 131 123 119 117 116 116 115 114 112 109 lOS 107 106 106 105 105 105 105 104 101 104 104 103 103 103 103 103 102 102 101 ^■arietv. s Hawkins Ozier Southern Hope. . . . Ellsworth Oats Cocliran Eureka Chambers Ethridge Hays China Jowers Willis Cherry Long Staple Jf)nes Long Staple. Peeler . . . Petit Gulf Okra Allen Bolivar County Rameses ' Zellner Cobweb East Cherry Cluster Matthews Colthorp Pride Cook Six Oaks Wonderful 148 119 139 125 120 130 140 101 117 114 128 112 132 136 108 132 124 144 116 105 105 103 113 123 111 99 123 126 113 101 100 99 99 99 98 98 97 97 97 97 97 96 96 96 96 95 94 94 94 94 93 92 90 [ The average for all varieties taken as 100.] Of course the origin of many varieties has been lost in obscurity, but from what information has been gathered it appears that the most fre(juent methods by which genuine new^ varieties have been originated have been by ( 1 ) the selection of individual plants for original stock ; ( 2 ) the sav- ing of seed from the earliest maturing bolls, and planting them (usually) on soil which has been highly fertilized ; (3) cross fertilization : and ( 4 ) the very simple i)rocess of changing the names. Foreig:n Cotton Seed. Seed from other countries lias been tried. \^arieties received from Japan produced very dwarf plants, with small bolls, very small seeds, and a staple not more than one-half to five-eighths of an inch long, which has CHAl'. Ill ] FOKKKiX COTTON ^V.KD. 147 been liai'sli and woolly. 'J'urkestan cottons have been uni- formly lis^lit in yield, short and weak in staple, and usually somewhat colored. The Egyptian varieties are closely related to the Sea Island, and produce an immense orowtli of stalk. Mitafifi and Bamia are the two varieties which have been most widely tested, but neither has proved to be profitable. Both produce a very long and fine staple, but mature too late for the Anu'rican climate. Possil)ly in Texas greater success mio-ht be met with. Seeds of l)oth these varieties wei-e dis- ^»ij»L Fig. 66. Dowlavv) Cortoq Plaqter. tributed quite freely by the United States Department of Agri- culture in 1892, and since then a number of hybrids between them and some of the American upland varieties have been reported, which promise to have considerable value, espec- ially in the southern part of the cotton region. The Indian varieties which have been received have been of two distinct types. One is much like the Japanese varieties in leaf, boll and lint, but produces a large and spreading plant which bears a very light crop. The other type is evidently descended 148 COTTOX. [fllAl'. III. fVom the American seed which was sent to India in ]S44, and which has become c^uite common in that country. It is inter- esting to note that this American cotton, wliich has been grown in India for fifty years, has come V)ack to this country practically unchanged, and cannot now be distinguished from the Petit Gulf, which was so common in America from 18;'>(> to ISnO. While the seed from other countries has not, as a rule, been successfully used here, the same applies to American seed sent abroad. Some years ago a shipment of American seed was sent to Russia, for use in Russian Turkestan, and it was found that although the seed germinated, the plants attained a good heiglit, and even formed bolls, yet these bolls would not open. To test the seed a barrel of it was shipped back from Turkes- tan to the United States. This seed never came up, prol)al)ly in consequence of being killed by heating in transit. Cotton Planting. For cotton planting, a machine called a planter is used by the more advanced farmer, and a })opular one, the Dowlaw planter, is shown in Fig. Gi). This econo- mises seed, plants the seed more evenly, produces a better stand, and facilitates cultivation. Planters can be arranged so that the machine opens the drill, drops the seed, and covers it up afterwards ; but the most approved system is to run it over the center of the bed with a bull tongue blade. Fig. 60 A, on the plough, so as to open the bed exactly over the fer- tilizer. The planter is then drawn over the row Ijy a mule or horse, and deposits the seed continuously, covering it up lightly by means of two shoes behind the })lanter, or a Ijoard, as in Fig. 66. The planter may be described as a wheelbarrow, with a hole in the bottom. The wheel is of wood and is formed almost to an edge ; immediately in front of it is a tool for opening the drill, which may, or may not, be used, as has CHAP. Ill ] COTTON I'l.AXTIXO. 149 previously been mentioned. Attached to the wheel is a crank connected by a wooden rod to a lever attached to the seed box. The reciprocating movement given to this lever opens and closes alternately the seed orifice in the box, the slide keeping a constant delivery of seed by moving backwards and for- wards, while a board behind the seed box, suspended on s})rings, levels the toj) of the ridge, covering up the seed. An- other method of })lanting is to use the tube previously men- Fig. 67. Cortoq Plaqfer aqd Fertilizer. tioned as in use for fertilizing. In this case, the bed has to be opened by a light i)low, and after the seed has been dropped through the tube, a harrow, a wooden block, or a board, is drawn over the field to cover up the seed. This is only in use on small farms which are rented, and where the farmer, gen- erally a negro, cannot afford, or has not the desire to pay $5 for a planter. It is astonishing how the negro clings to old- time methods, and how slow he is to see any advantage in 150 COTTON. [CJIAP. III. " white folks' " iinprovemonts. (X'tcii lie will not admit that cultivation has anything to do with it : hut his explanation of the greater success of his neighhor is that Massa Johnsing has great luck, Ijccause he is the possessor of a left hind foot of a graveyard jack rahl)it, which he "totes" round. He is cor- rect in so far as the white ^"outherner often does carry such a fetish with him. Another method is to use a machine shown in Fig. 67. As will he seen from the sketch, there is a revolving seed or fertilizer holder, driven hy a sprocket wheel and chain from the hub of the driving wheel. It has a tool in front to open the drill, and two shoes to close up the drill after the seed lias been drop})ed. Seed and fertilizer can be deposited together by this machine, l)ut the disadvantage of this method is ])rin- cipally in the seed being planted in contact with the fertilizer, and the advantage is that it combines two journeys over the bed in one. It is a good machine ibr rich land, where little fertilizer is needed, and the quantity deposited is insufficient to injure the germinating seed. On light, sandy soil the planter covers the seed sufficiently, but on heavy clay soil, or other lumj»y formation, it is occasionally the custom to run a turning plow up and down each row to complete the bed, or more usually a harrow is drawn over the field. In moist, warm weather, the cotton gei'minates rapidly, and on a large farm that first })lanted may appear above the ground before the last seed has been sown. Three da3^s after planting is about the earliest recorded appearance of the seed- ling, and in dry or cold weather, it may extend to as many weeks. The average time may be taken as seven days. The plants appear in a broken line, the spaces being caused by the non-germination of seed or the irregularity of planting ; and still there are far too many plants in the row, so many as to obstruct each other's growth and grow too thickly for cultivation, or the light and heat of the sun to develop the CHAP. 111.] COTTON PLANTING. 151 152 COTTON. [riiAC. III. flowers and the fruit. The whole field has, therefore, to l)e thinned out. Chopping: Out. The thinning out is acconiplished by killing the sur]»lus plants by a cut from a hoe, and thus a more expressive term often used is " chopping-out." This is one of the two great expenses of cotton culture, the other being cotton picking, ('hopping out requires the services of every one on the farm, man, woman, and child, aiid often some hired help, if it is to be had. All through the month of May the railroad traveller sees the field hands at work, letting their heavy hoes drop apparently carelessly, but really with great i)recision, cutting away a dozen plants for each three left standing, but always leaving the right ones. As they mechanically raise and drop their hoes, they sing soi]gs and tell stories of the latest appearance of the " banshee behind Growler's hill"; or the terrible apparition in " ^Ir. Johnsing's barn yard," or the " hoodoo that has been put on Mr. Thompson's farm." These ghost stories, however, must be taken on faith for no white man ever hears them. The moment a white man appears on the field, the talking stops and every boy and girl is a model of industry. The distance left between each plant in the row is a mat- ter which depends on the soil and the usual groAvth of the plant. In the inclined lands of Texas, Mississippi and Louis- iana, as much as two feet, or even three feet, are exce})tionally left between the plants, but the jdant in these districts grows to a height of six or eight feet, or even more. In all other sections of the same states, and generally over the cotton belt, eight to twelve inches are left between plants on poor land, and twelve to fifteen inches on richer land. In the North, for example North Carolina, Tennessee, and ^"irginia, it is exceptional to leave more than twelve inches. After all it is the number of plants that makes cotton, and the tendency in all the states is towards closer planting on tlie ridges, leaving full spaces between ridges, the belief being that CHAP. Ill ] CHOPPING OUT. ir)3 Fig. 69 R. Rn UnpicKed Cottoq Field — Morriirig. Fij. 69 B. The Sanqe Field PicKed — Evening. l-"')4 COTTON. [ciiAi'. m. it is suffic'lent if the })lant8 get })leiity of sun one way. Some very interesting exi)eriments liave been condueted by the agricultural de})artments of various states, but although close planting is undoubtedly shown to decrease the yield of each plant, the aggregate production is greater on account of the much larger number of plants in the field. An extract from the bulletin of the Georgia agricultural department shows this very clearly. ( 1. ) On land capable of making between one and one and five-tenths bales of cotton per acre, the plants should not be closer than four l)y two feet nor wider than four by three feet. ( 2. ) The greater distance given, the more important it is to secure an early stand, thin out early and give rapid cul- tivation. ( 3. ) Close planting gives a larger yield in the early fall or at the first and second pickings. ( The four by one series in the experiment was 161 pounds ahead of the four by two ser- ies at the close of the fourth picking, Oct. lo ). This is because each plant, when planted closely, will make nearly, if not quite, as many blooms in the first few weeks of blooming as each plant in widely planted rows. Between the date of the first and second pickings, a period of twelve days, one pound of cotton was yielded by every fifteen plants in the four by one series, while in the four by two series, twelve plants were required to make one jxjund. A\']ien it is considered that there are only 5005 plants to the acre in the four by two series, against 9250 plants in the four by one series, the explanation of the greater yield of the four by one series in the second picking is plain. At the fiftli })icking, Nov. 4th, forty -three plants in the four by one series yielded one pound, while in the four by two, only thirteen plants 3aelded one pound. Machines have been invented and tried for the purpose of performing the chopping out, but without satisfactory results. CHAP. HI,] ('II(»l'l>IN(i OUT. 1 oo 150 COTTON. [ciiAi". III. It requires a certain amount of judgment to select the most suitable plants to leave, in oi'dei- to get a good stand, and the thinning out is all done by niainial labor. The plant is allowed to make three or tour leaves before tliinning out, attaining a height of five or six inches. Cultivatingf the Plant. An anxious and busy time now ensues for the u})-to-date farmer. He is afraid lest the first few nights of May should be cold. Cotton loves moist heat. Warm days and warm nights in ^lay add a million l)ales to the crop, but warm days and cold nights, even though the thermometer does not fall to freezing point, may so weaken the young plants that it is not wise to allow them to remain, and there is nothing left but to plow them up and replant. He is also scared lest he mav have too much rain, causing the growth of grass on his field and weed on the plants (the word " weed " being used through the South to indicate superfluous growth of stalk and leaf, and tendency to run to wood ), or else that he may have too dr}^ weather for his cotton to make proper progress, encouraging rust and cotton worms. His time is all occupied in "cultivating" the land, which term, although applied generally to the whole series of operations of raising cotton, is used more specifically for the operations between thinning out and cotton picking, the object of which is to keep the field free from vegetation, crab grass, cow-vetch, rag-weed, cockleburr, morning glory and such vines, so called. This season is a succession of plowing and hoeing. "A long row to hoe" has long been a proverbial expression. Usually to clear the grass on the side of the beds the farmers bar off the soil from each side of tlie ridge l)y a turn plow, or twisting shovel })low. The soil and weed are allowed to remain in the bottom of the alley until tlie grass is killed, then by means of a sweep the soil is thrown up to the foot of the jdant again. This barring off is occasionally performed before thin- ning out, and after the surplus plants have been choi)ped out the soil is thrown up again to the root of the plant. The en A I'. Ill] TT/nVATTXC TIIK IM.ANT 158 COTTOX. [CIIAI>. III. operation can only be pcrfonned up to the time when a stand has been formed, as otherwise the spreading roots of the plants are damaged, 'j'here follow, at different intervals, according to the weather and progress of tlie grass, several hoeings and plowings, nsually in all about three hoeings and four plowings. The hoeing is performed by negroes principally, although a white farmer presses his family into service and they pass through the rows, chopping down grass and objectionable vegetation, occasionally cutting down a cotton plant where weakly or where the shrubs are planted too thickly. Too much emphasis cannot be placed on the fact that heat helps the cotton plant wonderfully. Warm da37s and nights with occasional showers increase the cro|) ]^ros|)ects exceedingl}'. The soil is kept disturbed in all possil)le ways, plows with plow shares, sweeps (Fig. (30C ), scooters (Fig. <)aratively high wages to the specially hired negroes. The fields have changed from green to a snowy white. All colored men, women and children are picking cotton. " Picking time " is a season that is dreaded by Georgia house-wives. A treasure of a cook can make more money picking at forty cents a hundred pounds than she can make in the kitchen, and slie throws up her place forthwith and be- comes a field hand. When the season is over, she is glad to go back to her pans, and generally her mistress is glad to take her back. " We hear of strikes all over the country among all con- ditions of labor, but our cotton pickers never strike or give any troul)le," said a young ])lanter the other day as he sur- veyed his whitened fields. " If the cotton in either of the fields out in front here — there are about sixty bales of it open — should have to stand, say, a week, it would be ruined. The negroes know this as well as I do, and they know also that they are the only ones to pick it ; but never in a single in- stance is anything said about raising the price of picking or refusing to pick. The negroes are the most tractable, easily managed laborers in existence, if you understand them. When they get unruly and ugly it is because they have been persistently rubbed the wrong way and treated unfairly. It is that kind of dealing, in my opinion, that is at the bottom of most of the troubles that result in lynching. I am the only white man on tliis big tract of land, 5000 acres or more. I have thii'ty-five negro tenants and their families on the place, l)esides the hands who work the land tliat I plant myself. I have never had anv troul)le with them yet, l)ey()nd a little CHAP. Ill fOTTOX PICKlXd 1(33 164 COTTON. [niAi'. III. stealing now and then, and my iatlii'i- never had any Ijcfore me." After the cotton has been })ieked and ginned, it goes to the press and comes out inl)ales. Then about Christmastime, perhaps a little before or a little after, the tide of bales begins to flow towards town and the railroad station. The field in an ordinary season is picked over three times. In the Gulf states the times of the three })ickings are : — First, August and September. Second, October. Third, November and December. In (leorgia, North and South Carolina, Tennessee, Arkan- sas, the three occasions of picking fall in September, October, and November respectively. There is, of course, no fixed rule for this, the weather greatly affecting the time of picking, as also does the forward or backward state of the crop. When the black frost, or killing frost, comes late, there is usually considerable gleaning in December and January. The pick- ing season is perhaps the most })icturesque time during the cotton growing. Cotton picking appears to be veiT easy work. The fruit hangs from the bolls apparently ready to drop into the hand if touched, and to watch the cotton pickers' quick movements and swift clearing of the bolls, there seems to be no difficulty at all. But in fact the cotton clings somewhat tenaciously to its pod, and the projecting points of the outer boll or c;i}»sule prevent the easy removal of the fibre, consequently rapid })ick- ing of cotton is the result of practice and experience. It is very tiresome work in the northern latitudes, where the })lant is only eighteen inches or two feet in height, making one's back ache, and here the pickaninnies are found very useful, so much so that northern cotton is often called " l)umble-bee " cotton. This is clearly shown in Fig. 71. Fig. 72 shows a field where the leaves have dropped from the cotton plant, leaving only the bare stalks and the bolls open and unopen. ClIAI'. Ill] CO'llON l'I(KlN. III. As the leaves of the ])lant assume their autumn tints, the fields (lotted with white as far as the eye can reach, the flow- ers of the top growth, the motley costumes of the negroes of all grades of color, from the almost white "yellow girl" to the coal black powerful nigger, who looks as if lie had just been trans])lanted from the Congo, and who picks his 300 tl)s. per day, all combine to form one of the really interesting scenes of the world's every-day lite. ( l^^ig- "3). Still more interesting is it to see them gather round the weigher as the sun sinks low in the west, when each weary picker rests on his or her basket, waiting for it to be weighed and Ijooked, as shown at Figs. 74 and 75. In the morning, the cotton ])icker starts as soon as the dew has disappeared from the open boll, and begins at the end of a row of cotton, deftly grasping the boll with one hand, and with one adroit movement stripping the boll of its seed and cotton, transferring it to a bag slung round the waist, and emptying this at the end of the row into a basket or larger bag. An interesting comparison is shown at Fig. GO. The upper portion of the figure is reproduced from a photograph of a cotton field, taken by the writer in the morning of a November day, before the third ])icking. The lower picture is a photograph of the same field in the afternoon after it is picked. Ah^chines have been introduced l»y many inventors for picking cotton, but none have hitherto been successful. The principal difficulty lies in the fact of the cotton ripening at different periods, consequently the machines hitherto intro- duced do great damage to unopen l)olls an|)r()i>riate names to carefully discriminated condi- tions of the plant, much })rogTess will be made in the understanding and treatment of these troubles. These diseases may be classed in three general divisions, according to their etiology. Diseases due to physioloyical muses. — ^losaic disease, or yellow leaf blight ( Fig. 7() ) ; red leaf blight, shedding of bolls, and angular leaf spot. Fniir/us diseases. — Frenching ; sore shin; damping off, or seedling rot ; anthracnose ( Fig. 77 ) ; root rot (Fig. 78 ) ; cot- ton-leaf blight ; areolate mildew ( P'ig. 7i> ) ; cotton-boll rot ; and ripe decay of bolls. . Neyncdode diseases. — Root galls ( Fig. 80 )." Prof. Atkinson continues his remarks by giving a very exhaustive description of the diseases of cotton, which can be referred to in Bulletin No. 33 of the United States Department of Agriculture, from which Figs. 76 to 98, with their explana- tory notes, have been reproduced. The question of insects which infest the cotton plant has been summarized by Col. A. B. Shepperson in his book on " C btton Facts " as under : — The boll-worm of cotton ( Fig. 81 ), generally called the boll- worm (HelirjtJiis ^[rmie/er), is a true moth, like the cotton caterpillar, having the four regular stages of growth, viz.: First, the egg ; second, the larva, or worm ; third, the chrysa- lis ; fourth, the moth. The eggs ( P^ig. 81 at 1 ) are usually deposited singly and have been found on all parts of the plant. They generally hatch in three to five days, but a longer time is taken in the spring and fall. The WT)rm ( Fig. 81 at 2, 3, 4, 5 ) is hatched and developed very similarly to the cotton caterpillar, but when full grown is somewhat larger. It feeds chiefly on tiie young forms, buds, flowers and bolls, into which it bores, causing their utter destruc- CHAP. III.] DAMAGE TO CKOPS. 173 tion. W'lieii young, the worms feed ui)Oii the ibriiis, hiids and small bolls, but as they grow they attack larger bolls. They go from bud to bud, and from boll to boll, and thus each worm destroys a number of them. A close observer reports having found eighteen young bolls, besides many unopened Fic. 80. Root Galls. buds, to have been bored into by a single half-grown l)oll worm. The chrysalis (Fig. 81 at 6) is always found a few inches beneath the surface of the ground. This state lasts seven to ten days in midsummer, and fifteen to twenty days in cooler weather. 174 COTTON. [chap. III. DESCRIPTION OF FIG. 81. TRANSFORMATIONS OF COTTON BOIJ. WORM. ( Heliothis armirtcr Iliibn.) Fig-. 1. Egg on under side of leaf. Fig. 2. Larva one-third grown boring into square. Fig. 3. Entrance hole of young larva in square, witli e.xerfmental pellets at edge of hole. Fig. 4. Nearly full grown larva just issued from boll. Fig. 5. Full grown larva on leaf stem. Fig. (i. Chrysalis or pupa sliown in center of un. in. The moth is in apj)eamnce and habits inucli like that of the cotton caterpiUar, but does not usually appear in cotton fields until July or August. ( Fig. 81 at 7, 8, {).) The boll worm invariably hibernates in the chrysalis state and under the ground. Many generations are produced until cokl weather. The first to the third ])roods generally feed in corn fields, so that the first brood of boll worms found on cotton plants is really the fourth brood. The natural enemies of the boll worm are birds, spiders, beetles, wasps, ants, domestic fowls, etc., but ants are probably their most active and destructive enemies. The worms also eat each other and a good many are destroyed in this way. The damage from l:)oll worms is greatest in the states of Texas, Arkansas, Mississippi and Louisiana, in the order named, while the injury done in other sections of the cotton belt is unimportant. Fields, and indeed large sections, are sometimes injured to the extent of twenty to twenty-five per cent. The maxi- mum annual loss to the entire crop of Texas may be estimated at from five to ten per cent. There can be little doubt that more injury is now inflicted by the boll worm than by caterpillars, as these latter are easily held in check by the intelligent use of insecticides, while from their habits the boll worms are not so easily destroyed. Preventive measures are the use of poisons, by sprinkling them in powdered form over the })lants. Paris green is proba- bly the poison most largely used. Fall plowing gives good results, as it u})turns and exposes the chrysalides, and those which are not devoured by fowls, etc., are killed by the cold. The cotton caterpillar or the cotton worm {Aldia Argil- laced ), is a true moth, having the four regular stages of growth, viz.: First, the egg; second, the larva, or worm; third, the chrysalis ; fourth, the moth. CHAP. III.] DAMAGE TO CKOPS. 177 The egos are (lei)ositetl by the moth singly, on the under side of the lower or larger leaves of the cotton plant ( Fig. S2 ). They are first deposited usually in May or in early June, and rareiy more than three or four to a leaf; though later in the season the upper surface of the leaf receives a share of eggs, and larger numbers are found on the leaves. The eggs are usually hatched in three or four days, but the time varies Fig. sh side : iiatu Cotton caterpillar : b, Crom above ral size. a, Crom — twice Fig. 82. Egg of cotton worm moth ; a, top view ; b, s-ide view — greatly enlarged. Fig. si. Cotton worm moth : a, with wing.s expanded in flight ; b, wings closeii, at rest —natural size. with the temperature and a longer period is required in the spring and fall than in summer. ^Moisture favors hatch- ing. Frost, as well as extreme heat, destroys the vitality of the eggs. The worm ( Fig. 83 ) molts five times, and the term of larval existence varies from one to three weeks. Until after the second molt it remains on the under side of the leaf. 178 COTTON. [ciiAr. III. After the third inoU it moves toward the top of the })hint, feeding on the tender foHagc. While preferring the leaves, it will eat the holls and all parts of the j)lant, even harking the stems. The worm does not thrive on anvthing hut tlic cotton Fig. 85. Proboscis of cotton worm molh —enlarged : tip at right still more enlarged. Fig. 8C. Cotton worm egg parasite {Tricliof/rmnma pre- tiosa) : a, adult female, greatly enlarged ; b, ovipos- ter ; c, female antenna ; d, male antenna, still more enlarged. plant. It moves hy its thread or weh and also springs from plant to plant, the maximum spring being about two feet. Having obtained full growth, the worm " webs up," form- ing a cocoon usually within the roll of a leaf, sparsely lined CHAP. III.] DAMACiK TO CUOrS. 179 with silken meshes. The chrysalis state lasts from about a week ill midsummer to three weeks in cooler weather. The average time is about fifteen days. The worm does not bui'row in the ground, and chrysalides are never found below its surface. Fig. 88. Skin of cotton caterpillar attached to the underside of the cotton leaf by silk Fig. 87. Chalcis flavipes, an impoTtaut \^a.va.site spun about the pupae oi Euplcdrus com- of the cotton caterpillar. stockii, — natural size. Fig. 89. Pimpla cmK/uiffitor, one of the principal parasites of the cotton caterpillar : a, larva, enlarged ; b, head of same, still more enlarged ; c, pupa; d, adult female, eularged ; e, f, end of abdomen of adult male, still more enlarged. The moth (Fig. 84) is nocturnal, and, as a rule, flies onl}'^ at night. During the day it flies for short distances when disturbed. The female begins to la}' from two to four days after issuing from the chrysalis, and lays an average of 180 COTTON. [chap. III. four hundred eggs during the season. Its natural food is the juice exuding fi-om the glands upon the mid-rib of the leaf, and at the base of the blooms and bolls of the cotton plant ; but it also feeds u})on fruits of all kinds as they ripen. Until the worms are numerous enough to badly riddle the leaves, the moths continue to lay their eggs in the neigh- borhood of their birth, then they begin to migrate and appear in numbers everywhere, and at points far distant from the cot- ton helds. The time for migrating varies, but it is rarely until after the thinl generation of worms, or about July 1 in southern Texas and later in higher latitudes. Migrations are more common in the fall montlis, and tlie moths fly on cloudy days as well as at night. There has been much diversity of o})inion upon this sub- ject, but the investigations of the United States Entomological Commission seem to establish fully the fact that the Aletia never hibernates as egg, larva or chrysalis, l)ut survives the winter only in the moth state and in the southern part of the cotton belt, perishing in other sections with the approach of cold weather. The hibernating sections seem to be more in the southwestern than in the Atlantic states. Caterpillars are usually more numerous after severe and steady winters than after mild and changeable ones. Under the former conditions the moths remain torpid until early spring, but with mild winter weather they are aroused to activity only to perish from lack of nourishment at that season. The moth hiber- nates under the shelter of rank wire grass, under the barks of trees, in deca3'ed logs and in the timbers of buildings. The first generation appears about May 1st, in the ex- treme South. In Southern Texas as many as seven genera- tions are produced during the season. The first and second generations are confined to restricted areas, often not exceeding a few acres. The third generation becomes more widespread, and the moths produced from it so nnmerous that they begin to migrate. Tliis generation appears in Southern Texas the B ?3 ^^.ssy'^ff^'ism 1 SL' COTTON. |riiAI'. III. hiltiT |>;irt of .lime, ;iml in South A ImIliiiim :iiiiI ( Jcoi'^iji soiiic- \\li;il lattT. 'riii.sis usumII y f;ill('il tlic •• lirst lnood"' in llioso .sections, hut is sinipiy th(> lirst which h;is ;itl I'lictcd notice. The suhsc(|UtMit i^enei'Mtions hecoine, uutlei' l';i \'orin^- com lit ions, niore and inoic nuiiieidus, widespread and desi ruct i\'e. In the noilhein portion ot' tlie ('olton Kelt the nunihci- of hroods is less and xal'ies accordiui; to the date of the lirst appear- iince of the moths from furthei' south, and other eireumslnn- ces. 'I'liere is increasini; acti\ily in de\'elopiiient until. Inly, and thereal'ter deci'casini;'. In midsuniniei', iVom the Laying of the e^i;- to the de\'elopment of the moth takes hut three weeks, while eai'lier and later in the season it may hake twico as louL!,'. The a\'eram" time from the ci^i:,' of (»ne generation to that of another is ahout a iiioiilh. The worm is seldom no- ticed and ne\'er in i^rcat numheis until the plant he«;ins to bloom. I ,ow , ailiix ial Lands, where t he plants are lar^eand luxur- iant, are the earliest places \isited hy caierpillars. 'Idiis rule is t)f ti,('ner;d application. Moist atmosphei'e is la\'oralde and dry weather unfa\ oi'ahlc to their des'clopment. Warm rains cause them to multiply rapidly, while dry, hot wt'athcr is not only destruct i\ (' to worms and chi'ysalides, hut prcNcnls 1 1 u ■ ei;;ij,'s from lialchiui;', .\ hot, dry spell generally pnts an end to the eatiMpillars. In years of seV(MH' injury the I'rop upon some plantations may sutler from •_'."» pel- cent, to .almost total destruction, while upon other plantations tlu> loss will he trillin<;\ The greatest a\eram' of loss is in the more southern poilion of thehelt, where, tVom climatic causes, the worms appear ea ilier and de- vidoj* a greater nunihi-r of hroods. In the northern portion oi' the ('ottoii Kelt the caterpil- lars soinet imes appear so \:\{c that the\' di^ more j^nod than harm, hy remo\in^- the su|)er-al)nndant foliage, thus ad mitt inu- tile sun to the bolls and hastenins'' their niaturitw / '''^.,^ 184 COTTON. [tiiAi'. III. The natural enemies of caterpillars are domestic fowls, birds, s})iders, beetles, was})s, ants, etc. blackbirds, rice birds and ants are probably tlie most active and destructive enemies. Several parasites ( I'^ius. SC), S7, and SS. ) also infest the cotton worm. rreventative measures most generally a(lo})ted are the free use of ])oisons, by sjn'inkliuL!,' them in powdered form or s])ray- ing them over the })lants. Taris green is probably the poison most used, and has usually proved elective when applied properly and in time. Aside from the cotton worm and the boll worm, the cot- ton plant can not be siiid to sutler seriously from the attacks of insects. ( 'ut worms — Fcltia ainiexa — ( Fig. U'J ) sometimes damage the young i>lants in the beginning of the season ; plant lice occasionally cause the withering of the terminal leaves ( also usually eai'ly in the season ) ; there are several bugs which sting the young bolls, although never to any serious extent; grasshoppers sometimes "rag" the leaves in Texas, and there are several leaf-feeding caterpillars which, like the cotton worm mentioned above, appear later in the season, and in reality do little but remove the superal)un(lant foliage and expose the bolls to the sun, causing earlier ripening, and consequently a beneficial rather than an injurious effect. The })lague of what are called " sharp-shooters " by the planters is caused by a leaf ho])per — Ilonuilixllscti fixu/xldhi — (Fig. 93), which punctures the boll. We occasionally learn of a case of local and temporary damage by one or another of several species of insects, such as the garden web-worm, Avhich injured young cotton growing in })roximity to garden crops in Texas, .Vrkansas, and Indian Territory a few years ago ; but tliese cases are varo, and do not deserve extended consid- eration. The .Vmerican locust — Scjii^li f/rdndis (Figs. 06, 97 and i)S), a Mexican weevil wliicli danuiges cotton l)olls. This insect, Fic;. 94. Sclilstncrrca americana : adult female — natural size. ( From Insect Life.) Fig '.15. Cotton stalk borer ( AUt.cia cri/pla ) : a, larva from above ; b, larva from side; c, tunneled cotton stalk showing ixil hole; d, adult beetle — all en- larged except c (original ). down to the close of the season of 1S94, was known only through a few specimens collected upon cotton bolls in Mexico some ten years since by Dr. Edward Palmer. During 1894, LIIAl". III.] dama(;k to cKors. 187 however, it was learned that the species had made its appear- ance in tlie state of Texas. It works in a peculiarly injurious manner, utterly destroying many hoUs. The life history of Fig. 96. The cotton boll \\vc\i\ ( Antlionomvs c/ra]i(U'!t) : a, adult beetle : b, pupa; e, larva — enlarged. ( From Insect Life). Fk;, 97. The cotton boll weevil : a, newly hatcheil larva in younsf square ; b, nearly full-grown larva in situ : c, pupa in young boll picked from ground. the species was carefully investigated during ISOo, and Dr. L. 0. Howard has published two circulars of information, which have been widely distributed among cotton planters. iss COTTON. [('IIAI'. III. After this brief .summary it will be evident tliat the .sul)- ject of insects injurious to cotton in the United States can ])e classed luider four main headino-s — (1) the cotton worm, ( 2 ) the boll worm, (3) the Mexican cotton l)oll weevil, and (4) other cotton insects. (Bulletin ;>:>, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture.) Cultivation of Sea Island Cotton. While the foregoing- part of this chapter may be considered an accurate description of the cultivation of what is ordinarily known as American cotton, something should be said on the special methods adopted in the cultivation of Sea Island cottons. I am Fig. 98. Mftture T)oll cut open at left, showing full-grown larva; the one at the right not cnt,an(l showing feeding pnuctures and oviposition marks. indebted to an article in the South Carolina Hand-l)ook, and to Mr. H. Hammond, for much of the following information, The Sea Island cotton plant has a larger and more vigorous growth than the Upland plant. It withstands the vicissitudes of the heat and cold better, and it is less subject to disease ; so called blight and rust do not atfect it as readily as they do the Upland cotton, nor does it shed its forms and bolls to anything like the same extent. These remarks as to rust aj)ply also to those varieties of Uplands in which the length of tlie stajjle has been improved by selection of the seed, and rows of this CHAP. Ill ] cri/rivATiox OF ska island cotton. IS!) are oftcMi seen healthy and vigorous, while the short staple Uplands around are withered with the rust. The early growth of the Sea Island is so vigorous, that it maintains itself in fields infested with Bemuida and nut grass, as the Uplands could not. The lea\es are larger, smootlier, and of a l)righter green than U})lands, and the tiowers are larger, handsomer, and of a more golden yellow. But tlie holls are smaller, and instead of being five-lobed are usually only threedobed — these lobes being so sharp pointed as to prick the fingers, to the serious inconvenience of pickers not accustomed to gather Sea Island cotton. Of course the small size of the l)olls requiring so many to make a })0und, adds much to the expense of harvesting tlie crop. On the Sea Islands of Carolina, field labor is })erformed almost exclusively by negroes. Nearly all of them are engaged in farming on their own account ; a large number own farms ; a still larger number rent land for cultivation, and even the laborers are paid most generally by granting them the use of so many acres of land for certain stipulated services. The total number of farms on the islands is stated to be fifty- four hundred and fifty-three, but tlie number probably exceeds six thousand, the enumerators having had the lands and crops cultivated by renters returned by the landowner, and consoli- dating them as being in some way under one management, when they were, in reality, entirely independent — an error ever likely to occur, and sometimes quite difficult to avoid, and which has no doubt caused the number of farms to be underestimated and their size overestimated in many sections of the South. The lai'gest nnml)er of acres of Sea Island cotton planted under one management nowhere exceeds one hundred acres. The white planters do not probably average more than tlnrty acres, and this necessitates that they should l)e land- lords of considerable estate. For as the laborers are frequently given five to seven acres for two days' work in the week, and as this two days' work per week does not suffice for the IDO COTTON. [chap. hi. cnltivatioii of more than four acres, to cultivate tliirty acres of cotton under this system recjuires seventy-five acres of land ; add to this the amount usually planted in corn and other crops, and we will have one hundred and twenty acres. As under the best system the land lies fallow every other year, the planter of thirty acres of cotton will require two hundred and forty acres of open land ; and as scarcely one-fifth of the land is under cultivation, sucli a }>lanter will prol)ably own some twelve hundred acres. Thus there is no proportion between the size of the farm actually cultivated and the land holding — the first being finite small and the last large. This state of things is owing to absence of capital and the low price of land and labor. Lands whicli were worth fifty dol- lars to sixty dollars an acre more than half a centur}^ ago, and which had increased in value down to 18(30, being until recently either wholly unsalealjle or selling at ten dollars per acre or less. On James Island, which at this time is perhaps nnder a more progressive system of culture than the other sea islands, laborers are paid cash for their work, at the rate of fifty cents per diem and ten dollars per month, with board — the latter being a ration of three pounds of bacon and one peck of grist a week, with shelter and fuel. The soil and the condition of the laborers are reported as improving, and cash wages are con- sidered preferable to the share, or the land, system of pay- ment. Arable land rents here at two dollars an acre per annum. The })rice of land is from fifteen dollars to thirty dollai's ail acre. A few laborers own their own houses, but very few own any farming land. On .John Island, cash wages are from eight dohars to ten dollars a month, with l)oard. Most of the laborers, how- ever, are engaged for two days' work a week by allowing them a house, fuel, and six or seven acres of land free of rent. The report is that the system is not satisfactory. The lands worked by the landlords are improving ; that worked by the laborers (•ii.U>. III.] CULTJ NATION OF SEA ISLAND COTTON. 101 on their own account is deteriorating rapidly. The labor is not so easily controlled as when cash wages are paid. The lands vary greatly in price — prices ranging from two dollars and fifty cents to twenty dollars per acre, with some lands valued recently still higher. Jient is higher than on James Island, in consequence of a system that increases the demand by multiplying small farmers, and it is about three dollars per acre })er annum. On Edisto Island, the two days' system prevails. The average yield of cotton on Edisto Island is a bale to 2.6 acres ; for the six largest planters it is a bale to 1.7 acres. Consider- ing the quality of the staple produced, it may be safely said that the larger farms yielded between two and three times as much as the small ones. Lands here are worth from ten dol- lars to twenty-five dollars per acre — formerly they were worth from fifty dollars to seventy dollars per acre. Small tracts rent for about four dollars per acre per annum, larger tracts for less. This state of things tends to reduce the sale- able value of lands, while it increases their rental value. A mule can do the plowing required in the cultivation of thirty acres in Sea Island cotton, and can, in addition, culti- vate a sufficiency of land to supply corn for its own feed, per- ha})S something over. The first step in the ])reparation of the land is to hoe off the weeds ( " hurricane " ), cut up the cotton stalks, and [)ile and burn this litter. This costs forty cents l)er acre. Bushes are grubbed up at a cost of seven cents per acre. The land is not broken up broadcast with the plow, but early in February two furrows of a single-horse turning })low are run in the old alleys, making a trench seven or eight inches deej). In this furrow a subsoil plow mav or may not be run, according to the character of the subsoil. Wherever under-drainage is ])ractised, as on James Island, the furrow is generally used. P)efore plows came into use this trench was never made, and even now it is omitted by some of the most successful planters. Into this trench, or into the middle of the 1-^'-^ COTTON. [en A I', in. alley, whcro there is no trench, the manure is ])laee(l. Tliis consists usually of about twenty cart loads of marsh mud and one thousand to one thousand four hundred pounds of cotton seed. Stable and lot manure, togetlier with composts of marsh mud and rushes, are also a})plied in the furrow at the rate of forty cart loads per acre on such a portion of the land as the limited number of stock enables the farmer to treat in this method. ( )n the lines of manure thus laid down, a cer- tain quantity of commercial fertilizer is drilled. This prac- tice, wholly unknown formerly, is ver}^ common now, even the smallest negro farmers often going heavily in debt to obtain these fertilizers from the store-keepers. They are handy, obviate the labor and care of stock, and the fore- thought and toil of collecting and manipulating composts. On James Island and John Island a mixture consisting of two hundred and fifty pounds of acid j^hosphate, two hundred pounds kainit ( German potash salt) and two hundred pounds calcined marl is applied per acre. On Edisto Island are used two hundred pounds iish scrap ( half dry in Ijarrels ), two hundred pounds kainit and two hundred pounds acid phos- phate per acre. On St. Helena Island little fertilizer is used. Cotton seed is worth fifteen dollars to twenty dollars per ton, and the commercial fertilizers from fifteen dollars to thirty dollars, which would make fifteen dollars an acre the cost of the manure among the best farmers. The land is now ready for listing, which is done b}^ haul- ing on to the manure with a hoe the soil from the tops and sides of the old beds. A more recent practice is to lap in with two furrows of a turning plow on the manure. This costs only seventeen and one-half cents })er acre, while the listing with the hoe costs eighty cents, although the latter has the great advantage of bringing all the vegetable mould and humus directly to the s})ot where the roots of the plant are to grow. Over the mass of dirt, weeds, manure, etc., thus collected in the old alley, a double roller, five feet from center to center, CHAP, in.] cr [/IIV.VTIOX OF SKA ISLAND COTTON. li»:; 194 COTTON. [cilAP. III. aud weighing about eight liundred pounds, is passed to"})ress together and compact the whole, completing two rows at a time. All this should be completed by the first to the middle of March, and the bed is then built np 1)}' lapping in two more furrows on a side, with a single or double horse turning plow. The land is now ready for planting, which may begin any time after the twentieth of March ; but the first to the tenth of April is the time preferred. Cotton planters are not used. Three hands do this work ; the one ahead cho})S a hole with a hoe on the top of the bed at intervals of twelve to eighteen inclies ; another hand drops eight or ten seeds into each hole, and the third follows and covers carefully with the hoe. Three or four pecks of seed are used to the acre. The seed makes its appearance above ground in eight to twelve days after being planted, and the stand is perfected from the second week in April to the first week in May. Hoeing begins about the first of ^lay. The second hoeing takes place the last of May. The plows then break out the middles (the spaces between the new beds where the old beds stood ). The hoe hands follow and pull up the loose dirt left by the ])lowto the foot of the cotton. This is called hauling ; by it the new bed is completed, the cotton is ke|)t from "flagging" (falling- down ), and the grass is kept under. It costs eighty cents per acre. At the second hoeing some stalks are thinned from the bunch in which the seed breaks the ground, and at each suc- ceeding hoeing and hauling other stalks are removed, until in July only one stalk of each bunch is left. There are four hoeings and four haulings by the last week in July, one or more furrows with a sweep plow Ijeing run through the mid- dles previous to each hauling. By the last of July the culture is completed, except to run a furrow witli tlie sweep l)etween the rows in August, to destroy grass and keep the cotton growing. The first blo.ssoms appear about the middle of June, when the cotton is fifteen inches high, and the bolls open towards CHAP, in.] f'ULTIVATIOX OF SEA ISLAND COTTON. 195 the end of August, when the })lants have attained a growth of four to five feet. ( 'otton ])icking commences from the hist week in August to the second week in September. For the first picking, while the cotton is thin, one and a half cents per pound seed cotton is paid. Sul)sequently the price is one cent per pound, never less, until the last of November, when it rises again to one and a half to two cents. , By the fifteenth of December the crop is gathered. When the cotton has been picked, weighed and housed, it is next S})read out in the sun, on what is called " an arbor." This is a platform usually made of inch boards, raised a few feet above the ground, and some twenty-five feet or more square. Here the sun and air dry the cotton, preventing it from heating, which it is liable to do wdien stored in bulk, and it is also thought to cause the lint to absorb some of the oil in the seed, which adds to the silky lustre of the fibre. After being thus dried, it may be either stored or passed at once to the " whipper," a machine that knocks out the dust and sand, and leaves the cotton whiter and more open. Formerly, when the price was higher than it is at jiresent, it was all assorted. A hand was given one hundred and fifty pounds of seed cotton as a day's task, which he thoroughly overhauled, picked out all specks, stained cotton, fragments of leaf, etc. At present, however, this is usually done by two hands, wdio examine the cotton as it passes into the gin, and two others behind the gin, who pick out cracked seed and motes, as the lint issues from the gin. The roller gin in some form has always been used for detaching the lint from black seed cotton. The first roller gin used in this country was one constructed in 1788, by Afr. Bissell, of (leorgia. It consisted of two short wooden rollers moving in o})})osite directions, each turned by a boy or girl, and giving, as the result of a day's work, five pounds of lint cotton. To this succeeded the foot or treadle gins, imported from the West Indies, wdiere they had been in use, having reached there with this varietv of cotton seed. IOC) COTTON. [chap. III. Other inn)r()veim'nts took place in the roller ^iii, iVoiii time to time, and about 1840, F. McCarthy, of Alabama, devised a machine which bears his name, and has been in use ever since on the Sea Islands. Shortly after this, small steam engines were used with the McCarthy gin, and now oxen and horses have been discarded and all the gins on the Sea Islands are run by steam power. Two horse power is required for each gin, which turns out on an average, a bale weighing three hundred and fifty pounds as a day's work. There is a recent English improvement of the McCarthy gin, known on the Sea Islands as the double McCarthy. This gin gives two bales in a day's work ; but it requires greater skill to attend it. The usual charge at these gins is three and a half to four cents per pound of lint, and they are said to pay well. Tlie cotton is packed in Dundee bagging, in round bales. No press is used, as it is thought it would injure the fibre. The work is done by hand, the cotton being beaten into the bag with a pestle. At the large gin house on St. Helena, however, even this work is accomplished l)y machinery. The l)ag is con- veniently suspended from an iron hoop, and a disc of two-inch plank, exactly fitting the bag, and moved by steam, pushes the cotton in, securing greater dispatch and accuracy in the packing. What has been written refers distinctly to the Sea Islands. A considerable quantity of long staple cotton in addition is grown on the mainlands and is known as Floridas, Santees, and as Mains. The general economy of the culture is the same as on the Sea Islands. The seed is obtained annually or biennially from the islands, as it is thought to deteriorate very rapidly on the mainland. In the absence of determinate experiments for a series of years, it is not easy to say what the cause of this deterioration is, or even if it is due to causes of a permanent character. That the seed does deteriorate is a fact beyond question. CIIAI". III.] (TI/nVATIOX Ol'^ SKA ISLAND COTTON. 197 The cost of production may be considered from two points of view. First, the actual cost to certain producers, of whom inquiry has been made. Second, what may be termed the rational cost, that is, the ]a])or, material and ca})ital, neces- sarily expended in production, directly or indirectly, by the producer himself, or by some one else. The first is real, but by no means expresses everything involved. For instance, on unsaleable land, a landholder, with little or no expenditure of capital, ma}^ produce a certain amount of cotton with labor given in return for debts that could not be otherwise collected. Such cotton would cost almost nothing to the producer. Between this and the opposite extreme, where the land had been bought above its real value, and a large expenditure made in the culture, there is every variation of individual experience — from one of immense profits to one ending directly in baidcruptcy. The rational cost, on the other hand, is purely tlieoretical ; in estimating the cost of each item of expenditure, it must be generalized and reduced to an average that does not, perhaps, conform exactl}^ to the experience of any individual. It summarizes these items, and leaves them recorded for consideration. Both methods are given. Messrs. Hinson & Rivers, on James Island, say eighty dollars a bale of four hundred pounds, or twenty cents per ])ound. Dr. A. B. Ivose, of (Tiarleston, })uts the cost at seventy dollars an acre, wliich should yield a bale of o")0 pounds, which gives, like- wise, twenty cents per pound. One of the most, if not the most, successful among Sea Island planters, Mr. J. J. Mikell, of Edisto, says the cost is fifteen cents per pound there. Before considering the rational cost, a word should be said as to the amount of production. The highest yield on record to one acre is 566 pounds of lint, on a single acre on Mr. Schaffer's place, on Wadmalaw Island. A planter on John Island made an average of 290 pounds of lint per acre, on a tract of twenty acres, while small farmers in the same locality produced only fifty pounds to seventy-five pounds lint per 11)8 COTTON. [chap. III. acre. On Edisto Island, there is a tract ol' 100 acres, pro- ducing 210 pounds of lint per acre, and conservative farmers there consider that 200 pounds of lint on the larger farms, year in and year out, to be an average yield of fine staple. In Mills' statistics of Soutli Carolina, published in 1.S25, it is stated that a farmer on Edisto Island produced on an ex- tensive scale, an average of 270 |)ounds of clean cotton to the acre. He also states that there were lots of lands that had produced 43.") pounds of lint to the acre. From which it would a})pear that the soil, climate, and old methods of cul- ture had a capacity not very far inferior to that witli which the invention of fertilizers, and of improved implements and methods at the present time, endow this locality. SEA ISLAND COTTON CROPS, EXPORTS AND UNITED STATES CONSUMPTION. ( SlIEPPERSON.) Season . 1874-75. 1875-7(). 1876-77. 1877-78. 1878-79. 1879-80. 1880-81. 1881-82. 1882-83. 1883-84. 1884-85. ]885-8(). ]88(i-87. 1887-88 . 1888-89. 1889-90. 1890-91. 1891-92. 1892-93. 1893-94. 1894-95. 1895-96. 1896-97 . 8,139 7,598 10,832 11,675 10,214 11,300 16,9.50 20,992 16,898 16,762 23,526 23,-501 29,991 22,614 22.471 23,918 22,214 17,059 9,882 19,107 15,031 20,771 26,219 1,074 ' 2,121 2,558 3,556 2,052 3,420 3,179 6,049 3,126 1 ,399 4,327 5,780 6,411 8,.304 12,000 13,629 29,613 30,576 28,324 39,.367 53,703 61.312 65,040 ^ 6 .s ■s 2'i o| Id O o ft p l« il 5" aj OS >< 3 o o W o W CD 03 H H '^ - 7,308 166 16,687 13,139 1,907 4,722 74 14,515 11,591 1,345 4,933 29 18,352 11,865 1,369 6,249 30 21,510 12,594 3,701 7,133 202 19,<)01 10,456 2 242 10,142 24,862 13,729 3^294 14,868 24 35,021 20,259 4,136 10,796 25 37.862 22,303 2,453 16,591 94 36,709 21,565 1,892 7,329 25,490 12,166 1,413 12,588 11 40,452 18,422 3,143 8,497 37,778 14,748 1,680 8,735 45,137 25,216 1 ,435 8,561 39,479 18,698 1,915 9,618 44,089 21,515 1,811 9,256 46.803 25,991 2,251 16,30() 68,133 34,300 4,823 11,499 59,1.34 24,778 2.653 7,212 45,418 20,650 i;s9o 2,578 61,0.52 33,385 4,6:!(; 5,894 74,628 35,033 5,711 9,971 991 93,045 43,174 7,269 10,701 2,597 104,557 47,272 11,180 Ha3 2,192 1,915 4,0()8 6,451 (5,688 9,389 11,270 14,762 13,573 11,674 17,358 19,973 20,515 19.560 20,i;;2 19,124 26,602 32,279 22,927 23^51 6 34,765 40,092 41,676 CiiAi-. MI.] CULTIVATION OF SEA ISLAND COTTON. I'M COST Ol' KACPI ITEM OF LAI5011 AND MATERIAL EXPENDED IN THE CULTURE OF AN ACRE OF SEA ISLAND COTTON. Items. Rent or interest on money in- vested in lands Wear and tear of implements. . . Cleaning and burning weeds and stalks Other cleaning up Digging and carting salt mud. . . Spreading salt mud Cotton seed for manure, 20 bush., at30 cts .■••:• Lapping mud and seed in with two furrows, or rolling ditto. ■ . Fish scrap, 200 lbs., and spread ing, 15 cts Kainit, 200 lbs Acid Phosphate, 200 lbs Spreading last two, 15 cts. each . . Commercial manures Home-made manures. Applying manures Bedding up with plow Splitting middles Breaking out ridge of old bed. . . . Planting Replanting Seed Eight to ten hoeingsand haulings Blowings with sweeji plow Thinning and regulating stand. . . Cleaning ditches Picking cotton Sunning and drying cotton Ginning, cleaning and packing. . Bagging and twine, per bale Hauling to gin Hauling to steamboat and freight to city Storage, insurance, weighing, drayage and selling Foreman's wages and rations. . . . Total One. 5 00 I 00 40 07 1 00 80 () 00 12^ 2 65 1 50 2 00 80 12.1 45 20 30 5 60 25 12.1 10 8 00 15 ;] 00 50 2 50 2 75 Two. Three. 5 00 1 00 40 07 12.\ 6 50 7 25 1 45 40 25 12.^ 50 25 30 5 60 25 12.^ 10 8 00 15 8 00 55 40 50 2 50 1 50 45 69.V 51 29i 5 00 1 00 40 07 Four. () 50 7 25 1 45 40 25 12i 50 25 30 5 60 25 12.1 10 8 00 7 00 55 40 50 2 50 Five. 48 52 3 00 25 15 10 00 2 00 55 50 50 50 25 1 50 6 00 2 50 50 11 20 00 50 50 2 50 52 c. 3 00 30 25 2 50 50 10 50 50 50 25 40 (i 00 2 50 50 4 00 3 50 27 25 1 25 27 32 200 COTTON. [ciIAl'. III. The previous table presents the rutioiial cost, giving an itemized account of all expenditures, as reported by intelligent Sea Island })lanters. The first three columns aiv from Edisto, the yield being placed at "200 pounds of lint cotton to the acre. Number four is from James Island, the yield taken at 280 pounds of lint per acre. Number five represents the aver- age expenditures of the hotter class of small farmers on John Island. It would be a still more difficult })roblem to arrive at a satisfactory estimate of the profit per acre to the farmer. This would vary, in the first place, according to the grade of cotton produced, the prices fiuctuating with the fineness of the staple, from thirty cents all the way up to one dollar and ten cents per pound. The value of the cotton, too, would depend greatly on the handling of the crop, whether it was picked in time, properly stored, sunned, dried, ginned, and moted, — in all of which operations the skill, care and forethought of the farmer would count for a great deal. But if we place the price of cotton at forty cents per pound, we may offer the following estimates as coming somewhere near the correct deductions to be made from the data fui'nished by the foregoing figures : COST OF SEA ISLAND COTTON I'EK POUND AND PROFIT PER ACRE. - One. Two. Three. Four. Five. Cost per pound. 22 8-lOc. 25,^. 24^ c. 18 o-5c. 27 8-lOc. Do. pins value of seed | produced and less in- V terest on investment, J 17 9-lOc. 20 7-lOc. 19 3- 10c. 15 1-1 Oc. 21^0. . Profit per cultivated acre. 145 20 138 20 $41 40 $69 72 $78 25 These figures can, of course, only be approximately cor- rect, but the wide difference that prevails between large farms CHAP. III.] CULTIVATION OF SP:A ISLAND COTTON. 201 and high culture, and the small forms and insufficient cul- ture, is a hopeful indication that the efforts for improvement have met with success, a success that would l)e much enhanced if we estimate the improved value of soil itself, where high culture has been practised. I:.-- 202 COT'I'OX. [CIIAP. IV, CIIAI'TI'IJ IV. I'KKI'AI.'ATION (iK COTTON KoK 'llll'; MAIJKKT. (iINMN(; AND liALINc;.- — IWKNTION Ol' Tlir: SAW (UN. — oi.I>-TlMh; (ilNNlNO. OLD-TIMI'. 1!.\I.1N(1. MolH'.lv'N (ilNNINO. Tl I !•: SAW (UN. COTTON (;iNNKiiii':s. — rill'; moi)i;i!N (UNNkhy. — 'I'lii', i;oi,i,kk cin. rKIH'KNTAOK OK LINT. IIALINO. Ginning and Baling;, rx't'orc llic rnrnicr (lisposcs of his cotton, Ol' r;illi('r bel'oi'o lie is willing- t(» (lis|>os(' of it, it has to ho |)iit in niarkotiihlo shajic in i\\v I'onn of a hah', and prior to liahnj;- lias to l)o i;,'inn(Mh 'hho seed cotton as it is picked contains two-thirds of its weight in seeds. Eacli holl contains thii'ty or I'oi'ty seeds, and the cotton is attacluMJ to these hy one end of each lihi'c. jnst as the human hair is attached to tht' hea(h To renio\'e the lihre from the see(h tlie gin used in Aniei'ica, t'xcept for Sea Island cotton, is o-onerally of the varit'ty known as the saw gin, and after the lint has heeu removed, it is haled in haling presses. Invention of the Saw Gin. 'To thoronghly understand the process in use at the j)resent day, one nnist study the his- tory of ginnino'. ( )n the 1 1th day ni' Nhirt-li, 17!»t, a patent was issued to I'di \\ hitnev, a nati\'e of .\hissachusetts, then li\uni;- in (!eor- gia, hy (ieorge W^isliingto)!, President of the I'liited States, for a cotton gin. ( )n the TJth day of May, ITtM), anothei" jiatent for an impro\-ement in cotton gins was issued to I logden Jlolmes, of l*'airtield County, South Carolina. The State of South ('arolina recogni/ed I'^li W hitnev as the inventor of the gin, and hy an act of the legislature lilty thousand dollars wei'e i)aid to him for the I'wv use of his invention in South Carolina. NoiHi (arolina imposed a royalty of <)'i3, cents per saw on each ain used in the state, which amount was faith- CH.M'. IV.] INVENTION OF THE SAW GIN. 203 fully collected and paid, 'rciinessee also paid .soinothiiiti; to Whitney. In the State of (Jcor<;ia, where ^\'hitney workeounds eacli, which was con- sidered a maximum load to be drawn by six mules over the ordinary roads of the South in winter weather. These bales were l:)ound together, and to the wagon by a pole placed lengthwise on top, the ends being drawn down, front and back, by ropes reaching to the axles of the wagon. Topmost of all was an arched frame made of bent wood, covered with canvas, under which corn and fodder for the mules, and some bacon, bread, a few eggs and a frying pan, were stored for the require- ments of the tri|). Much cotton was hauled in loads as described from a distance of fifty, and even one hundred and fifty miles. l^'om the large plantations from two to three such loads would be sent together. A gin house was designed, in which l)y means of mule power applied to wooden levers, a vertical wooden shaft was turned, on which was a wooden cog wheel, the teeth of which engaged with " wallowers " or "wobblers" on a horizontal shaft. The latter canied a jmlley, from which the gin was operated by a belt. CHAP. IV.] OLD-TIMK GINNING AND P.ALING. 207 H XT 208 COTTON. [CHAI'. IV. The screw, shown in Fi^. 101, which, witli Fig. 102, is inserted by courtesy of the New England Cotton ^Nlanufac- turers' Association, was simply a large wooden screw, working in a wooden nut, supported 1)y a frame, in which the box for receiving cotton was also built. The screw was operated also by mule power applied to long levers fastened to it at the to}). All seed cotton was handled by liand, the lint was carried to the screw in baskets, and, all in all, more hands were required to keep one gin going, to gin three or four bales a day, than are now recpired to operate six gins and gin sixty bales in the same time. But the planter cared nothing for more improved methods ; in the winter, proper work for slaves was scarce, and on cold or rainy days, when asked by a hand what to do, it was easy to answer " go help about the gin house," For the purpose of ginning and packing cotton with the above appliances and facilities, there were required four mules to operate the gin, two at each lever under the gin house, with a driver to each pair. In the story above there was required a ginner to stand at the gin and feed the cotton into it properly ; a ginner's helper to supply the cotton from the pile to the gin ; a helper to push the lint cottoii as it accumulated in a small room behind the gin down into the lint room, and a hand to remove the seed from the foot of the gin. For l)aling the cotton, one mule was reciuired to })ull the lever of the screw. The labor required was two to four hands to "tote cotton" (carry cotton from the lint room to the screw ) ; two hands in the box to pack the cotton down to make the box hold a bale ; two to tie the bales with hemp or other rope, and one or two extra hands for sewing up ends of bales, driving the mule at the lever, and so on. From the time of the invention of the gin to the end of the late civil war there was no demand for other methods than those above described. Steam would have brought 210 COTTON. [chap. IV. responsibility, with no commensurate advantages from the planter's point of view. The boiler might explode, and if it did, the smallest part of the loss would be that of the engine and the boiler. Twenty thousand dollars' worth of negroes might be killed, and perhaps many scalded and otherwise injured, which would make large doctor's bills. Old-Time Baling. The bale of cotton as made in the ordinary plantation "screw" (press) was about five and a half feet long by thirty inches wide and twenty-four inches thick. It was covered ahnost entirely by jute or gunn}'- bag- ging, and bound round in five or six places with hemp ropes securely tied. Fig. 103 shows admirably all tlie plantation work neces- sary for the preparation of cotton for the market. On the left is the gin house, with an ox wagon loaded with cotton on the seed just brought to be ginned ; in the centre of the group is seen the screw press, with a mule turning it l)y means of a chain attached to one of the long sweeps, while a mule wagon is laden with bales loosely pressed and covered with bagging- ready for the trip to market ; the typical grove of shade trees and the planter himself on horseback complete the group. The overseer w^oulcl select the negro boys fourteen to six- teen years old to drive the mules, and would direct them to be at the gin house "the first thing in the morning" with four mules to pull the gin gearing, and themselves to drive. He would call up the giuner, who was the negro most expert at handling the gin and was one of the plantation institutions along with the blacksmith, carpenter, or wagoner, and give him necessary instructions. The rule of work on a })lantation, winter and summer alike, was from daylight to dark, and ginning was no exception to the rule. It was a rule particu- larl}^ suited to Sambo, for, in the winter, the days were short. Sometimes the giuner would ask for special liands as helpers, but generally the hands were assigned by the overseer. Often the women would help to carry the cotton from the lint room CHAP. IV.] OLD-TIME i;ALIN(i 211 o 21 2 COTTON, [chap. IV. to the screw, and there were generally one or two women to sew the bagging together at the ends of the bale. When the morning came, the mules were hitched to the levers, and in a few moments the interior of the lint room would more nearly resemble fast falling snow than any imita- tion of it that has ever been attempted on tlie stage. Tliis cotton would be pushed from time to time from a small room behind the gin, and on the same floor, to the lint room })ro})er. One helper would keep the ginner supplied with cotton on the gin, another would keep the seed out of his way, and still a third would keep the lint cotton pushed down into the lint room . While the bale was being ginned preparations were going on at the press to pack it. At the bottom end of the box were doors hinged at the bottom by extending the rounded ends of the bottom batten of the door into holes mortised into the main frame of the screw. ( The word screw is used in the sense of its plantation meaning and means the entire screw press.) There were end doors at the bottom of the box also, but these were not hinged. Preparatory to packing a bale, the side doors were left down and the end doors were taken out. Tlie Ijlock was raised to its highest position by the mule ( driven by a boy ) pulling the screw around by one of its long levers. A piece of bagging would be cut to three yards long and forty inches wide, and this would be spread on the bed of the box, the ends and sides extending over. Then the doors would be raised and fastened by cross-bars of wood and wedges also of wood. The movable block being noAS^ at its highest point, out of the top of the box, it would be turned around at right angles to the length of the box. This would give room to put the cotton in at each end from the baskets on a plat- form. The cotton would be brought from the lint room to this platform in these baskets. After putting in some cotton, two men would get in the box on top of it and tramp it down in order to make the cotton hold better. As they tramped, CHAP. IV.] OLD-TIME BALING. 21:5 iS' 3' *>^ 214 COTTON. [chap. IV. the insides of the box would often be wetted with a " mop " ( a wad of cotton tied to the end of a stick ), for which purpose a bucket of water would be kept near by. When the box was full another piece of bagging was spread on the top, the block was turned, the mule unhitched from the end of the lever and being given a start the screw Avould run down itself until the increasing pressure w^ould gradually stop it. Then one mule w^ould be hitched to a lever, and by his pulling, further pres- sure would be applied. If the bale was a heavy one, another mule might have to be hitched to the lever to make the final round to run the screw down to make the bale standard size. When the last turn was made the wedges would be knocked out, the side doors let down, the end doors removed entirely and the bagging pulled over at the sides and at the ends, covering the latter completely. The ends were sewed with twine. Ropes were bound around the bale and tied by a peculiar knot that admitted of the rope being drawn very tightly by a lever before the knots were made. The bale being completed, the mule would be again hitched to the lever and the screw run up, thus relieving the pressure, wlien the bale was rolled out, new bagging was put down, the doors were raised and fastened, and the packing of the next bale was commenced. Five bales per day was ver}^ ordinary work, and eight Ijales made a good day's work. Modern Ginning. The ginning and l)aling of cotton is now performed mostly by steam power, and the unfortunate American principle of sacrificing everything to cheapness of production obtains in ginning cotton. (ijuality, except in the Sea Island cotton, is seldom considered, and cotton is rushed through the gins as fast as is possible, damaging the staple and reducing the value. One reason for this is tlie unwillingness to obtain sufficient machinery, as the gin and the capital repre- sented by its cost, lie idle eight months out of the year. Thus, if two gins can be made to do the work of three, the ginner prefers the arrangement, as the outlay on tlie third gin is avoided. CHAP. IV.] >rODERX GINNIN(i. 215 n 21() COTTON. [chap. IV. There can be no doubt that the cotton produced before the war, and for some fifteen years after it, was less gin dam- aged than at present, l3ut may be had more seed in it. Before the sulxlivision of the hirge plantations into the numerous small farms of the present day, nearly every cotton planter had a gin house of his own. Now, however, there is not more than one gin house to each thirty-two farms growing cotton. From this it has resulted that cotton ginning has become a business, in a large measure separate and distinct from cotton growing. In the reorganization of southern industries on the new basis, it was first thought that movable ginneries would meet the necessities of the case, and for a year or two traction engines with ginning equipments went through the country for this purpose, shown in operation in Fig. 10-"). It was found, however, that they would not fill the requirements necessary. The small cotton farmers did not have the iacilities for storing their cotton until the whole or even the larger portion of their crop was gathered ; the exig- encies also of their financial condition made it necessary for them to put their cotton in the market without delay after it was gathered. For these reasons, the portable gins were obliged to change their location for nearly every bale the}' ginned, which was so expensive that, after a fair trial, they were abandoned as unsuitable. Immediately, in addition to the gin houses established of old upon the plantations, new ones were erected by country merchants and others, as toll gins, expressly for the purpose of supplying the wants of the new growth of small cotton producers. . The competition for custom among these new establish- ments greatly reduced the charges for ginning ; formerly the seed was given for the ginning, now bagging and ties are sup- plied in addition, by the gin house, where the seed is taken for payment. The money charges for ginning were at first one dollar per hundred pounds of lint ginned, or five dollars a bale ; now it has been reduced to three dollars and even as CHAT. IV.] MODERN (i INNING 21 218 COTTON'. [chap. IV. low as two dollars a bale where the gin provides the bagging and ties, or one dollar per bale where the farmer provides them, the farmer taking all the lint and seed. Unfortunately with the reduction of the charges for gin- ning, there has been, as before stated, a great falling off in the quality of the work done. There is usually a cheap steam engine of five or eight horse power, the gins average forty to forty-five saws each, and the object is to prepare the cotton as rapidly as f>ossible for their customers, to take the lint from the seed as closely as practicable, and not to reduce the weight of the product by .separating too much of the dust and motes from the lint. The conse<:{uence is that the quality of the staple is much poorer, not only on account of the motes and dust not removed, and of the short fibres which the close gin- ning of the seed mixes with the longer ones, but also by the knotting, and even breaking, of the fibres, owing to the high speed at which these small gins are run. in order to turn off each customer's work with the least possible delay. As a rule, a forty saw gin is made to give ten or twelve bales, or about 5000 pounds of lint per day, whereas to separate the fibres without injury from the seed, four h>ales or 2000 pounds lint per day, is the most that was done when horse or mule power was used, before the introduction of steam engines. The deterioration of American cotton, which has recently been much complained of, both in America and in England, is partly due to the causes above mentioned. Other causes co-operate to promote this evil. The small and decreasing size of the farms leads more and more to the intermixture of cotton of different qualities. First, because where less than one bale is produced on the farm, it must necessarily be mixed with cotton grown elsewhere, and most likely of different quality. Again the necessities of the small farmers compel them to dis- pose of much of their cotton to country store-keepers, which is, perhaps, the most frequent cause of mixture. In these regards, the situation approaches that which has occasioned the CHAP. IV.] MODERN GlXXIXci. 219 SECTIO.\AL END ELEVATION OF MODER.\' GINNERY. Fig. 107. R Moderq Giqqery. 220 COTTON. [chap. IV. inferiority of Indian cotton. This evil is corrected to .some extent by efficient "grading" by cotton factors. The laborers, being paid by the hundred weight, find it to their advantage not to separate the dirt and trash from the cotton ; indeed, it is not uncommon for them to add water and sand to increase the weight, a practice very apt to escape detection where the baskets and sheets are weighed in the twi- light, at the close of the day's work. The sheets on which tha cotton is emptied during the day by the pickers were formerly kept open and exposed to the sun's rays, .so that the dew on cotton gathered early in the morning might be thoroughly dried out ; now the sheets are kept carefully covered, so that the laborei" may escape loss from evaporation. In addition to the small country ginneries, a modern gin- nery is now generally found in all large southern market towns, and in some of the larger cities in each state an oil mill and fertilizer works are i"un in connection with the gin- nery. J]y })ermission of Mr. D. A. Tompkins, of Charlotte, N. C, two views of a cotton ginnery are given at Fig. 107. A modern ginnery consists of a complete plant for elevating the seed from the wagon to a room or receptacle above the gins, a series or battery of gins with condensers for removing the fibre ( lint ) from the seed, and a lint conveyor to deliver the ginned cotton to one of the numerous baling presses now in u.se. The view at Fig. 108 shows a })lant of this description. The elevating tube is seen above the wagon of seed cotton and is connected at the opposite end to a fan of suitable capacity. The current of air generated by the fan shown draws the cotton uj^ the telescopic tube from the wagon or cotton house into what are known as receptacle boxes. These hold a sup- ply of seed cotton, which is taken from them by short horizon- tal feeders to each of the gins. By these feeders a constant supply of cotton to each gin is assured. To .secure economy in ginning it is advisal)le not to allow the gin to stop work too long in changing from one farmer's wagon of cotton to CHAT. IV.] MODEUX (I INNING. 221 222 COTTON. [iiiAi'. IV. another, and the above named arrangement enal)le.s the receptacle to begin filling with cotton from a new wagon after the old cotton has passed into the feeders, thns economizing time, and yet keeping the cottons separate, wliich is of consid- erable im])ortance at a custom gin. The Saw Gin. Tlie feeder above the gin is somewhat on the principle of the automatic feeder for cotton openers in a spinning mill, and depends for its action on a spiked lattice and spiked cylinder, which takes the seed cotton over into the roll box at a regular rate, and yet does not carry over heavy foreign substances which might injure the saws. A feeder shown on the Pratt gin at Fig. 110, is the usual style of feeder where the gins aYe not arranged in a battery. The construction of a saw gin may be Ijriefly expressed as a series of circular saws with fine teeth, revolving with an arc of their circumference projecting through a grid into a receptacle for seed cotton ; they tear the lint from the seed and carry it through the grid. It is removed from the saws by a brush and carried to a condenser. Fig. Ill is a section through a gin showing one saw marked D. The seed cotton receptacle, or seed l)Ox, is marked A. C is the saw cylinder on which the saws are fixed, another view of which is shown in Fig. 112 at C, while the individual saws are shown in Fig. 112 at A and B. E in Fig. Ill shows the grate through which the saws project, known as the breast or grate fall, also shown in Fig. 112 at 1). M is a moveable iron plate to regulate the cleaning of the seed and is adjustable by the screw X. The chamber. A, is full of seed and not seed cotton. Figs. lOS, 10<), 111, 112, and 118 are inserted by courtesy of the Eagle ( otton Gin Compau}^ of Bridgewater, Mass. Seed cotton having been fed into the chamber, A, passes round on the outside of the mass of seed. The teeth of the saws projecting through the grid about half to three-quarters of an inch tear the fibres from the seeds nearest to them. The ^ o 224 COTTON. [CHAI'. IV. quick speed of the saws ( about 3o0 revolutions per minute ) sets up a rolling motion of the mass of seed, which is the rea- son for one of the names of the chamber, "roll box." New- seed cotton is continually being brought under the action of the saws, the fibres are carried forward by the revolution of the saws and are removed l)y a rotary brush. Some gins are made with what is called a "revolving head," in which case the ends of the roll box are iron plates which revolve on studs at the same speed as the rolling mass of seed. The ol)ject is to reduce friction of the seed on the ends of the roll 1)0X and keep the mass of seed rotating at a uniform speed all across the box. The circular In'ush, shown in Fig. Ill at J, and at E in Fig. 112, is an important part of tlie machine; it should be filled with heavy bristles and the frame work and ril)S should be strongly constructed and well bound together. The brush revolves at four or five times as many revolutions per minute as the saws, in the direction indicated by the arrow below it in Fig. Ill, and the cotton is blown either into a lint room on the old system, or, where a condenser is used, the fibres are drawn forward by the air current to the surface of wire covered drums or screens ; by passing between these screens they are delivered in the. form of a sheet, being deposited on the floor in case of gins that are not connected to a conveyer. Where several gins are connected in a battery, as shown in Fig. 109, the lint is drawn forward through tubes from each of the gins in the battery to one condenser. Each tube can be separately " cut off," and thus one or more gins can be used at once, and the current of air regulated for each of them. This condenser delivers above a baling press, which may be constructed with two boxes, so that cotton can be delivered into one, while the other is being packed. The saws should project about three-fourths of an incli through the grate or they will cause the breast to shake or 226 COTTON. [cirAi'. IV, dance. The mote board sliould be perfectly siiiootli, otherwise motes tend to gather and gradually choke up. Gins are most frequently used of sixty to eighty saws each, ten-incli or twelve-inch diameter, and the highest speed that a twelve-inch saw cylinder ought to be driven for good work is 300 per minute, although they are frequently detri- mentally run up to 400 revolutions per minute and above. Fig^ HI. £gw Gin ir| Sectiori. Gin Damage. Defective ginning is caused by having the saws too near to the Ijars of the grate so as to rub, by run- ning the saws too fast, or by having teeth too sharp ; when newly sharpened the teeth have a square edge which ought to be somewhat rounded off by running some old cotton loaded Avith sand through the gin. An experienced judge of cotton can detect the results of bad ginning by an examination of the cotton in the bale. CHAP. IV.] OIX DAMAGE. 227 A. Saw in Sections. 15. Solid Siiw. C. Saw Sliafl and Saws. D. Grate, Grid, or Breast. E. Brush. Fig. 112. Parts of Saw Gir^. 228 COTTON. [chap. IV. There are three principal effects caused by bad ginning ; one is nep, another is cut staple, and the third is stringy or tailed cotton. Cotton should never be ginned while it is wet or even damp, as it will not leave the seed as satisfactorily then as it will when ginned in a dry .state, and after it has been removed it has a tendency to string, or form lumps and bunches. This is the least important damage that is done in a gin, the cut staple being much more detrimental in succeeding operations. The cut staple is caused hy running the gin too fast. In this case, the fibres are ruptured by the sudden pull given to them by the saw teeth, and an indication of a gin liaving been run too fast is sometimes seen in a bale when the cotton is found to contain a large number of little clusters or V shaped bunches of fibres, showing that the brush has not been able to cleanse the saw teeth sufficiently slowly to brusli these kinks out. Of course, the faster the saw is run the faster the brush lias to be operated in order to remove the fibre at all. Neps are caused by saws not being properly set and rubbing against the grid ; the fibre in this way is rolled into minute balls, whicli are very difficult to remove in the after process of carding. When it does not actually roll it into neps, the gin bruises the fibre sufficiently to cause the whole of the cot- ton that passes between the wrongly set saws and the bars to be of a rough fluffy nature. If the samples drawn from the bale show gin damage the whole shipment ought to be con- demned, for alfhough it may, and probably is not, grown by one farmer, it is far more probably ginned at one ginnery, and the fault will often run through the lot. Cotton Ginneries. The capacity of a saw gin driven by steam or water power is about eight pounds per saw per hour, or a 500 pound bale can be ginned in one hour on a sixty saw gin. As has been previously pointed out, the staple of the cotton is better if ginned more slowly than this. Often gins are speeded up so as to gin a bale in thirty-five to forty-five minutes, but the results are bad. The old mule power gin of COTTON GINNERIES. 229 "^, -.A 230 COTTON. [ciiAi-. IV. forty to forty-five saws rarely does above loOO pounds per day or only one-half of the capacity of the steam driven gin, but other conditions being equal, does better work. The makers of cotton gins assume that each saw will gin ten bales a season. Under the gin, as it is usually constructed, is an adjust- able sliding mote-board, by which it is claimed that motes can be separated from the lint, by regulating the volume of air passing to the gin brush, which sweeps the lint into the lint room. At the bottom of the roll box or grate fall there is also another adjustment, so that the seeds can, if desired, be so thoroughly cleaned as to be almost de-linted before leaving the gin, or allowed to drop out with the short lint still attached, which is the much better plan where good results are desired. Unfortunately, the farmer objects to the fractional loss even of the motes or short lint on the seed and cotton, the removal of which would be advisable, as the value of the cotton would then be increased. The Modern Ginnery* It is amusing to watch some farmers who bring their cotton to a modern ginnery with its numerous tubes and trunks. Their leading idea apparently is that one or another of these mysterious orifices may be a means of robbing them, and that if they do not watch all of the feed and delivery ends at one and the same time, some of their cotton will mysteriously disappear. The same suspicious feeling prevents a farmer selling his cotton in the seed. From the point of view of the spinner, it would be to the advantage of many of the new cotton mills starting up in the South, to have their own ginnery where cotton could be ginned slowly and carefully, saving the staple ; but it has been found almost impossible to persuade the farmer to sell his cotton on the seed. This on his })art is a wise 2)i'ecaution if he intends to return the seed to the soil. Another reason for not disposing of seed cotton is that several states have laws prohibiting the sale of cotton on the seed between dusk and sunrise as a precaution against plantation theft over night. CHAl'. IV.] THE MODERN GINNERY. 2;]] 232 rOTTOX. [.hai-. IV. A roprc'scMitatioii ol" one of ilu'sc steam giiiiu>rie.s is shown at Fig. 114, whore the wagons laden with seed cotton add a picturesqueuess to the scene. A little to the right of the gin- nery are seen several bales ol" cotton dum{)ed in the Held, where they may have lain I'or weeks. This is one of the causes of the mildewed and decayed cakes of cotton occasion- ally found at the spinning mill. It is not to be assumed that all ginneries are so complete as the modern plant Just described. There are many on the very primitive principle described in the early ])art of this chapter, with the wooden pin-gears oi)erated by mules or horses ; there are others on remote water-] )owers, or driven l)y anti- quated engines with gins dating hack two decades or more, and each edition of a southern paper, in tlie ginning season, generally contains a rejjort of a boiler bursting, an engine gone to pieces, or a ginner}^ burned down. Some of the ginneries which were Iniilt in slavery days are still used, because of the labor and ex|)ense of hauling seed cotton to the custom gin, which takes up as much time as is absorl)ed l)y the primitive apparatus already installed, but the tendency of the times is towards large custom ginneries with power presses. Fig. 11") on the opposite page shows individual Ameri- can cotton fibres : 1. Texas. 2 and .'>. Rome, Georgia. 4. Sea Island. ."). Vazoo Delta, Mississippi. The Roller Gin. There are other important machines for the purpose of giiuiing cotton besides the saw gin. l*erhai)S the best known of tliese are the knife roller gins ibr single or double rollers. The single roller single action gin is a long staple cotton gin for Sea Island and Egyptian cotton, production seventy to ninety pounds of ginned cotton })ei' hour. CHAT. IV.] THE i;OLLER GIN. •)Af\ 284 COTTON. [CIIAP. IV. The single roller double aetion gin is a short stajile gin for American Upland, Indian, Chinese, and all sliort staple cottons having a wooly or green seed, production twenty-five to forty-five pounds short staple per hour, and forty to seventy pounds long staple per hour. This is the favorite gin for India. The double roller gin is for both long and short staple cottons, production 95 to 125 pounds short staple per hour ; 140 to 180 pounds long staple per hour. The double roller gin is the best gin where ten, twenty or thirty of them can be operated in one mill, or where mill owners gin their own cot- ton, as they do in India and Brazil. The above figures have been supplied by Piatt Brothers & Co., of Oldham, England. Figs. 113 and 115 are used by courtesy of the New England Cotton Manufacturers' Association, There is no doubt that the roller gin separates fibre from the seed with very much less damage than in the case of the saw gin. Referring to Fig. 115, which was prepared by Mr. Edward Atkinson, the well-known statistician of Boston, it will be seen at once how the tugging of a saw at such delicate fibres as are shown in the figure, can bruise and break the filament. Experiments have proved that cotton from the same field is stronger when ginned on a roller gin than when ginned on a saw gin, and while the expense of roller ginning is slightly greater than that of the saw gin, there is no doubt that roller-ginned cotton is more valuable and would bring a higher price in the market, if a supply of roller-ginned Amer- ican cotton were available ; the writer feels convinced that the time is not far distant when some form of the roller gin will be widely adopted in tlie American cotton belt. It is now very largely used in India, a country which formerly utilized the most primitive methods of separating cotton from the seed. There the method of ginning formerly used, and which still obtains to some extent, is the old roller gin. Fig. 116 shows one form of construction of this gin, which requires two persons to work it, one turning the upper CIIAI'. IV.] THE K(Jl.l,i;i; (ilN. 235 Fig. 116. Hiqdoo Ginnina- F13. 117. Hiridoo Giri. 236 COTTON. [ciiAP. IV. roll with a staff, and the other turning the under roll hy a crank, feedino- cotton at the same time. The gin shown in Fig. 117 is a sligiitly imi)r()ved form of the same gin, as it can be operated and fed hy one person. Percentage of Lint. A rough and ready mode of calculat- ing the proi)ortion of lint to the total weight of seed cotton is that the lint forms one-third of the whole, and the farmer always hopes that his cotton will "third " itself. As a matter of fact, the average will hardly be one-third. Cotton grown on rich land does not usually third itself, nor does cotton ginned immediately after picking, or picked after the boll has recently opened, as the excess of natural moisture in the seed has not had time to dry out, but for all practical purposes an estimate that two-thirds by weight of the seed cotton is seed and oiie-third is lint is sufficiently accurate. The proportion of Unt to seed is increasing year by year as the cotton farmer becomes more careful in the selection of his seed. Baling. At the country ginneries, the cotton is baled as well as the fticilities admit of, but has to be compressed again at a shipping point. The pressed bale is formed in some few districts still by the old mule press shown at Fig. 102, but very rarely. In this case, the number of bales made in a day does not exceed ten, and this with two or three men and a mule, the production being usually between five and eight bales per day. Power presses are rapidly being introduced and there is an immense variety of these — screw presses, direct steam cylinder presses, down packing presses, u}) j»acking presses, double box presses, self tramping presses, and so on. A figure of a double box revolving press with a direct acting steam tramper, is shown at Fig. 118. This press is so arranged that the baling boxes can be revolved on a platform, so as to bring them alternately under the operation of the press. After the bagging has been spread the cotton is thrown into the box which is not under Fig. 118. Cotton Balirtg Press, ciiAi'. IV.] I'.AMNi.. 2:^{) the operation of the pre^s, until it i.s tiUed with luu.se fiiikes of fibre. Steam is then turned on the piston above the ''tramper." This is a i»laten workino- in slides, whirh is pressed down on the loose cotton to reduce the space it occu- pies. It is raised as well as lowered bv steam. After several fillings and trani[)ings the box is full, and the })latfurm is revolved to bring the box over the press. The platform is carried and revolves on a hollow column, four inches in diameter. The ])latforni of tlie press proj)er is moved U))wards by the rotation of a threaded gear or wheel on a five incli steel screw. After sufficient pressure has been put on the bale, the ties are passed round and buckled, tlie pressure released, and the bale removed by throwing oi)en the sides or doors of the box. Additional information on baling is given in the next chapter. Fig. 119 is a view of a southern cotton mill, the Chewalla cotton mill at Eufaula, Alabama. This is a small mill, but is the average size of the southern mills. The above named figure, together with several others in the book, viz. : — Figs. 43, 44, 64, 91, 14i, 101, and 163, are used b}' courtesy of the Central of Georgia Kailway Company, and are views on the line of that railroad. 240 COTTON. [chap. v. CHAPTER V. THE FARMER TO THE tOTToX MKRCHAxXT. — LOCAL SALE OF COTTON". SAMPLING AND GRADING. — COMPRESSING. OCEAN SHIPMENT. — METHODS OF BALING COTTON. The Farmer to the Cotton Merchant. The American cotton crop has reached the immense total of 10,000,000 bales in one year, and the reader will correctly conclude that there exists C|uite an army of merchants and brokers whose princi- pal business is in dealing with cotton between the grower and the spinner, or to use an American expression " handling" the crop. As yet, less than one million bales are consumed in the cotton mills of the New South, and consequently the ulti- mate destination of most of the cotton crop is New England, Canada, or Europe, and the larger cotton houses at the inland and seaport cities have direct foreign connections. On the otlier band, they liave buyers at many of the villages or I'ail- road stations in their district, and thus they form a direct link between the farmer and the Boston, Liverpool, Havre, or Bremen cotton merchant. Local Sale of Cotton. In the days of slave grown cotton and of large plantations, it was the custom for the up country planters to consign their cotton to a seaport — New Orleans, Wilmington, Norfolk, Charlestown, or Savannah, or to some lai-ge river city like i\Iem[)his or St. Louis, and leave it in the hands of a commission merchant for sale. The planter having paid haulage to the river or railroad, transit charges to the market and insurance while in transit, found that the deduc- tions from the merchant's remittance included charges for weighing, packing, storing, and repairing bagging, together with two and one-half per cent, commission, and consequently CHAI". v.] LOCAL SALK OF C()TT(»N. 241 fd 242 COTTON. - [chap. v. this part of the business was a heavy tax on him. The s^^s- tem was followed for some time after the war, and meant an average expense of })rol)al)ly five dollars per bale to get the cotton from the plantation to the ship. Partially in conse- quence of this expense and principally because of the growing of cotton by so many small farmers who are not free agents or who cannot trust the commission man, tlie consignment of cotton for sale has almost died a natural death, and it is now almost all sold to local storekeepers and by them to cotton exporting firms in a neighboring city, or it is hauled by the farmer into the city and sold directly to the exporter. The average small farmer is usually in debt to his local storekeeper, and also has to turn over to the ground landlord so many bales of cotton as rent, onedialf, one-third, or one- fourth of the crop, according to the terms of tenancy, the land owner having this claim prior to all other creditors. The local storekeeper is dignified by the name of mer- chant, and, although the town in which the store is situated may only be populated by five white people, seven niggers and a yellow dog, he is also mayor, postmaster, tax collector, and may l)e owns the cotton gin in addition to dispensing hard- ware, dry goods, boots, shoes, groceries, buggies, and fertilizers. The farmer has to satisfy this merchant's mortgage for a year's supply before he can sell his cotton, and it generally happens that it all goes to the storekeeper, at his own valua- tion, to pay otf the farmer's debts. This incubus being- removed, the farmer's credit is again good, and he returns home with bags of fiour, and suits of clothes, mule harness, a jug of corn whiskey, a new banjo, or gingham for a woman's gown, according to his tastes, but all of which is the beginning of another deljt to l)e paid for by cotton for which the land is not yet plowed. If he has been successful in smuggling off' his farm, unknowai to his merchant, one bale of cotton during the night, he may be in the unusual position of having money to spend. He also usually sells the seed that ought to be returned to the around for manure. CHAP, v.] LOCAL SALE OF COTTON. 243 I? 244 COTTON. [tiiAi'. V. The faniK'r wlio is .sufficiently iiule})eii(lent to be able to sell his own cotton, hauls it to the same merchant, and sells it at the best ))i"ice he can get, as a rule getting cash for it, less a (leiluction for weighing. The storekee|)er, who in addition to his other duties, is often a buying agent for a cotton exporter in a neighboring interior city wdiicli is a cotton market or compi'essing point, or if not the buying agent him- self, is in touch with one, forwards this cotton in carload lots, each car carrying cotton grown on half a dozen fiirms and of as many (jualities. In the above case it has been assumed that the cotton has to be shipped by rail, but it often happens that water transit is the chea})er, and possibly the only mode of shipment. In this case the cotton is loaded on the river steamers, so familiar to residents near the Mississippi river. Red river, and other rivers, as shown at Fig. 121. Another view ( Fig. 120) shows cars laden with cotton on a branch railroad. On arrival at the city, it is trucked out and arranged on large platforms for examination and gi-ading, as shown in Fig. 122, from a photo- graph taken at the Charlotte, N. (A, cotton i)latform. At these platforms it comes in et)ntact with cotton hauled in l>y road from within a radius of fifteen or twenty miles, and which is sold on the streets of the city by the farmer directly to the cotton exporting hrms. Several other views are shown, one in Fig. 12;> repre- senting the streets of a Texas city on a hot day — the open umbrellas of the whites testifying to this. The ftirmers' wagons laden with cotton are seen all round the s(]uare. The farmer deals directly with the only firm that inter- venes between him and the foreign cotton merchant, and thus middlemen's profits are avoided. The cotton exporting firm is of course in touch with prices all over the cotton world through the local cotton exchange, and usually has some advantage over the farmer in this way, but the latter has to sell, or else haul his cotton fifty miles in another direction. The trade ClIAI'. v.] LOCAL SALE OF COTTON. 245 246 COTTON. [luav. V. being made, tlie cotton is })assed Ijy two cit}^ officials — a cot- ton weigher and a cotton inspector. The duties of the former are to o'ive an official weioht, and the latter to examine both sides and tlie middle of the bale, looking for false packed cotton, wet bales, bad baling, excessive weight of tares, and other defects, for any or all of which tlie farmer is penalized by a deduction from the actual weight. The decision of the weigher and inspector is usually accepted as final on both sides, and a fee in the larger markets where much cotton is sold, of ten cents (five pence) per bale is paid by the farmer for the examination, which increases in snuill })laces to twenty or twenty-five cents. These weight deductions are not at all infrequent in the cotton belt, but the English or northern spinner usually finds his cotton invoiced to liim at full weight. On the other hand, the custom is to pay the farmer on the gross weight, including bagging and ties ( tares and hoops ), which weigh twenty to thirty pounds per bale, and for Avhich the English spinner gets an allowance. Sampling and Grading. In the cities the exporters affix a tag to each bale by whiclj to identify it, and take a sample from every bale, which is numbered the same as the tag. This method of sampling cotton is shown at Fig. 125. The sam- ples are juit in a basket and taken to a room with a good light, judged by an experienced " grader," and if necessary compared with standard sam[)les. Thus the cotton is assorted into gra-des such as low middling, middling, good middling, etc., as explained in Chapter I. It is then made up into 100 bale lots, if possible, and " compressed," being branded at the same time with the mark under which it is to be sold in Europe. A sample yoova of a Mississippi cotton factor is shown in Fig. l.')(). Compressing. By the term "compressing" is meant the second pressing of the bale of cotton. The old wooden screws on the farms or even the more modern power l)aling })re.sses CHAP, v.] COMPKESSINO. 247 ^^ ' it ^ K > $Ji\ 'its. ' 24S ' COTTON. [cuAi>. V. are only sutticiently })oweiiul to make a lo(jse bale about twenty-eight inches thick. Tlie power necessary to compress a bale into the small compass of the package as it arrives in Liverpool or Boston is very great, and the plant very expen- sive, but of great ca})acity. Consequently, at every inland city and seaport in eacli state, there are compresses. Some of these belong to private cotton export firms who do a large business, but more frequently to the railroad companies. The railroads give through freight rates to Europe or Boston, and establish the compresses so as to economize space ; firstly, in their own freight cars by handling closer packed cotton, and sec- ondly to get a greater weight of cotton in a ton measurement ( ocean ton ), and thus be able to give l)etter ocean freight rates to their customers. It is found that an extra and often useless patcli of bagging is also placed on each bale during compressing. These compresses are mas.sive affairs, with batteries of two or three large boilers, the press proper, steam and hydraulic cylinders, etc. Tliere are also the large storediouses of the })lant, and the various appliances for liandHng and loading the cotton, both before and after it is ])ressed. An ordinary compress reciuires, to pay expenses, at least a business of 40,000 bales per annum ; so they are located only at central and convenient disti'ibuting points, to receive the output of the various plantations and storehouses. The compresses are very strong and heavy, a good illus- tration of which is found in the following record of the weights of some of the parts of the press : Lower platen, about .... 22,000 pounds Upper platen, about .... 16,000 " Crosshead, about 25,000 Two wrought iron links, each . . 24,000 " High pressure steam cylinder . . . 25,000 " Low pressure steam cylinder . . . 22,000 " A^arious pressures are i)ut on a l)ale of cotton, according to the capacity of the })ress, varying from 1000 to ;)()00 tons. CHAP, v.] COMPRKSSIXG 240 2o0 COTTON. [HIAI'. V. The l)ale in some instances is reduced from three feet thick to six inches thick, thougli after leaving the press this will expand to twelve inches thick. The steam pressure varies from about 100 pounds to 120 pounds, and the hydraulic pressure from oOOO to 4000 pounds per square inch. The steam cylinders vary in size from sixty inches in diameter to seventy-five 'inches in diameter, nine feet to ten feet stroke, hydraulic cylinders, from sixteen and one-half inches to thirty inches diameter, and five feet four inches stroke. The compress strikes the visitor to the South perhaps more than any other process in the raising of cotton, or in its preparation for the market. It is interesting to see a bale which has been already partially pressed at a country liand press, about twenty-eight inclies thick, placed between the huge jaws of this contrivance and condensed in bulk until it is only eight inches thick, and the agility and daring of the fourteen niggers who insert the bale, the covers and the ties, between the jaws of the huge press, are very noticeable. It is very clear that much agility is developed when it is recorded that at the Charlotte, North Carolina, compress, there is a record of 936 bales having been compressed in five hours, each bale tied with seven bands and heads well sewed. The average dimensions of a bale from tlie farm are : length, five feet ; height, four feet ; width, twenty-eight inches, making about forty-eight cubic feet, or eleven pounds to the cubic foot. The powerful compresses now constructed will reduce the above bale measurement in the press to seven inches thick, making- seven cubic feet, with a density of about seventy-five pounds to the cubic foot. After the bale is released from the press, it expands, but remains at a density of between forty and fifty pounds, after the pressure has been removed. The cost of com- pressing is nominal compared with the great saving in freight. The compress shown in Fig. 127, and made by Mr. Lucien A^oorhies, of New Orleans, is known as the Morse press, and consists of a huge steam cylinder which is ninety inches in diameter and worked at a pressure of 120 pounds to the CHAP, v.] ('(JMPltESSING. 251 252 COTTON. [ciiAi-. V. squnre inch. It canics at tlic lower cud of the piston rod a wedge shaped toothed rack, into which are geared cyeloidal sectors, one at each side of the rack. Each of these sectors is very massive, and each lias two links or lifting rods connected to it in such a manner as to raise the platen or platform. As before stated, these parts weigh from 1(),00() to 2-"). (100 pounds each. Between the cylinder and the lower platform is a beam, forming part of the frame work of the press, and it carries an u})[)er platen supported from a wedge. The lower and uj){)er })laten form the jaws of the })ress and are grooved in such a manner as to admit of the tics or bands being slipped around the l)ale at a period when the highest pressure is being exerted. Usually the ties are removed from the plantation bale, the bale is trucked to the press, additional bagging put on the lower platform, the Ijale dropped on this, and additional l)ag- giiig thrown on the upper part of the bale. Steam is then admitted to the cylinders, and in cases where the wedge is used, also admitted to a small additional engine for the pur- pose of moving the wedge, the bale being raised with the lower ])latform towards a tixed beam. The builder of the press estimates that the maximum pressure is 0,000,000 pounds on each bale, after allowing for dead weight and friction. While the bale is in this position new bands are passed around it and made tight, the pressure is then removed, and the bale taken out to be marked and trimmed. The distance between the jaws of the press, when the highest pressure is being exerted, is between six and nine inches, according to the size of the l)ale, but the l)ale imme- diately expands, on being released, to one and a half or twice this size. The greatest depth between the jaws of the press is sixty-four inches, and the numl)er of men rec^uired to operate the press is al)Out fourteen. Ocean Shipment. The bales are marked with three or four letters or some device to indicate the lot of cotton to which they belong. These lots are the result of various "^"gradings " to ol)tain l)ales in each shipment all of one class. CIlAl". v.] OCEAN SHIPMENT. i5' CD 254 COTTON. [(HA1>. V. It is then usually weiglieil, piled away in covered tVeight cai's holdino- on an average fifty-five bales to a cnr, and i'orwarded to a sea])ort, not necessarily the nearest, 1)ut the one to wliicli the best land freight rates are to be had. This dejx'iids on the current position of the railroads, whether they are cutting- rates with one another for special classes of trade, or wliether there is a combine keeping up the rates to any })articular ])ort. It is more than probable that the cotton will be tbi'warded to the sea])ort in loose bales and " compressed " there. In that case, the bales are taken right from the " com})ress " to the ship side, the ship lying close by, either slung over into the hold three bales at once, or drawn u[) a gangway, and packed away very carefully, being screwed down into their places by jack screws to reduce the possibility of tlie cargo shifting. The loading of cotton for ocean slii})ment into a tramp steamer is shown at Fig. 128, representing a scene at the i)ort of Savannah, Georgia. There is a continual waste of cotton in transit such as sweepings and pickings from bales. There is a considerable C{uantity of sample cotton discarded after each cotton deal, while the frequent fires in cotton districts create a large quan- tity of loose cotton. Dealing in loose cotton is an important trade, and, as it has to be sorted and baled, a immber of peo- ple are engaged at sea})ort towns in this work. At Fig. 129 a pictui'e of negroes thus em})loyed is shown. Methods of Baling Cotton, The baling of American cot- ton calls for special criticism. Contrast an American bale with an Egyptian or Indian one in any European cotton market, and there is a picture which needs no comment. The American bale shows the bare cotton in a dozen places. The cover is usually hanging in rags owing to the breakage of ties ( bands), and the wretched quality of the bagging ( tare ) used, while the bales from Egypt and India are perfect, firm, s(iuare cor- nered packages, entirely enclosing the cotton. The covering for cotton bales used in the South is known as gunny bag. This is made up in fifty yard lengths and in CHAP, v.] METHODS OF BALING COTTON. 255 Fig. 127. R Cottoq Bale Corqpress. -•">'! COTTON. [CIIAP. V. forty-two iiK-li widths. The wciglit is usually two and one-half pounds to the yard. 'J'ho ])agging and tics are estimated to cost seventy-five cents per hale. The rope formerly used for tieing cotton hales is not now used, its place having heen taken by iron hands or "ties." Each tie passes round the hale once and is secured by i»a.ssing the end through an arrow, anchor, or buckle fastener. These ties are made in England as well as in the United States, and in ordinary years the price is fifty-five to sixty cents per bun- dle. Each bundle contains thirty ties, supposed to be enough for five bales. In 1896, in consequence of the American makers getting control of the English output, the price was advanced to $1.25 per Ijundle, l)ut has since been reduced. It had been hoped by the southern planters that wire ties would ..offer an avenue of escape from the exactions of the flat iron tie trust. The wire ties are made of large, stiff, iron wire, a size smaller than the ordinary lead jiencil, twelve feet long, and about thirty to the bundle. They weigh about the same as the ordinary flat tie, and when bought by the carload can be retailed at one dollar [)er Inmdle. The cotton compresses found that the wire tires would not work. At first the wire was too thin, and cut the bagging. Later the difficulty seemed to be that the wire was too thick, and not pliable enough for the compress, consequently a number of the conq)resses declined to receive bales bound with the wire ties. The weight of the bale increases with each season, as will be seen from the following table of }iet weights : 1855-56 420 pounds. 1865-66 441 " 1875-76 444 " 1885-86 463 " 1891-92 473 " 1892-93 473 " 1893-94 474 " 1894-95 484 " 1895-96 476 " 1896-97 477 " CHAT, v.] >rKTHOr)S OF BALING COTTON. 257 258 COTTON. [chap. v. The reason for the weight being ke[)t U}) is that cotton merchants discourage hght bales, and indeed in several states, Texas, Arkansas, and North Carolina, it is the custom to make a deduction of a dollar for each bale from the price paid to the farmer if the bale weighs less than 400 pounds, and two dollars or even three dollars in Texas if it weighs under 300 pounds. The reason of this is that many of the charges on cotton are made at a fixed rate per bale, and thus the total charges per pound on a shipment of heavy bales are some- what less than on the same number of light bales. An interesting table is given below from Shepperson's Cotton Facts, showing average weight of cotton bales from each state for the past six years : AVERAGE WEIGHTS OF AMERICAN COTTON BALES. Season of 1891-92. North Corolina. South Carolina. Georgia Florida Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas. Arkansas Tennessee Average for U.S. rounds. 485 487 487 487 498 49(i 498 521 508 502 499 Season of 1S92-93. Pounds. 482 485 487 485 502 500 500 530 515 501 500 Season Season Sea.son of of of 1893-94. 189-1-95. 1895-96. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 480 490 488 481 491 484 484 492 485 482 490 480 501 508 500 500 508 500 502 51] 508 522 532 525 508 518 512 500 510 502 498 509 502 Season of lS9t;-97. Pounds. 489 484 488 483 506 506 507 528 515 502 502 The figures are gross weights. The standard size of the American bale ( Fig. 131 ), as before named, is fifty-four inches long by twenty-seven inches wide, is usually sixteen inches thick, and weighs about 500 pounds on the average. The thickness varies according to the expansion after compressing. The weight and make-up of this bale is very different from cotton of other countries. The Brazilian and Indian bales are smaller and lighter, the Egyp- tian bale, though not larger, is heavier. American cotton has the reputation of being perhaps the worst packed of any cotton CIIAI'. v.] MKTIIODS OI'^ r.AI.IXG < OT'l\)N. 2")0 260 COTTON. [ciiAr. v. that is raised. The covers arc usually of very poor (juality, tlic ties not sutticieutly strong or well bound, and although the bale on leaving the compress may be of satisfactory a})})ear- ance, it does not get very far on its journey before a tie has burst, the Ijagging gets torn, and on arrival at the northern or European mill, it is usually a very sorry object. Not only so, but the bagging, although of poor quality, is usually so heavy as to materially afiect the percentage of cotton that the spinner gets from the gross weight of the invoice, and forms the subject of numerous complaints. Some remarks are given below on the system of making round bales, which is attracting some attention ; certainly if this round bale system, or some other new baling system is not immediately adopted, considerable attention ought to be given to im])rovements in the present method of baling American cotton. At present, the loss to the spinner through heavy tares, damaged cotton, and cotton lost in transit, is considerable. If greater attention were paid to making bales of uniform size, more closely compressed, in thinner but stronger covers, and more ties to the bale, con- siderable benefit would result to the larmer, as the s])inner would be able to pay a higher price for the cotton. The Egyp- tian bale, for instance, shown in Fig. 132, usually weighs about 700 pounds, is not so long as the American bale, but a little thicker, but yet it has in its length about eleven ties, as com- pared with the six or seven of the American bale. It is usually a compact, square cornered, well covered package, and there is very little complaint from spinners regarding it. The Indian bale ( Fig. lo3 ) is still more clo.sely com- pressed, is considerably smaller than the American both in length and width, and has a tie usually running spirally round the bale, making eleven or twelve turns. This cotton is so closely compressed that it has to be " willowcd " before going into any ordinary cotton si>inning machinery. The weight of the bale of Indian cotton is usually about 400 pounds. CHAP, v.] NfETHODS OF I'.ALINO COTTON. 2G1 05 . i < ■ ', 1 §!•■ } •2G2 COTTON. [dlAl'. V. Brazilian cotton is made' up into one of tlic liulitcst of bales (Fiji". l'^>4), averajxino' ahmit 'iO'l |)(>iiii(ls ; the icasoii lor this is that it has to he carried on horse or mule l»ack to the seacoast. It (litlei's IVom other l)a]es in having vegetahle tics or bands; a trailing vine or llano is used for this jiur])osc. The covering is nsuall}' of coarse burlap bagging, considerably thinner than American bagging, and in some seasons consid- erable (piantities of cotton bagging are used to enclose the bale. Figs. b'U to lo4, inclusive, are used by courtesy of the United States Department of Agriculture. In a recent year the average gross weights of cotton bales were as under : 1896-97. American ....... 502 Brazilian ; 230 Etryptian 735 Indian 400 (estimated) Peruvian ....... 182 • The tare of an American cotton bale usually amounts to about twenty })ounds, of which fourteen pounds is made u|) of bagging, and six p(»inids of iron lioo])s or ties. Ten hoo[)s usually weigh thirteen i)ounds. The total amount of tare on an Indian bah' is from twelve to seventeen pounds. On a, Brazilian bale the bagging does not weigh more than four pounds, and ten hooj)s or vegetable ties weigh nine jiounds. The word "tie" is usually used in America to indicate the ii'on band round the bale, which in F.ngland is called a "hoop," and the word "bagging" is usually used in the Ignited States to indicate the covering of the hale, which is often called the "tare" in Fugland : thus, ''bagging and ties" is the American ])hrase, synonymous with "tares and hoops" in the Fnglish rendering. In America, the s[)inner usually l)uys on the gross weight of the cotton : in JMigiand, the spinner always claims and obtains an allowance for this. In case of buying c-otton on C. I. F. and six j)er cent., he obtains an allowance of six ]k'V CHAP, v.] ^fKTIIODS OF BALING COTTON. 263 Fig 132 Eiyptiai Cotrori Bale 264 (.'(JTTOX. [chap. v. cent, for tares and hoops ; if the tares and hoops weigh more than this, up to seven per cent., he loses ; and if less, he gains, in the weight of raw cotton. This method of buying cotton is not in practice to so great an extent as is the method of buying cotton "on the spot." In this case, the spinner obtains an allowance of four pounds per hundred weight (112 pounds) for tare, the ties are counted, and he is allowed at the rate of thirteen pounds for each ten hoo})S. In addition to those two allowances, the European spinner is also allowed two pounds per bale for what is technically known as "double draft." " This liability of fire to live in the Ijales is the most seri- ous objection to the present system of baling American cot- ton," says Mr. W. INIuir of Liverpool. " When fire takes hold of the, old-style bales they will sometimes, weeks afterward, although they have been submerged in water for several days, again show signs of fire and cause an outbreak. This is not mere theor}^, but has come within my personal observation over and over again. This liability of American bales to carry fire is entirely owing to the system followed in America in compressing the bales. The compresses in the United States are as large, powerful, and as well fitted as any in the world, and are capable of pressing cotton to almost any den- sity. This is shown by the fact that in the compressing, the bales are i:)ressed to at least double the pressure at which the cotton is received in Liverpool. After compressing the cotton is allowed to rise or expand in the press to the height of the ties. This operation causes the bale to suck in a great quan- tity of air, and it is found that an American bale compressed in this manner is pne system of oxygen cells. The fire, when once it starts in one of these bales, follows the course of these air cells, and this is the reason why the fire is so difficult to put out. The best pressed bale known to underwriters is the Egy})tiau. An outl)reak of fire among Ijales of Egyptian cotton is unknown. The Egyptian bale is compressed to a CHAP, v.] METHODS OF BALING COTTON. 2()." Luil-i^ Fig. 133. Iridiari Cottori Bale. Fig. 134. Braziliaq Cottori Bale. 266 COTTON. [chap. v. densit}' of forty-five pounds to the cubic foot, and is held to that density by a sufficient number of steel bands (or ties), and there are four or five more bands around an Egyptian bale than around an American bale. We find that the density of the old-style compressed American bale as received here is only from eighteen to twenty-two pounds to the cubic foot. The difference in density arises not so much from the differ- ence in the method of compressing as in the fact that the com})ressed condition is maintained in the Egyptian bale by the superior method of banding the cotton, while in the Ameri- can bale the compressed density is relaxed in the banding. What I have said as to Egyptian bales applies very largely to cotton received from India." The writer consideres that eighteen to twenty-two pounds to the cubic foot for American bales named above is too low an estimate. One of the largest Liverpool cotton dealers, and one who is interested in the trade throughout the United States cotton belt, has made the following statement : — " Everybody in the cotton business over here realizes the need of an improvement in baling. I am thoroughly familiar with the handling and shipping of cotton in the United States. I am sure that the baling could be materially improved in America by having the present box presses at the ginhouses in the South made all of uniform size, which, I am told, could be done at the small cost of about |2.50 a press. If the bales were of a uniform size, they could be stowed in vessels and discharged therefrom without mutilation, whereas now, the bales being of irregular lengths, are often torn to economize space in the holds of the ships, and to stow more closely. A'ery considerable attention has been given during recent years by both capitalists and inventors to improvements in the system of baling American cotton. There is undoubtedly a very great field for improvement in this direction. The objects which some of the new baling systems claim to obtain are : — 208 COTTON. [lllAP. V. Firstly, a greater compression of the material giving more i)ounds to the cubic foot, consequently saving ocean freight and enabling better rates to be given for land freight. Secondly, a lessened risk of fire, on account of the absence of oxygen in the bale, owing to the special" method of . compressing it. Thirdly, better ginning and removal of the foreign sub- stances usually found in cotton, and which generally remain to be removed by the picker or scutcher in the cotton mill. Fourthly, the formation of the cotton into a rolled sheet, which can be unwound at the primary cotton mill process. The first two advantages are the leading ones, and undoubt- edly have been attained by several of the new pi*ocesses of baling cotton. It is very much more doubtful whether either of the, third or fourth named advantages have yet been arrived at, or even whether any strong attempt has been made in some of the new methods, to remove more of the dirt than is usually customary in ginning and baling cotton. The reports of the mill men who have used these new bales, admit that the cotton is more compact, that there is less risk of fire, and that the new bales are easier to handle, but more complaints have been received that in the interioi's of the bales are found occasionally very hard cores, caused by the super-winding of the outer layers. While some companies are giving attention to improving the square bale, the most attention has been given to what is known as the round or cylindrical bale, and the above remarks a})ply to this style of bale. The cylindrical system of baling cotton has l)een considered of so much importance by capitalists that a few men with ample resources have formed a strong company to operate it. At present, however, a very small fraction of the American crop is baled on the new system, and further improvements will have to be made before it will l)e adopted to any large extent in the South or receive the unqualified approval of the cotton manufacturer. There is no doubt that CIIAI'. v.] MKTIIODS OF ]JALING COTTON. 269 F:g 136. Square crid Round Bales. 270 COTTON. [chap. v. if tlie cotton were not only ginned, but also passed through the process known in England as opening and scutching, or in America as opening and picking, in the neighborhood of the cotton field, that a very considerable saving would l)e effected in the economy of cotton manufacturing. At present there is a very considerable loss to manufacturers in careless baling and in the fact of having to pay freight on unneces- sary bagging and ties and on the foreign substances that are found in the cotton l>ales to the extent of five or six per cent., -''■HfftvtESTCAR Of Cotton tvERloftOto SHIPPEOOlRKTFMMIHtClHHoUStOf THt American Cottom Co. %0ll0UIIO6ftU<,VlUHlN& ILLIINOIS CENTRAL 12938 Fig. 137. Jiri flrqericaq Freigl^t Car Loaded Witli Rour\d Bales, as this freight might be obviously saved if cotton were })ut up in the form of a cleaned lap. Considerable modifications of the improved form of picker room lap would have to be made in order to insure satisfactor}^ transportation, but the effort is cer- tainly worth making. Figs. 135, 13(), 137 and loS, which are used by the courtesy of the United States Cotton] Manu- facturers' Association, are views taken in connection with making round bales. The}' are self explanatory^ and it will he seen that the cotton after beino; ginned is laid in a sheet, which CHAP, v.] ^rl•:'^Il()l»s of liALixc; cotton. •Ill Fig. 138. Uqrolliqg a Rcuql li3:e at tj-^e Mill. ■)7-> COTTON. [chap. v. is formed into a roll under lieavy pressure. These round or cylindrical Ijales are very compact, and a veiy much greater weight of cotton can be packed in an ordinary freight car, or steamship hold, than with the old style or so called square l)ale. General. Formerly, the English spinner relied very much on the name of the seaport from which the cotton was shipped to give him some idea of the quality of the staple, giving the preference to Xew Orleans cotton, but this is no longer reliable. Xot only is good cotton being raised in other than ^Mississippi river states by improved cultivation, but cot- ton shipped from Xew Orleans does not necessarily now mean that it has been grown near to, and ship})ed down, the Miss- issi})pi river, as formerly. The port of shipment ought not to warp the buyer's judgment either way. If forwarded by a relial»le railroad of good financial standing, the seller of the cotton in the states gets a through bill of lading to Liverpool, Bremen, or other ports, and this, if the railroad company is of good financial standing, and with the bill of exchange attached, is negotiable and excellent secu- rity. The bill of exchange is payable sixty days after pre- sentation, as a rule. The banker in the interior city will lend a large percentage of the value of the cotton on this security. The document is forwarded to X'^ew York, the financial centre of America, and dealt with in the usual course, being sent to the country of destination for acceptance, as ex23lained in the next cha})ter. From the moment of leaving the farm to arriving at the cotton mill in Xew England, or old England, .Japan or wherever its destination may be, the cotton bale is branded with a series of marks — marks of the fixrmer, the ginnery, the factor, the shipper, and numerous others — each having a meaning, though often unintelligible to the uninitiated, yet sufficient to trace false packing, bad ginning or fraud back to its source. Xot only so, but each l)ale on its sliipment from CHAI'. v.] METHODS OF nAI.I.\(i COTTON. 273 the })oint of origin has a })orfo rated hibel or tag attached with various particulars as to marks and weight. The stubs of these tags are detached at tlie compressing or shipping point, and as all labels bear a })rogressive number, track can be kept of bales in transit, just as easily as a bank can trace its drafts. 274 COTTON. [chap. VI. CHAPTER \l. COTTON AS AN ARTICLE OF COMMERCE. COTTON MARKETS OF THE UNITED STATES. — THE NEW YORK AND NEW ORLEANS CON- TRACTS. MILL PURCHASES. LAND FREIGHT ON COTTON. THE EUROPEAN COTTON MARKETS. — LIVERPOOL. CONTINENTAL MARKETS. OCEAN FREIGHT. — IMPORTS OF EGYPTIAN AND PERUVIAN COTTON INTO THE UNITED STATES. — -COST OF RAISING COTTON. Cotton Markets of the United States. The largest crop in any of the states is raised in Texas, and this makes Houston one of the most important interior markets of the United States. In the season of 1896-97 over 500,000 bales of spot cotton were sold in this market, only excelled by the Gulf port, New Orleans, where 1,054,000 bales were sold in the same season. Memphis, on the Mississippi River, is a market of importance and is a great centre for long staple cotton ; in the season referred to above, 481,000 bales were handled there, and 294,000 at Augusta, Ga. ; 270,000 l^ales of spot cotton were sold in New York, and 205,000 bales in Savannah, Ga. The figures for the season of 1895-96 are somewhat different. New Orleans led with 864,000 bales of spot cotton sold ; Houston, Texas, was second with 425,000 ; Memphis third with 363,000 ; Augusta, Ga., fourth with 182,000, while New York was fifth with 168,000. Among other important cotton markets are Savannah, Georgia ; Charleston, South Carolina ; Mobile, Alabama ; St. Louis, Missouri ; Shreveport, Louisiana ; Yicksburg, Missis- sippi ; Columbus, Mississippi ; Macon, Georgia ; Columbus, Georgia ; Rome, Georgia ; Selma, Alabama ; Montgomery, Alabama ; Eufaula, Alabama ; and Nashville, Tennessee. CHAP. VI.] (OTTOX MARKETS OF TIIK UNITED STATES. 275 The iiljove figures refer only to the sale of cotton in each of tlie markets, and the figures indicating the numher of bales exported from cities that are also seaports of course difi:er considerably from the above figures. The principal seaports from which cotton is shipped, given in the order of their importance, with the figures for the season of lSV)6-97, are as under: New Orleans, 1,084,000; Galveston, 1,231,000; New York, 087,000 ; Savannah, Georgia, 436,000 ; followed by Charleston, Sorth Carolina ; Boston, Massachusetts ; Wilming- ton, North Carolina ; Norfolk, ^'^irginia ; Baltimore, Maryland ; Mobile, Alabama ; Port Royal, South Carolina ; Brunswick, Georgia ; Newport News, Mrginia, and numerous minor ports. About the end of September or the beginning of October, numerous tramp steamers, in addition to the regular liners, steer their course for the cotton ports, and from that time onwards, to the end of January, the wharves are very busy. Galveston is the port which begins to receive the cotton first in the largest quantities, as it draws its supply from the Texas cotton fields, where the season is early, but by the end of September or beginning of October, cotton is pouring into New Orleans, Savannah and other ports, in some cases by tens of thousands of bales per day. A view at Fig. 139 is a scene on a cotton })latform in the port of Savannah, Georgia. Most of the cotton shipped from the above named ports has been consigned from interior points to northern mills or European merchants on through bills of lading, which are in a form approved by the permanent committee on uniform bills of lading, and contain the usual spaces for the entry of the marks, price, class of article, weight, port of shipment, port of destination, the consignee's address, with of course the innum- erable clauses in small type, Avhich no one ever reads, but which make a bill of lading seem a very formidable document. The charges for the European trade are usually entered in English sterling money, one pound sterling l)eing considered 270 COTTON. [til A I'. VI. equal to four dollars aud eighty cents United States gold currency. The method of dealing with these documents through the hanks is mentioned elsewhere. The principal cotton markets of the United States are considered as having great influence on the prices of the staple, being second only to Liverpool in this respect. The prices of cotton for the whole country are })ractically adjusted by New York and New Orleans, the New York market being by far the more important as regards fatare contracts, while the more important for spot cotton is New Orleans. Spot cotton is sold in New York on the same terms as elsewhere in America, i. e., on gross weight, no allowance being- made for weight of bagging and ties. In this market the terms are cash on delivery, the buyer being obliged to take it within ten days after date of purchase. The buyer can demand it at his option any time within the ten days, and the seller must tlien deliver it. It is customary to present the bill on day of delivery and for the buyer to pay it the next day, but if the bill is delivered by eleven o'clock of day of delivery, the buyer pays it on the same day. In the season of 1895-96 only 1(;S,0()0 bales of spot cot- ton were sold in New York, while in the same year 56, 45 1,000 bales were the sales of cotton for future delivery, and in the same season, the sales of cotton for future delivery in New Orleans were 15,498,700. The crop was thus sold ten times over in these two cities, entirely disregarding European spot and "future" sales, and spot sales in other American cities. It will be seen from this statement how largely the element of speculation is connected with the cotton market. Col. A. B. Shepperson, in his valuable statistical book entitled " Cotton Facts," in which tliere are probably more cotton statistics than in any other publication, gives the follow- ing details of contracts for cotton for future delivery, as dealt in at New York and New Orleans, and also of the methods of inspection and classification of cotton to be delivered on contracts for future deliverv in New York : — CHAP. VI.] COTTON MARKETS OK THE U.NITED STATES. 'Ill ^ ^ 278 COTTON. [chap. vi. The New Orleans Contract differs from the New York Contract only in the following })articular.s, viz. : — It is not required that the cotton shall he classed and weighed under the auspices of the Cotton Exchange. When an original margin of |5 per bale has been depos- ited, the margins for variations in the market are paid directly to the party in whose favor the market turns. The New York Contract is for 50,000 pounds (gross) in about 100 bales of cotton, growth of tlie United States, to be delivered from a licensed warehouse in the port of Xew York during the month agreed. The delivery to be at seller's option upon tive days' notice to buyer, and from one warehouse. The cotton to be of any grade, from Good Ordinaiw to Fair, inclusive, and if stained, not below Low Middling. Price to be for ^Middling, with additions or deductions for other grades according to the rates of the Cotton Exchange existing on the afternoon of the day i)revious to the date of the notice of delivery. Certificates of inspection, classification, and weights issued by the " Inspector-in-Chief of Cotton " of the New York Cotton Exchange, to be tendered with the cot- ton and made the basis of settlement. ( For details see later pages. ) Payment to be made upon the day of delivery of ware- house receipts for the cotton. Either party to have the right to call for margin, as the variations of the market for like deliveries may warrant. An original margin up to $5 per bale, to remain in the Trust Company until settlement of the contract, may be required by either party, provided demand therefor is made within twenty- four hours after the transaction. The party demanding orig- inal margin must also deposit an equal amount himself All margins are required to be deposited in a Trust Company or Bank. The methods of inspection and classification of cotton to be delivered on contracts for future delivery in New York are as follows : — CHAP. VI.] TIIK Xi:\V YOltK COXTKACT. 279 On the Ist September, 1887, the new plan, for the insi)ec- tion, sampling, weighing and classing of cotton to be delivered npon contracts for future delivery in Xew York, went into operation, and the following are its provisions as in force at present. The inspection, sampling, weighing and classing of all cotton to be delivered upon contracts for future delivery is done under tlie auspices of the New York Cotton Exchange and under the supervision of the inspector-in-chief of cotton, an officer appointed by the Exchange to take entire sui)er- vision and direction of these matters. Cotton intended for delivery upon "contracts" is in- spected, sampled and weighed, under the personal supervision of an assistant inspector of cotton, by samplers and weighers duly licensed by the Exchange. No sampler can be employed who is in the service of any one interested in the cotton to be sampled. The samples are submitted to the classification committee of the Cotton Exchange, who determine the grade, subject, however, to a revision by that committee upon appeal by any party interested. The decision reached upon this revision is finai. Not less than two members of the classification committee are competent to act upon an original classification, and upon an appeal from their decision not less than four members of the entire committee of five must act. Their decision is final. The members of the classification committee are salaried officers of the Cotton Exchange, and are not permitted to be engaged, directly or indirectly, in any business connected with cotton. They cannot, therefore, possibly have any interest whatever in the cotton submitted to them for classification. The cotton is classed bale by bale, and a certificate is given by the secretary of the classification committee to the inspector- in-chief, stating how many bales there are of each grade in each lot of class mark. 280 COTTOX. [chap. VI. After cotton has been sampled and weighed, negotiable warehouse receipts, stating the marks of bales and lot num- bers, are issued to holders of cotton, no receipt to be for more than about 100 bales of 50,000 pounds. Receipts to be let- tered or numbered by each warehouse, and no two receipts to be alike. The inspector-in-chief of cotton stamps on these receipts the weight of the cotton in accordance with the records of his office. He also issues a certificate stating the number of bales of each grade in accordance with the decision of the classifica- tion committee. The date of expiration of a certificate is one year from the date of inspection of the cotton. Negotiable warehouse receipts, accompanied by the in- spectar-in-chief 's certificate of grade, as above described, will constitute a good delivery in fulfilment of contracts for cotton sold for future delivery. The weight, as stamped by the inspector-in-chief on the warehouse receipt, shall be accepted by all parties for one year from date of weighing, subject to an allowance of one-half pound per bale per month or fraction of a month. The cotton exchange ins])ection fund is responsible for the correctness of the certificates issued by the inspector-in- chief as to the grade of the cotton certified to, Init the claim must be made within one year after tlie date of the certificate U})on which it is based and before the cotton leaves the port of New York. All liability ceases at the expiration of one year from the date of the certificate, or when the cotton leaves the port. The New Yorlv Cotton Exchange does not assume, and will not be liable for, any claim growing out of tlie issue of certificates of grade by the inspector-in-chief of cotton, but such claims will be paid out of the cotton exchange inspec- tion fund, — a fund derived from the fees received for inspec- tion. Xeithcr the Cotton Exchange nor the insi)ection fund CHAP. VI.] THE NEW YORK CONTKACT. 281 Fig. 140. Thie Ne-W YorK Cottor| Excb,ar\ge. 282 COTTON. [CIIAP. VI. will be liable tor loss in weight, it being considered that the allowance of one-half pound per bale per month will cover the shrinkage. A view of the New York Cotton Exchange is given at Fig. 140. Mill Purchases of Cotton. The cities of Boston and Fall River are ini})ortant markets for cotton, as many of the southern factors liave agents or branch offices at these points. In the fall, the salesmen of these houses are very busy, together with special agents who are sent from the cotton belt, in offering cotton to the manufacturers, who buy in large quantities from October until iVIarch. The treasurers of the mills are usuall}^ the cotton buyers, and they select cot- ton from the .samples which are shown and which have been sent from the cotton factor, showing the style of cotton that he is offering. Practically the wdiole of the cotton required for a year is purchased in the months named above, and very frequently it is shipped north immediately after the sale takes place. Arrangements are occasionally made for the shipment of so many bales per month. Money can be borrowed at very much lower rates of interest in Xew England than in the South, and consequently it is much cheaper to carry or hold cotton in the North, as in most cases the parties hold it on behalf of the banks that have loaned the money to enable them to carry it. For this reason most of the lavge cotton manufacturing establishments of New England have very large .store houses connected with their mill buildings, and the winter is usually a very busy time in receiving this cotton, weighing, sampling and storing it for future use. The terms on which northern manufacturers buy cotton are very simple. Usually the cotton is sold on cash terms, no discount being allowed and no allowance being made for bags or ties, the gross weight being invoiced. The cotton is usually purchased delivered in Boston or an equivalent point, the freight rate allowance being made by the shipper equal to the amount that the manufacturer has to pay for the freight on CHAP. VI.] MILL PCKCHASES. 283 27.'3,- 000 bales. This, of course, is exclusive of cotton of other growth, which is used to some extent, especially Egyptian and Peruvian cottons. Owing to the continued increase of mills in the cotton growing states, a larger proportion of the crop is left in these ciiAi'. VI.] MI LI, rntciiASES. 285 states each year. Altliough cotton inanufacturiii<; l>y water })0\ver lias been carried on in the sonthern states for the last fifty years, and by hand from the earliest date of settlement in Virginia, it was not nntil the year 1884 that the number of spindles exceeded 1,000,000 in the whole of the South; by 1893 a total of 2,000,000 had been exceeded, and it is i)rob- able that the year 1898 will see that a total of 3,000,000 has been reached. It will be seen that the growth of the cotton manufactur- ing industry in the South of late years has been very rapid, and as most of the mills are on coarse numbers, the numljer of bales used in the South is a point of considerable importance for the consideration of the cotton statistician, it being esti- mated that in the season of 1896-97 999,000 bales were consumed by southern mills. Several views of these southern cotton mills are given in this volume, including Figs. 50, 119, 141, 142, 143, 144, and 163. Figs. 141 to 144, inclusive, are used by the consent of the Saco & Pettee Machine Shop, of Newton Upper Falls, Mass. The largest consumption of cotton in America is in the state of Massachusetts. The consumption of cotton other than American in the United States is rapidly increasing from a comparative point of view. Col. Shepperson, in the publica- tion named above, gives the imports of Egyjitian cotton into the United States for the season ending August 31st : 1889-90 10,470 bales 1890-91 23,790 " 1891-92 27,739 " 1892-93 • 42,475 " 1893-94 33,(i06 " 1894-95 69,418 " 1895-96 09,220 " 189(1-97 79,385 " Land Freight on Cotton. When the cotton leaves the hands of the farmer, the ginner, the compressor, or the mer- chant, it may be intended for many different destinations. 286 COTTON. [chap. VI. First of all, it has to be conveyed to the point from which it will be shipped to the conntr}' in which it will be manuftic- tured. About three-fourths of the cotton is carried first of all to a seaport. The cost of getting cotton from the inland mar- ket town to the coast may be judged from the following freight rates current in 1897 in Georgia : Macon to Savannah, 108 miles, thirty-four cents per hun- dred to the ship side or .17d. per pound. Atlanta to Savannah, 294 miles, forty-three cents per hundred to the ship side or .21d. per pound. Rome to Savannah, 371 miles, forty-five cents per hun- dred to the ship side or .22d. per pound. Columbus to Savannah, 203 miles, forty-five cents per hundred to the ship side or .22d. per pound. Out of this the railroad compan}' has to compress the cotton without charge, the usual cost of compressing in Georgia being eight and one-half cents per hundred pounds. A considerable amount of cotton is carried to the seaports by river steamers. In the case of the Mississippi River, cot- ton is carried from Memj^his to New Orleans, 738 miles, for $1.00 per bale. The cost of drayage in New Orleans is twelve cents per bale, and compressing fifty cents per Ijale, making a total of thirty-two and one-half cents per hundred pounds, or about 5-32d. per pound, to get cotton to the ship side from Memphis. The rate from Memphis is less than that charged from points nearer to New Orleans, Memphis being a competi- tive point. For instance, the distance between Greenville and New Orleans is 482 miles, but the rate from ])oints between Memphis, Tennessee, and Greenville, INIississippi, to New Orleans, Louisiana, is $1.25 per bale. The rate for cotton conveyed from any point between Greenville and the mouth of the Red River, including Vicksburg, Mississippi, 362 miles, and Natchez, 278 miles, to New Orleans, is $1.00 per bale; below the Red River to New Orleans, seventy-five cents. The distance between the mouth of the Red River and New CHAP. VI.] LAND FrvEIGHT ON COTTON. 287 288 rOTTOX. [ciiAi". VI. ()i-l(";uis is l'.)S miles. ( ot'ton is lainU'd in New Oi-lcans at the e(ttt(»ii \vliai'ves of the river steamers. A lai'uc ((iiaiitity is shijjped overland for the use of New JMigland and ( anadian mills, and in some eases ship|tcd from Oalveston, ('harleston, or other southern seaports by boat. The European Cotton Markets. l>y fai' the lai'oer j)or- tion of the American crop is destined for iMiropean mar- kets, the principal one, of course, bein^' Livei'pool, while a largely increasing business is being done at the i)oi-ts of Ih-emen in Germany, Havre iu Franee, and Genoa in Italy, and shipments are also made in smaller (piantities to S[)anish, Indian, and .laj)anese points. The i.ivei'pool market, from its convenient geographical position, has long been th(^ leading centre for the distribution of Amei'ican cotton to the lOuro- j)ean manufacturing disti'icts. In this markt't, tlu're are sel- dom less than r)()0,0()0 bales in stock, and at times a stock is lield ai)})roacliing one and onedialf million bales, not only of all varieties of American cotton, but of the fleecy lint from every cotton producing country in the world, iiududing Egyj)- tian. South American, Indian, Ghinese, Japanese, West Indian, and African cottons. The immense docks, extending for a distance' (»f many miles along the river front, are utilized to a very large extent by cotton steamers, and the innnense warehouses equipped with every conceivable appliance Ibr convenient handling and safe storage of cotton, are not the least interesting of the com- mercial sights of Liverpool. All, or almost all, tlie business in raw cotton in Liverpool is dont' under the control of the Liverpool Cotton Association, which is a combination of the older Cotton Brokers Associa- tion and Cotton Exchange. It is an association of not more than ()0() mend)ers, consisting lai'gely of cotton l)rokers, known either as buying brokers or selling brokers, some cond)ining the two occui)ations. The articles of the association do not necessarily require that the active member of the association s g 2 2 ► I 00 u^ «- tS 00 OS o o o o !-■ tS »-> en ' = >5 , O O O t-^ — — K CO g ta tl o «. e g w w •tj o ^ Cr wT m ^* p (ft ^ g g g. O g SI >< ' S 2. p- Q S; S P Y^^ 2- M » p" eg. iei. I I I I St iS I g ^ I I I I I I I I I I I I g■. I^N Q, K '-^r a p I I •" I I I I OS O Q - o XT at ri s? S"S 32 H so R W fc H ■5(f ^ w i-a a ^C .^^ CHAP. VI.] THE EUROPEAN COTTON >rARKETS. 289 shall be engaged in handling cotton, but as the membership of the association gives special advantages to the members for dealing in cotton in the city of Liverpool, the majority of them are so engaged. The association is managed by a board of directors, with various subsidiary committees, and besides other work of the association is, first, the preparation of a daily report of the prices of cotton in the port of Liverpool, the preparation of a number of estimates throughout the day of the business being done, with a report at the end of the day of the actual turn over of cotton, the advance or reduction of the price of the different grades and growths of cotton by a committee which meets daily at twelve o'clock and decides on the necessity or otherwise of making any alterations in the price. The association also controls arbitrations as to cotton con- tracts, conducts a clearing house business, issuing weekly reports and statistics of the cotton movement, and annually checks up the actual stock of cotton in Liverpool. A speci- men of a recent weekly report is inserted with this chapter of the book, containing much valuable information. Although there has been a considerable change of late years in the method of handling cotton, it is still customary for the mer- chant who imports the cotton to em})lo\' what are known as selling brokers, who offer the cotton on behalf of the mer- chant, and in very many cases advance money on the cotton, or, as it is termed, finance the smaller merchants. The cotton is offered by the selling broker to the buying broker, who is the chief feature of the Liverpool cotton business. The buying broker is really the representative of the cotton spinner and manufacturer, although occasionally he acts as a selling broker but does not advertise this fact to his spinners. Each buys for a number of spinners, and either from the force of habit or from financial reasons, the spinner generally confines his cotton buying to one, or, at the most, two firms of buying brokers. The bulk of EnoHsli cotton mills are situated within 290 COTTON. [c'irAP. VI. sixt}' miles of Liver[)Ool, and the hiiyur of cotton for the mill usualh' sets apart one morning during the week for the }nir- pose of buj'ing cotton, and, having notified his broker, there is awaiting him in the Liverpool office, scores, even hundreds, of samples of cotton representing bales lying in the port of Liverpool. These samples are the brown j)a])er parcels with open ends that are so familiar to the visitor to Liverpool, and are carried by the messengers in the employ of the different brokers from one office to another. Li the course of a couple of hours, the spinner is able to examine the piles of samples which represent very many thousand bales, and to make a selection. The samples are followed from office to office by energetic salesmen repre- senting the selling broker or the importing merchant, if he is his own broker. The last hour of the spinner's visit is de- voted to making the best deal he can through his buying bro- ker with the selling broker. It is very frequently the case that cotton purchased in the morning is forwarded in the after- noon and delivered at the mill with })ossibly a portion of it put in work within the next twenty-four hours. The con- tiguity to the mills of a large market with such an immense stock of cotton is of great advantage to the spinner at times when he does not wish to hold much cotton, nor to have a large quantity l)ouglit ahead. "When cotton is bought as above named, it is spoken of as spot cotton and is usually understood to be in the warehouse. It is subject to })ayment in ten days from the date of jnirchase and is invoiced to the spinner at the net weight, arrived at by deducting in the first instance, two pounds per bale known as double draft, then the bands or ties on the bale are counted and allowance made at the rate of thirteen pounds for each ten ties. From the remaining weight, four pounds per hundred weight of 112 pounds is allowed for the bagging, known in England as tares. A discount of one and one-half per cent, is allowed from this bill. CI I A I'. VI.] TIIK 1-; I •ROPE AN COTTON MAKKKTS. 291 o 292 COTTON. [ciiAi-. VI. Forwarding charges from l.iverj )()()! are calculated at a shilling ( twenty -five cents) per bale in case of five bales or less, nine pence ( eighteen cents ) per bale on from six to ten bales, and six pence (twelve cents) per bale on lots consisting of over ten bales. Cotton is occasionally purchased ex-quay on spot terms, and in this case the buyer occasionally gets it at somewhat reduced prices, as the seller saves the cost of warehousing the cotton. Cotton is purchased in Liverpool under the rules of the Liverpool Cotton Association on other systems than the above named, viz: (1st) under contract "for delivery forward," ( 2nd ) C. I. F. and six per cent., ( 3rd ) " futures." The method of buying on deliver}^ forward contracts may either, be based on the delivery of cotton of a certain mark or marks, which run regularly in the Liverpool market and are recognized by the brokers, or maybe a contract based on the delivery of cotton equal to a certain type sample, which is sealed when the contract is made and the seal is not broken until the cotton has been delivered, when tlie ty})e is opened in the presence of the buying and selling l)rokers. This method is very convenient for the manuflicturer as he is thus enabled to cover sales of yarn or cloth and know exactly what class of cot- ton he may expect to have delivered to him. The month or months in which delivery is to be made is usually stated, and it is at the option of the seller whether the cotton shall be tendered for delivery the first of the inonth or the last of the month, or any time between. It is usually customary to make these contracts in multiples of 100 bales, with special clauses in the contract restricting deliveries to not less than fifty bales. After the cotton has been tendered and accepted, it is subject to payment in accordance with the Liverpool spot terms as previously named. The system of C. L F. and six per cent., which rep- resents the co.st of insurance and freight, is the svstem on CIlAI'. VI.] 'JIIK KII.'orKAX ((tT'lOX MAKKK'IS. 20o Aviiicli (-(jttoii is lH)U^lit ])y the Enolisli oi- CDiitiiiciital manu- facturer, to be equal to certain sami)le.s and to he sliipped from a named American or other port at a named time. Tlie seller provides the cotton, pays insurance and IVcioht, thus pi-actically coiitractiii^- to turn it over t(» the huycr in the poi't of J^iverpool on hoard ship; all succeeding- charges, such as dock and town dues and porterage, are paid by the buyer. No discount is allowed from the invoice, but six per cent, is allowed from the gross weight of the cotton for ties and lag- ging. As a rule, bagging and ties do not weigli six jjer cent, of the gross weight, and this is a gain to tlie spinner. In case of the tare exceeding six })er cent, the spinnci' is allowed no redress unless it exceeds seven per cent. The spinner practicalh^ puts himself in the position of an ini})orter ; he is to accept the bill usually dated sixty days from the date on which the cotton leaves the American port. Tnder this sys- tem there is some risk of a buyer not getting exactly the quality he stipulated for, as while the cotton is on tlie quay, only twenty-four hours are allowed in which to settle disputes. This method of purchasing cotton is largely resorted to as a speculation in those seasons when the spinner anticipates a gradual increase in the price of cotton as the season advances. Almost all C. I. F. business is done early in the season . At the })ricc of four pence, the difference to the spinner between C. I. F. and six per cent, and Liverpool terms, with a fair weight outturn, is only about 1-1'! d., viz. : Discount . . . 1] per cent. Landing charges . . j << ■• Less rebate on prepayment . . 01 per cent. Brokerage not charged on C. L F m " " Net .... !{ per cent. = 0.07 pence or .14c. per 11). In addition the spinner has the advantage of lighter tares when he buys on (\ I. F. terms. It is not advisable to 294 COTTON. [ciiAi'. VI. dispense with the services of a broker in order to save one-half per cent., as suggested above. Employing a broker, the saving is .05 pence or .Ic. per pound. Another method of purcliasing cotton, wliich is only used as a rule for hedging or speculative purposes, and seldom as a means of purchasing actual cotton, is what is known as " futures." In this case, the buyer purchases cotton in multiples of 100 bales at the price supposed to be the price of low^ mid- dling American, and may specify in which month the cotton shall be delivered, the price varying according to the opinion of the market as to the price of cotton daring the month named. The scale of prices for several months ahead is pub- lished many times daily by the Liverpool Cotton Association, the prices for different months being given in terms of G-lths of a penu}'. This is the favorite method of purchasing cotton for speculation, as the transaction may be closed by selling- out the cotton purchased, and receiving or paying the credit or debit balance which remains after the adjustment of the price. As before stated, the contract is based on low middling cotton. This low-middling clause was originally inserted as a protection to spinners, who, it was then fairly argued, bought futures for their own use, and not on pure speculation or as a cover. This is not now the case. It is most exceptional for a spinner to use contract cotton, even should, by a rare chance, the cotton tendered be of his exact cjuality. He nineteen times out of twenty prefers to and does close his contract, buying actual cotton on the spot or equal to sample for delivery as required, which latter system is now almost universally adopted. Class and color ( but not staple and style ) are alone taken into account in the arbitrations held for ordinary arrival contracts, the consequence being that values of Uplands, Texas, and Gulf or Orleans are now all quoted alike, the nor- mal difference being fully one-eighth of a peimy per pound. The department of the Liverpool Cotton Exchange, devoted to the sale of " futures," is one of the most interesting sections of the building. CHAP. VI.] THE EUROPEAN COTTON MARKETS. 295 H XT 296 COTTON. [rirAi>. vr. The sensitiveness of the market, the rapidity witli which it responds to the shghtest influence at liome or abroad wliich may affect the i)rice of cotton ; the eagerness of buyers and sellers to gain an advantage of even half a point, or l-128tli of a penn}^ per pound, the immense quantity sold in this manner, all tend to make it a most interesting picture com- mercially. One feature of the Liverpool market is that a tremendous business is done in futures in this way without the excessive noise and hubbul) in the same line of business in the New York Cotton Exchange, which latter is only ex- ceeded by the New York Stock Exchange or the Paris Bourse. Continental Markets. In addition to the market of Liver- pool, the following large cotton markets have been established in various parts of Europe, more particularly for Egyptian, American, and Lidian cottons : Bremen, in Germany ; Havre, in France ; Genoa, in Ital}^ ; Trieste, in Austria. Bremen is the most important of these continental Euro- pean ports. The terms of sale, arbitration, and so on are practically the same as in Liverpool, in most cases having been based on the Liverpool system. The spinners of each of the countries named buy considerable quantities of cotton at the above named markets, but they still, to a large extent, purchase in Liverpool. Formerly the whole of the cotton used in the European continental countries was purchased in Liverpool, but the tendency now is towards purchasing in Bremen and Havre. The following statement of the method of handling cotton in Milan, Italy, ma}^ be taken as a description of cotton dealing in other European continental countries. Cotton is bought by Italian spinners through brokers, from merchants in Amer- ica, England, India or Egypt. Each merchant has an agent in Milan, Genoa, or other cities. In Milan there are about forty-eight agents of diflerent firms in Liver})Ool, New York, New Orleans, and so on, and the spinner deals with this agent, who usually receives telegraphic instructions from his CHAP. VI.] CONTINENTAL MAK'K'ETS. 297 tirni, and tlie s})inner offers, or accei)ts oHbr.s by cal)l(', tliroiigh the agent. Cotton is sliipi)e(l against docutnents, that is to say, an invoice, a bill of lading, and l)ill of exchange are sent to the bank of the spinner. The bank retains or negotiates the bill of exchange after it has been accepted ])y the spinner, and then sends the other documents to him, so that he can claim his cotton. The merchant is thus protected, but the spinner is frequently indebted to the bank for an over-draft. The agent, previously mentioned, has a commission, generally of one-half per cent. In England, Germany, and France, cotton is admitted free of duty, but it is dutiable in Eussia, and also in Italy. The Italian Government imposes a duty of three lire per 100 kilos, equal to fift^^-seven cents, or 28Jd. per 222 pounds on the raw cotton received into the country from any other country. This duty was levied by a Royal letter on the 10th of December, 1894, and recognized as law by the Parliament, in July, 1895. An additional dut}^ of ten centesimi per hundred kilos, equal to Id. or two cents, was levied in the year 1896, as a charge for taking statistics. Con- sequently, raw cotton pays on entry to Italy a duty of 3.10 lire per hundred kilos, equal to .136 pence, or .272 cents per pound. Ocean Frefg:ht. The cost of carrying cotton across the Atlantic is very low compared with the land freights of the United States. The following figures were supplied by the Louisville and Nashville R. R. Co., referring to the season of 1896-97. The highest rates paid ocean carriers this season on cotton shipments were : — To Liverpool, /^ cllca.P*vlvi ©na. vir ] COST OF HAISIX(! COTTOX. 307 9? I, U,A 308 COTTON. [cu.w: vi. cents per pound ; on a large farm with the ground well culti- vated, with a liberal use of fertilizer, and with the best niach- iner}^ available, cotton can be raised for less than five cents per pound. The .state of the weather, of course, is the chief influence affecting the price of cotton. On the weather from April to September depends whether the American crop shall be a million bales more or less than the normal crop. Something- is said in another chapter on the effects of weather; but tliis is not the only influence. The acreage is a matter of consid- erable importance. After a season of high prices of cotton and low prices of corn, an increase in the acreage of cotton may be almost always looked for the following season, and vice versa. Even in the season of lower prices of cotton and com- paratively high prices of corn, the farmer is yet willing to plant his land in cotton the following season, as cotton is the favorite crop in the South. Not only this, but one large crop tends to cause another the following season. After a large crop the farmer's credit is unusually good, and he has more money to spare, consequently he is in a better position to pur- cliase plenty of fertilizer for the following season, to use better implements, and more mules in cultivating. The reverse of this is also the reason why one i»oor crop, or a season of low prices, tends to cause a small crop the next season. CliAi'. VII.] P.YE PRODl'CTS OF COTTOX SEKD. 309 CHAPTER VII. BYE PRODUCTS OF COTTOX SEED. — COTTOX SEED OIL MILLS. THE MAXl'FACTURE OF COTTOX SEED OIL. — COTTOX SEED MEAL. — OIL REFIXERIES. USES OF COTTOX SEED OIL. COSTS. COTTON SEED AND MEAL AS FERTILIZERS. AX EXGLISH COTTON SEED OIL MILL. DELI XTIXG COTTON SEED. — PRICES OF COTTOX SEED PKODU("rs. Bye Products of Cotton Seed. The, lint for spinning pur- ])Oses is by no means the only product of the cotton plant. Many large industrial firms in the South are employed in the business of working up the cotton seed in different ways, and among their products arc : — Liiifcrs. This is the name given to the short fibres or fud that clings to the seed after the long fibres have been removed in ginning. Tliis short fibre is removed by special gins and either sold as linters for s[)inning purposes or made into batting (wadding). Halls.. These are the outer casings of the seed and are split off preparatory to expressing the oil. Hulls are largely used as cattle feed. ( 'off on Seed Oil. This is the most valuable bye product and is expressed from the meats which form tlie center of the seeds. Oil Cake. After the oil has been expressed, the meats are left in the form of a cake, which is broken into small pieces which are ground into meal. This is used either as cattle feed, or as fertilizer. Fcrfilizer. The cake is broken and ground, then used eitlier alone, or mixed with other substances, as a valualile fertilizer. 310 COTTON. [chap. VII. Cotton Seed Oil Mills. All of the above articles are i)ro- (lueed ill the larger oil mills, exce})t l)atting, which is only made in a tew mills. A ginning and oil refining business is gener- ally conducted in addition. In the smaller oil mills, usually only the businesses of ginning, crude oil pressing, feed and fertilizer making, are conducted. In the cotton growing states the average territory covered by the operation of each oil mill is 2500 square miles. This covers all kinds of country, whether under cotton or not, and the statement is made merely in order to indicate the distance from which seed has to be brought in order to be pressed, and to show^ the centralization of the oil mill business. Of course in states like Louisiana or Mississippi, where cotton is the staple crop, oil mills are situated more closely, while they are at greater distances apart in states like North and South Carolina. The cotton seed product of the South amounts to 5,000,- 000 tons annually, valued raw at $35,000,000. In 1S67 there were only four mills in oi)oration ; in 1S07 there were over 300, with more than $50,000,00(1 invested. This industry employs 10,000 people. In 1S72 less than 5O00 barrels of cotton seed oil were exported ; in 1S9G more than 300,000 barrels were shipped to foreign markets. There are now annually crushed in the oil mills of the South about 2,000,000 tons of cotton seed, giving a product of 950,000 tons of hulls and 80,000,000 gallons of oil, besides meal and linters. - More than 3,000,000 tons of cotton seed are not as yet hauled to the oil mills on account of the dis- tance from the gins, or the desire of the farmer to use it for fertilizer in its natural form. The materials manufactured from the seed are valued at $33,000,000. The oil mills have buying agents at the stations on the railroads in their own districts and in the market towns. The seed is shipped directly into the oil mill yards in car loads. In addition to this, the oil mills handle the seed from their own ginneries and seed hauled in l)y I'oad from local ginneries. CHAP. VII.] COTTON SEED OIL MILLS. Ill m & a B ! &J- B B fj^dl TT^sIE uj Q Q a _H_31^'' — !;♦«=-{) — hHHHh —[}■<— — « — 3 e-ir= _o{]_j}— fi^i-Tx t— I i^-j a„ i -^f=- FA. O O « F>1. A N Fig. 151. R Cottori Seed Oil iWiH. Plaq ar\d Section. 312 COTTON. [cilAP. VII. The seed on its arrival at the oil mill, if it cannot he handled and the oil expressed at once, is stored in a seed honse — a hnilding removed some distance from the oil mill, owing to the liahility of fire. In storing cotton seed it is im])ortant to keep it cool and dry, as the heat and other changes produced by fermentation are detrimental to the character of the oil and meal produced. Seed which has been trampled upon and crushed to any great extent l)efore storing is prone to heat IVom oxidation of the ex})Osed oil, and increases the danger of fermentation and undesirable changes in the seed. River cotton seed produces a little more oil than railroad seed, and there is often a corre- sponding difference in their values. Seed can be shipped by rail in bulk, but it has to be sacked when shipped by river. Mills must furnish river seed dealers with sacks, and besides the cost of the sacks, there is the expense of the labor in sack- ing and unsacking the product. A two press mill with a capacity of thirty to forty tons of seed })er twenty-four hours lias the following equipment of machinery and plant: One sand and boll separator or reel, with magnetic field. One meat and hull separator or reel. Two fifteen-plate presses and fixtures. One set seventy-two inch heaters ( 2 ). One set chilled rolls, ( four high ) thirt3'-six inch. One cake former ( steam carriage and track ). One duplex hydraulic pump. Also, One ninety horse-power boiler and fixtures. One seventy-five horse-power engine and fixtures. Four ]0()-saw linters. One huller. One cotton press. One cake cracker. One meal mill. Two oil tanks twelve feet by twelve feet. In addition to piping, shafting, pulleys and hangers, elevator fixtures, conveyors, belting, sprinklers and electric light plant. 314 COTTON. [(IIAP. VII. Fig. 14!> is a view of the large mill of the (ieorgia, (\)tt(iii ()il ('()iiij)aiiy, Macon, (ieoigia, and at l''ig. !")<• is shown a group of buildings I'oi'niing part of anotluM- cotton seed oil mill. Tn the descriiition of a cotton seed oil mill it will bo unnecessary to enter into minute details, as mills vary some- what in the methods l>y which they accomplish the 'same results. A general description of a successful, well-conducted mill will give a very lair idea of the general management and the {)i-incij)les involved in them all. The Manufacture of Cotton Seed Oil. A plan and sec- tion of an oil mill is shown at Fig. lol, and the follow- ing descrii)tion is given of the treatment of the seed in lirst class mills : — The seed is removed from the cars hy being shoxclled into conveyors, which are spiral screws, as at a, l''ig. 1-")1, working in tronghs with perforated bottoms, so as h) provide for the removal of small stones, soil and sand. The seed is passed along the conveyor and the sand dr(»ps through the perforations. It }>asses into an automatic elevator, A, and is raised to the to[) of the building, two stories in height, and is deposited in a sand and boll reel or sej)arator, shown at l''ig. lol in the transverse section of the mill, and also at f'ig. 152, comsisting of a large meshed screen, which alhiws the seeds to pass, but not sticks, bolls and other trash, and a small mesh screen, which ])i'events the seeds pa.ssing, but pai'ts with sand and small dirt. In its couive the seed passes one or more strong magnets, to which nails and other sci'aps of iron are attracted, and from which ihvy are rt'nioved periodi- cally. Some oil mills are three or four stories high, instead of two, as in the mill undcn- description. After the sifting and cleaning, the seed passes to the linter room. This room in the mill under description, Fig. 151, contains a nund)er of linters, which are cotton gins s|)ecially adapted for removing the short hbre from the seed. The seed ciiAi'. VII.] Till-; :MAxrKA('TrRK of cotton hekd oil. :U5 i5 31 () COT'l'ON. [i llAP. VII. is (U'liosited ill till' roll W(>\ or scimI hox. hi its ociicrnl coii- striirtidii (his liiitcr L^iii li;is iiiniiy pdiiits of rcsfinlihiiicc to tlu> orilinary saw . The saws of the liliter, like those of the j^^'ilis in larm' mills, are sharpened hy niaehinery, a saw sharpener or mini- mer, l''i^. l")l, heinii,' used for this purpose, operated l»y jtower. 'IMu^ last two illustratitins are used hy jjermission of tlie ('arv(>r ( 'otton (iin ('o.. of Ivist Urid^t'water, Ahiss. The lintinu' is eompletiHl in two operations, the lint li'oiii (he lirst lintin^' heint;- of i-oui'se hotter than from the second, and containing some lon<;' til)ros not rcniox'cd in i;innini;. The seed is not cidii'cly dcliided, i( heinii,- (he |)racticc in American mills to leavi' a portion of the fud on the hull as it assists suhsc(|ueii( operations. The lint is deli\'ered hy condensers as a sheet and wound in a roll. This lint is usually |»resscd into hales and sold, hut some of tlu' mo.st advanced oil mill men manufactui'c it into hat- tiiiL;- on the mill promises. This is done hy a process of t'ardinii,- on ( iariiett niachines, the lihrcs hciiit;- laid crosswise in a layer or sheet, which is rolled into one pound halls on an automatic machine. r>at- tim;- is largely us(>d in the I'liited States as a liniiiii, for com - fullers ( lined (piilts ) and other purposes. When liuters are sold in the hale, it is for the |)urpose of hcini;- spun into coarsen carpe( and other yarns. 'J'liis lint from the cotton seed is sold under the same name as that of the machiiu's which remove it, that is, " linters." It would seem as if li({|e lin( cot(ou could ho secured from a previously L:,iiiued seed, yc( a lar^e mill will ol)(ain ahou( eii;li( hales a day of oOO pounds each. The sccmI having left the second lintcr drops into a huller. This is a machine haviiit;' for its (,)l)ject the crackin>j,' of the CHAP, vii.] THE MAXUFAf'TUltK OF COTTON SEED OIL. :m Fig. 154. Saw Gurqrqer or Sl^arpeqer. ;318 COTTON. [chap. VII. hull, which is the outer coating of the seed, and consists essen- tially of a cylinder carrying fourteen hlades attached by radiating bars to a central shaft, revolving inside a grating formed of thirty adjustable bars parallel to the beater blades and only one thirty-second of an inch from them. The passage of the seed l)etween the blades and bars effectively cracks the hulls and the meats are then free to drop out. The machine is shown at Fig. 156. The meats and hulls together are again elevated to the top floor and passed through a hull and meat separator, shown at P'ig. 158, when by shaking, the meats are effectively separ- ated and pass along one conveyor, while the hulls go to another. Tlie hulls formerly were wasted, burned for fuel, or given away, but their value as cattle feed, especially if mixed with cotton seed meal, is now appreciated, and they are saved and sold, either loose or in little bales. These bales are pressed between boards and tied with wire, weigh 100 pounds, and are about fourteen inches ^vide by eighteen inches long and twenty inches thick. The meats pass forward through heavy calender rolls to crush the oil cells, and thence into the cooking kettles or heaters. A set of these chilled ])ress rolls for seed or meats is shown at Fig. 150. The seed is droi)})ed into a box above the upper roll and passed alternately between each pair of rolls and effectively crushed. Cotton oil may either be pressed from the seed as it leaves tlie calender rolls without being cooked, in which case it is called cold draw^n oil, which is high grade, or as is commonly done, it may Ijo heated for half an hour or more to oxi)and the oil vessels in the meats and render the oil more fluid and more easily separable from the meats. The heater also drives off the moisture, if any, in the meats. Fig. 160 shows two heaters or "cookers," also a former and four presses. Each of the two heaters in the above plant are steam heated pans, jacketed all round the sides to the full height as ,320 COTTON. [chap. VII. well as at the Itottoiii. They are covered outside witli a iion- heat conducting material and the steam is usually kept at a pressure of 100 pounds. Each holds 700 pounds of meats. The cookers are first charged with seed, each charge being cooked usually hall' an hour, the time given being at the dis- cretion of the su})erintendent. In some cases where wet or frosted seeds are used, the time is extended to forty or forty- Fig. 156. Cottoq Seed Huller. five minutes; in no case even for dry seed is the time less than fifteen minutes. These cookers are watched over by a man called a cooker, and uynm his judgment this part of the work depends ; any failure upon his part to judge correctly means loss to the mill. The cooker charges each kettle by pulling a lever which delivers the proper charge into each, and an opening at the side of each kettle, closed with a slide, permits him at any time to withdraw a sample with a wooden 1. t ^ ■ I- ■ ■^ z sa III! 1 .--mi Em IlZI' 033) raa sd c:?:!! (113,1 322 COTTON. [chap. VII. paddle used I'ov the }iui"[)()se, and judge of its condition. Either too little cooking or too nuidi cooking gives a small yield of oil. The cooking must he just right for the best results. An under-cooked charge also appears to leave some water in the meats, which causes the (-loths to burst in the oil presses, to the damage of these expensive fabrics. The heat- ing renders the oil limpid, expands the oil cells, probably bursting them, and dries out the water, which is not only detrimental in the oil presses, but causes the meal to deteri- orate much faster than is the case when more perfectly diy. Another style of cooker is shown in Fig. H)2. Fig. 164 gives a view of a portion of the interior of an oil mill, which is not a very attractive scene as a rule. When properly cooked the meats are dumped into a conveyor, which carries them to the "former," shown on a small scale at Fig. 160, and on a larger scale at Fig. 1G5. At the former, experienced workmen work with clock-like regularity. Upon the jdatform of the former, which stands about waist high, a porter throws down a steel plate about one foot wide and about two and a half feet long. Two men stand at the former, and one throws a piece of camel's hair cloth, about six feet long and a foot wide, lengthways u[)on the steel plate. The second workman pulls a lever and a charge of meats three or four inches deep is deposited over the cloth upon a space almost as large as the steel plate. The other workmen immediately fold each end of the cloth over the charge, their surplus length causing them to lap. A lever is pulled and down comes the plunger, which is about the size of the platform. It immediately releases itself from the cake of meats and returns to its original position, leaving the meats pressed to a coherent mass or cake wrapi)ed in cloth ; this the porter seizes, with the underlying steel plate, which he uses as a kind of waiter to carry the cake, and places it in the hydraulic oil i)ress, which is made to hold a numljer of these masses. The two workmen labor to keej) u[) with the hot > •) o [AP. VII.] TiriC MANUFACTrHE OF COTTON SKKD olF.. oio :^)24 COTTON. [CHAI>. VII. meats as tliev coiiu' from the cookci's, and tlic porters trot l)aek and fortli with tlieir steel [dates and loails of eake. ra[)idly tilling the })resses. As each of the })rosses, one of which is shown at Fig. 1 Ofi, receives its twelve or fifteen cakes their attendant j)nlls a lever and the I'am at the base slowly rises upward with an initial pressure of 300 to 400 pounds, grad- ually rising to a |)ressure of 3,000 to 3,500 pounds to every square inch on its surface of 201 s(|nare inches. The lower portions of the press, carrying the cakes with them, continue to rise slowly as the ram ascends. As the mass becomes more and more compact, the oil begins to flow, at first in tiny streams, and later gushes forth in torrents, a large stream pouring from the spout which delivers the oil as it spurts from every por- tion of the press. The dark, murky oil passes through pipes made to receive it into a large reservoir beneath the })resses. This oil is pumped from the reservoir into large settling- tanks, where the various foreign substances are allowed to gradually settle and leave the oil in a somewhat clearer con- dition. After the full pressure has been reached in each press and the cakes of meats contract no longer, tlie chief portion of the oil has been pressed from the oil cells of the meats ; the oil, however, continues to run in small streams from the inner portions of the meats, hence each press is allowed to di'ain as long as is convenient, usually about tw^enty minutes. While the operation is going on in one press the other presses are being filled, and one after another they are operated and allowed to drain, until the wdiole series are under pressure ; then the first press is relieved of its pressure by a reverse movement of the lever, and the heavy ram slowly descends, carrying the lower parts of the press with it. Cotton Seed Meal. The attendants now withdraw the compacted cakes of meats, still hot from their recent cooking. The pressure has been so great that each seems as solid as a piece of wood. The cakes are then quickly laid on trucks and carried to the " strij)])ing table " : there tlie workmen stand, CHAP. VII.] COTTON' SKEI) MKAL. 32o Fig. 159. Set of Ctiilled Rolls for Prcs^i.ig Meats. 320 COTTON. [fllAl-. VII. called " !^ti'i})})er.s '' or "skinners." They rapidly stri]) the camel's hair cloth from the cakes, throwing them over to the workmen at the "former," each cake still appearing, after the cloth has been removed, as if yet covered with the material, on account of the enormous pressure making a perfect impres- sion of it in the mass of the cake. The camel's hair cloth used for covering these cakes is made of very expensive material, hence the sewing miichine is kept industriously at work to keep them in re})air and to make them last as long as possible. These boarddike cakes are now thrown on trucks and rolled quickly away to the cooling room, where the cakes are pushed into racks to keep them separate from each other and allow them to cool as ra})idly as possible, and to dry also, if there is any moisture remaining. After standing in the cool- ing room from twelve to twenty-four hours, the cakes are fed into a machine called the " cake-cracker." This cake cracker, shown at Fig. 167, is composed of two revolving rollers with spikedike projections ; these, revolving in opposite directions, draw the cakes into the cracker rapidly, crushing them into a number of small pieces the size of a hickory nut. This machine breaks up the cakes in this manner that they may be more easily and cheaply conveyed by means of mechanical conveyors than could possibly be done by hand, and also that they may be in suitable form to feed into the grinder. The work people in the oil mills, with the exception of the superintendent, master mechanic, overseers, engineer and so on, are almost exclusively colored. The atmosphere is usually so hot and oleaginous that a white man cannot endure it. Besides this the remuneration required by a col- ored operative is considerably less than that of a white man. From the cake cracker the broken cakes are conveyed to either burr mills or roller mills, as the case may be, and ground into meal. This meal is then either packed into sacks for sale in that condition, or if the mill has a fertilizer CHAP. Vll] COTTON SEKI) MEAL. i5' 5 328 COTTON. [cirAP. vir. factory oj)erated in connection witli it, tlie meal is conveyed direct to the "mixers/' where it is mixed with acid j)hosj)hate and potash, constituting a complete fertilizer. The ingenuity of the inventor has heen applied even to tlie mixing of this fertilizer, and the weighing of the sacks. Tlic view at Fig. 168 not only shows an admirable arrangement of a duplex rotary apparatus, A, which mixes the fertilizer, allowing it to fall into a j^it, B, from whence it is elevated to a sufficient height to iall into a bag already placed on a scale, 1' ; the view also illustrates the construction of the eleva- tor, C, which forms so important a part of cotton seed oil mill construction as a means of automatic transit of seed, hulls, meats, meal, and so on. If the feed stuff has to l)e exported it is in the most con- venient form in the cake, but the greater proportion remains in the United States, either for use as feed or fertilizer. In either case, the cake has to Ije cracked as described above, and then ground to a fine meal in a cake mill. The French burr grinder, represented at Fig. 100, is a popular type of cake mill. It then forms the cotton seed meal of commerce. For feed purposes, it is usually made up in 100 pound bags, and sold along with the hulls, and the stock raiser blends the two to his liking. In other cases, the oil mills keep cattle and mix the hulls and meal for feeding purposes, j^referring to sell them in the form of beef. Cotton seed meal is used as a manure, either alone or with other ingredients, as it contains about three and one-third per cent, of phosphoric acid, two and one-fourth per cent, of potash, and over eiglit per cent, of nitrogen. It will l)e seen that it is valuable for the puq)ose. A better })la.n would be to feed the meal to the cattle and use the manure as fertilizer, as eighty or ninety per cent, of the fertilizing ingredients of the meal are voided l)y the animals. o ^ ^ m tn 380 COTTON. [ciiAi-. VII. Ill various states, })articularly Texas, many tlioiisaud head of cattle are annually fed, and, with the addition of cotton seed meal, are fattened upon cotton seed hulls. Much of the C'hicago and Kansas (_'ity dressed heef shipped to all parts of America in refrigerator cars is simply concentrated cotton seed meal and hulls. The price of hulls varies from two to three dollars a ton, which is far helow their intrinsic value. Dairies near the larger southern cities, and many farmers near enough to the mills, are now feeding milch cows on them. Oil Refineries. The crude oil in case of the smaller oil mills, called "crude oil mills," is harrelled and shipped to a refinery. In case of the largest mills, there is a refinery attached. In the processes of refining, the impurities in suspension are usually allowed to settle, and the clear supernatant oil is drawn oft'. To the latter from ten to fifteen per cent, of caus- tic soda, according to the nature of the oil, is added, and the mixture agitated at a temperature of 100° to 110° F. for forty- five minutes, the precipitate being allowed to settle from six to thirty-six hours. The residues obtained are disposed of as for the manufacture of soap, stearin, and so on. The whole mass settling carries with it the albuminous and mucilaginous materials as well as most of the coloring matter. These sub- stances collect at the bottom of the tank, leaving a supernatant oil of a light straw color. The yellow oil resulting from this process is further })uri- fied by being heated and allowed to settle again, or by filtra- tion, and is called summer yellow oil. Tliose portions of the oil which are not as bright and clear as desired are run through filter presses, in which the oil is forced by lieavy pressure through filtering cloths. A filter press is shown at Fig. 170. Winter yellow oil is made from the above material by chilling- it until it partially crystallizes anjl separating the stearin formed (about twenty-five per cent.), in presses similar to those used for lard. The latter constitutes the true cotton seed ciiAi'. vi:.] on, KKFIXKHIKS. 831 (5' 332 COTTON. [cilAI'. VII. stearin of coinnicrec, and is largely used in tlie prei)aration of butter and lard substitutes, and candles. Another substance inn»ro{)erly called cotton seed stearin is obtained by distilling with superheated steam the mixture of organic acids formed when the mineral acid is made to decompose the ''foots" obtained during the process of refining cotton seed oil by alkalies, and pressing out the " olein " from the distillate after cooling and solidification. For the i)reparation of the white oil of commerce the yellow oil obtained as above is shaken up with two to three per cent, of fullers' earth and filtered. Views of a Texas oil refinery are shown at Fig. 171. The three story building shows the })ortion devoted to storing the crude oil and treating it to get rid of the foots and soap stock. Tanks A, B, C, are used for this purpose, and D is the filter press. The oil from the filter press is deposited in the storage tanks for refined oil, E, F, and G. A sulphuric acid chamber is frequently operated along with an oil refinery. A view of such a building is shown at Fig. 172. Uses of Cotton Seed Oil. Broadly stated, refined cotton seed oil can be used for every purpose to which oil can be put, except household illumination and lubricating, for which latter, it is too mucilaginous. Yet for cooling hot journals and for electric insulation it has been found better than any other oil. Summer yellow is tlie ordinary staple of the cotton seed oil. The bulk of this goes to the manufacturers of a pro- duct used largely in cooking, and by bakers for "shortening." It is also bought in large quantities by laundry soap manufac- turers, when its price is lower than tallo\v. It is an important article of export, being employed in Europe in the manufac- ture of butterine — and this because of the sui^eriority of the American oil over that refined in England and France from Egyptian seed. \ The oil for butterine is made from selected seed, a still "further selection being made in the crude oil. ■.f 004 COTTOX. [CIIAI'. VII. "Summer yellow" is also used by bakers, and by cooks in frying, in wliieli latter culinary process it bas tbe advantage tbat it can be used over and over again, witli a little refresh- ing, for the same articles. The oil is also l)leached to a " sum- mer white" and a " winter white," the latter strained so as not to chill in winter. " Winter white " is the staple cotton seed salad oil, used for that purpose in the land of the olive itself. It is also used largely in cooking l»y orthodox Hebrews, who naturally prefer the " cottolene " made from " summer yellow " cotton seed oil to lard made from hog's fat, and druggists employ it for bases of liniments, salves and sim- ilar preparations instead of olive oil, than wdiich it is from two-thirds to three-fourths cheaper. Though cotton seed oil cannot be used in chimney lamps, it is a free burning, smoke- less, odorless oil in miners' lamps, it being so excellent for this l)urpose, that in Ohio the law provides that cotton seed oil, pure lard oil, or their equivalent, must be used in mines. As the miner has to sup])]y his own oil, it also commends itself to him for its cheapness. Cotton seed oil is also used for tloating tai)ers in night lamps, and for altar lam])s in Roman Catholic churches. It has been found valuable in preserving wood by saturation ; for temi)ering steel, especially in the manufactur- ing of springs ; and salt makers float it on the top of their tanks to prevent these from bubbling over. Paper manufticturers make a similar use of the crude cotton seed oil, as it is cheap and non-explosive. Machine makers use it in cutting threads on bolts, and it is mixed with puttv and paint. The foots, the residue in the refining kettle, is sold for soap stock. It may be stated that the various table uses of cotton seed oil have been known and practically enjoyed abroad for many years, while in America it has been appreciated i)rinci|)ally by pork packers. As the price of cotton seed oil became less, the pork packers discovered that by adulterating it with beef stearine it could be sold as lard. Since its introduction to this use large and increasing quantities have been consumed CHAP. Vll.] USES OF COTTON SEED OIL OOO 3;]() COTTON. [clfAP. VII. by tlic pork j)ackers, and the price of liogs has considerable inihience on the price of cotton seed ]>ro(hicts. Cotton seed oil is largely used for })acking sardines on the coast of Maine, and lor innumerable other pur[)oses. Costs. An approximate estimate of the cost of various sized oil mills, with or without ginnery or refinery, is given in the followinu' table : — ^ o to ,_^ 1 o o ~ o O' o b o "^ ;::^ j Capacity I'm- 24 hours in "^ " tons. InO GO 0^ CO ,_. 1 o o S o o> I lO ^_, to Z/i o o Ol Buildings, including oil o o o '— o mill, boiler, seed, and o o o o s o o p meal houses. to lO IC to Land and railroad side- "Oi "o "— , '— ~o track, and water o o o o o o o o o o supply. , ^ o 1-3 o CO "to o o Ol o Press room machinery, F.o.B. factorv. o o ^ o o ! 00 In3 o C/D on All other machinery in ill "—, o bl o oil mill to malie o o o o p 1 erude oil. ^ . to 00 4^ _4- to Oi Ol a> "bi o Freight and Erection. o o o o p ^ o o p s oo CO ^J Total lor oil mill, boilers, '(-^ "o 'j_ ~bi seed and meal o ^ o o o house. o o o o o CO JO "bi Ol ^ Refinery, including build- o "Ci i n"g and all o o o o s machinery. io 00 en 4-- Ol O' p co Total for oil mill and o o g 3 o refinery. r^ o C3 ^ ^ . ^ . , ■ „ o Ol o Ol o o Ol p Ginnery, (1 stand gins and cotton warehouse. 4 o 4^ o o Ol Or Total for oil mill, gin- "o "^ o o nery, and refinery. o o o o CHAP. VII.] USES OF COTTON SEED OIL. 337 Fig. 165. Forrr\er for Cottor] Seed CaKe. 338 COTTON. [chap. VII. Estimates of the profits fivnn a well designed mill in good and bad je^'s are shown l)olow : — Product of one ton of seed, and the results in a good year : Oil, 40 gals, at 20c. per gal. . Meal, 075 pounds at $1.00 per cwt. Hulls, 950 pounds at $3.00 per ton Lint, 30 pounds at 4c. per pound . Total Cost of seed in mill Cost of working, bagging, etc. Cost of fuel Profit . . . . $ 8.00 G.75 1.42 1.20 |)17.37 $10.00 3.00 .75 $3.6i or say in round numbers |3.50, which on 5,000 tons seed =$17,500. For the same mill in a bad vear : — Oil, 40 gals, loe Meal, 675 pounds at UOc. per cwt. . Hulls, 950 pounds at $2.50 per ton Lint, 30 pounds at Sic. . Total Cost of seed in mill Cost of working, bagging, etc. Cost of fuel Profit $ 6.00 6.08 1.19 1.05 $14.32 $10.00 3.00 .75 $0.57 In round numbers, say 50 cents per ton on 5000 tons =$2500. No provision is made for depreciation, and wear and tear of the plant ; at least five per cent, should be estimated for this. The plant being worth aljout $50,000, five per cent, on this would thus absorb the profit in a bad year, but leave thirty per cent, profit in a good one. These figures all apply rather in the Atlantic states than west of the Mississippi river. They fM'>ply also to the oil mill business alone. As a matter of fact the best modern plants in the East compri.se in one factory a ginnery, an oil mill and fertilizer works, each of which departments helps the others out. Fig. 166. Cotton Seed Oil Press. 340 CO'l'TOX. [(MAC. VII. I am indebted to the St i llwell-lJierce cV: Sinitli-N'aile < '(). of Dayton, ()hio, Inr sexcral illusti'ation.s in this chapter, l''it;s. ir)2, l.")<), KiO, and 170; also to the Cardwell Machine Co. of liichniond, \"ir<2;inia, for l^'i^s. loS, [i\'2, lOti, 1(17, and Mi'.', also to Ml'. I). A. Tompkins of (diarlotto, X.C, for some of the plans of mill plants. Cotton Seed and Meal as Fertilizers. 'idle rapid exten- sion of oil mills has not l)een an unmixed hIessiiiL;,' to the SontJi. In the lint itself, there is very little matter which impov- erishes the soil by removal, but the seeds, especially the inner meats, contain much valuable plant food, and the removal of them from the land either means g-radually re(hiced fertility or the re])laceiiieiit of these materials by artificial manures to keep the soil uj) to the re((uiretl staiulard. The colored, or for that matter, the white, tenant farmer, havinn' an opjtortunity ^iveii to him by the establishment of an oil mill, now sells his see(l regardless ol' consequences. His tenure of the land is uncertain ; if he leaves the seed, it may be for the benefit of some one else ; the temjitation of |4.00 to |5.00 for the seed from one bale is more than he can resist in the usual state of his exche(|uer, thus the land sulfers. This is especially the case with a negro, who will scdl all he can and beg seed for sowing next season. lie has to buy commercial fertilizers hiter which are charged up to him by his merchant on credit at a far greater ])rice than he got for his seed. The most logical and sensible system would be, as has been suggested by many stuch'uts of this subject, for the farmer to loan his seed to the oil mill, for them to remove the hulls, and extract the oil, returning him the meal, with such adjustment of weights exchanged as would be mutually sat- isfactory. The greatest fertilizing constituents being in the meal, and the least in the lint, the hulls, and the oil, the farmer thus retains for his land that which is of the gi'catest benefit to it. This is already done in some instances, only 100 pounds of meal being given for each ton of seed. ■|[A1>. vir] COTTON SEED AND MEAL AS FEIJTIIJZEKS. 341 n 342 COTTON. [CIIAP. VII. Cotton seed meal coutaiiis the tliree important fertilizing elements, nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. It cannot ho washed out of the soil like soluhle fertilizers, yet its fine me- chanical condition enables it to quickly decompose into such substances that the plant can rapidh^ avail itself of its con- tents of plant food. One analysis of cotton seed meal showed : — Water 7.50 per cent Crude fat . ... 9.26 Albuminoids or protein . 47.29 Nitrogen, free extract . . 24.39 Fibre 4.53 Ash or mineral matter 7.03 100.00 This seven per cent, and upwards of ash or mineral mat- ter contains the phosphoric acid and potash. Out of the 7.03 23er cent, of ash about two-thirds is made up of these two ingre- dients. Cotton seed meal contains about two and three-fourths per cent, of phosphoric acid and about one and three-fourths per cent, of potash. The protein or albuminoids contains nitrogen, which is such a valuable ingredient in fertilizers. Cotton seed meal usually runs from 6.(3 per cent, of nitrogen to 7.8 per cent, of nitrogen. The latter figure is unusually high, but during a good crop year, when the seed is secured in the best condition, the nitrogen contained in it is inclined to run high. More thorough separation of the hulls from the meal, and more complete extraction of the oil, naturally give a higher proportion of nitrogen in the meal. The mills have now realized this, which is shown by the determination of nitrogen made in many cotton seed meals analyzed during tlie past few months by the State chemist of Georgia, the law in that State requiring in cotton seed meals at least seven and one-half per cent, of ammonia calculated from the nitrogen present. This seven and one-half per cent, requirement of ammonia is equivalent to G.l-S per cent, of nitrogen. German CHAP. VII.] COTTON SEED AND MEAL AS FERTILIZERS. observers have estimated the effect of cotton seed meal as a fertilizer as being fifty per cent, the first year, thirty per cent, the second year, and twenty per cent, for the third year. Of conrse, in very dry seasons the advantage of cotton seed meal is not so marked as witli a fair amount of moisture; this, however, is true to some extent of all fertilizers, (\jtton seed SACKING ClCVATOH Fig, 168. Fertilizer Mixer aqd SacKer. meal, as stated before, for the best results from an economical standpoint, should be first used as a feed and the resulting manure then used as a fertilizer. In feeding cotton seed meal alone, it is far too rich for that purpose, its nutritive ratio being very high. The percentage of protein present in cot- ton seed meal is quite large, and it has been a.scertaincd that to secure the best results in cattle-feeding, the amount of .344 COTTON. [cilAP. VII. digestive })rotein fed should always be accompanied by a cer- tain ])roportion of digestible non-nitrogenous material made up of crude libre, fat and extractive. The crude protein is the nitrogenous portion of the food and is the most costly. Its chief work is tlie production of flesh and muscle. Cotton seed meal fed alone is a})t to produce "scouring" and diges- tive disturbance, hence the necessity of feeding it with less rich food is well understood. Fig. 169 CaKe Gririder or Burr Mill. Rich as the cotton seed meal appears and poor as the hulls seem in comparison, yet within the last few years cotton seed hulls have come to the front as a valuable cattle food. While apparently so dry, tasteless and devoid of nourishment, chemical analysis shows that they yet contain substances of much value. The producers of cotton-seed oil formerly used their hulls as fuel, and do so now whenever the demand for the hulls is CIIAl*. VII ] COTTON SKKI) AND MKAL AS FEKTILIZKRS. 04.") O 346 COTTON. [chap. vil. not great enough to keep u[i with the 8iip})ly. Cotton seed hulls contain in every 100 pounds according to one analysis : — Moisture ..... 7.25 pounds. Ash 2.88 " Crude protein .... 3.75 " Crude fiber 42.83 Fat 1.54 Non-nitrogenous extractive matter, 41.75 " 100.00 An English Cotton Seed Oil Mill. It may not be inap- pro}ii"iate here to give a description of an English cotton seed oil mill. There is a large quantity of cotton seed shipped to England from Egypt, and also from Brazil, the United States, and other cotton growing countries. The Egyptian seed is black .and smooth without the short fibres found on American seed. The Indian and Brazilian seed have this short tibre. Occasionally delinted seed is shipped to England, the object of removing the lint before shi])nient being to prevent the seed heating and firing in transit. Tlie centres of the oil pressing indu.stry in England are Hull and Liverpool. In one of the Liverpool cotton seed oil mills which has a floor area of about 2."), 000 square feet, and a capacity of dealing with thirty tons of seed in each twenty-four hours, the machinery is operated by a twenty-eight feet by eight feet Lancashire steel boiler working at 150 pounds pressure driv- ing a 360 indicated horse power central valve engine. This engine at present only works eight presses, but is calculated to operate sixteen pres.ses and cleaning machinery so as to treat sixty tons of seed daily. The seed is fir.st of all cariied l)y a nine-incli worm con- veyor to the cleaning reel, fifteen feet long. . The seed passes from this reel to what is known as Crawford's patent cotton seed cleaning machine, or delinting machine, for removing the lint, which is a conically shaped circular brush covered with steel bristles six inches lono;. This brush revolves 650 CHAP. VII.] AX ENGLISH COTTON SEED OIL MllA.. 347 348 COTTON. [diAr. vu. times per iniiiuk', is tliirty iiu-lies in (li;iiiietcr at llic iipjier ciul niul l'oiiy-t\\(i iiK'lu's at tlie l(»wei' end. It is eiilii'ely siii'- rdUiided liy a IkkkI so arranged as to l»e set a short distane(> IVoni tlu' end of the hristles. and the interioi- of the hood is surfaeed entirely \vitli emery. Uy the hiij,h speed of rexdhi- tion of the brush auainst the stationary eowr, the Hnt is rubbed from the seeds, the hitter drop down to a conveyor and are eh'vated to the In^-hest ]»art i>f the buildinij,-. They are Www allowed to fall by their own weight into what are known as Sntelid'e's centrifugal dressing machines, in which the lint is se])arattMl from the seeds by an air curreid. 'idie lint j)asses forward to a i^in following,- the centrifugals, wdiile the seed falls fhrouuii the cH'ntrifu<;als to a conveyor, and is auain elevated to what is known as a jotigler. The.se jogglers are merely ])erforated zinc or steel sieving tables wdiicli are given a reciprocating niotion so as to se|)arate cleaned from uncleaned see(k The cdean seed is conveyed from the joggler to an automatic weighing machine which registers once for every sixty pounds of see(l passing int(» the oil mill proper. 'I'he uncleaned seed which has not ])assed through the sieve on the joggler is gradually shaken into another couNcyor which takes it l^ack to the reel from whence it started and it goes through the whole of the |)rocesses again. It was stated above that the lint from the cleaners, after being separated from the seed at the centrifugals, was passed through a gin. There is one gin to each two centrifugals and their object is merely to run the lint thi'ough at a rapid rate and throw out any of the few seeds which may have esca})ed the centrifugals. The lint is then bagged uj) ; as it has l)een removed by such a st'vere process, this lint is not as valuable as that obtained by a linter gin. It will be seen that in this arrangement almost (>very- thing is automatic, that the conveyors and elevators re(|uire very little attention and yet })erlbrm their work in an ailmii-a- ble manner. cirAi'. VII.] DKLIXTING COTTON SKKI). 349 There are not iiiauy l-]iiij,lisli mills (-(luippcd with this sys- tem of separating lint from the seed. Probably more of the mills have the ordinary saw linter, such as is in use in the United States, while a luimber of others do not consider the lint to be woi'th the trouble of removing from the seed, and merely pass the seed through a dilute acid bath afterward heating the seed. This takes off all the short fdores adhering to the seed, and it is then dealt with exactly as is Sea Island or Egyptian smooth seed. Fig. 172. SulphiUric Acid WorKs. The equipment in the oil mill proper is very similar to that in an American mill, and the description which has been given will appl}^ almost exactly, excepting with reference to machinery for hulling the seed ; this goes directly to two sets of press rolls, five high, forty-six inches wide, and sixteen inches in diameter. These are chilled rolls ; the toj) one is fluted and the other four are smooth. After the seed has been crushed it is conveyed to an edge runner grinding mill, eight feet in diameter, twenty inches thick, made of grit stone rotating on a stationar}- iron pan. and, being of a tremendous 350 COTTON. [CHAI'. VII. weight, effectively pulverizes tlie seed and liulls; thence these are carried by means of elevators to a cooker. There is only one of these cookers together with an automatic cake former. In connection with the cooker or kettle are operated eight hydraulic presses, each with sixteen plates three feet by seventeen and onedialf inches, with sixteen-inch rams. After the cakes have been pressed they are removed to an auto- matic cake paring machine, three feet wide, with two traveling knives. The parings from the cakes drop into a conveyor and are automatically carried under the heavy pressure of an edge runner smaller than the })receding one, and after being pulverized are carried back to the cooker. As has been before stated this machinery is erected to deal with thirty tons per day while the cleaning mill machinery handles double that amount. After the crude oil has been expressed from the seed it is pumped to a mixing tank where it is warmed and lowered to a bleaching tank. After this it is pumped to the storage tanks. It is sometimes stated that English mills get more gal- lons of oil and pounds of meal than American, but it must be borne in mind that owing to the existence of diflerent circum- stances a fair comparison cannot be made. It takes nearly 3,000 pounds of seed, as it comes from the gin, to make a ton of seed in England, as there is first the loss of lint ( about thirty pounds ) and the English ton is 2240 pounds. Then English cake includes all the hulls, which is about fifty per cent, of the weight, and from a given amount of seed the yield of oil is less and the quality not so good from the deliuted seed as from the decorticated seed. The first cotton seed oil mills in America used the English presses, but at the present time are using presses that are greatly im])roved, while Eng- lish mills still follow the old S3^stem, and it would seem that it was more economical to manufacture the oil in America and shi}) only the oil and meal and save freight on the almost worthless hulls. The oil mill business in England is not on the increase, as the risk of fire in cotton seed in transit to that country is CHAT. VII.] I)i:i,lN'riX(. CoTToX SEED. 351 or)2 C'OTTOX. [CIIAP. VJI. great, while another and perlia|)S a greater disadvantage is in the freight, which has to be paid on tlie raw seed instead of on the manufactnred oil which occupies very nuicli less bulk. The tendency is for oil mills to become established in the conntry where cotton is grown, just as is the tendency of cot- ton mills for the manufacture of coarse goods. Delinting Cotton Seed* For several years past efforts have been made to export cotton seed from the United States, and to do this all the lint must he removed to prevent heating while in transit across the ocean. On its face the business looks very profitable, but there are many difficulties to over- come, and not the least of these is cleaning or delinting the seed. The oil mills remove a part of the lint, but to prepare seed for export it must be entirely denuded of lint, and present the appearance of the Sea Island cotton seed, or, as it is some- times called, "black" seed, to distinguisli it from the green seed of the short staple cotton. The saws of the gin alone will not do this, and the most successful machines so far have re- moved the lint by passing the seed through a series of emery or corundum discs. Many machines have been introduced for this pur[)Ose, but few are successful. The oil mills in America do not want the seed entirely delinted, as the hulls and meats cannot be as easily separated as when there is a little lint left on the hull. Prices of Cotton Seed Products. The prices on cotton- seed products in January, 1898, were : — New York, cotton-seed oil crude, nineteen cents ; crude, loose, f. o. b. mills, fifteen and one-half to sixteen cents ; sum- mer yellow, prime, twenty -two and one-half to twenty-three cents ; summer, off grade, twenty -two cents ; yellow, butter grades, twenty-five to twenty-six cents ; white, twenty-five cents ; winter yellow, twenty-eight to twenty-eight and one- half cents ; salad oil, twenty-nine to thirty cents. All above prices per gallon. Cotton-seed meal, |19.o0 per ton. Soap stock, one-half cent to five-eights cents per pound. Liverpool 354 (■OTT( )X. [CIIAI". \II. refined cotton-seed oil, 14s. (id. per 1 1'J [»()unds. American cake £5.10s.0d. to i:G.()s.Od. per ton. Egyptian cotton-seed, £4.13s.9d. ton. New Orleans cotton-seed, $7 per ton of 2,000 pounds net to the mills, no commission of any kind to Ije added ; cotton- seed meal jobbing per carload at de})ot, §16.50 to §16.75 per short ton of 2,000 pounds ; for export per long ton of 2,240 pounds f. o. b., $18.25 to $18.50; oil-cake for export, $18.25 to $18.50 per long ton f. o. 1). ; crude cotton-seed oil at wholesale or for shipment, strictly prime in barrels, per gal- lon, seventeen to seventeen and one-half cents ; loose, per gallon, twelve to fourteen cents, according to location of mill ; refined cotton-seed oil, prime in barrels per gallon at whole- sale or for shipment, twenty-one to twent3'-one and one-half cents ; cotton-seed hulls delivered per 100 pounds, according to location of mill, ten to twelve cents ; linters, according to style and staple two and three-eighths to three and one-half cents. Prices of raw cotton of all varieties are given on the Liverpool price list inserted at page 288. INDEX. Where several page numbers are given for one subject the more impor tant references are indicated by heavier type. For references to different varieties of cottons see tables on pages 7!» to 84. For index of illustrations see pages lo to 16. \^ A Abbasi Cotton .... African Cottons .... Allan-Seed Cotton .... American Cotton .... American Cotton Belt . American Cotton Cultivation in 1832 American Locust .... American Oil Mills American Seaports Shipping Cotton American Species of Cotton . Analysis of Cotton Analysis of Cotton Seed Hulls Analysis of Cotton Seed Meal Analysis of Cotton Wax Area of Available Cotton Land in the United States Argentine Cotton .... Ash from Cotton Fibres Asia Minor Cotton ... Australian Cotton .... B Bahia Cotton . Baling Cotton ... Baling Press ... Bamia Cotton . Battery of Cotton Gins . Benders Cotton Bengal Cotton Biblical References to Cotton Bills of Lading Bloom in Cotton Bolls .... 66 64 57 56 106 102 184 310 275 22 39 :546 342 42 126 62 39 76 75 61 .'02, 254 23(i 66 224 57 69 95 275 89 28 356 INI) !■; \ , Boll Worm of Cott.m I'lant Botany of Cotton ... Boweds Cotton .. . Brazilian Cotton . Bremen Cotton Mari(». C ^ Cake Cracker and Crinder Caterpillar of Cotton Plant Cattle Feeding .... Ceara Cotton Cellulose Ciiemical Composition of Cotton . Central American Cotton Charges for Ginning China Cotton ..... Chopping Out .... Churka Cotton Gin C. I. F. Cotton Contract . Classlflcatlon of Cotton Cleaning Cotton Seed Clearing Land for Cotton Climate of the American Cotton Belt Coconada Cotton .... Cold Drawn Cotton Seed Oil . Colored Cotton ... Colored People of the American Cotton Bt Composition of the Cotton Fibre . Compressing Cotton Bales Consumption of Cotton in the United State Consumption of American Cotton in Europe Continental Cotton Markets . Cooker Cost of Cotton Seed Oil Mills Cost of Raising Cotton . Cost of Raising Sea Island Cotton Cotton as an Article of Commerce Cottons According to Quality Cotton Bagging .... Cotton Baling .... Cotton Bale Dimensions Cotton Batting .... 172 17 5S 88, 2H2 2<»6 1 ;*,2 no 72 309 :]2() 17() 328 61 3!) 30 59 21(i 74 1 52 2:;4 202 85 314 126 108 77 318' 77 12, 162 30 246 285 302 206 318 ;!.';6 304 109 274 54 254 258 258 316 IXDK.N ;;:>7 Cotton Belt of tlie Tiiited States 54, lOG Cotton Boll Weevil ISH Cotton Boll Worm 172 Cotton Caterpillar 176 Cotton Characteristic? ...... 78 Cotton Compress ... ... . 248 Cotton Cost per Pound . 304 Cotton Crop by States 128, 298 Cotton Crops of the World 50 Cotton Cultivation, History of ... . !i2 Cotton Culture 1 29 Cotton l-ables ...... 96 Cotton Fibre 30 Cotton Fields of the World ... 49 Cotton Ginneries 214, 228 Cotton Gins 222 Cotton Imports into United States . 300 Cotton Markets of Europe 288 Cotton Markets of the United States . . 274 Cotton Merchants ....... . 240 Cottons of the World 49 Cotton Pickintj; . 160 Cotton Pickinperati( Delinting Cotton Seed .... Dharwar Cotton Dhollerali Cotton Diameters of Cotton Fibres Difference between Cotton and otlier Fibres Dimensions of the Cotton Fibre Diseases of the Cotton Plant . ^Dissolution of the Cotton Fibre Distance Between Cotton Plants Distribution of American Cotton Duty on Cotton in Europe Dye on Cotton, Effects of ... E Egyptian Cotton Egyptian Cotton in America . English Cotton Seed Oil Mills English Mill Purchases of Cotton . Equipment of a Cotton Seed Oil Mill European Cotton Euroi^ean Cotton Mai'kets Exports of American Cotton Fertilizers and Fertilizing Fibre Measurements Fibres Other Than Cotton Fire in Cotton Bales Flax Fibres Florida Sea Island Cotton Flowers of Cotton Plant .... Foreign Cotton Seed Former for Cotton Seed Cake . Forward Delivery Contracts for Cotton, Livei Freight on Cotton — Land and Eiver Freight on Cotton — Ocean French Guiana Cotton .... " Future" Cotton Sales in America " Future " Cotton Sales in Liverpool po<^l . 184 266 76 60 . 170 41, 89 . 167 . :5o2 71 72 78 42 ;-)7 . 170 45 134, 152 284, 302 . 297 48 64, 87, 260 . 800 . 34(> . 290 . 312 76 . 288 . 302 137, 309, 340 3/ 42 . 264 42 56 28 . 146 . 322 292 . 286 . 297 60 . 276 . 294 IXDKX. 359 Genoa Cotton Market Genus of the Cotton Plant Georgia Crackers Gin Damage Ginning Good Farming . Gossj'pium Arboreum Gossypium Barbadense Gossypium Herbacemn Gossypium Hirsutum Gossypium Peruvianum . Gossypium i^andwichense Gossypium Tahitense Grades and Grading of Cotton Greek Cotton . . . . Gulf Cotton . . . . G V^ H Handling Cotton Havre Cotton Market ... Heater .... . High Colored Cotton ... Hindoo Cotton Gin Hinghunghat Cotton History of Cotton Cultivation . History of Cotton Cultivation in the United History of Cotton Ginning Huller for Cotton Seed .... Hulls I Immature Cotton Imports of Cotton into the United States Improvements in Baling .... Indian Cotton Influence of Weather on Prices of Cotton Inspection and Classification of Cotton in xS( Italian Cotton Java and Japanese Cotton Judging Cotton Kidney Cotton . Land Tenure in the Cotton Belt Length of Staple Levantine Cotton Life History of the Cotton Plant J PC States w Y ork . 28gL, 17 110 . 22(>^ 202,214' 129. 167 17, 18,21 17, 18/ 17, 18, 23 -, 18, 21, 22 i .7 85 ^6 57 240 296 ;'.is 77 2:U 72 92 98 202 .'518 309, 318, :546 32 300 2()() 88, 260 308 279 76 (>8, 85 22 114 78 76 2{) :;(')() INDEX. J \l Linters and Linter Gins Lint to Seed, Proportion Liverpool Cotton Association and Cotton ilarket Local Sale of Cotton . • . . . Lonjr Stapled Cottons, Table of . . . m: Maceio Cotton Machinery for a Cotton Seed Oil Mill Mako or Maco Cotton Maltese Cotton . Manures ... ... ^Nlaranham Cotton INIarks on Cotton Bales iSIarkets of the United States ... INIeal from Cotton Seed Memphis Cotton Methods of Baling Cotton .... Mexican Cotton .... Mexican Weevil IMicroscopic Appearance of Cotton Fil)re INI i Ian Cotton Market .... Mill Purchases of Cotton, America M\]\ Purchases of Cotton, England Mitafifi Cotton . Modern Ginnery Modern Ginning Moisture in Cotton Mules on Farms N Nankin Cotton . Negroes in the South New Orleans Cotton . New Orleans Cotton Contract New York Cotton Contract Numbers of Yarns for which Cottons are Suitable O Ocean Freight ........ Ocean Shipment ....... Oil Refineries Old-Time Ginning and Baling .... Oomrawuttee Cotton Operations of Cotton Culture Paraiba Cotton Peelers Cotton :{09, 316, 348 236 289 240 79 61 312 G4 76 340 61 272 274 137, 30!) 324 57 254 59 186 30 296 282 289 66 230 214 41,89 112 12, 162 57 278 278 78 297 252 J 330 203 71 167 61 57 iNi>i:x. 361 People of the American Cotton I'.elt Percentage of Lint . Persian Cotton . Peruvian Cotton Peruvian Cotton in America Picking Cotton . Planting Cotton Plant Lice .... Plows Poor Farming . Poor White Labor . Population of the American Cotton Belt Preparation of Cotton for the Market . Preparing Land for Cotton Product from One Ton of Cotton Seed Production of American Cotton by States Proportion of Lint . . . . • Pulling Staple Purchasing Cotton in Liverpool ^^^-^ 'l^rices of Cotton Seed Pioducts R Red Cotton Rental of Cotton Farms Roller Gins Rough Peruvian Cotton Round Bales Rust on Cotton Plants 236 76 62 300 160 148 184 130 167 no 109 202 130 338 , 298 236 88 289 352 77 114 232 63 266 170 Sampling Cotton Sand in Cotton ...... Santos Cotton Saw Gin, Construction of . . . Schweitzer's Solution, Action on the Fibre Screw Press for Baling Cotton Sea Island Cotton Seeds Seeds in Cotton Pod .... Selection of Cotton Selection of Cotton Seed .... Selling Cotton in New York Selling Cotton in the Cotton Belt Selling Cotton in Europe .... Share System of Cotton Cultivation Sharpshooters Smvrna Cotton oo, 246 -K), 89 61 222 45 204 188 142 :;o 85 142 278 240 288 116 184 362 INDEX, Soiitli American Cotton Southern Cotton Mills Spanish Cotton . Species of Cotton Species of Cotton Grown in the United Spot CeJton Sales in Liverpool Spot Cotton Sales in New York Staple of Cotton Strength of the Fibre Structure of the Cotton Fibre . Surat Cotton States T Tables of Cotton Characteristics : Long Stapled Medium Length of Staple Medium to Long Stapled Short Stapled . Tares of Cotton Bales Texas Cotton . Thinning Out Cotton Plants Tinged Cotton Tinnivelly Cotton . Trade Names for Cottons Tree Cotton . Trieste Cotton Market . Turkestan Cotton . Turkish Cotton Unripe Cotton Uplands Cotton Uses of Cotton Seed Oil Varieties of Cotton Varieties of the Cotton Plant Vegetable Lamb Weather, Influence on Prices Weights of Cotton Bales West Indian Cotton Wool Fibre .... World's Cotton Crop Yarns from Different Cottons Young Cotton Plant U V w A' 59 116, 2:59 76 17 19, 22 290 27 (i 88 48 :]0 73 79 84 80 82 254 59 152 89 72 78 21 296 74 76 32 58 332 54, 78 17 96 308 256 60 42 49 78 26 ;]()3 CroDipton k Knowles Loom Works WORCESTER, MASS. COTTONS, GINGHAMS, OOMS l^' POR WOOLENS AND WORSTEDS, CARPETS, SILKS, AND Every Variety of Woven Fabric. BRANCH WORKS: PROVII3BXCE, R.I. When writing to advertisers please mention this book. 364 WEAVING CALCULATIONS FOURTH THOUSAND— Cloth, Crown, 8vo. BY C. P. BROOKS. Honours Medallist in Cotton Manufacture, late Examiner to the City and Guilds of London Institute for the advancement of Technical Education. OONTerSLTS: Cloth Calculations. Winding, Spooling, Warping and Slashing Yarn Calculations. Calculations. Loom Calculations. Engine, Boiler, Shafting, and Speed Cakula- Harness and Reed Calculations. tions. Wage Calculations. Specifications of Machinery. General Textile Information. A complete work on the calculations required in the Cotton Weaving Trade Among the rules given aie many iiever before piiblislied, and as no effort has been spared to mad,e the book a complete collectioji of all Calculations wlicther intimately or remotely connected with the subject^ it- can be cordially recommended to those connected in any capacity with Cotton Manufacturing . To be obtained in England, Price Five Shillings, from E. and F. N. SPON, 125 Strand, LONDON, EX. and in the United States of America, Price $2.00, from SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, 12 Cortlandt St., = NEW YORK CITY, OR C. p. BROOKS, LOWELL, MASS. When writing to advertisers please mention this liook. :'.(t5 Cotton Manufacturing. SIXTH THOUSAND. Cloth, Crown, 8vo. By C. P. BROOKS. COr^TEIBlTSS The Weaving of Plain and Fancy Cloths. A Description of Looms, Tapjiets, Dobbies, Jacquards, Drop Boxes, and other Weaving Machinery. Preparatory Process, Winding, Beaming, Ball, Sect- ional, and other Systems of Warping. Sizing, Sizing Materials, Size Mixing, and Machinery. The varieties of Cloths, with particulars of the various Standard Makes of Plains and the production of Twills, Cords, Velveteens, Gauze, Leno, Pile Cloths, Double Cloths, Checks, Figured Dhooties, Jac- quard Goods, etc. A work eminently adapted to the requirements of all engaged in the Trade, and invaluable to Technical Students in any Department of Textiles. It is extensively used as the Class Book for the subject of Cotton Weaving. Price in England, Six Shillings, and in America, $2.25. To be obtained from the addresses named on previous page. Josiah Gates & Sons, M.-VNUFACTURERS OF Oak Tanned Leather Belting Lace Leather. Picker Leather. Loom Strappings and Mill Supplies. LOWELL, MASS. When writing to arlvertisers please meuliou this liook. 306 Wm. J. Matheson & Go.,Ltd. IMPORTERS OF Diamine Colors FOK Cotton. New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Providence, Charlotte, N.C. Montreal, Canada. When writing to advertisers please mention this booli. 367 Telegraphic Address : " ASA, " OLDHAM. Telephone : No. 7, OLDHAM. M LEES S CO. LIMITED. Soho Iron Works, OL-rmA-iwi. MAKERS OF All Kinds of Machinery Preparing, Spinning and Doubling COTTON AND WOOL. When writing to advertisers please mention this book. 368 Telegraphic Address — Postal Address— "UNION" BROOKS & DOXEY, MANCHESTER. MANCHESTER. BROOKS & DOXEY, UNION ST«,f- THK AMERICAl DROSOFHORE CO., WM. FIRTH, Manager. 150 Devonshire Street, Boston. The DROSOPHORE makes a perfect Spinning or Weaving atmosphere in any climate or weather. Any degree of Humidity is obtainable. Will warm the air in cold weather and coo! it in hot weather. Purifies the air, and is healthier for the workpeople. FOUR GOLD MEDALS AWARDED. Amiens J 894 Reims 1895 The only Humidifier that stood the test. Atlanta Exposition 1 895 Rouen 1896 The Gold Medal Double Nozzle DrosDphor has no wearing- parts, uses less water, gives a finer spray and more humidity than any other form of Humidifier. The above Company has delivered since February, 1895, over 6000 of these machines. COTTON STATES // Vl'^r^ANHINTEHNATlONAL When writ'ng: to advertisers please mention tliis book. 372 T. C. ENTWISTLE, MANUFACTURER OF PATENT WARPING, BALLING, AND BEAMING MACHINES. ALL KINDS OF Common Expansion Combs for Warpers, Beamers, and Slashers, and Traverse Wheel Card Grinders for Ameri= can or English Cotton, Woolen or Worsted Cards. Cor. Market and Worthen Sts., LOWELL, MASS. When writing to advertisers please mention this book. 373 Fredp;rick (Jkinxell, President. F. W. Hartwell, Treasurer. Fr.\nk B. Comins, \'ice President and General I\Ianaa;er. THE UNITED STATES Aerophor Ai[-Moistening und Ventilatiijg Go. PROVIDENCE, R.I. Making a specialty of Humidiiication, we are prepared to advise as to the best introduction of a Humidifying System. THE AMERICAN "VORTEX" HUMIDIFIER, THE ONLY PERFECT SYSTEIM For moistening the air, and maintaining a proper "condition " in all departments of textile manufacture. It moistens, washes, cools or warms the atmosphere of a room. It has no moving parts and is rapid in action. The " \'orte.\ " distributes 3. finer spray and is of greater capacity than any other moistener. Our Single Nozzle gives better results than any other form of Nozzle in the market. Can be applied to present systems having a feed and return pipe. CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. Incorporated June 4. 1890, American Card Clothing Company, GENERAL OFFICES : WORCESTER, MASS. SEND ORDERS TO FACTORIES: "WORCESTER, LEICESTER, NORTH ANDOVER, LOWELL, WALPOLE, MASS., PHILADELPHIA, PA., PROVIDENCE, R.I., MANCHESTER, N.H. Manufacturers of every description of CARD CLOTHING. Exclusive American Licensees for the PATENT FLEXIFORT CARD CLOTHS. Special attention given to Clothing for Revolving Top Cards. Experts furnished to clothe and start the same. \Vhen writing to advertisers please mention this book. 374 THE METALLIC DRAWING ROLL CO. INDIAN ORCHARD, MASS. Sole Manufacturers of Patent Metallic Drawing Rolls, In United States and Canada. Used on all processes up to and including slubbers. We Guarantee 25 per cent, more production than can be obtained from the leather covered roll, rolls being same diameter and running same speed. ALL WORK GUARANTEED. For prices and particulars write to TflE METALLIC DRAWING ROLL CO. INDIAN ORCHARD, MASS. WLien writing to advertibers plea.se mention this book. COTTON 375 Feeders, Openers, Lappers, Waste Cleaners, Automatic Cleaningr Trunks, Thread Extractors. WOOL Picker Feeders, Church's Patent Wool Washers, Automatic Dryers and Carbonizing iVIachines. SHODDY Pickers of Kitson, Butterworth and English patterns, Rag Dusters. KITSON MACHINE CO. lU'ILDERS OF PREPARING MACHINERY FOR COTTON, WOOL p.^^ SHODDY, LOWELL, MASS. STUART W. CRAMER, Southern Agent, CHARLOTTE, N.C. When writing to advertisers please mention this liook. 376 ESTABLISHED 1856. A. LINDLEY & vSONS, Leather Manufacturers, {S'T.A.Iv^^BJKIOOK, KIVOPv^XIVD. SPFXIALITIES : Welsh and English Roller Skins, For Low, Medium and Fine Numbers. Persian Skins, For Comber Rolls. OUR CELEBRATED Crown Brand Red Skin, For all Speeder Rolls and for Spinning Rolls for low numbers. When writing to advertisers please mention this book. itjur' <«»,£ , y"'i^ .377 Those who equip new or old cotton mills with machinery for Spinning, Spooling, Warping, Twisting OUR NORTHROP LOOM. WEAVING must consult with us for their own best interests. We have doubled the production of one room in the mill by the introduction of the Sawyer and Rabbeth types of Spindle, the Doyle and Rhoades-Chandler Separator, and the Double Adjustable Spinning Ring. We are now engaged in DOUBLING the production per operative of another room in the mill by our Automatic and Self-protecting Loom. Those who hesitated about the adoption of our Spindles have seen the error of their ways. A word to the wise is sufficient, THE DRAPER COMPANY, HOPEDALE, MASS. When writing to advortisers please iiientiou this book. 378 The S. Blalsddl, Jr. Co. EGYPTIAN AND PERUVIAN COTTON American Long Staple a Specialty. Shipments direct to Mill from Egypt, Peru and all American Southern Points. Cotton waste purchased on yearly contracts from mills. All grades cotton waste packed express- ly for export. CHICOPEE, MASS. M.B. CHARLES Cotton and Wool Merchant, AMSTERDAM, N.Y. Contracts made with Cotton and Woolen Mills for yearly waste production. CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. Cotton Wastes of all kinds packed for ex= port. Selected Linters for the batting trade. GEO. C. SMITH, Cotton Eommission MILLEDGEVILLE, GA. BRANCHES: Covington, Eatonton, Gainesville, Monticello, Monroe, Dublin, Social Circle, Sparta, Louisville, Ga. Special attention to Spinners orders. Correspondence Solicited. When writing to advertisers please mention this book. C. GRIESENBECK, Cotton Goinmission, SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS, Address, Post Office Box 464. ;79 THE BERLIN IRON BRIDGE CO. The above illustration is taken direct from a photograph and shows the construction of a Parabolic Truss Bridge designed and built by us connecting the cities of Saco and Biddeford, Me. ENGINEERS, ARCHITECTS s)? BUILDERS O V IRON AND STEEL BRIDGES, BUILDINGS AND ROOFS. Si! ter s^fT ii.'iiiinK il^uu -'' I -s*^ The above illustration is taken direct from a ph ; > the construction of a Boiler House Roof designed and built by us for Cheney Urns., ai S>>iuli Man. iioster, Conn. The con- struction is entirelv of Iron, the Roof being covered with our Patent .\nli-condensation Corrugated Iron Covering, which we guarantee will not drip or sweat under all chanices .if temperature. Office and Works: East Berlin, Conn. When writing to advertisers please mention this book. 380 E. A. Smith, J. P. Wilson, President. Sec. & Treas. The Charlotte Supply Co. General Mill Furnishers DEALERS IN Macliinery, Macliinists' Tools AND MANUFACTURERS OF Leather Belting. CHARLOTTE, N.C. CABLE AND TELEGRAPHIC ADDRESS: " PELICAN, BOLTON." Al TELEGRAPHIC CODE USED. LOCAL ADDRESS : BULLOCK ST. GEORGE FELL & SON, Manufacturers of every kind of Welsh, English, Persian, and Calf Roller Skins. PELICAN LEATHER WORKS BOLTON, ENGLAND. Sole Agents for tlie L'nited States STODDARD, HASERICK, RICHARDS k CO. Boston, Mass., U.S.A. T albot Dyevjuood ai)d Qf^efTiieal Qp. Works at North Billerica, Mass. MANUFACTURERS OF Extract of Indigo, ^ CDcmicals, flcias. -LOWELL, MASS. When writing to advertisers please mention this book. 381 Saco and Pettee Machine Shops, MAIN OFFICE: Newton Upper Falls, Mass. COTTON MACHINERY Latest Improved Pattern. Revolving Flat Cards^ Slubbing, Railway Heads^ Intermediate and Drawing Frames, Roving Frames, Spinning Frames. WORKS AT BIDDEFORD, ME. NEWTON UPPER FALLS, MASS. SEND FOR ESTIMATES AND PRICES. When writing to advertisers please mention tliis book. 382 C. E. RILEY 8. CO. 281-285 Congress Strekt - - BOSTON, MASS. SOLK 111 PORTERS OF Asa Lees & Cos Patent Self-Acting COTTON MULES. Over 600,000 Spindles at work in the United States. These Mules are durable, simple to operate, free from Breakdowns and Stoppages. They produce the greatest quantity and best quality and effect a great saving in cost of production. They give universal satisfaction to both the manufacturer and spinner. SEND FOR DESCRIPTIVE CIRCULARS AND LIST OF USERS. SOLE niPORTERS OF HOWARD & BULLOUGH, Ltd., Cotton Machinery. HALL & STELLS, Worsted Machinery. HOYLE & PRESTON Noble Combs, Backwashers, etc. J. HAIGH & SONS', Woolen Machinery. T. BROADBENT & SONS' Hydro-Extractors. F. J. GRUN, French System of Worsted Machinery, etc. J. GREENHALGH & SONS' Willows. J. WHITELEY & SONS' Card Clothing for Cotton Cards. L. M. TETLOW & SONS' Card Clothing for Woolen and Worsted Cards. EGYPTIAN COTTON. SOLE AGENTS FOR PEEL &, CO., ALEXANDRIA SHIPPERS. When writing t(i ailvertisers please mention this l)Ook. 283 HOWARD &, BULLOUGH American Machine Co., Lid. Pawtucket, R.I. BUILDERS OF IM HC IMl \^ Bale Breakers. Feeders. Self Feeding Openers. breaker, Intermediate and Finisher Lappers. Revolving Flat Cards. Drawing Frames. Slubbing, Intermediate and Roving Frames. Spinning Frames. Warpers and Slashers. WE INVITE INVESTIGATIOIM AND COMPARISON. When writing to advertisers please mention this book. ;5S4 Telegraphic Address, "platts," Oldham. PLATT BROS. & CO.. ltd HARTFORD WORKS, OLDHAM, ENGLAND, Makers of Machinery, in ^reat variety for Ginning, Opening, Preparing, Combing, Spinning, Doubling and Weaving COTTON, WOOL, WORSTED, SILK WASTE, ETC. INCLIJDINO Patent Macarthy Cotton Gins, for long or short slapleil Cotton. Improved Cotton Bale Breakers or Pulling Machines. Hard Waste Breaking-up Machinery. Improved Self-Acting Willow. Patent Automatic Hopper Feeder, with Filling Apparatus. Improved Lattice Feeding Macliines. Crighton's Opener, with Improved Feeder. Patent Exhaust Opener and Lap Machine. Dust Trunks, with Patent Traveling Ribbed Cloth or Grid. Scutchers, with Patent Pedal Regulators, etc. Roller and Clearer Carding Engines. Patent Revolving, Self-Stripping Flat Carding Engines. Carding Engines, with Condensers specially adapted for coarse yarns from cotton waste, etc. Carding Engines and Condensers for Wool, etc.: Martin's, Bolette's, Sachsische, and other systems. Card Grinding Machines. Patent Machinery for Carding and Spinning Silk Waste. Patent Burring Machines for Wool. Combing Machines, Heilman's, Patent ; also Whipple's Patent. Combing Machines for Wool, Worsted, etc. ; I.ittle & Eastwood's Patent. Dugdill & Kershaw's Patent Silk Combers. Drawing, Slubbing, Intermediate and Roving Frames. Ring Spinning Frames, for Warp and Weft. Patent Self- .Acting Mules and Twiners. Ring and Flyer Doubling Frames. Boyd's Patent Stop Motion Twisters. Chapon's Patent Cup Spinning Frames. Reeling, Winding, Warping. Beaming, Sizing and Dressing Machinery. Power Looms, for Weaving Dhooties ( Broad- hurst's Patent 1. Power Looms of All Description, for Plain and Fancy Cloths, in Cotton, Linen, Woolen, Worsted, Jute, etc. Cloth Folding and Measuring Machines. Hydraulic and Cam Bundling Presses for Yarn and Cloth. Coleby's Patent Bundling Presses. Vigogne and Cotton Wa^te or Barchant Machinery. Machinery for Preparing, Spiiinina; and Weav- ing Asbestos. Worsted Preparing, Combing, Roving and Spinning Machinery, on both French and Bradford Systems. Patent Brick Making Machinery. ETC.. ETC. /Igents for U.S.A. : MESSRS. EI/AN A. LEIGH & CO., 35 & 36 Mason BIdg., BOSTON, Ivl.ASS. Manchester Office: 5 St. Ann's Square. Glasgow Office : 109 Hope Street, JWR. RICHARD IVIURRRY, Hgent. When writing to advertisers please mention this book. I'i'.* Ml i.i ••■"'; i^i^ ' .'hit ■'••«' :.i.;'.-:.