#'^i -it. ' Catalogue may be had gratis. J. Wertheimer - ^X^X^X^X^X^X^X}^X^X^X^X^X^X}^X:^ :v*'i?iV",y'i'V''i&*v'fc«i"V'iJi'V*i&'\^^^^ K^X^X^X}^X^X^X^X^Xi^Xi^X;^/^^/\;^/^;^/s. ^X^X^X^X^X^X^X}^X^X3^X^X^X^X^X^. <^X^X^X^X!^X}^X^X^X^X3^X^X^X^X^X, ^X^X^X}^X^X)^X^XMX3^X^X^X^X^X^X^! <'^X^X^X^X^X'^XMX^XMX^X^X^X^X^X ■^XMX3^X^X^X3^X}^X]^X}^X^X!^X^X^X¥X^ <^x^x^x}^x^x^x^x3^x¥x¥x] ^x^x^x3^x^x^x^x^x^x^x^! x}^xmx^x^x^x}^x}^xmx3^xmx^x^x^x3^x: ck^x^x^x^x}^x^x^x3^xi^x^x^x^x¥xm! x^x^x3^x]^x3^x}^x!^x}^x3^x)^x!^x^x^x^x^ mX^XMX}^X3^XMX^X3^X^X3^XJ^X3^X!^X^X^! x^xmx3^x^x^x^x!^x!^x3^x}^x^x!^x}^x}^x! !}^x}^x!^xj^x3^x^xj^x!^x^x!^x1^x]^x^x^xs^! ^x!^x^x!^x!^x;^x}^x}^x3^x^x3^x}^x3^x^x^! X^X^X3^X!^Xi^X}^X}^X}^X3^X}^X}^X^X^X^X! ^X^X^X?^X^X!^X!^X )O^X}^X}^X!^X}^Xi^X}^X^X}^X!^Xi^X3^X^X^X! 'KXMX^X^X}^XJ*:X}^X!^X]^X}^XJJ^X!^X3^X^X}^! 'X^XMX}^X^X^X}^X^X^X^X^X!^X)8^X!^X}^X! X3^X^X3^X3^X!^X}^X}^X}^X}^Xi^X^XJ^X^X3^X! J^X^X^X^^XJ^X^^X-^XJ^X^X^X^X^X^X^X^] X^X^X}^X}^X}^X3^X}^X}^X5^X5^X}^X5^X^X^X1 ^x^x}^x}^x^x}^x;^x;^xi^x^x}^x^x^x¥X^] X5^X3^X^X^X}^X)J^X}^X}^X^X^XJi^X!^X3^X^X: }^X!^X^X^X^X}^X!^X!^X!^X}^X3^X}^X!^X^X^] ::• ^Z*^? '•••^\' v'*^' •"•^••- '^^ lAl i^*il %v* ^t^ \y* Ixtjl ••-.•' ^fjl *••■•* ^t^ '•..•' ^♦'i' '% .'' 'itlsl' \y' I^il* '•• ••'* i;ti *•• •• ^^^ *•••*' Bt^il *'•.'*' i^^ **•.•'* la-'il ••-•**' ^■:L '••*••*' < ,.?(P,.%^._y\.?«'*..'\_*%?^ ..••., y**?^^.-',. %? ..••.. %^ ..••.. %? ..-•., ?J? ..••,. %?,..•% ?«?..••*•. ^«? .••"'. ?«?,.••••• ?«?..••••, ?«? .••*•. I .•^...' \.^^...' \.?i?. .••'•. .?«?. ••••.. y^, .•••'. %■'? .••'•. ?»? •••••- %'^. .••••• ?*^ ••"•. ,%?. ••• '. ?»^ .••••• ?*?. .••'-. .?«^. .••••. S? .••••• ?«? i '^X}^X}^X^X^XJ^X}^X^X}^X^X^Xi^X}^XJ^X^> X^X^X^X!^X^X3^X}^X!^X3^XMX}^X!^X3^X^X} ^X}^X}^X^X3^X!^X^X^X^X^X}^X!^XJ^X^X!^^ «, ■'■■^f"' DR. ALLEN'S CONSTRUCTIVE EXERCISES, Sfc. DR. ALLEN'S CONSTRUCTIVE EXEECISES TEACHING GREEK FROM THE COMMENCEMENT BY WRITING. SBCOKTD EDZTZOir, REVISED AND CONSIDERABLY ENLARGED. BY JOHN ROBSON, B.A., Lond. MEMBER OF THE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY, AND ASSISTANT MASTER IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE SCHOOL. LONDON: PRINTED FOR TAYLOR AND WALTON, BOOKSELLERS AND PUBLISHERS TO UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, 28, UPPER GOWER STREET. 1844. Printed by J. & H. Cox, Brothers (late Cox & Sons), 74 & 75, Great Queen-street, Lincoln's-Inn Fields. PREFACE, The following work was originally composed on the principle that inflexions may be more easily committed to memory through the medium of writing exercises, than by reading over lists of forms in the pages of a grammar ; especially when the terminations are exhibited apart from the root to which they are affixed, and made the subjects of distinct rules. By these means the pupil is trained to some degree of generalization, a process very much more agreeable to most minds than the tedious drudgery of learning by rote lists of words, and the results of which are far more readily retained in the memory. Besides, on this plan each suffix is taken separately, its meaning is fully explained, and abundant practice in its use is afforded ; whereas on the common system, the learner is presented with a great variety of suf- fixes all together, and their significations are very imperfectly explained : the consequences are, that one termination is confounded with another, and no clear notion is obtained of their respective h VI PREFACE. meanings. It may even be doubted whether the majority of boys ever think of separating the root from the suffix : each case or person is looked upon as an indivisible vi^hole, the meaning of which must be learned by itself; and as this is to be done with many hundred inflexions, it is no wonder that boys generally make so little pro- gress either in Latin or Greek. Without gene- ralization, the result of analysis and comparison, it is vain to expect that a knowledge of any lan- guage can be acquired ; and this process must be performed by each student for himself — under the guidance and with the assistance of others, doubtless — but still consciously and intelligently, not as a mere repeater of rules laid down by others. It is obvious that another very important ad- vantage to be derived from using such a work as the present is, that while the pupil is learning the accidence he is at the same time acquiring a stock of words, which will prove of the greatest service when he commences reading the Greek authors : the principal difficulty at this time ordi- narily is, that all the words being unknown, not only is the labour of looking for them in the lexicon very great and discouraging, but as no general notion can be formed of the meaning PREFACE. Vll of any given sentence previously to using the lexicon, the pupil has nothing to guide him in the selection of the signification borne by any word in the given instance from among the various meanings probably assigned to it in the lexicon. Whereas if several of the words were known to him, the labour of translating would be diminished in the two ways just indicated, and the task would become comparatively pleasurable. In the course of this work, upwards of 1,500 Greek words will have to be used, most of them repeat- edly ; and they are generally words of common occurrence ; so that any one who shall write the whole of the exercises will afterwards find but little difficulty in translating a simple Greek book, especially Xenophon's Anabasis, a considerable number of the sentences being taken from that work. In University College School the plan of teaching Greek is to begin with this book, and then to read the Anabasis, using Mr. Hardy's lexicon to the first six chapters: it has been found that after this few boys experience much trouble in mastering the Anabasis, when left to translate it with the aid of an ordinary lexicon. This work is written on what is called the Crude Form system : that is, the Greek words in the vocabulary are not given in any case or VIU PREFACE. person, but in their simple uninflected stat{3, which is their " Crude Form." The advantages of this plan over the old one of taking the nominative singular of nouns and the first person singular present indicative of verbs, as the forms from which the others are derived, are so obvious that it is really surprising that it has not spread more rapidly in this country. It is the only plan on which the analytical mode of teaching Greek or Latin can be founded ; it greatly simplifies the rules of inflexion ; it avoids the false and arbitrary notion of deriving one case or tense, &c., from another ; it renders easy the explanation of many apparent anomalies and irregularities; and finally, is of the greatest value in shewing the connection and derivation of words, not only of Greek words with and from other Greek words, but also of English derivatives from the Greek. It has been objected to the Crude Form system that it is " arbitrary." Of all objections this is the least applicable to it. Those who make it seem to suppose that a particular form is invented and called the crude form or root, merely because it happens to be a convenient one from which to derive the cases and tenses : now it is quite true that, as a general rule, the various in- flexions are easily made from the Crude Form ; PREFACE. IX this is a proof of the correctness and advantage of the system ; but the process by which the^ Crude Form is found is very different from that "^ _ of " mvention : it consists in a comparison oi all; ^^ the words of common origin, for the purpose, if /^^ ^ possible, of finding the root freed from any com-l-^ bination which might occasion a change in itsl original form, and that is called the Crude Forniy Thus to determine the Crude Form of jSXaTrrw — which, a priori, may be either j3Xa7r, j3Xaj3, or /3Xa(^ — it is of no use to refer to the future f3Xa\p(jj, to the perfect active f3£J3Xa(l>af to the perfect passive fi^piXanfiai, or to the first aorist passive £fd\a(j)Oriv ; since in all these words certain suffixes are added to the root which necessitate various changes in it, and these changes would be the same whether the root ended in tt, |3, or 0. But the second aorist passive, tjSXa/Brjv, has a suffix which begins with a vowel, so that no change in the root is required ; manifestly, then, the root is j3Xa/3. This conclusion is confirmed by com- paring cognate words, j3Xaj3-a ' hurt,' j3Xa/3-£/oo ' hurtful,' a-j3Xaj3-£c * harmless,' &c. &:c. However inapplicable the term *' arbitrary " may be to the Crude Form plan, it is undoubtedly true enough of the old one, which consisted in selecting some particular case or person, and by b 2 X PREFACE. various complicated rules, manufacturing from them other cases, persons, and tenses. No- thing can, at the same time, be more absurd than some of these ingenious contrivances. Thus in the Port Royal Greek Grammar (Nugent's Translation, Rule LXIII.) we are told that " the paulo'post future passive is formed from the 2nd person singular of the perfect by inserting oju be- fore m; ^^jTiTVfXfxai, rervxpat, Terv-ipofim"! There the rule stops : so important in the eyes of the old grammarians was the first person singular, that they were content with giving rules for its formation — the other five persons took their chance, or were to be learned from the " example." Similarly with the nouns : the nominative sin- gular is in reality the worst case that could have been chosen as that from which to form the others ; because the suffix of that case generally being f, whenever the Crude Form ends in a consonant the g causes that consonant to be changed, so as to obscure the real root ; and even where g is not added, the Crude Form almost always undergoes some change in this case : whereas the other cases generally contain the root in its proper form. How can a pupil know that the genitive singular of Kopa^ is KO/QOfc-oc, of Of?, aiy-oQ, and of j3i??, j^rjx-oc^ PREFACE. XI The nominative singular, in all three instances, ends in 5, and there is nothing whatever to guide him in forming the other cases from it. But if the Crude Forms, KopaK, aiy, and jSrjx, were given, he could easily derive from them every one of the cases, the nom. sing, included; for he would have learned, as a universal rule of the language, that KQf jQj and ^c are all written and pronounced ?. Illustrations of this kind might be multiplied ad infinitum were they necessary. Some persons may object to using any school book written on the Crude Form system, on the ground that there are no Greek grammars nor lexicons in our language composed on that plan ; but this difficulty may be ea&ily got over. All that is necessary to enable the pupil to use books of both sorts is, to point out that nouns, &c. whose Crude Forms end in a, correspond to the first declension of the grammars ; those ending in o to the second ; and that all others belong to the third : that verbs ending in a, e, and o are the Contract verbs of the grammars; and that those ending in any consonant, l or v, are the Barytone verbs. This short and simple explanation is suffi- cient to shew the connection between the two systems, and to enable the scholar to convert the terms of the one into those of the other. Xll PREFACE. These exercises are called constructive,* in refer- ence to the application of the synthetical prin- ciple to the formation of words, as well as of sen- tences. The word writing is used in the title- page in the sense of making sentences, as well as of committing them to paper. Having thus explained the general principles on which the work was originally composed, and which have been carefully retained in the present edition, it remains to state the changes introduced into it. The principal of these is the addition of rules and exercises on the Contract verbs, and on the subjunctive, optative, and imperative moods ; which were altogether omitted in the first edition. It was thouoht that as the book is intended to o be an introduction to the reading of the Greek authors, it could not be considered as effecting its object while forms of such constant occur- rence were omitted from it. In the exercises on the added moods, care has been taken not to introduce any sentences but those of the simplest kind, and in respect to which no doubt could exist as to the proper form to be used. Such brief remarks on the syntax as appeared needful have in all cases been given, either as parts of the rules, or in notes on the exercises. An index of PREFACE. Xlll these remarks will be found at the end of the work. This book now contains, in systematic order, a complete set of exercises on every part of the Greek verb ; and it is the only book in the language which does so. The term " optative '' has been retained solely in deference to established usage, all our gram- mars making use of it, so that to omit it might cause considerable difficulty to those who may wish to use a grammar in conjunction with the exercise-book. There can be no doubt, however, that the more correct and simple method is to class the tenses of the subjunctive and optative together under the former name ; the form of the optative tenses and their syntax prove clearly that they are nothing but the past tenses of the subjunctive. In another matter of nomenclature, however, the present edition differs from ordinary practice, and from the former edition : the names of the tenses have been made descriptive of their real meaning : thus, instead of " pluperfect " the tense is called "past perfect," instead of "imperfect" the term " past imperfect " is used. It is believed that the classification into imperfect, perfect, and in- definite, will be found much more distinct and natural than that in common use ; which in some XIV PREFACE. respects is positively erroneous : thus, .what are called the present infinitive and present participle, are frequently past in signification; or, at least, are to be translated by past forms in English : their proper designation is *' imperfect." Another improvement is the more systematic and complete explanation of many things which were either only partially explained in the first edition, or in a desultory, detached manner : for instance, the rules relating to the augment and reduplication and to the euphonic changes, are now given complete in their proper places, and are not scattered in various parts of the book, nor appended to particular words, which was one of the greatest defects of the previous edition. Without departing too far from the principle of constant repetition, a much greater variety of words has been introduced into the exercises ; so that there are fully twice as many Greek words in this as there were in the first edition. Most of the exercises also, especially in the former part of the book, have been considerably shortened. An appendix has been added, containing some irregular nouns, a synopsis of the Greek verb, and rules for the conjugation of verbs in /xt. The synopsis should be frequently referred to in the course of using the book for the purpose of PREFACE. XV enabling the pupil to gain a general notion of the inflexions ; which he can hardly be expected to do from the study of the separate rules. The remarks on the alphabet, explaining the classification of the letters and the principles which regulate their combinations, will be found of considerable advantage to those who use the book, and should be carefully studied. The rules have throughout been corrected, and in many cases wholly re-written : for instance, those on the dual number of verbs. Lastly, the vocabularies, instead of being given under each exercise, are now placed all together at the end, in the alphabetical order of the English words. Several reasons may be given in favour of this change : first, a great saving of space is thus effected ; secondly, the words may be more readily found ; and lastly, the various derivatives from the same root are frequently brought toge- ther, and their connection shewn. The quantity of the doubtful syllables in the Greek has been marked in the vocabulary. The Editor may be permitted to say that in introducing these changes, he has done so with the approval of Professor Maiden ; to whom he is under deep obligations for his unwearied kindness in revising the sheets ; every one of which owes XVI PREFACE. much to the numerous suggestions and emenda- tions made by that gentleman : in fact, there is scarcely a page in the book that has not been improved by his observations. The Editor must also express his thanks to Professor Key for several valuable suggestions. The following remarks on the mode of using the book are necessary : The scholar is supposed to be acquainted v^ith the meaning of the terms of grammar used in Latin and English, so that no explanation of them is given in the book. Before the scholar proceeds to translate any given exercise, he should learn by heart the rules and examples, and the Crude Forms of all the words required in it ; and for this purpose it will be found a useful plan to direct him to write out the English words, and opposite to them the Greek Crude Forms given in the vocabulary ; paying particular attention to the remarks pre- fixed to the vocabulary on the proper mode of using it. He should afterwards be examined, viva voce, upon all that is required for the translation of the exercise ; and then proceed to use his know- ledge accordingly ; first translating into Greek, viva voce, and afterwards on paper. It will also be advisable to require him to commit to memory PREFACE. XVll given portions of the vocabulary, commencing at the beginning, and going regularly through it, frequently returning to what has been previously learned. This book may be used by itself, and contains all that is necessary to enable the pupil to trans- late the exercises, without the aid of either grammar or lexicon. Great pains have been taken to make the vocabulary complete, and it is hoped that few, if any omissions, will be found. University College, Octoher, 1844. XIX CONTENTS. PAGE Preface . . . . . , . . . . ... v Alphabet , . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii Remarks on the Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . xxiv EXERCISES. I. Present Tense of ftr ' be,' First and Second Personal Pronouns, and Nominative of Masculine and Feminine Nouns in o . , . . . . . . 1 II. Nominative of the Masculine Article and Adjective .. 3 III. Nominative of Neuter Nouns in o, and of the Neuter Article . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 IV. Past Imperfect of ttr . . 5 V. Nominative of Masculine Nouns in a . . . . 6 VI. Nominative of Feminine Nouns in a, and of the Femi- nine Article . . . . . . . . . . 7 VII. Future of fff 9 VIII. Dative of Nouns in o, and of the Masculine and Neuter Article 10 IX. Dative of Nouns in a, and of the Feminine Article . . 12 X. Genitive of Nouns in o, and of the Masculine and Neuter Article . , . . . , . . 14 XI. Genitive of Masculine Nouns in a . . . . 1 G XII. Genitive of Feminine Nouns in a, and of the Feminine Article . . . . . . . . , . 17 General Remarks on the Verb , . . . . . 19 XX CONTENTS. ACTIVE VOICE, TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. XIII. Present Tense, Accusative of Nouns in o, and of the Masculine and Neuter Article . . . . . . 20 XIV. Present of Verbs increased or strengthened .. 24 XV. Future Tense, Accusative of Nouns in a, and of the Feminine Article, Vocative of Nouns in o and a 28 Connected View of the Inflexions of Nouns in a and o 32 XVI. Past Imperfect Tense ; the Augment ; Comparative and Superlative of Adjectives . . . . . . 35 XVII. Second Aorist ; Consonant or Separable Declension 40 XVIII. First Aorist 47 XIX. Present Perfect ; Reduplication; NeuterNounsof the Consonant Declension . . . . . . . . 51 XX. Past Perfect : Nouns in ev{eY) 56 THE SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS . . 59 XXI. Tenses of the Subjunctive .. .. .. ib. XXII. Tenses of the Optative 64 XXIII. Tenses of the Imperative . . . . . . 70 XXIV. Infinitives 73 XXV. Participles 80 PASSIVE AND MIDDLE VOICE. General Remarks 88 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE, XXVI. Present 90 XXVII. Future Imperfect 92 XXVIII. Futures Indefinite Passive 94 XXIX. Past Imperfect 97 XXX. Passive Aorists 100 XXXI. First Aorist Middle 103 XXXII. Second Aorist Middle 105 XXXTII. Present Perfect Passive and Middle ; the Com- parative in toi^, and superlative in loro .. 106 CONTENTS. XXI XXXIV. Past Perfect, Passive and Middle XXXV, Future Perfect, Passive and Middle PAGE 112 115 THE SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS, XXXVI. Tenses of the Subjunctive 117 XXXVII. Tenses of the Optative 122 XXXVIII. Tenses of the Imperative 130 XXXIX. Infinitives 135 XL. Participles 143 XLI. The Dual Number of Nouns, Adjectives, and Partici- ples, and of the Active Verb , . . . . . 152 XLII. The Dual Number of the Passive and Middle Verb 157 APPENDIX. I. Some Irregular Nouns and Adjectives declined .. .. 161 II. Sjmopsis of the Rules of Formation of the Greek Verb 162 III. Verbs in fii 168 IV. Regular Tenses of the Verbs in /xi 171 Vocabulary .. .. .. .. .. ..173 Index of the Rules of Syntax , . 195 G 2 XX 111 THE GREEK ALPHABET. English Numerical Large. Small. Names. Equivalents. Values. A a Alpha a 1 B ^ Beta b 2 r 7 Gamma s 3 A S Delta d 4 E s E-psilon e 5 F T Digamma f, or V, or w* 6 z K Zeta z 7 H n Eta e 8 e 9 Theta th 9 I I Iota i 10 K K Kappa k, or hard c 20 A \ Lambda 1 30 M H' Mu m 40 N V Nu n 50 S I Xi X 60 0-micron 5 70 n TT Pi P 80 Q 9 Koppa q* 90 p p Rho r 100 s (T Sigma s 200 T T Tau t 300 Y V U-psilon u 400 $ 1> Phi ph, or f 500 X X Chi ch hard 600 * ^ Psi ps 700 Q a» 0-mega o 800 * These two letters were used by the most ancient Greeks, but ceased to be written at an early period of the language. They are XXIV REMARKS ON THE ALPHABET. Although the Alphabet does not contain any character representing the sound of our h, the Greeks had that sound, and denoted it at the beginning of words commencing with vowels by the sign ( ' ). In other cases it combines with the consonants, giving rise to the letters Q, 0, and X- Remark 1. The consonants are divided into the following classes, to which frequent reference will have to be made in the course of the follow- ing exercises. The horizontal arrangement is according to the part of the organ of voice chiefly concerned in the production of the sounds, the vertical according to the quality of the sounds. MUTES. Thin Medial Aspirated (Tenues). (Mediae). (Aspiratae). Labials tt /3 ^ Dentals r ^ Gutturals '^ 7 X LIQUIDS, OR SEMI-VOWELS. X, fx,v,p; fjL, labial V, dental > sometimes called nasals. inserted here because they continued to be used as numerical sym- bols, and because one of them at least, the digamma, is of great importance in the explanation of many forms of inflexion and other phenomena in the language. The digamma is also called vau or bau. REMARKS ON THE ALPHABET. XXV X and p are sometimes called semi-vowels, to the exclusion of /u and v. THE SIBILA.NT. The only letter belonging to this class is a. On account of the Uttle affinity between the sound of which this is the representative, and the other consonant sounds, many changes take place in the form of words when o- comes imme- diately after other consonants, o- is most nearly connected with the semi-vowels, among which, indeed, it is sometimes included. DOUBLE CONSONANTS. ^ = (tS, 5 = ya, K(T or ^tr. \p = ttct, j3o- or ^o-. The following are the principal rules which regulate the combination of consonants. 1. Mutes of different classes (horizontal) can- not stand together, except when the second mute is a dental. 2. When Mutes of different classes come to- gether (the second being a dental), they must be of the same quality ; that is, thin must be joined to thin, medial to medial, aspirated to aspirated. To effect this, the first mute generally conforms to the second ; being changed for another mute of the same class as itself, but of the same quality as the second mute. The aspirates can never be doubled; and the doubling of the medials takes XXVI REMARKS ON THE ALPHABET. place only in particular contractions and old for- mations, such as Ka(5j3aXe, sdSeKTE. 3. With the labials and gutturals or combines to form \p and 5 ; before o- the dentals are omitted. 4. In verbal formations, before fx all the labials become ju, the gutturals become 7, the dentals become cr. 5. Before labials v becomes fx ; before gut- turals, y in the written language, but retains its proper sound ; before the liquids it is assimilated to them ; before cr it is dropped. Remark 2. The only consonants that can stand at the end of a word are cr, v, pj and k ; the last occurs at the end of two words only, €k and ovKj which should always be read as part of the word following. Since ^ and -tp are double con- sonants, the final sound of which is that of \apvy^, pronounced angelos, sunkope, Anchises, larunx. Remark 5. When used as numerals, the let- ters have an accent above them, thus, a. The numbers between the tens (e. g. 15, 59) are de- noted by the sign of the tens followed by that of REMARKS ON THE ALPHABET. XXVll the units : thus 15 is tg, 59 is vO\ In the same way are expressed the numbers between the hun- dreds : thus, 478 is vor}\ The symbol for 900 was 11) (sampi). 1,000 was denoted by a, 2,000 by ^|3, and so on. This system of numeration, how- ever, is comparatively modern, and was not em- ployed by the classical Greek writers, who always express the numerals at length. Read. AvXig, oivog. Ao\o\p. ^pvysg. H^w. Xapvy^. A.y\La7]Q. Ar^fiOdOevrig. QovKvdidr}g. ^Hpo^orog. So^okXtjc. Xapirsg. Biag, SoXwv. KvjOO^. Kpoi- aog. KoXog. icir\vpog. rpij^w. iH^ep^rig. riyEjuiovLa. avdpeg. '"^dojp. 'PoSo^. poda. ^aXafiig. Mapa- 6wv. Write in Greek. Olumpos. Homeros. Rhegion. Ilion. Sku- thia. Naxos. Lakedaimon. Xanthippe. Titan. Xanthos. Perikles. Lusias. Minos. Platon. Aristophanes. Aischulos. Xenophon. Aischi- nes. Euripides. Aineias. Strabon. Zeuxis. Okeanos. Galatia. GREEK EXEECISES. I. — Present of ES "Be," First and Second Personal Pronouns, and Nominative of Masculine and Feminine Nouns in O. Remark 1. The Crude Form of the verb to he in Greek is tg. The inflections of this verb are remarkable in Greek, as in many other languages, for their departure from the usual rules of inflection. to H-juLL I am. £cr-jU£v we are. £t-Q or EL thou art. ea-rs ye are. £o--rt(v) he is. £l- ^*> "• The door is strong. There are seven doors. The goddess is beautiful. The knife was long and strong. The table is beautiful. The cherry- tree is lofty. The village vv^as not large. The bride was beautiful. The garrison was strong. There were seven couches. The doors were strong. The knives were beautiful. The villages were large. The village is fortified. The shields were gifts. The letter was sacred. It is evening. The island was small. The road is not narrow. The assembly is large. The diseases were violent. The precious stone is large. The entrance is narrow. The house was wooden. The bridges were wooden. There was another conflict. There are two (say, double) roads. VII. — Future of ES. Remark. Read Rem. 1, under Exerc. I. * This last remark is confined to adjectives, the Crude Forms of which in the masc. and neut. end in o. 10 GREEK EXERCISES. ia-o^uL I shall be. ea-oji^da We shall be. ^a-rf or £o-ft thou wilt be. ecr-eaOe ye will be. £CF'{s)Tat he will be. ia-ovrai they will be. I shall be a brave soldier. Thou wilt be brave. He will be cowardly. We shall be well-girt. Ye will be eager. They will be supperless. The messenger will be a friend to us. The Athenians will not be eager allies. The citizens will be brave sailors. The disease will be violent. The island- ers will be safe. The road will be narrow. The slaves will be ready. The generals and soldiers will be bold. Thou wilt not be faithless to me. We shall be fond of war. The place will be sacred. The eminences will be fortified. The rose will be beautiful. The sacrifices will be favourable. The bows will be strong. The stewards will be cowardly. I shall be a warlike satrap. Ye will be tax-gatherers. The bride will be beautiful. The doors will be lofty. The knives will be long. The entrance will be narrow. VIII. — Dative of Nouns in O, and of the Masculine and Neuter Article. Remark. Nouns in o are made dat. by t in the sing., and ig in the plur., added to the Crude Form. In the sing, the o is lengthened, becom- GREEK EXERCISES. II ing w, and the i is written under the w, not after it. An I so placed is called iota subscript. The dative of the masc. and neuter article, and of adjectives in o, is made in the same way. Masc. C.F. aM^o. D.S. a^f\0, 6(1), all become w. * Only so many of the rules of contraction are here given as are required in the pres. and past imperf. indie, tenses of the verb. A GREEK EXERCISES. 21 2. a absorbs all vowels following it except o and (o. Hence — a-eig becomes uq. „ are. 3. £ coalesces into the diphthong u (or the long vowel rj) with all vowels following it except o and to. Hence — i-£ig becomes eig. i-STE „ £tr£. 4. o and ov coalesce with all vowels preceding or following, making with o or g the diphthong ov; with a, w. o with ei becomes ot. Hence — o-o/xtv") , > become ovuev, i-ofxev J '^ o-ere yj OVT£. 6-0V(JL 1 i-OVGL j if OV ^^ (fivXaK, become< - ^ - t j > v/oj I vp, as (Tvp, (jvp drag. N.B. — Roots ending in ju generally remain un- changed. 6. Some verbs are increased by the addition of (JK (con-esponding to the Latin sc, as in gno, gno-sc); or, if they end in a consonant, of lgk, as Ovriy Ovrj-GK * die,' kvp ivp-LGK ' find.' Sometimes D 26' - GREEK EXERCISES. also, the first letter of the Crude Form is doubled with a following i; as rpw, Ti-Tpw-aK ^ wound/ 7. Some verbs are increased by the syllable av added to the Crude Form, as aiaO, aiaO-av ^ per- ceive ;' a/uLapTf a/aapT-av ' miss,' ' err/ 8. Some Crude Forms which have a short vowel are increased by adding av, and inserting a consonant before the final consonant. Before labials this inserted consonant is ^, before dentals V, before gutturals y ; as A a/3, Xa-jU-/3-av ^ take ;' XaOi Xa-v-0-av 'escape notice;' Oijj Oi-y-y-av ' touch.'* Thou rejoicest in the prosperity of thy friends. The gods rejoice in sacrifices. Xerxes is col lecting an innumerable army. The enemies are not destroying the corn. Ye are leaving the camp of Cyrus with the deserters. The messen- gers of Cyrus flee to the river. The trumpeter gives the signal. The children hear the voice of their teacher. I hear thee. They pelt the house with stones.f The sol- diers pelt the boat from the towers. The trai- * Vide Remarks on the Alphabet for an explanation of the prin- ciples on which the changes of consonants mentioned in these rules depend. t " With," denoting the instrument, is to be translated by the dative. 4 GREEK EXERCISES. 27 tors strike the brothers from horseback (say, from the horses). The Persian pelts us with stones. The slaves report this (tovto) to Cyrus. Ye re- port bad tidings'*^ concerning the army of the Athenians. Does Cyrus assemble the barbarians into the plain of Castolus? Ye are not enriching the friends of the queen. I wonder at Clearchus. Ye won- der at Orontes. We wonder at the messengers. The supperless sailors slay the bulls. Leonidas draws up the Lacedaemonians in the plain. The bowmen are guarding the hills. The soldier is guarding (the) road. They quickly proclaim these things.f The son immediately proclaims these things. The sailor is doing well (that is, is faring well). Am I not doing well ? The Athenians throw the barbarians into con- fusion. We are digging long ditches by the side of the river. They throw each other into con- fusion in the narrow roads. The general strikes the animal with his spear. The stewards strike the horse. The fear- ful messengers throw their arms into the river. The friends throw the corn into the boat. The cold wind injures the eyes of the queen. Artaxerxes dies in the battle. Cyrus wounds his brother. Thou teachest the tax-gatherer these things. Teachers teach, pupils learn. Thou * Neut. plur. of adjective. f Taura. 28 GREEK EXERCISES. art deluding the young man. Ye are finding these things. Do ye notice, or do ye not notice, these things? Lysander is dying. The faithless rower learns this. Orontes has the plain allotted him. Thou hast the emi- nence allotted thee. The brothers have equal shares* allotted them. Cyrus receives the valu- able gifts. The Corinthians escape notice. The sisters learn this from the bowman. Does not the slinger hit the mark ? XV. — Future Tense, Accusative of Nouns IN A, AND OF the FeMININE ArTICLE, Vo- CATIVE OF Nouns in O and A. Remark 1. The future is formed by the letter o- added to the Crude Form. The person-endings are the same as in the present. Example. C.F. \v. Tense Formf \v ^^^ ^'^ com- bines to form the double consonant ^ : with j3, tt, and ^ it makes ^. Thus irpajcr becomes irpa^ ; 8fwK(r, Sf(u$ ; Tapa\(T, rapa^. /BXajStr becomes (5\u\p : TVTTCT, TVip ', jpaijxT, ypaifj. Remark 2. There are several consonants which in Greek cannot stand immediately before (T ; the future of verbs ending in such consonants is made in two ways : either the final consonant is struck out, or the c is omitted. The following are the particular rules generally observed. 1. Crude Forms ending in ^, r, or 0, omit the consonant ; thus davfiar makes fut. Oavfjiaa^ ; irXovTi^, enrich, ttXovtkt ; iriQ, long form, irud, persuade, tthcf. But some Crude Forms ending in tS, and a few others, have a future in which the o- also is omitted, and the vowels of the terminations are lengthened, as shewn in the following example. C. F. vo/xtS consider. vofiiawy VOjXUO V0jU<(70jU£V, VOfXLOVfXiV vo^iauQf VOfllUQ VOfJiKTETS, VOfXlUTE vofiLcrei, VOfllEL^ VO/ULKTOVCFlf vojuiovcri. This is commonly called the Attic future, being found chiefly in that dialect. 2. As a general rule, or cannot stand imme- D 2 30 GREEK EXERCISES. diately after the letters X, ju, v, p ; accordingly, in the earlier stages of the language the future of verbs ending in those consonants was made by adding , /3aXw, /3a\-c-(7£if , ^aXe-eiQjPaXtig, (3aX-e-(Tfi, (3aXt-si, (5aXeij f3aX-e-(rofiev, jSaXe-oiisv, (SaXovfieVf f5aX'€- (11.6. 403), ayyeXeovcri for ayyeXovat (II. t. 617 (613)). There is, moreover, nothing peculiar in the use of a connecting vowel in the future, for many verbs always had one (generally tj), and some verbs, whose futures are commonly made in a different manner, are not unfrequently found with A. oiKov, oiKovg, A. to x^P^ov, Ta %wpio, V. oi/ce, oiKoi. V. x^P'-^^t X^P'-^' When the final a or o of the Crude Form is preceded by f or o, the substantives or adjectives have their terminations contracted according to the rules already given ; thus oo becomes ov ; ooi, oi ; ea becomes d in the neuter and r} in the feminine. GREEK EXERCISES. 33 Several substantives and adjectives in o have w instead of o, ov or a, and o^ instead of ot. This is called the Attic declension. Similarly to nouns in a and o are declined the relative pronoun 6 (M & N) a (F) ; — avro (M & N), avra (F) self, he, she, it (answering to the Latin eo, and sometimes to ipso) ; — to avro the same (M & N);— rovro (M & N), Tavra (F) this ; and aWo (M &: N) aXXa (F) other ; except that these words have no case-ending (v) in the neut. nom. and ace. singular, and that in the nom. (both sing, and plur.) masc. and fern, of tovto, the r is changed into the aspirate as in the article. The neut. nom. and ace. plural of tovto is ravra. In the following exercises, the first division contains verbs the future of which is made according to the 1st Remark ; the second, those whose futures are formed according to Rem. 2, Rule 1 ; and the third, those comprised in Rem. 2, Rule 2. 1. I shall write this letter.* Thou wilt encircle the Persian's head with a beautiful wreath. We will send messengers to Thebes. Ye will lead them into the village with the heavy-armed. Darius will do well. With-the-aid-of the gods to whom ye sacrifice, ye will fare well. I will come soon. The satrap will come into the tent. These* sol- diers will bury the cowardly general. I will send the satrap back to the same government. Cyrus will throw the enemies into confusion. The * Use the article after the pronoun. 34 GREEK EXERCISES. generals will draw up the soldiers who are pre- sent, for battle. Ye will soon turn the Lycians to flight. Thou wilt violate the truce which thou art now making. The barbarians will not pursue us into the river. I will send the soldiers and youths to the island. We will do this concerning Orontes. The wind will injure the young trees which ye are planting. The travellers will behold many wonderful (things). We will explain to him what^ we wish. Ye will easily conquer the faithless traitors. I will ask for the arms of the fearful deserters. Thou wilt practise the whole day.f Ye will emulate the valour of the bold satrap 2. We will persuade the soldiers. The soldiers will place the general whom they love upon J the throne. I will persuade the islanders. Will ye assemble the good children inj the large field ? He will place the beautiful virgin inj the other boat. Thou wilt admire the other new gift from the citizen. Attic Future. — I shall consider this an honour. We shall hope for many good things from thee, O Clearchus. Thou wilt carry the load, O virgin, into the village which thou seest under the hill. The same vessel will carry the corn. Ye will bring the gold with other gifts. * Use neut. plur. of relative pi-onoun ** which." t Duration of time is expressed by the accusative. X Use the preposition eig. GREEK EXERCISES. 35 We will not reproach thee with thy weakness, O queen. They will arm the horses with frontlets. Thou wilt not care for wars. Ye will not care for the war, O citizens. 3. Truce orwar shall I report to her ? Thou wilt report war, O messenger. The satrap will imme- diately strike the slave with a spear. Whether will ye remain, or shall I report war from you, Lacedaemonians ? The generals will remain in this tent till noon. I will wait in the house till evening. Thou wilt send away the vessels to Aegina. Whether will ye send away the vessels to Naxos or to Lemnos ? The trumpeter will give the signal. We will distribute the corn to the soldiers. This judge will distribute the wine to the messengers in the house. The colonists will clear the land. The slave will not sow equally. The Persian will kill the youth with a sword, O Athenian. We will kill thee. Will ye shew the hidden money ? XVI. — Past Imperfect Tense; the Augment; Comparative and Superlative of Adjec- tives. Remark 1. The Past Imperfect is used in speaking of an action as continuing and incom- plete, or as habitually or frequently performed, in past time. Remark 2. The Past Imperfect is made from the Crude Form, or from the Increased Form, 36 GREEK EXERCISES. where there is one (See Rem., Exerc. XIV.), by the addition of a prefix called the Augment, and by the following terminations. OV 1 OfliV eg 2 £r£ £(r dropped) 3 ov{r dropped). The jLt of the 1st singular, which is retained in Latin, has in this and many other tenses of the Greek verb become v. The r in the 3rd singular and plural is dropped.* EXvov, 1st singular, is the euphonic form of eXvo/j,, and eXvov, 3rd plural, is the euphonic form of eXvovr. Remark 3. The augment is confined to the Indicative mood, and to the past tenses of that mood ; viz. the past imperfect and past perfect, and the aorists. The augment is of two kinds; the syllabic, which is the vowel e prefixed to verbs begin- ning with a consonant ; and the temporal, which consists in lengthening the initial vowel of verbs commencing with a short vowel, accord- ing to the following table. a and e become rj, (e sometimes becomes ai.) becomes w. 1 and V become 7 and v. When the verb begins with the diphthongs at or OL, the L is subscript in the tenses which take thje augment : thus, aiaO becomes yaO ; oix o^X' * See Remark 2 on the Alphabet. GREEK EXERCISES. 37 Verbs beginning with long vowels, or with the diphthongs u and ev, rarely have an augment, and those beginning with ou, never. Verbs beginning with p, repeat the p after the augment ; as, pnrT, eppiirrov. Verbs compounded with prepositions, take the augment after the prepositions, which (except nepi and tt/oo) lose their final vowels before the augment : thus, aTro-crrfX becomes aTr-e-artXX. In irpo the o and e generally make ov. When a preposition ends in a consonant, that consonant is often changed before the initial con- sonant of the verb to which it is prefixed; thus Ev before labials becomes 6/i, before gutturals ay : but when the augment is inserted, the preposition resumes its proper form."^ Examples. C. F. \v. Imperf. T. F. e-\v. t-\v-ov I was loosening, (-\v-eg Thou wast loosening, e-\v-i He was loosening. e-\v-on£v We were loosening, e-Xv'tTt Ye were loosening, e-\v-ov They were loosening. C. F. TVTT. I. F. TVTTT. T.F. e-TVTTT. i-rVKT-OVy e-TVTTT-OflSV, e-TVTTT-eg, e-rvTrT-ere, t-TVTTT-e. S-TVTTT-OV. C.F. (TvX-Xey. T.F. ffvv-s-Xty. <7vv-e-Xey-0Vy (xvv-e-Xey-oixevy ^ cubit. In the same way are declined adjectives ending in v, except that the genitive singular ends in og, not in wg ; in the neut. the nom. singular is the same as the Crude Form, and in the plural sa remains uncontracted. So jXvkv, * sweet/ The vocative case of nouns of this declension is either flectionless, being the Crude Form (which is the case with all nouns in v and t), or the same as the nominative. But when the Crude Form ends in a consonant which cannot stand at the end of a word, it is dropped to make the vocative, unless that case is the same as the nominative. Thus the voc. of TTatS, boy, is wai : of yiyavr, yiyav. Avqkt, king, has two vocatives, ava and ava^. I left the country of the Molossians. Thou didst leave the plain of Castolus. The Persian fled out of the camp. Some remained in the village, others fled.'^ Ye left the city and we fled towards the river. The shepherds hit the wolf with stones. Cyrus took Tissaphernes as a true friend. The Cilician woman took pledges. The * Some ... others, oifxev ... aide — the particles /zei/ and df are used chiefly to point out the words or clauses opposed to each other. GREEK EXERCISES. 47 Athenians entered into the cities on the same day (dat.). Cyrus received the refugees with the old men. Those of (out of) the market-place left their most valuable merchandise for the refugees. We learnt these things from the shepherds. Thou didst learn these more necessary things from the Thracian, O boy. The boys learnt these things fiom the commanders of the city. The disease escaped the notice of the physician. Xenophon had the village and the mountains allotted him. I had the command of these nations allotted me. The boys came to the door of the house with the fishes. The commander, who was very fond of danger, died in the war, O old man. Many of the Greeks died in the battle, O Xenophon. The sons of the old man hit the mark. The youth came into the village in which the refugee was. Ye threw away your shields in the villages of the Thracians. I lost two hundred soldiers. Not many of them escaped the notice of the Greeks. XVIII. — First Aorist. Remark. The other form of the aorist tense, commonly called the First Aorist, is made by the augment prefixed,* and the syllable o-a affixed to * Vide ExERC. XVI. for the rules respecting the augment. 48 GREEK EXERCISES. the Crude Form, with the following termina- tions. Sing. Plur. (ju dropped*) 1. fXEV c 2. TE (r dropped''^) 3. v{t dropped*), In the 3rd singular the a of the Tense Form becomes e. The remarks made in Exerc. XV. respecting the changes both of vowels and consonants which take place before the a of the future apply of course to this tense also ; the following differ- ences, however, between the two tenses are to be noted. 1st. All verbs ending in S make the 1st aorist by dropping the ^ before the o- of the suffix, which is retained. 2nd. Verbs ending in X, /x, v, p, add a only to make the tense form of the 1st aorist, and lengthen the vowel of the Crude Form, as shewn in the following table.f * Vide Rem, 2 on the Alphabet, and compare with the full forms the Latin terminations, as shewn in such words as ama-ba-m, ama-h-at, ama-ba-nt. t It has been suggested that probably the ca was originally added ; then the a assimilated to the final consonant of the Crude Form ; and lastly, the first of the two consonants omitted, to compensate for which the vowel of the root was lengthened, e.g. e-yafi-cra, e-yafi-fia, £-yT]f^a. This explanation, however, may be questioned. GREEK EXERCISES. 49 a becomes rj or a, as ydfi marry Is t A. t-ynn-a. KBpdav gain e-Kspddv-a. (TTeK send e-oraX-a. KpXv separate s-Kplv-a. afxvv ward off rj-fxvv-a. Example. C.F. \v. T.F. B-Xv-aa. e-\v-(Ta I loosened, t-Xv-ara-fiiv We loosened, e-\v-ov£VKa ; xpycro, KSXpvaioKa. 2. Verbs beginning with p take only the aug- ment (the p being doubled) ; pacj) ' sew ' makes perfect eppa(l)a.^ 3. Verbs which begin with a double consonant or with two consonants, the latter of which is not a liquid, do not receive the reduplication, but only the syllabic augment. 4. The reduplication, or the augment which takes its place, is not confined to the indicative mood, as is the case with the augment properly * It seems probable that in these verbs the reduphcation was at first regularly prefixed ; but the liquids have a great tendency to change places with the vowels, so that pepacp might easily become (ppwp. This conjecture is confirmed by the occurrence of the form pepvTTwfieva in Odyss. ^. 59. GREEK EXERCISES. 53 SO called, but belongs to all the perfect forms of the verb, infinitives and participles included. Remark 4. The following are the general rules relative to the suffixes of this tense. 1. Ka is used when the Crude Form ends in a vowel, liquid, or dental : a, e, and o are generally lengthened before the suffix, as in the 1st aorist ; and a dental is dropped, jca may be added after any consonant by means of the vowel jj ; as from fxaOj rvXf are formed jue-imaOrjKaf r£-ru;)(rjica. 2. a is added to verbs ending in an unaspi- rated labial or guttural, with which the breathing of the suffix combines, forming the corresponding aspirated letter; thus /3Xaj3 becomes jStjSXa^a; TTpay, ir^Trpa^a. 3. a is used when the Crude Form ends in an aspirated consonant. 4. Many verbs not ending in aspirated conso- nants take the suffix a ; these are called 2nd perfects, and often have an intransitive or passive meaning : this is especially the case with those verbs which have both perfects : the 1st perf» generally having a transitive, the 2nd, an intran- sitive or passive signification: thus, 1st perf oX-(t>X-£-Ka ^ I have destroyed ;' 2nd perf. oX-wX-a ' I have perished.' But in many instances even the 1st perfect has an intransitive meaning : thus, from <^u 'produce' comes 1st perf. Tre-^v-ica * I was produced ' or * born.' Remark 5. The vowel of the Crude Form is subject to the following changes in the perfects. F 2 54 GREEK EXERCISES. 1. € always becomes o in the 2nd perf. : <^0£|O * destroy ;' 2nd perf. £-(f>0op'a. 2. E before a liquid in monosyllabic words be- comes a in the 1st perf. : dreX, 1st perf. e-araX-Ka. 3. When a root has a short form with t, and a long form with sl (vide p. 24) the 1st perf. has ei, but the 2nd oi : e. g. iriO ; 1st perf. Trc-Tret-ica ; 2nd perf. Tre-iroiO-a. 4. When a monosyllabic root has a long form, that form is used in the 2nd perf. : e. g. (f>vy ; 2nd perf. we-tpevy-a : but in disyllabic roots of the same kind, the 2nd perf. has the short form : e.g. eXvO 'come;' long form, iXevO ; 2nd perf. eX-YiXvO-a. Remark 6. Neuter nouns of the consonant declension differ from masculine and feminine nouns in the nominative and accusative cases only. In the nominative singular they have no case- ending. The nominative and accusative plural are made by the suffix a. The terminations of the other cases are the same as those of masculine and feminine nouns. Example. C. F. TTpayfiar * an affair.'^ TTpajfULa N. irpayfxaT-a irpayjia V. irpayfxar-a Trpayfiar-og G. TrpajjLaT-tJV irpayfiaT-L D. irpayfxa-aL irpayfia A. wpayfxuT-a * The T of the Crude Form is lost in Trpay/xa, because it GREEK EXERCISES. 55 I have violated this truce. Cyrus is dead (has died). We have learnt the Persian language. The boys have learnt the Greek language. We have devised these things. The soldiers have plotted against us. I have sought for you all day. The enemies have entered the fortifica- tion. We have picked up the arrows. I have planted the trees in the park w^hich is full of flowers. Thou hast taught me this. The bar- barians have taught us avarice. The satrap has sent away the same vessels to the Hellespont. The army has plundered the citizens. The ge- nerals are dead. I have written the letters. The enemies have murdered a hundred citi- zens. Who has seen the old man? Ye have done^ well. The traitors have reported these things. The trumpeter has collected a crowd in the market-place. Pausanias has fled to Tegea. The rest of the women have fled to the deep river. I have sent the messengers to Sparta. The judges have assigned one share to each-man by lot. We have asked for the letter which the herald was carrying to Cyrus. The barbarians have made an expedition against the Corinthians. I have sacrificed many victims for you. Aga- memnon has given more valuable presents to me. The whole army has perished.* The oars are fixed in the ground.* The staff is broken.* cannot stand at the end of a word ; and it is lost in irpayfiaffi because it cannot stand before ei). C.F. (TTpaTsv; T. F. a(TTpaT£VKei. Remark 2. Nouns in sv differ somewhat from other nouns of the separable declension from this circumstance. The v was originally a F, and when that character fell into disuse, the v was substituted for it in some of the cases, and it was dropped altogether in the others. In the dative singular and nominative plural, and sometimes also in the accusative plural, the £ and the vowel of the termination coalesce to form the diphthong £1. C. F. jSao-tXft; or jSao-iXfF ' a king.' /3ao-fX£KC N. j3a(7fX££c, contracted j5a(nX£ig. f^acn\£v V. j5a(n\££gj contracted (5a(nX£tg. j5a(n\£cog G. jSao-tXfwv. f^aaiXei D. j3a(7fX£UO-t. |3a(TfX£a A. |3aa"tXfac, contracted (3acnX£ig, * The forms here given are those found in most editions of the Greek writers ; but the following are the correct Attic termina- tions : t], tjg or fif , ft ; e/xev, ere, e(Tav ; as, eXtXvKT], tXeXvKrjg, eXeXvKti ; eXsXvicsfxsv, eXeXvKSTe, eXeXvKStrav. In the 3rd plural the termination eaav generally appears in the best MSS., and is restored in all recent editions. 58 GREEK EXERCISES. Ye had never violated the truce. Thou hadst sought for the pebble in the vineyard. The scouts had found the footsteps of many horses. We and the boys had learnt the Persian language. The lady had devised these things. The strangers had entered the villages in the country of the Phrygians. The Greeks had lighted many fires on the eminences on this night. This satrap had sailed away to Ephesus. The army had plundered the fugitives. He himself had taught the youths avarice. We had planted the trees which were in the park. I had seen this old man. Pausanias had fled to Tegea. The priest had put on a woman's robe. Thou hadst sacrificed to Athene. Ye had enriched the commander in this war. I had sacrificed many victims for them. Agamemnon had sacrificed in Aulis. I had sent these messengers to Sparta. We had sent that letter to Cyrus. Thou hadst wounded me in the thigh. The Greeks had shot farther than the Persians. The boys had fled with the shepherds from the mountains into the meadow. Ye had made an expedition against the Athenians in this war. The thieves had assigned their shares by lot. The workmen had depopulated the country. Cyrus had waged war against his own brother. The boy's mother had been ill until midnight. I had hunted the fox in the meadow. The assistants had collected all the images. The unjust steward had reported the death of the GREEK EXERCISES. 59 horses to the master. The cold had destroyed all the younger trees upon the hill. THE SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. The forms of the verb arranged into these two classes are those found in dependent sentences only ; the difference between the subjunctive and optative being, that the tenses of the former are SiWpresent ; those of the latter, 2i\\past : in reality, they form but one mood, answering to the Latin subj unctive. Both moods generally imply some uncertainty, either in the action itself or in its circumstances. XXI. — Tenses of the Subjunctive. Remark 1. There are three tenses in this mood : the present imperfect, the present perfect, and the present indefinite (or aorist) ; as in the indicative the aorist may have two forms, distin- guished as 1st and 2nd. Remark 2. The Tense Forms of the subjunc- tive are the same as those of the indicative, ex- cept that they have no augment, and that the a of the 1st aor. and perfect disappears before the subjunctive terminations. Remark 3. The personal terminations are the 60 GREEK EXERCISES. same in all the subjunctive tenses, being those of the present imperfect indicative, except that the connecting vowels are long, which is the distin- guishing characteristic of the forms of the sub- junctive. Personal Terminations of the Subjunctive. 1. 2. 3. Sing. a> ^c p 1. 2. 3. Plur. wjUEv r}TE (jj be. ay-w, ay-cjjU£v, WfJLSV, ay-r?c, ay-rjrf. k, ^T£, ay-Tfy ay-u)