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THE 
 
 Progressive 
 Series 
 
 REGENTS 
 Question and Answer Books 
 
 History 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 AND 
 
 ANSWERS 
 
 Hinds, Hayden & Eldredge, Inc. 
 
 Now Tork Philadelphia 
 
 Is 
 
The 
 
 Progressive Series 
 
 Questions in History 
 
 for 
 DRILL, TEST AND REVIEW 
 
 By 
 
 ISAAC PRICE, A.M. 
 
 Washington Irving High School. 
 New York Evening High School for Men. 
 
 Author : 
 
 'Direct Method of Teaching English to Foreigners," "Compre- 
 hensive Question and Answer Book," "OutHnes 
 in American History." 
 
 HINDS, HAYDEN & ELDREDGE, Iru:. 
 NEW YORK PHILADELPHIA 
 

 Copyright, 1916, by 
 HINDS, HAYDEN & ELDREDGE, INC. 
 
 Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. 
 
 All rights reserved. 
 
 ©CI,A453852 
 
 JAN 31 1917 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 A practical Question and Answer Book should be com- 
 prehensive in scope without having too many and too de- 
 tailed questions. It should furnish abundant material for 
 drill, test, and review of the subject by means of well 
 arranged and well graded questions, and should aim to 
 cultivate in the student those qualities brought out in a 
 good recitation by a skilled teacher. 
 
 With these objects in mind this series of books has been 
 written. The separate books are intended, not only 
 for beginners, but also for students pursuing advanced 
 and review work. Care has been taken to make each book 
 complete. The papers given at civil service, college en- 
 trance, and Regents examinations have been carefully 
 culled for suitable questions, and the material arranged 
 topically and logically to emphasize principles as well as 
 essential facts. The answers are supported by the latest 
 authorities and in consonance with the accepted texts for 
 the best elementary and secondary schools. To make the 
 work more helpful, diagrams, illustrations, maps, topical 
 outlines, and glossaries have been included. 
 
 Acknowledgment is due to the many experienced teach- 
 ers who have freely offered suggestions and criticisms de- 
 signed to make this a most helpful "text-book." 
 
The aim of this book is to give the leading facts and features 
 in the development of the United States, not through miHtary 
 achievements, but through the amalgamation of the various na- 
 tionalities contributing to the "melting pot", through the leveling 
 influences of democratic tendencies, and through the economic 
 expansion, made possible by a wealth of natural resources. Geo- 
 graphic conditions as influencing our growth and development 
 have been emphasized in common with the ideals that have 
 guided the nation. 
 
 The experiences of the teachers and students will offer sug- 
 gestions as to the methods of using the text. 
 
 To My Son 
 
 LEONARD 
 
 whose questions 
 come from the mind and 
 
 the heart 
 this series is affectionately 
 
 DEDICATED 
 
-"" Questions in American History 
 
 PERIOD OF DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 
 
 1. Name the tribes that inhabited America in 1492. 
 Give their present location. 
 
 2. Tell how the name Indian originated. 
 
 3. Describe the North American Indian, telling of his 
 appearance, mode of life, customs and manners. 
 
 4. Describe the government of the Indians. 
 
 5. Define -or explain, with reference to Indian life, 
 the following terms : (a) totem, (b) wigwam, (c) scalp- 
 lock, (d) wampum, (e) moccasin, (f) death-song, (g) 
 running the gauntlet. 
 
 6. What evidences have we that there existed in North 
 America and in South America, previous to the time of 
 the discovery of America by Columbus, a race of con- 
 siderable advancement in civilization? 
 
 7. Describe Indian warfare in comparison with the 
 warfare of the white man, and mention the weapons. - ^<^«^ 
 
 8. Give the names of two famous American authors 
 who have written about the Indians, mentioning their 
 works, and the results of their writings. 
 
 9. Show how the Indians helped to promote com- 
 merce between the early colonies and the European 
 countries, and tell what the white men gained from this. 
 
 10. Give an account of the voyage of the Northmen, 
 and tell of what practical value this voyage was. 
 
 11. Discuss fully the ancient knowledge of the spher- 
 icity of the earth, and its size, and the efifect of this 
 knowledge on navigation? 
 
 12. What is the connection between geographical dis- 
 covery and the Renaissance? 
 
 5 
 
6 American History. 
 
 13. Make a list of the various improvements in navi- 
 gation that made it possible for European navigators to 
 venture out some distance. 
 
 14. Describe fully the different medieval trade routes. 
 Give the reasons for the later changes in these routes. 
 Draw a map, and on it mark the routes described above. 
 
 15. What were the European ideas of India and 
 Cathay? Account for the importance of the work of 
 Marco Polo in connection with the knowledge of 
 Cathay and India. 
 
 16. Who was Prince Henry of Portugal? In what 
 way is he connected with the advance in navigation in 
 the 15th and 16th centuries? 
 
 17. Who was Toscanelli? 
 
 18. Give a brief sketch of the life of Columbus. What 
 was the theory of Columbus as to the shape of and size 
 of the earth ? 
 
 19. Give a brief account of the experience of Colum- 
 bus with Portugal, England and Spain. 
 
 20. (a) Give an account of the aims of Columbus in 
 his voyages. (b) Describe fully the first voyage of 
 Columbus, (c) Give a full account of the three remain- 
 ing voyages of Columbus, telling his experiences, and 
 what discoveries and explorations he made. 
 
 21. (a) What was the "Line of Demarcation"? (b) 
 Account for the name of America being given to the 
 New World. 
 
 22. What new geographical problems arose as a result 
 of the discoveries of Columbus? 
 
 23. (a) Where were the earliest Spanish settlements 
 made? (b) What were the objects of the Spaniards in 
 their discoveries, explorations and settlements? 
 
American History. 7 
 
 24. Describe the discovery of the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 25. Describe the discovery of Florida. 
 
 26. Give a full account of the exploration and conquest 
 of Mexico. 
 
 27. Describe fully the voyages of Magellan and the 
 discoveries made by him. Why does the voyage of 
 Magellan mark an era in geographical knowledge? Ac- 
 count fully for its importance. 
 
 28. Give an account of the explorations of the North 
 of the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 29. Give an account of Coronado's expedition. 
 
 30. Describe De Soto's expedition and tell of its im- 
 portance. 
 
 31. (a) Discuss the Spanish colonial policy and its 
 ultimate result, (b) Account for the decline of Spain 
 as a world power. 
 
 32. What were the relations of the Spaniards with the 
 Indians in the territories conquered and settled by them ? 
 
 33. Mention five navigators who made explorations in 
 the New World after the discovery of Columbus, and 
 name the particular territory discovered or explored. 
 
 34. Name two Spanish explorers and give an account 
 of the explorations of each of them. 
 
 35. To what extent was geographic knowledge ad- 
 vanced by each of the following events : (a) the discovery 
 of America, (b) the voyage of Magellan, (c) Vespucius, 
 (d) Balboa? 
 
 36. Name the first two permanent Spanish settlements 
 in the United States. 
 
 37. Describe the French efiforts in discovery and ex- 
 plorations. 
 
 38. Give an account of the voyage of Verrazano. 
 
8 American History. 
 
 39. Account for the cessation of French activity in 
 America. 
 
 40. Give an account of Cartier's activities in the New 
 World. 
 
 41. Discuss the beginning of English discovery and 
 exploration in the New World. 
 
 42. Describe the voyage of the Cabots, and Its im- 
 portance in relation to the history of the New World. 
 
 43. Account for the inactivity of the English during 
 the half century following the expeditions of the Cabots. 
 Discuss the conditions in England in the latter half of 
 the 16th century that marked her as the leading country 
 in Europe. 
 
 44. Give a full account of the early English seamen 
 and their exploits. 
 
 45. Describe fully the voyages and expeditions of 
 Drake. 
 
 46. (a) Discuss the efforts of the English to open 
 commercial relations with the Asiatic countries, (b) 
 What is meant by the ^'Northwest Passage"? When 
 was the passage first made? 
 
 47. What were the reasons for the establishment of 
 English colonies and settlements in America? 
 
 48. (a) Describe fully the work of Gilbert, (b) De- 
 scribe the work of Raleigh in attempting to settle Vir- 
 ginia. 
 
 49. Account for the early failures of English attempts 
 to colonize America. 
 
 50. (a) What was the Spanish Armada? (b) How 
 did the defeat of the Spanish Armada affect the future 
 history of the New World? 
 
American HistorV. 9 _ 
 
 PERIOD OF SETTLEMENT AND COLONIAL 
 DEVELOPMENT 
 5L Describe English commercial activity following the 
 defeat of the Spanish Armada. 
 
 52. Discuss fully the rise of the Trading Companies 
 and Monopolies. 
 
 53. Give an account of the London and Plymouth 
 Companies of 1606. 
 
 54. Describe the industrial conditions in England that 
 aided the movements of the Trading and Developing 
 Companies. 
 
 55. (a) Describe the settlement of Jamestown, (b) 
 Account for the weakness of the government of the settle- 
 ment, (c) Describe the character of the settlers. 
 
 56. (a) Tell who was John Smith, and how he saved 
 the settlement from failure, (b) What was ''starving 
 time" ? 
 
 57. Discuss the reorganization of the London Com- 
 pany, and tell its influence on the fortunes of the settle- 
 ment of Jamestown. 
 
 58. Describe the London Company's scheme for 
 profits. 
 
 59. Discuss the land system in the reorganization of 
 the settlement. 
 
 60. What was the result of the importation of (a) 
 women and (b) of slaves? (c) What was an ''indentured 
 servant" ? 
 
 6L (a) Discuss the introduction of representative gov- 
 ernment in the colony and its efifect on the colony, (b) 
 What is meant by ''representative government" ? 
 
 62. (a) When and why was the charter of the London 
 Company annulled? (b) Account for the prosperous 
 condition of the colony after 1620. 
 
10 American History. 
 
 63. (a) Discuss the effects of the passage of the Navi- 
 gation Laws on the colony. (b) Describe "Bacon's 
 Rebellion." 
 
 64. (a) Give an account of the settlement at St. 
 Mary's, (b) Describe the government of Maryland. 
 
 65. What effect did the physiography of Maryland 
 have upon the settlement of the colony? 
 
 66. Describe the religious conditions in the colony. 
 
 67. (a) Describe the colonization of the Carolinas. 
 (b) Describe the people and life in North CaroHna. (c) 
 Describe the settlement of Charleston, 
 
 68. Account for the presence of the various national- 
 ities in the Carolinas. 
 
 69. Describe the social and economic conditions in the 
 Carolinas. 
 
 70. What was "The Fundamental Constitution"? 
 
 71. Describe the difficulties of representative govern- 
 ment in the Carolinas. 
 
 72. Account for the slow growth and development of 
 the Carolinas. 
 
 73. Give an account of the settlement of Georgia, tell- 
 ing of the purpose, by whom founded, the classes of set- 
 tlers, and the date of settlement. 
 
 74. (a) Distinguish between the Pilgrims and the 
 Puritans, (b) Give an account of the settlement of 
 Plymouth. 
 
 75. Describe fully the Mayflower Compact, and show 
 its bearing on later American history. 
 
 76. Describe the government of the colony. 
 
 77. What was the effect of the rise of Puritan power 
 in England upon the settlements in Massachusetts. 
 
 7%. How did the policy of Charles I affect the colony ? 
 
American History. 11 
 
 79. Describe fully the Massachusetts Bay Company, 
 and the settlements made by it. 
 
 80. Describe the local government in the colony. Ex- 
 plain fully the effect of the physiographic conditions upon 
 the form of government. 
 
 81. Describe the settlement of the religious intolerance 
 of the Puritans upon the history of New England. 
 
 82. Describe the settlement of Rhode Island by Roger 
 Williams and Mrs. Anne Hutchinson. 
 
 83. Describe fully the settlement of Connecticut. 
 
 84. What v^ere 'The Fundamental Orders" of Con- 
 necticut. 
 
 85. Describe the founding of the New Haven settle- 
 ment. 
 
 86. Describe fully the beginnings of the settlements of 
 Maine and New Hampshire. 
 
 87. (a) Describe fully the voyages of Henry Hudson, 
 (b) What influence did the discovery of Hudson have 
 upon the Dutch companies? What was the Dutch West 
 India Company? 
 
 88. Where were the first settlements in New Nether- 
 lands made? 
 
 89. (a) Account for the slow development of the 
 colony, (b) Who were the ''patroons"? 
 
 90. Discuss the relations between the Dutch and the 
 Indians. 
 
 91. Describe the government by the West India Com- 
 pany. 
 
 92. Give an account of the relations between the 
 Swedes in Delaware and the Dutch in New Netherlands. 
 
 93. (a) Discuss fully the relations between the Dutch 
 and the English, (b) Give an account of the conquest of 
 
12 American History. 
 
 New Netherlands, (c) What were the results of the 
 conquest ? 
 
 94. Name the four Dutch governors, and give the 
 length of each one's term. 
 
 95. Describe the settlement of New Jersey. 
 
 96. Who were the Quakers? 
 
 97. What were the relations between William Penn 
 and the Stuart kings? Give an account of the granting 
 of Pennsylvania by the King Charles 11. Give the name 
 and the date of the first settlement in Pennsylvania. 
 
 98. Wiiat was "The Frame of Government"? 
 
 99. Discuss religious toleration in Pennsylvania. 
 
 100. (a) Explain the presence of a varied population 
 in Pennsylvania, (b) What were the relations between 
 the Pennsylvania settlers and the Indians, and account 
 for these? 
 
 101. Discuss the industrial conditions in the colony. 
 
 102. Explain why the history of Pennsylvania is so 
 peaceful. 
 
 103. Describe fully the attitude of the English govern- 
 ment toward the colonies. 
 
 104. What were the three classes of colonies? Enu- 
 merate the colonies under each of these classes. De- 
 scribe the government of the colonies in each. 
 
 105. What were the Navigation Laws ? Describe them 
 fully, and account for their passage. What were some 
 of the effects of these laws ? 
 
 106. Describe the efforts of the English home govern^ 
 ment to control the colonies. 
 
 107. Give the reasons advanced for the control by 
 England of the colonies. 
 
 108. Who was Andres? 
 
American History. 13 
 
 • 109. What was the effect of the Bloodless Revolution 
 of 1689 upon the history of the colonies? 
 
 110. What were the motives for the settlement of the 
 various colonies in America by the English ? 
 
 111. Explain fully how land was acquired by the 
 settlers. 
 
 112. Describe the physical conditions of the New Eng- 
 land colonies. What was the effect of the method of 
 settlements in these colonies. 
 
 113. Show the result of the physical conditions upon 
 the industries and the products. 
 
 114. What were the effects of physiographic and in- 
 dustrial conditions upon the social conditions? 
 
 115. Describe the religious conditions in the New 
 England colonies. 
 
 116. Describe the educational conditions in the New 
 England colonies. 
 
 117. Describe local government in the New England 
 colonies. 
 
 118. Describe the physical conditions in the colonies 
 of Virginia, Maryland and the Carolinas. Show the 
 effect of the physiography upon the social conditions. 
 
 119. Describe the effects upon the industries and the 
 products. 
 
 120. (a) Describe the government in the Southern col- 
 onies and show the dependence upon physical conditions, 
 (b) Describe local government in the Southern colonies. 
 
 121. Describe the religious conditions and education 
 in the Southern colonies. 
 
 122. Discuss the Middle colonies as regards their in- 
 dustries, population and large cities. 
 
 123. Describe the social and religious conditions in 
 these colonies. 
 
14 American History. 
 
 124. What were the prominent features of the gor- 
 ernments of the Middle colonies? 
 
 125. Account for the inactivity of the French during 
 the 16th century. 
 
 126. Explain the cause of the revival of French col- 
 onization and exploration in the early part of the 17th 
 century. 
 
 127. Give a complete account of the work of Cham- 
 plain. 
 
 128. Who was De Monts? Wfiat did he accomplish? 
 
 129. (a) Describe the relations of the French with the 
 Algonquin Indians, and give the underlying reasons for 
 this relationship. (b) Describe the relations of the 
 French with the Irpquois Indians. 
 
 130. What was the effect of the fur trade on the col- 
 onization of the French ? 
 
 131. Who was Frontenac? 
 
 132. Give a complete account of the explorations of 
 Marquette and Joliet. 
 
 133. Give a complete account of the journeys of La 
 Salle. 
 
 134. Explain the relations of the French with the 
 English. 
 
 135. What were the Intercolonial Wars? 
 
 136. What was the cause of King William's War, 
 and enumerate the events in the colonies. 
 
 137. Give the causes of the Queen Anne's War, and 
 the leading events. 
 
 138. Enumerate the causes and the leading events of 
 King George's War. 
 
 139. Discuss the general causes of the wars between 
 the French and the English in the New World. 
 
 140. Compare the French and the English in America 
 
American History. 15 
 
 as regards colonies, government, motives for coloniza- 
 tion, relations with the Indians, territory. 
 
 141. Discuss the advantages on the side of the French 
 at the beginning of the French and Indian War and the 
 offsetting disadvantages. 
 
 142. In what way do the three Intercolonial Wars 
 differ from the French and Indian War? 
 
 143. Account for the territory in the central part of the 
 United States between the Mississippi and the Ohio 
 Rivers being French territory instead of English territory. 
 
 144. What was the influence of the Allegheny Moun- 
 tains on the settlement of the English? Show in what 
 way the fact that the Appalachian Highlands run north 
 and south influenced the strength of the English colonies. 
 
 145. Describe the English populations in the colonies 
 in 1700. 
 
 146. Give an account of the Ohio Company and its 
 activities in the New World. 
 
 147. Describe the Albany Congress of 1754, and its 
 object. What did the Conference accomplish? 
 
 148. Give the causes of the French and Indian War. 
 
 149. What were the principal points of attack at the 
 outbreak of the war ? 
 
 150. Describe the leading events of the first year of 
 the War. Who was William Pitt? Describe his policy 
 of conducting the French and Indian War. 
 
 151. Give the provisions of the Treaty of Paris. 
 
 152. Enumerate the results of the war in America. 
 What were the effects of the French and Indian War 
 on the people in the English colonies? 
 
 153. Discuss the growth of population in the English 
 colonies during the first half of the 18th century, treating 
 of the intermingling of the various races and nationalities 
 
16 .' MERicAN History. 
 
 in the colonies. Show what effect it had on the develop- 
 ment of the spirit of religious and political liberty in 
 the colonies. 
 
 154. Discuss the commercial and industrial expansion 
 of the Middle and New England colonies during the 
 early part of the 18th century. 
 
 155. Explain fully why the Southern States colonies 
 were agricultural colonies while the other colonies were 
 commercial and industrial, and discuss the products. 
 
 156. Discuss imports into the colonies, and the exports 
 to England and the other European countries. 
 
 157. Discuss the importance of the slave trade in the 
 colonies. 
 
 158. Give a full account of the religion and education 
 in the English colonies. 
 
 159. Discuss the powers of the Governor and the 
 Legislature in the colonies. , 
 
 160. Show how the colonists sought to maintain their 
 political liberty during the early half of the 18th century. 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 
 
 161. What was the "Mercantile System"? 
 
 162. (a) What were the Navigation Laws? (b) 
 What were their beneficial effect on the colonies? (c) 
 Discuss the execution of the Navigation Laws. 
 
 163. What was the Board of Trade, and what was its 
 relation to the commercial and manufacturing life in the 
 colonies? 
 
 164. What were the Writs of Assistance ? 
 
 165. What was "The New Policy"? 
 
 166. Describe the purpose of the Sugar Act of 1764. 
 
 167. (a) What was the Stamp Act? (b) Explain 
 
American Misrory. 17 
 
 why the Stamp Act was so bitterly opposed by the colo- 
 nists. 
 
 168. Describe the opposition of the colonists to the 
 enforcement of the Stamp Act. 
 
 169. What was the Stamp Act Congress of 1765? 
 
 170. Give an account of the repeal of the Stamp Act. 
 
 171. What was the theory on which the government 
 of England claimed the right to impose the Stamp Act 
 or any other form of taxation on the American colonies ? 
 State the attitude of the colonies. 
 
 172. What was the Declaratory Act of 1766? 
 
 173. (a) Give a complete description of the Town- 
 shend Acts of 1767. (b) Tell how these acts were re- 
 ceived by the colonists. 
 
 174. Describe the ''Boston Massacre.'* 
 
 175. Account for the control of the British Parliament 
 by King George III. 
 
 176. What were the ''royal instructions" to the colonial 
 governors ? 
 
 177. Give an account of the ^'Committees of Corre- 
 spondence." 
 
 178. What was the "Boston Tea Party"? 
 
 179. Give an account of the Retaliatory or Coercive 
 Acts of 1774. 
 
 180. What was the Quebec Act? 
 
 181. Give a detailed account of the work of the First 
 Continental Congress of 1774. 
 
 182. Explain the outbreak at Lexington and Concord. 
 
 183. Describe the Battle of Bunker Hill. What was 
 the effect of the battle? 
 
 184. Give an account of the work of the Second Con- 
 tinental Congress. 
 
18 American History. 
 
 185. Describe the condition of the American soldiers at 
 the outbreak of the war. 
 
 186. (a) What was the reason for the American 
 Revolution? (b) When did independence become the 
 keyword of American opposition to England ? (c) What 
 was the fundamental cause of the desire for independence 
 from England ? 
 
 187. Enumerate the (a) general, (b) mediate or indi- 
 rect, and (c) the immediate or direct causes of the Revo- 
 lution. 
 
 188. (a) Give an account of the adoption of the Declar- 
 ation of Independence, (b) Describe the organization of 
 the State governments during the Revolution. 
 
 189. Who were (a) the Whigs, (b) the Tories? 
 
 190. Make a list of the events that show the growth 
 of the spirit of Union among the colonists. 
 
 191. Make a list of the important events of 1775-1783. 
 
 192. Describe the evacuation of Boston by the British. 
 
 193. (a) Give a list of the events in the campaign 
 around New York, (b) What was the purpose of the 
 British campaign around New York? 
 
 194. (a) What was Burgoyne's campaign ? What was 
 the purpose of Burgoyne's campaign? (b) Give an ac- 
 count of Burgoyne's defeat at Saratoga, and its influence 
 on the outcome of the war. 
 
 195. Give an account of Washington's retreat through 
 New Jersey and its influence on the later events of the 
 war. 
 
 196. Describe the difficulties in securing an army. 
 
 197. Describe Howe's campaign around Philadelphia in 
 1777. 
 
 198. What was the importance of the treaty with 
 
AMEaacAN History. 19 
 
 France in 1778? To whom may the successful signing of 
 this treaty be attributed ? 
 
 199. (a) Why was the war fought principally in the 
 North during the early years? (b) What was the atti- 
 tude of the South toward the war? 
 
 200. Give an account of the naval warfare. 
 
 201. Give an account of the campaign in Virginia and 
 the Carolinas. 
 
 202. Describe the surrender at Yorktown. 
 
 203. Describe the treaty of Paris, 1783. 
 
 204. What reasons can you give for the success of the 
 Americans in the Revolution ? 
 
 205. Give an account of the financial condition of the 
 colonies during the war. 
 
 206. What were the Articles of Confederation? De- 
 scribe fully the government established under the Articles 
 of Confederation. 
 
 207. Make a list of the defects or weaknesses patent 
 in. the government under the Articles of Confederation. 
 
 208. (a) When were the Articles adopted by Congress 
 and ratified by the last State? (b) To what was the 
 delay in ratification due ? 
 
 209. Give an account of the cession of the Western 
 Lands by the States in 1781-1786. What was the National 
 Domain ? 
 
 210. What was the Ordinance of 1784 ? 
 
 211. What was the Ordinance of 1787? 
 
 212. Give some of the provisions of the Ordinance of 
 1787 to show its importance. 
 
 213. Briefly describe the foreign relations under the 
 government under the Articles of Confederation. 
 
 214. Tell of some of the controversies among the 
 States. 
 
20 American History. 
 
 215. Discuss fully the financial problems of the govern- 
 ment and the commercial conditions of the country. 
 
 216. What was Shay's Rebellion? 
 
 217. Describe the attempts to amend the Articles of 
 Confederation. 
 
 218. Give an account of the Convention at Alexandria 
 in 1785, stating its purpose and its accomplishments. 
 
 219. Give a complete account of the work of the An- 
 napolis Convention of 1786. 
 
 220. Give an account of opening of the Constitutional 
 Convention of 1787. 
 
 221. Name some of the leading characters at the Con- 
 stitutional Convention. 
 
 222. What are the sources of information regarding 
 the proceedings of the Constitutional Convention of 1787? 
 
 223. Describe the "Virginia Plan." 
 
 224. Describe the "New Jersey Plan." 
 
 225. Give in full the "Connecticut Compromise." 
 
 226. Enumerate the compromises in the adoption of the 
 Constitution. 
 
 227. Describe the form of government established un- 
 der the Constitution. 
 
 228. What were the sources of the Constitution ? 
 
 229. Enumerate some of the features of the State Con- 
 stitutions embodied in the Federal Constitution. 
 
 230. Give an account of the ratification of the Constitu- 
 tion. 
 
 231. Which was the first State to adopt the Constitu- 
 tion ? Which the last ? 
 
 232. Enumerate some of the arguments advanced 
 against the adoption of the Constitution. 
 
 233. To whom are we most indebted for the ratification 
 
American History. 21 
 
 of the Constitution by the States ? Give reasons for your 
 answer. 
 
 234. What was 'The Federahst"? 
 
 235. Give the area of the United States in 1789. 
 
 236. Give the population of the United States in 1789. 
 
 237. Describe the cities in 1789. 
 
 238. Describe the society in 1789. 
 
 239. Make a Hst of the leading industries and occupa- 
 tions. 
 
 240. What were the leading exports and imports in 
 1789? 
 
 241. Discuss the means of communication among the 
 several states. 
 
 242. Give a table of the States and Territories of the 
 United States at the present time, showing date of ad- 
 mission, area, and population. 
 
 243. Make a list of the Presidents and Vice Presi'^ents 
 and the States from which they were chosen ; length of 
 service, etc. 
 
 244. Describe the election of Washington and Adams. 
 
 PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION 
 
 245. Give the dates of Washington's administration. 
 
 246. Who were the members of Washington's Cabinet, 
 and what offices did they hold ? 
 
 247. What was the first legislation by Congress ? 
 
 248. Describe the organization of the judiciary in 
 Washington's administration. ^ 
 
 249. How many members in the House of Representa- 
 tives, in the Senate, in 1789? 
 
 250. Enumerate the amendments to the Constitution 
 
22 American History. 
 
 adopted during the first term of Washington, and give 
 the reasons for their adoption. 
 
 251. Discuss the financial policy of the administration, 
 and show wherein Hamilton's greatness as a financier was 
 evidenced. 
 
 252. What vv^as the Assumption of State Debts? 
 
 253. Explain the location of the Federal Capital at 
 Washington in the District of Columbia. 
 
 254. Discuss Hamilton's policy of taxation. 
 
 255. Describe the organization of the United States 
 Bank? 
 
 256. What question arose as a result of the chartering 
 of the United States Bank ? 
 
 257. What is the difference between (a) strict, and (b) 
 loose construction, and what is meant by each term ? 
 
 258. What is the "elastic clause" in the Federal Con- 
 stitution ? 
 
 259. Enumerate some of the causes that led to the 
 formation of political parties in the United States. 
 
 260. What was the French Revolution ? In what way 
 did the French Revolution influence American politics? 
 Who were (a) the Republicans, (b) the Federalists? 
 
 261. (a) What was the reason for the 'Troclamation 
 of Neutrality"? Give the substance of the Proclamation, 
 (b) In what way is Genet connected with American his- 
 tory? 
 
 262. Describe the difficulties that arose between Amer- 
 ica and Great Britain as a result of the French Revolu- 
 tion. 
 
 263. What other difficulties arose between these two 
 countries ? Why ? 
 
 264. What was Jay's Treaty of 1795? 
 
 265. Give an account of the Treaty with Spain in 1795. 
 
American History. 23 
 
 266. Describe the relations of the United States with 
 the Indians. 
 
 267. Give an account of the causes and results of the 
 Whiskey RebelHon of 1794. 
 
 268. What was Washington's ''Farewell Address"? 
 
 269. Account for the election of John Adams to succeed 
 Washington as President. Give the dates of his term of 
 office. Who were the opponents of Adams and Pinckney ? 
 Of what party were they the leaders ? 
 
 270. Describe the attitude of France toward the 
 United States, and to what it led. 
 
 271. What was the ''X. Y. Z." Affair? What was the 
 outcome of the affair ? 
 
 272. What were the Alien and Sedition Laws, and why 
 were they enacted? 
 
 273. What were the Virginia and Kentucky Resolu- 
 tions, and who were their reputed authors ? 
 
 274. Account for the lack of popularity of the Federal- 
 ist party, in spite of the eminent leadership of Washington 
 and others. 
 
 275. Give the dates of the administration of Thomas 
 Jefferson. Of what party was he leader? 
 
 276. Account for the Xllth Amendment to the Consti- 
 tution. 
 
 277. What was the nature of the case, ''Marbury vs. 
 Madison"? 
 
 278. Who was John Marshall ? Describe his connection 
 with the establishment of the centralized power of the 
 federal government. What was John Marshall's great 
 work in connection with the development of the federal 
 government ? 
 
 279. Give an account of the Louisiana Purchase, show- 
 ing the reasons for the purchase of this territory. 
 
24 American History. 
 
 280. Make a list of the various things that the United 
 States gained as a result of this purchase. 
 
 281. Give the date of the purchase of Louisiana Terri- 
 tory. 
 
 282. What was the Constitutional significance of the ac- 
 quisition of the Louisiana Territory? 
 
 283. Describe the Lewis and Clark Expedition, and give 
 the reason for its undertaking. What did the expedition 
 accomplish ? 
 
 284. Give an account of the explorations of Lieutenant 
 Pike. 
 
 285. For what important invention is the year 1807 
 noted ? 
 
 286. What were the Barbary States ? 
 
 287. Describe the war with the Barbary Powers. 
 
 288. In what year did the Federalist party disappear as 
 a political party? 
 
 289. Give reasons for the duel between Burr and 
 Hamilton. 
 
 290. Describe Burr's "Conspiracy." 
 
 291. Describe fully the efifect upon the L^nited States of 
 the retaliatory acts of both Great Britain and France dur- 
 ing the Napoleonic Wars. Describe the "Continental Sys- 
 tem" and the "Orders in Council." 
 
 292. What is meant by "the right of search and impress- 
 ment" ? 
 
 293. Describe the attack on the Chesapeake and its 
 effect on the American people. 
 
 294. Define Jefferson's policy toward the warring na- 
 tions. 
 
 295. What is an embargo? Describe the Embargo of 
 1807? 
 
 296. (a) What was the effect on American shipping 
 
American History. 25 
 
 and /nanufacture of the passage of the Embargo Act? 
 (b) vVhat was the Non-Intercourse Act of 1809? 
 
 297. Who succeeded Jefferson as President of the 
 United States? Of what party was he the choice? 
 
 298. Describe the troubles between the United States 
 and Great Britain. 
 
 299. What were the "Orders in Council"' ? 
 
 300. What retaliatory step did Napoleon take to show 
 his anger against the passage of the Non-Intercourse 
 Act? 
 
 301. Account for the outbreak of the Indians against 
 the authority of the United States in 1810-1811. Describe 
 the Battle of Tippecanoe and the defeat of the Indians 
 under Tecumseh. 
 
 302. Describe the Congress of 1811. 
 
 303. Give the dates of the second war with England. 
 
 304. Enumerate the causes of the war. 
 
 305. Compare the strength of the warring nations. 
 Wherein lay the strength and superiority of the Americans 
 over the English? 
 
 306. Describe the plans of campaign at the outbreak 
 of the war. 
 
 307. Give an account of the war in the Northwest, and 
 its results. 
 
 308. Tell of the decisive naval battles fought. 
 
 309. Of what importance was Perry's victory at the 
 Battle of Lake Erie? 
 
 310. Describe the attack on Washington in 1814. 
 
 311. What part did the American privateers play in 
 this war? 
 
 312. When was the Battle of New Orleans fought? 
 What was its importance? 
 
 313. Give the details of the Treaty of Ghent. 
 
26 American History. 
 
 314. What was the Hartford Convention, and what 
 were its aims ? 
 
 315. Make a Hst of the important results of the war. 
 
 316. Describe the tariff of 1816. 
 
 317. When was the Bank of the United States first 
 chartered? What was the purpose of the estabHshment 
 of the Bank ? 
 
 318. When was the Second United States Bank char- 
 tered ? Why was it granted a charter by Congress ? 
 
 319. Describe the westward movement. 
 
 320. What were the means of communication and the 
 routes between the East and the West ? 
 
 321. What was the Cumberland or National Road? 
 
 322. Make a list of the internal improvements. 
 
 323. Show the value of the opening of the Erie Canal 
 to the development of the country. 
 
 324. Discuss the characteristics of the life of the settlers 
 in the West. 
 
 325. What was the attitude of the settlers towards 
 education, and how did they show this? 
 
 326. Give the date of the invention of the cotton-gin, 
 and tell who was its inventor. 
 
 327. What influence did the invention of the cotton-gin 
 have on the development of the South? 
 
 328. What was the attitude of the North toward 
 slavery? Give the reasons for the attitude of the North 
 toward slavery. 
 
 329. Describe the opposition to slavery and some of 
 the laws passed against it. 
 
 330. Explain why the South favored slavery. What 
 was the underlying reason for this attitude? 
 
 331. Describe the Missouri Compromise. Give the 
 date of its passage. What was the Mason and Dixon 
 
American History. 27 
 
 Line? What were the provisions of the Missouri Com- 
 promise ? 
 
 332. What were the important results of the Com- 
 promise ? 
 
 333. Give the dates of Monroe's administration. 
 
 334. Monroe's administration has been called the "Era 
 of Good Feeling." Account for the use of this term. 
 
 335. What part did the Supreme Court have in this 
 nationalizing movement? 
 
 336. Describe the purchase of Florida and the reasons 
 for it. 
 
 337. What did the United States gain as a result of this 
 purchase ? 
 
 338. What is the Monroe Doctrine? Give its pro- 
 visions. Explain the reason for the adoption of the 
 Monroe Doctrine. What importance has it played in 
 American history? 
 
 339. Describe the tariff of 1824. 
 
 340. Describe the election of 1824. In what respects 
 did this election differ from previous elections? 
 
 341. In what respects was the Tariff Act of 1828 note- 
 worthy and different from the preceding tariff acts ? 
 
 342. What was the ''Exposition and Protest" of South 
 Carolina ? 
 
 343. Discuss the attitude of the State of Georgia to- 
 ward the Constitution. 
 
 344. Describe the Presidential campaign of 1828. 
 
 345. What is meant by the Jacksonian Democracy? 
 
 346. What was the ''spoils system" — "rotation in of- 
 fice" — of Andrew Jackson ? 
 
 347. Who constituted the "kitchen cabinet" of Andrew 
 Jackson ? 
 
28 American History. 
 
 348. Discuss the remarkable development in manufac- 
 tures and inventions during the same period. 
 
 349. Explain the importance of the development of 
 internal communications during- the decade 1830-1840. 
 
 350. Give the essential elements of the Webster- 
 Haynes debate of 1830. Explain the circumstances under 
 which the debate took place. 
 
 351. What is meant by ''nullification"? 
 
 352. Explain fully how the question of nullification 
 arose in the history of the United States? 
 
 353. What was Jackson's attitude toward nullification ? 
 To what extent does his view coincide with the modern 
 view of this important question? 
 
 354. Explain the reason for the Compromise Tarifif 
 of 1833. 
 
 355. What was Jackson's Indian policy? What was 
 the outcome of this policy ? 
 
 356. Give the dates of the administrations of Andrew 
 Jackson. 
 
 357. Discuss fully the relations between Jackson and 
 the United States Bank, and account for his attitude and 
 stand on the question. How did Jackson help to defeat 
 the United States Bank? What were the results? 
 
 358. Show the connection between the removal of the 
 deposits from the United States Bank and the period 
 of speculation and depression that followed. 
 
 359. What was the "expunging resolution?" 
 
 360. Account for the organization and rise of the Whig 
 party. 
 
 361. Describe the panic of 1837. 
 
 362. Who was President during the panic of 1837? 
 
 363. What was the ^'specie circular" ? 
 
American History. 29 
 
 364. What were the results of the Panic ? Describe the 
 present Independent Treasury System. Are moneys de- 
 posited with national, private, or corporate banks to-day ? 
 
 365. Who were the Abolitionists? Mention the names 
 of their leaders. 
 
 366. What was the sentiment of the South on the ques- 
 tion of^the abolition of slavery in the United States ? 
 
 367. What was the "gag-resolution" of 1835 ? 
 
 368. What was the Liberty Party of 1840? 
 
 369. Who were the Loco-focos ? 
 
 370. Explain the slogan "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too." 
 
 371. Describe the Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842. 
 
 372. Describe* the Anti-Rent troubles in New York. 
 
 373. What was the Dorr Rebellion ? 
 
 374. Describe the relations of Texas to Mexico. Ac- 
 count for the fact that Texas was a part of Mexican 
 territory. 
 
 375. Why is Texas called the "Lone Star State"? 
 
 376. Who were the candidates of the campaign of 
 1844? 
 
 - 377. Describe the annexation of Texas. 
 
 378. Describe the invention of the telegraph by Morse. 
 
 379. Describe the Oregon question. Give the claims of 
 the United States to the Oregon territory. 
 
 380. What were the essential features of the program 
 of Polk? 
 
 381. What were the real reasons for the war with 
 Mexico. Was the United States justified in going to war 
 with Mexico? 
 
 - - 382. Describe the events leading to the Mexican war. 
 
 "383. Describe very briefly the war with Mexico, give 
 the names of the generals, the battles fought, etc. 
 384. What was the Wilmot Proviso ? 
 
30 American History. 
 
 385. Give an account of the conquest of California and 
 New Mexico. 
 
 386. Describe the Treaty with Mexico at the close of 
 the war. 
 
 387. What important political questions arose as a 
 result of the acquisition of the vast territory from Mexico ? 
 
 388. Name the candidates of the political parties in the 
 campaign of 1848, 
 
 389. What problems of government confronted Presi- 
 dent Taylor on his inauguration ? 
 
 390. Give an account of the discovery of gold in Cali- 
 fornia. Describe the organization of government in Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
 391. What was the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850? 
 Show its significance to later American history in con- 
 nection with the building of the Panama Canal. 
 
 392. What was the Compromise of 1850? Who was 
 its supporter and organizer? Describe fully the provisions 
 of the Compromise? 
 
 393. What were the effects of the Compromise? 
 
 394. Describe fully the Fugitive Slave Law and its 
 workings. 
 
 395. What were the "Personal Liberty Laws"? 
 
 396. What was the "Underground Railroad" ? 
 
 397. What was the importance of the publication of 
 "Uncle Tom's Cabin"? 
 
 398. Describe the election of 1852. 
 
 399. Was slarery really necessary for the development 
 of the South? 
 
 400. Give the circumstances under which the Nebraska 
 Bill was introduced into Congress. What was the Doc- 
 trine of Squatter Sovereignty ? Enumerate the provisions 
 of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. 
 
American History. 31 
 
 401. Name the leaders of the anti-slavery movement 
 that appeared in the discussion on the Kansas-Nebraska 
 Bill. 
 
 402. Describe conditions in Kansas, and their outcome. 
 
 403. What was the Gadsden Purchase? 
 
 404. What was the Ostend Manifesto? Under what 
 circumstances was it issued? 
 
 405. Describe the formation and organization of the 
 Republican Party. 
 
 406. Who were the "Know-Nothings" ? What part did 
 this political party play in the election of 1856? 
 
 407. Name the candidates of the various political 
 parties in 1856, and tell what parties they represented. 
 
 408. Make a list of the various causes for the remark- 
 able growth and development of the West. 
 
 409. (a) Give an account of the development of rail- 
 road transportation, (b) Give an account of the develop- 
 ment of water transportation. Describe the foreign trade 
 of the United States during the middle of the 19th cen- 
 tury. 
 
 410. (a) Make a list of the important inventors and 
 their inventions during the middle of the 19th century, 
 and tell briefly in what way each helped to develop the 
 country, (b) Describe the growth of manufactures in 
 the United States. 
 
 411. Give the circumstances under which the United 
 States Supreme Court rendered a decision in the Dred 
 Scott Case. 
 
 412. What were the effects upon (a) the North, and 
 (b) the South of this decision? 
 
 413. What was the Lecompton Constitution? 
 
 414. Describe fully the Lincoln-Douglas Debates and 
 their significance. 
 
32 American History. 
 
 415. What was *'the house against itself" doctrine of 
 Lincoln ? 
 
 416. What was Douglas's Freeport Doctrine? 
 
 417. What was the importance of the election of 1858 
 in its relation to the Civil War ? 
 
 418. Give an account of the attack by John Brown on 
 Harper's Ferry. 
 
 419. Account for the split in the Democratic. Party in 
 the election of 1860. What was its significance? 
 
 420. Describe the election of 1860, mentioning the 
 names of the political parties and their candidates, and 
 the paramount principle in the platform of each party. 
 
 421. Describe the attitude of President Buchanan to- 
 ward the threatened secession of the slave States. 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 422. (a) Give an account of the secession of South 
 Carolina and the other States, (b) Describe the prepara- 
 tions made by the Southern States during the administra- 
 tion of President Buchanan for the coming struggle. 
 
 423. Make a list of the grievances of the South, as re- 
 gards the attitude of the Northern States toward slavery. 
 
 424. What was the Northern view on the question of 
 slavery and secession ? 
 
 425. What arguments were advanced by the Southern 
 States for the right of secession and the doctrine of 
 State sovereignty ? 
 
 426. What was the position of the North on the ques- 
 tion of National Sovereignty and the right of the South- 
 ern States to secede from the Union ? 
 
 427. Describe in detail the provisions of the Confed- 
 
American History. 33 
 
 crate Constitution. Name the leaders of the secession 
 movement. Who were elected the President and the Vice- 
 President of the Confederacy ? 
 
 428. What is the difference between a confederacy and 
 a federal government? Show why the Southern States 
 banded together to form a confederacy. 
 
 429. Describe the attempts made to avoid an outbreak 
 on the question of secession. 
 
 430. Describe Lincoln's inaugural. 
 
 431. Make a list of the important members of Lincoln's 
 Cabinet and the position held by each. 
 
 432. Give an account of the outbreak of the war. What 
 was the effect of the attack on Fort Sumter ? 
 
 433. Compare the North and the South at the beginning 
 of the Civil War. 
 
 434. What was Lincoln's object in declaring a block- 
 ade on the Southern coast? 
 
 435. What is meant by belligerency? What is the 
 effect of a recognition of belligerency by a foreign 
 country? What did the South hope to gain from the 
 declaration of belligerency by the European countries ? 
 
 436. What was the attitude of the European nations 
 toward the Confederate States? 
 
 437. Show what was the importance of the physiog- 
 raphy of the South in the war. 
 
 438. How were the border States saved to the Union ? 
 
 439. What was the Trent Affair ? How was it settled ? 
 
 440. Describe the plans of the year 186L 
 
 44L What did the Union armies gain during the year 
 1862? 
 
 442. What was the importance of the capture of New 
 Orleans on the outcome of the war ? 
 
34 American History. 
 
 443. Describe the financial measures in support of the 
 war. 
 
 444. Why were a high tariff and a high internal revenue 
 tax imposed ? 
 
 445. Give an account of McClellan's Peninsular Cam- 
 paign. 
 
 446. Describe the battle between the Monitor and the 
 Merrimac and its importance. 
 
 447. What was the Emancipation Proclamation? Give 
 the circumstances under which it was issued. What did 
 Lincoln hope to gain as a result of its issue? 
 
 448. Lincoln was adversely criticised for the issuance 
 of the Emancipation Proclamation as being beyond his 
 authority. Where did he find constitutional authority for 
 his act? 
 
 449. Enumerate some of the criticisms launched against 
 Lincoln during the years 1861-1863 on his conduct of 
 the war. 
 
 450. Describe Lee's second invasion of the North, and 
 the Battle of Gettysburg. 
 
 451. When did the first invasion of the North take 
 place ? What was the result ? 
 
 452. What was the result of the campaign against 
 Vicksburg? 
 
 453. What was the effect and result of the Battle of 
 Gettysburg on (a) the North and (b) the South? 
 
 454. Give an account of the establishment of the 
 National Banks, showing in what way the finances of the 
 country were strengthened by this Act. 
 
 455. Describe the attitude of England toward the Con- 
 federacy. 
 
 456. Describe the campaign against Chattanooga, tell- 
 ing the battles that were fought in the campaign. 
 
American History. 35 
 
 457. What was the draft? What were the draft riots 
 in New York ? 
 
 458. (a) Give reasons for the selection of General 
 Grant to command the Union armies, and (b) Describe 
 the campaign in the East during the year 1864. 
 
 . 459. Describe General Sherman's campaign in the West 
 during 1864. 
 
 460. Describe the final operations about Richmond. 
 
 461. Account for the passage and adoption of the 
 ' ceenth Amendment to the Constitution. 
 
 462. Describe the assassination of President Lincoln. 
 
 463. Make a list of the reasons for the final defeat of 
 the South. 
 
 RECONSTRUCTION 
 THE NEW REPUBLIC 
 
 464. What were the results of the war on the South 
 and the North ? 
 
 465. Describe the conditions in the South and the 
 problems that were to be met in reconstructing the 
 South. 
 
 466. The period between the death of Lincoln and 
 the end of Grant's administration is called the Period 
 of the Reconstruction. Explain this term fully. 
 
 467. Describe in detail Lincoln's plan of reconstruction. 
 
 468. Compare Lincoln's and Johnson's plans of recon- 
 struction. Describe Johnson's policy toward the defeated 
 South. 
 
 469. Explain the opposition to Johnson's plan. 
 ' 470. What were the Black Codes ? 
 
 471. What was the attitude of the North in regard to 
 these laws ? 
 
36 American History. 
 
 472. Who were the *'f reedmen'' ? What steps were 
 taken to aid them in their changed poHtical status? 
 
 473. Describe in full the attitude of the Northerners on 
 the negro question. Account for the differences between 
 the President and the leaders in Congress. 
 
 474. Describe the Civil Rights Bill. 
 
 475. Explain and give the reason for the final adoption 
 of the XIV Amendment to the Constitution. 
 
 476. Describe the Reconstruction Act of 1867. 
 
 477. Give an account of the political conditions in the 
 South. 
 
 478. Describe theXVth Amendment to the Constitution. 
 
 479. Describe the relations between Congress and Pres- 
 ident Johnson. 
 
 480. What was the Tenure of Office Act? Explain the 
 circumstances under which it was passed. 
 
 481. What is meant by impeachment? In whom is 
 the power of impeachment vested? Who are the final 
 judges of the impeachment? Give the constitutional 
 authority for impeachment? 
 
 482. What was the result of the impeachment pro- 
 ceedings ? 
 
 483. Describe the government of the reconstructed 
 Southern States. Make a list of some of the abuses under 
 these governments. 
 
 484. Describe the Loyal League, the Ku Klux Klan, etc. 
 Tell how these organizations finally overthrew the Repub- 
 lican power in the South. 
 
 485. Describe the election of 1872. 
 
 486. In what year was Alaska acquired? From what 
 country? What was the consideration? 
 
 487. How was the Monroe Doctrine applied during the 
 period of the Civil War ? 
 
American History. Z7 
 
 488. What were the Alabama Claims ? How were they 
 settled ? 
 
 489. How was the northwestern boundary between the 
 United States and Canada settled ? 
 
 490. Describe the Homestead Act of 1862. How did 
 this act aid in the development of the West ? 
 
 491. Account for the decline of the merchant marine of 
 the United States. 
 
 492. Describe the refunding operations and measures 
 of the United States during the decade of 1870 to 1880. 
 
 493. Describe the discussion that arose over the 
 measures to redeem the legal tender notes. 
 
 494. Describe the Legal Tender Case. 
 
 495. Describe the reasons for the panic of 1873. 
 
 496. What was the resumption of specie payments ? 
 
 497. During Grant's administration there were evi- 
 dences of gross corruption throughout the United States. 
 Describe these. 
 
 498. (a) Describe the campaign of 1876, naming the 
 parties, their platforms, and the candidates, (b) What 
 was the Electoral Commission of 1876? Explain its 
 establishment, (c) What was the outcome of the Com- 
 mission? 
 
 499. Show the importance of the large deposits of 
 iron on the industrial development of the United States. 
 
 500. What is meant by a corporation ? Account for the 
 growth and development of corporations during the last 
 half century. 
 
 501. What were the effects of the concentration of 
 industries ? 
 
 502. Describe the growth of the tendency toward union- 
 ism among the laboring classes. What have the labor 
 unions accomplished? 
 
38 American History. 
 
 503. Describe some of the Railroad abuses, and the 
 steps taken to remedy these evils. 
 
 504. Describe the Railroad Commissions. 
 
 505. Describe the causes leading to the Interstate Com- 
 merce Act of 1887. 
 
 506. What importance has the immigration of the 
 Chinese on the Pacific Coast played? 
 
 507. What was the Greenback Party? 
 
 508. What events led to the demonetization of silver in 
 1873? 
 
 509. What was the Silver Purchase Bill of 1878? 
 
 510. What was the result of the election campaign of 
 1880? 
 
 511. Describe the campaign of 1884, and the mugwump 
 movement. 
 
 512. In 1884 the tariff question became the most im- 
 portant issue. Explain the cause. 
 
 513. Describe the industrial tendencies of the period. 
 Give the reasons for these tendencies, and the results fol- 
 lowing. 
 
 514. Describe the anti-trust legislation, and the tend- 
 ency of the present administration toward trusts and 
 large corporations. 
 
 515. What was the Farmer's Alliance? 
 
 516. Account for the rise of the People's Party. Give 
 an account of the election of 1892, telling of the issues, 
 the candidates, and the results of the election. What was 
 the Populist platform ? 
 
 517. Describe the Sherman Act of 1890. 
 
 518. Describe the panic of 1893. 
 
 519. What was the most important issue in the cam- 
 
American History. 39 
 
 paign of 1896? Who were the candidates? On what 
 platforms ? and what was the result of the election ? 
 
 520. Describe the annexation of Hawaii. 
 
 521. What was the Venezuelan Question. To what ex- 
 tent and in what way did the Monroe Doctrine apply? 
 How was the dispute settled ? 
 
 522. Make a list of the important advances in inven- 
 tions. 
 
 523. What were the causes of the Spanish-American 
 War? 
 
 524. Make a list of the leading events of the war. Tell 
 what the United States gained as a result of the war. 
 
 525. What is the relation of the United States to Cuba 
 as a result of the war? 
 
 526. Describe the other acquisitions of other territory 
 in the Pacific since the acquisition of Hawaii. 
 
 527. Describe the Philippine Question. 
 
 528. (a) Describe the issues in the election of 1900. 
 (b) Give an account of the succession of Roosevelt to 
 the Presidency. Mention the candidates in the election of 
 1904. 
 
 529. What is our present foreign policy? 
 
 530. Discuss the new Monroe Doctrine. 
 
 531. Give an account of the building of the Panama 
 Canal. In what ways will the United States benefit from 
 the building of the Canal ? 
 
 532. What is the attitude of the United States toward 
 the Philippines? 
 
 533. Give the dates of the admission of Oklahoma and 
 Indian Territories, Arizona Territory and New Mexico 
 Territory as States. 
 
 534. Give the dates of the following fairs and exposi- 
 tions: Lewis and Clark, Jamestown and Alaska-Yukon- 
 
40 American History. 
 
 Pacific. What is the value of these expositions and 
 world's fairs? 
 
 535. Describe the movement that has spread throughout 
 the country in the matter of the conservation of our 
 natural resources. 
 
 536. Give the result of the election of 1908. 
 
 537. Account for the Democratic victory of 1912. 
 
 538. Name a few of the political problems facing the 
 present (Wilson) Democratic administration. 
 
 REVIEW 
 
 539. The Dutch West Indies Company encouraged the 
 colonization of New Netherlands by making patron 
 grants. Tell briefly (a) what this system was, (b) why 
 the company encouraged it, and (c) what advantages 
 came to New Netherlands because of it. 
 
 540. Mention the incident in American history re- 
 ferred to in each of the following passages : 
 
 (a) ''By the rude bridge that arched the flood, 
 
 Their flag to April's breeze unfurled. 
 Here once the embattled farmers stood, 
 
 And fired the shot heard round the world." 
 
 — Emerson. 
 
 (b) ''Exult, O shores, and ring, O bells! 
 
 But I, with mournful tread. 
 Walk the deck my Captain lies, 
 Fallen cold and dead." 
 
 — Whitman. 
 
 (c) " 'Shoot, if you must, this old gray head, 
 
 But spare your country's flag,' she said." 
 
 — Whittier, 
 
American History. 41 
 
 (d) "Nail to the mast her holy flag, 
 Set every threadbare sail, 
 And give her to the God of storms, 
 The lightning and the gale !" 
 
 — Holmes. 
 
 541. Explain why each of the three following events 
 in the Civil War had an important effect on the outcome 
 of the war: (a) The battle between the Merrimac and 
 the Monitor, (b) the issuing of the Emancipation Proc- 
 lamation, and (c) Sherman's march to the sea. 
 
 542. Write concerning severe and peculiar punish- 
 ments for crime during the colonial period. 
 
 543. Show the commercial advantages of each of the 
 following inventions: (a) The reaper, (b) the cotton 
 gin, (c) the steamboat, (d) the sewing machine, (ej the 
 telephone, and (f ) wireless telegraphy. 
 
 544. Why did England strike the first blow of the 
 Revolution in New England? 
 
 545. State by whom, and under what circumstances, 
 each of the following was uttered : 
 
 (a) "Disperse, ye rebels; lay down your arms!" 
 
 (b) "There are the redcoats ; we must beat them to- 
 
 day, or Molly Stark is a widow." 
 
 (c) 'T regret that I have but one life to lose for 
 
 my country." 
 
 (d) "We have met the enemy and they are ours." 
 
 (e) "No terms except an unconditional surrender 
 
 can be accepted." 
 
 (f) "Brave Admiral, say but one good word, 
 
 What shall we do when hope is gone ?" 
 The words leapt like a leaping sword : 
 "Sail on ! sail on ! sail on ! sail on !" 
 
42 American History. 
 
 (g) "Then striking his spurs, with a terrible oath, 
 
 He dashed down the hne, 'mid a storm of 
 huzzas, 
 And the wave of retreat checked its course 
 there, because 
 The sight of the master compelled it to 
 pause." 
 
 (h) "But in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we 
 cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this 
 ground. The brave men, living and dead, 
 who struggled here have consecrated it far 
 above our poor power to add or detract." 
 
 546. Why were the first settlements in this country- 
 made near the coast and along the river valleys ? 
 
 547. Mention three difficulties that the early settlers 
 had to overcome. 
 
 548. State two ways In which territory has been added 
 to the United States and give an example of each. 
 
 549. Describe a New England home before the Revo- 
 lution. 
 
 550. Describe the home of a Southern planter before 
 the Civil War. 
 
 551. Arrange, in the order of time, the following: (a) 
 Missouri Compromise; (b) Dred Scott Decision; (c) be- 
 ginning of the Mexican War; (d) Emancipation Proc- 
 lamation; (e) Fugitive Slave Law; (f) invention of the 
 cotton gin. 
 
 552. Explain briefly two of the Incidents in the United 
 States history referred to in the following quotations : 
 
American History. 43 
 
 (a) "And the heavy night hung dark 
 
 The woods and waters o'er, 
 When a band of exiles moored their bark 
 On the wild New England shore." 
 
 — Hemans. 
 
 (b) "One, if by land, and two, if by sea, 
 
 And I on the opposite shore will be 
 Ready to ride and spread the alarm 
 Through every Middlesex village and farm." 
 
 — Longfellow. 
 
 (c) "We are coming, Father Abraham, three hun- 
 
 dred thousand more!" 
 
 553. Name three men prominent in colonial times and 
 mention one important service of each. 
 
 554. The War of 1812 has often been called the Second 
 War of Independence. Justify this statement. 
 
 555. (a) What was the Whiskey Rebellion ? (b) How 
 did Washington treat it ? (c) What principle of our gov- 
 ernment was at stake? (d) Give two events prior to 
 1840 illustrating the same issue. 
 
 556. Why was there bitter debate over the admission 
 of Missouri to the Union in 1819, when just before this 
 Illinois and Alabama had been admitted without ques- 
 tion, one as a slave state and the other as a free state ? 
 
 557. Jackson's election and administration are said to 
 have been "a second democratization of the government." 
 (a) In what sense is this true? (b) Under whom was 
 the first democratization ? 
 
 558. (a) Show how Hamilton's views are expressed in 
 the original provision for the election of the President 
 and the Vice-President, (b) How was this provision 
 
44 American History. 
 
 modified by a subsequent modification of the Constitu- 
 tion? (c) How is it nullified in actual practice? 
 
 559. Mention the principal subject or subjects of polit- 
 ical controversy between (a) 1830 and 1840; (b) be- 
 tween 1840 and 1850; (c) between 1850 and 1860; (d) 
 between 1860 and 1870; (e) at the present time. Illus- 
 trate by mentioning the principal measures and events 
 and the most prominent political persons connected with 
 each. 
 
 560. Draw a map of the Southern States and on it 
 indicate three points specially guarded in enforcing the 
 blockade. Show why each was important. 
 
 561. Show by map the territory under control by the 
 Confederates and the Federals at the beginning of 1862, 
 1863, 1864. 
 
 562. Mention four financial panics of the past hundred 
 years, giving one cause common to all and one peculiar 
 to each. 
 
 563. Why may the Magna Charta be considered as one 
 of the documents of American history? Mention three 
 of its provisions that are repeated in the Constitution. 
 
 564. Name (a) the nations that made permanent settle- 
 ments during the sixteenth century, (b) The nations 
 that made permanent settlements in the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, (c) What was the extent of European settlement 
 at the end of the sixteenth century ? 
 
 565. Mention and explain (a) three inducements that 
 tended to bring settlers to the American colonies, and 
 (b) three difficulties that the settlers had to face. 
 
 566. Give an account of two or three instances in which 
 the settlers were aided by the Indians, 
 
American History. 45 
 
 567. Name (a) two nations whose settlements were, 
 for the most part, north of the 40th parallel; (b) one 
 whose settlements were largely south of the 40th parallel. 
 
 568. What nation had lost all of its possessions south 
 of the 40th parallel before the eighteenth century ? Under 
 what circumstances? 
 
 569. Show why differences in the manner of living 
 made conflicts between the English settlers and the In- 
 dians almost inevitable. 
 
 570. Give in chronologic order a summary statement 
 of four important French explorations in the New World. 
 Mention the approximate date of each. 
 
 571. Explain how a trading company established in 
 New England became the self-governing colony of Mas- 
 sachusetts Ba}^ 
 
 572. Give an account of the attempt of James II to 
 unite the Northern colonies under Andros, touching on 
 the (a) purpose of the union, (b) the extent of territory 
 affected, (c) the character and the end of the rule of 
 Andros. 
 
 573. Give two reasons why Canada did not Join the 
 neighboring- colonies in the Revolution. 
 
 574. Explain how, under the Articles of Confederation, 
 (a) the States were represented in Congress, (b) a vote 
 in Congress was taken. 
 
 575. Write on the quarrel between the United States 
 and France during the administration of John Adams, 
 touching on (a) causes, (b) preparations for war in the 
 United States, (c) final settlement. 
 
 576. State the constitutional argument by which slavery 
 was defended. 
 
46 American History. 
 
 577. What effect did the Civil War have on the com- 
 merce and manufactures of England? Give the feelings 
 of the various classes of English society toward the North 
 during the war, and account for this feeling. 
 
 578. What was Jefferson's attitude toward the main- 
 tenance of a strong navy and what was the condition of 
 the navy of the United States at the outbreak of the War 
 of 1812? 
 
 579. "Fortune had smiled especially upon the Spanish, the 
 French and the English, and had granted vast possessions and 
 untold opportunities to them in this greatest expansion in record- 
 ed history ... At first sight Spain would seem to be the 
 power destined to survive. She first among the nations planted 
 her flag in the western lands and she extended its sway with mar- 
 velous rapidity for three-quarters of a century." 
 
 Using the above mentioned paragraph quotation as an 
 introduction, complete the paragraph by a statement of 
 facts showing why Spanish dominion did not extend in 
 America. 
 
 580. Give an account of the Dutch West India Com- 
 pany, touching on (a) powers and privileges; (b) char- 
 acter of the settlement made under its authority; (c) 
 means used to secure an agricultural population; (d) 
 causes of dispute with its colonists. 
 
 581. Describe the origin and status of the ''poor whites" 
 of the South. 
 
 582. How did the troubles between Parliament and the 
 King of England advance the causes of liberty in Amer- 
 ica during the reigns of (a) Charles I, (b) George III? 
 
 583. Mention an essential particular In which the 
 French colonies in America differed from the English 
 colonies in (a) government, (b) industries. How was 
 
American History. 47 
 
 each of these differences an (c) advantage to the French 
 in war, and (d) a disadvantage? 
 
 584. During what years of the American Revolution 
 was most of the fighting done in the Northern States ? In 
 the Southern States ? What was the British plan for the 
 conquest of the South? 
 
 585. Mention "two historical facts to show the inade- 
 quacy of the government under the Articles of Confed- 
 eration to deal with (a) foreign affairs, (b) domestic 
 affairs. How were these remedied by the Constitution? 
 
 586. What means were employed to reduce the public 
 debt during the administrations of (a) Washington, (b) 
 Thomas Jefferson? 
 
 587. Describe the three important routes by which the 
 emigrants reached the Middle West before the railroads 
 were built. In what respects did the railways help the 
 growth of the West? 
 
 588. State the most important provision of each of the 
 following: (a) The Specie Circular of 1836; (b) the 
 Independent Treasury Act of 1846; (c) the Legal Tender 
 Act of 1862; (d) The Bland-Allison Act of 1878. 
 
 589. Show why the Emancipation Proclamation was 
 impracticable in 1861 and necessary in 1863. 
 
 590. When and how did the United States free the 
 slaves in the loyal States? 
 
 591. Mention three causes that split the Republican 
 party in 1872. 
 
 592. Give a brief account of the industrial disorders 
 during the administration of Hayes. Why are such dis- 
 orders more frequent now than during the colonial days ? 
 
 593. What conditions in Europe (a) aided and (b) 
 
48 American History. 
 
 Avhat retarded American colonization? Illustrate by ref- 
 erence to the French and the English colonies. 
 
 594. By what means did the colonial assemblies control 
 to some extent the actions of the governors appointed by 
 the King? How did England try to prevent this control, 
 and with what result ? 
 
 595. Discuss the basis of representation under (a) the 
 New England Confederacy, (b) the Albany Plan of 
 Union, (c) the Articles of Confederation, and (d) the 
 present Constitution. 
 
 596. Draw an outline map of the eastern coast line of 
 the United States and on it locate, by name, St. Augustine, 
 Boston, Charlestown and Plymouth. 
 
 597. Draw an outline map of New York, and on it 
 locate, by name. White Plains, the Hudson and the Mo- 
 hawk rivers. West Point, Stony Point, Saratoga, Niagara 
 Falls, the Lakes Champlain and George. 
 
 598. Connect with each of the following some event in 
 American history: De Soto, Magellan, Cartier, Drake, 
 Raleigh. 
 
 599. If you had been an early English settler in colo- 
 nial times, in which of the English colonies would you 
 have preferred to settle? Give reasons for your answer. 
 
 600. Who were (a) the Tories, (b) the Minute Men, 
 (c) the Rough Riders, (d) the Barnburners, (e) the Ku- 
 Klux Klan? 
 
 601. (a) Name five regions acquired by the United 
 States between 1800 and 1870, and give the name of the 
 country from which each was acquired, (b) Name five 
 regions acquired by the United States since 1870. 
 
The 
 
 Progressive Series 
 
 Answers in History 
 
 for 
 DRILL, TEST AND REVIEW 
 
 By 
 
 ISAAC PRICE, A.M. 
 
 Washington Irving High School. 
 New York Evening High School {or Men. 
 
 Author : 
 
 "Direct Method of Teaching English to Foreigners," "Compre- 
 hensive Question and Answer Book," "OutUnes 
 in American History." 
 
 HINDS, MAYDEN & ELDREDGE, Inc. 
 NEW YORK PHILADELPHIA 
 
Copyright, 1916, by 
 HINDS, HAYDEN & ELDREDGE, INC. 
 
 Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. 
 All rights reserved. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 A practical Question and Answer Book should be com- 
 prehensive in scope without having too many and too de- 
 tailed questions. It should furnish abundant material for 
 drill, test, and review of the subject by means of well 
 arranged and well graded questions, and should aim to 
 cultivate in the student those qualities brought out in a 
 good recitation by a skilled teacher. 
 
 With these objects In mind this series of books has been 
 written. The separate books are intended, not only 
 for beginners, but also for students pursuing advanced 
 and review work. Care has been taken to make each book 
 complete. The papers given at civil service, college en- 
 trance, and Regents examinations have been carefully 
 culled for suitable questions, and the material arranged 
 topically and logically to emphasize principles as well as 
 essential facts. The answers are supported by the latest 
 authorities and in consonance with the accepted texts for 
 the best elementary and secondary schools. To make the 
 work more helpful, diagrams, illustrations, maps, topical 
 outlines, and glossaries have been included. 
 
 Acknowledgment is due to the many experienced teach- 
 ers who have freely offered suggestions and criticisms de- 
 signed to make this a most helpful "text-book." 
 
The aim of this book is to give the leading facts and features 
 in the development of the United States, not through military 
 achievements, but through the amalgamation of the various na- 
 tionalities contributing to the "melting pot", through the leveling 
 influences of democratic tendencies, and through the economic 
 expansion made possible by a wealth of natural resources. Geo- 
 graphic conditions as influencing our growth and development 
 have been emphasized in common with the ideals that have 
 guided the nation. 
 
 The experiences of the teachers and students will offer sug- 
 gestions as to the methods of using the text. 
 
 To My Son 
 
 LEONARD 
 
 whose questions 
 come from the mind and 
 
 the heart 
 this series is affectionately 
 
 DEDICAITED 
 
Answers in American History 
 
 PERIOD OF DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 
 
 1. The Indians living east of the Mississippi River were divided 
 into three families, according to their language: (1) the 
 Muskogees, south of the Tennessee River, and comprising the 
 Creeks, the Seminoles, the Choctaws, and the Chickasaws ; (2; 
 the Algonquins, including the Mohegans, the Pequots, the Nar- 
 ragansetts of the New England region, the Delawares, the Pow- 
 hatans of Virginia, the Shawnees of the Ohio Valley, and the 
 other tribes around the Great Lakes; (3) the Iroquoians occu- 
 pying the territory between the Great Lakes and the Middle 
 Atlantic States and isolated tracts in North Carolina and Ten- 
 nessee, the chief tribes of which were the Six Nations: the 
 Senecas, the Oneidas, the Cayugas, the Onondagas, and the 
 Mohawks, the Hurons, — the Eries, the Tuscaroras, and the 
 Cherokees. West of the Mississippi River were the Sacs and 
 Foxes (Algonquin), the Dakotahs, the Shoshoneans, the Co- 
 manches, the Apaches, the Modocs, and the Californian tribes, 
 and others that appear in the history of the development of the 
 West. 
 
 The Indians of the present day are to be found on the reserva- 
 tions, particularly in the West and in the State of Oklahoma. 
 There are a number in the East. 
 
 2. Columbus named the natives whom he found on the Island 
 of San Salvador Indians because he thought he had reached 
 India. 
 
 3. The Indian's skin is copper-colored (Red Man), his eyes 
 small and dark, and his hair long, coarse, and jet-black; his 
 body, straight and slender ; his movements agile, quick, and quiet. 
 The Indian was a warrior and hunter, and spent his time chiefly 
 in these pursuits. His body was painted in bright colors to 
 make him terrifying when he went to war. The Indian woman, 
 or squaw, cooked the food, built the wigwam, cultivated the soil 
 and raised the crops of grain, and did all the menial work be- 
 sides taking care of her family. The Indians had no domestic . 
 animals except the dog, and therefore, moved from place to 
 place. 
 
 53 
 
54 American History. 
 
 The Indian was a most expert woodsman; he was quick and 
 sure of foot, quick-witted, keen of sight, strong of endurance. 
 His powers of imitation of the sounds of animals were amazing. 
 Courage and fortitude he possessed to a remarkable degree. He 
 was treacherous, revengeful, cruel, and had all the vices of the 
 weak and cowardly. The Indian believed in a future life, in the 
 Happy Hunting Ground, and he was therefore buried with all 
 his implements and tools of the hunt and war. 
 
 4. There was imperfect government among the Indians. The 
 largest division was the family with its tribes allied because of a 
 more or less common language. The tribes were divided into 
 clans, made up of persons supposed to be descended from the 
 same female ancestor. The sachem was the elected head of the 
 clan. The property was owned in common. The council of 
 sachems decided all the important matters of the tribe. There 
 was no spirit of union among the tribes of the same family, and 
 consequently, they fell an easy prey to their enemies and to the 
 increasing number of white settlers. 
 
 5. (a) The totem was the figure of some animal worked in 
 beads or cut in wood and was the symbol of the tribe, (b) The 
 wigwam was the "house" of the Indian, and was made of a 
 number of poles stuck in the ground and tied together at the 
 top, and covered by skins, with one flap for an entrance, (c) 
 The lock of hair left by the Indian on his scalp after shaving as 
 a challenge to the enemy who might desire to take his scalp. 
 
 (d) Wampum consisted of certain shells, strung together for 
 purposes of ornamentation, to bind a treaty, or as a means of 
 exchange of values, or money, (e) The moccasin was a shoe 
 or leggin made of the skin of an animal, frequently ornamented ; 
 it was the footgear of the Indian, (f) The Indian scorned to 
 complain ; when hurt fatally he met his death bravely by chant- 
 ing the "death-song." (g) The gauntlet was a device to torture 
 a prisoner, and consisted of two files of Indians between which 
 the prisoner was to run. The Indians struck at him with their 
 tomahawks, knives, etc., while he was running. If the prisoner 
 survived, he was set free. 
 
 6. In certain parts of the country, particularly in the Mississippi 
 Valley region, there are large mounds, shaped like animals. In 
 them are found the remains of what is believed to be a still 
 
American History. 55 
 
 earlier race known as the Mound Builders. But nothing definite 
 is known about these earlier races. 
 
 7. The Indian never fought in the open if he could help it ; he 
 lay in hiding behind rocks, trees, in forests; he tried to ambush 
 his enemy. His weapons were the tomahawk, the bow and 
 arrow, and later, the gun. The white man fought in the open, 
 scorned to strike his enemy from behind, but later, he was forced 
 to adopt the tactics of the Indian. 
 
 8. Longfellow wrote the famous poem, "Hiawatha" ; James 
 Fenimore Cooper wrote the series of novels, "The Leatherstock- 
 ing Tales." Both of these writers ascribed to the Indian as 
 permanent characteristics, qualities which the Indian seldom 
 possessed. Their works have given the impression that the 
 Indian was always the victim of the white man. 
 
 9. During the early colonial days the settlers were greatly 
 indebted to the Indians for their valuable instruction in the 
 methods of conquering the forests and the wild animal life. The 
 ways of the Indians, those best suited for life under the rugged 
 conditions and circumstances of the time, were quickly adapted 
 by the whites, — the ways of hunting, fishing, and trapping; the 
 value and importance of the Indian corn; the mode of Indian 
 travel in the trackless woods and upon the pathless waters. The 
 colonists were thus able to maintain their hold upon the new 
 World. 
 
 But with this there was an interchange of products. For the 
 ftir from the numerous fur-bearing animals in the forests, the 
 Indians bartered the white man's utensils and fire-arms. The 
 cloths and horses of the whites were taken in exchange for the 
 products of the field and forest. They also learned the vices of 
 the whites, without a corresponding number of his virtues. The 
 curse of rum was indelibly stamped upon the life of the Indian. 
 The Indian did not lend himself to conversion to Christianity. 
 
 10. The Northmen were the inhabitants of the Scandinavian 
 peninsula, now Norway and Sweden, and were bold seafaring 
 men who, in their long boats crossed the oceans to Iceland and 
 Greenland. In 1000, A. D., Leif Ericson sailed from Norway to 
 Greenland, but lost his way, and in his search for the island ex- 
 plored the coast of what is now the New England States as far 
 south as Connecticut and Rhode Island. The land was named 
 
56 American History. 
 
 Vineland. More people came over, doing an extensive trade 
 with the Indians in furs, etc. The ruins of the Round Tower at 
 Newport, R. I., are the only remaining evidence of the brief 
 occupancy by these bold searovers. 
 
 11. The ideas of the people of the Middle Ages as to the size 
 and shape of the earth were : that the earth was flat, surrounded 
 by oceans and covered by the dome-like heavens ; that the land 
 terminated at the Pillars of Hercules, now Gibraltar; that the 
 sea which lay west of the Pillars of Hercules was the same that 
 washed the shores of Asia; that a vessel saihng from Europe 
 could sail westward and finally reach the East, always excepting 
 the fear that the vessel would fall off when it reached the end 
 of the earth. 
 
 12. The period of the Renaissance is a period of the broaden- 
 ing of human intelligence ; of the beginning of the modern spirit 
 of inquiry, of exploration and discovery; the reaching out for 
 new things, for new knowledge, for new lands. All were forms 
 of the spirit of the Renaissance. "The greatest fruit of the 
 Renaissance was America." 
 
 13. Among the improvements in navigation were: the inven- 
 tion of the mariner's compass, transmitted by the Arabs from 
 the Chinese; the astrolabe, by means of which the latitude of a 
 place could be determined; the improvements in the vessels 
 themselves, from the low to the very high deck. 
 
 14. The three trade routes between Europe and the East were : 
 
 (1) From Europe across the Mediterranean Sea, across the 
 Isthmus of Suez, through the Red Sea, Indian Ocean and to India. 
 
 (2) Across the Mediterranean Sea, through the Bosporus, the Sea 
 of Marmora, the Black Sea, to Asia and across Asia to Cathay 
 (China) and India. (3) Across the Mediterranean Sea to Asia 
 Minor, across this territory to the Persian Gulf, etc., to the 
 Indian Ocean and to India. 
 
 In 1453, Constantinople was captured by the Turks, and before 
 the end of the 15th century all the centers on the Black and the 
 Mediterranean Seas suffered the same fate. The amount of 
 commerce passing through these cities was considerably re- 
 duced, greater restrictions were placed upon European mer- 
 chants, property became unsafe, and there was little reciprocal 
 trade between the barbarous Turks and the Europeans. The 
 
American History. 57 
 
 growth and development of the wealth and status of European 
 society gave rise to increased demands for these imported goods. 
 The Red Sea route was closed with the capture of Egypt; but 
 the Turks themselves had secured the monoply of trade along 
 this route. 
 
 15. The hazy and somewhat imaginative views of Cathay 
 (China) and India held by the Europeans were due, in part, to 
 the writings of Marco Polo, who had spent many years at the 
 Court of China, and who, on his return to Europe, wrote an 
 account of the country and its riches. This resulted in the 
 belief in the unlimited commercial possibilities of the Eastern 
 countries. 
 
 16. The nations of Western Europe rose in importance as a 
 result of this attitude of the Turks. Among the foremost was 
 Portugal, whose ruler. Prince Henry, encouraged scientific so- 
 cieties and navigators. Voyages were made by Portuguese sea- 
 men along the western coast of Africa. 
 
 17. Toscanelli was a well-known doctor of Florence, who 
 wrote on the geographical theories of his age. His map of the 
 world, as it was then known, shows the proximity of Asia to 
 the western coast of Europe and also locates, in favorable posi- 
 tions, various islands that we know to be mythical. Columbus 
 made use of such a map in his voyage across the Atlantic. 
 
 18. The few facts in the Hfe of Christopher Columbus that 
 are agreed upon by all authorities are : that he was the son of a 
 wool-comber, born in Genoa, that he led a seafaring life in his 
 early youth, and that he was a map and chart maker by occu- 
 pation; that he went on many voyages, and probably visited the 
 western coast of Africa and the Northwestern coast of Europe; 
 he was a deep student of geography and navigation. His theory 
 was that the earth was spherical and that the East could be 
 reached by sailing due west around it. 
 
 19. Prince Henry of Portugal inclined to Columbus's views 
 and sent out an expedition to test the theory. The captain in 
 charge of the vessel returned after a short voyage, but before 
 another could be sent out, Prince Henry died. Columbus spent 
 many years in endeavors to induce the sovereigns of Spain to 
 equip an expedition for him. He pointed out the commercial 
 and other advantages that would be derived by the nation, as 
 
58 American History, 
 
 well as the opportunity to help the spread of Christianity among 
 the Asiatics. The struggle between the Spaniards and the Moors 
 was the greatest obstacle to the fulfilment of his wishes. Finally, 
 after negotiations regarding the terms upon which Columbus 
 was to assume command of the expedition, the fleet was fitted 
 out. Through Columbus's brother, an attempt had been made 
 to induce Henry VH of England to fit out an expedition, but 
 the impression made by Columbus's emissary and the unsettled 
 internal condition of England doomed the mission to failure. 
 
 20. (a) The aims of Columbus were: to'find a new and safer 
 route to India and Cathay; to spread the doctrines of Chris- 
 tianity in Asia ; to bring hoards of gold and treasures back to 
 Spain, (b) There were four voyages. The first lasted for a 
 period of ten weeks, terminating in the discovery of San Salvador, 
 on Oct. 12, 1492. The fleet of three vessels, the Nina, Pinta, and 
 the Santa JMaria left the Port of Palos, Spain, and with but a 
 brief stop at the Azores for repairs, the voyage was continuous 
 till the small island of San Salvador, in the Bahamas, was 
 reached on Oct. 12, 1492. There were times when the sailors 
 threatened mutiny, but the steadfast purpose and indomitable 
 courage and will of the commander finally won. (c) The sec- 
 ond voyage of Columbus resulted in the discovery and 
 exploration of the southern coast of Cuba, in 1493, which 
 he believed to be the main land of Cochin China. Hayti 
 was the northern end of Cipango (Japan). The third voyage of 
 Columbus terminated in the discovery of the northern coast of 
 South America, the mouth of the Orinoco River, In 1502-1504 
 Columbus made his fourth and last voyage in which he skirted 
 the coasts of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama in a vain at- 
 tempt to find the strait that would lead him to the Indian Ocean. 
 
 21. (a) In 1498, the same year as that in which Columbus made 
 his voyage to South America, the Portuguese Vasco da Gama 
 sailed around Africa and returned from India with a rich cargo. 
 As a result of the claims of Portugal, the Pope issued a decree 
 granting to that country the right to ownership of the lands of 
 Asia for the purpose of missionary work. The claims of Spain 
 had to be met, and Pope Alexander issued a bull (1493) arrang- 
 ing a division of the newly discovered lands between these two 
 countries. The treaty signed in the following year settled the 
 
American History. 59 
 
 meridian located 370 miles west of the Cape Verde Islands as 
 the "Line of Demarcation." All land east of the line was to be 
 Portuguese territory, while all west of that line was to be under 
 the dominion of Spain. Brazil, which lay to a great measure 
 east of the line, thus became Portuguese territory, and remained 
 such until the revolt in the early part of the nineteenth century, 
 (b) In 1500, Cabral, a Portuguese navigator, made "a voyage 
 to India" on which he explored the coast of Brazil. In 1501-1502, 
 the expedition of Americus Vespucius skirted the coast of Brazil 
 for a distance of 700 leagues south of Cape St. Roque, reaching 
 35 degrees south latitude. An account of this expedition and its 
 results fell into the hands of a German publisher, Waldsemuller, 
 who in 1507, named the continent America after Americus 
 Vespucius. 
 
 22. Many questions arose as a result of the spread of the 
 knowledge of the discoveries and explorations of Columbus, and 
 Vasco de Gama. Among them were : Was the newly discovered 
 land really a part of Asia? Could the strait leading to the Indian 
 Ocean be found by sailing due west? In what direction were 
 China, India and Japan? Only with the many discoveries and 
 explorations that followed were these questions answered. 
 
 23. (a) The earliest Spanish settlements were naturally made 
 in the regions known to them as a result of previous discoveries. 
 The islands of the West Indies, Hayti, Cuba, Porto Rico, etc., 
 were first settled. Next, the mainlands of Central America, the 
 northern coast of South America, and Mexico, were settled. 
 (b) The search for gold, samples of which had been brought 
 back by Columbus and other explorers, the conquest of the 
 wealthy territory from which the Indians mined the gold, the 
 desire to spread the doctrines of Christianity among the heathen 
 Indians, and the commerce in the tropical products, were the 
 motives underlying the Spanish expeditions. 
 
 24. The search for gold led to the establishment by bold Span- 
 iards of settlements on the Isthmus of Panama, and it is among 
 these adventurers that we find Balboa. Inspired by the sugges- 
 tion that the wealthy lands of "Ormuz and of Ind" lay to the 
 south, Balboa, with a trusty and hardy band crossed the Isthmus 
 and beheld the South Sea before him. (1513.) 
 
 25. In the same year, 1513, Ponce de Leon (Governor of Porto 
 
60 American History. 
 
 Rico) was commissioned to explore the land for wealth. His 
 expedition landed on Easter Sunday on the coast of Florida 
 which it explored. 
 
 26. In 1517, Cordova led a slave-catching expedition to the 
 coast of Yucatan, where he noticed the advanced civilization of 
 the Indians, and signs of great wealth. In 1518 the west coast of 
 Mexico was explored. During the following year, 1519, Cortez 
 was sent to take possession of the country, and instead of the 
 civilized peoples whom he expected to meet, was opposed by the 
 barbarous Indians of Mexico. He had to fight his way till he 
 reached the capital of Mexico, where the Spaniards, resorting 
 to treachery and brutality, overcame the Indians. The chief of 
 the Indian Confederacy, Montezuma, was tortured to compel 
 him to divulge the secret hiding places of the golden treasures. 
 
 27. In 1519, Magellan, a Portuguese navigator, sailing under 
 the Spanish flag, believing that a new route might be found 
 around the southern end of the new continent which would be 
 shorter than the one around Cape of Good Hope, sailed along 
 the coast of South America, and through the Strait of Magellan 
 into the "South Sea" which he crossed. Because of its com- 
 parative calm, he named it the Pacific Ocean. He struck across 
 the Pacific, and after sailing for almost two years, he reached 
 the savage islands of the Philippines, where he was killed in an 
 encounter with the natives. Their untold sufferings so reduced 
 the force that only one vessel with 18 survivors from the original 
 expedition reached Spain. The voyage of Magellan, for the first 
 time, definitely demonstrated that Asia could not be reached 
 through a strait that pierced America. It further showed that 
 America was a continent distinct from Europe and Asia, and 
 clearly proved that the earth is spherical. 
 
 28. In 1519, Pineda skirted the Gulf of Mexico and showed the 
 hopelessness of the search for a strait leading to the Indian 
 Ocean. 
 
 29. In 1540, Coronado, in an attempt to reach the famed 
 "Seven Cities of Cibola" where gold and silver were supposed 
 to exist in fabulous quantities, advanced northward from a 
 point on the Gulf of California. The Canons of the Colorado 
 were reached, and then, turning eastward, he is said to have 
 gone as far as Kansas. 
 
American History. 61 
 
 30, Actuated by the successes of Pizarro in his conquest of 
 Peru, in 1521, De Soto, a member of the expedition, determined 
 to rival his chief. He landed in Tampa Bay in 1539, and wan- 
 dered for three years northward in an attempt to reach El Do- 
 rado, the land of gold, about which he had heard so much from 
 the Indians. The expedition practiced untold cruelties on the 
 Indians, demanding food, slaves, and guidance to the land of 
 gold, from each Indian tribe in turn, and when they refused, the 
 grossest of barbarities were inflicted upon them. The Indians 
 showed their hostility at every step of the Spaniards, on every 
 occasion. The hardships plus the attacks of the Indians wore 
 away the number of the invaders. The expedition resulted in 
 the discovery of the Mississippi River, where De Soto, who had 
 died, was buried. The few survivors floated down the river and 
 reached a Spanish settlement on the Texan coast. 
 
 31. (a) The Spanish colonial policy was one of complete con- 
 trol over the colonies and settlements. The "Council for the 
 Indies" controlled all trade with the colonies. Viceroys, gover- 
 nors, military commanders, were appointed to reside in and 
 govern the colonies. The courts for the adjudication of legal 
 matters were also under their control. There was but a slight 
 measure of self-government in the municipalities, the councils 
 being composed of men who were at first elected, but later ob- 
 tained their offices by inheritance or purchase. Her industrial 
 policy was one of monopoly and restriction. Mining of gold and 
 silver was encouraged, agriculture was somewhat less encour- 
 aged, because of the similarity of the Spanish and colonial prod- 
 ucts, the raising of olives, hemp, flax, etc., was restricted; only 
 two fleets were allowed to sail annually from Seville and Cadiz 
 to the colonies, and then only on royal license, for which ex- 
 cessive payment was demanded, (b) The expulsion of the 
 Moors; the persecution of the Spanish Jews, who were the 
 artisans and bankers of the nation; the religious persecutions 
 in the Netherlands and other territory under Spanish dominion 
 resulting in wars with the other European nations; the destruc- 
 tion of her sea power; the moral decadence of her people, — all 
 contributed to eliminate Spain as a first rate power. Internal 
 troubles brought her to such a pass that she gave but slight 
 attention to the spread of her power in the New World. 
 
62 American History, 
 
 32. The Spaniards treated the Indians in the territories con- 
 quered by them with great harshness and severity. In the 
 Perus and Mexico, the Indians were made slaves to work in 
 the mines. 
 
 33. See answers 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29. 
 
 34. See answers to 24-29. 
 
 35. (a) That there was land to the west of Europe and Africa; 
 (b) that the earth is a sphere; (c) that North America and 
 South America are separate continents; and (d) the discovery of 
 the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 36. St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565, and Santa Fe, New Mexico, 
 in 1582. 
 
 37. In 1534-1535, Cartier discovered and explored the Gulf and 
 River of St. Lawrence; in 1540-1543, Cartier and Roberval at- 
 tempted to colonize the region of the St. Lawrence region, 
 
 38. The rivalry between France and Spain in Europe led to 
 the extension of this rivalry to the New World. French' seamen 
 plundered the Spanish treasure ships as they returned from 
 America. One of these was under command of the Florentine 
 Verrazano, who captured vessels that carried gold from Mexico 
 to Spain. Francis I, King of France, now sent Verrazano to 
 seek a passage to China. In 1524, he reached South Carolina and 
 proceeded northward, exploring the coast as far as Maine. He 
 is said to have entered New York Bay. The search for gold 
 and for the strait to Asia was a complete failure. 
 
 39. The wars between France and Spain, between Spain and 
 the Netherlands, between England and Spain, the religious per- 
 secutions, the disturbed industrial conditions, the lack of funds, 
 led to the cessation of the activity of one country or another 
 in the New World. It was toward the beginning of the 17th cen- 
 tury that the work of exploring and exploiting the Americas 
 again began and continued without cessation. 
 
 40. In 1534-1535 Cartier made explorations in the Gulf and 
 River of St. Lawrence. An attempt to found a permanent settle- 
 ment a few years later in 1543 by Cartier and Roberval failed. 
 
 41. With the beginning of the 16th century, there followed as 
 a result of the discovery of America and the African route to 
 India, a broadening of geographical knowledge, an increase in 
 maritime activity, and the transfer, from the Mediterranean 
 
American History. 63 
 
 countries to the Atlantic seaboard, of the seats of commercial 
 and maritime supremacy, and England rapidly forged to the 
 front as a sea-power. 
 
 42. In 1497, John Cabot, a native of Genoa, obtained a com- 
 mission from Henry VH authorizing him to make a voyage 
 across the Atlantic under the English flag. His ambition, too, 
 was to find the shorter and safer water route to India. He 
 reached Labrador, Newfoundland, or Cape Breton — it is not cer- 
 tain which. In the following year he was accompanied by his son 
 Sebastian with whom he explored a considerable part of the coast 
 of the United States. 
 
 The results of the Cabots' voyages were : The basis of the Eng- 
 lish claim to land in the New World was laid; the fisheries with 
 the Newfoundland fisheries were greatly encouraged, and the 
 Grand Banks have since been one of the greatest fishing grounds 
 in the world. 
 
 43. The reasons for the inactivity of the English were : The 
 results to follow from the explorations of the Cabots were not 
 promising; England was not an important commercial nation; 
 her trade was carried on by foreigners ; it was not until the 
 reigns of Henry VIII and Elizabeth that there awoke in the 
 English a desire to reach out for the prizes that were to be had 
 as a result of discovery and exploration ; she then became an 
 important maritime nation ; there was no longer any fear of the 
 dominance of the other European nations. 
 
 In England the shipbuilding industry underwent complete 
 revolution and took great strides forward ; English Newfound- 
 land was a training place for the hardy seamen who began to 
 give England her place on the sea; the rising commercial and 
 maritime spirit of the English and the opposition to the re- 
 ligious persecutions on the continent kindled the "national 
 spirit." 
 
 44. In 1560 John Hawkins began his slaving voyages to the 
 west coast of Africa and transported the slaves to America. In 
 1572 Drake commanded an expedition to the Isthmus of Panama, 
 in retaliation for the destruction of Hawkins' fleet in the Gulf of 
 Mexico. There he captured Spanish treasure ships, sacked the 
 towns, and otherwise inflicted great damage on the Spaniards. 
 
 45. In his attacks on the Isthmus of Panama he first saw the 
 
64 American History. 
 
 Pacific Ocean and determined to sail on its waters, and at the 
 same time attack the wealthy cities of Peru. In 1577 he set sail 
 with a well-equipped fleet of five vessels, passed through the 
 Strait of Magellan, and attacked and plundered vessels and 
 towns along the west coast. He sailed as far north as Oregon, 
 entered the Bay of San Francisco, took possession of the coun- 
 try in the name of the sovereign of England, and named it New 
 Albion, and then sailed across the Pacific in his further quest 
 for Spanish vessels and for adventure. He reached England 
 three years later with but one vessel of his fleet. In addition to 
 bringing vast stores of treasure, which he presented to his 
 sovereign, he brought on the war between Spain and England. 
 
 46. (a) With characteristic English persistence, the English 
 people set about to find a shorter and safer route to the Asiatic 
 countries. The dominance of the other routes by the other 
 European countries impelled her to look toward the north of 
 the Americas for the "Northwest Passage." In 1576-78, Fro- 
 bisher's expedition discovered Frobisher's Bay. In 1585-87, John 
 Davis made three similar attempts, but failed in his object. 
 (b) The "Northwest Passage" was the strait or passage north 
 of the continent of North America supposed to connect the 
 Atlantic and the Pacific and thereby shorten the route to Asia. 
 In 1903-1906, Captain Amundsen sailed his vessel the entire dis- 
 tance around North America, and was thus the first to sail 
 through this passage. 
 
 47. The reasons for the establishment of colonies by the Eng- 
 lish were : There still existed in the minds of the English, due 
 partly to the adventures of Drake and the reports of the Span- 
 ish treasures, and the idea that America was the "golden land" ; 
 the New World was a source of products that Englishmen 
 needed; the American colonies were to be midway stations on 
 the voyage to Asiatic countries ; they would serve as bases of 
 operations against the Spaniards. 
 
 48. (a) In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert founded a colony in 
 Newfoundland-. Sickness, dissensions, etc., reduced the num- 
 bers, and the colony was a failure. Gilbert, on his return to 
 England for help, was lost in midocean. (b) In 1584, Sir Walter 
 Raleigh, half-brother of Gilbert, sent another expedition to 
 plant a colony, on the coast, named Virginia, in honor of the 
 
American History. 65 
 
 Virgin QueeA Elizabeth. In 1585, a company of one hundred 
 men attempted a settlement on Roanoke Island, but it was 
 entirely destroyed. No trace of it has been found to this day. 
 
 49. The reasons for the early failures of the English were : 
 the persons selected for colonization were of the criminal and 
 vicious classes who had no moral or physical stamina, and who 
 could not agree among themselves ; the places chosen for coloni- 
 zation were not conducive to permanent settlement by pioneers ; 
 the main work consisted in the search for gold and for the 
 route to India ; the adventurous and romantic atmosphere cre- 
 ated around these expeditions gave them an air of unreality. 
 
 50. (a) The Spanish Armada was the great fleet fitted out 
 by the Spaniards to attack England in the war between England 
 and Spain. In 1588 this fleet was destroyed by the English 
 seamen, who, in their small vessels, quickly outsailed the larger 
 Spanish boats, and attacked them on all sides. The English 
 were under the command of Hawkins, Drake, Raleigh. (c) 
 The Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea were the scenes of 
 numerous attacks on the Spanish ships by the English vessels 
 during the next few years, until the sea power of Spain had 
 almost disappeared. The defeat of Spain gave the English free- 
 dom to pursue their policy of settlement and colonization. The 
 "national spirit" kindled anew and the English went forth with 
 added vigor to make commercial and rnaritime conquests. 
 
 PERIOD OF SETTLEMENT AND COLONIAL 
 DEVELOPMENT 
 
 5L With the discoveries and the explorations in the New 
 World, the center of maritime an4 commercial activity moved 
 from the Mediterranean Sea to tne Atlantic Coast. In addition, 
 the fruits of the Renaissance were beginning to be seen definitely 
 and the standards of living of the masses changed. The prod- 
 ucts of the New World, as well as those of the Asiatic coun- 
 tries were in demand. Reports of large treasures instilled a 
 desire to reach the Americas. The commercial treasures of the 
 East were transported via the Atlantic^Indian Ocean route. The 
 Eastern products became cheaper as a result of the increased 
 commerce due to the safety of the voyage and the large fleets 
 
66 American History. 
 
 of vessels sailing from all countries to the East. From America 
 came new products, fish, furs, sugar, tobacco, dyewoods, precious 
 metals and stones, and gave rise to increased commerce. 
 
 52. This increased commerce of the 16th century gave rise to 
 the Trading Companies and MonopoHes. Each nation en- 
 deavored to gain a monopoly of commerce for its citizens, and 
 aided all in the establishment of these companies with money 
 and legislation. Spain and Portugal took complete control, and 
 made them governmental monopolies. The northern European 
 countries, where the people had a voice in the government, en- 
 couraged the formation and organization of trading companies. 
 England, France, and Holland chartered several prominent trad- 
 ing companies, assigning to each a veritable monopoly of the 
 trade in respective sections of the globe. The charters gave them 
 large and broad powers and such legislative and financial aid as 
 they required. The English Companies were : The Muscovy 
 (Russia) Company, the Eastern Levant (Eastern Mediterranean 
 Countries), The Guinea (Africa), the East India (India), the 
 London, the Plymouth, the Virginia, the Guiana, the Newfound- 
 land, the Bermuda Companies. 
 
 53. The London and the Plymouth Companies, chartered in 
 1606, were formed '"to make habitation, plantation, and deduce 
 a colony of sundry people into that part of America called Vir- 
 ginia." The charter members were prominent noblemen and 
 merchants in England. The London Company received a patent 
 of land between the 34th and 41st parallels of north latitude, 
 while the Plymouth Company received the territory between the 
 38th and 45th parallels. Neither Company was permitted to 
 found a colony within one hundred miles of the colony first 
 planted by the other in the overlapping territory. 
 
 54. The increased demand in England and on the continent 
 for the products of the East and the New World, due to the rise 
 in the standard of living; the increased English maritime fleet; 
 the necessary interchange of commercial products, manufactures 
 in excess in England, as woolen cloths, etc. and the need for raw 
 materials; the required naval stores that could be secured only 
 from the Americas if she did not wish to be dependent upon 
 European countries. The increase in the population of England 
 and the need for a region to which she might send her excess 
 
American History. (ij 
 
 population, the large number of people who were out of work, 
 the rapid strides she was making as an industrial, commercial 
 and manufacturing nation. 
 
 55. (a) The London Company (in 1607) sent an expedition 
 of one hundred twenty men to colonize Jamestown. They set- 
 tled on low and damp ground at the mouth of the James River, 
 (b) Complete control of the colony was placed irt the hands 
 of a council appointed by the King, and resident in England. 
 Thus, they did not know the actual conditions under which 
 the colony had to live. The thirteen colonists appointed to the 
 council had little influence, and dissensions quickly arose. The 
 president of the council was inefficient and indifferent. More- 
 over the charter provided for a communal arrangement of the 
 products, the great part being the "royalty" of the King and the 
 Company. The whole scheme was impractical. 
 
 (c) The settlers were not suited for the hard work they were 
 to do ; they were of the lazy and indifferent type, desirous of ac- 
 quiring wealth with but little work, and soon succumbed to the 
 rigors of an unbroken country. 
 
 56. (a) John Smith, one of the colonists, quickly came to the 
 fore as the leader resident in the colony. Under his charge the 
 colonists organized for protection against the Indians ; they were 
 compelled to labor for their food ; they were urged to plant and 
 do the work that was assigned to them on pain of punishment 
 and starvation, (b) Smith had been accidentally injured and was 
 compelled to return to England to receive the necessary medical 
 attention. During his absence in 1609, the colony fell upon bad 
 times. The population fell from 600 to one-tenth that number, 
 and these had decided to return when a ship arrived with pro- 
 visions and more colonists. Lord Delaware was the new gov- 
 ernor. 
 
 57. In 1609, the Company was reorganized, with a Governor 
 resident in the Colony and vested with absolute powers. The 
 settlements in the Colony were to be made within a distance of 
 two hundred miles north and south of Point Comfort, the 
 patent granting to the Company the land from sea to sea from 
 west to northwest. See 57, 58, 59. 
 
 58. The profits of the London Company were to come from the 
 sale of supplies to the colonists, from the purchase of all products 
 
68 American History. 
 
 frorn the colonists, from the sale of these in Europe where high- 
 est prices were to be had for them, from the sale of licenses for 
 others to trade with the colonists, from the duties collected from 
 all ships entering the colony. 
 
 59. The profits of the Company amounted to little. The Com- 
 pany had expended large sums of money, with small returns. 
 The Company, therefore, decided to grant land to the colonists 
 on certain conditions: (1) Each colonist who worked for a 
 certain number of year3 during which time the products of his 
 work were to be given to the Company could, at the end of that 
 time, receive a gift of 100 acres. (2) Each investor in the Com- 
 pany received a strip of land as a bonus for each share of stock, 
 the stock being valued at about $100 each. (3) Colonists who 
 would help to transport servants and others and pay for their 
 transportation would receive a large section of land. 
 
 60. (a) With the importation of women into the colony, orig- 
 inally in payment for tobacco by the colonists, in 1619, the colony 
 took on another phase in its growth and development. The 
 home became an ideal. The colonists decided to make Virginia 
 their home. The price of these women rose many times, (b) 
 In the same year the first cargo of slaves was brought to the 
 colony. The slaves did the hard manual labor of clearing the 
 forests, caring for the tobacco crops, etc. The number of slaves 
 at first was small, (c) The indentured servants were white men 
 sent from England because they were either vagabonds, beggars, 
 or people out of work ; or because they were sent to the colony as 
 punishment for some crime or other offense. They were trans- 
 ported by the Company at the Company's expense, the amounts 
 repaid from their labors during a period of years. Many of them 
 were of good character, others were criminals, who later became 
 prominent and useful citizens, opening up the western regions 
 to colonization and settlement, their estates being established 
 on the outposts of Virginia. Others were the forerunners and 
 ancestors of the "poor white trash," or "poor whites" of slavery 
 days. 
 
 61. (a) The London Company, originally organized with a 
 few members, soon became a favorite investment with a large 
 number of monied people, and increased very quickly, so that 
 by 1618, there were several hundred members and stockholders. 
 
American History. 69 
 
 many of whom had Hberal views and were opposed to the tyran- 
 nical rule of James II. The four general "courts'' or meetings 
 held annually were the occasions of open criticism of the royal 
 policy. In 1618, the Company ordered that the authority of the 
 governor in Virginia should be limited by a council of members 
 selected by the Company and the House of Burgesses, composed 
 of two Burgesses elected by popular vote from each borough, 
 plantation, or settlement, eleven in number at the time. The 
 House of Burgesses first met in 1619. This was the first repre- 
 sentative assembly in the colonies. The fact that the colonists of 
 Virginia had some voice in the management of their colony made 
 for a greater interest in the government of the colony. There was 
 also the natural English born desire of every one, planter, servant, 
 and laborer alike to share in the election, (b) By "representative 
 government" is meant the vesting of governmental functions in a 
 body of representatives chosen by popular vote. 
 
 62. (a) Angered by the criticisms of the liberal members of 
 the Company, and this step of introducing a form of govern- 
 ment that was hateful to him, James ordered suit brought in the 
 English courts for the annulment of the charter. The charter 
 was declared void, and in 1624, Virginia became a royal colony. 
 The governor was appointed by the King, but the House of 
 Burgesses continued as before, (b) The modifications in the gov- 
 ernment of the colony, the establishment of the colony on a firm 
 basis, the increased production of tobacco and other crops requir- 
 ing a large number of laborers soon led to a large immigration to 
 Virginia. The population increased rapidly and the rivers, the nat- 
 ural means of communication in Virginia, were soon bordered by 
 plantations. 
 
 63. (a) In Virginia their effect was particularly marked. The 
 prices of the products, especially tobacco, fell, and serious indus- 
 trial conditions threatened. In addition, the outburst against 
 the tyrannical rule of Governor Berkeley was fanned into white 
 heat, and Bacon's Rebellion followed in 1676. (b) Bacon's 
 Rebellion (1676), was headed by Nathaniel Bacon, a 
 young planter who led a party in opposition to Governor 
 Berkeley when he refused to give sufficient aid to the defence of 
 the borders against the Indians. The arbitrary and tyrannical 
 rule of the governor and his coterie, their control of the House 
 
70 American History. 
 
 of Burgesses, and the practical nullification of the rights of the 
 people, aided Bacon. The death of the leader brought an end 
 to the revolt. However, reforms followed in the government, 
 and the Indians were finally and severely punished. 
 
 64. (a) The Catholics were persecuted in England. They were 
 deprived of many political and civil rights and privileges. In 
 1632, Lord Baltimore obtained a grant of land north of Virginia 
 and extending to the 40th parallel where he could be free to 
 found a colony for his persecuted co-religionists. On his death, 
 his son continued the work, and a settlement was founded in 
 1634, at St. Mary's on Chesapeake Bay. (b) Maryland 
 was a proprietary colony, that is, the ownership of 
 the colony was vested in the family of Lord Baltimore 
 and his descendants. The governor was appointed by and was 
 responsible to him only. All grants of land came from the Lord 
 Proprietor. At first the governors were members of the family, 
 and the colony had an excellent government. In accordance with 
 a provision of the patent, an assembly was called, consisting of 
 the freemen of the colony, which later became more and more 
 representative. 
 
 65. Favored as Virginia was in possessing a fine rich soil and 
 a mild climate, the colony likewise became agricultural, and 
 tobacco formed the most important staple. Large plantations 
 were laid out, and Maryland soon became prosperous. Immi- 
 gration was encouraged by the patent of a plantation of at least 
 one thousand acres to any one who brought or induced twenty 
 able-bodied men to settle there. Indentured servants were en- 
 titled to at least fifty acres on the termination of their period of 
 service. 
 
 66. Originally founded as an asylum for the persecuted Catho- 
 lics, Maryland became the home of these religionists. But it was 
 impossible to shut out members of the other faiths, and Lord 
 Baltimore encouraged Protestant immigration in order to secure 
 a good-sized population. These latter increased in number until 
 they outnumbered the Catholics. 
 
 67. (a) In 1663, Charles II rewarded many of his favorites by 
 granting them the region south of Virginia, now the Carolinas. A 
 few of his friends desired to relieve the distress of the people of 
 the Barbadoes by settling them in the Carolinas; others desired 
 
American History. 71 
 
 io make considerable profit, but the results were failures. (b) 
 North Carolina had been settled before this time by numbers 
 of indentured servants who had become free and by criminals 
 who sought refuge from the strict laws of Virginia. Later 
 many Quakers and Puritans settled here. The settlers were, in the 
 main, thrifty and industrious, and were widely scattered on 
 small farms along the rivers. Having no seaport, their communi- 
 cation was chiefly through Virginia. The development of the 
 colony was slow and sure, (c) In 1670, Charleston, South Caro- 
 lina, was founded, its settlers being from England, and rein- 
 forced by some from the Barbadoes. Many immigrants from 
 other European countries increased the population. 
 
 68. The Carolinas contained a large proportion of Europeans 
 other than English because of the persecutions of the Huguenots 
 during the reign of Louis XIV, and the terrible wars against the 
 German states by that same monarch which drove a large number 
 of the German Protestants to the New World. A large number 
 of Swiss emigrated under the leadership of one of the Swiss 
 noblemen. All these were of the strong and sturdy class that 
 assured the success of the colonies. 
 
 69. The two Carolinas presented contrasts in social and economic 
 life and conditions. South Carolina had its center at Charleston 
 
 .where most of the wealthy planters lived. They had large num- 
 bers of slaves and extensive plantations, and their life was some- 
 what similar to that of Virginia, excepting that, because of the 
 physiography of the colony, plantation life was not so isolated. 
 In North Carolina, the plantations were rather smaller, and the 
 number of slaves considerably smaller. South Carolina had its 
 outlet to the sea, while North Carolina had to seek communica- 
 tion through its northern neighbor. Social conditions in southern 
 Carolina were refined compared to the rough and crude life of 
 the northern settlement. 
 
 70. "The Fundamental Constitution" was the foundation for 
 the government of the Carolinas, drawn up by Lord Shaftes- 
 bury and the philosopher, John Locke. It was undemocratic, 
 aristocratic, arbitrary, and unsuited for its purpose. 
 
 71. Considering the classes and kinds of settlers in the Caro- 
 linas, it is easily seen that there would be opposition to the arbi- 
 trary rule of the proprietors. Continual disputes and struggles 
 
72 American History. 
 
 for representative government, and opposition to the arbitrary- 
 rule of the council appointed by the proprietors mark the history 
 of the colonies. After a time, the settlers secured the right to 
 elect some of the colonial officers, and to have all bills for rais- 
 ing revenues originate in the Assembly. 
 
 12. The physiography of the country, the lack of good sea- 
 ports, the mixed population, the struggles with the proprietors, 
 the succession of bad governors and councils, the Navigation 
 Laws, the difficulties with the Indians and with Virginia, all of 
 these tended to retard the development of the colonies. 
 
 12i. Georgia, the last of the Thirteen Colonies, was settled at 
 Savannah, in 1733, to provide a refuge for the indigent debtors 
 whom the laws of England treated most harshly. Free passage, 
 free land, free tools, were provided for the settlers, and thirty-five 
 families settled at Savannah, The colony grew very rapidly, and 
 other classes of people, among them Germans and Scotch High- 
 landers, increased the population. In 1752, Georgia became a royal 
 colony. It formed a strong bulwark against the Spaniards in 
 Florida. 
 
 74. (a) A group of the Puritans who were persecuted in 
 England because of their views on religious matters, went to 
 Holland to reside, because that country was the only country 
 where various religions were tolerated, (b) After remaining* 
 there for twelve years, and fearing that their children would 
 grow up as Dutch, they returned to their native country. The 
 threatening outbreak in Europe (The Thirty Years War, 1618- 
 1648) between the Catholics and the Protestants was another 
 incentive for their return to England. They secured (from the 
 London Company) a permit to settle in the northern part of 
 Virginia. After a stormy voyage, during which the winds blew 
 them out of their course, they landed at Plymouth, in December, 
 1620. 
 
 75. The London Company did not specify the conditions under 
 which they could settle. Accordingly, in order to avojd any 
 danger of failure because of the absence of rules of government 
 after they landed, the Pilgrims drew up the "Mayflower Com- 
 pact," to which all subscribed, and in which all the signers 
 promised "due obedience and submission" to the laws which 
 should be made by the "civil body politic." It was the first 
 
American History. 73 
 
 "American" constitution drawn up by the people whom it was 
 destined to govern. 
 
 76. The freemen of the colony met in mass meetings and elected 
 their officers and adopted the laws. The freemen were the orig- 
 inal signers of the Compact and those later admitted to the 
 privileges of the colony. The founders of new towns were ad- 
 mitted to citizenship in the towns. Local affairs were con- 
 trolled entirely by the freemen. In 1639, because of the large 
 number of towns and the difficulties of travel to and from Boston, 
 the towns elected "deputies" who represented them in the "general 
 court" or legislative body at Boston. Thus there was local self- 
 government as well as representative government within the 
 colony. 
 
 77. With the rise of the Puritan power in England, the English 
 government decided upon a course of persecution and prosecution 
 of these sects. The number of emigrants to Massachusetts in- 
 creased and there sprang up a very large number of towns. With 
 the culmination of the Puritan power in the rule of Cromwell, the 
 Puritan colonies were considerably favored, and they rapidly 
 forged to the front. 
 
 78. During the reign of James I, the number of disputes with 
 the rapidly rising Parliament were numerous, but not so numer- 
 ous and bitter as during the reign of his son, Charles I. The dis- 
 putes between the Puritan individualistic, democratic Parliament 
 and the monopolistic aristocratic government can be attributed to 
 the demand of the ParHament for a government in accordance 
 with English rights on questions of taxation and other matters 
 vital to the political creed of the Puritans. It was soon in power, 
 and the Puritans became politically powerful. During the rule of 
 the Stuarts the Puritans were persecuted, but the "Separatists" 
 received the brunt of the ill-will of Archbishop Laud. These be- 
 came unbearable and led to the emigration of the Separatists to 
 the New England Colonies. 
 
 79. The Puritans opposed the King both in religious and 
 political matters. Parliament was their bulwark of inherited 
 and acquired liberties. Considering these conditions in Eng- 
 land as burdensome, a number of Puritans applied for and re- 
 ceived a charter from the King granting them permission to 
 settle on a strip of land between the Charles and Merrimac 
 
7A American History. 
 
 Rivers and three miles beyond each. This was the Massachusetts 
 Bay Company. During that and the following year about one 
 thousand Puritans removed their goods and chattels to New 
 England. John Winthrop became the Governor. The charter 
 was also taken to New England because it contained no pro- 
 vision as to the place of meeting, etc. 
 
 The growth of the colony was rapid. In 1630 Boston was 
 founded. Within a short time there were founded several other 
 towns: Cambridge (Newtown), Charlestown, Dorchester, Rox- 
 bury, and Watertown, due to conditions in England, and to 
 the inducements held out to them by the Massachusetts Bay 
 Company, which was merged with the colony of Plymouth. 
 
 80. The government consisted of a governor, deputy-governor, 
 and eighteen assistants or councillors, elected by the Puritan 
 freemen. The meetings of the General Court were to be held 
 four times a year. Within a short time, the far distant towns 
 each sent two deputies to Boston to represent them at the meet- 
 ings of the General Court. The deputies sat with the assistants 
 at first, but later became a separate body, and finally consti- 
 tuted the lower house of the legislature. See Answer 76. 
 
 The English town, or parish, formed the model of their 
 local governments. The town government was a pure democ- 
 racy. Meetings were held, which were attended by all the free- 
 men. These voted for the selectmen and other town officials 
 who were subject to definite restrictions in the conduct of their 
 offices. Important questions were decided only at the town 
 meetings. The government was entirely under the control of 
 the citizens. 
 
 81. The final outcome of the dispute was the letting down of 
 the bars of religious intolerance in the New England Colonies. 
 The spread of the people, Puritans and others, led to the forma- 
 tion of a very large number of settlements. 
 
 82. Roger Williams was a learned Minister in Salem. He was 
 the first practically to state the modern doctrine of the separa- 
 tion of the State from the Church in America, and for this he was 
 threatened with banishment. He escaped to some friendly In- 
 dians, and with a few adherents, founded Providence in Rhode 
 Island. 
 
 Mrs. Anne Hutchinson differed from the Puritans on the mat- 
 
American History. 75 
 
 ter of certain doctrines of theology. Her followers founded 
 Newport and Portsmouth in Rhode Island. 
 
 83. In 1636, a number of colonists from the settlements of the 
 Massachusetts Bay Colony moved to the fertile Connecticut 
 Valley and made settlements at Hartford, Windsor, and Weather- 
 field. This movement was sanctioned by the officials of the for- 
 mer colony. At the end of the year, under the instructions given, 
 the towns sent deputies who met in the General Court. This 
 was the beginning of independent government in the colony of 
 Connecticut. 
 
 84. The "Fundamental Orders," adopted in ,1639, was a 
 covenant similar to the Mayflower Compact, providing a series 
 of laws for the government of the Colony of Connecticut. This 
 is supposed to be the first written constitution in the United 
 States. It is remarkable in that it recognized the people them- 
 selves as the ultimate and supreme authority. There was no 
 religious qualification for citizenship, and the officials of the 
 colony and the towns were elected by the citizens. The laws of 
 the colony were made by the representative assembly. 
 
 85. In 1638, the colony of New Haven was founded on the 
 Long Island Sound by a body of Puritans from England. These 
 were Puritans of the severest type, and only church members 
 could vote or be admitted to office. Like the other colonies and 
 settlements local and general government was provided, similar 
 to that in the others. This colony was later absorbed by the 
 other Connecticut colony. 
 
 86. The settlements first made in Maine and New Hampshire 
 were by traders who carried to England the furs, fishes, oils, 
 lumber, etc., found in abundance in those colonies. 
 
 87. (a) The Dutch seamen of the 16th century had a rich 
 traffic with Portugal and her colonies in the East. Holland be- 
 came the leading maritime nation in the world and was "the 
 Mistress of the Seas" until defeated by the English in 1663. 
 The Dutch navigators followed every known route to the East 
 Indies and China. They were also bent on finding "the Northwest 
 Passage." It was while in search of this route in 1609, that 
 Henry Hudson, an Englishman saiHng under the flag of the 
 Dutch East India Company, turned westward across the Atlantic. 
 He reached Delaware Bay and then New York Bay which he 
 
^6 American History. 
 
 entered, and sailed up the river which was named after him. He 
 spent several weeks here, exploring the territory, and trading with 
 the Indians, (b) The reports brought back by Hudson, together 
 with his traffic with the Indians, were so encouraging that a few 
 years later, in 1613-1614, trading posts were established at New 
 Amsterdam and Fort Orange, the present sites of New York and 
 Albany, respectively. Dutch activity in the New World did not 
 begin, however, until 1621, after the twelve-year truce between 
 Holland and Spain. In that year the Dutch West India Com- 
 pany was incorporated, the objects being to trade with the Indians 
 and to attack the possessions of Spain in the New World. 
 This Company was given a monopoly of Dutch trade on the 
 coasts of Africa and America and was to colonize unsettled terri- 
 tory. Colonists were sent out by the Company and trading posts 
 established. 
 
 88. Forts, really trading posts, were established at points on 
 the Delaware, opposite Philadelphia (Fort Nassau), Fort Orange, 
 
 (now the site of Albany) and at other points besides New Amster- 
 dam (New York City). 
 
 89. (a) Industrial, religious and political conditions in Hol- 
 land were so satisfactory to the stolid, thrifty Dutch that they 
 were loath to leave their native land for the New World with 
 its uncertainties and hard work. Consequently the growth of 
 New Netherlands was very slow, (b) In order to encourage 
 the migration of a large number of the Dutch to New 
 Netherlands, the Company made the following offer to the 
 "patroons." Individuals who would undertake to bring 
 fifty adult settlers were granted parcels of land extending 
 eight miles on either bank of the Hudson, or sixteen miles on 
 one bank, the land extending indefinitely into the country. The 
 patroons were to be given local authority over their settlers, but, 
 in matters of war and commerce, they were subject to the rules 
 and regulations of the Company. Of course, there were certain 
 rights granted to the settlers, but they were of slight importance 
 in comparison with the powers of the patroons. Very few 
 patroonships were granted, and many of these were later bought 
 up by the Company. 
 
 90. The relations between the Iroquois and the Dutch were 
 most friendly, the latter seeking the exchange of blankets, 
 
American History. 77 
 
 utensils, guns, and rum for pelts. But the Algonqulns along the 
 Hudson River were unfriendly and terrible Indian wars were of 
 frequent occurrence. 
 
 91. Since the main object of the Company was to secure the 
 rich trade in the colony, the government established was fit only for 
 a trading post. The government was a bad one. The autocratic 
 rule of the Governor-General, whose sole interests were the inter- 
 ests of the Company, and his Council of Five, with all their 
 powers of legislation and execution, made the people extremely 
 dissatisfied, particularly the English who settled in the colony. 
 The Dutch, too, considering their liberal government in Holland, 
 and the English governments in the colonies, made several at- 
 tempts to secure a more representative assembly. But the attempts 
 were, in the main, failures. It was not until the English occu- 
 pancy of the colony, under Governor Nichols, that true representa- 
 tive government was established in the colony. 
 
 In 1638 the monopoly of the Dutch West India Company 
 was taken away, and the extremely profitable trade in furs and 
 rich lands was now open to all settlers. This led to the immi- 
 gration of large numbers from Europe and from the neighboring 
 settlements. 
 
 92. The Swedes had settled at Fort Christiana, on the Dela- 
 ware, in Dutch Territory. During the Thirty Years War, while 
 the Dutch and the Swedes were allied in the struggle, the Swedish 
 settlement flourished. At the close of the war, however. Gov- 
 ernor Stuyvesant sent a military expedition that brought the posts 
 under the Dutch domination, and New Sweden became a part of 
 New Netherlands. 
 
 93. (a) The relations between Holland and England on the 
 continent and in America were very friendly. They had both 
 fought against Spain; they were bound together by common ties 
 of kinship, religion, and political interests. But, beginning with 
 the middle of the 17th century, commercial rivalry between the 
 two nations became very strong, and in 1651, the English Navi- 
 gation Act, aimed directly at the Dutch, was passed. This was 
 followed by war between the two countries, (b) New Nether- 
 lands was the first territory to be seized by the English. An ex- 
 pedition, consisting of three vessels, carrying troops, was sent to 
 New Netherlands, where it appeared in August, 1664, and cap- 
 
78 American History. 
 
 tured New Amsterdam, (c) The names of the colony and the 
 chief settlements were changed, the government was changed, but 
 the customs and manners of the people did not change except with 
 the slow change of time. The possessions of the inhabitants were 
 retained by them, but they were compelled to swear fealty to their 
 new masters. Its result was highly beneficial to the inhabitants ; a 
 more representative form of government was introduced a few 
 years later. The rich trade of the colony was now in the hands 
 of the English, and the Atlantic coast no longer was broken by 
 a colony of a rival nation. 
 
 94. Peter Minuit, 1626-1631 ; Wouter Van Twiller, 1634-1641 ; 
 Wilhelmus Kieft, the worst of the four governors;cJ 641-1645; and 
 the last and best, Peter Stuyvesant, 1645-1664, 
 
 95. Soon after the conquest of New Netherlands, the Duke of 
 York granted a large portion of the territory to his two favorites, 
 Berkeley and Carteret. Their grant, between the Hudson and the 
 Delaware Rivers contained a mixed population, and became the 
 colony of New Jersey. The colony itself had few important 
 events, but there were many disputes over the rights of the pro- 
 prietors and the inhabitants, and with the colony of New York 
 over the questions of boundary and commerce. In 1702 it became 
 a crown colony. 
 
 96. The Quakers may be regarded as Puritans of an ex- 
 treme type. They repudiated all outward ceremonies, affected 
 a certain form of dress, believed that spiritual guidance came to 
 each according to his own beliefs, urged religious toleration, 
 and democracy in politics, and favored the abolition of all social 
 ranks and distinctions. 
 
 97. William Penn, a friend of the monarch, was the son of 
 an English Admiral to whom the King was greatly indebted, both 
 for money and for services rendered. Penn was also intimate 
 with the King's brother, the Duke of York. During the reign 
 of Charles II, the Quakers, like all Dissenters, were severely per- 
 secuted. Penn was a Quaker, and, having had his fortune re- 
 duced through financial reverses, and desiring to do something 
 for his unfortunate co-religionists, applied to the sovereign for a 
 grant of land in payment of the debt due him. This grant the 
 King willingly gave him. In 1681, the first settlement was made 
 on the Delaware, and a year later, the city of Philadelphia 
 
American History. 79 
 
 was laid out upon a more healthful site and one better adapted to 
 commercial purposes. 
 
 98. "The Frame of Government" was the fundamental char- 
 ter or constitution given by Penn directly to the inhabitants of 
 the colony. He did not seek to enlarge his powers; he rather 
 favored popular rights; the people were to be the rulers. The 
 legislature, consisting of the Assembly and the Council, was 
 elective, and became the real rulers in the colony. The powers 
 were divided among the Governor and the two legislative 
 houses, though in a few years, the lower and more popular As- 
 sembly secured the right to initiate all legislation, and the 
 Council then ' ecame appointive with merely supervisory powers 
 and duties. 
 
 99. Religious toleration in Pennsylvania followed as a result 
 of the strong Quaker beliefs. See answer 96. 
 
 100. (a) One-half of the colony was English, the other half 
 was composed of Swedes, Finns, Dutch, Welsh, Germans, who 
 settled there, because of the liberal conditions in the colony, 
 (b) Penn's dealings with the Indians were such as to secure to 
 the settlers their undying friendship. He insured his ownership 
 of the land by purchase from the Indians, and due justice was 
 rendered them by the peaceful and peace-loving Quakers. Then 
 too, the troublesome Delaware Indians had been severely pun- 
 ished by the Iroquois, the friends of the English. 
 
 101. Agriculture was the chief industry; grain and cattle were 
 exported, and commerce was carried on with the mother country. 
 Pennsylvania became one of the very few manufacturing col- 
 onies. 
 
 102. See answers 96-100. 
 
 103. The control of England over the colonies was placed in the 
 hands of committees, boards, and councils. The Lords of Trade 
 exercised authority during the years 1675 and 1688, collecting 
 information as to trade, disseminating this information in Eng- 
 land, advising the government, securing the enforcement of the 
 Navigation Laws, and trying to secure co-operation between the 
 home and the colonial governments. Revenue officers were sta- 
 tioned among the colonies, but the enforcement of the home law3 
 was indifferent, 
 
 104. The three classes of colonial governments were: Royal, 
 
so American History. 
 
 Proprietary and Charter, based mainly upon the mode of selection 
 of Governor. 
 
 In the Royal and the Proprietary colonies, the governor was 
 aided and advised by a council, the members of which, and the 
 governor himself, were usually appointed by the Crown or the 
 Proprietor. The duties and powers of the governor were set forth 
 in his commission or designated in the grant in the case of the 
 royal proprietary colonies. In the Charter colonies the governor 
 was elected by the people. 
 
 The Royal colonies were : Virginia, New Hampshire, New York, 
 New Jersey, North and South Carolina, and Georgia. 
 
 The Proprietary colonies were : Pennsylvania, IMaryland, and 
 Delaware. 
 
 The Charter colonies were Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode 
 Island. 
 
 105. Following the neglect of English commerce during the 
 reign of the first two Stuarts, James I and Charles I, the gov- 
 ernment adopted a more definite policy of control. The domi- 
 nance of the Dutch who had been carrying nearly three-fourths of 
 English commerce in Dutch bottoms, was threatened by the pas- 
 sage of the Navigation Laws, in 1651, which required that all 
 goods brought to England from the other continents should be 
 brought in English ships. This was loosely enforced, so that it 
 was strengthened in 1660, by the addition of further restrictions, 
 among which was that certain colonial products — sugar, tobacco, 
 dye-woods, indigo — could be shipped to England only, or other 
 English colonies. In 1663, another law provided that goods 
 imported in the colonies could come only from English ports. In 
 1672, a law was passed which required that goods from one colony 
 to another could go only by way of England, or pay a very high 
 duty. 
 
 It is evident that only the English were to benefit by the 
 enforcement of these laws. Thus, the interests of the English 
 shipbuilders were looked after; only the English were to be the 
 buyers of colonial products, and they could, therefore, fix the 
 market price; only English merchants were to be the exporters 
 to the colonies, and they could, therefore, fix the selling price ; the 
 
American History. 81 
 
 Dutch and other nations were to be eliminated from among the 
 traders with the colonies ; the English government was to profit 
 from the licenses and duties, imposed upon vessels and other 
 cargoes, port duties, etc. 
 
 106. The charter of Massachusetts was annulled by order of an 
 English court in 1684, on the ground that the Quakers were per- 
 secuted, that it denied the validity of the acts of the English Par- 
 liament, which were not passed by the colonial legislatures, that 
 the Navigations Laws were not enforced. The charters of the 
 other New England colonies were demanded, but were refused. 
 Plans were made for the union of all the New England colonies, 
 and for the destruction of the proprietary rights in the colonies 
 of Delaware, Maryland, and the Carolinas. 
 
 107. That the home government might have a more direct 
 control over the colonies and thereby secure a stricter enforce- 
 ment of the Navigation Laws ; that the union of the colonies 
 would insure their united defence against the French and the In- 
 dians ; that the ties between the mother country and the colonies 
 would be made stronger and the interests of the latter better con- 
 served. 
 
 108. Edmund Andros, a favorite of James II, was appointed 
 Governor-General of New England. He sought to carry out the 
 new policy of English control by dissolving the governments of 
 Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, and extending his 
 control over New York and New Jersey. On the revolt against 
 his royal master he was imprisoned. 
 
 109. Massachusetts received a new royal charter from William 
 and Mary, which was a compromise between the proposed plan 
 of royal control and the former liberal self-government. Rhode 
 Island and Connecticut resumed their governments under their 
 charters. In New York, representative government was estab- 
 lished. Maryland became a royal province, to be made a pro- 
 prietary colony again in 1715, under the proprietorship of a Prot- 
 estant heir. 
 
 110. To secure the rich trade of the Americas in furs, tobaccos, 
 and other products which they needed; to escape the religious 
 troubles current during the 17th century; the desire to better 
 
82 American History. 
 
 their financial and social positions, and to seek refuge from the 
 hard times in England and in Europe. 
 
 111. There were boundless areas with but a comparatively small 
 number of settlers, and land was to be had either free of 
 charge or at but little cost. In the New England colonies land 
 was given free to all individuals and to groups of settlers. In the 
 proprietary colonies, the land was sold at a small cost, land was 
 also given free to those who brought settlers to the colonies, 
 and in other ways land was often given for a nominal sum or 
 annual rental, the title, of course, to vest in the settler. Since 
 land could be acquired so easily, it became a very simple thing 
 to acquire large estates. Moreover, a number of settlers did not 
 have sufficient funds to pay for their passage, and the people who 
 did pay their passage money thus secured "head-rights" upon the 
 labor of the men so aided. 
 
 112. The physiography of New England very early, as in the 
 case of Virginia and other colonies, fixed its occupations and in- 
 dustries, and these determined the social and economic conditions. 
 The soil was ill-fitted for extensive agriculture; there were hills 
 and forests, numerous rivers, and a rugged coast with numer- 
 ous indentations and some excellent harbors. There were a few 
 fertile valleys. The sea abounded in fish, and the lumber in the 
 forests provided the lumber for the boats and vessels. 
 
 The condition of the soil prevented extensive farms. Moreover, 
 the stretch of land between the mountains and the French ter- 
 ritory and the sea was narrow, and the large population had to 
 live compactly. The Puritans also settled in church communities 
 and groups, and attendance was rather compulsory. There re- 
 sulted a compactness of settlement not found in the other colonies. 
 
 113. Owing to the fertile valleys, agriculture was carried on, 
 and grains and vegetables were raised. The forests supplied the 
 lumber required for the building of vessels for commerce and 
 fishing. The abundance of fish and the nearness to the Grand 
 Banks made fishing an important industry. The short streams and 
 the plentiful supply of water power gave rise to numerous mills 
 and factories. The cloths and clothing were generally made on 
 the farms. In the factories in the towns brick, pottery, glass, and 
 shoes were manufactured. The forests were the homes of fur- 
 
American History. SS 
 
 bearing animals and the inhabitants made trapping and hunting 
 an important industry. 
 
 114. The predominant feature of New England life was the 
 spirit of democracy in political, social, and economic life. Al- 
 though there were class distinctions, the lines were not so strong 
 that one could not mount higher socially. The old famiUes, the 
 official class, the wealthy were naturally looked up to. The ten- 
 dency was toward industrial and social equality. 
 
 115. While the Puritans were dominant in politics and in re- 
 ligion, yet there was a broad spirit of tolerance abroad. The first 
 Anglican Church was founded in 1686, and in Rhode Island were 
 found Baptists, Quakers, Jews, Catholics and other religious sects. 
 From there they gradually spread to the other New England 
 colonies. Attendance at church was regarded as a necessary 
 thing, and the laws prescribed a very strict observance of the 
 Sabbath. The usual so-called "blue Sunday'' and the rigors of 
 the Puritan observance, with its exclusion of the recreations and 
 pleasures of life, were dominant features of the religious Ufe. 
 
 116. Considering the fact that many of the first Puritans were 
 of the educated type, it is only natural that education was made 
 a very prominent feature in the building up of the colonies. Every 
 community had its church and its schoolhouse. The mass of the 
 people were given a rudimentary education, and higher education 
 could be had in preparation for the ministry. Harvard College 
 was founded in 1636, and shortly after there were founded other 
 schools of advanced standing. 
 
 117. The local town government was the means by which the 
 people expressed their views and opinions on political questions. 
 Officers were elected at frequent intervals, and were held respon- 
 sible to the people. The assemblies were strong champions of 
 the rights of the masses, and conserved the popular political 
 rights and privileges. By means of their control of the treasury 
 and appropriations, they often defeated the purposes of the ar- 
 bitrary governors sent over from England. 
 
 118. The soil of the Southern colonies was rich and very 
 fertile ; there were broad expanses of land between the forests 
 and mountains and the seashore; the numerous rivers were 
 deep enough for ocean-going vessels. 
 
 Social life in the Southern colonies was in marked contrast to 
 
84 American History. 
 
 that of the New England colonies. The tendency here was to- 
 ward aristocracy, and the large, extensive plantations with the 
 abundance of cheap help fostered this social tendency. More- 
 over, the difficulty of communication, the spread of the planta- 
 tions and farms, and the absence of any large cities all tended 
 to foster this spirit. The difficulty of the small farms competing 
 with the large plantations, led to the westward movement of the 
 free whites, and only the wealthy and the poor whites and 
 negroes remained in the eastern part of these colonies. The 
 farm and plantation was a complete community in itself, with 
 the planter as lord and master. 
 
 119. The Southern colonies very easily became agricultural 
 colonies, and tobacco and corn became the staples after attempts 
 had been made at the raising of other vegetable products, as in- 
 digo, cotton, etc. The large plantation was a very common thing 
 because of the width of the farm belt and the cheapness of 
 the land. There were few towns or cities because of the large 
 plantations, and the plantations had docks at which the incom- 
 ing ships could unload their cargoes and take on fresh cargoes 
 for Europe. Negro labor and cheap white labor were to be had 
 in abundance. See answers, 60, 67, 69, 118. 
 
 120. In view of the above, the political conditions were some- 
 what different from those in the other colonies. The parish, like 
 the town, was the home of local self-government, but the planter 
 dominated the parish, and the vestrymen had charge of the 
 church affairs and the relief of the poor. The county was the 
 important unit, because of the sparseness of population. The 
 board of justices, known as the County Court, levied taxes, and 
 exercised all legislative, judicial and executive functions. The 
 sheriff was the most important county officer, having in charge 
 the collection of taxes and the expenditure of public funds. The 
 members of the County Court were appointed by the Governor 
 usually from among the planters, and the vestrymen filled va- 
 cancies occurring in that body. 
 
 121. The nature of the country, the sparseness of the popula- 
 tion, made attendance at church on Sundays somewhat of a 
 hardship, and rendered almost impossible the erection of schools. 
 The children of the better classes were taught at home, and were 
 then sent to England for the completion of their education. 
 
American History. 85 
 
 122. Conditions in the Middle colonies were a composite of 
 those in the New England and Southern colonies. The people 
 were of varied nationalities. While agriculture was the domi- 
 nant industry, the presence of many large cities as New York 
 and Philadelphia, made it also a commercial and industrial sec- 
 tion. Intercolonial and foreign trade stood next in importance 
 to agriculture. Commerce was carried on with the Bahamas, 
 with the West Indies, and with the New England Colonies, as 
 well as with England. The Hudson River formed an important 
 means of communication. New York carried on an extensive 
 trade in furs with the Indians. 
 
 123. In the main the tendency in social life was toward the 
 equality of all classes and stations of life. The large manors on 
 the Hudson River could not overcome the equalizing tendency 
 of industry and commerce. There were numerous religious sects : 
 Dutch Reformed, Lutherans, Congregationalists, Jews, Quakers, 
 and Catholics, alike lived in communities at peace with one an- 
 other. Religious toleration was a strong feature. Education was 
 at an ebb in New York, but Pennsylvania had several good pri- 
 vate schools. 
 
 124. As in social and religious life, the governments in the 
 Middle Colonies showed the compromising spirit. The demo- 
 cratic town system of the New England Colonies, and the aristo- 
 cratic county system of the South, the strength of the local self- 
 government with the authority of the representative assembly 
 were equally divided in these colonies. 
 
 125. European wars, internal disturbances in France, the civil 
 wars between the French Catholics and the Huguenots. 
 
 126. After the accession of Henry IV to the throne of France 
 and the issue of the Edict of Nantes by which the Huguenots 
 were given, with but few exceptions, equal privileges with the 
 'French Catholics, came a revival of interest in America, par- 
 ticularly as the French had heard favorable reports from the 
 Spanish and the English. The French had traded with the 
 Indians, and had gone to the fishing banks off Newfoundland. 
 The revocation of the Edict of Nantes with its consequent per- 
 secution of the Huguenots made the latter desire a safe refuge, 
 which they found in the New World. 
 
 127. Champlain had been a soldier in the armies of Henry IV, 
 
86 American History. 
 
 and found an outlet for his energies in the adventurous Hfe in 
 America. He was the geographer of the expedition of De Monts 
 in 1604, led several expeditions exploring along the New England 
 Coast, explored the St. Lawrence Valley, and took careful notes 
 of the geographical features. In 1608 he founded Quebec, and in 
 the following year he accompanied an Algonquin expedition to 
 the shores of Lake Champlain. In 1615, he ascended the Ottawa 
 River, entered Lake Huron, and explored central New York on 
 his return. 
 
 128. De Monts was a French courtier to whom had been 
 granted, in 1604, the monopoly of the fur trade between the 
 parallels of 40 and 46 degrees. He founded Port Royal (An- 
 napolis) on the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia. 
 
 129. (a) The French relations with the Algonquin Indians 
 were most intimate. The latter aided the French traders and 
 trappers, in return for which the French assisted them in their 
 attacks on the Iroquois tribe, thereby gaining the undying hatred 
 of the latter. Many of the French intermarried with the Indians, 
 and adopted Indian manners and customs. The Indians became 
 susceptible to conversion to Christianity as a result of the ac- 
 tivities of the French missionaries, (b) The relation between the 
 French and the Iroquois, on the other hand, was one of con- 
 tinual struggle. For a period of almost three quarters of a cen- 
 tury after the attacks of the Algonquins and Champlain and his 
 followers, the Iroquois, admirably situated as they were in the 
 central part of New York, attacked the St. Lawrence settle- 
 ments, and thereby retarded the southern spread of French power. 
 When the French and Indian War broke out, the Iroquois aided 
 the EngHsh to destroy French power in America. 
 
 130. The desire of the French to secure the rich rewards of the 
 fur trade, led to the neglect of their settlements and colonies, 
 rendering them an easy prey to the warHke Iroquois and later to 
 the English forces. The trade attracted the young men because 
 of the free, adventurous life of the courier de bois. 
 
 131. Frontenac was the Governor-General of New France, who 
 extended French sway along the great waterways of the St. 
 Lawrence and the Mississippi, and even temporarily among the 
 Iroquois tribes. 
 
 132. In 1673, Joliet, with Father Marquette, went to explore the 
 
American History. 87 
 
 Mississippi. They sailed on Green Bay, the Great Lakes, the Fox 
 River, the lower Wisconsin, and down the Mississippi, as far 
 south as the Arkansas River, from which point they returned. 
 
 133. In 1679, La Salle, a friend of Frontenac, desiring to se- 
 cure the valuable trade in buffalo skins and heavy peltries, and 
 at the same time, to make sure of the mouth of the Mississippi 
 River, which, unlike the St. Lawrence, did not freeze over during 
 the winter months, sailed on the waters between the Great Lakes 
 and the Mississippi River, explored the country and established 
 trading posts, and in 1682 made a successful descent of the Mis- 
 sissippi to its mouth, and took possession of the land on both 
 banks in the name of Louis, sovereign of France. The territory 
 was named Louisiana. 
 
 134. The relations of the French and the English in Europe and 
 in America were unfriendly. The rivalry between the two most 
 powerful nations in Europe soon spread and made itself felt in 
 America. The disputes between the French and the English fish- 
 ermen who invaded the fishing regions claimed by the French, 
 the question of the boundary of Acadia, and the question of the 
 ownership of the Mississippi Valley, the fur trade, and the aid 
 given to the Iroquois Indians in their attacks on the French, 
 tended to keep alive the bad feeling between the two nations. 
 
 135. The four Intercolonial Wars were: King William's, 
 or the War of the Palatinate, 1689-1697; Queen Anne's War, or 
 the War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1713; King George's 
 War, or the War of the Austrian Succession, 1744-1748; and the 
 French and Indian War, or the Seven Years War, 1756-1763. 
 
 136. King William's War (1689-1697) followed as a result of 
 the aid given to the exiled King James II. to regain the English 
 throne. The important events in King William's War were: 
 the destruction of Lachine and Schenectady, the failure of the 
 attacks upon Quebec and Montreal, and the holding of an inter- 
 colonial congress at New York in 1690. The Treaty of Ryswick, 
 in 1697, terminated the war with no advantages held by one side 
 or the other. 
 
 137. Queen Anne's War was caused by the attempt of Louis 
 XIV to unite the thrones of France and Spain, and is therefore, 
 known as the War of the Spanish Succession. The leading 
 events were: the attacks upon the outlying towns in New Eng- 
 
88 American History. 
 
 land, the capture of Port Royal, Acadia, by the New England 
 troops, the retention of Acadia, called Nova Scotia ; the obtaining 
 of Newfoundland, and the surrender of the French claims to the 
 borders of Hudson Bay. The Treaty of Utrecht, 1713, brought 
 the war to a close with territorial gains in the hands of the Eng- 
 lish, and marks the beginning of the downfall of French power in 
 America. 
 
 138. The third war arose in Europe regarding the succession 
 to the Austrian throne, and spread to America. The important 
 event was the attack and capture of the fortress of Louisburg, on 
 Cape Breton Isle, which was returned at the end of the war. 
 
 139. The causes of the numerous wars between England and 
 France, ending finally with the destruction of the power of Na- 
 poleon, are numerous. Among them are : the differences in tem- 
 perament of the peoples, the differences in religion, the question 
 of European politics, England's envy of the increasing power of 
 the French, culminating during the reign of Louis XIV, the ques- 
 tion of the control of the sea, and the matter of the protection 
 of the colonies in the New World. The motives for French 
 colonization were the aggrandizement of France, the extension of 
 French territory, the valuable fur trade of the West and North- 
 west, the refuge of the still persecuted French Huguenots. The 
 motives for English colonization can be found in answer 110. 
 
 140. (a) The people of New France differed considerably from 
 the English colonists. The population of the New England col- 
 onies alone was more than 300,000, while the rest of the colonies 
 held more than three-quarters of a million. Compared to this, 
 the French had a population of about eighty thousand. The 
 French lacked the true colonizing spirit, while the English were,, 
 and always have been, the best colonizers in the world. The prin- 
 cipal aim of the English was to build homes in the New World, 
 while the French were dominated by the spirit of adventure, the 
 missionary spirit, and the spirit of financial gain, (b) For the 
 industries in the English colonies see answers 112, 113, 118, 119, 
 122. The leading industry of New France was the fur trade. The 
 agricultural industry was not independent ; the farm was cul- 
 tivated by a tenant, who was restricted in his dealings by his 
 master, or seigneur. Compare with the earlier days in Virginia. 
 
 141. (a) The advantages of the French in their highly cen- 
 
American History. ft^ 
 
 tralized government at Quebec, with the strong military forces 
 under one command, supported by large numbers of Algonquins, 
 were offset by the fact that the English colonies were compact, 
 that they had longer staying qualities, that they had the support 
 of the fierce Iroquois, and had greater resources in actual people, 
 naval power, and wealth,- and the firm support of the mother 
 country. The centralized French government, with the large forces 
 of soldiers to enforce the ruthority of the French King and his 
 Governors, the wandering spirit of the French, the monopolistic 
 tendencies of everything connected with the government, certainly 
 did not foster a democratic tendency among the settlers. Moreover 
 the restrictions placed upon the French Huguenots drove large 
 numbers of these to settle in the English colonies. For the spirit 
 of English governments see answers 104, HO, \17, 120, 123. 
 (b) The government of New France was conducted from Paris 
 through Quebec ; it was a long distance government, unacquainted 
 with the real needs of the colonies in America. 
 
 142. The causes of the three Intercolonial Wars arose in con- 
 nection with European politics, while the causes of the French 
 and Indian War had their origin in America. The four wars 
 were merely those in a chain of wars between France and Eng- 
 land which was closed in 1815, on the termination of the Napo- 
 leonic Wars. 
 
 143. The territory between the Appalachian Highlands and the 
 Mississippi was claimed by the French because of the explorations 
 of the French, the courier de bois, missionaries, and traders, while 
 the English were developing their colonies. The principal move- 
 ment of the English was southward instead of westward. 
 
 144. The fact that the Appalachian Highlands run north and 
 south and not east and west is one of the most valuable of nat- 
 ural reasons for the strong development of the spirit of unity 
 among the English colonies. There were but few passes in the 
 Highlands and these were well guarded by the savage and un- 
 friendly Indians. The colonies, therefore, had to develop in the 
 rather narrow strip between the mountains and the sea until they 
 felt strong enough to pierce the mountain barriers on the west. 
 If the mountains had run the other way, east and west, the 
 colonies and settlements would have spread out and there would 
 
^ American History. 
 
 have been magnificent distances between them, just as among the 
 settlements of the French in the territory west of the Highlands* 
 This accounts for the fact that there had grown up a large num- 
 ber of important cities in English territory, while there were very 
 few in New France and Canada.. 
 
 145. It was only natural that the English colonies should con- 
 tinue to Krow stronger as time went on. Strongly intrenched 
 between the Appalachian Highlands on the west, beyond which 
 they had slowly, but surely driven the Indians, and the Atlantic 
 Ocean, united by the same underlying spirit of all Englishmen, 
 dominated by the same high ideals of the Anglo-Saxons, the col- 
 onists, especially the second and the third generations, came to 
 look upon the American colonies as their home. The colonies 
 were knitted together by the same ties and ideals, by their posi- 
 tion, and were not loosely strung out as were the French col- 
 onies. 
 
 146. The Ohio Company, composed of prominent Virginians, 
 was organized in 1748. It had obtained a grant of land west of 
 the mountains for the purpose of colonization and the trade in 
 furs and pelts. Their aims were opposed by the French who had 
 laid claim to all the territory west of the mountains. The most 
 vital point of contact was the upper Ohio Valley, and here the 
 French had built a chain of forts. This action led Governor Din- 
 widdle of Virginia to send Washington to the Fr'inch Governor 
 with a note of warning that the French were encroaching on Eng- 
 lish territory. The note was disregarded and the French built 
 Fort DuQuesne at the junction of the Allegheny and Mononga- 
 hela Rivers. In the following year (July, 1754), a small force un- 
 der Washington was defeated at Fort Necessity, and the Eng- 
 lish had to retire to Virginia. 
 
 147. In the same year, 1754, the New England Colonies, New 
 York, Pennsylvania and Maryland, sent delegates to a Congress 
 at Albany, for the purpose of drawing up plans for an offensive 
 and defensive union. The treaty with the Iroquois was renewed, 
 and a Plan of Union was drawn up which provided for the fol- 
 lowing: A President-General was to be appointed by the King 
 of England, a Council consisting of representatives from all the 
 Colonies was to be formed for legislative purposes. The plan 
 failed because of the objection to the appointment of the execu- 
 
American History. 91 
 
 tive by the Crown of England, and the English vetoed the selec- 
 tion of the Council by the local assemblies. 
 
 14S. The direct and immediate cause of the War was the ques- 
 tion of the territory west of the Allegheny Mountains, claimed 
 by Virginia and under the domination of the French. But the 
 real, underlying causes of the French and Indian War, as well as 
 of the preceding wars, are found in the answer to 139. 
 
 149. The four points of attack by the English upon the hold 
 of the French upon the territory west of the mountains were: 
 Fort DuQuesne, because, situated at the junction of the Al- 
 legheny, the Monongahela and Ohio Rivers, it controlled the 
 Ohio Valley and the gateway to Pennsylvania and the other col- 
 onies from the West; Fort Niagara, because it controlled the 
 Great Lake region; Lakes George and Champlain, because they 
 controlled the entrance into Canada; and Louisburg and Quebec, 
 because they controlled the Gulf and River of St. Lawrence, were 
 the key to Canada, and menaced the New England Coast. 
 
 150. The first two years of the war, the years 1756-1757, were 
 years of defeat for the English. With the accession of William 
 Pitt to the position of Prime Minister, the war was waged with 
 redoubled vigor, and soon the objective points of the English 
 plans, one after the other, fell into the hands of the English. 
 With the capture of Quebec, the last of the French strongholds 
 in America, the French power in America was utterly destroyed, 
 and France lost all her extensive possessions in America. 
 
 151. The Treaty of Paris, signed 1763, provided : England 
 returned to France some of her West Indian possessions which 
 had been captured ; the French territory east of the Mississippi 
 was ceded to England; the territory west of the Mississippi was 
 ceded to Spain for her aid to France ; and England received 
 Florida in exchange for the Philippines and for Cuba, which had 
 been captured from Spain by the English. 
 
 152. The results of the war upon France were disastrous, 
 since she lost all her territorial possessions in North America. 
 Upon the English colonists, they were of untold importance. 
 The colonists had learned the valuable lesson of strength in 
 union ; they had learned the lesson of self-dependence ; they had 
 learned that they were the equals of the splendidly trained 
 troops of the European nations ; it gave them a military training 
 
^ , American History. 
 
 that was invaluable as preparation for the war for American 
 independence ; it provided them with territory for their west- 
 ward expansion ; and with the removal of the French from their 
 western borders, they had no need for English protection. 
 
 153. During the first fifty years of the eighteenth century the 
 population of the English colonies had grown from about 300,000 
 to more than 1,500,000. The natural increase was very large 
 and this was further aided by the large immigration from all 
 European countries. The religious persecutions of the French 
 induced large numbers of Huguenots to migrate to the English 
 colonies ; the attractions of Pennsylvania, free land, free thought, 
 and freedom of religious worship, brought, enormous numbers 
 of Germans to that colony, besides hosts of others to New York 
 and the Carolinas ; the hardy, thrifty Scotch-Irish in northern 
 Ireland found conditions burdensome there, and the English 
 colonies soon received large numbers of them. In addition to 
 these, smaller numbers of Swiss, Welsh, Scotch and Irish came 
 to the various colonies. Servants, indentured servants, tenants, 
 and convicts were received. These peoples settled the border- 
 lands and became pioneers in the westward movements. Thus 
 did America early in the eighteenth century become the "melting 
 pot" for the various nationalities of Europe. This was one of 
 the fundamental reasons for the strong growth of liberality in 
 politics, in religion, and in thought that brought us to the Ameri- 
 can Revolution. All classes and conditions, all religions, all 
 nationalities "rubbed shoulders," saw the good in one another, 
 and joined to make the tendency toward freedom all the stronger. 
 
 154. The Middle Colonies took on more and more an indus- 
 trial lead. Their products likewise became more varied. Coarse 
 woolen stuffs were made at home and were worked into clothing 
 on the farms. Linen was manufactured. Ironware, pottery, 
 hats, rope, furniture and shoes became important articles of com- 
 merce, though they were made in crude form and on a small 
 scale due to the restrictive acts of England. 
 
 In the New England colonies, the industries mentioned pre- 
 viously continued apace, and the New England vessels, manned 
 by New Englanders were found on all the "seven seas." 
 
 After the wars between the French and the English the ship- 
 ping, the whaling, and the fishing industries made remarkable 
 
American History. 93 
 
 strides, and the New England-built vessel was seen everywhere 
 on the ocean. 
 
 155. See answers 118, 119. Agriculture in the South became 
 more systematic ; larger and more varied crops were produced ; 
 rice, indigo, cotton, naval stores, lumber were added to the list 
 of agricultural products, raised for home and foreign consump- 
 tion. The large plantation continued to rule in Virginia and 
 South Carolina, while the small farm was predominant in the 
 other colonies. Tobacco and corn still were the leading farm 
 products. Horses and cattle were raised in large numbers. 
 
 156. Since England afforded but a small market for the large 
 and varied products of the colonies and in spite of the restrictive 
 Navigation laws, a great deal of commerce was carried on with 
 the other European countries. Lumber, fish, horses, meat, staves, 
 tobacco, and other articles formed the items of export to the 
 countries of Spain and the West Indies, from which countries 
 and her colonies came the imports of coffee, wine, silks, drugs, 
 molasses and sugar. These latter were manufactured into the 
 famous New England rums. 
 
 157. The slave trade was carried on during the 18th cen- 
 tury with but little opposition. The slaves were bought in ex- 
 change for the products that the ships usually carried : cloths, 
 rum, trinkets, and firearms. A large cargo of slaves, many of 
 whom died during the voyage because of the unsanitary condi- 
 tions in the boats, could be secured in exchange for but a small 
 cargo of the articles mentioned above. The slaves were used 
 mainly on the plantations in the southern colonies in all sorts 
 of menial labor, but were also used as servants in the Middle 
 Colonies. Very few of them were found profitable in the New 
 England colonies, and consequently the number of slaves in 
 the North was very small. 
 
 158. With the broadening of life due to peaceable and easy 
 economic conditions, and the increase in wealth, the rigors of the 
 Church fell off, and the Church (even in New England) no 
 longer prescribed minutely the daily conduct and dress of the 
 colonists. The professions of law and medicine became of greater 
 importance. In educational matters, the common school educa- 
 tion remained practically stationary, but higher education grew 
 apace. Yale was founded in 1701; Princeton in 1746; King's 
 
94 American History. 
 
 (now Columbia) in 1754; the University of Pennsylvania In 
 1755; Brown in 1764. The Boston News Letter, founded in 
 1704, was the forerunner of a large number of journals that sup- 
 plied information and news to the colonists. 
 
 159. The Governor was appointed by the Crown or chosen 
 by popular vote, and his powers and duties were set forth in the 
 charter. The council (except in Pennsylvania) was the upper 
 house of the legislature, had judicial functions of appeal, and 
 aided in the administration of the laws. The council included 
 generally the strongest supporters of the governor in his oppo- 
 sition to the encroachment of popular rights on the authority of 
 
 the crown or the proprietor. See answer 104. 
 
 The mingling of the various nationalities and classes of society 
 quickly brought to the surface the spirit of independence and 
 opposition to the arbitrary rule of the crown appointees. The 
 opposition to the Governor and the Council was led by the assem- 
 blies. The vote of the assemblies in all matters of legislation 
 was subject to approval or dissent of the council, to veto by the 
 governor, or the final veto of the crown. It became the custom 
 to originate all financial measures in the assembly, as a result of 
 this opposition to arbitrary measures. 
 
 160. The struggles between the representative assemblies and 
 the governors arose over questions involving the members of their 
 own houses without the intervention of the governors; on the. 
 question of making the officers paid by the colonies responsible 
 to them for their conduct in office, by voting them annual grants 
 instead of permanent salaries ; by insisting that all financial bills 
 originate in the lower house. The disputes were almost uni- 
 formly settled in favor of the popular representatives'. 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 
 
 161. The "mercantile system," prominent in the history of the 
 French colonies, emphasized the theory that the colonies existed 
 solely for the benefit of the mother country, that they were to be 
 protected only insofar as they contributed to the support of the 
 home country, and that their interests were entirely subordinate 
 to the interests of the parent state. A study of the Navigation 
 and Trade and Manufacture Laws shows how completely this 
 theory underlay these acts. 
 
American History. 95 
 
 162. (a) In order further to protect British manufactures and 
 the sources of royal revenue, and to curb the independent spirit 
 of the colonists, Parliament passed the following laws : Colonial 
 trade in wool and woolen goods was prohibited. In 1732, the 
 manufacture of hats was forbidden; in 1750, iron wares. The 
 list of articles that were to be exported only to England was 
 increased to include rice and naval stores. High duties were im- 
 posed on the importation of sugar and molasses from the Spanish 
 and French West Indies in order to encourage the production of 
 sugar in the British West Indies. It is needless to say that these 
 laws were honored more in the breach than in the observance, 
 and that considerable illicit trade was carried on ; smuggling 
 became a common thing. (b) The beneficial features were 
 seen in the impetus given to shipbuilding in the New Eng- 
 land colonies, and to the bounties paid for the export of certain 
 commodities to England, as indigo, dye-woods, and naval stores, 
 (c) The Navigation Laws were consistently disobeyed, and 
 smuggling was carried on with the European countries, with the 
 West Indies, and with the Mediterranean ports. The cost of 
 enforcing the revenue system in the colonies was considerably 
 more than the amount of revenue received from their enforce- 
 ment. Goods were exported to these countries and their products 
 were smuggled into the colonies with little difficulty. 
 
 163. In 1696, the Board of Trade was organized, comprising 
 the members of the Privy Council and prominent men interested 
 in commercial matters, and became the central body for the ad- 
 ministration of colonial affairs. While its powers were advisory, 
 its influence reached the King and the Parliament. Instructions 
 were sent to the governors, and attempts were made to secure a 
 better enforcement of the Navigation Laws. Admiralty courts, 
 without juries, were established in the colonies, and these 
 aroused the bitter opposition of the colonists. 
 
 164. The "Writs of Assistance" were search warrants which 
 were of a general nature rather than special warrants. These 
 were issued in cases of smuggling, and were strongly resisted by 
 the colonists. They were directed to any officer to enter and 
 search any place, and to seize any goods, upon the faintest sus- 
 picion. They were argued against by James Otis, representing] 
 
% American Historv. 
 
 the merchants, but were declared legal by the Massachusetts 
 Courts. 
 
 165. In 1763, Grenville became Prime Minister, and he decided 
 to increase the control of England over the colonies by the en- 
 forcement of the Navigation Laws, the placing of a standing army 
 in the colonies, and its support, in part, by the colonies by a 
 colonial tax. This was known as "the New Policy." The reason 
 for the enforcement of these laws was found partly in the 
 enormous burden of the debt incurred as a result of the French 
 and Indian Wars and by the dangers that threatened from the 
 attacks made by the Indians, as in Pontiac's Conspiracy, and by 
 the Creeks in Georgia and the Carolinas. 
 
 166, The Sugar Act of 1764 was designed to raise revenues 
 by means of high duties. The profitable trade with the West 
 Indies in sugar, molasses and dried fish from the New England 
 colonies was threatened, and a storm of protests arose from these 
 New England merchants. 
 
 167 (a) In 1765, Grenville, after a meeting with the colonial 
 agents in London, proposed to raise the revenue required to 
 support ten thousand troops in the colonies by means of a stamp 
 tax. This law made it obligatory to stamp all legal instru- 
 ments, documents, newspapers, commercial papers, and almanacs. 
 The money so raised was to be used only in connection with the 
 defence of the colonies, (b) The colonies were united in their 
 opposition. Realizing the facts that their rights were threatened, 
 even though the money so raised was to be expended wholly 
 within the colonies, they nevertheless claimed that the sole right 
 of taxation, as Englishmen, vested in their colonial assemblies, 
 and that since they were not represented in the English Parlia- 
 ment, Parliament had no right to pass any measures of taxation 
 over them. 
 
 168. Agreements were entered into not to deal with British 
 merchants, to buy or handle British goods, and to pay no debts 
 until the Stamp Act was repealed. Resolutions of opposition 
 were passed. Organizations to oppose the measure were formed. 
 Riots occurred, and the stamps in several of the colonies were 
 publicly burned or otherwise destroyed. 
 
 169. In 1765, at the instance of Massachusetts, delegates from 
 nine of the colonies met at New York. The Congress decided 
 
American History. 97 
 
 upon a Declaration of Rights, and address to the King and 
 both Houses of Parliament, and a firm adherence to the principle 
 of "no taxation without representation." This Congress, the 
 first general one that met, was a moulder of public opinion and 
 an example of what union among the colonies could accomplish. 
 
 170. The protests of the British merchants who claimed that 
 their commerce was being destroyed and the opposition of the 
 colonies, brought about a repeal of the Stamp Act in the follow- 
 ing year, 1766. 
 
 171. The right of the Parliament to lay such taxes as were 
 opposed by the colonists rested on the doctrine stated by Lord 
 Mansfield : "A member of Parliament, chosen from any borough, 
 represents, not only the constituents and inhabitants of that 
 particular place, but ... all the other commons of the land, and 
 the inhabitants of all the colonies and dominions of Great 
 Britain." 
 
 The position of the colonies was stated by Franklin in the 
 following: "The authority of Parliament was allowed to be 
 valid in all laws, except such as should lay internal taxes," and 
 by internal taxes he meant such a tax as the "stamp tax." The 
 taxes imposed on commerce were regarded as perfectly within 
 the right of Parliament to impose. "It was never disputed in 
 laying duties to regulate commerce." 
 
 172. Accompanying the repeal of the Stamp Act was the De- 
 claratory Act, which proclaimed the right of Great Britain to 
 make all laws for the colonies and to bind them in all cases 
 whatsoever. 
 
 173. (a) The new ministry that followed was under the lead- 
 ership of William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, who, unfortunately, 
 was taken sick and was unable to lead in Parhament. The 
 colonial policy was then dictated by Charles Townshend, Chan- 
 cellor of the Exchequer, who proposed the following measures 
 in 1767: To raise revenues by means of a duty to be placed on 
 paper, tea, glass, lead, painters' colors imported into the colonies ; 
 the payment of the revenue officers and the salaries of the judges 
 of the courts from the funds raised by the imposition of these 
 duties ; to secure the enforcement of the navigation, commerce, 
 and trade laws, admiralty courts were to be established without 
 juries, and these were passed. Because these measures tended 
 
98 American History. 
 
 to raise revenue and not to control commerce, the colonists re- 
 sisted them very bitterly, (b) The opposition to these measures 
 was spontaneous. The colonists claimed that they violated the 
 spirit of the English constitution in that, like the Stamp Act, they 
 sought to lay an internal tax, and not an external tax. The colo- 
 nists agreed not to import any goods from England, and also not 
 to use any English-made goods (the non-importation and non- 
 consumption agreements of 1765-1766). Opposition was voiced in 
 letters, newspapers, and petitions, as the Farmers' Letters of John 
 Dickinson of Pennsylvania, the petitions of Samuel Adams, and 
 the Circular Letters addressed to the other colonies by the Gen- 
 eral Court of Massachusetts. 
 
 174. The Boston Massacre of 1770 resulted from a clash be- 
 tween the mobs of Boston and the soldiers stationed there. Five 
 citizens were killed and the soldiers put on trial, but at the urgent 
 solicitation of Samuel Adams and others, they were set free, and 
 all the soldiers stationed in Boston were removed to an island 
 in the harbor. 
 
 175. There were in England what were called the "rotten 
 boroughs," that is, boroughs with small population, laid out many 
 hundred years ago by the King and were represented in Parlia- 
 ment by members in exactly the same manner as any of the more 
 populous cities were. Moreover, there were many cities and 
 towns which had sprung up since these unpopulated boroughs 
 were laid out which had no representation at all. These rotten 
 boroughs were generally controlled by some nobleman or some 
 man who sought favors from King George. The King of Eng- 
 land determined to be the ruler in fact as well as in name, and 
 by means of bribery of money, position, or elevation to the peer- 
 age, he easily controlled a majority of the votes in the Houses 
 of Parliament and measures were readily passed at his bidding. 
 
 176. George HI now proceeded to overrule the will of the 
 colonies in many particulars, by means of what were known as 
 "royal instructions." The effect of many of these was to re- 
 move the capitals to other towns, to disregard the laws of the 
 colonies, to demand high fees that were in effect taxes, and to 
 negative, in every way, the will of the colonies. 
 
 177. At the suggestion of Samuel Adams, the Boston 'Town 
 Meeting" adopted a resolution urging the organization of "Com- 
 
American History. 99 
 
 mittees of Correspondence" whose duty it was to keep the other 
 settlements and towns in Massachusetts informed of events. 
 This was after the Massachusetts General Court had been re- 
 moved from Boston and its sittings interfered with. The idea 
 was taken up by other colonies and soon the Committees of Cor- 
 respondence were the only means of keeping one another ad- 
 vised of the various steps taken to resist the impositions of Par- 
 liament and the King. 
 
 178. The tax on imports was repealed in 1770, with the ex- 
 ception of that on tea. The tea was smuggled into the colonies 
 in order to avoid payment of the duty which they considered 
 unjust. In 1773, the King determined to enforce the payment 
 of this duty, and the British East India Company was allowed 
 to export tea to the colonies, the cost of the tea, in order to 
 induce colonists to purchase it, being much cheaper than that 
 paid for before. The colonists refused to permit the tea to be 
 landed, and in Boston a number of citizens disguised as Indians 
 broke open and dumped the chests of tea into the harbor in order 
 to make sure that none of it would be landed. 
 
 179. As punishment for this act of the Boston Tea Party, 
 ParHament, at the King's order, passed the following retaliatory 
 acts : That the Port of Boston be closed until the full amount 
 of the tea be paid for. That the powers of the royal governor 
 be extended and the powers of the Massachusetts legislature be 
 restricted. That officials killing persons in the performance of 
 their duties be transported for trial to England. That the offi- 
 cials be permitted to quarter soldiers in any vacant buildings. 
 
 180. The Quebec Act extended the boundaries of the Province 
 of Quebec so as to include the territory between the Great Lakes 
 and the Ohio River, territory claimed by Virginia and other 
 colonies. The object of the bill was to establish a government 
 for the territory and to provide for religious toleration, since the 
 French in the Province of Quebec were largely Catholic. 
 
 181. These retaliatory acts stimulated the desire for united 
 action on the part of the colonies. Accordingly, the Massachu- 
 setts Assembly suggested that a meeting of the delegates from 
 the various colonies be held at Philadelphia on September 1, 
 1774. All the colonies except Georgia were represented. Their 
 deliberations resulted in the following: Resolutions of sym- 
 
100 American History. 
 
 pathy for Boston were passed. A petition was drafted to be 
 presented to the King, asking for a redress of the grievances 
 and declaring absolute loyalty to the sovereign. Addresses to 
 the people of England and of Canada were adopted. A general 
 boycott of English goods and those using English goods, was 
 ordered. Local committees of safety and of correspondence, were 
 suggested and these assumed governmental authority. 
 
 182. The outbreak of the war was at Lexington and Concord. 
 The militia had been fully organized in Massachusetts, "minute 
 men," citizens ready for instant mobilization, were on the look- 
 out, and stores had been accumulated. The efforts of General 
 Gage, located at Boston, to seize the stores hidden at Lexington 
 and Concord of which he had received reports led to the de- 
 termined opposition of the patriots to any further advances on 
 the part of the British soldiers. More than fifteen thousand 
 soldiers marched to Boston from the neighboring colonies, and 
 the siege of the British in Boston began. 
 
 183. On June 15, the Americans behind their fortifications on 
 Breed's (Bunker) Hill, were attacked by the British forces and 
 suffered defeat at their hands. But the British lost so heavily, 
 and the gains were so little, that the Continental troops were 
 most encouraged at this evidence of their ability to fight the 
 trained English soldiers. 
 
 184. At the suggestion of the First Continental Congress, held 
 in Philadelphia, 1774, the Second Continental Congress met in 
 the same city on May 10, 1775, and practically legislated for the 
 Thirteen Colonies during the entire period of the war. The 
 Congress took definite steps to organize the opposition to Great 
 Britain and appointed George Washington as Commander-in- 
 Chief of the Continental Army around Boston. Forces were 
 organized in the other colonies. Money was voted to make pur- 
 chases and pay for necessary expenses. 
 
 185. The condition of the American soldiers required the 
 attention of Washington. They were disorganized, their arms 
 were a varied lot, and their supplies insufficient. Washington 
 spent the next few months in converting the raw, undisciplined 
 mass with its poor equipment into an army that would be the 
 equal of the splendidly trained British forces. 
 
 186. (a) The opposition to the King's government was, at 
 
American History, 101 
 
 the beginning of the war, not to secure independence, but to 
 maintain the rights to which they were entitled as Englishmen, 
 (b) When the contemptuous attitude of the King and his min- 
 isters, and his policy of hiring foreign soldiers for the "war in 
 America, showed the people that reconciliation was impossible, the 
 conservatives among the patriots, as well as the radicals, saw then 
 that the only recourse was to declare their independence from 
 England. The royal governors were driven out and the assem- 
 blies assumed full governmental control. In May, 1776, the 
 Congress advised each colony to adopt its own republican form 
 of government, (c) The fundamental causes of the desire for in- 
 dependence of the colonies were: The insistence of the Anglo- 
 Saxon for self-government ; the realization that the mother coun- 
 try could not appreciate the needs and requirements of the colo- 
 nies ; the growth of the spirit of independence ; the mingling of the 
 various nationalities; the attempt of the British government to ex- 
 ercise too detailed a control over the colonies ; the stubbornness of 
 George III ; and the recognition among the colonists that they 
 had interests differing from those of the mother country. 
 
 187. By a remote or indirect cause is meant a cause having 
 its origin a long time previous to the war; while the direct or 
 immediate causes follow as a result of the French and Indian 
 War. (a) General causes: The spirit of freedom among the 
 colonists; the autocratic rule of the mother-country, (b) Re- 
 mote causes : The Navigation Laws ; the Trade and Manufac- 
 ture Laws; the Writs of Assistance, (c) Immediate or Direct 
 causes: Taxation without representation; Writs of Assistance; 
 Stamp Act; Townshend Act; Mutiny Act; Quebec Act; Boston 
 Massacre, and Boston Port Bill. 
 
 188. (a) On June 7th, 1776, Richard Henry Lee, seconded by 
 John Adams, moved the adoption of the resolution that "These 
 United States are and of right ought to be, free and independent 
 States." On June 11th, a committee, composed of Thomas Jeffer- 
 son, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, John Adams, and 
 Robert Livingston, were appointed a committee to draw up a 
 Declaration of Independence. The Declaration was reported on 
 June 28th, and adopted on July 4th. The opposition to the adop- 
 tion of the Declaration was led by John Dickinson, though his 
 name appears among its signers. It is to be noted further, that 
 
102 
 
 American History. 
 
 Parliament, considered the tool of the King, is entirely ignored 
 by the Americans in their Declaration, (b) On the advice of 
 the Congress, the States organized their own governments. Rhode 
 Island and Connecticut used their charters as their constitutions, 
 while all the other States adopted new constitutions to meet the 
 changed conditions. 
 
 189. The Tories were those who favored the contentions of 
 England; they were loyal to the mother country. They con- 
 sisted of the office holders, the clergy of the Church of England, 
 the large land owners, the wealthy merchants, and the profes- 
 sional classes. In the South they were almost equal in number 
 to the Whigs who opposed the government of England and had 
 declared their independence of the mother country, while in the 
 North they were very few in number and suffered confiscation 
 of their property and the loss of all political and legal rights. 
 Where they were almost equal in number there was civil war. 
 
 190. (a) New England Confederation (1643) ; (b) First Colon- 
 ial Congress, Albany Plan of Union (1754) ; (c) Stamp Act 
 Congress (1765) ; (d) Committees of Correspondence (1772) ; 
 (e) First Continental Congress (1774) ; (f) Second Continental 
 Congress (1775-1781); (g) Articles of Confederation (1781- 
 1789) ; (h) Ordinance of 1787. 
 
 191. Principal Battles of the Revolutionary War with Com- 
 manders : 
 
 1775. 
 
 
 American 
 
 English 
 
 April 19 
 
 Lexington 
 
 
 
 May 10 
 
 Ft. Ticonderoga 
 
 
 
 June 17 
 
 Bunker Hill 
 
 Prescott 
 
 General Howe 
 
 Dec. 31 
 
 Quebec 
 
 Montgomery 
 
 Carleton 
 
 \n6 
 
 
 
 
 March 17 
 
 Boston 
 
 Washington 
 
 General Howe 
 
 June 28 
 
 Fort Moultrie 
 
 Moultrie 
 
 Parker 
 
 Aug. 27 
 
 Lon^ Island 
 
 Putnam 
 
 General Howe 
 
 Dec. 26 
 
 Trenton 
 
 Washington 
 
 Rahl 
 
 1777 
 
 
 
 
 Jan. 3 
 
 Princeton 
 
 Washington 
 
 
 Sept. 11 
 
 Brandywine 
 
 Washington 
 
 General Howe 
 
 Oct. 4 
 
 Germantown 
 
 Washington 
 
 General Howe 
 
 Oct. 11 
 1778 
 Tune 28 
 
 Saratoga 
 
 Gates 
 
 Burgoyne 
 
 Monmouth 
 
 Washington 
 
 Clinton 
 
 1779 
 
 
 
 
 July 15 
 
 Stony Point 
 
 Wayne 
 
 'Johnson 
 .^revost 
 
 Oct. 9 
 
 Savannah 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 1780 
 
 
 
 
 May 12 
 
 Charleston 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Clinton 
 
 Aug. 16 
 
 Camden 
 
 Gates 
 
 Cornwallis 
 
 1781 
 
 
 
 
 Jan. 17 
 
 Cowpens 
 
 IMorgan 
 
 Tarleton 
 
 Mar. 15 
 
 Guilford Ct. House 
 
 Greene 
 
 Cornwallis 
 
 Oct, 19 
 
 Yorktown 
 
 Washington 
 
 Cornwallis 
 
American History. 103 
 
 192. With the appointment of Washington to the command of 
 the American army, there followed a period of drilling and 
 organization until the troops were fit to fight the trained British 
 soldiery. At the urgent request of the Massachusetts patriots, 
 Washington, under the cover of a furious bombardment along the 
 entire line, marched two thousand troops to Dorchester Heights, 
 dominating Boston, and its harbor. On March 17, 1776, the 
 British, finding themselves outgeneraled, withdrew to Halifax. 
 
 193. The position of New York and the importance of New 
 York City as a port and commercial city appealed to the British 
 as a means of breaking the United States in two, and then after 
 controlling the State of New York through the Hudson River 
 and the Mohawk Valley, to turn their attention to the New 
 England States, and conquer them, thus narrowing the field of 
 operations. Accordingly, the British forces under the command 
 of General Howe supported by Admiral Lord Howe, captured 
 Long Island and New York after the defeat of the Americans 
 under Washington in the Battles of Long Island and White 
 Plains. 
 
 194. (a) The year 1777 saw a renewed effort made to divide 
 the Thirteen States and to assure the safety of Canada by 
 capturing the waterways leading to that country. General Bur- 
 goyne led an army from Canada, his destination being Albany, 
 where Howe was to meet him after he had captured the Hudson 
 Valley. General St. Leger was to advance by way of the Mo- 
 hawk Valley. This failed, partly because of the lack of precise 
 orders to Howe and the fact that Washington foresaw the at- 
 tempt of the British and drew off part of the British army by his 
 retreat through Ne\v Jersey. Burgoyne's force of English was sup- 
 ported by Canadians and Indians. Ticonderoga, Fort Edward, 
 Crown Point, all fell before him. But the Americans adopted 
 tactics that delayed the British and denuded the country of pro- 
 visions, while at the same time attacking the garrisons left by 
 Burgoyne to secure his line of retreat and his communications 
 with Canada, (b) Benedict Arnold defeated the attempt of the 
 British under St. Leger. The attempt of Burgoyne to capture 
 Vermont met with failure in his defeat at Bennington, August, 
 1777. The British forces under Burgoyne advanced across the 
 Hudson and marched southward. The British were delayed at 
 
104 American History. 
 
 Saratoga for want of supplies, etc. The American force, now 
 much larger than that of the enemy, surrounded the British, and 
 compelled their surrender in October, 1777. The American leaders 
 prominent in these operations were Generals Schuyler, Gates, 
 Benedict Arnold and Kosciusko, the Polish patriot. The surrender 
 of Burgoyne's army was the "turning point" of the war, because of 
 its effects on the outcome of the struggle. 
 
 195. Washington's retreat with the remnants of his army 
 through New Jersey was recognized as a masterpiece of the 
 Fabian policy. Newark, New Brunswick, Princeton, and other 
 important centers were abandoned, and New Jersey was lost by 
 the Americans. The only American victory was the capture of 
 Trenton, on Christmas night, 1776, in which more than one 
 thousand Hessian troops were captured. Part of the British 
 forces near Princeton were defeated by Washington, and the 
 Americans retired to Morristown Heights for the winter. 
 
 196. The condition of the army under Washington was truly 
 weak. The mismanagement of the commissary department, the 
 inefficiency of the officers appointed by Congress, the lack of 
 sufficient funds, food, clothing, and equipment, the lack of proper 
 officers, and the scheming of certain subordinate officers of 
 Washington with friends in Congress, were undermining the 
 cause of the Americans. Washington, however, had secured in- 
 valuable aid in the persons of Lafayette and De Kalb and Baron 
 Steuben from Prussia, all with records as splendid organizers and 
 army men. 
 
 197. Philadelphia, being the capital of the United States, was 
 the next objective of the British. In July, 1777, while Bur- 
 goyne was marching southward in expectation of meeting the 
 forces of Howe at Albany, Howe embarked his forces and set 
 sail for Chesapeake Bay, where he landed a month later. Wash- 
 ington's forces hastened to the rescue of Philadelphia, but were 
 defeated at Brandywine and Germantown, and Philadelphia fell 
 before the British. The Americans encamped for the winter 
 months at Valley Forge. Congress withdrew to Lancaster, and 
 later to York, Pennsylvania. 
 
 198. Recognizing England as a virtual enemy, though nomi- 
 nally at peace with that country, France aided the cause of the 
 United States by loans, purchases of clothing and equipment, and 
 
American History. 105 
 
 after the capture of Burgoyne's army, a treaty of alliance was 
 negotiated with France through the efforts of Benjamin Frank- 
 lin, in France, by which that country promised to aid the Ameri- 
 cans with an army, naval forces, and equipment. The offers of 
 the British to arbitrate the causes of dispute were rejected by the 
 Americans. 
 
 199. There were a larger number of adherents of the cause 
 of Great Britain in the Southern colonies than there were in 
 the colonies in the North. The leaders of the opposition to the 
 tyranny of Great Britain were found principally in the com- 
 mercial, industrial, and maritime colonies in the North, whom the 
 restrictive laws of Great Britain affected more than they did the 
 Southern planters. The main military forces were recruited from 
 among the colonists in the Middle and New England Colonies. 
 The first battles fought were in Massachusetts, and because of the 
 nearness of Canada to the Thirteen Colonies, it formed the base 
 of .supplies for the invading British armies. 
 
 200. At the beginning of the war privateers were commissioned 
 to prey upon the British marine. A navy had been ordered and 
 this was put under the command of Captain Barry and Captain 
 John Paul Jones. The work of John Paul Jones was notably 
 remarkable, for he attacked British vessels in their home waters. 
 His fleet was fitted out in French waters, and he made many 
 successful attacks upon British merchantmen and war vessels 
 convoying merchantmen and transports. 
 
 201. After the British failed in the New England States, the 
 British commander, Sir Henry Clinton, appeared with a fleet 
 before Charleston, S. C, in order to aid the Tories who were 
 hard beset by the patriots. The fleet's attack on Fort Moultrie 
 was beaten off, and no attempt was made for more than two 
 years to gain a foothold in the South. Realizing the fact that 
 there was greater support for the cause of the British in the 
 South, which had still very large numbers of Tories, the British 
 then determined upon a conquest of the South. Charleston, S. C, 
 was captured in May, 1780, the forces under Gates were defeated 
 at Camden, and the British ruled South Carolina. 
 
 The British, however, suffered a check because of the activities 
 of the independent partisan leaders, Marion, Sumter, Fox, and 
 others under Greene, who attacked the outposts of the British 
 
106 American History. 
 
 forces under Cornwallis, the ablest of the British generals, and 
 ambushed small forces in the swampy regions of the southern 
 States. General Morgan with his backwoodsmen defeated the 
 British at King's Mountain and Cowpens, and Cornwallis was 
 compelled to follow Greene across the country and back again. 
 The British forces then withdrew to Wilmington, and with the 
 exception of Charleston, the South was again in the hands of the 
 Americans. 
 
 202. Cornwallis then withdrew to Virginia where a small 
 American force under the command of Lafayette successfully 
 resisted the efforts of the British, who then made their quarters 
 on the Yorktown Peninsula. A French fleet was stationed at the 
 West Indies, planning with Washington where the English might 
 most advantageously be attacked. On Aug. 14, word was re- 
 ceived by Washington that the French fleet under De Grasse was 
 headed for Chesapeake Bay, and Washington determined to meet 
 him. Skilfully deceiving, the British with the impression that he 
 was going to attack New York, he hurriedly combined with the 
 French forces and marched through New Jersey and Pennsyl- 
 vania to the Chesapeake Bay. The armies joined, and Yorktown 
 was invested on land by the combined American and French 
 forces, and on sea by the powerful fieet of De Grasse. Corn- 
 wallis, after he had been severely attacked and many of his posi- 
 tions carried, surrendered his forces on Oct. 19. 
 
 203. While the treaty of alliance with France provided that 
 neither country should sign a separate treaty with England, the 
 American commissioners secretly negotiated a treaty because 
 they feared that the Spanish would join with the French and 
 insist that the United States be limited by the Appalachian 
 Mountains. The treaty however, was not signed until the ter- 
 mination of the European War, in 1783. 
 
 204. The reasons for the defeat of the English may be summed 
 up as follows : The war was between Englishmen and English- 
 men ; the war was carried on three thousand miles away from 
 the English base of supplies, in the New World ; the English had 
 aroused the enmity of the leading nations in Europe, many of 
 whom aided the Americans with loans, supplies, soldiers and 
 ships; the opposition to the King and his Ministry; the realiza- 
 tion of the middle class English that the American Revolution 
 
American History. t07 
 
 was a war for the maintenance of the fightS of Englishmen as 
 against the attempts on the part of the sovereign to impose his 
 will on the representatives of the people. The ministry of Lord 
 North resigned in March, 1782. 
 
 205. The financial difficulties of the country prevented the 
 proper feeding and equipping of the Continental armies. Con- 
 gress could not secure funds. Loans were received from Spain, 
 Holland and France. A lottery had proved a failure. It was 
 mainly due to the efforts of that patriotic financier, Robert Mor- 
 ris, who pledged his entire fortune, that Congress was able to 
 equip the armies. 
 
 206. After the adoption of the Declaration of Independence a 
 committee was appointed to draw up a form of government for 
 the Independent States. This was the Articles of Confedera- 
 tion, adopted by the Congress, in November, 1777, and referred 
 by it to the States for ratification. This was done by the States 
 finally in 1781. The Articles of Confederation provided that the 
 central authority be vested in a Congress of delegates appointed 
 annually by and responsible to the State legislatures. Not less 
 than two, nor more than seven, were to be appointed from the 
 States according to size and importance, but each State was to 
 be entitled to only one vote, determined by the majority vote of 
 its delegates. The exclusive rights and powers of the Congress 
 were limited to those of making war and peace, with no authority, 
 however, to enforce its commands on the States. 
 
 207. The weaknesses and defects of this form of government 
 were apparent as soon as the government got into actual work- 
 ing order. There was no separate executive authority; there was 
 no confederated judiciary to interpret the laws, there was no 
 power to enforce the mandates of the Congress ; the power of 
 taxation was vested in the Congress, but the power to levy and 
 collect resided in the individual States, and the States could not 
 be coerced ; nothing was final until the votes of nine States could 
 be had, an almost impossible number in most matters of impor- 
 tance; disputes between States as to lands, commerce, etc., were 
 not settled by any common tribunal and served to threaten the 
 disruption of the union. 
 
 208. (a) The Articles of Confederation were reported to the 
 Second Continental Congress by a Committee, were debated again 
 
108 American History. 
 
 and again, and finally adopted in 1777; the last State to ratify 
 them was Maryland, in 1781. For the reasons for the delay, see 
 answers that follow, (b) Among the causes for the delay in the 
 ratification of the Articles of Confederation were the claims to the 
 Western Lands, lying between Virginia, the Appalachian High- 
 lands and the Great Lakes. Virginia, Connecticut, New York, 
 Massachusetts, and others claimed the whole or parts of this ter- 
 ritory, which had been gained as a result of the French and Indian 
 War, by virtue of certain indefinite provisions in their original 
 grants. Since this land was gained as a result of war in which 
 all the colonies had taken part, it was national territory, was the 
 claim set forth by the other States. Maryland refused to ratify 
 the Articles of Confederation until the matter was disposed of. 
 
 209. At the suggestion of the Congress, the States surrendered 
 their claims to the land, and this became the National Domain, 
 various parts of which were called the Northwest Territory, the 
 Western Reserve and the Reserved Land for Soldiers. 
 
 210. In 1784, the report of Thomas Jefferson providing for the 
 organization of the National Domain, the land surrendered by the 
 States (see Answer 211), was adopted. This was the Ordinance 
 of 1784. 
 
 211. In 1786, the "Ohio Company of Associates" was organ- 
 ized in the interests of the Revolutionary soldiers who desired 
 to settle in the West. In July of the following year, through their 
 efforts, while a Committee of Congress was considering the form 
 of government for the Northwest Territory, the Ordinance of 
 1787 was passed after it had received the votes of the eight 
 States then represented in Congress, and became a law July 13, 
 1787. 
 
 212. It provided for the territorial form of government that 
 has been found so practicable; it provided for free education, 
 the establishment of schools and colleges, the prohibition of 
 slavery, and prohibited social, financial or religious restrictions 
 on citizens and the inheritance of estates according to the law of 
 primogeniture. 
 
 213. Following the war, treaties were signed with Holland, 
 France, Sweden, and Prussia, but Great Britain refused to make 
 any commercial treaty since the power of the Congress under 
 the Articles of Confederation was not recognized as binding, and 
 
American History. 109 
 
 because the Bt-itish were determined to inte^fef? With American 
 commerce. The British colonies in America were prohibited from 
 dealing with America, and the retaliatory measures of the States 
 were futile because of the absence of united action. The States 
 refused to compel the payment of debts to British merchants, and 
 England refused to surrender the forts held in the Northwest, 
 or to make reparation for American property taken during and 
 after the war. 
 
 214. It was mainly the disputes arising between and among 
 the States that made apparent the difficulties of the working of 
 the new government. States levied taxes against the goods of 
 other States and the selfish and retaliatory attitude of one state 
 and then another threatened an oubreak of a civil war. 
 
 215. The financial condition of the United States was deplor- 
 able. The paper money had depreciated in value ; there was no 
 specie ; it had all been taken by the foreign countries in payment 
 for their goods ; the loans made by the European countries were 
 almost due; Robert Morris resigned in 1784; States did not heed 
 the call of Congress for their just shares of taxes. The United 
 States was nearly bankrupt. 
 
 The business conditions in the States were likewise deplorable. 
 Many of them were compelled to issue new paper money, to pass 
 debtor laws, and to force the people to accept these notes as 
 legal tender, on heavy penalties. Merchants, on the other hand, 
 refused to sell except for gold or other specie. 
 
 216. In Massachusetts, the outbreaks against the conditions 
 came to a head under the leadership of Daniel Shay, but the 
 rebellion was put down after an attempt had been made 'to cap- 
 ture the arsenal at Springfield. Shay and many of his partisans 
 were arrested and imprisoned. There were similar attempts 
 made in Vermont and New Hampshire. All these served to make 
 more prominent the disastrous conditions under which all classes 
 labored. 
 
 217. Attempts were made to amend the Articles of Confedera- 
 tion and give Congress greater powers; but they were defeated 
 by one State or another. The patriotic leaders now considered 
 the matter as more serious than ever and saw the necessity for 
 a revision or a redrafting of the Articles of Confederation. 
 
 218. The question of the boundary line between Virginia and 
 
110 American History. 
 
 Maryland, dating back to the colonial period, was the direct 
 cause that led to the revision of the Articles. Commissioners 
 from these two States met at Alexandria, in 1785, to consider the 
 boundary question, and they suggested the appointment of a com- 
 mission every two years to discuss commercial regulations of the 
 States bordering on the Potomac. ^Maryland suggested the invita- 
 tion of Pennsylvania and Delaware to consider these commercial 
 matters. The Virginia legislature proposed a meeting of dele- 
 gates from all the States to meet at Annapolis, September 11 
 1786. 
 
 219. The Annapolis Convention had present delegates from 
 the States of New York, New Jersey, Virginia, and Delaware, 
 with others on their way. But none were appointed from Mary- 
 land, South Carolina, Connecticut, and Georgia, and it was de- 
 cided, that since all the States were not represented, the 
 States be asked to appoint delegates to meet at Philadelphia 
 during the following year to prepare amendments to the Articles 
 of Confederation. Even then, only after six of the States had 
 appointed these delegates did Congress ratify the suggestion of 
 Hamilton, and decide upon the Convention. 
 
 220. The Constitutional Convention met at Philadelphia on 
 May 14, but the quorum from seven States did not appear until 
 the 25th. Washington was chosen President of the Convention 
 which comprised seventy-three members. For details of the 
 Convention see answers that follow. 
 
 221. The most prominent patriots were there working for the 
 common weal. 
 
 Among those present were: Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sher- 
 man of Connecticut, Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts, Robert 
 Morris of Pennsylvania, Edmund Randolph and James Madison 
 from Virginia, John Dickinson from Delaware, Alexander Hamil- 
 ton from New York, the Pinckneys and John Rutledge from small 
 South Carolina. 
 
 222. Our sources of Information about the debates and dis- 
 putes in the Constitutional Convention are "Madison's Diary," 
 the Official Journal, published in 1819, as "Eliot's Debates," and 
 "The Federalist," issued by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay and 
 James Madison. The Convention sat behind closed doors be- 
 
American History. Ill 
 
 cause it feared the interference of the opponents of the Conven- 
 tion and the influence of the people. 
 
 223. The Virginia plan, largely the work of James Madison, 
 the "Father of the Constitution," provided the following : That 
 the national government should consist of the three recognized 
 divisions of a republican form of government; that the national 
 government should possess supreme legislative, executive, and 
 judicial functions and powers; that the legislative division consist- 
 of two houses, the House of Delegates, elected by the people of 
 the separate States, and the Senate, chosen by the House of Dele- 
 gates ; that representation in both Houses should be based on pop- 
 ulation or on contributions toward the support of the national 
 government ; and that the executive should be chosen by both 
 houses of Congress and the members of the judiciary by the Sen- 
 ate. This plan was attacked very bitterly by the representatives 
 of the smaller States who wished to maintain the equal repre- 
 sentation of the States. 
 
 224. The New Jersey plan, the plan of the smaller States, 
 was proposed by Governor Paterson and provided for the fol- 
 lowing: the continuance of the Articles of Confederation, 
 amended however to give greater powers to regulate commerce, 
 raise revenues, and compel the obedience to the confederated 
 laws ; there was also to be the threefold division of the powers of 
 government. 
 
 225. The Connecticut Compromise provided for the representa- 
 tion of the States as States in the Senate (two Senators for each 
 State) and the States according to their population in the lower 
 and more popular House of Representatives. 
 
 226. That the popular House of Representatives should rep- 
 resent the people and be based on proportional representation. 
 That the Senate should represent the equal powers of the States. 
 That the number of representatives in the lower House should 
 be determined by the total number of whites plus three-fifths of 
 the total number of black persons in each State. That the 
 national government should have sole power over foreign and 
 interstate commerce, with the proviso however that no law be 
 passed prior to 1808 which might prohibit the importation of 
 slaves, but allowing the imposition of a tax of ten dollars on 
 each negro imported. 
 
112 American History. 
 
 227. The form of government provided for in the Constitu- 
 tion established the supreme authority in the land. The tripartite 
 form found in each of the State governments was maintained, the 
 executive, the legislative, and the judicial. The single executive 
 was given practically unlimited powers, as he was to be held 
 solely responsible for the full enforcement of the laws, and, in 
 order to prevent the hasty passage of ill-advised laws, there were 
 
 .to be the two bodies, one representing the people with the powers 
 to initiate all financial bills, and the other representing the States, 
 to have the power of checking the hasty action of the lower 
 house, and over these was the checking and balancing power of 
 the President. The terms of office were fixed accordingly. In 
 order to insure freedom of restraint from the legislature and the 
 executive, the members of the judiciary were to hold office during 
 life and good behavior, subject to no review by either of these 
 coordinate branches of the government. 
 
 228. The Constitution contained very little that was abso- 
 lutely new in the line of government. It was based entirely on 
 experience, on the already established State constitutions, and 
 on the inherent rights of the English speaking people based on 
 the written and unwritten constitution of England, the Magna 
 Charta and all those other documents looked upon with sacred 
 veneration by Englishmen as embodying their liberties. 
 
 229. The features of the State governments embodied in the 
 Constitution are: The threefold division of the government; the 
 bicameral legislature ; the powers of the President similar to 
 those of the Governors ; the origin of all financial bills in the more 
 popular legislative house; the process of impeachment; the veto 
 power and the message of the governor ; the "Bill of Rights" in 
 the first ten amendments to the Constitution. 
 
 230. The Constitution was submitted to the States for ratifi- 
 cation, and was to be in full force on the adoption by nine of 
 the thirteen States. The requisite number adopted it between 
 September 28, 1787, and June 21, 1788. Those persons favoring 
 the ratification were called Federalists, while those who opposed 
 were called Anti-Federalists. The Federalists were found in the 
 large cities, in the commercial and trade centers, while those 
 opposed were found in places distant from the commercial and 
 trade centers, thut is, the rural population. The Tories, feeling 
 
American History. 113 
 
 that the Constitutiofl gave them protection, favored its adoption. 
 
 231. The Constitution was adopted, and ratified and adopted by 
 the States in the following order : Delaware, Pennsylvania, New 
 Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, South 
 Carolina, New Hampshire (the ninth), Virginia, New York, 
 North Carolina, and Rhode Island (after Congress had threat- 
 ened to cut her off from the privileges of trade). 
 
 232. The arguments of the Anti-Federalists were in the main : 
 The danger of tyrannical abuse of the power of the President; 
 the danger and fear that the House of Representatives would 
 bow too willingly to the whims of the populace and pass ill- 
 advised laws ; the inequality of representation between the small- 
 er and the larger States as shown in the representation in the 
 Senate ; that there was no Bill of Rights to guarantee the civil 
 liberties and rights of the people. The leaders of the opposition 
 were : Elbridge Gerry, Richard Henry Lee, Patrick Henry, Sam- 
 uel Adams, Governor George Clinton of New York. 
 
 233. The Federalists, led by such men as Washington, John 
 Jay, John Marshall, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison, 
 maintained that it was the best that could be devised under the 
 circumstances, that it should be given a trial, that amendments 
 could be made to it when experience showed that changes were 
 necessary, and that its adoption was essential if the country were 
 to be saved from the anarchy threatening it. 
 
 234. The Federalist, a series of political essays (Hamilton 
 wrote fifty-one, Madison, twenty-nine, and Jay, five) presented 
 the case of the Federalists in such an able manner that it gained 
 large numbers of adherents. 
 
 235. The area in 1789 was about 828,000 square miles, almost 
 one-fourth of the present area, 
 
 236. The population was 3,929,000. One-fifth of this popula- 
 tion was negro, and Virginia ranked first. Only five per cent, of 
 the population was west of the Alleghenies. 
 
 237. The largest cities were: Philadelphia, 42,500; New York, 
 33,000; Boston, 18,000; Charleston, 16,000; Baltimore, 13,500. 
 Conditions in the cities were such as would not be tolerated in 
 the poorest town today ; the streets were unpaved and filthy ; and 
 were either very poorly lighted, or not lighted at all. Disease 
 
114 American History. 
 
 was rampant, and pestilences swept the cities frequently with 
 terrible loss of life. 
 
 238. People were divided into classes, the educated, the of- 
 fice-holding, and the aristocratic, the middle class, and the very- 
 poor whites. The negro, of course, was not considered socially 
 at all, and the "poor white trash," the poorest of the poor white, 
 ignorant and uneducated, were considered as below the negroes. 
 The homes of the wealthy were spacious and had elaborate im- 
 ported furnishings, while the homes of the lower classes were 
 sparsely furnished in the plainest style. The wealthier classes 
 were ostentatious in their displays. The drinking of spirituous 
 liquors was common, and gambling was considered an accom- 
 plishment. Lotteries were indulged in by all, and were the means 
 of making many of the public improvements and enriching the 
 colleges and schools. 
 
 239. Agriculture was still the leading industry, with wheat, 
 corn, cotton, tobacco, and indigo, the leading crops. Hemp and 
 flax were cultivated in all states, as they furnished the cloth for 
 the household linens. Cattle, sheep and hogs were raised in all 
 states. Fishing, shipbuilding and commerce were the leading 
 industries in the New England States, with the Middle Atlantic 
 States rapidly catching up. There was but little mining, except 
 of iron in New Jersey and in Pennsylvania and New York. The 
 fur-trade with the Northwest, the Oregon country, was of great 
 importance, and ships fitted out for China and India made stops 
 on this west coast of the United States. The American clippers 
 and schooners were found on every sea. 
 
 240. The imports and exports were almost equal, amounting 
 to about twenty million dollars each. The leading exports were 
 furs, wheat, lumber, rice, dried fish, beef, pork, pitch, naval 
 stores, tobacco. The leading imports were tea, sugar, molasses, 
 salt, coffee, nails, spirits. 
 
 241. The horse, the mail coach, the large covered wagon, the 
 sail boat and the packet were the principal means of communica- 
 tion and travel. The roads were poor and the rivers had to be 
 forded, or were spanned by wooden bridges unable to sustain 
 heavy loads. It required a full week to go from Boston to New 
 York. Two days were required for the trip from New York 
 to Philadelphia. 
 
American History. 
 
 115 
 
 242.— ' 
 
 u 
 
 1787, 
 1787, 
 1787, 
 1788, 
 1788, 
 1788. 
 1788, 
 1788, 
 1788, 
 1788, 
 1788, 
 1789, 
 1790, 
 «^1791, 
 '1792, 
 1796, 
 1803, 
 1812, 
 1816, 
 1817, 
 1818, 
 1819, 
 1820, 
 1821, 
 1836, 
 1837, 
 1845, 
 1845, 
 1846, 
 1848, 
 1850, 
 1858, 
 1859, 
 1861, 
 1863, 
 1864, 
 1867, 
 1876, 
 1889, 
 1889, 
 1889, 
 1889, 
 1890, 
 1890, 
 1896, 
 1907, 
 1912, 
 1912, 
 1868, 
 1791, 
 1900, 
 
 Dec. 
 Dec. 
 Dec. 
 Jan. 
 Tan. 
 Feb. 
 
 April 28 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 'une 
 
 uly 
 
 23 
 21 
 25 
 26 
 21 
 
 May 29 
 March 4 
 June 1 
 June 1 
 Feb. 19 
 
 April 30 
 
 Dec 
 
 Dec 
 
 Dec, 
 
 Dec. 14 
 
 March 15 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 June 15 
 
 Jan. 26 
 
 March 3 
 
 Dec. 29 
 
 Dec. 28 
 
 May 
 
 Sept. 
 
 May 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 June 
 
 Oct. 
 
 March 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Nov. 
 Jan. 
 Feb. 
 July 
 
 March 3 
 June 14 
 
 Under Civil 
 Government 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 I 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 22 
 23 
 24 
 25 
 26 
 27 
 28 
 29 
 30 
 31 
 32 
 23 
 34 
 35 
 36 
 37 
 38 
 39 
 40 
 41 
 42 
 43 
 44 
 45 
 46 
 47 
 48 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Maryland 
 
 South Carolina .... 
 New Hampshire . . . 
 
 Virginia 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina .... 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Maine 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Florida 
 
 Texas 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 California 
 
 IMinnesota 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Kansas 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Nevada 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Colorado 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 Montana 
 
 Washington 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Wyoming | 
 
 Utah 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Alaska 
 
 District of Columbia . 
 
 Hawaii 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Philippines 
 
 Guam 
 
 Panama Canal Zone . . 
 Tutuila, Samoa Islands 
 
 ,965 
 
 44,832 
 
 7,514 
 
 58,725 
 
 4,820 
 
 8.039 
 
 9,941 
 
 30,495 
 
 9,031 
 
 40,262 
 
 47,654 
 
 48,740 
 
 1,067 
 
 9,124 
 
 40,181 
 
 41,687 
 
 40,740 
 
 45,409 
 
 35,885 
 
 46,362 
 
 56,002 
 
 51,279 
 
 29,895 
 
 68,727 
 
 52,525 
 
 57,480 
 
 54,861 
 
 262,398 
 
 55,586 
 
 55,256 
 
 156,092 
 
 80,858 
 
 95,607 
 
 81,774 
 
 24,022 
 
 109,821 
 
 76,808 
 
 103,658 
 
 70,183 
 
 76,868 
 
 145,776 
 
 66,836 
 
 83,779 
 
 97,594 
 
 82,184 
 
 69,414 
 
 122,503 
 
 113,840 
 
 590,884 
 
 60 
 
 6,449 
 
 3,435 
 
 115,026 
 
 210 
 
 474 
 
 11 
 
 202,322 
 
 7,665,111 
 
 2,537,J67 
 
 2,609,121 
 
 1,114,756 
 
 3,366,416 
 
 1,295,346 
 
 1,515,400 
 
 430,572 
 
 2,061,612 
 
 9,113,614 
 
 2,206,287 
 
 542,610 
 
 355,956 
 
 2,289,905 
 
 2,184,789 
 
 4,767,121 
 
 1,656,388 
 
 2,700,876 
 
 1,797,114 
 
 5,638,591 
 
 2,138,093 
 
 742,371 
 
 3,293,335 
 
 1,574,449 
 
 2,810,173 
 
 752,619 
 
 3,896,542 
 
 2,224,771 
 
 2,333,860 
 
 2,377,549 
 
 2,075,708 
 
 672,765 
 
 1,690,949 
 
 1,221,119 
 
 81,875 
 
 1,192,214 
 
 799,024 
 
 577,056 
 
 583,888 
 
 376,053 
 
 1,141,990 
 
 325,594 
 
 145,965 
 
 373,351 
 
 1,657,155 
 
 327,301 
 
 204,354 
 
 64,356 
 
 331,069 
 
 191,909 
 
 1,118,012 
 
 7,635,426 
 
 11,760 
 
 43.995 
 
 6,668 
 
116 
 
 American History. 
 
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American History. 117 
 
 244. There was no uniformity in the election of the Presi- 
 dents in early days. In Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, 
 the people had complete choice ; in Massachusetts and New 
 Hampshire, they had a partial choice ; in Connecticut, Delaware. 
 New Jersey, South Carolina, and Georgia, the electors were 
 chosen by the legislatures ; New York chose none, because of a 
 quarrel between the two houses. Owing to the fact that there 
 was no Senate selected or in session on March 4, 1789, and less 
 than a majority of the House of Representatives until April, the 
 votes of the electors could not be examined and verified until 
 the end of April. Accordingly, Washington, the unanimous 
 choice of the electors, did not take office until April 30, 1789. 
 The candidate receiving the next highest number of electoral 
 votes, was John Adams, and he became Vice-President. 
 
 PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION 
 
 245. April 30, 1789 to March 4, 1797. 
 
 246. The members of the Executive Departments created in 
 accordance with the needs of the period were: The Department 
 of State, with Thomas Jefferson as Secretary: the Department 
 of War, with General Henry Knox as Secretary; the Treasury 
 Department, with Alexander Hamilton at the head ; and the 
 Attorney-General, with Edmund Randolph as its head. The 
 custom of calling these men together as a Cabinet v" ' origi- 
 nated by Washington, who sought the advice of these practical 
 men, two of whom were of the opposing party. 
 
 247. Because of the poverty-stricken condition of the Federal 
 treasury, the first legislation was the enactment of a tariff law, 
 which imposed slightly protective duties on imports. Specific 
 duties were laid on Wines, teas, nails, and about thirty other 
 articles, and ad valorem duties on a number of other articles, 
 including paper, leather and tinware. The average duty was 
 between eight and nine per cent. The revenue so raised was 
 insufficient, and the duties were increased by subsequent legis- 
 lation. 
 
 248. Congress in 1789 organized the Federal Judiciary, with 
 ja Chief Justice and five Associate Justices of the Supreme Court, 
 
118 American History. 
 
 and four Circuit Courts and thirteen District Courts. John Jay 
 was the first Chief Justice. 
 
 249. There were 26 Senators, two from each State, and 65 Rep- 
 resentatives (see Constitution, Article 1, Section 2). 
 
 250. The question of a Bill of Rights, similar to the English 
 Bill of Rights, guaranteeing the civil rights of the people, was 
 made one of the leading reasons for the opposition to the ratifi- 
 cation of the Constitution, and the first Congress kept the implied 
 promise made by the P^ederalist leaders and submitted twelve 
 amendments, ten of which were ratified by three-fourths the 
 total number of States in 1791. The Eleventh Amendment to the 
 Constitution was adopted as a result of the suit, Chisholm vs. 
 State of Georgia, and prohibited the bringing of suits against a 
 State by the citizen of any State. This has been remedied in 
 most States by the establishment of State Courts of Claim. 
 
 251. The work of Hamilton as a financier was most remark- 
 able in that it established the financial credit of the new nation. 
 Hamilton reported to Congress that the United States owed 
 $54,000,000, of which $12,000,000 was due European countries for 
 loans made during the war. The question of paying the debts 
 in the United States at full value arose, since the money had de- 
 preciated considerably. Hamilton's views that the claims should 
 be paid at face value were adopted, and Congress provided for the 
 payment of all debts at full value. 
 
 252. During the war many of the States had incurred debts 
 for supplies, to pay the armies, etc. Many of the States had paid 
 their debts, but there were still a few that had still heavy indebt- 
 edness. Hamilton urged that the United States assume these State 
 debts and pay them, because the debts had been incurred for the 
 benefit of the nation. The Southern States, having paid ofif most 
 of their debts, opposed this, while the Northern and Middle States 
 favored the assumption of States' debts. * 
 
 253. The question of the location of the national capital came 
 up and, by means of a compromise, the capital was located on 
 the banks of the Potomac, and the assumption of State debts by 
 the Federal Government was decided upon. 
 
 254. The revenues for the payment of these debts was to be 
 raised by means of an excise tax, the taxes to be laid on spirituous 
 liquors distilled in the United States. 
 
American History. - 119 
 
 255. As another part of Hamilton's financial policy Hamilton 
 proposed the chartering of a United States Bank, for a period 
 of twenty years, with a capital of $10,000,000, the Government 
 subscribing $2,000,000 in Government bonds. The bank was used 
 as a place of deposit for Government funds, and to aid it in bor- 
 rowing, collecting and paying out moneys, 
 
 256. This matter of chartering the United States Bank brought 
 up the question of the powers of Congress. 
 
 257. This gave rise to two parties, those that urged that Con- 
 gress had not the power because there was no specific power given 
 to it to pass such a law, that it was not expressly granted by the 
 Constitution, while the majority maintained that the power was 
 one of the implied powers of Congress found in the last clause 
 of the powers of Congress, as one of the "necessary and proper 
 for carrying into execution the foregoing powers." The former 
 were called the "strict constructionists," while the latter were 
 called the "loose constructionists." 
 
 258. The "elastic clause," the "clause of implied powers," the 
 "sleeping giant" clause is the clause (Art. I, Section 8, Clause 
 18) : "To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper 
 for carrying into execution the foregoing powers,' and all other 
 powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the 
 United States, or in any department or office thereof." 
 
 259. The causes that led to the formation of political parties 
 were : The difference in interpretation of the powers of Con- 
 gress (Federalists and Anti-Federalists) ; the differences of opin- 
 ion as to the rights and requirements of the various sections of 
 the United States (the North and the South) ; the assumption 
 of the debts incurred by the States during the American Revo- 
 lution ; the enmity between the patriots ; the difficulties between 
 France and England, and hatred for the British. 
 
 260. The French people, as a result of the terrible excesses 
 of the royalty and the nobility, revolted, overthrew the mon- 
 archy and established the French Republic on Sept. 22, 1792. In 
 April of the following year war was declared by France against 
 England. The French expected America to aid her in this war, 
 and to grant her privileges as to the use of the American ports 
 not accorded to the other nations. 
 
 (a) The Republicans were those headed by Jefferson and Burr, 
 
120 American History. 
 
 who favored the recognition of the French efforts and opposed 
 (b) the FederaHsts whose leaders were Washington, Adams and 
 Hamilton and who believed that an attitude of strict neutrality 
 would best conserve the interests of the United States. 
 
 261. (a)' Washington decided upon an absolutely neutral 
 course, embodied in his Proclamation of Neutrality, April 22, 
 
 1793. In this Proclamation he declares that the United States 
 would take the part of neither of the belligerents, according to 
 each equal rights as to the use of our ports, etc. (b) This 
 action enraged the French Minister to America, Genet, who 
 fitted out privateers in American ports to prey on British com- 
 merce. Genet's recall was demanded, and he was succeeded by 
 others equally objectionable. 
 
 262. In order to destroy the power of the French on the sea. 
 Great Britain, by her Orders in Council, prohibited the trading 
 with France or her colonies in contrabands of war, under penalty 
 of capture and forfeiture of vessels and goods. Several hun- 
 dred American vessels engaged in trade with the French West 
 Indies were captured. 
 
 263. England had an enormous navy on the sea. To man her 
 ships fully she required more sailors than she could get in volun- 
 teer enlistments. The "press gangs" in England could not supply 
 enough to make up the shortage, and she thereupon claimed the 
 right to stop neutral vessels and search for seamen of British 
 birth. Even seamen of American birth were impressed. War 
 between the two nations threatened. Congress passed an em- 
 bargo law and made appropriations for increasing the American 
 Navy in 1794. 
 
 264. In order to prevent war, Washington appointed a com- 
 mission, headed by Chief Justice John Jay, to negotiate with Eng- 
 land for a definite treaty of commerce and the settlement of 
 disputes. The treaty was drawn up in London on November 19, 
 
 1794, and under its terms Great Britain was to evacuate the forts 
 in the Northwest, to settle the non-payments of debts to Ameri- 
 can merchants, and to pay for the ships seized in carrying out 
 the Orders in Council. Nothing was mentioned about the im- 
 pressment of American seamen. The British did not recede 
 from their position in regard to neutral trade, and the treaty 
 
'American HistorV. 121 
 
 was passed by the Senate because it realized that this was the 
 best treaty that could then be negotiated. 
 
 265. In 1794, Thomas Pinckney was sent to Spain to negotiate 
 a treaty which provided for the free navigation of the Missis- 
 sippi, the right to deposit goods at New Orleans, and fixed the 
 boundary line between Florida and the United States. 
 
 266. As a result of the invasion of the Indian territory by the 
 pioneers, the Indians frequently attacked the settlements. The 
 American forces sent to punish the Indians were defeated, and 
 another expedition under the command of General Wayne de- 
 feated the Indians in the battle of "Fallen Timbers," on the 
 Maumee River. After this the Americans were permitted to 
 settle the territory. 
 
 267. To raise funds for Government expenses and to meet the 
 debts incurred during the Revolution an internal revenue tax 
 on distilled spirits was imposed. The Western farmers, owing 
 to the difficult transportation, converted grain into distilled 
 liquors. They naturally resisted the attempt to collect the tax, 
 and the collectors of internal revenue were severely beaten and 
 driven out of the country. Washington called out 13,000 soldiers, 
 who, under the command of Governor Lee of Virginia, promptly 
 suppressed the insurrection. This demonstrated to the people 
 the strength of the National Government to enforce its laws. 
 
 268. Washington, declining to serve for a third term as Presi- 
 dent, issued his famous "Farewell Address" on September 17, 
 1796, in which he strongly urged the nation "to keep clear of 
 permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world." 
 
 269. John Adams and Thomas Pinckney, prominent leaders of 
 the Federalist party, were nominated for the Presidency and 
 Vice-Presidency, respectively. Their opponents were Thomas 
 Jefferson and Aaron Burr. The result of the election was the 
 choice of John Adams for President, and Thomas Jefferson, 
 who received but three votes less than Adams, to the Vice- 
 Presidency, March 4, 1798, to March 4, 1802. 
 
 270. France was still disgruntled at the refusal of the United 
 States to aid her in her war against Great Britain. To show her 
 anger, and because the American ships continued to trade with 
 Great Britain, the French war vessels preyed upon American 
 commerce. A short naval war took place, in which the Con- 
 
122 American History. 
 
 stellation captured the French frigate L'Insurgente and the Amer- 
 icans defeated the French in a few naval engagements. The 
 French then announced that they were ready to receive the 
 American emissaries. On September 30, 1800, a treaty was con- 
 cluded in which the treaty of 1778 was declared null and void. 
 
 271. The French Minister to America was recalled. Wash- 
 ington replaced James Monroe as Minister to France by Pinckney, 
 but the French Government refused to receive him. A commis- 
 sion, consisting of Elbridge T. Gerry, John Marshall and Charles 
 C. Pinckney, was designated to negotiate with France, but they 
 were refused official recognition. Three secret agents of the 
 French Minister of Foreign Affairs, the famous Talleyrand, de- 
 manded $250,000 for the Directory and the Ministers as the 
 price of an audience. The Americans refused to consider the 
 proposal, and so notified President Adams. Congress pre- 
 pared against France ; Washington again became commander-in- 
 chief of the army; the Navy Department was created; and war 
 vessels were ordered to be built. 
 
 272. Owing to President Adams' unpopularity and the troubles 
 with France, the Republicans, among whom were a large number 
 of foreigners, were extreme in their abuse of the President and 
 the Government. In 1798 Congress, then under Federalist con- 
 trol, passed what are known as the Alien and Sedition Laws. 
 In effect they were: The NaturaHzation Act, which raised the 
 period of stay in America from five to fourteen years (repealed 
 in 1802) ; the Alien Act, which authorized the President to expel 
 from the United States all aliens whom he should consider as 
 dangerous ; the Sedition Act provided for the punishment by 
 fine and imprisonment of any person who should bring the Gov- 
 ernment into disrepute. 
 
 273. The denunciation of these laws was bitter. At the instiga- 
 tion of Jefferson, the Legislatures of Kentucky and Virginia 
 passed a series of resolutions condemning the Government for 
 the passage of these resolutions. The Kentucky Legislature first 
 enunciated the doctrine of "nullification." The Virginia resolu- 
 tions were drawn up by James Madison and the Kentucky reso- 
 lutions were written by Thomas Jefferson. 
 
 274. The Federalist party was bound to fall into disfavor. The 
 temperament of the President, the quarrels among the Federalist 
 
American History. 123 
 
 leaders, the rise of the Republican party, the passage of the 
 AHen and Sedition laws, the attack of Hamilton on Adams, served 
 to disrupt the Federalist party. 
 
 275. 1800-1808, Republican party, succeeded later by the present 
 Democratic party. 
 
 276. Jefferson and Burr, the two candidates for President and 
 Vice-President, respectively, of the Republican party, received 
 an equal number of votes. According to the Constitution, Article 
 H, Section I, Clause 2, the election was thrown into the House 
 of Representatives, where, under the influence of Hamilton, the 
 
 •Federalist representatives voted for Jefferson as against Burr. 
 Jefferson secured the votes of ten of the sixteen States. 
 
 277. Before going out of office, President Adams made many 
 appointments of Federalists to offices. The commissions for 
 these were withheld by Jefferson, whose Secretary of State, 
 James IMadison, was sued in order to compel him to deliver the 
 appointment to one William Marbury, a judicial appointee of 
 Adams. The Supreme Court refused to issue the writ, in a de- 
 cision rendered by Chief Justice John Marshall, who enunciated 
 the important doctrine that the Federal Courts might declare 
 null and void any act that they deemed contrary to the spirit and 
 letter of the Constitution. 
 
 278. John Marshall, a prominent Federalist, was appointed to 
 the ofiice of Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court 
 by President Adams. He served for many years, and during 
 the half century that he was on the bench he proved himself one 
 of the greatest of jurists, enunciating the doctrine of the su- 
 premacy of the National Constitution and the Government under 
 it. His was the force of moulding the country legally into a 
 nation. 
 
 279. In 17o3, Louisiana, with the Island of New Orleans, then 
 French territory, was ceded to Spain as a reward for her assist- 
 ance in the Seven Years' War. West Florida, which had been 
 ceded to Great Britain in 1763, was ceded to Spain at the close 
 of the Revolution. Napoleon, then Emperor of France, was 
 planning to build a French Empire in North America, which 
 plan was aided by the cession back to France of Louisiana Terri- 
 tory in exchange for Italian Tuscany, in 1800. This information, 
 when it reached the American people, aroused great fears as to 
 
124 American History. 
 
 the safety of the American States, due, in part, to the boundless 
 ambitions of Napoleon. In addition to this cession of territory, 
 the right of deposit of merchandise at New Orleans was with- 
 drawn by the Spanish Governor. Jefferson, an ardent pacifist, 
 in order to oppose peaceably the demands of the Federalists for 
 a declaration of war against France and Spain, instructed Min- 
 ister Livingston to buy New Orleans and West Florida. In Jan- 
 uary, 1803, James Monroe was appointed special envoy to assist 
 Livingston. Napoleon had, in the meantime, started his plan 
 of conquest, but was defeated in his attempt to reconquer Santo 
 Domingo. England was again preparing for war against Napo- 
 leon, and the French Emperor decided to forestall the British 
 attempt to seize the French Territory of Louisiana — which they 
 could very easily do because of their enormous navy. The French 
 Secretary of State, Talleyrand, therefore offered Louisiana Ter- 
 ritory to the American Minister. The day following the offer 
 Monroe arrived at Paris, and the American commissioners re- 
 solved to exceed their instructions and accept the offer of the 
 French, April 30, 1803. Fifteen million dollars were paid for this 
 territory of New Orleans, an area equal to more than one-third 
 of the total area of the United States. 
 
 280. The gains to the United States as a result of this pur- 
 chase were : It removed unwelcome European neighbors from 
 west of the United States ; it doubled the area of the United 
 States; it provided room for the development of the United 
 States ; it emphasized the fact that the future development of the 
 United States depended largely upon a loose interpretation of 
 the Constitution, and that the Constitution was to be interpreted 
 in the light of the events of the time of the interpretation ; that 
 it was a living constitutional organism; it gained an area that 
 was to become the granary of the world. 
 
 28L April 30, 1803. 
 
 282. That the powers of Congress would be construed In terms 
 of Section 8 of Article 1 of the Constitution, including the "elas- 
 tic" clause. Jefferson and the Democratic party were "loose 
 constructionists'* when the welfare of the United States was 
 concerned. 
 
 283. Jefferson was interested to know the extent of the West and 
 to discover a route from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Moun- 
 
American History. 125 
 
 tains and beyond. Accordingly, early in January, 1803, Congress, 
 at the urgent request of Jefferson, authorized the organization of 
 an expedition to explore the West and also to secure the trade 
 of the Indians west of the Mississippi. In May, 1804, after the 
 purchase of Louisiana, an expedition under the combined com- 
 mands of Captains Lewis and Clarke began the ascent of the 
 Missouri River, For six months they traveled through this un- 
 known territory, reaching the region of Bismarck, North Da- 
 kota, where they settled down for the winter. In the spring of 
 1805 they crossed the mountains, and in November of the same 
 year they beheld the Pacific Ocean and the territory discovered 
 by Captain Robert Gray, an American seaman, who also dis- 
 covered and named the River Columbia. These events strength- 
 ened the claim of the United States to the Oregon Territory. 
 
 284. Lieut. Zebulon Pike, an army officer, was sent to find the 
 source of the Mississippi. Failing in this, on his return to St. 
 Louis he explored the Arkansas and Red rivers, and discovered 
 "Pike's Peak." He reached Santa Fe in February, 1807. 
 
 285. The invention of the steamboat, in 1807, by Robert Fulton. 
 This boat, the Clermont, made the trip up the Hudson, a distance 
 of 150 miles, in 32 hours (August 11, 1807). 
 
 286. The Barbary States or Powers were those nations of 
 Northern Africa bordering on the Mediterranean Sea, including 
 Tripoli, Algiers, Tunis, Morocco, now under complete control 
 of the European nations of France, Spain, or Great Britain. 
 
 287. For generations the European nations had paid tribute to 
 escape the attacks of the Barbary pirates. Their ships preyed 
 upon European and American commerce in the Mediterranean 
 Sea, seizing ships and cargoes and enslaving the crews. The 
 United States had paid tribute to these powers, but as a signal 
 act of defiance the Pasha of Tripoli had ordered the flagstaff of 
 the American Embassy in Tripoli chopped down. President Jef- 
 ferson thereupon ordered a small fleet to destroy the Algerian 
 pirates. In 1803, Commodore Preble with a larger fleet prosecuted 
 the attack against the Pasha and destroyed the city. The Dey of 
 Algiers also came to terms after being severely punished. The 
 Mediterranean Sea was once and for all time cleared of pirates. 
 
 288. In 1804, Jefferson was re-elected President of the United 
 States, and George Clinton, Governor of New York, was elected 
 
126 American History. 
 
 Vice-President. This marked the destruction of the Federalist 
 party as a political party in the United States. See answer 314. 
 
 289. Because of the political and personal antagonism of Alex- 
 ander Hamilton, Aaron Burr, candidate for Governor of New 
 York, was defeated. He challenged Hamilton to a duel, and in 
 the encounter (July, 1804) Hamilton was killed. 
 
 290. Burr became a political and social outcast. He organized 
 an expedition to bring about the separation of the West from the 
 territory of the United States. Because of the failure of the 
 plan, which was divulged to Jefferson, he fled to Florida, but 
 was captured and placed on trial for treason. He died in ob- 
 scurity, ostracised for his many deeds in opposition to the con- 
 ventions of society and the state. 
 
 291. War between Napoleon and Great Britain was renewed in 
 1803. The American shippers were reaping a rich harvest in the 
 trade with the French and Spanish, particularly in the carrying 
 of the products of their colonies. The British determined to mo- 
 nopolize this trade and enforced literally and strictly their naviga- 
 tion laws, working irreparable damage to the carrying trade of 
 the United States. Napoleon was supreme in Europe, while 
 Great Britain, as a result of the defeat of the combined French 
 and Spanish fleet at Trafalgar (1805) dominated the sea. Neu- 
 tral trade was wholly in the hands of the Americans. By attack- 
 ing this trade each of the belligerents hoped to destroy the other. 
 Napoleon inaugurated his "Continental System" in 1806, by in- 
 sisting that Prussia should close all her ports to Great Britain. 
 The latter retaliated with the blockade of the northern coast of 
 Europe, which brought forward the Berlin Decree of Napoleon 
 (November, 1806), declaring the British Isles to be in a state 
 of blockade, and forbidding all trade with Great Britain. Great 
 Britain responded with her Orders in Council, in 1807. These 
 orders prohibited neutral vessels from trading with any port in 
 Europe from which the British flag was excluded, unless certain 
 duties were first paid at some British port. This was followed 
 by Napoleon's Milan Decree (December 17, 1807), which declared 
 that any vessel that submitted to British search or entered a Brit- 
 ish port for any reason whatsoever was liable to seizure. These 
 were all "paper" blockades, without sufficient naval or military 
 force to back them up. The only important consequence of these 
 
American History. 127 
 
 orders and decrees was the seizure of American carriers by both 
 of the warring nations, 
 
 292. England had an enormous fleet of vessels requiring sailors 
 which she could not man from her own sailors. She made use 
 of the right of search and impressment of sailors in order to fill 
 the quota of sailors on her naval vessels. British war vessels 
 were stationed outside the American harbors, searched all vessels 
 for contraband goods and impressed American seamen. It is 
 said that more than four thousand American sailors were com- 
 pelled to serve in the British navy, 
 
 293. The climax of these outrages was the attack of the Leop- 
 ard on the Chesapeake in Hampton Roads, on June 22, 1807. 
 The Chesapeake, an American frigate, refused to obey the call of 
 the British frigate Leopard, and was attacked with solid shot. 
 Four "deserters," three of whom were Americans, were taken off 
 the vessels, three Americans killed, and several wounded. The 
 Americans were in a state of fury, and demanded immediate 
 satisfaction. 
 
 294. Jefferson was a firm believer in peace, and refused to urge 
 war against Great Britain. He ordered the British vessels to 
 leave American waters and ordered the building of small gun- 
 boats for coast defense. In the meantime a commission consist- 
 ing of Monroe and William Pinckney was sent to England to 
 renew the Jay treaty, but Jefferson refused to submit the treaty 
 that was negotiated because England refused to give up the rights 
 of search and impressment, 
 
 295. Not succeeding in making either of the two European bel- 
 ligerents come to terms, Jefferson thereupon urged an embargo 
 on American shipping. This law, passed near the close of 1807, 
 prohibited the sailing of American vessels to foreign ports. The 
 results were disastrous to American shipping, and at the same 
 time placed a burden on the working classes of Great Britain, 
 but that country refused to recede one step from her declared 
 policy. 
 
 296. (a) The trade of the United States was ruined, ships 
 were laid up in the harbors, the planters and other exporters 
 were deprived of their foreign markets and ruined ; but it gave 
 an impetus to American manufactures. Drastic laws were passed 
 to punish smuggling, which increased with great rapidity, (b) 
 
128 American History. 
 
 The Embargo Act proved a failure. For it was substituted the 
 Non-Intercourse Act of 1809, which prohibited commercial inter- 
 course with Great Britain and France and their colonies and de- 
 pendencies. 
 
 297. James Madison succeeded Jefferson as President, in 1808- 
 1809. Of the Republican party. 
 
 298. The new President, James Madison, desired to continue 
 with the peaceful policy of his predecessor, and it appeared for 
 a time that the difficulties between the two English-speaking 
 countries would be amicably adjusted. The English Minister at 
 Washington, David Erskine, arranged an agreement by which 
 the various objectionable English Orders would be withdrawn, 
 and Madison proclaimed the reopening of trade with Great 
 Britain. Erskine, however, was superseded by Minister Jackson, 
 who refused to sanction the agreement of his predecessor, which 
 had been repudiated by the British government, and for his 
 objectionable conduct Madison declared him persona non grata. 
 
 299. The Orders in Council are Orders having the full effect 
 of laws, issued by the British Privy Council, in cases where 
 Parliament is not asked to act, or Parliament is not in session. 
 These Orders take immediate effect, and may be changed upon 
 a moment's notice. 
 
 300. Napoleon issued and enforced the most outrageous of his 
 decrees, the Rambouillet Decree, which caused the confiscation 
 and sale of every American vessel which had entered or should 
 enter the ports of France after May 20, 1809. The treasury of 
 France was enriched by some ten milHon dollars. This was in 
 retahation for the passage of the Non-Intercourse Act. In re- 
 venge for this deed the American Minister to Russia, John 
 Quincy Adams, secured the firm friendship of Russia in partly 
 breaking down the Napoleonic Continental System. Russia, like- 
 wise, aligned herself against France. 
 
 301. The union of all the Indian tribes on the Western border 
 to resist the encroachments of the whites was followed by the 
 bribery of the Indians by the British commissioners and agents 
 who supplied them with arms and ammunition. Governor Will- 
 iam Henry Harrison of the Indiana Territory, alarmed at the 
 progress of the Indians, marched against them, and defeated them 
 
American History. 129 
 
 in a battle on the Tippecanoe Creek. This broke up the Indian 
 opposition to the western movement of the Americans. 
 
 302. The Congress of 1811 contained a very large number of 
 young men, on whom the outrages of Great Britain and France 
 had made a most unfavorable impression. They came chiefly 
 from the South and the West, and were imbued with an ardent 
 Americanism that is to be found in the naturally aggressive, 
 ambitious, self-reliant Americans of the younger generation. 
 Many of the most prominent leaders during the next fifty years 
 were to be found among these new men. The great figure, Henry 
 Clay, a thorough exemplar of the spirit of the West, was elected 
 Speaker of the House of Representatives. John C. Calhoun, 
 then thirty years of age, was made a member of the Committee 
 on Foreign Relations of the House, though serving his first term 
 as Representative. The Congress decided, among other things, 
 that the army should be increased ; that the navy should be in- 
 creased and that merchant vessels be fitted to resist the British 
 and the French. On June 18, 1812, war was declared against 
 Great Britain, just five days before that government revoked the 
 Orders in Council. 
 
 303. June 18, 1812— December, 1814 (January 8, 1815). See 
 answer 312. 
 
 304. The causes of the War were : The impressment of Ameri- 
 can seamen ; the seizure of American vessels ; the violation and 
 destruction of American commerce in American waters ; the out- 
 rageous Orders in Council; the atrocities and attacks of the In- 
 dians instigated by British agents. 
 
 305. Were it not for the fact that Great Britain had cast all in 
 the scales in a war to crush Napoleon, there is no doubt that the 
 outcome of the second war with Great Britain would have ended 
 other than it did. America was totally unprepared for a war 
 against her former enemy. The regular army had less than 7,000 
 men, led by old or inexperienced officers ; the navy was small 
 and incomplete. Great Britain had complete dominion over the 
 seas, with a navy of more than one thousand vessels, and an 
 army of trained soldiers under capable officers. The American 
 naval officers, however, together with the crews, were the equals 
 of the British in point of efficiency, but they were exceedingly 
 few in comparison. 
 
130 American History. 
 
 306. Despite the almost total unpreparedness against a superior 
 nation, the campaigns were planned with great confidence. Three 
 armies were brought together on the Canadian border to defend 
 the country and to invade the British colony. One was to defend 
 Detroit, another was to cross the Niagara River and advance on 
 Toronto, with the aid of the army from Detroit, and the third 
 was to join the other two and capture Montreal and Quebec. 
 
 307. The Detroit army was under the command of General 
 William Hull, and being met by a British and Indian army, sur- 
 rendered at Detroit to an inferior force. A detachment of six 
 hundred Kentucky troops surrendered to a superior force of 
 British and Indians on the River Raisin, and General WilHam 
 Henry Harrison, in command of the American forces, found it 
 extremely difficult to hold the Northwest Territory. The Ameri- 
 cans who had crossed the Niagara River were defeated and com- 
 pelled to surrender. The third American army that was to ad- 
 vance by way of Lakes Champlain and George did nothing 
 because it feared the same fate as the others. 
 
 308. The American frigate Constitution, commanded by Captain 
 Isaac Hull, defeated the British war vessel Guerriere, under Cap- 
 tain Dacre; the American sloop Wasp defeated the British brig 
 Frolic, in mid-Atlantic Ocean; the American frigate United 
 States captured the Macedonia off the coast of North Africa; 
 the Constitution destroyed the Java off the coast of Brazil. How- 
 ever, the Chesapeake, In an encounter outside Boston harbor 
 with the British ship Shannon, was disabled and surrendered 
 in spite of the order of Captain Lawrence, of "Don't give up 
 the ship" fame. Captain David Porter, In the Essex, destroyed 
 many British whaling ships In the South Atlantic and the Pacific, 
 until his vessel was destroyed In the harbor of Valparaiso, to 
 which he had fled to escape capture by the British. 
 
 309. In order to enable General William Henry Harrison to 
 hold the Northwest Territory It was necessary that the British 
 control of Lake Erie be loosened. Accordingly, Commodore 
 Oliver H. Perry, In command of Lake Erie, determined to build 
 a fleet and attack the British. With his fleet of nine vessels he 
 attacked the superior British fleet In Put-In-Bay (September 10, 
 1813) and quickly destroyed or captured the entire fleet. The 
 consequences were : enthusiasm instilled In the Americans, the 
 
American History. 131 
 
 recapture of Detroit, the defeat of the British at the Battle of 
 the Thames. Alichigan again became American territory. The 
 Americans followed up these advantages on the Niagara fron- 
 tier and Toronto was captured, the Battles of Chippewa and 
 Lundy's Lane followed, and the Battle of Lake Champlain added 
 much to the credit of American arms. 
 
 310. In retaliation for the burning of the city of Toronto 
 (York), the British Admiral Cochrane ordered the destruction 
 of American property along the Atlantic, and General Ross was 
 ordered to capture Washington. The Capital was easily taken, 
 the city sacked and entirely destroyed, and two weeks later 
 Baltimore was attacked. The British, however, did not follow 
 up their victories, because of slight defeats at Fort McHenry and 
 Baltimore, and withdrew from the Chesapeake. 
 
 311. Though the Americans did not have a navy as large as 
 the British, yet the value of the enormous fleet of privateersmen, 
 fitted out to prey on British commerce, was seen in the change 
 in public feeling in Great Britain, so that the merchants and 
 ship-owners of Great Britain demanded the termination of the 
 war. Before news reached America of the signing of the treaty 
 of peace, the British were decisively defeated at New Orleans. 
 
 312. Andrew Jackson, after defeating the Creek Indians in 
 Alabama, was put in command of the American army of 5,000 
 pioneers, and marksmen and sharpshooters from the West. Op- 
 posed to him was the British army of 10,000 trained British vet- 
 erans, supported by a fleet of fifty vessels. The individual fire 
 of the splendid marksmen comprising the American army told 
 so on the attacks made in mass by the British soldiers that they 
 suffered a decisive defeat, with a loss of one-fifth of their army 
 and the death of their leader. The Americans, behind their cotton 
 bale breastworks, lost only 71. This was on January 8, 1815, after 
 the treaty of peace had been signed in December, 1814. 
 
 313. The treaty of peace, signed at Ghent, provided for the 
 mutual restoration of all captured territory and for commissions 
 to settle all boundary disputes. The questions of impressment 
 and the right of search were not included, though with the reign 
 of peace in Europe the questions did not need to be brought up, 
 and with the development of the United States as a world power, 
 that liberty was never again taken by any foreign nation. 
 
132 American History. 
 
 314. The New England States were opposed to the war, and 
 particularly to the policies of the President and the party in 
 power. The few remaining Federalist leaders met in Hartford, in 
 December, 1814, and adopted resolutions in opposition to the 
 war. The resolutions were similar to the Kentucky and Virginia 
 Resolutions of 1798. The New England States refused to re- 
 spond to the President's requisition for troops, and the subscrip- 
 tions to the loans were meager. 
 
 315. The results of this war, small as it was, were monumental. 
 It created a feeling of union and nationality between the East and 
 the West. The impetus given to the manufacture of articles cut 
 off as a result of the ravages of the British and the French ves- 
 sels was maintained, and the United States became one of the 
 great manufacturing nations. The destruction of the Federalist 
 Party made the Republican Party supreme. 
 
 316. The attacks on American shipping, the blockades- declared 
 by the belligerent European nations, the Embargo, the Non-In- 
 tercourse acts, all tended to withdraw capital from the shipping 
 and carrying industry, and the capital had to seek another channel 
 for investment, which it found in manufactures. There arose in 
 the United States numerous manufactories, and the older in- 
 dustries increased in number. After the war, the British manu- 
 facturers, in order to regain their lost American markets, poured 
 into America their manufactures at prices lower than the cost 
 of manufacture of the same goods in America. During the year 
 after the war. Great Britain exported to America more than 
 $125,000,000 worth of manufactures, and American manufacturers 
 could not meet the low prices of the British. Accordingly, Con- 
 gress, in 1816, imposed a duty of 25% on imports of cottons and 
 woolens, and provided for heavy duties on iron imports. All 
 sections of the country favored this protective tariff, but the ship- 
 ping interests, fearing a loss of their carrying trade, opposed it. 
 
 317. See answer 255. 
 
 318. At the expiration of the twenty-year term of the charter 
 of the United States Bank, Congress refused to recharter it. Nu- 
 merous State Banks sprang up, and finances were unsettled. Busi- 
 ness was in a state of panic. To stabilize affairs. Congress char- 
 tered for twenty years and organized the Second United States 
 Bank with a capital of $35,000,000, one-fifth of which was to be 
 
American History. 133 
 
 subscribed for by the national government. The President was 
 to appoint one-fifth of the directors. The Bank had its main of- 
 fice in Philadelphia, with branches in many of the largest cities. 
 
 319. The cheap land ofifered by the government to homesteaders 
 and pioneers attracted large numbers to the western territory. 
 Land could be had as low as $2 an acre. Numerous towns and 
 settlements sprang up after the backwoodsman and the pioneer 
 had made their advent into the territory. As more people came 
 West, the value of the land rose, the number of immigrants from 
 the European countries increased, and the farmers and land own- 
 ers disposed of their lands at higher prices and moved westward 
 to the cheaper and less cultivated sections. By 1810, Kentucky's 
 population was more than 400,000 ; Tennessee had a population of 
 more than a quarter of a million; Ohio, 230,000; Indiana, 25,000, 
 and Illinois, 12,000. After the war emigration to the West took 
 on increased volume because of the unsettled industrial condi- 
 tions in the East, the absence of danger from the Indians, the ease 
 with which the soil could be tilled, the opening of the mines of 
 iron, coal, and lead in Western Pennsylvania, Illinois and Wis- 
 consin, and the troublous and hard times in Europe following the 
 Napoleonic Wars. 
 
 320. The routes were by ways of the valleys and the waterways. 
 From the New England States, the routes were by way of Al- 
 bany, the Mohawk Valley and Lake Erie ; from the Hudson, to the 
 head waters of the Allegheny, and over and through the pass at 
 Pittsburg. The "Conestoga" wagon drawn by four or six horses, 
 the flat-bottomed boat, the pack on the horse, the pack on the 
 back of the man himself, were the means of transporting the 
 necessary freight. Charges on the boat and on the wagon were 
 so much per pound. Roads in large number were built by private 
 companies, and tolls collected from their users. 
 
 321. In order to satisfy the demand made by the people of the 
 West, as well as some of those in the East, Congress, in 1806, ap- 
 propriated $30,000 for the construction of a road from Cumber- 
 land, Maryland, to the Ohio River. Work was begun in 1811, 
 and by 1820, it had been extended to Vandalia, then the capital of 
 Illinois. Between 1806 and 1838, nearly seven milHon dollars were 
 appropriated for its repair and extension. With the opening of the 
 railroads, this road was given over to the States through which it 
 
134 American History. 
 
 ran. It made access to the West much easier and cheapened 
 transportation. 
 
 222. Owing to this migration to the West, there arose a demand 
 for internal improvements. Many of the States themselves 
 made improvements, but all of these were local, and there then 
 arose the demand that the national government appropriate funds 
 for this purpose. The harbors on the coasts were improved, 
 roads were constructed, aid given to the construction of canals, 
 etc. 
 
 323. In New York, under the energetic leadership of De Witt 
 Clinton, the Erie Canal was built, extending through the Mohawk 
 Valley from Albany to Buffalo, a distance of almost four hundred 
 miles. It took eight years to build, at a cost of $7,000,000. The 
 importance of the opening of this canal to the cities in New York 
 State, particularly to Buffalo, New York, and the cities along its 
 route, cannot be estimated. The rates of transportation dropped 
 from $32 a ton by wagon for one hundred miles to $1 per ton by 
 boat. The route via the Great Lakes, Erie Canal, and the Hud- 
 son River connected the West with the Atlantic Ocean and Eu- 
 rope. The Erie Canal also became the favorite route for passen- 
 ger and freight travel to the West. 
 
 324. The growth of the West from the first was remarkable. 
 The population increased so rapidly that the following States 
 were soon carved from the national domain and admitted into 
 the Union: Ohio, 1803; Louisiana, 1812; Indiana, 1816; Missis- 
 sippi, 1817; Illinois, 1818, and Alabama. 1819. The West was the 
 melting pot of the various nationalities and races. The immi- 
 grants were from all sections and from all countries of Europe. 
 They knew no class or social distinctions ; to them the individual 
 qualities of self-help, courage, loyalty to their new American 
 ideals, were the indexes of the good American. No privileged 
 classes were recognized, and none existed. The spirit of democ- 
 racy predominated. The constitutions adopted were of the demo- 
 cratic type. The judiciary was made elective instead of ap- 
 pointive. 
 
 325. Recognizing that education was an essential for good 
 American citizenship, we find that academies and schools were or- 
 ganized very early. The common public school, however, did 
 not exist until much later in the number that v/ere required by 
 
American History. 135 
 
 the population. In 1824, Ohio passed a law that common schools 
 were to be supported by taxation, and this marked the real begin- 
 ning of the common school system throughout the West. We 
 soon find the school house and the church the two most im- 
 portant edifices in every town and county. 
 Zld. 1793, Eli Whitney. 
 
 327. The application of the cotton-gin to the cleaning of cot- 
 ton reduced the cost considerably, and made its cultivation prof- 
 itable. The demand for cotton increased. To meet this demand, 
 the planters increased the area of cultivation, extending the cot- 
 ton-planting lands and carrying slavery with it to the southern 
 part of the Mississippi Valley, and beyond the Mississippi River. 
 The demand for good cotton land soon raised the values of the 
 land, so that in 1818 an acre of land cost as much as $100. The 
 sale of public lands to cotton planters during the same year 
 amounted to more than $3,000,000, and the population of Alabama 
 in 1819 was more than 70,000, one-third of whom were slaves. 
 
 328. The North was opposed to slavery for humanitarian and for 
 economic reasons. In the Northern States tlie institution of slav- 
 ery had been found unprofitable, and had slowly but surely, even 
 during colonial days, been done away with. In the South, it 
 seemed economically necessary, and the number of slaves had in- 
 creased, but the excesses in connection with the slave trade, and 
 the ownership of slaves by many of the Southern planters and 
 their managers in which the slaves were considered as so much 
 chattel or property, the various steps taken to keep the slaves in 
 utter ignorance, etc., the many laws passed against slaves, caused 
 an outburst of feeling against slavery. 
 
 329. Many anti-slavery societies had been formed since the 
 adoption of the Constitution, and their activities resulted in the 
 abolition of slavery in all the States north of the Mason and 
 Dixon Line. The bill prohibiting the importation of slaves into 
 the Union after January 1st, 1808, was passed with large majori- 
 ties in the two houses of the national legislature. The Ordinance 
 of 1787 prohibited slavery in the States to be formed from the 
 Northwest Territory, and the Ohio River became the natural 
 boundary line between slave and free states. 
 
 330. The South needed slaves to till the soil, to cultivate the 
 farms, to attend to the menial work in the cities and in the coun- 
 
136 American History. 
 
 try sections. To the Southerner, the slave was an economic neces- 
 sity, though many of the Southern planters themselves recognized 
 the inhumanity of the institution. 
 
 331. In 1819, Missouri applied for admission as a State. An ex- 
 citing debate took place over the amendment proposing that no 
 more slaves should be admitted into the State of Missouri, and 
 that all children born within the State after its admission should 
 be free after the age of twenty-five. Clay led the opposition to this, 
 claiming that the Constitution did not give the House the right 
 to legislate on this question, and that the evils of slavery would 
 be lessened by allowing the institution to spread. The House 
 passed the amendment, but the Senate defeated it. Thus matters 
 rested, until Maine sought admission as a State, which bill was 
 passed (December, 1819), but held up in the Senate until a com- 
 promise could be effected. The compromise, known as the 
 Missouri Compromise, provided that Missouri was to be ad- 
 mitted as a slave State. In the remainder of the Louisiana 
 Purchase Territory, slave states could be formed only in 
 the territory south of the Mason and Dixon Line extension 
 (36° 30' north latitude), and slavery should be prohibited in the 
 States to be carved out of the territory north of that line. 
 Both Maine and Missouri were then admitted as States. The 
 proposed Constitution of ]\Iissouri contained a provision that 
 prohibited free negroes from entering the State, but this was 
 declared unconstitutional, (Art. IV, section 2, clause 1) and 
 through the efforts of Clay, a compromise was effected elimi- 
 nating this objectionable feature. 
 
 332. The results of the Compromise were : It maintained the 
 balance of States in the Senate. It recognized the authority of 
 Congress to legislate on matters pertaining to slavery. It 
 marked the natural boundary lines between slave and free 
 States, as the Mason and Dixon Line, and the Ohio River. It 
 brought forward prominently as an economic and industrial 
 question, the institution of slavery. 
 
 333. James Monroe, President, 1816-1824. 
 
 334. The fusion of the political parties, evidenced by the 
 re-election of Monroe in 1820, with the unanimous electoral 
 vote less one. 
 
 335. John Marshall was Chief Justice of the United States 
 
American History. 137 
 
 Supreme Court from 1801 to 1835, and hi§ decisions are marked 
 by an intense feeling for the superiority of the national govern- 
 ment over that of the state government. Two cases are famous : 
 McCulloch vs. Maryland (1819) which grew out of an attempt 
 by the State of Maryland to tax a branch of the United States 
 Bank at Baltimore. The decision in this case again emphasized 
 the implied powers of Congress. In the Dartmouth College 
 case, he declared the sacredness and binding power of a contract 
 and emphasized the inability of a legislature to impair the 
 obligations of a contract. 
 
 336. The Province of Florida, lacking an efficient government, 
 became a refuge for criminals, for the savage southern Indians, 
 for fugitive negroes, and a place where plots against the United 
 States could be hatched. Moreover, the Peninsula controlled a 
 very important water route between the Eastern States and 
 the American territory on the Gulf of Mexico. In 1818, General 
 Andrew Jackson, in pursuit of a body of Seminole Indians 
 who had attacked United States troops, invaded Florida, 
 seized St. Marks and Pensacola, executed two British agents 
 suspected of inciting the Indians, and placed the Province under 
 the military control of the United States. In 1819 a treaty 
 was effected between Spain and the United States by which 
 Spain ceded Florida in payment of $5,000,000, the amount to be 
 applied to claims of American citizens against Spain. 
 
 337. The territory of Florida, security against depredations 
 emanating from Florida, security against attack by a foreign 
 nation from the South, control of the Florida Strait and the 
 Gulf of Mexico, the fixing of the boundary line of the Louisiana 
 Purchase to the exclusion of Texas, and the settlement of 
 claims of Americans against Spain to the extent of the purchase 
 price of Florida. 
 
 338. One of the effects of the Napoleonic Conquest of Spain 
 was the revolt of the dependencies of Spain in South America 
 against the arbitrary rule of the Spanish officials. Argentina 
 was the only State successful In securing its Independence. In 
 1817, the revolts broke out again, and the States succeeded in 
 driving out the power of Spain. Mexico became independent 
 in 1821. Brazil also declared her Independence of Portugal. 
 The spirit of revolt and of democracy In the New World so 
 
138 American History. 
 
 impressed the monafchs of the Holy Christian Alliance, originally 
 formed by Czar Alexander I of Russia, to govern according 
 to the Principles of Christianity, that they (Austria, Russia, and 
 Spain) agreed to render one another assistance in the destruc- 
 tion of representative institutions in Europe. The King of 
 Spain implored their assistance to punish the revolutionists in 
 South America. Great Britain feared this would mean the 
 closing of the South American ports to her ships, and she 
 urged, through Canning, English Minister of Foreign Affairs, 
 that the United States and England declare against any project 
 of European powers to subjugate South American States. 
 President Monroe had already recognized them as free States. 
 Fearing that the demands made by Russia for the control of 
 the Western Coast of North America as far south as 51° north 
 latitude would endanger American interests on the Pacific, in 
 his Annual IMessage to Congress in December 1823, President 
 jMonroe enunciated what has become known as the Monroe 
 Doctrine. This defined the policy of the United States as 
 regards the relations between the European Powers and the 
 American Nations. It is : "The American continents, . . . 
 are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future 
 colonization by European powers." "We should consider any 
 attempt on their part (European powers) to extend their system 
 to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace 
 and safety." The United States would consider as an un- 
 friendly act "the interposition by any European power for the 
 purpose of oppressing the independent American governments 
 or controlling in any other manner their destiny." The effect 
 was instantaneous. Each nation disavowed any intention of 
 unfriendliness, and, in 1825, a treaty was signed which fixed 
 the southern limits of Russian territory in America as 54° 40'. 
 
 The statement of the "Monroe Doctrine" marked the 
 beginning of the control of the Western Hemisphere by the 
 United States of America. As a result of it, the United 
 States is in the position of guardian of the Spanish American 
 States. We are morally bound to see that these governments 
 are carried on in accordance with the political doctrines of the 
 twentieth century, that their relations with the European nations 
 are such as will not lead to disputes with those nations, and 
 
American History. 139 
 
 that peace shall reign throughout those countries. In return 
 we can feel assured that no European nation will venture to 
 dispute the authority of the United States in the federation 
 of western nations. In 1866, we compelled the withdrawal of 
 French troops from Mexico ; in 1895, we compelled the arbitra- 
 tion of the dispute of the Venezuela-British Guiana boundary 
 line ; in 1898, we went to war with Spain, partly because of 
 our position as "guardian" of the Western Hemisphere. 
 
 339. The tariff legislation of 1824 hinged on the question of 
 protection to the industries in America. The Western farmers 
 and the manufacturers of the East won by a small majority 
 against the combined vote of the shipping interests of the 
 New England States and the Southern planters. The duties on 
 cotton, woolen goods, hemp, and iron manufactures were in- 
 creased. 
 
 340. The Presidential election of 1824 is particularly notable 
 for the organization of the present national nominating con- 
 vention and the caucus before elections, and for the application 
 of the constitutional provision on the election of the President 
 by the House of Representatives. The candidates were : Andrew 
 Jackson, John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and William Henry 
 Crawford. The count of electoral votes showed Jackson, 99 
 votes ; Adams, 84 ; Crawford, 41 ; and Clay, Zl . Calhoun was 
 chosen Vice President. Under the Constitution, (Amendment 
 XII), the House of Representatives, the members voting by 
 States, each State being entitled to only one vote, voted as 
 follows: Adams, 13 States; Jackson, 7; Crawford, 4; making 
 Adams, President. Clay, believing Adams to be the man best 
 fitted for the office, cast his votes for Adams. This brought 
 forth the cry of th Jackson adherents that Clay had been 
 promised the office of Secretary of State, to which he was later 
 appointed by Adams. 
 
 341. The Tariff of 1828, called "the tariff of abominations," 
 was passed in response to the demands made by the manufac- 
 turers of cotton and woolen goods, as well as the producers of 
 the raw materials, iron, hemp, wool, etc. Greater protection 
 was demanded for the industries that had not thrived under 
 the act of 1824. This tariff of 1828 was opposed by the South, 
 
140 American History. 
 
 but particularly by South Carolina, whose Senator, John C. 
 Calhoun, was its outspoken opponent. 
 
 342. The South opposed this act because of the lowering of 
 the prices on cotton with the increased demand for the staple, 
 and because the cost of food and other products depended upon 
 the prices fixed by the manufacturers in the North and West. 
 In 1828, South Carolina adopted the "Exposition and Protest," 
 drafted by Calhoun, embodying the same principles as those of 
 the Kentucky Resolution. It restated and emphasized the 
 principle of Nullification. 
 
 343. Following the Missouri Compromise there set in a reac- 
 tion against the spirit of nationalism, which had been preva- 
 lent. This question was brought to an issue in the dispute over 
 the lands vacated by the Creek Indians in Georgia, which Gov- 
 ernor Troup of that State declared formed a part of Georgia 
 territory. Congress would not support the stand taken by the 
 President, and the Creek Indians surrendered the territory to 
 the State of Georgia in 1828. 
 
 344. The campaign of 1828, which resulted in the election of 
 Andrew Jackson, was begun immediately after the election of 
 Adams, in 1824. It marks the beginning of the two present 
 political parties, the adherents of Adams taking the names of 
 National Republicans, while the forces supporting Jackson be- 
 came known as the Jackson Men or Democrats. It is also to 
 be noted that the West and the South strongly supported 
 Jackson, while Adams found his supporters mainly in New 
 England. It also marks the breaking away of the people from 
 the support for the Presidency and the Vice Presidency of men 
 who belonged to the so-called "aristocratic and educated" class. 
 
 345. The term Jacksonian Democracy is another name for the 
 support given to Jackson in his campaign for the Presidency. 
 It was indicative of "the triumph of Democratic principles, and 
 an assertion of the people's right to govern themselves." To 
 this support society, titles, distinction of any class or kind, 
 were extremely distasteful. It was marked by a confidence 
 in the ability of the common people to govern the country, 
 and not to have the government centered in the hands of the 
 educated and socially prominent people. 
 
 346. With Jackson, we have introduced what is known as 
 
American History. 141 
 
 the "Spoils System." The previous President had removed 
 many officials of the opposing political party, but it remained 
 for Jackson to make it a policy of his administration to punish 
 those of the other party for their opposition to him and to 
 reward those who worked in his behalf. Offices in the govern- 
 ment were to be considered as rewards for partisan service. 
 The previous Presidents retained a very large number of 
 office holders who had proved themselves thoroughly acquainted 
 with the duties of their office, and removed only those who had 
 offended most flagrantly by their opposition, 
 
 347. In pursuance of his policy to reward his followers, Jackson 
 had appointed inferior men to the portfolios of the Cabinet. 
 With the exception of Martin Van Buren, Secretary of State, 
 they were not called into consultation by Jackson. His real 
 advisers were his intimate political and social friends, who 
 formed what was known as "the kitchen cabinet." 
 
 348. The decade between 1830 and 1840 is marked by the 
 invention of many labor-saving devices, thereby multiplying 
 factories and increasing the output of manufactures. In 1836 
 anthracite was first used successfully in the smelting of iron. 
 Water-power was used to a greater extent. The number of 
 cotton-factories and manufacturing towns increased manyfold. 
 In 1834, Cyrus McCormick was granted a patent for the horse- 
 driven reaper. The scale, Colt's revolver, and friction matches 
 were invented, the use of gas for lighting streets and houses 
 became more general. 
 
 349. The building and completion of the Erie Canal gave 
 New York an advantage that the other States in the East soon 
 realized. In 1826, Pennsylvania began an extensive system of 
 roads and canals to connect Philadelphia with Central New 
 York, and with the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. The Chesa- 
 peake Canal Company, organized in 1825 for the purpose of 
 connecting Washington with the Ohio Valley was completed in 
 1850. Between 1830 and 1840 the canal mileage was trebled, 
 and there were almost 4,500 miles of canals in the United 
 States. The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was chartered in 1829, 
 the cars being drawn by horses. In 1831, the first locomotive 
 was used with a speed of twenty miles an hour. In 1835 there 
 
142 American History. 
 
 were more than twenty railroads in operation, and five years 
 later more than three thousand miles of tracks had been laid. 
 
 350. The tendency in the South to incline more toward the 
 State than toward the National Government came to a climax 
 during this period. Its forum was the United States Senate. 
 In an argument, Senator Hayne, of South Carolina, stated the 
 theory of State Rights as expounded by Calhoun and other 
 Southern leaders. In effect it was : That a State had the 
 right to decide when the Federal Government had exceeded its 
 powers, and because of this right, it could consider as null and 
 void such act of the national Congress. His opponent was 
 Daniel Webster of Massachusetts, who maintained that the 
 National Act was superior to the State power, and denied the 
 power of nullification to any State or States. 
 
 The debate arose in the course of an attack made by the South- 
 ern and the Western Senators under the lead of Senator Benton, 
 on the amendment of Senator Foot (Conn.) to restrict the sale of 
 ' public lands on the easy terms prevailing. 
 
 351. Nullification is the right or the ability of a State or 
 States to consider as null and void and as not binding upon it, 
 or upon them, a law passed by Congress. 
 
 352. In 1832, Congress passed a new (protective) tariff act, 
 one that was more moderate than the tariff act of 1828; yet one 
 which was still opposed by South Carolina. The State Con- 
 vention in that year passed the "Ordinance of Nullification," 
 which declared the Tariff Acts of 1828 and of 1832 "null, void, 
 and no law," and that their enforcement by the national govern- 
 ment would cause the withdrawal of that State from the Union. 
 The ordinance was to go into effect on February 1, 1833. 
 
 353. Jackson ordered the collector at the port of Charleston 
 to collect the duties on imports, and ordered General Scott to 
 protect him in his duties. The famous "Nullification Proclama- 
 tion" followed, which notified the people of South Carolina and 
 of the United States that the laws of the United States would be 
 enforced to the letter, and that the leaders of the movement 
 would be held responsible and prosecuted for treason. The Civil 
 War decided that the "United States is an indestructible union of 
 indestructible States" and that a federal law cannot be nullified 
 by any State. 
 
American History, ^ 143 
 
 354. The question was settled peaceably after the passage by 
 Congress, March 1, 1833, of the Force Bill, in which the Presi- 
 dent was authorized to use the mihtary and naval forces of the 
 United States in carrying out the laws. Calhoun, who had 
 resigned from the Vice Presidency, was elected to the Senate, 
 where he denounced the Force Bill, but the enactment of Clay's 
 Compromise Tariff of 1833, (March 2, 1833) eased the situation. 
 This provided for a gradual reduction of the duties for the 
 next following nine years, at the end of which time the rate 
 was not to exceed twenty percent. Two weeks later. South 
 Carolina repealed the Nullification Ordinance. 
 
 355. The policy of Jackson was to support the States in their 
 claims against the Indians. He maintained that it was the 
 province of the Indians to obey the State laws, or to move to 
 the Indian Territory, set aside as a reservation for the Indian 
 tribes in the East. The policy of the States and of the Presi- 
 dent was in defiance of a mandate of the United States Supreme 
 Court. The terrible Black Hawk (1832) and Seminole Wars 
 (1835-42) were the outcome of this dispute. 
 
 356. From 1828-1836. 
 
 357. The Charter of the United States Bank was to expire in 
 1836. In 1832, the Bank made appHcation for a renewal of its 
 charter, which was opposed by Jackson. The Bank's friends 
 opposed the re-election of Jackson. After a heated discussion, a 
 bill renewing the charter was passed, but the President vetoed it 
 on the grounds that it was a monopoly, that it was mismanaged, 
 corrupt, controlled politics, was absolutely unsound and unconsti- 
 tutional. Jackson's re-election made him determined to punish the 
 Bank for its opposition to him, and, he accordingly ordered the 
 Secretary of the Treasury, who was the official in whom the deposit 
 of the funds was vested, to withdraw the funds from the United 
 States Bank. The Secretary of Treasury, IMcLane, was opposed 
 to this action, and was transferred to the Department of State; 
 his successor refused, and he was removed. The new appointee. 
 Roger B. Taney, gave the order for their removal and more 
 than $10,000,000 were deposited in the "pet" State Banks, mostly 
 in the West and the South, mainly because of their political 
 influence rather than for their financial soundness. 
 
 358. The withdrawal of such a large amount at one time from 
 
144 ' American History. 
 
 the United States Bank caused that bank to call in its loans 
 from and to the State Banks, with the result that these and 
 the main bank itself made few or no loans to merchants, and 
 others requiring capital. Money became scarce for loan pur- 
 poses, while in the West the "pet banks" used the government 
 funds for wild speculation. 
 
 359. For his action in connection with the withdrawal of these 
 funds and the consequent business depression the Senate adopted 
 a resolution censuring Jackson. Jackson protested, but in vain. 
 It was not until the early part of 1837 that the persistent efforts 
 of his friend, Senator Benton, were rewarded with the adoption 
 of the "Expunging Resolution," which ordered the striking out 
 of the resolution of censure. 
 
 360. It was during this time of excitement that the National 
 Republicans, in their fight against the so-called tyrannical acts 
 of President Jackson, assumed the name of Whigs, the name 
 by which the patriotic Revolutionists of 1776 were known, and 
 which was synonymous with opposition to arbitrary rule and 
 government. 
 
 361. As a result of the withdrawal of the government funds 
 and their deposit in the "pet banks," wild speculation was in- 
 dulged in. The banks in the East felt the stringency of funds, 
 and could make no loans to legitimate business enterprises. 
 Many of the State banks in the West were permitted to issue 
 bank notes, which soon flooded the country, and depreciated 
 considerably in value. There was a considerable rise in prices ; 
 speculation became rife ; improvements on a vast scale were 
 undertaken by the States on borrowed money; everybody seemed 
 prosperous in the West and the South ; the specie circular of 
 1836 was issued ; English merchants demanded payment for their 
 exports, the English factories curtailed their output of cloths, 
 less cotton was bought, and with the failure of the crops, the 
 country was soon in the throes of one of the severest panics 
 and depressions. 
 
 362. Martin Van Buren, 1837-1841. 
 
 363. During the years 1836 and 1837 the national government 
 sold more than thirty-five millions of acres, in payment for a 
 large part of which the Treasury accepted, contrary to law, 
 the notes of irresponsible State banks. Congress failed to 
 
American History. 145 
 
 adopt a resolution requiring the payment only in gold or in 
 silver but the Secretary of the Treasury, on order of President 
 Van Buren, issued a circular requiring all payments for lands 
 from the national domains to be paid in gold or in silver, 
 (January 11, 1836.) 
 
 364. Normal business conditions were not restored until 1842. 
 Van Buren resisted the appeals that the government aid the 
 people and insisted that they must right matters themselves. 
 Specie payment was resumed in 1838. The Independent Treas- 
 ury System was established. By this, the funds of the national 
 government were to be deposited in the Treasury at Washington, 
 and in sub-treasuries throughout the United States under the 
 charge and direction of government officials. 
 
 365. The Abolitionists were those urging the abolition of the 
 institution of slavery and the setting free of all the negro slaves in 
 the United States. Benjamin Lundy, (Genius of Universal 
 Emancipation was the name of his newspaper), William Lloyd 
 Garrison (The Liberator) John Greenleaf Whittier, Wendell 
 PhilHps, Theodore Parker, Elijah P. Lovejoy, William Ellery 
 Channing, Salmon P. Chase, the New England Anti-Slavery 
 Society, the American Anti-Slavery Society, Lucretia Mott and 
 Lydia Maria Child. 
 
 366. While it is true that the South as a whole maintained 
 the justice and righteousness of the institution of slavery, not 
 only as a social, but also as an economic necessity, there were 
 a large number of people who thought it a vicious institution 
 and favored its gradual abolition. However, the uprising of the 
 slaves under Nat Turner, in 1831, in Virginia, in which more 
 than sixty whites were killed, turned their attention to the con- 
 ditions that might follow if the negro became a free man. The 
 feeling against the liberation of the slaves was more intense than 
 ever, and the Abolitionists were blamed for this bloody uprising. 
 The keen sectional feeling became stronger than ever. 
 
 367. It was not until the session of 1835-1836 that this feeling 
 was seen in its strength. Petitions from Quakers had been re- 
 ceived by Congress, read, and referred to the Committee on Dis- 
 trict of Columbia, by which they were pigeon-holed. In 1836 
 Representative (former President) John Quincy Adams pre- 
 sented a petition for the abolition of slavery in the District of 
 
146 American History. 
 
 Columbia, and asked that it be acted upon, The Southern mem- 
 bers succeeded in passing the gag resolution which provided that 
 petitions and bills relating to slavery should be laid on the table. 
 It was not until 1844 that the resolution was repealed. 
 
 368. The Liberty party was the party of the Abolitionists, in 
 1840, which nominated James G. Birney for President. The vote 
 received by him was insignificant, but the party became a force in 
 the next two Presidential elections. 
 
 369. The "Loco-focos," named after the matches of the time 
 because of an incident in which the matches appeared in the con- 
 vention in New York City, were the Democrats who supported 
 Van Buren for President. The term was later applied to the 
 Democratic party. 
 
 370. "Tippecanoe" was the nickname of the candidate, General 
 William Henry Harrison, because of his success in the battle of 
 Tippecanoe against the Indians in 1811. General John Tyler, a 
 former adherent of Calhoun, of Virginia, was his running mate 
 for the Vice-Presidency. 
 
 371. In 1850, by the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, the United 
 States and Great Britain agreed to renounce the right to acquire 
 independent control of any isthmian canal route. In 1901 Sec- 
 retary of State Hay negotiated the abrogation of the treaty in 
 so far as it related to the exclusive control of an isthmian canal 
 route, and the United States was free to proceed with the build- 
 ing of a canal. This led to the building of the Panama Canal, 
 which is now under the exclusive control of the United States. 
 
 372. The Anti-Rent troubles in New York State, 1839-1846, 
 led to the abolition of all feudal tenures still remaining from 
 colonial days. Riots on the various patroonship lands were fre- 
 quent, until the Constitutional Convention of 1846 declared 
 against the existing leasehold system. This and the Dorr Re- 
 bellion were evidences of this spirit of reform. 
 
 2)72). Dorr's Rebellion led to the adoption of a revised Consti- 
 tution in Rhode Island, which provided, among other things, for 
 a new definition of "freeman," removing the property restriction. 
 Dorr was the candidate of the People's Party, which adopted 
 a more liberal Constitution than the old colonial charter still in 
 force at the time. Opposed by the mass of the people and the 
 National Government in his attempts to seize the State property, 
 
American History. 147 
 
 he was arrested, tried for treason, and imprisoned. But the 
 rebellion achieved its purpose. 
 
 374. With the increased demand for cotton and for slave 
 States in order to maintain the balance in the upper Senate, the 
 number of Americans, particularly Southerners, settling in Texas 
 increased until the Mexicans became afraid of their numbers 
 and influence and passed restrictive laws. With this as a pre- 
 text, the Texans fomented a revolution, and after severe fight- 
 ing, in which they were aided by thousands of American citizens, 
 Texas gained her independence from Mexico and became a free 
 and independent State. The Treaty of 1819, which provided for 
 the purchase of Florida by the United States, settled the western 
 boundary of the United States and Spanish territory, by which 
 the United States surrendered all claims t.o Texan territory. 
 
 375. See answers 374 and Zll . The State emblem of Texas has 
 a single star on a plain background. 
 
 Zld. James K. Polk, Democratic Party; James G. Birney, 
 Liberty Party ; Henry Clay, Whig Party. 
 
 Zn. There was considerable opposition, mainly in the North, 
 against the annexation of the State of Texas, though the large 
 number of American inhabitants really made it a State of the 
 United States. Van Buren lost the renomination for the Presi- 
 dency because of his opposition to the annexation ; Clay hesitated 
 to declare himself until the eleventh hour, and even President 
 Tyler hesitated to favor it. From the time that Texas secured 
 her independence as a result of General Houston's success at 
 San Jacinto, in 1836, she remained a free State. With the elec- 
 tion of Polk as President on a platform favoring the annexation 
 of Texas, President Tyler in his message to Congress, December, 
 1844, urged the consideration of the matter. 
 
 The bill authorizing the annexation provided for the admission 
 of Texas as a State, and that four States might be formed from 
 its vast domains with the consent of the inhabitants of the State 
 of Texas. There was to be no slavery in such States north of 
 36° 30'. The acceptance of these conditions by Texas was im- 
 mediate. 
 
 378. 1844 is noted for the invention of the telegraph through 
 the labors of Alfred Vail and Samuel F. B. Morse. 
 
 379. Spain had relinquished all her rights to territory north 
 
148 American History. 
 
 of parallel 42 degrees. The Treaty of 1825 between Russia and 
 the United States fixed the boundary line of Russian territory 
 as 54° 40'. By the treaties between Great Britain and the United 
 States (1818 and 1828) the Oregon territory was occupied jointly. 
 The Americans claimed the territory on the grounds of discovery 
 by Captain Gray (see answer 283), the explorations of the Lewis 
 and Clark expedition, and the occupancy by the fur traders at 
 Astoria and other places. The claims of the British were sup- 
 ported by the explorations of Sir Francis Drake and the fur- 
 trading activity of the Hudson Bay Company. The increasing 
 population brought the situation once more before the public, and 
 the cry in the campaign of 1844 was ''54° 40' or fight." The 
 matter was settled by a treaty fixing the northern boundary of 
 the United States west of the Great Lakes as the parallel of 49 
 degrees. 
 
 380. The program of President Polk was : (a) The settlement 
 of the Oregon question; (b) a reduction in the tariff; (c) the 
 acquisition of California, and (d) the re-establishment of the 
 Independent Treasury. These were settled as follows : (a) A 
 treaty was arranged between Great Britain and the United States 
 fixing the boundary line between Canada and the United States 
 at 49 degrees, (b) The revised tariff measure, becoming a law 
 in 1846, provided for the taxation of luxuries at from 40 to 100 
 per cent., and iron, wool, and ordinary manufactures at an aver- 
 age of 30 per cent. ; the free list was considerably extended. This 
 tariff act remained law for a period of ten years, (c) California 
 was acquired as a result of the Mexican War. (d) The Inde- 
 pendent Treasury system, abolished during President Tyler's 
 term, was restored on August 6, 1846. 
 
 381. From all known facts, there was no real reason for the 
 United States declaring war against Mexico. The pressure ex- 
 erted by the Southern States in order to acquire a greater ter- 
 ritory for slavery, the demand of the West and the South for 
 the territory of California, and the excuse, that Mexico had but 
 partly met the claims of American citizens for property that had 
 been taken or destroyed, were the causes that brought on the 
 war. On the other hand, Mexico had righteous cause for anger 
 against the United States because of the aid given to the Texans 
 in their war for freedom against Mexico. 
 
American History. 149 
 
 382. Mexico recalled her Minister from Washington in March 
 1845. In December, 1846, President Polk signed the bill admit- 
 ting Texas as a State. General Taylor had been sent to the Nueces 
 River in order to preserve peace, as Mexico had announced that 
 annexation of Texas would be considered by her an act of v^ar. 
 The question of boundary line between Texas and Mexico was 
 the real cause, the United States claiming the Rio Grande, and 
 Mexico claiming the Nueces River. John SHdell had been sent 
 as a commissioner to negotiate for the purchase of the Mexican 
 territory in what is now the United States, but Slidell was not 
 received by the Mexicans. A clash between the troops in the 
 River Rio Grande region was the real act of war. 
 
 383. In Mexico, the following battles were fought : Palo Alto, 
 Resaca de la Palma, Monterey and Buena Vista, in which the 
 Americans under General Taylor were victorious. Captured by 
 General Scott — Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Chapultepec, 
 and City of Mexico. 
 
 384. Shortly after the opening of the war, President Polk 
 asked for $2,000,000, in order to negotiate a treaty of peace 
 with Mexico. As an amendment to the bill appropriating this 
 amount, David Wilmot, of New York, provided "that neither 
 slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist in any terri- 
 tory acquired from Mexico." The Senate defeated the measure. 
 The question was again brought up, but failed of passage. This 
 marks the beginning of the question of prevention of the spread 
 of slavery in any acquired territory. 
 
 385. In 1846, Commodore Stockton and John C. Fremont, who 
 were exploring the routes to Oregon, acting together, captured 
 the leading towns of California. During the same year, Colonel 
 Kearney completed the conquest of the territory south of Oregon 
 by capturing Santa Fe, New Mexico. 
 
 386. The treaty of peace, signed at Guadalupe-Hidalgo, shortly 
 after the capture of Mexico City, provided that Mexico should 
 relinquish all claims to the territory north of the border of New 
 Mexico, and that the boundary line should extend to the Gila 
 River, thence to the Colorado, and West to the Pacific Ocean. 
 The United States was to pay Mexico the sum of $15,000,000, 
 but $3,000,000 were to be deducted from this sum to pay the 
 claims of the Americans against Mexico. 
 
150 American History. 
 
 387. The question of the extension of slavery to the newly- 
 acquired territory, the extension of the Mason boundary line of 
 36 degrees 30 minutes, the Wilmot Proviso, the doctrine of 
 "popular sovereignty" of Senator Lewis Cass, and of Stephen 
 Douglas, became important political questions of the day. 
 
 388. The Whigs nominated a Southern planter, General Tay- 
 lor, of Mexican War fame ; the Democrats nominated a Northern 
 non-slaveholder, Senator Lewis Cass ; the Free-Soil Party nomi- 
 nated Martin Van Buren. 
 
 389. The slavery question still remained the prominent ques- 
 tion, and was made all the more prominent because of the ter- 
 ritory that had been ceded by Mexico to the United States, lead- 
 ing to the Compromise of 1850 and the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 
 1854. 
 
 390. In January 24, 1848, gold was discovered in the Sacra- 
 mento Valley. Within a short time after the news leaked out 
 the population was increased by almost 80,000 who had come 
 from the East across the wild West, by way of the Horn, or by 
 way of the Isthmus of Panama and ship to San Francisco. The 
 law governing the miners was the constitution drawn up in the 
 convention of September, 1849, in which slavery was prohibited. 
 Application was soon after made to Congress for full recognition 
 as a State. 
 
 391. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, signed in 1850, followed as 
 a result of the demand for the Nicaragua route for a canal to 
 compete with that of the French across the Isthmus of Panama. 
 It was stipulated that neither nation should obtain exclusive con- 
 trol of the Nicaragua route, that neither should colonize or con- 
 trol any of the Central American States, and that they would 
 extend their protection to other practicable communications 
 across the Isthmus. This treaty was amended before the Pana- 
 ma Canal could be built by the United States. 
 
 392. With the admission of Florida and Texas (1845), Iowa 
 (1846) and Wisconsin, (1848), the balance between the slave and 
 the free States was maintained. If California were to be ad- 
 mitted as a free State then the balance would be in favor of the 
 North or free section, which the Southern States were deter- 
 mined to resist. The admission of California as a free State 
 passed the House of Representatives without difficulty, but in 
 
American History, 151 
 
 the Senate the contest was long and bitter. Clay, the Great 
 Pacificator, again a member of the Senate, played the role of 
 mediator and largely as a result of his efforts the following 
 measures were adopted as a compromise: (a) CaHfornia was 
 admitted as a free State; (b) New Mexico and Utah were or- 
 ganized as Territories, with the question of slavery left for dis- 
 cussion when they applied for admission as States ; (c) Texas 
 was paid $10,000,000 for the surrender of her claim to any land 
 in the New Mexican Territory; (d) A Fugitive Slave Law, sat- 
 isfactory to the South was passed; (e) Slave trade in the Dis- 
 trict of Columbia was abolished. These five measures, two in 
 favor of the North, two in favor of the South, and the other 
 partly satisfying each section, were embodied in one measure 
 known as the Omnibus Bill. This measure was most ably sup- 
 ported by Daniel Webster in his famous ''Seventh-of-March 
 speech," but the measure was opposed by the Abolitionists, among 
 whom Senator William H. Seward of New York, and Salmon P. 
 Chase of Ohio, were the leaders. The Omnibus Bill was de- 
 feated, but the separate measures were passed. 
 
 393. The passage of the Compromise measures brought a 
 temporary peace to the factions. At no time had there been more 
 outspoken threats of secession and disunion. 
 
 394. The Fugitive Slave Law, a measure favorable to the 
 South, incurred the hostihty of the Northern States, because of 
 its summary provisions. The act provided that the testimony 
 of a slave was not to be considered, jury trial was denied to 
 him, and the assistance of citizens could be invoked in arresting 
 runaway fugitive slaves. In many of the Northern States the 
 enforcement of the law was forcibly resisted, and free negroes 
 and whites banded together to impede the Southerners in their 
 attempts to recover slaves. 
 
 395. The Personal Liberty Laws were passed in many of 
 the Northern States in order to offset the working of the Fugi- 
 tive Slave law. The laws prevented the imprisonment of slaves, 
 imposed heavy penalties upon those aiding in the recovery or 
 arrest of runaway slaves, provided counsel for the defence of 
 slaves, and in every way, attempted to obstruct the Federal law. 
 
 396. One means of preventing the return of slaves to their 
 former owners was by means of the "Underground Railway," 
 
152 American History. 
 
 or "Underground Railroad," which was a system by which fugi- 
 tive slaves were concealed during the day at different "stations," 
 and under cover of night were transported on their way to 
 Canada. The leading "terminals" were Buffalo, Cleveland and 
 Detroit. There were more than two thousand "conductors" in 
 Ohio, and it is estimated that during the year 1850-1851, more 
 than twenty-five hundred negroes were assisted to freedom. 
 
 397. No one ever did more to consohdate the feeling in the 
 North against the vicious features of the institution of slavery 
 than did the pubHcation of the book, "Uncle Tom's Cabin," writ- 
 ten by Harriet Beecher Stowe, as a protest against slavery. It 
 pictures the incidents in the life of slaves on the plantation, and 
 in their attempt to run away and escape to freedom. 
 
 398. The election of 1852 resulted in the choice of Franklin 
 Pierce, of New Hampshire, an unknown Democrat whose views 
 were but little known. The known Democratic leaders like Cass, 
 Buchanan and Douglas were passed over because of the in- 
 tensity of feeling. The Repubhcan candidate was General Win- 
 field Scott, of Mexican War fame. The Free-Soil Party (Free 
 Democratic Party) nominated John Hale, of New Hampshire. 
 
 399. In the light of the modern development of the South, 
 slavery was not at all necessary, even though it was considered 
 as absolutely necessary in pre-Civil War days. Negro labor was 
 always unskilled, and, therefore, cheap labor, which at all times, 
 is dear labor. In 1850, there were about three and a quarter 
 millions of slaves in the South, owned by 350,000 planters and 
 others. Half of these slave-holders owned fewer than five 
 slaves each. The ownership of this vast number of slaves, a 
 population almost equal to the total population of the Revolu- 
 tionary period, resulted in the maintenance of the "poor white," 
 or "white trash" element, about 2,500,000 in number, who owned 
 no slaves and were forced to exist, as best they could, on their 
 worn-out and waste lands. In addition to the keeping up of the 
 large class of poor whites, very few of the most valuable immi- 
 grant stock from Europe went to the South, where the oppor- 
 tunities were much limited because of slavery. These immi- 
 grants went to the Northern or the Western States, where they 
 developed into excellent American citizens. 
 
 400. The slavery question soon came to the front. It was 
 
American History. 153 
 
 hoped that the provisions of the Compromise of 1850 would rule, 
 and there would be peace between the North and the South. 
 Senator Douglas, of Illinois, Chairman of the Committee on 
 Territories, reported a bill for the organization of the Territory 
 of Nebraska. The question of slavery, regardless of the Mis- 
 souri Compromise, was to be left to the citizens of the State to 
 be decided at the time of their adoption of the Constitution. 
 Douglas, as a citizen of the West, was a firm believer in the 
 doctrine of self-government or "Squatter Sovereignty," and 
 favored the decision of this question by the citizens of the State 
 themselves. On the 23rd of January, 1854, he introduced a bill 
 providing for the organization of the two territories of Kansas 
 and Nebraska and included the provision of "popular sovereign- 
 ty." The debate on this became strong and warm, and the 
 leaders of both sides took active part. The bill became a law, 
 the vote in the House being very close, while the vote in the 
 Senate was 7)1 to 14 in its favor. 
 
 401. Opposing the bill were: Senators Seward, Chase, Charles 
 Sumner, Benjamin Wade, Edward Everett. Favoring the bill: 
 Senator Douglas and the Southern Senators. 
 
 402. Tlie Act did not enumerate the time of the submission of 
 the Constitution of either territory. Accordingly each side 
 began to send immigrants in order to make sure of a majority 
 vote in its favor. In the North, the New England Emigrant Aid 
 Company encouraged anti-slave emigrants by furnishing them 
 with tickets at reduced rates, and in many cases with free trans- 
 portation. By the end of the year 1855, the Company had sent 
 to Kansas more than 4,000 persons. The day of the election 
 of delegates to the Territorial Convention came round, when 
 5,000 armed Missourians, "border ruffians," forcibly took posses- 
 sion of the polls and carried the election, by casting three-fourths 
 of the votes in favor of pro-slavery delegates. The Constitution 
 thus adopted by them was naturally pro-slavery, with stringent 
 provisions for the punishment of those favoring the abolition of 
 slavery in the State. There were fewer than 200 slaves in the 
 territory at that time. The Free State party ignored the Terri- 
 torial Convention, called a convention at Topeka (Oct. 23, 1855), 
 and drafted a Constitution in which slavery was prohibited. 
 The legislature was elected, and application was made for ad- 
 
154 American History. 
 
 mittance into the Union. For months riot, bloodshed, and 
 deeds of violence ensued, in which both factions took part, and 
 two hundred lives were lost. The Free State party finally won 
 and order was secured. "Popular sovereignty" as a doctrine 
 proved a complete failure. 
 
 403. In the attempt to restore cordial relations with Mexico, 
 the United States, realizing the injustice of the seizure of the 
 land from Mexico, made partial restitution in the purchase of 
 the comparatively small strip of land, known as the Gadsden 
 Purchase, for the sum of $10,000,000, and the boundary line be- 
 tween the United States and Mexico was definitely settled. 
 
 404. Cuba had for years been ruled tyrannically by the Spanish 
 and there arose a demand that the United States purchase the 
 Island from Spain, negotiations for which the government of 
 Spain spurned. Following the attack of the mob in New Or- 
 leans on the Spanish consulate, the United States apologized 
 and paid an indemnity for the destruction of Spanish property. 
 An American vessel was seized in Havana harbor on the grounds 
 that it aided the malcontents on the Island. The American Min- 
 isters to Great Britain, France, and Spain, conferring at Ostend, 
 issued the "Ostend Manifesto,' in which they stated that it was 
 the duty of the United States to take possession of the Island 
 forcibly if Spain did not sell it. The United States disavowed 
 the Manifesto. 
 
 405. The passing of the Kansas-Nebraska Act resulted in the 
 uniting of all the forces opposed to slavery. The Republican 
 party was organized in the Northwest, where the political ties 
 were less binding and less strong than in the East. In July, 1854, 
 at Jackson, Michigan, a convention of delegates from the Whigs, 
 Free-Soilers, anti-Nebraska Democrats and others met and or- 
 ganized the Republican party. From the beginning the new 
 party Wcis remarkably successful. 
 
 406. The American Party determined that no foreign-born 
 citizen should be elected to office, and held its meetings in secret. 
 Members, questioned as to the doings or the purposes of their 
 party, replied, "I don't know," which affixed to them the name 
 of "Know-Nothings." In 1856, this party elected more than a 
 majority of the members of the House of Representatives. 
 
 407. The Know-Nothings nominated Millard Fillmore; the 
 
American History. 155 
 
 Democrats, James Buchanan; the Republicans, John C. Fremont. 
 The Democratic candidate, James Buchanan, was elected after 
 one of the most exciting campaigns. 
 
 408. The cheapness of the land, the fertility of the soil, the 
 improved means of transportation, the freedom of the West, the 
 troublous times and conditions in Europe, (Revolutions of 1848), 
 the discovery of the precious minerals. 
 
 409. (a) The increase in the population of the West led to the 
 development of the means of transportation. The railroad mile- 
 age was tripled, the national government encouraged railroading 
 by giving extensive grants of lands, the organization of the 
 "trunk" systems was begun in the consolidation of several small 
 railroad companies, (b) The American merchant marine, com- 
 prising many of the fastest sailing vessels, was the equal of that 
 of any other nation on the globe. Three-fourths of the exports 
 and imports of the United States were carried in American bot- 
 toms, and the government aided the many steamship companies 
 with subsidies. The principal exports were, as at present, flour, 
 provisions, cotton, manufactures of iron and steel. American ships 
 with American crews were seen in every quarter of the globe. 
 
 410. (a) During the decade between 1850 and 1860, the Patent 
 Office issued more than three times the number of patents given 
 out in the previous decade. The fire-alarm system was invented 
 in 1852; the first successful fire engine, in 1853; the harvester by 
 McCormick, in 1854; the vulcanization of rubber by Charles 
 Goodyear, 1844; Elias Howe invented the sewing machine in 
 1846; Hoe invented his revolving cylinder press in 1847, and the 
 discovery of sulphuric ether as an anesthetic was made by Drs. 
 Morton and Jackson, (b) With the aid of the inventions, manu- 
 facturing increased most rapidly, so that the manufactures in 
 1860 amounted to more than two billions of dollars. Pittsburgh 
 became the steel center, the iron mines in Michigan were being 
 exploited, the number of spindles in the cotton mills had in- 
 creased more than five times, the manufacture of woolen cloths, 
 cotton goods, clothing of all kinds, from fifty to more than two 
 hundred and fifty per cent. 
 
 411. The slavery question again became prominent in 1857, 
 when a decision was rendered by the United States Supreme 
 Court in the matter of Dred Scott, a negro. Several years be- 
 
156 American History. 
 
 fore, Scott had been taken by his master to Illinois, in the north- 
 ern part of the Louisiana Purchase Territory. After his return 
 to Missouri, Scott sued for his freedom, claiming that 
 residence in a free State made him free. The case 
 was carried through the State courts to the Federal 
 courts, and the Chief Justice, Roger B. Tane: rendered 
 the decision for the court: (1) That Scott had not become free; 
 
 (2) that slaves constituted property of the person owning them; 
 
 (3) that Congress had no right to legislate on property of this 
 kind, and the Missouri Compromise was void. 
 
 412. The Dred Scott decision gave the South the utmost satis- 
 faction, because it decided practically everything their way, and 
 further insured favorable Federal court action in any legal ques- 
 tions of slavery. On the North the effect was just the opposite. 
 It united all factions opposed to slavery more strongly than ever; 
 it led to the stricter enforcement of the Personal Liberty Laws, 
 and to the greater use of the Underground Railroad System. 
 
 413. The slavery controversy was still unsettled in Kansas. 
 The emigration of people from the South and the North con- 
 tinued unabated, but the Free State party was stronger than ever. 
 The Topeka Constitution adopted by them was anti-slavery. 
 The Lecompton Constitution was the Constitution which sanc- 
 tioned slavery. The members of the Free State party had refused 
 to vote for the delegates to a constitutional convention, and con- 
 sequently the convention that met at Lecompton in 1857 was 
 pro-slavery. The Constitution sanctioned the "right of property 
 in slaves" and prohibited any interference with slavery in the 
 territory as it then existed. 
 
 414. A successor to Senator Douglas was to be elected. Doug*- 
 las wished to succeed himself, and found as an opponent Abra- 
 ham Lincoln, then a member of the Illinois Legislature. Confi- 
 dent of the justice of his cause, Lincoln challenged Douglas to 
 a series of debates. Seven places were chosen where debates 
 were to be held. These debates possess a significance that has 
 not been truly estimated. They were the forerunners of the 
 popular election of United States Senators. The appeal of these 
 two candidates, to be elected by the State Legislature, was made 
 directly to the voters, who, by their votes, were to influence the 
 ultimate choice of the United States Senator. They made Lincoln 
 
American History. 157 
 
 the logical candidate for the Presidency on the Republican ticket, 
 and they brought defeat to Douglas in later years by splitting the 
 Democratic Party. They presented the question of the abolition 
 of slavery^ to the nation as the question had never before been 
 s-^ated, an ■ made countless adherents to the Republican cause. 
 
 415. Tho<:,''house against itself" doctrine of Lincoln can be best 
 stated in his own words : "In my opinion, it will not cease until 
 a crisis has been reached and passed. 'A house divided against 
 itself cannot stand.' I believe this government cannot endure 
 permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union 
 to be dissolved — I do not expect the house to fall, but I do 
 expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing 
 or all the other. Either the opponents of slavery will arrest 
 the further spread of it, . . . or its advocates will push it 
 forward till it shall become alike lawful in all the States, old 
 as well as new — North as well as South." 
 
 416. Douglas's "Freeport Doctrine" was enunciated in reply to 
 a question of Lincoln's as to whether the people of a Territory 
 could "in any lawful way" exclude slavery from its limits be- 
 fore admission. He replied that the Legislature of a Territory 
 might, by legislation unfriendly to slavery, prevent the introduc- 
 tion of slavery. This was contrary to the Dred Scott decision, 
 and he lost the support of the Southern Democracy. 
 
 417. The election of 1858 portended the defeat of the Demo- 
 cratic Party in the North. Senator Douglas was the only North- 
 ern Democrat elected to the Senate, while the House elected a 
 Republican Speaker. The struggle between slavery and anti- 
 slavery was soon to be joined. 
 
 418. John Brown had been one of the Free State leaders in 
 the Kansas struggles, and was obsessed with the idea of forcible 
 liberation of the slaves. With twenty-two followers, he seized 
 the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia (October 16, 1859), and 
 aroused the entire country. His plan was to begin the liberation 
 of slaves by forcing slaveholders to give up their slaves. His 
 force was attacked, and he was taken prisoner, tried, and exe- 
 cuted. 
 
 419. The Democratic Convention met in Charleston (April 23, 
 1860), with a majority in favor of Douglas for President. -The 
 question of slavery in the platform became the center of discus- 
 
158 American History. 
 
 sion, and the Southern delegates wanted a declaration protecting 
 slavery, while the Northern delegates refused to go farther than 
 to pledge support to the Dred Scott decision, an indefinite state- 
 ment which left them to favor squatter or popular sovereignty. 
 Most of the Southerners thereupon withdrew, and the conven- 
 tion adjourned to Baltimore, from which convention the South- 
 erners withdrew to their own convention. 
 
 420. Abraham Lincoln was the candidate of the Republican 
 Party; Stephen Douglas, of the Democratic Party; John C. 
 Breckenridge, of the Southern Democratic Party; John Bell, 
 of the Constitutional Union Party, composed of the few remain- 
 ing Whigs, the Know-Nothings, etc. Abraham Lincoln and Han- 
 nibal Hamlin were elected President and Vice-President, re- 
 spectively, securing 180 votes, to 72 for Breckenridge, 39 for 
 Bell, and 12 for Douglas. The popular vote was: Lincoln, 
 1,870,452; Douglas, 1,376,957; Breckenridge, 849,781; Bell, 
 588,879. The keynotes of the platforms were : Republican — the 
 prohibition of slavery in all territori.es of the United States ; South- 
 ern Democrats — the protection of slavery in the territories ; North- 
 ern Democrats — the maintenance of the doctrine of squatter sov- 
 ereignty; Constitutional Union Party — "The Constitution, the 
 Union, and the enforcement of the laws." 
 
 421. When the election of the Republican candidates was an- 
 nounced the Southern States threatened to secede from the 
 Union. President Buchanan, under the influence of Southern 
 sympathizers, did not assume a firm attitude against this threat- 
 ened break-up of the Union, but in his message to Congress he 
 denied the right of the Southern States to secede. His attitude 
 was vacillating. H he had been firm there is no doubt that the 
 Southern States would not have seceded so soon after the election 
 of Lincoln. 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 422. A convention called by the Legislature of South Caro- 
 lina (December 20, 1860) repealed the resolution which ratified 
 the Constitution in 1788, and declared that the State was again 
 a "free and independent nation." Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, 
 Georgia, Louisiana and Texas followed in close succession. 
 
American History. 159 
 
 With secession determined upon, the Southern States imme- 
 diately seized the forts, arsenals, and other government property 
 within those States. Only four forts remained in the hands of 
 the North : in Charleston harbor, at Key West, at Tortuga, at 
 Pensacola. At the same time the Southern States took steps to 
 protect themselves against attack by the Federal Government. 
 
 423. The grievances of the South were : That the Northern 
 States had nullified the Fugitive Slave Law by passing the Per- 
 sonal Liberty Laws, (b) That the Northern States had violated 
 the spirit of the Constitution in that they harbored the Aboli- 
 tionists, made no laws preventing the spread of the Abolition 
 movement, and elected an avowed Abolitionist to the Presidency, 
 (c) That the South did not have the equal rights guaranteed 
 by the Constitution. 
 
 424. The Republicans replied : (a) That the slavery question 
 was subject to the decision of the majority, (b) That the Re- 
 pubhcans had no intention to interfere with slavery in any State. 
 But that the Federal Government, through a majority, had the 
 right to prevent the spread of slavery, or pass any such laws 
 that the majority deemed necessary to prevent its spread. 
 
 425. The reasons for the secession of the Confederate States 
 are found in the Ordinance of Secession of the South Carolina 
 Convention, based on the doctrines and speeches of John C. Cal- 
 houn. They are : (a) By the Declaration of Independence, each 
 State became a free and independent nation. (b) That under 
 the Articles of Confederation, each State retained its "sover- 
 eignty, freedom, and independence." (c) That the adoption of 
 the Constitution was merely the signing of a compact of free 
 and independent States, making the Federal Government merely 
 the agent of these States with granted powers, (d) That since 
 the Federal Government did not live up to its part of the com- 
 pact, the other contracting party was free to withdraw. 
 
 426. Lincoln, as leader of the Republican Party, replied in his 
 First Inaugural Address, (a) The Union is older and stronger 
 than the Constitution, (b) That the Constitution made the Union 
 "more perfect." (c)- "Perpetuity is implied, if not expressed, in 
 the fundamental law of all national governments. It is safe to 
 say that no government proper ever had a provision in its organic 
 
160 American History. 
 
 law for its own termination." (d) All of the contracting parties 
 were necessary to dissolve and nullify the contract expressed or 
 implied in the Constitution. No State could, therefore, on its 
 own free will withdraw from the Union. 
 
 427. On February 4, 1861, the delegates from the seven seced- 
 ing States met at Montgomery, Alabama, and drew up a pro- 
 visional constitution for the "Confederate States of America." 
 Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, and Alexander Stephens, of 
 Georgia, originally opposed to secession, were elected President 
 and Vice President of the Confederacy. The Constitution of the 
 Confederacy was based on the Constitution of the United States, 
 and included provisions covering all those questions that had at 
 one time or another been raised by the Southern Legislators in 
 behalf of the South. 
 
 428. A confederacy is a union of States in which each State 
 retains its sovereignty, and merely surrenders certain powers 
 for the common good. In a federal government, the States have 
 relinquished their sovereignty to the Federal Government, but 
 have retained a few rights and powers. In the Federal Govern- 
 ment the union is supreme, while in the former the constituent 
 governments have the right to withdraw. The Federal Govern- 
 ment, in the words of the Supreme Court of the United States, 
 is "an indestructible union of indestructible States." 
 
 429. Attempts were made to conciliate the Southern States. 
 From February 4 to 27, 1861, a Peace Conference was held in 
 Washington, with ex-President Tyler as its Chairman, and dele- 
 gates from fourteen free States and seven slave-holding States. 
 Recommendations were made for a constitutional amendment, 
 which was to prohibit Congress from interfering with slavery in 
 any State; for a bill organizing Colorado, Nevada, and Dakota, 
 without reference to the slavery question. 
 
 These concessions were not accepted by the Southern leaders 
 who wanted greater privileges, as few of the Southerners be- 
 lieved that the North would resort to arms to compel the South- 
 ern States to remain in the Union. 
 
 430. From the time of his election to his inauguration, Lincoln 
 was watching events very closely and writing his inaugural 
 address. Because of threats made on his life, Lincoln travelled 
 in disguise to Washington. His inaugural address was one of the 
 
American History. 161 
 
 most important papers written by a President. It stated his 
 supreme aim to save the Union, that he would not interfere with 
 slavery where it existed, and that he would preserve the per- 
 petuity of the Union. 
 
 431. WilHam H. Seward, Secretary of State ; Salmon P. Chase, 
 Secretary of the Treasury ; Gideon Welles, Secretary of the 
 Navy; Edwin M. Stanton, Secretary of War. 
 
 432. An attempt was made to relieve Fort Sumter, in Charles- 
 ton harbor, by sending provisions and supplies in a merchant 
 vessel, but the guns of Fort Moultrie compelled the boat to re- 
 turn. Lincoln finally determined that an expedition should go 
 to its aid from New York. The Southerners decided to reduce 
 the Fort before this aid could arrive. The garrison withstood 
 the attack for about thirty-six hours, when they capitulated. 
 
 The firing upon Fort Sumter unified the North in their deter- 
 mination to compel the return of the seceding States to the 
 Union. The South was greatly encouraged by its first success. 
 President Lincoln issued a call for 75,000 volunteers, and the 
 South responded with the secession of Virginia, Tennessee, 
 Arkansas and North Carolina. 
 
 433. The North had a much larger population than the South; 
 nine millions to three and a half millions of people. The North 
 was very much richer than the South. The North was an indus- 
 trial and manufacturing section, and was supported by the agri- 
 cultural West, while the South was almost entirely an agricul- 
 tural region. The North was put to the disadvantage of being 
 on the offensive, while the South was on the defensive, with a 
 perfect knowledge of the territory. The North was practically 
 independent of foreign nations for supplies, while the South was 
 absolutely dependent upon other sections or countries for its 
 most urgent supplies. The South had an advantage in that most 
 of its youth and men could handle the gun readily; that the 
 Southern youth had been trained in the military schools and 
 academies, and that they were natural leaders. The North had 
 the advantage that with its large fleet of vessels it could effec- 
 tively blockade the Southern ports. The North had the tradition 
 of an established government. 
 
 434. The source of military supplies of the Confederacy was 
 the European countries, and the markets for the products of the 
 
162 American History. 
 
 South were in those same countries. By enforcing a strict 
 blockade the South would be cut off from Europe, would be 
 short of the essentials of warfare, and would have to find her 
 supplies within her own bounds ; her credit would be impaired, 
 and she could hope for but little assistance from her friends in 
 Europe. 
 
 On the outbreak of the war the Confederacy issued to owners 
 of vessels letters of marque, thereby making them minor war 
 vessels. President Lincoln's reply to this, in order to restrict 
 the importation of supplies by the South, declared the coast 
 of the Southern States to be in a state of blockade. Fleet war 
 vessels were stationed outside of the ports ; all materials, mer- 
 chandise or goods that went to another country but were ulti- 
 mately destined for the Confederate States were also declared 
 contraband. No cotton could be sold to foreign countries, and 
 no manufactured articles, arms, etc., could be imported into the 
 Southern States. The foreign credit of the Confederate States 
 was practically destroyed. 
 
 435. The European nations were dependent upon the Southern 
 States for cotton and other products, and they declared the Con- 
 federate States to be belligerents, that is, not in insurrection 
 against the United States, but as equal antagonists in a state 
 of war. This meant that they would obey the ordinary rules 
 governing neutral nations in their relations with both sections, 
 and that they both could carry on trade with England, that ships 
 would be fitted out, etc., in the English ports. This was ex- 
 tremely favorable to the South. Vessels from the South were 
 entitled to the same recognition as vessels from the United 
 States or any other nation. 
 
 436. The French Government aided the cause of the South, 
 but the Russian Government refused to join in a recognition of 
 its belligerency. Through the efforts of Henry Ward Beecher, 
 and the English Richard Cobden and John Bright, the middle 
 classes opposed any declaration of Great Britain in favor of the 
 Confederate slave owners. The British Government, however, 
 permitted the South to fit out privateers and war vessels, among 
 which was the Alabama. At the implied threat of war by Charles 
 Francis Adams, Minister to the Court of St. James, the British 
 maintained strict neutrality. See 455. 
 
American History. 163 
 
 437. In the East, the physical conditions of the country gave 
 the advantage to the South, while in the West the advantages 
 lay with the Northern forces. The State of Virginia was crossed 
 by many broad, shallow rivers, and with the frequent rains the 
 country was almost a region of swamps, which formed an almost 
 interminable barrier. The Shenandoah Valley formed a highway 
 from the South to the North, but toward the south the valley 
 turned west and away from Richmond. The Chesapeake Bay 
 and the Atlantic Ocean, however, formed a highway for the 
 Federal troops. West of the mountains the Union forces could 
 pierce the heart of the Confederacy by way of the Cumberland 
 and the Tennessee rivers, and the Mississippi River furnished 
 the first means of cutting the Confederacy in two. Thus the 
 South could be surrounded on all sides without being able to 
 gain any strategic advantage over the North. 
 
 438. The counties in western Virginia seceded from that State 
 and set up the government of West Virginia; the presence of 
 large numbers of Northern troops saved Maryland to the Union ; 
 General Lyon, at the instance of Postmaster-General Blair, took 
 steps to protect Missouri, and the Confederates were driven into 
 Arkansas. 
 
 439. Realizing the importance of the friendly services and aid 
 of the European countries, the Confederacy sent James M. Mason, 
 of Virginia, and John Slidell, of Louisiana, as Ministers to Eng- 
 land and France, respectively. Passing through the blockade, 
 they reached Havana, from which point they sailed on the Eng- 
 lish steamer Trent. Captain Wilkes, commanding a Union war 
 vessel, overhauled the Trent and removed Mason and Slidell. 
 At once protests against this action were lodged by Great Britain 
 and France, and the United States, in order to avoid any entan- 
 glements, apologized and released the Confederate agents. 
 
 440. The capture of Richmond, the blockade of the Southern 
 and Gulf coast, the capture of the Mississippi River and the split- 
 ting of the territory of the Confederacy. 
 
 44L The Union forces had pushed the border of the Confed- 
 eracy considerably south of the Mason and Dixon line, as a result 
 of the overawing of the Border States of Maryland and Mis- 
 souri. In February, 1862, Grant, supported by Commodore Foote, 
 
164" American History. 
 
 successfully attacked Forts Henry and Donelson, on the Cum- 
 berland and Tennessee rivers, and captured 15,000 prisoners. 
 Columbus, Bowling Green, New Madrid, and Island No. 10 soon 
 after were abandoned or were captured. On April 6-7, 1862, 
 one of the bloodiest and most decisive battles of the war was 
 fought at Pittsburg Landing or Shiloh. Corinth soon after fell, 
 Memphis was abandoned, and the Mississippi was open from the 
 north as far south as Vicksburg. 
 
 442. In April, 1862, Admiral Farragut captured New Orleans, 
 and with his fleet of gunboats he destroyed the forts guarding 
 the city and the Confederate fleet on the river. It gave the North- 
 erners control of the mouth of the Mississippi River and the 
 Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 443. The treasury was practically bankrupt and Congress 
 passed the following measures : (1) The Secretary of the Treasury 
 was authorized to borrow $250,000,000 on the credit of the United 
 States and to issue bonds therefor. (2) The first direct tax, 
 amounting to $20,000,000, was laid, in accordance with the Con- 
 stitution (Article I, Section 2, Clause 3). (3) The tariflf was 
 increased. (4) An income tax was levied (3 per cent, on incomes 
 in excess of $800). (5) The issuance of a paper currency was 
 authorized, in the form of "demand notes," which the govern- 
 ment promised to redeem in gold on demand, and which it later 
 did not do, as the government and the banks suspended gold 
 specie payment until 1879. In order to insure the acceptance of 
 these notes by creditors, Congress made these notes legal tender 
 in payment of all debts, giving rise later to the famous Legal 
 Tender Case. In 1862 and 1863 almost $500,000,000 worth of 
 these notes were issued. 
 
 444. With a daily expenditure of $2,000,000, the United States 
 Government found it necessary to issue another $500,000,000 
 worth of 6 per cent, bonds, payable in from five to twenty years. 
 Further, a much higher internal revenue tax was imposed on 
 occupations, a corporation tax was laid, stamp tax was enacted. 
 In other words, it was a law "which taxed everything." But y^ 
 the same time the duties were increased to protect the domesti - 
 manufactures, which bore the heavy burden of internal revenu 
 taxation. 
 
 445. General George B. McClellan was put in command of the 
 
American History. 16S 
 
 Union forces in the East, and he spent the remainder of the year 
 1861 in organizing the army. He proposed to attack Richmond 
 by way of the peninsula between the York and the James rivers, 
 despite its great risks. The peninsula campaign that followed 
 was a failure, caused the loss of a considerable number of sol- 
 diers, and involved a series of bloody battles : Mechanicsville, 
 Seven Pines or Fair Oaks, Malvern Hill, Yorktown. The re- 
 sults might be said to be favorable to the South. 
 
 446. The Northern fleet off the Atlantic Cape Hatteras had 
 made rapid progress in seizing many important points off North 
 and South Carolina. But on March 8, 1862, two of the best 
 vessels in the Union navy were destroyed by the iron-clad Mer- 
 rimac. During the night of March 8 the Monitor arrived. This 
 was another type of iron-clad, designed by John Ericson, carry- 
 ing two guns revolved by machinery in a turret. It engaged the 
 enemy's boat on the 9th and drove the Merrimac to shelter. 
 This battle between the iron-clads determined the superiority 
 of the iron-clad over the wooden gunboat, and all the navies of 
 the world had to be rebuilt. 
 
 447. After the peninsular campaign McClellan was relieved by 
 General Pope, who planned an attack on Richmond from the 
 North. General Lee, however, assumed the offensive and de- 
 feated the Union army again at Bull Run, and planned to invade 
 the North. He was defeated in the bloody battle of Antietam, 
 Maryland, by McClellan, who had been reinstated. 
 
 The Emancipation Proclamation was issued on September 22, 
 1862, as a result of the Union success at Antietam. It announced 
 that on January 1, 1863, the President would declare to be free 
 all slaves held within the regions at that date in arms against the 
 authority of the Union. The Proclamation was only a logical 
 step in freeing the slaves. General Butler had declared slaves 
 "contraband of war" in May, 1861, and refused to return them, 
 to their owners. Congress, in August, 1861, had passed an act 
 confiscating all slaves owned by rebels. Congress passed the act 
 recommended by Lincoln providing for the compensation of 
 slaves that would be liberated by any State government. Con- 
 gress abolished slavery within the District of Columbia and com- 
 pensated slave owners. The Emancipation Proclamation of Jan- 
 uary 1, 1863, applied to all the seceding States except Tennessee 
 
166 American History. 
 
 and certain designated sections of Virginia and Louisiana, which 
 were then under the control of the Federal troops. 
 
 The issuance of the Proclamation secured greater and more 
 unified support for the President, while abroad, particularly in 
 Great Britain, it took away the props of British support for the 
 Confederacy. Great Britain had abolished slavery in all her 
 colonies, and the aiding of the Confederacy now meant that she 
 favored slavery as an institution. 
 
 448. The slaves on the plantations were aiding their Southern 
 masters in prolonging the war by taking care of their famiUes, 
 by tilling the soil and raising the crops that the Confederates 
 needed, and were thus subject to the order of the President, who 
 as commander-in-chief of the military forces of the United States 
 could issue orders regarding their treatment, etc. 
 
 449. The attacks on Lincoln and the progress of the Union 
 army in the war were furious and bitter. Lincoln was denounced 
 for his stand on the slavery question, for the weakness of the 
 Northern arms, as inefficient, as being unconstitutional and 
 despotic, as favoring friends. Abroad he was attacked and caric- 
 atured and held up to ridicule. 
 
 450. After the defeats of the Union armies at Fredericksburg 
 and Chancellorsville, Lee assumed the offensive and again en- 
 tered upon an invasion of the North. With 75,000 troops, he 
 crossed the Potomac and advanced into Pennsylvania, hoping to 
 reach Harrisburg and Philadelphia. At Gettysburg, on July 1, 
 2 and 3, Lee was met by the Northern army under General 
 Meade and after successive attacks upon the Unionists' positions 
 was defeated and compelled to retreat to Virginia. 
 
 451. In 1862, resulting in his defeat at Antietam by McClellan. 
 
 452. On July 4th, the day following the defeat of Lee at Gettys- 
 burg, Vicksburg, the last stronghold on the Mississippi River, 
 surrendered to General Grant. The Mississippi River was now 
 open to the Union forces along its whole length. 
 
 453. The Battle of Gettysburg and the capture of Vicksburg 
 are called the "turning point" in the Civil War, because the 
 flower of the Confederate armies was defeated, and the military 
 power of the Confederates waned until finally defeated. The 
 backbone of the Confederacy was now broken, and the fighting 
 was merely to maintain their former positions. There was no 
 
American HistorV, 16/ 
 
 longer any danger of invasion of the North by the Southern 
 forces. The doom of the Confederacy was marked. 
 
 454. The present National Bank system is the result of the 
 measures taken by the Treasury Department to strengthen the 
 finances and credit of the government. The expenses had in- 
 creased to $2,500,000 a day, while the receipts were only one- 
 quarter of that sum. The deficit at the end of December, 1862, 
 was almost $300,000,000. Congress, in order to meet this serious 
 situation, passed the National Banking Act, which provided 
 that national banking associations might purchase national bonds, 
 deposit them with the United States Treasury Department, and 
 receive in return ''national bank notes" to the extent of 90 per 
 cent, of their market value. The advantages thus offered to the 
 banking associations in the form of the regular interest on the 
 bonds, and the interest on the loan of these bank notes to mer- 
 chants, were sufficient to organize a number of these national 
 banks. A market was thus found for the bonds. Notes and cur- 
 rency of State banks were taxed 10 per cent., and thereby driven 
 out of circulation. 
 
 455. The attitude of Great Britain, and particularly England, 
 caused apprehension among the officials at Washington. The 
 animosity shown by the aristocracy, the moneyed and manufac- 
 turing classes, and the newspapers under the control of these, 
 were based on the dislike of the "crude and boastful Yankees," 
 the dislike of our republican institutions and the remembrance 
 that the United States were once British colonies, and last, but 
 not least, the harm done to English trade and manufacture by 
 the blockade of the Southern ports. 
 
 456. The campaign against Chattanooga was launched because 
 it controlled the gateway from the West, and it was an easy route 
 of communication from the West. Chattanooga, because of the 
 tactics of General Rosecrans, was abandoned by the Southern 
 troops, and the forces joined at Chickamauga, where the stead- 
 fastness of General Thomas saved the battle to the North. The 
 Confederate General Bragg, occupying the heights of Lookout 
 Mountain and Missionary Ridge, was soon after attacked by 
 the Union army, reinforced by Generals Sherman and Hooker, 
 and decisively beaten. 
 
 457. In order that the army would not lack sufficient men to 
 
168 American History. 
 
 make sure of ultimate successj Congress ordered a conscription 
 or draft. All able-bodied men between the ages of 20 and 45 
 were liable for military duty. If the volunteers did not make 
 good the quota assigned to each State by the Federal Govern- 
 .ment, the difference was to be made good by a draft, the names 
 of the soldiers drafted to be taken from a box, as in a lottery. 
 In New York City the draft met violent opposition, and severe 
 riots took place, in which the mobs vented their anger on the 
 negroes. Bounties were to be paid by the National, State, and 
 county governments in order to insure the raising of the quota. 
 Comparatively few troops were raised by the draft because of 
 •the large voluntary enlistment of the citizens. 
 
 458. Grant, because of his achievements in the West, was ap- 
 pointed Lieutenant-General of all the Union forces, and deter- 
 mined to wear down the enemy by striking hard blows and never 
 letting up in the attacks. The different Northern armies were 
 to attack at the same time, thereby preventing the Southern 
 forces from joining. General Butler advanced on Richmond 
 by the James River, General Sigel cleared the Shenandoah Val- 
 ley, and Grant himself attacked Lee. The Battles of the Wilder- 
 ness, Spottsylvania, Cold Harbor, and Petersburg followed in 
 rapid succession, with enormous losses for the North, but Grant 
 kept on, and finally laid siege to Petersburg and Richmond. 
 
 459. General Sherman, at the same time, was to attack General 
 Johnston's army, and then to destroy the Confederate base of 
 supplies. Many cities were abandoned and the Battle of Kenesaw 
 Mountain was fought. Sherman then marched upon Atlanta, 
 captured it in September, 1864, and then began his famous "march 
 to the sea," ending in the capture of Savannah, on Christmas 
 Day, 1864. 
 
 460. On April 1, 1865, General Grant decided to wait no longer 
 for General Sherman, whose progress northward was delayed 
 by swollen streams, and attacked the Confederates at Five Forks, 
 then Petersburg. Richmond was abandoned by the Confederates. 
 On April 9, General Lee surrendered at Appomattox Court 
 House. On the 26th, General Johnston surrendered to General 
 Sherman, and the rebellion was at an end. 
 
 461. In order to make legal the total abolition of slavery in 
 -the United States, Congress passed the Thirteenth Amendment, 
 
American History. 169 
 
 which was ratified by three-fourths of the States, and declared in 
 force on December 18, 1865. 
 
 462. Amidst the joy of peace, the nation was shocked by the 
 assassination of President Lincoln, who was shot while he was 
 sitting in a box at Ford's Theatre, on the evening of April 14th. 
 He died on the following day! 
 
 463. The superiority of the North over the South in men, 
 wealth, resources of every description, industrial, agricultural and 
 maritime, counted in the final determination of the struggle. 
 
 RECONSTRUCTION 
 THE NEW REPUBLIC 
 
 464. The results of the war may be summed up as follows : 
 The destruction of the vicious institution of slavery. The over- 
 throwing of the doctrines of nullification and secession. This 
 nation is an indestructible nation of indestructible States. The 
 piling up of debts, the principal of which the United States is 
 paying for to-day. The ruin of the South. The destruction of 
 American commerce, due to the Southern raiders, and particularly 
 the Alabama. The loss of almost one million people from the 
 killed in battle or from wounds. The rehabilitation of the South 
 following the war; the South has since taken on new industries, 
 has become a most important manufacturing section. 
 
 465. "The people were greatly impoverished. The farms had 
 gone to waste; the fields were covered with weeds and bushes. 
 Farm implements and tools were gone ; live stock had disap- 
 peared so there were barely enough farm animals to meet the 
 demands of agriculture. Business was at a standstill; banks and 
 commercial places had been suspended or closed on account of 
 insolvency. The currency was in a wretched condition and the 
 disbanded soldiers returned to their homes to find desolation and 
 starvation staring them in the face." 
 
 466. The Confederate States had rebelled against the Federal 
 Government and the Constitution, and had withdrawn their rep- 
 resentatives from Congress. The question now arose as to what 
 was to be done with these States ; in other words, what was to 
 be done to reconstruct them as States in the Union? To what 
 rights were the States and their citizens entitled? That con- 
 stituted the problem for the next decade. 
 
 467. Lincoln's plan of Reconstruction: The section conquered 
 
170 American History. 
 
 by the Union forces was placed under a military governor, acting 
 for the President. When the number of loyal citizens who 
 voted for a new government was not less than one-tenth of the 
 number of the voters in 1860, the new government would go into 
 effect. The only other completed "reconstruction" of the State 
 was the admission of the Representatives and Senators in Con- 
 gress, over which admission Congress had sole control. Ten- 
 nessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana had been so reconstructed. 
 
 468. In December, 1863, Lincoln had issued his Proclamation 
 of Amnesty, granting to Southerners a "full pardon" on their 
 taking an oath to support the Constitution. He excluded civil 
 and military officers of the Confederate Government and Con- 
 federates who had held Federal offices. In May, 1865, President 
 Johnson issued a Proclamation, but he excluded a larger number, 
 particularly those possessing taxable property of a value of $20,000 
 or more (ex-Confederates). These could secure reinstatement 
 on application to the President. During the recess of the Con- 
 gress, Johnson had appointed civil governors of the former 
 Southern States and elections were held to choose delegates to 
 Constitutional Conventions which were to adopt Constitutions 
 in accordance with the new requirements. The elections had 
 been held when Congress met, and President Johnson urged Con- 
 gress to admit the States' representatives. 
 
 469. Opposition developed against the President's plans, as 
 many considered that the requirements were too lenient, and that 
 Congress had sole power to direct the reconstruction of the 
 Union. Moreover, the Democratic Party was still in control in 
 the South, while Congress was still strongly Republican. 
 
 470. During the winter of 1865 the Southern Legislatures had 
 enacted laws to curb the powers of the freed ex-slaves. These 
 laws were known as the Black Codes. They required that all 
 negroes should have regular occupations. Freedmen found with- 
 out occupations were to be considered and treated as vagrants, 
 with heavy penahles inflicted on them. The number of crimes 
 was increased and the penalties were extremely heavy. All 
 negroes under eighteen years of age, who were orphans or whose 
 parents did not support them, could be apprenticed by court 
 order to employers, preferably their former masters. 
 
 471. These laws angered the Northerners and made them de- 
 
American History. 171 
 
 termined to punish the Southerners for their temerity. One way 
 was to grant the negroes the right of suffrage on an equality 
 with the whites. The leaders were Thaddeus Stevens in the 
 House of Representatives, and Charles Sumner in the Senate. 
 The Congress passed a bill increasing the powers of the Freed- 
 men's Bureau, which Johnson vetoed. 
 
 472. During the war the greater number of slaves had re- 
 mained on the farms and plantations doing the work, and pro- 
 tecting the women and the young. With the issuance of the 
 Emancipation Proclamation these slaves became free men, and 
 large numbers flocked to the cities or to the Union armies. 
 They had not learned the lesson of independence; they were 
 intoxicated with their new-found freedom. The Northerners 
 were compelled to provide them with food and clothing or let 
 them starve. In the early part of 1865, the Freedmen's Bureau 
 was organized under the War Department, with commissioners 
 throughout the South, who distributed clothing, food, and fuel, 
 settled them on abandoned or confiscated land, and undertook 
 the establishment of schools for them. This charitable work 
 made havoc with the freed slaves. 
 
 473. Congress thereupon decided to enforce Its own policy of 
 reconstruction, and in this policy they were actuated by motives 
 that were humane in their attitude toward the negroes; vin- 
 dictive, in their desire to punish the South; political, in order 
 to maintain the supremacy of the Republican North; and per- 
 sonal, in their animosity toward the President. See answers 
 469, 479. 
 
 474. The Civil Rights Bill, enacted March, 1866, declared all 
 persons, not subjects of foreign countries, excluding Indians not 
 taxed, to be citizens of the United States and entitled to all the 
 civil and political rights of citizenship. The bill was passed over 
 Johnson's veto. 
 
 475. To make this provision doubly certain, the XIV Amend- 
 ment to the Constitution was submitted to the States for adop- 
 tion and ratification. It provided for citizenship of the negroes, 
 for the repudiation of the Confederate debts, for the poHtical disa- 
 blHties of ex-Confederates, and threatened to reduce the repre- 
 sentation of any State that refused the franchise to citizens 
 without regard to race, creed, or color. 
 
172 American History. 
 
 476. The Reconstruction Act of 1867 provided: (1) That the 
 ten unreconstructed States were to be divided into five military 
 districts; (2) that miHtary officers should supervise the election 
 of delegates for the Constitutional conventions, and that all 
 citizens were entitled to a vote; (3) that the Constitutions should 
 grant the franchise to negroes as well as to whites; (4) that the 
 State Legislatures under these Constitutions were to ratify the 
 Constitution with all its amendments. (5) Congress would then 
 consider the admission of their Representatives and Senators. 
 
 477. The political control of the South fell into the hands of 
 certain classes of people who inflicted great harm on that sec- 
 tion. They were (1) the "scalawags," or Southerners who op- 
 posed secession and a few ex-Confederates who favored the 
 Congressional policy; (2) the carpet-baggers, men from the 
 North who saw the splendid opportunities for investment and 
 acquiring wealth by buying up plantations, by favoring the 
 negroes, and thus securing election to public office; (3) the 
 negroes; (4) business men who had lived in the South and had 
 not previously taken active part in politics, but who now saw an 
 opportunity for personal advancement. In 1868, the States of 
 Florida, Arkansas, North and South Carolina, Louisiana, and 
 Alabama were admitted to the Union, on their acceptance of the 
 conditions imposed by Congress. Virginia, Georgia, Texas, and 
 Mississippi, for one reason or another, were refused recon- 
 struction until 1870. 
 
 478. In order to m^ake sure that the negroes would not be de- 
 prived of the right of suffrage by the States, the XV Amendment 
 to the Constitution was proposed in 1869, and adopted in March, 
 1870. It forbids the denial of the right to vote on account of 
 race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 
 
 479. The breach between the Democratic President, Johnson, 
 and the Republican leaders in Congress had widened. In public 
 addresses, the impetuous and stubborn President characterized 
 Stevens, Sumner, Wendell Phillips and other famous Republicans 
 as enemies of their country. In his vetoes of the Civil Rights 
 legislation he had increased their animosity. They now desired 
 to trap the President in some impeachable offense, and passed 
 the Tenure of Office Bill. 
 
 480. The Tenure of Office Bill prohibited the President from 
 
American History. 17S 
 
 femoving from office any appointee without the consent of the 
 Senate. This right of removal had been a prerogative of the 
 President from the days of Washington, and, accordingly, Presi- 
 dent Johnson removed Secretary Stanton and instructed General 
 Grant to perform the offices of the Secretary of War, The Senate 
 refused to concur in his removal. 
 
 481. This led to the impeachment of President Johnson by the 
 House of Representatives for "high crimes and misdemeanors." 
 He was tried before the United States Senate, in accordance with 
 the requirements of the Constitution. The trial lasted ten weeks ; 
 during the trial all the forms of law were observed most 
 strictly. 
 
 482. Only one vote was taken, that on the charge of his vio- 
 lation of the Tenure of Office Act. The vote was 35 in favor 
 of his removal to 19 against, one less than the two-thirds re- 
 quired by the Constitution. Thus ended a dispute between two 
 co-ordinate* branches of our government which brought credit 
 to neither side. 
 
 483. With the putting into effex:t of the Congressional policy 
 of reconstruction the political power in the Southern States was 
 placed in the hands of carpet-baggers from the North, who con- 
 trolled the negro vote. Many of these Northern men were men of 
 integrity, while others looked upon their political offices as mere- 
 ly another means of enriching themselves. An orgy of corrup- 
 tion seized the Southern States. Heavy taxes were levied, 
 enormous amounts of bonds issued, offi'ces were filled by ignorant 
 and vicious negroes, former Southern leaders were persecuted 
 and hounded and State debts were piled up. 
 
 484. With this state of affairs, the former Confederates banded 
 together in secret organizations, among which were the White 
 Brotherhood, the Loyal League, the Pale Faces, the Ku Klux 
 Klan. Their deliberations were held in secret, bent upon mutual 
 civil and political protection. They resorted to bloodshed where 
 thought necessary. Offensive negroes were punished, carpet-bag- 
 gers and office holders were ordered out of the country, property 
 was burned without warning, the ignorant were warned away 
 from the polls, school teachers driven out, and the country was 
 in a reign of terror. 
 
 485. In the campaign of 1872, Horace Greeley, the Republican 
 
174 American Historv. 
 
 editor of the New York Tribune, was the candidate of the Liber- 
 al Republicans and the Democrats. The platform called for the 
 abolition of the spoils system, the immediate removal of all dis- 
 abilities imposed on account of the Rebellion. Grant was re- 
 elected by an overwhelming vote. 
 
 486. Alaska was ceded to the United States in 1867 for the 
 sum of $7,200,000. Russia desired again to show her friendly 
 spirit, which she had evidenced during the Civil War, and to 
 check the expansion of England. 
 
 487. During the Civil War, there existed a similar state of 
 affairs in Mexico. For the protection of their citizens and the 
 payment of the debts due them, England, France and Spain 
 reached an agreement to send an armed force to that country. 
 Soon after, France was left alone to pursue the policy, and 
 Napoleon III caused Archduke Maximilian of Austria to be 
 raised to the throne of Mexico. The United States protested 
 against this step, but the protests were ignored. At the close of 
 the war, troops were ordered to the Mexican border to prepare 
 to invade that country, if necessary. The French withdrew in 
 1867, and Maximilian was left to his fate. He was captured and 
 executed by troops of the Mexican Republic. The Monroe 
 Doctrine as an avowed American policy was again enunciated. 
 
 488. During the Civil War the North protested against the 
 fitting out, in English harbors, of vessels for the South to prey 
 on the commerce of the North. Hundreds of American vessels 
 had either been destroyed or seized, and American carrying trade 
 was given a blow from which i*- has not yet recovered. The 
 threatened war between France and Prussia, in which England 
 might become involved, led England to consent to settle the 
 claims of the Americans for damages by arbitration. As a re- 
 sult of the decision of the five arbitrators selected by the United 
 States, Great Britain, Switzerland, Italy, Brazil, the United 
 States was awarded the sum of $15,500,000. 
 
 489. In addition, the northwestern boundary between the United 
 States and Canada was decided by the German Emperor, the 
 fisheries dispute was amicably settled, and the claims of the 
 citizens of both nations were settled. 
 
 490. The Homestead Law of 1862 granted to a settler 160 
 
American History. 17S 
 
 acres per family provided he lived on it for five years. This 
 encouraged German and Irish immigration to the West. 
 
 491. The merchant marine never recovered from the blow 
 dealt it by the Confederate privateers. In 1860, more than two- 
 thirds of all the imports and exports were carried in ships under 
 the American registry laws ; in 1870, only half as much was 
 carried, and since then it has been dwindling, until today, no 
 more than 10 per cent, of the total amount of foreign commerce 
 is carried in American bottoms. Iron and steel had superseded 
 the wood in marine construction, and with the laws in force it 
 was found impossible to have the ships built in America in com- 
 petition with foreign-built ships. 
 
 492. The public debt at the end of 1865 was almost $3,000,000,- 
 000; the interest on this alone amounted to almost $200,000,000. 
 The debt was represented by certificates, notes and bonds, issued 
 during the term of the war at interest rates of from 6 to 7.5 per 
 cent, on the original issues. It was necessary to reduce this 
 amount of interest, and under Secretary of the Treasury Mc- 
 Culloch, the demand and short-term obligations were taken up 
 and new interest-bearing bonds were given in exchange with 
 lower rates of interest. It was not long before the credit of the 
 Federal government was so good as to be able to issue bonds at 
 a rate of not more than 2^/^ per cent. 
 
 493. The retirement of the legal tender notes soon demanded 
 the attention of the Treasury officials. There was a large 
 amount of these notes and prices were consequently high. In 
 1866, the Secretary of the Treasury was authorized to redeem 
 the legal tenders in limited amounts from revenues, and to 
 cancel those redeemed. In 1868 this redemption was stopped by 
 act of Congress, when the amount had been reduced to about 
 $360,000,000. 
 
 494. The country was divided as to the question of the legal 
 tenders, when the Supreme Court, Chief Justice Chase presiding, 
 decided (1869) that Congress had exceeded its authority in mak- 
 ing the notes legal tender, and that contracts entered into prior 
 to the date of the issuance of the legal tender were to be paid 
 in the legal tender before that time of issue, that is, in gold. In 
 1872, however, the Court, having been changed by the addition 
 
176 American History, 
 
 of two new members, reversed itself, and sustained the consti-; 
 tutionality of the legal tender notes. 
 
 495. The year 1873 saw a most serious panic which continued 
 for a period of more than five years. The prosperity of the 
 post-Civil War period, the consequent speculations, the litiga- 
 tion in connection with legal tender notes, the inflation of values, 
 tended to create a stringency in the money market in New 
 York, which was followed by the demands of the depositors in 
 the banks, and the inability of the banks to meet these de- 
 mands. 
 
 496. President Grant refused to sanction the issuance of ad- 
 ditional greenbacks or legal tender to meet the money stringency, 
 and Congress, in 1875, decided to allow the resumption of specie 
 payments, fixing January 1, 1879, as the date for redemption of 
 legal tender. The sum of $100,000,000 was set aside for that 
 purpose, but the credit of the United States had been restored 
 and few bills were offered for redemption. 
 
 497. The other important events during Grant's administration 
 were: The demand for a reform of the Civil Service; 
 the prosecution of the Credit Mobilier, a corporation en- 
 gaged in building the Pacific Railroads, which sought to influence 
 Congressmen by offering them stock at less than the market 
 prices ; the prosecutions of the Secretary of War Belknap for 
 participation in the contracts for supplies in his department; and 
 the prosecution of the "whiskey frauds." 
 
 498. (a) The Campaign of 1876 is marked by the bitterness 
 between the Democrats whose candidates were Samuel J. Tilden, 
 of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, and the Republicans 
 with Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, and William H. Wheeler, of 
 New York, (b) The returns from three of the Southern States 
 and from Oregon were disputed, and could not be counted be- 
 cause of the lack of agreement between the Democratic House 
 of Representatives and the Republican Senate. Tilden had 184 
 undisputed votes and needed only one more vote to become 
 President, while Hayes required all the disputed votes. In order 
 to break the deadlock, Congress appointed an Electoral Commis- 
 sion consisting of five Senators (three Republican and two 
 Democratic), and five Representatives (three Democrats and two 
 Republicans) and five Justices of the Supreme Court (two. of 
 
American History. 177 
 
 each party, and the fifth to be chosen by the other four, who was 
 Justice Bradeley, a RepubHcan), (c) The vote was a strict party 
 vote, eight to seven in favor of the RepubHcan returns, thereby 
 electing Hayes as President. 
 
 499. With the period after the Civil War we have the begin- 
 ning of the age of steel. The Bessemer process of converting 
 iron into steel, was first used extensively in 1867, and the open- 
 hearth method was used in 1869. Cities sprang up in the steel 
 manufacturing region, machinery was. put into greater use, hand 
 labor was displaced by machinery, steel tracks displaced the 
 iron rails, and the demand for steel wares of all kinds was un- 
 precedented. 
 
 500. With this period we also have the concentration of capital 
 and labor manufactures into the great corporations, which have 
 done so much to develop the country. Small factories were 
 bought up, and consolidated into large corporations, the earn- 
 ings and profits of which were turned into the exploitation of 
 newer fields. This brought about the greater distinction between 
 capital and labor, and gave rise to the organization of the 
 unions. 
 
 501. Some of the evils resulting from the development of cor- 
 porations were: The destruction of the small manufacturing 
 concerns ernploying large numbers of people; the destruction of 
 competition, and the consequent increase in the prices of com- 
 modities ; the concentration of people in large manufacturing 
 cities ; the questionable practices indulged in by the "financiers" 
 and speculators in order to acquire stock of corporations ; manip- 
 ulations of the stocks and books of the corporations. Some of 
 the good features were : The building of large cities ; the devel- 
 opment of the industry, for large corporations could employ the 
 highest-priced employees to make special studies of the industry 
 (Standard Oil Corporation chemists, for example) ; the great 
 development of our export trade. 
 
 502. The growth of labor unions, as an offset to the growth of 
 the corporations, is due to one or more of the many aims of 
 these unions. They are: The fostering of co-operation among 
 workers ; the shortening of the number of hours of labor in a 
 day ; the increasing of wages ; the distribution of sick and death 
 benefits; self-protection against the workings of the corpora- 
 
178 American History. 
 
 tions; the securing of legislation that would give protection to 
 the laborer, accident insurance, clean shops, etc. 
 
 503. With the growth and development of the country, there 
 developed the great railroad systems. The Federal and the State 
 Legislatures aided this development by grants of land, financial 
 aid, special legislation, etc. But at the same time there arose 
 a great number of evils which it has taken time to eradicate. 
 Among them were : Where there were competing lines, compe- 
 tition was keen, and freight rates were correspondingly low; 
 but where only one railroad line dominated a section of the 
 country, the rates were excessively high. Intermediate points 
 had higher tariffs than terminal points. Through various means, 
 the railroads secured favorable legislation, and in the end, in 
 many of the States, the railroads controlled the legislatures, and 
 only legislation favorable to them was enacted. 
 
 504. Through the co-operation of farmers' "granges," and busi- 
 ness men in their societies, etc., there were established Railroad 
 Commissions (Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota), which had 
 authority to fix maximum rates within the States, to regulate the 
 work of the railroads, and to nullify restrictive rules made by the 
 companies. The enactment of the laws establishing these com- 
 missions was sustained after considerable litigation by the Su- 
 preme Court, in- 1877. 
 
 505. The Interstate Commerce Commission was organized in 
 1887, following a decision of the Supreme Court on the meaning 
 of interstate commerce, and the consolidation of many rail- 
 roads into extensive lines. The Commission consisted of five 
 persons with full power to investigate and to report concern- 
 ing grievances against the railroads, tariffs, their rules, etc., and 
 to correct abuses. The law required charges and rates to be 
 reasonable and just; unjust discrimination between persons and 
 places was prohibited; pooling was declared illegal; competing 
 parallel lines were not to be joined or consolidated. 
 
 506. Along the Pacific Coast there arose a demand, because 
 of the extensive immigration of the Chinese, for the exclusion of 
 the Mongols. This intense hatred was due to their modes of 
 life, to the low wages, and their habit of returning to China 
 with their savings. In 1882, in obedience to the popular demand, 
 
American History. 179 
 
 Congress passed the Exclusion Law, excluding Chinese labor for 
 a period of ten years. The law has since been re-enacted. 
 
 507. The Greenback Party, formed in 1876, with Peter Cooper 
 for its Presidential candidate, demanded the issue of a greater 
 amount of the notes of "fiat money." They denounced the re- 
 sumption of specie payment, national banks, and the payment of 
 bonds in specie. In 1876, they polled but 80,000 votes, while two 
 years later, they polled 1,000,000 votes. 
 
 508. During the two decades preceding the year 1873, the pro- 
 duction of gold vyas greatly in excess of the silver production, 
 and very little silver was brought to the mint for coinage. Little 
 attention was given to the omission of the silver dollar from the 
 list of coins in the law of 1873. But shortly after, the famous 
 silver mines in Colorado were discovered, and the production 
 of silver increased. There then arose from the West a demand 
 for the free coinage of silver, on a par with gold ; that is, any 
 person could bring the silver bullion to the mints and get in 
 exchange for it, silver dollars. The adherents of the Green- 
 back Party favored this as it would then mean the expansion of 
 money. The demand was so strong that in 1876 and 1877, the 
 House of Representatives passed bills for the free coinage of 
 silver. 
 
 509. The Bland-Allison act of 1878 was a compromise measure 
 which authorized the Secretary of the Treasury to purchase 
 monthly, from $2,000,000 to $4,000,000 worth of silver bullion 
 and coin it in silver dollars of the standard weight which were to 
 be full legal tender. Under this, almost $400,000,000 were coined, 
 but silver did not reach a parity with gold. 
 
 510. The election of 1880 resulted in the choice of James A. 
 Garfield for the Presidency and Chester A. Arthur for Vice- 
 President, both Republicans. President Garfield was shot by a 
 disappointed office-seeker, in the railroad station at Washington, 
 on July 9, 1881. His death followed on September 19, 1881. 
 Vice-President Arthur succeeded him as President. 
 
 511. The campaign of 1884 is marked by the nomination of 
 James G. Blaine on the Republican ticket, the bolt of the "Mug- 
 wumps" who opposed the choice of Blaine, and the loss of New 
 York State by less than 1,000 votes. The tariff became an im- 
 portant issue, The first Democratic President since 1856 was 
 
180 American History. 
 
 elected in the* person of Grover Cleveland, of New York, a man 
 who had shown his fearlessness and independence and his deter- 
 mination to destroy, wherever and whenever he could, the evil 
 powers of corruption in government. 
 
 512. The tariff became an important matter in 1884, since the 
 need for the excessive taxes imposed by, or as a condition of 
 war, had passed. The manufacturing industries urged the con- 
 tinuance of the high tariff, while the agricultural sections de- 
 manded a considerably reduced tariff, since the surplus in the 
 Treasury was of enormous size. A commission of nine, after 
 consideration, recommended a reduction of from twenty to 
 twenty-five per cent, in the duties. The report was rejected, and 
 a tariff with strong protection features was passed. President 
 Cleveland, an ardent tariff reformer, urged the reduction in 
 tariff, but the division in Congress prevented him from being 
 successful. 
 
 513. The industrial tendency of the age is the combination 
 of factories into large corporations, consolidation instead of 
 competition, the introduction of machinery in all processes, the 
 greater division of labor, and the greater utilization of by- 
 products. Consolidation and combination were effected by pur- 
 chase of rival factories, by underselling and destroying rivals by 
 for.cing them into bankruptcy, by agreement to maintain prices, 
 by pooling arrangements, and by ability to borrow enormous 
 capital. 
 
 514. A "trust" was a combination of various corporations, in 
 which the powers of each corporation were surrendered to a 
 number of persons acting aS "trustees," these managing the 
 entire business of the combined corporations. This was declared 
 illegal by the Supreme Court and the present "trust" includes 
 all the stockholders of the former separate plants. The first 
 large trust was the Standard Oil Company; another was the 
 American Sugar Company. The trusts through their immense 
 capital, the united strength, were able to destroy competition, 
 and raise the selling price of their commodities. This resulted 
 in the enactment of anti-trust laws in many of the States, and 
 finally, in 1890, the famous Sherman Anti-Trust Law (written by 
 Senator Edmunds) was passed. This Act prohibited agreements 
 
American History. 181 
 
 in restraint of trade, in pooling arrangements in articles and 
 commodities in interstate or foreign commerce. 
 
 515. While the manufacturing industries were enjoying pros- 
 perity, the condition of the farmers was anything but right. The 
 prices of farm products were reduced, the farms were being 
 heavily mortgaged, the inequality of taxation between the owners 
 of stocks and other forms of personal property and the owners 
 of the land, and burdens imposed upon the farmers by the rail- 
 roads, the speculation in farm products, and the general unsatis- 
 factory conditions of life on the farm, led to a rebelHous attitude 
 of the farmers, and resulted in the organization of the Farmer's 
 Alliance, with a membership of several millions, and controlling 
 more than a thousand newspapers. The work of this alliance 
 organization has brought about changes in the condition of the 
 farmers. Laws were enacted to remedy the abuses complained 
 of, to better the living conditions, and in many other ways the 
 farmers have prospered. 
 
 516. In the campaign of 1892, the People's Party, or the 
 Populist Party, became an important factor. In the subsequent 
 campaigns, of 1896 and 1900, its members became the controlling 
 factors in the Democratic Party, and have influenced its policies 
 since. The Republican and the Democratic candidates were re- 
 spectively Benjamin Harrison and Grover Cleveland, former 
 Presidents. The important monetary question was settled by a 
 decision to favor bimetallism, and the fight hinged on the tariff. 
 The Populist platform demanded the enactment of laws relieving 
 the farmers, the free coinage of silver, the government owner- 
 ship of the public utilities, a revenue tariff, and a number of 
 other reforms that have since, in whole or in part, been enacted 
 into law. 
 
 517. The Sherman Act of 1890, passed in response to the de- 
 mands of the owners of the silver mines, provided for the 
 monthly purchase of four and a half million ounces of silver at 
 the market price. Silver certificates were to be issued against 
 the bullion. The price of silver rose because the visible quantity 
 of the silver was reduced considerably by the purchases. 
 
 518. Owing to the unfavorable balances against the United 
 States, the gold withdrawn to pay the balances due the Euro- 
 pean countries reduced the gold reserve. The bankers and mer- 
 
182 American History. 
 
 chants therefore asked the United States to redeem the United 
 States notes as a means of obtaining sufficient gold. This led to 
 a restriction of loans by banking institutions, the curtailment of 
 purchases, and the consequent depression of 1893, or the panic 
 of 1893. President Cleveland called Congress in special session, 
 and the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 was repealed 
 after a severe struggle. Bonds to the amount of almost $300,- 
 000,000 were issued to meet deficits. 
 
 519. The campaign of 1896 was waged on the monetary or 
 financial question, "the free and unlimited coinage of both gold 
 and silver at the present legal ratio of sixteen to one, without 
 waiting for the consent or aid of any other nation." The candi- 
 dates were: Republican, William McKinley and Garret A. Ho- 
 bart; Democratic, William Jennings Bryan and Arthur Sewall; 
 Populists, Bryan and Thomas Watson ; the Gold Democrats, 
 John M. Palmer and Simon B. Buckner. The campaign was 
 most bitterly fought, the popular vote being in favor of the Re- 
 publican candidates, 7,100,000 to 6,200,000, and the electoral vote 
 was decidedly Republican. 
 
 520. The influx of foreigners, particularly Americans, into 
 Hawaii led to a revolt against the absolute monarchy of the 
 Hawaiians. The provisional form of government was recognized 
 by President Harrison, and a treaty of annexation was drawn 
 up and submitted to the Senate. President Cleveland, however, 
 decided to investigate the entire question and sent a commissioner 
 to the islands for that purpose. The President, on receipt of 
 the report, refused to sanction annexation. However, a re- 
 public was organized, with the constitutional provision for 
 future annexation to the United States. The failure to secure 
 the necessary two-third vote in the Senate to ratify the treaty 
 of annexation led to the annexation by joint resolution (July, 
 1898). Hawaii was made a territory of the United States. 
 
 521. The application of the Monroe Doctrine to the dispute 
 between Great Britain and Venezuela, once more showed the 
 world at large that this country considered the Doctrine as one 
 of its fundamental laws. The question of boundary line between 
 Venezuela and British Guiana was in dispute, and the United 
 States demanded that the question be settled by arbitration, to 
 which Great Britain refused to give assent. After numerous 
 
American Historv. 183 
 
 messages, and implied threat on the part of the President to 
 call to his support in the upholding of the Doctrine, the military 
 and naval forces of the United States, Great Britain consented, 
 and the dispute was decided by arbitration. 
 
 522. Following 1880, the United States Patent Office issued 
 more than 20,000 patents daily. These were for many labor- 
 saving devices, and the new processes and products greatly 
 increased the conveniences of life. Among them were : Steam- 
 heating systems, canning and packing, sanitary plumbing, manu- 
 facture of artificial ice, processes of refrigeration, the roller-proc- 
 ess of milling, milk-test, etc. The typewriter, the sulky-plough, 
 the Hoe web-printing press, the linotype, self-binding reaper, 
 compressed-air rock drill, the Westinghouse air-brake, vesti- 
 buled trains, Pullman cars, trolley car systems, smokeless pow- 
 der, magazine rifles, bicycle, automatic gun, the telephone, the 
 improved dynamo, the arc and incandescent lamps, storage bat- 
 teries, were among the important articles for which patents were 
 issued. 
 
 523. The continued mismanagement of the Spanish colony of 
 Cuba led to the revolt of the Cubans. The Cubans received aid 
 from the Americans in their attempts, received supplies and 
 food for the starving thousands whom the Spanish neglected. 
 In 1895, a rebellion broke out, and despite the attempts of Spain, 
 it could not be put down. The Cubans had gained the sympathy 
 of the Americans, because of the cruelties of the Spanish. On 
 February 15, 1898, the Maine, an American battleship, while in 
 the harbor of Havana, was destroyed by an external explosion, 
 causing the death of two officers and 264 men sailors. President 
 McKinley tried to bring about a peaceful settlement between 
 the Spaniards and the Cubans, but failed in the attempt, and 
 asked Congress to grant him power to bring about the cessa- 
 tion of the disgraceful conditions in Cuba. Congress, on April 
 19, demanded the withdrawal of Spain from the Island, and 
 empowered the President to use the forces of the United States 
 to bring this about. A formal declaration of war followed. 
 
 524. The events worthy of notice were : The capture of the 
 Philippines by Admiral Dewey; the blockade of the Cuban ports; 
 the destruction of the Spanish fleet in the harbor of Santiago; 
 the small battles of San Juan and the capture of Santiago; the 
 
184 AMERicAisr History. 
 
 capture of Porto Rico. The treaty of peace, signed at Paris, 
 within one year after the outbreak of the war, provided for the 
 complete independence of Cuba, for the possession of the Philip- 
 pines and the other Spanish Islands in the Western hemisphere, 
 and the payment of $20,000,000 by the United States to Spain. 
 
 525. The United States feels itself responsible for the freedom 
 of Cuba, and therefore, has insisted that the Cubans govern 
 themselves in an orderly way, without injuring the citizens of 
 other nations. Factional quarrels are frowned upon, and the 
 United States, under its treaty obligations, will not hesitate to 
 step in and compel peace in the island. 
 
 526. In 1899, a treaty was effected among Germany, Great 
 Britain and the United States, by which the United States ac- 
 quired four islands of the Samoan group, the largest being the 
 Island Tutuila, with the largest and best harbor, Pago Pago, in 
 the Pacific. This, too, followed as a result of native revolts 
 against the rulers, and the failure of an arrangement among the 
 above nations to compel peace on the islands. 
 
 527. Shortly after peace was signed, the Filipinos revolted, 
 but were subdued. The American occupancy has been very bene- 
 ficial to the island. Their industries have been developed ; peace- 
 ful conditions reign on the islands; schools, churches, and other 
 institutions have been established. It is very likely that an 
 attempt to grant the islands their independence will succeed 
 within a short time. 
 
 528. (a) In 1900, President McKinley, renominated on the 
 Republican ticket, against William Jennings Bryan on the Dem- 
 ocratic ticket, won a most decisive victory at the polls against 
 his opponents. This was due, in large measure, to the influx 
 of gold from the Klondike region, to the great prosperity of the 
 country, and to the popularity of the President, partly as a 
 result of the successful termination of our small war with 
 Spain, (b) President McKinley, six months after his second 
 inauguration, was shot while delivering a speech at the Pan- 
 American Exposition, at Buffalo, and the Vice-President, Theo- 
 dore Roosevelt, succeeded to the Presidency. 
 
 529. President Roosevelt, by his aggressive individuality, and 
 the firm stand he had taken in his antagonism against the "male- 
 factors of wealth," his vigorous foreign policy, his efforts in the 
 
American History. 185 
 
 direction of official purity, and his striking American personality, 
 was re-elected in 1904; and his election ushered in a vigorous 
 participation of the United States in world pohtics, particularly 
 in the politics of the Far East, where we own the important 
 Philippines. In the Peace Conferences at the Hague and other 
 places, the United States has taken a prominent part^ 
 
 530. The Monroe Doctrine was again enunciated as a clear 
 American doctrine of policy. The smaller South American 
 and Central American States were warned that the United 
 States would not countenance the use of the Monroe Doctrine 
 as a shield by these states in their evasion from payment of 
 just and legal debts to foreign nations or their citizens, and that 
 the United States would act in good faith to see that the just 
 obligations of the smaller states would be met. 
 
 531. The administration of President Roosevelt is noted for 
 the abrogation of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1901), the pur- 
 chase of the franchise and concession from the French Panama 
 Company, the recognition of the revolting country of Panama 
 from Colombia, the payment of a large sum of money to Panama 
 for the concession, and the beginning of the building of the 
 Panama Canal. The country has guaranteed the neutral use of 
 the canal in time of war, and it has since been fortified in order 
 to prevent foreign nations from taking advantage of the canal to 
 attack the coasts of this country. 
 
 532. Civil government is now ruling in the Philippines, and 
 the natives have been allowed a certain amount of self-govern- 
 ment. The material and educational welfare of the people has 
 been improved. The tendency is to allow them an increased 
 amount of home rule, if not to give them their freedom. 
 
 533. Oklahoma and Indian Territories, as the State of Okla- 
 home, 1907; Arizona, 1912; New Mexico, 1912, making the num- 
 ber of States in the Union, 48. 
 
 534. Lewis & Clark Exposition, 1905; Jamestown, 1907; Alaska- 
 Yukon-Pacific Exposition, 1909. Exhibits of various kinds are 
 shown and the world can see the progress made in all lines of 
 commerce and industries. 
 
 535. The wealth and prosperity of this country has been based 
 on the vast natural resources, agricultural, animal, mineral, its 
 rich acres, the great forests, herds of cattle, hogs, flocks of sheep, 
 
186 American History. 
 
 etc., the enormous amount of water power, stores of oil, gas, and 
 coal, have been used, in numerous cases, without regard for the 
 future supply. The demand for these resources is increasing 
 annually. In order to conserve the supply for the future, the 
 State and National governments have passed laws to preserve 
 these resources from destruction. 
 
 536. The election of William H. Taft, Republican, as President 
 against William Jennings Bryan, Democrat. 
 
 537. The split in the Republican Party and the consequent or- 
 ganization of the Progressive Party with former President Roose- 
 velt as its leader and nominee, and the union of the Democratic 
 forces gave their candidate, Woodrow Wilson, a sweeping ma- 
 jority of the States and their electoral votes. The Republican 
 candidate. President Taft, received a small number of votes. 
 
 538. The reduction of the tariff; the preservation of peace in 
 the (civil) war-ridden Mexico ; the maintenance of neutrality in 
 the present European War; the support and upbuilding of the 
 mercantile marine ; the government of the Philippines ; the main- 
 tenance of peace among our neighbors in the Western Hemis- 
 phere; the preparedness of the United States, industrially, com- 
 mercially and for wart 
 
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