Class rprt Book Copyright. 1906, by Rand. McNaliy & Co. 6 Preface The object of this work is to place before pupils who are beginning woodwork such information as will lead to a correct use of the tools and lay a good foundation for advanced work without lessening in any way the other benefits of school shop work. It is designed for elementary rather than tech- nical instruction, and therefore many problems and suggestions found in other works have been omitted. Great care, however, has been taken to arrange and illustrate the exercises employed so that pupils will avoid the common error of using tools improperly in the first years of work, and thus escape fixing habits which later will cause much trouble. We are certain there is no need of using tools improperly in the first years of shop work. The work is so arranged that each new lesson con- tains a step in advance, yet is so closely related to the previous exercise that an ordinary pupil may properly comprehend and execute the new problem. This book is intended for class use, and the author has endeavored so to arrange and grade the exercises that they may be followed very closely. Where no preliminary exercises are made, and the pupils proceed at once to the construction of some complete object, the problems should be studied ELEMENTARY WOODWORK topically as the pupil has need of them. The com- plete index and the cross references found in the text will aid greatly in finding any desired instruc- tion. The special information required by the instructor will be found in another volume If the methods of doing work given in the follow- ing pages are judged from the standpoint of first- class practical workmen they will be found correct in every case. Where there is a choice of methods, the one which is considered best for the pupil's use is given. The lessons have been tested carefully with many pupils, and the various processes tested not only in the school room, but also in years of practical work among mechanics. The foundation principles involved are treated so thoroughly that no pupil, after completing the book, need fear to use these methods in any first-class shop. In shops where special methods are employed these lessons will be found to have given a broad basis on which to build any special line of mechanical work. Above all, these exercises will give a drill in system, careful fore- thought, and intelligent perseverance which will be of great value to any pupil, either boy or girl, and will well repay the effort, even though the pupil may never use such tools after leaving school. Care must be taken to do the work thoroughly and earnestly in order to receive the full benfit of the course. Whenever possible, one hour and a half each day should be devoted to shop work. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK CONTENTS Introduction --•_---__ 3 Personal Equipment ----_-_ 4 School Equipment _______ 5 Regulations --_______ 5 Part 1. Elementary Exercises Lesson I. To True the First Surface of a Piece of Wood - 10 Lesson II. To Plane an Edge at Right Angles to a Surface 17 Lesson III. Use of the Gauge 20 Lesson IV. Finishing the Third Side 23 Lesson V. Finishing the Fourth Side - - - 25 Lesson VI. Laying off Spaces and Lining - - 26 Lesson VII. Bench-Hook - ... - _ - 30 Lesson VIII. Shelf Border - 35 Lesson IX. Boring -------38 Lesson X. Sawing ______ 41 Lesson XI. Chiseling ------ 44 Lesson XII. Making the Corner Shelf - - 46 Lesson XIII. Chiseling Ends - 47 Lesson XIV. Sandpapering ----- 50 Lesson XV. Shellacing - - - - - - 53 Lesson XVI. Halved Corner ------ 56 Lesson XVII. Finishing the Halved Corner - - 64 Lesson XVIII. Making a Halved Tee 68 Lesson XIX. Halved Cross - - - - - - 71 Lesson XX. Halved Dovetail _ _ _ _ 74 Lesson XXI. Slip Mortise and Tenon - - - - 77 Lesson XXII. Through Mortise and Tenon - - 83 Lesson XXIII. Frame Mortise and Tenon - - - 85 Lesson XXIV. Blind Mortise and Tenon 88 Lesson XXV. Single Dovetail - - - - - 91 Lesson XXVI. Common Dovetail 93 Lesson XXVII. Half Blind Dovetail - - - - 96 II ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Part Lesson XXVIII Lesson XXIX. Lesson XXX. Lesson XXXI. Lesson XXXII. Lesson XXXIII. Lesson XXXIV Lesson XXXV. Lesson XXXVI. Lesson XXXVII. Lesson XXXVIII. Lesson XXXIX. Lesson XL. Lesson XLI. Lesson XLII. II. Supplementary Lessons Getting Out Stock Bench-Hook - Rabbeted Corner Gained and Rabbeted Corner Bridle Joint - Haunched Mortise and Tenon Dowell Joint - Special Dovetail Joint Miter Joint - Slip Mortise and Miter Glue Joint - Making an Octagon Making a Cylinder - Making a Pointer Making a Hexagon 99 102 110 112 114 115 117 120 121 125 126 130 133 134 134 Part III. Description and Use of Tools and Materials Introduction, Alcohol (See Shellac), Apron, Bench, Bench- Stop, Bench-Hook (See Lessons 7, 29), Bits, Bit Brace, Brads (See Nails), Brushes, Chisels, Clamps, Compasses, Files, Gauge, Glue, Grindstone, Hammer, Knife, Lumber, Nails and Brads, Nail Set, Oil Can, Oilstone, Paints (See Stains), Pencil, Planes, Putty, Rule, Sandpaper, Saws, Saw Set, Scraper, Screw Driver, Shellac, Stains, Square, Strop Tee Bevel, Try-Square, Varnish, Vise, Wax 136 to 206 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK INTRODUCTION These lessons take up the common tools in the order which the author has found to be best. They are so graded that the pupil should be able to execute each exercise in a satisfactory manner. The chief difficulties are carelessness and thoughtlessness. If the pupil reads carefully the entire text for each exercise before beginning it, and then re-reads the text, step by step in order, as the work progresses, he will find little difficulty in making proper progress As each tool is taken up, the pupil should turn to part III and study carefully what is said about that particular tool; and each day, until the lessons are mastered, review what is said in regard to the use of the tools in the lessons and also the description of the tools in part III. Each new lesson depends very largely upon those preceding. Therefore, only by a constant review will the pupil get the greatest possible benefit from his study. Although the directions are quite explicit, an abun- dance of opportunity is left for individuality in work. If proper care is taken there will be no necessity for giving any pupil a second piece of material for any exercise. This method is not only more logical, 4 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK but more satisfactory to the pupils when they realize that it results in greater good to themselves. The author has many times had pupils, after a piece has been finished, voluntarily express great satisfaction at having been kept so long at the exercise, although considerable effort had been required to do so. It is conquering a difficult exercise that benefits the pupil and gives real interest in the work. The grade established on the first piece is apt to continue through the entire course. Pupils who conquer thoroughly the first difficulties, though perhaps at first dropping behind those more easily satisfied, are quite likely to work so much more rapidly later on that they will more than make up the loss of time on the first exercises. These lessons will be found very useful when constructing complete articles. Where no model joints are made, the lessons should be studied topically, each exercise being taken up as it occurs in the article being constructed. Personal Equipment Each pupil must provide himself with a suitable apron, an oilstone, a pocket-knife, pocket-rule, pen- cil, clothes-brush, soap, and towel. Each of these articles must be plainly marked with the pupil's name. No pupil should be admitted to the class until he has his personal equipment and each article properly marked. These articles may be kept either in the bench ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 5 drawer or in the locker. For description and sugges- tions in regard to the above articles, see Part III. School Equipment In addition to the personal equipment, each pupil is provided with such tools and materials as are required for the exercises. A part of these tools are used by all of the pupils who work at one bench, and are called the bench-set. They are not likely to be injured, and therefore may be kept in a drawer unlocked. They consist of hammer, backsaw, mallet, try-square, and tee bevel. Handsaws, rip- saws, large square, etc., are kept in the tool room and given out as required. Each pupil is furnished with an individual drawer containing one guage, three bits (J inch, § inch, and T \ inch), three chisels (J- inch, '* inch, and | inch), and two planes (a jack plane and a smooth plane). Regulations Pupils should enter and leave the room in an orderly manner. Conversation during work hours is prohibited, as it is impossible for pupils to do their best work when there is conversation in the room. Each pupil should have his own materials and tools as required, so that he may remain at his place during the recitation period. Every piece of material, including sandpaper, must be plainly marked 6 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK by the pupil as soon as received. When the name is erased in working the piece, it should be placed on another part. When the work is completed, the name and elate of completion should be plainly written on one end, or on some other convenient part of the work. So far as possible, the work should be kept in the bench drawer. Work which has to be left on the finishing table to dry will be cared for by the instructor. Pieces of material left over that are large enough to be used for an exercise should be left on top of the bench or handed to the instructor. They should never be destroyed, mutilated, hidden, or thrown on the floor. At the close of each lesson the tools must be put in place. The bright parts which have been moistened by contact with the hands should be wiped with oily waste. Tools which require grinding may be reported to the instructor or left upon the bench. Each pupil must have a key to his own drawer, and will be held responsible for the tools, etc., which it contains. In case any tool or bit of material has been taken or tampered with during the absence of a pupil, it should be reported to the instructor as soon as discovered. At the close of the recitation, each pupil must brush all shavings and dirt from his bench; and when cleaning the bench care must be taken that no dirt is thrown on to adjoining benches. The lavatories are for use, and every pupil should wash ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 7 his hands and brush his clothes before going to another recitation. At the close of the year each pupil may remove the work he has completed by paying for the ma- terials used, except such pieces as are needed in the school for exhibition. For each exercise a sufficient amount of material will be given each pupil. This material will be sufficient to complete the exercise properly, and only in very extreme cases shall more material be given. In no case shall any credit be given for work done on extra material. The first piece given must be finished as well as possible, even though very incorrect or under size; and the record will be made up from this piece. Sandpaper should not be used on any exercise until that exercise has been passed upon by the instructor. Notice No cutting, or marking, or jamming of the benches will be tolerated. On discovery of any injury to the bench the pupil will be required to pay a fine or be suspended from the class. Broken handles or tools will be replaced at the pupil's expense. The bench-hook and bench-board are to protect the bench from injury by saws, chisels, or other tools. Unnecessary cutting or injury to the bench hook or bench-board will be treated the same as injury to the bench. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK The Illustrations In all the work illustrated in this book the posi- tions should be natural and easy. Do not try to follow — ^ any particular rule or to copy any person's po- sition. Fig. 1 and the illus- trationswhich follow are from pupils at work and not posed to suit the fancy of any one. They are good examples t o be studied rather than copied. They illustrate gen- eral principles rather than bits of detail. They are scrupulously sasl correct for the Fig. 1. Planing. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 9 particular person photographed, but may not be exactly the proper position for pupils of different height or of different physique. If you find yourself using much strength it is probably caused by not using the tools properly. Although you are not expected to imitate the posi- tions of other pupils, yet you must ever keep in mind that there is a correct way in which to use the tools. The correct way is the easiest and the best way, and if you have become accustomed to using the tools improperly, change your method at once. Do not insist that your way is easier or better for you. Change to the methods given in this book at once,, and you will soon be doing more and better work. 10 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Fig. 2. Sighting for Straightness. Be 'particular to have the light fall properly upon the piece. Experiment by holding the piece in different positions. Fig. 3. Testing from Edge to Edge. The try-square may be held either side up, but the beam should not be placed against the edge in making this test. Compare this use of the try-square with that shown in Fig. 12. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 11 PART I Elementary Exercises LESSON I To True the First Surface of a Piece of Wood Material — A piece of pine If inches thick, If inches wide, and 12J inches long. Examine the piece thoroughly for broken corners, checks, knots, and other defects. Select for this lesson the best surface. Examine very carefully the surface to be worked; first, by sighting with the eye from end to end to determine if it is straight (Fig. 2); second, by applying the try-square blade as shown in Fig. 3 to determine if it is straight across from edge to edge. Next, with both hands hold the piece between you and the side light, and sight across the piece from edge to edge, tilting it to such an angle as will make the line of sight pass just over the front edge to the back edge as shown in Fig. 4. If the piece is out of wind both back corners of the surface will show equally. If the piece is in wind one back corner will show more than the other back corner and the high back corner may be planed down. Although we should always look for a high back corner, we 12 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK may take the piece out of wind by planing the alter- nate front corner. It is usual to plane an "equal amount from each of these corners or more from the one which is thicker. Place the piece on the bench as shown in Fig. 1. Do not put the piece in the vise. Looking for Wind or Twist. Remember to repeat the three tests after every few strokes of the plane, so that when the piece is out of wind it will be straight from end to end, and also from edge to edge. A straight edge may be used for test- ing the straightness of the surface. (See Fig. 5.) An excellent method for aiding the eyes in testing is to plane up three pieces as nearly perfect as ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 13 possible and after testing them with the eyes and try-square, try them together. First test number one with number two, then number one with number Fig. 5. Using a Straight Edge. Learn to examine the edge as shown in Fig. 2. The straight edge should be used only to see whether the first test has been successful. three, and then number two with number three. Continue to plane and test them in this manner until each one will fit the other two. This exercise will well repay the time. The three pieces required for the bench-hook (Lesson 7) may be dressed up at once and compared in this manner. If in planing the surface does not work perfectly smooth, make a careful examination of the plane. 14 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK When the plane is in proper order it will make a shaving nearly the full width of the bit. The shaving should be thickest at the center, and curve slightly to the edges. If you are not strong enough to cut a wide shaving, the bit may be ground so rounding that it will cut only a very narrow shaving. If the plane is cutting too thick or too thin a shaving, turn the brass milled thumb-nut, which is under the plane iron, until the proper thickness of cut is obtained. As the plane cuts deepest at the center of the cutting edge, the plane should be held parallel with the sides of the piece and with the center of the bit over the place requiring the heaviest cut. (See Fig. 6.) Lift or tilt the plane on the return stroke so that the bit will not touch the wood. (Figs. 7, 8, 9.) Hold the plane firmly, but do not attempt to make it cut by using an extreme amount of pressure. Bear down on the toe, or front end, of the plane in starting (Fig. 1), and on the opposite Fig. 6. Jointing an Edge. '> m . . The plane may be moved along end, or heel, in finishing either side or alonq the center. ,, ■. /T7 ,. irv\ t the stroke (Fig. 10). In case a shaving is to be taken off only a part of the length of the piece, raise the heel of the plane gradually while it ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 15 is moving forward, or in case the shaving is to com- mence part way of the length, lower the heel to the cut while the plane is moving forward Do not be satisfied until you have a surf ace not only straight and out of wind, but also entirely free from any roughness caused by the plane. You will prob- ably discover that it is quite difficult to plane the piece so that it will be straight and square to the extreme ends. The reason for this is that you do not bear down enough on the toe of the plane and lift enough on the heel of the Fig. 7. Tilting the Plane. This is to avoid dulling the cutting edge on the return stroke. Fig. 8 Lifting the Plane. This is to avoid dulling the plane on the return stroke. plane as you start the stroke; and in finishing the stroke you do not bear down enough on the heel and lift enough on the toe of the plane. The gradual changing from bearing on one end of the plane to bearing on the other end of the plane is the one very important point which you must learn if you are to do good work. 16 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Fig. 9. Swinging the Plane to one Side. This keeps the bit from touching the material on the return stroke. You will soon discover that some pieces of wood plane more smoothly in one direction than in the other. Always plane in the direction that will pro- duce the smooth- est surface. This is called planing with the grain. In some pieces the grain runs in both or many direc- tions, and it is impossible t o plane them en- tirely smooth. Such pieces are sometimes finished with a scraper. In getting the surface to the proper shape use as little of the material as you possibly can. This not only will save much time and material, but is also the mark of a skilled work- man. When the first surface is finished, make a pencil mark on it about 1 inch long. This mark should be near the center of the piece, from end to end, and at nearly right angles to the edge, and should extend to the edge which is to be planed Fig. 10. Position in Finishing the Stroke. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 17 next (Fig. 11). This is called a face-mark, and not only indicates that the surface has been properly shaped, but also that measurements and lines are to be made from this side. This piece should always be held by placing the end against the bench stop. If there is a tail vise do not use it, for you will be more certain to use the plane properly if the piece is not held rigidly; and when the plane is properly used the piece will not move from its place in front of the stop, and there will be no need of using the vise. Fig. 11. Face-Marks. Unlets the piece is to be cut in two but one set of face-marks is used. When there is but one set they are placed near the center. LESSON II To Plane an Edge at Right Angles to a Surface The first edge, or second surface, is examined in but two ways: for straightness, as in Fig. 2, and to see whether it is at right angles to the first surface, as in Fig. 12. In using the try-square press the head or beam firmly against the face surface. The face surface is always the one having the face-mark. If the blade of the try-square does not touch the edge 18 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK across its entire width, plane down the high places until it does. Do not try to make the plane cut at one side by tilting it, but move the central part of the bit (the part which cuts the thickest shaving) Fig. 12. A Try-Square on the First Edge. Observe carefully the position of the hands. over the places requiring the heaviest shaving, as shown in Fig. 6. Be careful to keep the edge straight and smooth. Avoid as much as you can taking shavings only a part of the length. Plan to have the last shaving extend the entire length of the piece. Move the plane parallel with the edge. Do not be satisfied ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 19 until the try-square touches the entire surface. Be very particular to have ■ the edge straight to the extreme ends. Do not put this piece in the vise. When this edge is finished, make a face-mark on it the same as on the first surface, as shown in Fig. 11. You should exercise care in selecting the edge to be first planed. Plan to remove as little material from this edge as possible, for this will become the working edge, and should therefore contain the best material. The greater part of the excess ma- terial is to be removed from the third and fourth surfaces. If the amount of waste is large enough, it may be removed by using the rip-saw first, and afterwards finishing with the plane. 20 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK LESSON III Use of the Gauge See that the spur is sharpened to a knife-like point, so that it will make a smooth line. Set the gauge by holding it in the left hand, the thumb under -1ST- Fig. 13. First Piece or Rule. the beam and against the head, the first finger on top of the head and the other fingers grasping around the beam. With the right hand hold the rule, opened to one foot long, against the head, and directly behind the spur and on top of the beam, Fig. 14. By pressing with the rule, or with the thumb and finger, the head will be moved until the proper line on the scale is brought directly behind the spur. Then lay the rule aside, holding the head in place by the pressure of the first finger of the left hand until the thumbscrew has been tightened with ELEMENTARY WOODWORK the right hand. Test the gauge to see if it correctly set by applying the rule again. 21 been Fig. 1J+. Setting the Gauge. To draw the line, take the gauge in the right hand, three fingers grasping the beam — the first finger over the head and the thumb against the beam, and as nearly opposite the spur as is con- venient. Always place the head of the gauge against a side having a Fig. 15. Drawing a Gauge Line. face- mark. oo ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Take the piece used in Lesson 2, and, with the gauge set to J inch, draw a line on the side first trued, J inch from the face edge. Before attempt- ing to draw the line it is well to practice the move- ment of the hand and arm by rolling the gauge until the spur will not touch the surface of the piece, and then making the movement as if drawing the line the entire length of the piece. Next allow the spur to touch a very little, making a very light line. Gradually increase the strength of the line until a line of the proper heaviness has been produced. Next draw a line \ inch from the face, and then a line 1 inch from the face, and lastly a line 1J inches from the face (Fig. 13). Make all these lines of equal strength and smooth and straight to the extreme ends. It is usually more con- venient to rest the end of the piece against the bench stop; and, in order to draw the line to the extreme end of the piece, itwillbeneces- sary to roll the piece as shown at Fig. 16. Be careful to hold the work and Fig. 16. Finishing a Gauge Line. gauge g() that you can easily see how deep the spur is cutting, and also whether the head of the gauge is against the ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 23 face side. If you are careful in making a light line at first, you will have no serious difficulty in drawing a line through knots or over diagonal grain. LESSON IV Finishing the Third Side Take the piece used in Lesson 3 and plane the third side or second edge, planing down to the 1 J inch gauge line, making the piece 1J inches wide. It will be no- ticed that when you have planed sufficiently to remove the rough edge caused by the gauge spur that the piece is a very little less than 1 J in- ches wide. This is caus- ed by planing to the inside the If you wish to have the piece full width you must set the gauge enough wider to allow for planing the Fig. 17. Measuring. line off. edge of line. 24 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK See that the edge is square by using the try- square as on the first edge (Fig. 12). If the edge is planed to the line, it should be straight, yet it is best to examine it very carefully near the ends and at the middle by using the rule as shown in Fig. 17. In measuring with the rule the fingers grasp the rule; the end of the thumb rests against the piece of wood, and the rule is moved until one of the inch gradua- tions is at one edge of the piece. Do not place the end of the rule even with one edge of the piece. Always hold the rule on edge, so that the graduations will come in contact with the surface being measured. You may not be pressing hard enough on the toe of the plane in starting, or on the heel in finishing, the stroke, as directed in Lesson 1. Only by planing the piece straight to the extreme ends will you get the proper control of the plane. No mark should be placed on this side. If you do not get the edge perfectly square and straight by the time you have reached the line, do not continue planing by guess, but draw another gauge line very near to the edge and try again to plane to a line. Perhaps your plane is set too heavy, or perhaps the iron has shifted so that it is cutting too much on one side. Examine your tools and the edge thoroughly before trying the second time; and then, by cutting a very thin shaving and testing the edge after each stroke of the plane, you should be able to get the edge exactly correct. If you fail ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 25 the second time, draw another line and try again and again until you do succeed in getting the edge exactly correct. Each time work more slowly and with more care. Keep a constant watch of the condition of the plane, for it is quite impossible to make the edge true if the plane is not properly set or is dull. Review often the directions for adjusting and sharpening the plane given in Part III. LESSON V Finishing the Fourth Side Gauge the piece to 1\ inches thick on each edge and plane down to these lines. Use the blade of the try-square as in Fig. 3 to see if the surface is straight from edge to edge or from line to line. You may also use the try-square as on the second and third surfaces, placing the head of the try- square against the surface which has a face-mark. Also measure with the rule at each corner, as in Fig. 17. If all these tests show your piece to be correct you will have done well. If the work is very accurate the square will fit the fourth surface when the beam is against the edge which does not have a face-mark. Do not plane the fourth surface to make the try-square fit in this position. This is only an additional test for proving the accuracy of the work. There should be no mark placed on this surface. 26 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK In case your piece is below size, ao not discard it for another piece, but work it to a smaller size, testing it carefully to see that it is the same size at each end. Should you plane below your gauge line, do not attempt to complete the piece by simply planing and measuring, but set the gauge to the smaller end and draw a line entirely around the piece. Then plane carefully to this line, and test with the try-square and the rule. LESSON VI Laying off Spaces and Lining Place the rule on the surface to be measured and, with the knife in the right hand and the back of the blade against the rule, as shown in Fig. 18, make a mark at the desired distance with the extreme point of the knife blade. Lay off as many points as you can without moving the rule. Take the piece used in Lesson 3, Fig. 13, and lay off twelve 1-inch spaces. Begin about \ inch from the end, so that there will be left at each end of the piece some waste material which may be cut off in finishing the ends after the scale is completed. Fig. 18. Marking off Spaces. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 27 Fig 19. Lining. Compare this position with that shown in Fig. Jf.2. Place the point of the knife in the first mark and move the try-square up to the knife while holding it, as in lining the shelf border (Fig. 19). Hold the try-square firmly, and with the knife begin at the farther edge and draw a line across the piece close up to the blade of the try- square. In holding the try-square, it is best to place the thumb against the head, the first and second fingers on the blade, and the third and fourth fingers against the piece, as shown in Fig. 19. When the head of the try-square is on the opposite side, as in drawing lines at the opposite end, the fingers are against the try-square and the thumb against the piece (Figs. 20 and 42). See that the line is straight, and that it passes exactly through the center of the mark made by the point of the knife when laying off the spaces. Be sure to keep the head of the try-square against Fig. 20. Lining, position. Reverse 28 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK the edge having the face-mark. Draw a line in a similar manner at each of the points. After the lines have been drawn the marks made by the point of the knife should not be visible. By standing with the left side a little toward the bench one will be more apt to draw the lines correct- ly. When near the opposite end the try-square and piece should be reversed and the lines drawn as shown in Fig. 20. In drawing lines on a wide piece the try-square is held as shown in Fig. 21. No matter how wide or how narrow the piece, the knife must be held at the same angle the entire length of the line. Any variation in the angle which the knife makes with the surface of the piece is quite certain to cause an irregularity in the line. If you are drawing lines on a piece which is too long to be re- Fig. Fig. 21 . Lining on a Wide Piece. iau ¥ 1* p~" Lining at the Left-Hand End. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 29 Testing Lines. versed you may draw the lines at the left-hand end, as shown in Fig. 22. After completing these lines, go back over each line with the try- square and examine them very carefully to see if they are exactly straight across. Hold the piece up to the light, as shown in Fig. 23. Place the rule on edge on the piece and see whether the lines coincide with the inch lines on the rule. If they do not appear to be square, or at the proper distances, go over them again with the knife and correct them. Next lay off J inches, and draw lines through these points from the line which is 1 inch from the edge to the face edge. When these are completed and corrected, lay off J inches, and draw lines from the line which is J inch from the edge to the face edge. Next lay off J inches, and draw lines to the remaining gauge line. Be careful to make full, even lines, holding the knife well on the point. Should these lines not be neatly and accurately drawn, draw similar gauge lines on the opposite side, and repeat the knife lines as on the first side. Continue to practice laying off spaces and draw- ing lines until you can make every line correctly. 30 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK It is useless to attempt to make joints or construct any of the models until you have learned to lay off spaces and draw lines correctly. If necessary, plane off the lines and try again. Make a gauge line to plane to, and plane the side to correct shape before attempting to repeat the lining. LESSON VII Bench-Hook Select a piece of stock of poor quality (sap or small knots) J of an inch thick, 4 inches wide, and 12 inches long. Dress it with the plane on all four sides, planing it out of wind, the edges square, and & Fig. 2J,.. A Plain Bench-Hook. the ends of equal width and thickness. Select two more pieces of the same length and thickness, and each 2 inches wide. Make these also smooth, straight, out of wind, and their sides and ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 31 edges parallel. Follow the ing these three pieces as in dr Fig. 25. Starting a Nail. Examine the nail from two positions as in boring (Figs. 35 and 36) . properly. Be careful to same method in work- essing up the first piece. Nail the pieces to- gether as shown in Fig. 24, using six-penny box wire nails. Lay one of the narrow pieces on the bench and start a nail as shown in Fig. 25. After the nail has been driven into the piece a very short dis- tance, examine it from two directions to see if it is perpendicular to the surface of the piece. If not, move it with the hand until it is. After placing it in correct position, hit it a light blow with the hammer and ex- amine it again. Con- tinue to drive it a little at a time, examining it after each blow until you are certain it is entering the wood hold the hammer as ELEMENTARY WOODWORK shown in Fig. 25, and drive this nail until it just pricks through the piece. See if the nail is properly located to enter the center of the edge of the wide piece, and not so near the end as to split the piece. Start three more nails in the same man- ner, being careful to lo- cate them correctly (Fig. 24). After the four nails Driving a Nail. are properly started, place the piece containing them on the edge of the wide piece and adjust it so that the edge of the narrow piece will be even with the surface of the wide piece (Fig. 26). The points of the nails will help to keep the piece in place while you take the hammer and drive the first nail into the wide piece. If the nails were driven through too far in start- ing, turn the piece over Fig. 27. Using a Nailset. and drive them back until they will just scratch the edge of the wide piece. If the piece now appears to be all right, drive the nails in their full length and, with the nailset, ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 33 set the heads about -^ of an inch below the surface, as shown in Fig. 27. If no nailset is at hand, the head of a nail may be used as a nailset, as shown in Fig. 28. In case you wish to withdraw a nail after it is partly driven, use a Fig. 2S, Using a Nail for a claw-hammer and block, X( ' llstt as shown in Fig. 29. After the two pieces are nailed to the edges of the wide piece examine them to see if their edges are smooth, or flush, as it is termed, with the surface of the wide piece. If the joints are not flush, plane them down as shown in Fig. 30. A ,i i i i i Fig. 29. Withdrawing a As the bench-hook is J L Nai i to be used as a cutting board and for saw- ing, etc., it is not necessary to smooth the ends. When it is a 1 1 completed, look it over carefully to see how well the Fig. 30. Planing a Joint Flush. 34 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK pieces fit each other, and whether they appear to have been well planed. Supplementary Lesson No. 28 is a bench-hook of a more difficult design, which may be made in place of this one. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 35 Fig. 31 . Jointing an Edge of a Thin Piece. Use the vise only ivhen the piece is too thin to hold against the stop. Except for very light planing you should stand more at the end of the piece than the young man in this picture. Compare this position with that shown in Fig. 1. LESSON VIII Shelf Border ^The stock for this exercise should be of good quality straight- grained pine. It should be 17J inches long, 3 J inches wide, and -^ inch thick. Dress up the best side and best edge, as in Lessons 1 and 2, ex- cept that in jointing the edge you should place the piece in the vise, as shown in Fig. 31. Gauge to 3 inches wide and finish the second edge. Gauge to J inch thick and finish the back, or second side. Lay off on the back, or second side, \ inch spaces, leaving about \ inch of waste •at each end. Draw 36 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK lines with knife and try-square across the piece through each of these marks, as shown in Figs. 19 and 20. Test the lines carefully, as shown in Fig. 23. Set the gauge to 2J inches and draw a line on the second, or back side. This line should be just | inch from the second, or back edge, and, if the piece is un- der size, set the gauge enough less than2Jinch- es to make the line just J inch from the back edge. Do not set the gauge to i inch and gauge Fig. 32. Lining on an Edge. Notice that - fe & the workman stands erect with the hands in from the back an easy position. Compare the position of , , , the tmj-square with that shown in Fig. 33. edge, DUt Set me gauge so that when the block is against the face edge the spur will make a line just -| inch from the back edge. If you have a lead pencil point in ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 37 your gauge (as shown in Fig. 154), use it instead of the spur in drawing this line. Draw gauge lines on each edge J inch from the face side. With the knife and try-square draw lines on each edge from the ends of the lines which are on the back side across the edge to the gauge line which is J inch from the face side. Be careful to have the lines meet exactly at the edge. The piece may be held in the vise while drawing the lines on the edges, as shown Fig. 33. Lining on an Edge. Reverse Position. in Figs. 32 and 33. To set the try- square for draw- ing the lines on the edges, catch the point of the blade in the end of the line on the side and move the try- square up to the blade, as in lining around the rule (Fig. 42). Try-Square at the Side of the Bit 38 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK LESSON IX the -^ inch bit and put it in place in Boring Select the bit brace. Place the shelf border in the vise and make an X on every second line where the lines cross the line which is i inch from the back edge, beginning with the third line from the ends. There should be sixteen marks. Place the spur of the bit at the points indicated by the marks exactly where the knife lines cross the gauge line (Fig. 71). Raise the brace to a position at right angles to the sur- face of the piece. These angles may be tested with the try-square (as in Fig. 34) ; but it is better to stand first in front of Fig. 85. Boring. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 39 the piece as shown in Fij bit is at right angles as Fig. 36. Boring. Compare this position with that shown in Fig. 35. attempting to examine the bit and ;. 35, to be sure that the seen from this side, and then step to the end of the piece as showninFig. 36, still holding the brace in the same posi- tion, and see whether it is correctasex- aminedfrom the end. A little prac- tice in this manner will make it pos- sible to bore holes at right angles to the surface with- out the use of the try- square. Do not make the mistake o f brace from 40 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK more than the two positions. As it is often quite difficult to apply the try-square, and as it consumes more time, it is far better to learn to do without it. When you are quite certain that the bit is in correct position, turn the brace slowly, being careful that the upper end of the brace does not move sidewise. If the bit is a good make and properly sharpened, it will cut without any pressure on the knob. One hand should keep the brace per- pendicular and the other hand revolve it. It is not important which hand is on the knob, or which, on the sweep, for often, when many holes are to be bored, you will change hands in order to rest them. As soon as the spur can be felt at the other side, remove the bit and bore the next hole. Con- tinue in this manner until all the holes have been bored from one side. Then place the piece in the vise, face side up, and finish the holes by placing the spur of the bit in the hole made while boring from the other side. Do not think that you need not be careful in boring from this side, for if the brace is not perpendicular to the surface, you will be likely to split off some of the edge of the hole on the back side. It is to avoid this roughness that you bore from both sides. If the board has a tendency to split it should be moved in the vise, so that the pressure of the vise will tend to keep it from splitting. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 41 LESSON X Sawing Fig. 37. Using the Back saw. Place the shelf border on the bench-hook and take the po sition for sawing shown in Fig. 37. In starting the cut, guide the saw by holding the side of the finger or thumb- nail against the side of the saw just above the teeth. It is best to begin by mov- ing the saw for- ward and back- ward the full length, resting it against the thumb or finger, but not allowing it to touch the piece. Next 42 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK lower it so that it will touch the back corner a very little, and continue moving it forward and backward, but do not allow it to cut. After you are sure that you have the correct mo- tion, allow it to cut a very little, grad- ually lowering the hand and cutting far- ther across until the kerf extends en- tirely across the surface. Do not rest the saw full weight on the board while it shows any tendency to catch when making the f o r w a r d stroke. Fig. 38 indicates the various positions of the saw in starting and gradually lowering the hand until the kerf extends entirely across, when the saw is nearly or quite level. Do not try to start Fig. 38. Positions in Starting the Saw. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 43 the saw by drawing it toward you and then lifting it on the forward stroke. Learn to control the saw properly, and then there will be no need to draw it backward to start it. See that the saw cuts very close to the line, but that it does not cut the line. The line should not be broken or roughened by the teeth of the saw. Neither should there be any material between the saw kerf and the knife line. Watch carefully the knife lines down the edges, and continue sawing until the kerf extends to the lines which are J inch from the face side. Be very careful to saw exactly to the lines and no farther, for the piece is to be bent; and if the sawing is not well done, the piece may break instead of bend. You may set a try-square at the side of the saw to see when it is at right angles to the surface (as in Fig. 95), but it is better to accustom the eye to see the correct angle by looking at the corner in which the try-square would be placed. Avoid look- ing directly clown upon the saw. Always look' obliquely to the surface of the board. Saw at the same side of each line, except one line at each end, which is to be left until you are ready to smooth the ends. Begin near one end and change ends as you near the opposite end. After cutting all the lines, except the end ones, place the piece in the vise and saw from the edge into each hole. 44 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK LESSON XI Chiseling Lay the piece for the shelf border on the cutting board and grasp the J inch chisel as shown in Fig. 39. Remove a very little of the corner at a time, and move the chisel forward and downward at the same time. The points may be marked off as shown in Fig. 41 in the completed shelf; yet it is probably better not to mark them off, as it is necessary to go over them several times, each time making them a little nearer the correct size and shape until they are all alike and of good proportion. If lines are drawn you will probably try to remove too large a shaving at one time. If the chisel is properly sharpened and moved downward and forward at the same time, the sur- face will be cut glossy smooth. Do not be satisfied until this smoothness is attained, as it is to learn to cut smoothly with the chisel that this exercise is given. When the chisel is properly held and used, it requires but very little force to make the cut. If much force is required try to discover what is wrong. Always hold the chisel perpendicular to the surface of the piece being cut, and with the flat side in line with the arm (Figs. 39 and 40). Always place the flat side of the chisel against the wood, reversing it in the hand as you change from cutting ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 45 at one side of the point to the other side. If the points have a tendency to split, or if pieces tend to roll out, it is because the chisel is dull, or because you are not holding it perpendicular to the surface of the board, or not moving it forward enough in proportion to the distance downward. It may be Fig 89. Using a Chisel. Fig. 40. Using a Chisel. Reverse Position. caused by any one of these mistakes or by a com- bination of two or more of them. In any case, keep trying until it does cut smoothly and squarely. After you have made the points as nearly correct as you can make them by testing them with your eye, test them with the rule and try-square. 46 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK When you have all the points finished, lay the piece aside until you have made the shelf. LESSON XII Making the Corner Shelf ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 47 The border completed in Lesson 11 is intended for a corner shelf. The shelf should be similar in shape to the one shown in Fig. 41. If the border does not bend easily the curve may be nearer straight. Get out a piece of board about J inch thick and cut one edge of it to the curve desired. The curve may be drawn freehand and then sawed with the compass saw or with the handsaw and finished with the smooth plane. In planing the edge of the shelf, hold it on edge in the vise. Nail the border to place and cover the nailheads with a thin strip of pine dressed to a half oval, or with fancy-headed nails, such as are shown in Fig. 162 B. After the border is in place, cut the remaining edges to the desired shape and finish them smoothly with a plane. The shelf may be suspended by using either screw-eyes, cords, or laid upon cleats fastened to the wall. The entire shelf should be finished with three coats of shellac. LESSON XIII Chiseling Ends Take the piece you lined like a scale or rule in Lesson 6 and draw a line on all four sides at the end of the scale. This line is drawn by placing the point of the knife blade in the end of the line (Fig. 42) and moving the try-square blade up to it, keep- 48 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK ing the head of the try-square firmly against the side having a face-mark. After the try-square is in position, draw a line as in making the scale (Figs. 19 and 20). Be very careful to have the knife at the same angle when drawing the line as it was Fig. 42. Lining Around an End. Compare the position of the try-square and fingers shown in this figure with the positions shown in Figs. 19, 20, 21,32, and 38. while setting the try-square; otherwise the lines will not meet exactly. Draw lines on the remaining two sides in a similar manner, and note that the try-square head has to be reversed in order to keep it against a side having a face-mark. After drawing lines at each end, place the piece on the bench-hook and saw. the ends off with the backsaw. This time do not saw close up to the line, but about -fe inch away from it, because the ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 49 saw does not leave a smooth surface. After the ends are sawed off, take the chisel in the right hand, as shown in Fig. 43, and smooth the ends. Be particular to use a shearing cut, the same as in chiseling the shelf border (Lesson 11), so that the ends will be cut very smoothly. Cut about half- way across from each side, but do not cut from either edge. Test the ends with the try-square, and if they are not square and smooth draw lines around again, this time about -^ inch from the end, and try again to chisel the ends smooth. Keep trying until the ends are smooth and square, even if the scale is less than 1 foot long. Remember that it is useless to try to chisel the ends properly after you have cut beyond the line made by the knife. When the ends are finished the glossy surface made by the side of the point of the knife blade should be visible entirely around each end. Fig. 4.3. Chiseling an End. 50 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK LESSON XIV Sandpapering Take a sheet of No. § flint paper, or sandpaper, as it is commonly called, and lay it, paper side up, on the bench. Place the hacksaw across it so that the teeth of the saw will be at the center of the sheet, and tilt the blade to bring the teeth firmly against the paper. With the Fig. 4.4.. Tearing Sandpape right hand grasp one corner of the paper and pull upward and toward the saw, tearing the paper across the center as shown in Fig. 44. Tear one of these pieces again, mak- ing a piece J the size of the sheet. Tear a sheet of No. 1§ paper in the same manner. Place the half sheet of No. 1| paper on the bench with the flint side up. Hold the scale com- Fig 4.5. Sandpapering an End. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 51 pleted in the last lesson as shown in Fig. 45. Hold it very firmly, and move it from you without allowing it to shake or tip. Notice that the thumb and fingers are as near the paper as they can be without being injured. Examine the end of the piece often, using a try-square, and each time change the posi- tion of the piece, so that it will be smoothed and yet kept straight and square. When all the rough- ness left by the chisel has been removed, repeat the operation, using the half sheet of No. \ paper. Con- tinue using this paper until the surface appears bright and the grain of the wood shows plainly. The coarse paper is to remove the tool marks, and the finer paper is to remove the fine white torn grain and scratches made by the coarse paper. You will notice that it is possible to remove only small irregularities with the coarse paper, for if we try to remove any large defects the corners will become rounded, and it will be necessary to reline and rechisel the end. In no case leave the corners rounded, for round corners are the mark of the shiftless workman. When each end has been properly smoothed, take a quarter sheet of the No. J paper and fold it carefully to \ sheet size. Hold it as shown in Figs. 46 and 47, and smooth the four sides. Do not use a block for work of this kind, as it would surely round the corners and spoil the work. Be very careful not to rub much near the ends or edges. 52 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Fig. 4.6. Sandpapering a Side, this view with Fig. Jfl. ompare Remember that the paper cuts most directly under the fingers, and therefore be careful how you press upon the paper, and frequently change the po- sition of the fingers, so that the paper will be worn evenly. Do no more rubbing than is necessary to make a smooth, glossy surface. Too much sandpapering is as bad as too little. By holding the work up to the light you can easily distinguish the smooth from the rough places. Learn also to test the work by feeling with the hand or fingers. Look closely at your work, and you will discover that it isbesttorublength- wise of the grain. 1 1 i 1 Fig. 47. Sandpapering. Observe that the nciatcnes made by paper docs not touch the edge of the piece. rubbing across the grain are quite apt to injure ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 53 the appearance of the finish. It is necessary to rub both with the grain and against the grain in order to remove the fine fibers which stick up on the surface. LESSON XV Shellacing Fig. 48. Shellacing. See that you have not forgotten to write your name and date on the piece. Wipe the dust from the piece and drive a small nail or brad into one end by which to hold it. See that the shel- lac is not too thick. Fill the brush, and wipe the excess off by drawing the end of the brush over the wire placed across the dish for this purpose. Shel- lac the ends first, next the edges, and 54 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK lastly the sides. Do not draw the brush against the corners, as it will cause the shellac to pile up there. When the shellac is dry, this excess will show plainly and is not easily removed. It is a good rule to brush from the center outward. Wnen applying the shellac, hold the piece so that you see the light reflected from the surface, as this is the only position in which you can see exactly what you are accomplishing (Fig. 48). When you have gone over the piece, stand or lean it up to dry. Do not go over the surface in places Fig. Jf.9. Scraping Thick Places in the Finish. more than once. Some spots will absorb the finish very rapidly and others very slowly. To get a good finish the first coat of shellac should be laid on evenly and allowed to dry thoroughly before more is added. After the piece has dried for one or more days, smooth it to a nice glossy surface with No. J sand- ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 55 paper. At the corners or other places where, by mistake, the finish is very thick, use the scraper as shown in Fig. 49. Hold the scraper as near vertical as it will cut. There is great danger of scraping or rubbing too much and thus spoiling the finish. The most common mistake is to rub at the corners or at a small spot in the center until it shows white. By keeping a constant watch, and often changing the position of the fingers on the paper, this may be avoided. When the piece is ready for the second coat of finish it will feel smooth and glossy to the touch and will present a dead smooth surface when held up to reflect the light. Apply the second coat the same as the first one, except that it may be somewhat thinner and must be applied with more care, more evenly, and much more quickly. Several more coats of finish may be applied in the same manner. 56 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK LESSON XVI Halved Corner The stock for this exercise should be of pine or other soft wood. It should be 12J inches long, If inches wide, and 1J inches thick. Dress up the piece on all four sides in the same manner, and *r «*o ■♦-■at- Fig. 50. Halved Corner. follow the same order that you did in planing the first piece or scale. Remember what is said in Lesson 4 about setting the gauge so that you may plane off the line and yet have the piece full size. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 57 We wish to have this piece of correct size, and straight to the very ends. The face side and face edge must be plainly marked as directed in Lessons 1 and 2 and shown in Fig. 11. This piece requires two sets of face- marks because it is to be cut in two. Study the drawing (Fig. 50) until you under- stand thoroughly what is to be made. Lay out the piece as indicated by the drawing, using the try- square and knife to make the lines at right angles to the edges, and the gauge to make the lines parallel with the edges. Do not forget that the gauge lines must be drawn with the head of the gauge against one of the surfaces which has a face- mark. In changing from one side to the other side you should revolve the piece end for end in order Till • I f ■ mm ifl li mm 1 - Fig. 51. Drawing Lines Across an End. 58 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Fig. 52 Splitting out Waste Material. Do not use this method until you have learned to work as shown in Figs. 58 A and 53 B. finished work to bring, or rather to keep, the face-mark at the right side, so that the head of the gauge will be against the face-mark as the gauge is held in the right hand. The reason for al- ways working from face-marks may not be understood by the pupil while making these first exercises, but it must be care- fully attended to or later on much work will be spoiled. Draw gauge lines not only at the sides but also at the ends, holding the gauge and piece as shown in Fig. 51. Be careful not to draw lines beyond where the wood is to be re- moved, for if you do they will show on the Set the gauge to the exact distance ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 50 when you are drawing lines for making joints and the like. The directions for setting the gauge a little large, so that the entire line may be planed off, apply only to lines drawn for the sizing of the piece. After the knife lines and guage lines are all drawn, examine the piece thorough- ly to see if all are correct. If any Fig. 53A . Chiseling at the Right Hand End. niistakes are found correct them at once. M ark the parts to be cut away at each end with a large X so that you will not make a mistake and cut from the wrong side. In this case, one mark will be on the upper, or face, side and the other mark on the lower, or back, side of the piece. Lav the Diece ^ig.5SB. Chiseling at the Left Hand End. on the bench-hook, and with the backsaw saw just enough to one si.de of the line to allow for smooth- 60 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK ing the end grain with the chisel, as in smoothing the end of the scale in Lesson 13. Saw each end, remembering to turn the piece over in sawing the second end. Be very careful to stop exactly at the gauge line. With the piece on the bench-hook and the chisel in hand, as shown in Fig. 53 A, remove the waste material a very little at a time. After you have Fig. 54. Testing a Gain with a Chisel. become skilled in using the tools you may place the piece on edge and remove a large piece at once by using the chisel and mallet as shown in Fig. 52, but for the first exercises it is best to do the work without a mallet and cut as thin and smooth shav- ings as you can. Instead of trying to do the work ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 61 quickly, see how many and how wide and how thin shavings you can make. To begin this way will result in your doing more and better work in the future. By holding the chisel at a slant, so that one corner cuts ahead of the other, it will cut more easily and more smoothly. The way of the grain will Fig. 55. Testing a Gain with a Try-Square. The head of the try-square is not held against the piece. determine which corner is to cut ahead. Examine the pictures carefully and hold your tools in the same man- ner. Never place your fingers or hand where the chisel might injure them if it should slip, or the piece split. 62 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Slant the chisel so that it will be farther from the line on the back side than on the front side. Continue to work the notch down until the chisel is almost to the gauge line, then place the chisel exactly and squarely in the line and make a careful cut, finishing the gain at this point. When you have cut to the line at this edge, reverse the piece, holding it and the chisel as shown in Fig. 53 B, and cut to the line on this edge. It is not necessary to work much of the gain from this side. Do not use the vise for holding the piece. If you were a skilled mechanic you would not take the time to use the vise, and for the unskilled work- man to use the vise is to lose the opportunity to learn that which the exercise is intended to teach. Handle the tools with as little force as possible, for if they are properly used not much force is re- quired. Use the chisel or blade of the try-square to test the gain, as shown in Figs. 54, 55, and 56. After each end has been properly finished, draw two Fig. 56. Testing a Gain with a Try-Square. The head of the try- square is held against the face edge ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 63 lines aroum the center of the piece about -g\ of an inch apart and saw between them. Try the pieces together, placing the face-marks at the inside, as shown in the drawing (Fig. 50). Place the try-square at the inside angle to see if the pieces make a right angle as shown in Fig. 57, except that in testing the joint before it is glued Fig. 57. Testing the Joint. Before the piece has been glued the joint should be placed on the bench and the try-square appliedas indicated F{ 58 HaUed Corn) i & Fig. 80. Through Mortise and Tenon. 84 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK This joint is made in a manner similar to the slip mortise and tenon (Lesson 21). The chief difference is that, as the mortise is enclosed on all four sides, we cannot use a saw in working it. Instead of sawing out the mortise you should bore as many holes as can be made half way through from each side and then smooth the sides and ends with the chisel. (See Figs. 35, 36, 71, 73, 74, 75, and 76). This piece should fit together so exactly that it will not require gluing. You should do no work on either the mortise or tenon after the piece has been cut in two. Dress the end of the tenon flush with the edge of the cross piece by using a plane, as in Lesson 17, Fig. 61 If the work is well done the face side of the joint will be exactly even when the pieces are placed together It must be considered a very serious defect if the face surface is not even, and you must try diligently to discover the place that is incorrect It may happen that you have the face-marks turned one each way, or that you were careless in drawing the lines, or that you did not draw the lines for both mortise and tenon at one setting of the gauge. Any of these mistakes must be considered quite serious at this time. You should now be able to draw lines correctly and work to them with considerable accuracy. Per- haps you can find the difficulty and yet make the joint correct After you have done your best, ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 85 finish the ends by sawing as explained in Lesson 20. Do not plane the sides or use any sandpaper on this joint, LESSON XXIII Frame Mortise and Tenon The stock and finished sizes are the same as for the halved cross (Lesson 19). Nk/ f f" rkr-1- 1 -t \ ■■4 • j—1k--\ ■ ( I *■/ i \ Fig. 81 . Frame Mortise and Tenon. 86 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Lay out and work the frame mortise and tenon the same as the through mortise and tenon, except that the mortise is smaller and near one end, and the tenon, after being worked to the full width of the piece, is gauged to 1 inch wide and worked to that size. Finish both mortise and tenon before cutting the piece in two. After the piece is together it is to be wedged by inserting a wedge in the end of the tenon near the outside edge. To make the wedge, select a bit of straight- grained pine about 1 inch, long, and split a piece from it about J inch wide and J of an inch thick, as shown in Fig. 82. Lay this piece on the bench- hook with one end against the vertical side and taper it as shown in Fig. 83. Turn the piece over and taper the other side in the same manner, giving the wedge a sharp wide end. Split the end of the tenon with a chisel, as shown in Fig. 84, and insert the wedge. Drive the wedge until the joint is tight, being careful not to drive the wedge in far Fig 82. Splitting Material for a Wedge. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 87 enough to split the end of the piece. After a little experimenting you will learn that a chisel is by far Fig. 83. Making a Wedge. Fig. 84. Splitting a Tenon. nails are so cheap and the best tool to use for making wedges of this kind. Sometimesfor larger joints the wedges are not sharpened to so thin an edge and, instead of split- ting the tenon with the chisel, a saw kerf is made in it before it is put into the mortise. Wedges are not used as much now as formerly because glue and often far better to use than the wedges. Finish this piece by planing the end of the tenon and also the end of the mortised piece which is at 88 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK the corner. Saw the outer ends, as directed in Lesson 20. Do not plane or sandpaper the ends or sides. LESSON XXIV Blind Mortise and Tenon The stock and finished sizes for this exercise are the same as for the halved cross (Lesson 19). i i i. Ik — ^ Fig. 85. Blind Mortise and Tenon. -*. I c^o ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 89 face edge The blind mortise and tenon is worked very much like the through mortise and tenon (Lesson 22). In the blind mortise and tenon the tenon is shorter and cut to length before putting together, and the mortise is lined out and worked entirely from the The most difficult part of the work is to beat or work the mortise so it will be at right angles, or square, with the surface. It must be also of the same size at both the top and bottomends. You must also guard Fig. 86. Testing the Sides of the Blind Mortise. a2 ;ainst bor- ing the holes entirely through. To make the holes of the proper depth you may count the turns of the bit or use a gauge on the bit. For most work it is best to depend on counting and thus avoid the bother of setting the gauge. The sides of the mortise may be tested by holding a chisel against the side, as shown in Fig. 86. 90 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK When both the mortise and tenon are completed, draw lines around the center of the piece and saw it apart. Insert the tenon and, if it is all right, remove it and chamfer the lower end. Next make two small wedges and, after splitting the end, insert them as shown in Fig. 87. W 7 ith the aid of the hammer drive the tenon to place. This is called blind wedg- ing, and requires good judgment and experience to make the wedges of just the cor- rect size, so that the joint will be tight when together, and yet not so tight that it will not go together. The bottom of the mortise should be quite smooth where the wedges strike it, or the wedges may turn to one side and not enter the tenon. Sometimes the bottom of the mortise is made wider than the top, or outer end, to allow room for the tenon to expand. Finish the ends by sawing, as instructed in Lesson 20. Do not plane or sandpaper the sides. Leave them with the face marks on, just as they were before the piece was cut in two. This is to show that your lines were correct, and that the work was properly done. Fig. 87. Blind Wedg- ing the Blind Mortise. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 91 LESSON XXV Single Dovetail The stock and finished sizes are the same as for the halved cross (Lesson 19). Line out the end for the pin with the try-square, knife, and gauge. Work it to exact size, being careful to keep the edges at the end smooth and of correct size. With try-square and knife draw the ■^e- *- /A X \ (f/' *-- -J 4-* * _ _ i r Fig. 88. Single Dovetail. 92 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK lines for the inside end of the mortise, allowing a little to be dressed off after the piece has been placed together. Draw lines around the center of the piece and saw it in two. Do not forget to have two sets of face-marks on the piece before it is cut in two, for the face-marks are of special importance in dovetailing. Be very careful to have the face- marks both on the same side even in these simple exercises, for unless you do this now you will be pretty certain to make serious mistakes when you try to make drawers, boxes, etc. Set the pin on to the face side of the piece which is to receive it, with the inside edge even with the line drawn for the inside of the mortise. Draw a line at each side of the pin, using a sharp pencil or knife. Saw the sides of the mortise, as in Fig. 72, and finish the mortise with a chisel. A hole may be bored at the inside end of the mortise, or it may be cut out entirely with a chisel and mallet. In case no hole is bored first, cut down from each side a little away from the line and, after the piece of material has been removed, finish the end and sides to the lines. Sometimes the lines made on the face side are carried around to the other side by using the try-square and tee bevel; but this is not the ordinary way, for with a little practice the mortise may be worked correctly without drawing these lines and thus save much time. In working a mortise for a dovetail there is need of consider- ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 93 able care in keeping the chisel from jamming the edges beyond the lines. Glue this dovetail together and finish it the same as the slip mortise and tenon (Lesson 21). LESSON XXVI Common Dovetail Stock 12J inches long, 4f inches wide, and § inch thick. Dress to 4 inches wide and ^f inch thick. J \ < \ J s Fig. 89. Common Dovetail. 94 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Square the ends carefully, testing them both from the face side and the face edge. In squaring the ends of this piece use the smooth plane as directed in squaring the end of the 4-inch-wide piece in Lesson 29. Draw lines around each end to mark the inner ends of both mortises and pins. These lines should be about -£% of an inch farther from the ends than the thickness of the piece, so that there will be some material to plane off after the joint is glued together. In regular hand dovetailing the pins are not laid out by any measure, but by the eye unaided. They should have the general size and shape indicated by the drawing, and should be cut to nearly correct size with a fine rip- saw. They should then be finished with a chisel. The wide side of the pin is always on the face side of the piece, or the side which forms the inside of the corner. After the pins are carefully smoothed set them on end on the face side of the piece which is to receive them and mark around them with a sharp pencil or knife, as shown in Fig. 90. Do not Fig. 90. Scribing Around the Pins for the Mortises. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 95 use the bit in working these mortises, but work them entirely with the chisels. Sometimes dovetails are laid out of exact shape and size, the pins being marked on both sides and ends, and the mortises lined around with square and tee bevel after one side has been scribed from the pins. Sometimes the mortises are made first and the pins scribed from them, as in Fig. 92. In common drawer dovetailing the ends of the pins and the outside of the mortises are battered down with a hammer after the joint is glued. This battering holds the joint together while drying and helps to fill up any defects in the joint. In our practice work it is better to make the joint so per- fect that it will not require either gluing or batter- ing. If your work is well clone, place the pieces together without gluing and plane off the waste material at the corner and finish the outer ends as you did the halved dovetail in Lesson 20. If your piece is not good enough to finish in this manner, cut the mortises off, refinish the pins, and try again. Should you have to try a third time, cut off the pins, refinish the mortises, and scribe a new set of pins from them. This form of dovetail is usually used at the back end of drawers in fine hand-made furn- iture. 96 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK LESSON XXVII Half Blind Dovetail Stock and finished sizes the same as in Lesson 26. Lay out and work the pins the same as in Lesson 26, Fig. 90, except that the narrow edges of the pins do not extend through to the back or outer surface, about } inch of material being left to conceal the Fig. 91. Half Blind Dovetail. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 97 joint, as shown in Figs. 91 and 92. The leaving of the J inch to conceal the joint requires the mortises to be made J inch less in length than the thickness of the piece which is to receive them. This length must be exactly correct before putting together, as there is no opportunity to dress them off after- wards, as is the case with the common or open dovetail. The pins may be dressed off after the joint has been put together, and are there- fore left long. This extra length may be used to batter d o w n the same as described in Fig. 92. Scribing in the Mortises for the Pins. after the joint is glued Lesson 26. Make this joint so perfect that it will not require gluing and finish it with two coats of shellac. This form of dovetail was used for many years for the fronts of drawers, but machine dovetailing has now taken its place almost entirely except for expensive hand-made work. 98 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK PART II Supplementary Exercises The following exercises are not usually given to the whole class. Some pupils who are especially quick will re- quire some work in ad- dition to that given to the remainder o f the class. Others will have projects which contain elements re- quiring a study of these special problems These exercises should be ex- ecuted with quite as much care and ac- of the book. Fig. 93. curacy as Sawing with a Hand Saw. those in the body ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 99 LESSON XXVIII Getting Out Stock Where there are no power saws it will be necessary to get out stock by hand. This will require two sawhorses, a handsaw and a ripsaw. The handsaw should be about 2 6 inches long and have about 8 points to the inch. The r i p s a w should be about 28 in- ch e s 1 o n*g and have about 6 points to the inch. The gen- eral princi- ples involved Fig. 94. Savring with a Ripsaw. in getting LOFC, 100 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK in working with smaller tools on the bench. out stock with these large tools are much the same as Always take such a position as will allow of seeing a right angle at the side of the saw. Avoid a position which will cause you to look directly down upon or over the saw. The general positions are shown in Figs. 93, 94, and 95. For making lines on rough lumber use a car- penter's square (Fig. 197) and one or two straight edges. One straight edge should be about 4 feet long, 3 in- ches wide, and \ inch thick. Another straight edge 8 feet long, 4 inches wide, and J of an inch thick will be required Fig. 95. Sawing with a Try-Square at the Side of the Saw. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 101 where many long pieces are worked. For drawing the lines use a carpenter's pencil. Calculate carefully all the dimensions, including all the allowances for working, and then draw the Fig. 96. A Plane Used as a Straight Edge. lines carefully and saw to the lines. Each piece of rough lumber should be examined carefully be- fore laying out, and the lines made with proper regard for grain, knots, sap, worm holes, etc. Often a small knot, when it can not be cut out, may be placed well away from the sides or ends where it will do little or no harm. Twisting and bending while working are often the result of poor judgment in cutting out the stock. A constant watch for these points will save much time and material. 102 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Probably the most common error in getting out stock is to work all of a board or plank into one sort of stock, when by using a part for one exer- cise and leaving the remainder for a different exer- cise would give better results and save much extra labor and material. In dressing wide stock the plane may be used as a straight edge, as shown in Fig. 96. LESSON XXIX Bench-Hook Stock — One piece 14J inches long, 4} inches wide, and J inch thick; two pieces each 12 J inches long, 2\ inches wide, and | inch thick. Dress the wide piece to 4 inches and as thick as it will work. Be quite as careful in planing these pieces out of wind and straight as you were in work- ing the first piece (Lessons 1 to 4). Draw knife lines around one end and saw it off the same as for smoothing the end with a chisel. With the smooth plane held as shown in Fig. 98, plane carefully to the line at the corner next you, but do not plane to the opposite corner. When you have planed down to the line at the nearest corner, either reverse the piece or step to the opposite side and plane the end square. Test the end with the head of the, try-square against both the face side and the face edge. Always place the piece as ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 103 %**• Fig. 97. Bench-Hook r;fn 104 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Fig. 98. Planing an End Square in the Vise. sharp and smooth, but if you plane the least bit beyond the lines, the edge will be rough. Therefore, always have lines on all sides and edges, and stop exact- ly at them. If by accident you split one of the corners you may leave this end to be rounded and try to low down in the vise as you can to avoid chat- tering. This will hold the piece more rigid, and consequently there will be less liability to roughen the edges or split the corners. If by mistake you plane beyond the lines, do not try to plane by guess, but draw other lines on both sides and edges. You will notice that if you stop at the lines the edges will be Fig. square the other end; but 99. Setting Compasses on a Rule. remember that if you do ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 105 Fig. 100. Striking a Circle with Compasses. not plane entirely across the end the corner will not be split. After squaring one end set the compasses to 2 inches as shown in Fig. 99, and place one point 12 inches from the square end and at the center of the width, and strike a semi- circle, making the extreme length of the piece 14 inches. Hold the compasses in striking the circle as shown in Fig. 100. With the backsaw saw the corners off near to the circle. ... Fig. 101. Chiseling a finish the circular end with a Round End 106 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK chisel (as shown in Fig. 101), using a shearing cut as in chiseling the ends of the first piece (Lesson 13). Test the circle as shown in Fig. 102. Bore a hole at the center of the semicircle (asshownin the drawing, Fig. 97), with a ^r- inch bit. Re- member to bore frombothsides. Dress one of the 2\ inch- wide pieces to 2 inches wide and T § inch thick and saw the ends, leaving just enough to finish with the plane, the same Fig. 102. Testing a Round End. as the W i d e piece which you have just completed. This piece may be only lh inches wide, yet it is better to have it 2 inches wide. Should you split the corners, or for any cause need to reduce it in width, you may do so rather than use another piece. With the gauge set at \ inch, mark on the edge and ends for the chamfer as shown in Fig. 97. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 107 With the smooth p lane dress the corner off to the gauge lines, hold- ing the plane as shown in Fig. 103. Place the piece on end in the vise, having the top end of the piece as near to the top Fig. 103. Planing a Chamfer of the bench as you can to work the chamfer. The lower clown the piece is the less liable t h e plane is to chat- ter or split the corner. With the plane held as shown in Fig. 104, plane to the lines at the ends. The plane is held at an angle of about 45 de- grees, but moved parallel with the Fig. lOJf.. Planing a Chamfer at the End 108 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK edge, and not parallel with the length of the plane. If the plane is in proper condition, not too much set, and held properly, the corners will not split. Work the second piece to 2 inches Fig. 105 A. First Step in Locating the Point at Which to Set the Compasses. wide, xf mcn thick, and 12 in- ches long. You should be able to finish the ends of this piece very nicely with the plane. After the ends are proper- ly squared set the compasses to 1 inch as shown in Fig. 99. Find the point at which to set them for mark- ing the round Wjfpp^ ■hHH ^OH .. ' ," v /^agh L Jfj .. 3^11 ■ "^S"" Fig. 105B. Second Step in Locating the Point at Which to Set the Compasses. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 109 corner (as shown in Figs. 105 A and 105B), and scribe quarter-circles at the two corners opposite the face edge. Saw the corners off and then chisel the surface the same as the round end of the wide piece. Test them as in Fig. 102. With the gauge set at | inch, line the corners of the edge and ends for chamfering as shown in Fig. 97, plane the chamfer at the edge and on the straight parts of the ends as shown in Figs. 103 and 104, and finish the chamfer at the rounded corner with the chisel as shown in Fig. 106. The circle may be chamfered with the plane, but it is rather difficult to do so. In rounding ends and planing chamfers on ends where the circle is of large radius, it is better to use the plane rather than the chisel. Nail the pieces together as directed in Lesson 7. This bench-hook should be nice enough to receive one coat of shellac. For use in larger work one should have a bench-hook of larger size. Fig. 106. Chiseling a Chamfer on a Circle. 110 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK LESSON XXX Rabbeted Joint Stock 8J inches long, 4| inches wide, and J inch thick. Work the piece to 4 inches wide and as thick Fig. 107. Rabbeted Corner. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 111 and long as it will work. Be careful to have it out of wind and the ends correct. In planing the ends observe the directions given in Lesson 29. Draw the lines for cutting the rabbet, following the same method as in lining for the gain at the end of the halved corner (Lesson 16). The work- ing of the rabbet also follows the same methods as working the halved corner. Cut the piece in two and finish Fig. 108. Nailing a Rabbeted Corner. the ends, making the model 4 inches long on the outside when com- pleted. Sandpaper the pieces, except at the joints, ready for shellacing before putting together. Start the nails as directed in Lesson 7. Place the rabbeted piece in the vise and nail the other piece in place, as shown in Fig. 108. For nailing use five lh- inch wire brads. Set the brads about ^ of an inch below the surface, using a nailset or the head of a brad (Figs. 27 and 28). Smooth the joint if required, and fill the nail holes with putty colored to match the wood. Use the putty quite hard and force it well down upon the heads of the- brads. After the putty has become 112 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK hard, smooth it off with sandpaper and finish the joint with two coats of shellac. This joint is used to a very great extent for the front end of cheap drawer sides and for small boxes. When used on a box the corner is often rounded back to the joint, and it will then finish quite neatly in shellac or varnish. LESSON XXXI Gained and Rabbeted Corner The stock and finished sizes are the same for this lesson as for Lesson 30. The rabbeted end is worked similar to the one in Lesson 30. The gain is worked similar to the one in Lesson 18. The work on this joint must be well executed in order to have it hold properly. After the pieces are worked to size and carefully sand- papered as directed in Lesson 30, they may be glued together or nailed. If the joint is to be glued, it will be much stronger if the pieces have their end grain properly sized before putting together. To size the pieces apply glue to the end grain as long as it will soak in, and then apply glue to the other parts and put the pieces together. If we allow the glue to dry hard, and then smooth it off down to the wood before applying the glue for putting together, it will make the joint hold even better. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 113 This joint is used on box and drawer corners and similar places. This joint, and also the one Fig. 109. Gained and Rabbeted Corner. shown in Lesson 30, may be made entirely on a circular-sawing machine. For this reason it is much 114 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK used in small shops where they do not have the more expensive machinery for dovetailing. LESSON XXXII Bridle Joint Fig. 110". Bridle Joint. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 115 The stock for this joint is the same, and worked the same, as the through mortise and tenon, except that the opposite parts are cut away. Gauge the same as the through mortise and tenon (Lesson 22). Determine the width of the gains at each side either by superposition as in Lesson 18, or by measurement as in Lesson 22. This exercise is an excellent test, for if the piece is not worked to exact size and all four corners square, the in- accuracy will be likely to cause an open joint. Slip the piece together and finish the same as the through mortise and tenon (Lesson 22). Do not plane the sides or use any sandpaper to smooth the joint. This joint is very seldom used outside of school. LESSON XXXIII Haunched Mortise and Tenon The stock for this exercise and the finished sizes are the same as used in Lesson 19. This exercise illustrates a variety of modifica- tions of the common mortise and tenon, and, when properly understood, should enable one to make any of the large variety of modifications. All of the irregular-shaped tenons depend upon care in selecting the proper order for working the various angles and shoulders, and in always keeping a face, or definite surface, to line from, and working care- fully to the lines at each step. Where a part of 116 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK the tenon is to be cut away as in Lesson 23, frame mortise and tenon, and in this exercise you must be especially careful to keep the surface of the tenon correct from edge to edge, so that when a part of the tenon is cut away you will not lose your cor- rect edges. Fig. 111. Haunched Mortise and Tenon. With these facts in mind you should be able to make this exercise from the drawing by reviewing Lesson 23. The difference between these exercises ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 117 is in the leaving of a shoulder on the tenon to fit into the groove which extends the entire length of the piece that contains the mortise. This arrange- ment is common to joints used about paneling. The groove is usually worked with a plow; but in this case you will work it by drawing gauge lines at each edge of the groove and at the ends, and remove the waste material with a chisel. LESSON XXXIV Dowel Joint The stock for this exercise is the same size, and worked to the same size, as that used in Les- son 19. It is often better to connect two pieces with dowels instead of with mortises and tenons. Dowel- ing is used much more at present than formerly, and for some lines of work is to be preferred. Work the stock to size and carefully square the end which is to receive the dowels. Draw a line with the gauge at the end which is to receive the dowels. This line should be at the center of the piece and parallel with the sides. With the knife and try-square draw a line on the face of the other piece which will exactly coincide with the line drawn on the end of the first piece. It is sometimes better to lay the pieces in position as they will be when the joint is complete, and with the point of the 118 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Knife blade make a mark on both pieces at the same time, as shown in Fig. 113. Next set the gauge to the mark on the end, and extend it across the end. With the try-square and knife extend the other mark Dowel Joint. across the face of the other piece. With the gauge set at | inch and the head against the face edge, draw short lines crossing the other two lines. Set the gauge to 1 \ inches and draw two other short lines. With the f -inch bit bore a hole at each of the four places marked by the crossing of the lines. Be ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 119 very careful to have the holes center exactly where the lines cross. Remember not to bore entirely through the piece which has the holes in its face side. Bore about 1 J inches into the end. Cut two dowels 2 inches long from |-inch dowel rod. After plac- ing glue on the dowels and in the holes, force the pins to the bottom of the short holes either by using a hammer or a clamp. Then place the other piece in position and force it to place with a clamp. Dowels and other joints which cannot be forced together by hammering m a y sometimes be forced together by Fig. 113. Locating Holes for Doweling, using clamps. It is usual to point the pins alittle. Ifcoldglueisusedallowit to become quite dry before putting the pieces together. Glue on the end and surface of the pieces will help to make a good joint for finishing, although it is not likely that it will add much to the strength unless the end grain is first sized with glue. (For direc- tions for sizing see Lesson 31.) Glued dowels are used only when one or both pieces are joined at their ends. Dowels should not be used in regular glue joints. 120 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK LESSON XXXV Special Dovetail Joint Stock— One piece 8 inches long, 4f inches wiae, and J inch thick; one piece 8 inches long, 4} inches wide, and J inch thick. These pieces are dressed to 4 inches wide and as thick as they will work. Be sure that they are out of wind. The forms of dovetailing shown in Les- sons 26 and 27 require more time to make than is some- times desirable, therefore a form having fewer pins is used. You must ever keep in mind that the form, number of pins, their size, shape, etc., are subject to Fig. 114- Special Dovetail Joint. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 121 all the variations which may arise from the use of various kinds or grades of wood and the places in which the joints are to be used. The particular form shown in the lesson is only a type to indicate the possible variations. These different forms may be either open, as shown, or half blind, as shown in Lesson 27. The general method of working all the forms is the same, and may be understood by reviewing Lessons 26 and 27. LESSON XXXVI Miter Joint The stock for this piece and the finished sizes are the same as for the halved corner (Lesson 16). This form of joint, though often used, is too difficult for elementary work except in its most simple form. The angle at which the ends are cut is exactly the diagonal of a square, and therefore any method that will give the diagonal of a square will give the line for the miter. The easiest way for the student in woodwork to get the correct angle is to draw a square at the end of the piece and then draw the diagonal as shown in Fig. 116 A. The point A is as far from the point C as the point B is from the point C, or the distance A C is equal to the width of the piece. When several miters are to be cut, the tee bevel (Fig. 116 B) may be set to the line A B and the other miter lines drawn with it. 122 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK In making miter-jointed frames, etc., take special care to have the face side and face edge straight, square, and out of wind, and then be particular to ^ v ■ 4 Common Miter Joint. 4 4" Fig. 115. draw all lines and make all tests from the face side or face edge. Saw the miter near the line and finish with a plane, as shown in Fig. 117. As the cut is not square across the end, the plane may cut all from one edge. Holding the plane at an angle, as shown in Fig 98, is sometimes necessary to avoid splitting at the extreme point. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 123 tT e Fig. 116 A. Fig. 116B. Setting the Tee Bevel. As the miter presents end grain, it is usual to nail the jointrath- er than to depend upon glue. If the joint is well sized as de- Fig. 117. Planing a Miter in a Vise. Scribed in Lesson 31, the glue will aid much in hold- ing the joint in place. If glue is used, before applying it start all the nails and drive them in sufficiently to make it easy to bring the joint to place after the glue is applied. Then separate the Fig. 118. Miter J ointGluedandC 'lamped. 124 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK parts and apply the glue. This joint may be clamped as shown in Fig. 118. There are many ways of securing the corners of frames which are mitered. Some of these methods are very simple and easy when one has the special tools required to use them. There are some forms of special nails or fasteners which may be used by any one who is capable of fitting the joint. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 125 LESSON XXXVII Slip Mortise and Miter The stock for this joint and the finished sizes are the same as for Lesson 19. Fig. 119. Slip Mortise and Miter. This joint is simply a combination of the joints shown in Figs. 70 and 115. By carefully reviewing Lessons 21 and 36 you should have no difficulty in making this joint. This joint should be thoroughly 126 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK clamped as shown in Figs. 77, 78, and 79. Place some paper between the blocks at the face and back of the joint to keep the glue which is forced from the joint from sticking the blocks or clamps to the joint. This is a strong joint for frames, etc., but is not often used, because of the time required to make it. LESSON XXXVIII Glue Joint It is often necessary to glue together narrow trips or boards to make one wide piece. This is not a very difficult operation if one has learned to control the plane properly. The first step is to select lumber suitable for such work and mark the sides which are to be the face of the finished piece. Also mark plainly the way of the grain, so that when the pieces are together they may all be planed from the same direction. (Fig. 120). Examine the planes and be certain that they are sharr> and not too much rounded, and that they will cut a shaving of good width but little thicker at the center than at the edges. The cutting edge should not be absolutely straight, neither should it be much curved. Place one piece on edge in the vise and joint the edge carefully. Then lay it aside and joint the edge of the other piece which is to join the edge ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 127 first jointed. It is not necessary to use a try-square on these edges. They should be at right angles to the surface of the piece, yet if they vary a little it does not matter so long as they make a level joint, and the pieces do not slip sidewise in the clamps. In making a glue joint a regular mechanic would never think of using a try-square. When you think you have the second edge correct, set the first piece on it and test with a straight edge, as shown in Fig. 120, to see if the pieces will make a true surface. Next examine the joint carefully from both sides and ends, as shown in Fig. 121. Continue to plane and test the joint in this manner until it gives a true surface and the edges come in perfect contact the entire length. Pressing down upon the corners will help to show defective ends. Also try wrapping the under board. There should not be the slightest opening at the extreme ends even if the ends are to be cut off in finishing the piece. When the joint is correct there will be a peculiar sensation of suction, or adhesion, as you gently push or pull the top board on the under one. Do not attempt to glue the joint until it is correct as shown by each of these tests. Always put the pieces into the clamps to see if they are all right before applying any glue. Probably the most common errors in making glue joints are to suppose that the joint does not 128 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK require to be perfectly tight on the under or back side, and that dowels may be properly used in such joints. If you are to use cold glue for the joint, be care- ful to have it sufficiently thin to soak well into the joint before putting together. Also have plenty Fig. 120. Examining a Glue Joint with a Straight Edge. of strong clamps. Allow the glue to become almost glazed before clamping the joint. Lay the clamps so that the joint will not be in wind, and use a suffi- cient number to expel every visible bit of glue as seen from the edge. The joint must be, in fact, ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 129 wood to wood if it is to hold properly. Equal care must be taken with hot glue, but less clamping will Fig. 121. Examining a Glue Joint. suffice to expel the surplus glue. In using hot glue you must be certain that everything is ready 130 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK for clamping before applying the glue. The clamps should all be in position and adjusted, so that the pieces may be put in place and the clamps tightened with the least possible loss of time. As hot glue will not hold if clamped too slowly, so cold glue will not hold if clamped too quickly. Considerable experience and judgment are required to get the best results with either. When properly used there is little if any difference in the holding power of the two kinds of glue. When the joint is poorly made the cold glue will hold better than the hot glue. With the inexperienced the additional time allowed in clamping the cold glue is quite an ad- vantage. When much gluing is to be done, the hot glue is to be preferred because the piece may be taken from the clamps much sooner, thus saving a great deal of time and not requiring so many clamps. Care must be taken to keep the cold glue from becoming thick. The hot glue soon loses its strength by repeated heatings. LESSON XXXIX Making an Octagon This exercise may be made from any defective piece of regular stock that will dress to at least 1 inch square and 1 foot long. The piece should be exactly square and the ends exactly alike. Draw lines at each corner -f$ of the ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 131 total distance across the side from each edge. To get the distance at which to set the gauge, lay the rule on the piece at such an angle as will give 10 7-2 Fig. 122. Octagon. equal divisions and mark off 3 of the 10 divisions as shown at A, Fig. 123. Set the gauge to this dis- tance by plac- ing the spur in the mark made by the knife point and mov- ing the head up against the side of the piece. Draw the 8 lines, all equal- ly distant from the four corners Draw the lines Fig. 123. Marking 3-10 with a Rule. without regard to the face-marks, lightly, and be careful to leave the lines as you plane off the corners. If you wish to have a very nice piece of work, use a pencil point instead of the spur. (See Fig. 154.) 132 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK After planing the corners test each side at each end to see that all are equal. If you will mark each side with an you will have Planing an Octagon in a Vise. X before planing the corners less difficulty in making the tests. On larger pieces you can take -fa of the distance across the side instead of ^ This is the dis- tance used b y carpenters in squaring timbers and is nearer the piece may off Fig. 125. Planing an Octagon Against a Bench-Stop. the correct distance. In be held in the vise (Fig. placed against the bench stop (Fig. 125). planing, 124), or ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 133 LESSON XL Making a Cylinder Make an octagon as directed in Lesson 39. Be certain to have every side and angle correct. Any variation in the octagon is quite likely to show in the cylinder. Gauging the piece with the eye, plane off each corner, making the piece 16 sided. Then again plane each corner, making the piece 32 sided. Continue planing the corners, each time doubling the number of sides until the piece is practically cylindrical. With a half sheet of No. 2 sandpaper, used as shown in Fig. 126, remove all plane m a r k s. Finish with finer grades of paper used in the same manner until the piece is smooth and cylindrical. Usually the piece is simply moved endwise in the bent, but not folded or broken, paper; but sometimes, when the piece is quite rough, it is first revolved and then finished by moving endwise. The piece should be often reversed and not sanded too much at the ends. When finished it should feel quite cylindrical when held in the hand. Fig. 126. Sandpapering a Cylinder. 134 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK LESSON XLI Making a Pointer Dress the two adjoining faces of a piece about 3 feet long and about f of an inch square. Dress the third side, making the piece f of an inch thick at the large end, and f of an inch thick at the small end. Dress the fourth side, making the piece j of an inch square at one end and | of an inch square at the other end. Lay off the piece at each end and at the middle for an octagon, as directed in Lesson 39, Fig. 123. Draw gauge lines at both ends and at the center about an inch long on all four sides. By the aid of these three sets of points or gauge lines plane off the corners, making the piece exactly eight-sided. Continue planing the corners, as in making the cylinder (Lesson 40), until the piece is substantially cylindrical. Finish with sandpaper in the same manner as you have finished the cylinder. This pointer should have two or three coats of shellac. LESSON XLII Making a Hexagon Dress a piece to 1 inch by 1J inches wide. Draw lines at the centers of the 1-inch sides. Divide the other two sides into four parts and draw lines ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 135 parallel with the edges, omitting the center lines. Dress off the corners to these lines, making 6 equal sides. This method appears to make the hexagon too large on one of its long diameters, but, as the tend- Fig. 127. ency is to dress off a little too much at the ends of this diameter in planing the adjacent sides, the result will generally be a substantially correct hex- agon. The piece should be carefully tested on all sides at each end with the rule. 136 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK PART 111 Introduction It is not the intention of the author to give in this part a catalogue of tools, but rather to illustrate and describe such few tools as may be required in these exercises. The information given is that which is thought to be of value to such pupils in elementary woodwork as will use this book. There should be in every class room a complete catalogue of tools as furnished by some dealer. The more enterprising pupils will secure for themselves from the dealers such catalogues as will be of use. In some of these trade publications will be found the latest and most practical information on tools. Some dealers will be pleased to furnish their retail catalogues free of charge; others have a fixed price which they charge except when the catalogue is sent out with a bill of tools. Every boy who is suffi- ciently enterprising to make good use of a catalogue will be able to secure one. We wish to advise such boys or parents as will purchase individual sets for home use ever to bear in mind that nothing is gained by using a large variety of tools at the start. A few tools carefully selected and carefully and earnestly used will do far more good than is possible with a large number of tools at the start. The quality of tools should be ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 137 the best, which means that no fancy or combination tools should be purchased. Such tools have their place, but that place is not in the kit of the beginner. Such appliances as miter boxes, expansion bits, molding or fancy planes, chisel grinders, spoke- shaves, wood files, and such tools should not be used in this grade of work. There are no doubt times when such things would be handy, but their presence in the boy's kit of tools at this time will do a great deal of harm. APRON Boy's Apron For bench aprons for boys, get, according to the height of the boy, from 1J to 1J yards of blue and white plaid shirting or jumper cloth, or, if plain color is preferred, blue or brown denim or overall cloth. Fold the piece in the center lengthwise, and from one end cut out such a piece at one corner of the material as will leave, when the piece is unfolded, a bib at the center top eight or ten inches wide. The piece cut out should form a curve from the top of the bib to the edge of the material at the waist line. Hem the bottom of the apron and the top of the bib with a wide hem and make a narrow hem around the curves. From the material cut away, make a strap of such length that when it is fastened at its ends to the corners of the bib it will pass easily over 138 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK the head. Also make straps to fasten at the lower ends of the curved portion and tie behind. No pockets are required and are a disadvantage, as they catch shavings and dirt. Figs. 31, 35, 52, and 86 show how such aprons appear when in use. Girl's Apron Any preferred material, such as gingham, calico, white or black goods, may be used for the girl's apron. Some very much prefer the yard-wide black mercer- ized goods, and in this width for medium height 4J yards will be required. For girls ten to twelve years of age 3 yards will ordinarily be sufficient. Cut the apron sack front and back, open and hem the entire length at the back. Have the neck large enough to accommodate the neck dressing. The long sleeves should be gathered into tight bands fastened at the hand. A broad band fastened on the side seam at the waist line and buttoned at the seam on the opposite side will hold any fullness from falling forward. Buttons and button holes should be placed at the top and center of the back and at the waist line. No pockets are required in this apron. Figs. 71, 98, and 104 show various styles of aprons in use. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 139 Bench The woodworker should take pride in keeping his bench in order. The bench-board or bench- hook should be used to avoid injuring the bench. Never should the knife or any other tool be stuck in the bench top. In starting nails be careful not to drive them through into the bench. Boring must be done in the vise or on a board or the bench- hook in order to avoid making holes in the bench. Once each week the top should be thoroughly rubbed with oily waste. The drawers should be kept clean and each tool in its place. To avoid the necessity of frequent cleaning, do not allow them to remain open. The vise must not be overstrained. Remember that there is a limit to what it will bear. Keep on the bench only such tools as are in use. At the close of each recitation put all in order. Do not wait until the close of the recitation to put away tools that will not be needed again during the reci- tation, but when done with them put them away at once. Do not loan any tools from your bench without special permission. Your bench should be securely fastened to the floor. If it becomes loose, make a report to the instructor. 140 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Bench Stop There are many styles of bench stops from the simple square wooden pins to the adjustable and reversible iron stops. One style of iron stop is shown in Fig. 128. Do not think because the stop tis made of wood that it does not matter how it is used. The more particular you are to keep the stop in order and at the proper F Bench 8 -' ne ig nt > the faster you will be able to work. Stop. See that the stop is enough above the top of the bench to hold firmly, and keep in mind that many irons tops have a tendency to split the end of the piece. Sometimes when the piece is crossgrained the stop will split a corner or edge entirely off. It is seldom or never best to use a hammer or mallet or anything else with which to drive the piece against the stop. It is not necessary for most work that the piece stick to the stop. In using the adjustable stop be careful not to strain the adjusting screw. Turn it but a very little either way. You will observe that the stop will stay in place even though the adjusting screw is tightened but a very little. Be sure to have the stop sufficiently low to avoid hitting it with the planes. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 141 Bits Of the several kinds of bits the auger bit shown in Fig. 129 is best adapted for general use. These bits are usually had in sets of thirteen, varying by sixteenths in size from one-fourth inch to one inch, The boxes usually have a place for a three-six- teenths size, and for small work this size is quite useful. Auger bits vary greatly in price. The best are the cheapest in the end. Do not attempt to sharpen your bits until you have had personal directions for doing such work. A good bit is easily spoiled by a little improper Fig. 129. Fig 130. Fig. 131. A itger Bit. Forstner Bit. Twist Drill. A, Nibs; B, Spur; C, Lips. filing. Never use a good auger bit when there is any liability of its coming in contact with a nail or a bit of sand or grit. The Forstner bits are exceptionally useful in boring end grain. They make smooth holes and do not split the wood. Fig. 130 illustrates one of these bits. There are many other styles of bits. The twist drill shown in Fig. 131 is especially useful in repair work as it is not injured by coming in contact with nails. These drills are quite hard and may be used in drilling metal. They are very easily broken and 142 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK must not be used except where they can be held firmly and kept from binding. The work should be so firmly held that the drill will not be broken in withdrawing from the hole or by the piece moving while drilling. The twist bit (Fig. 132) is similar to the twist drill but not so hard and consequently not so easily Fig. 132. Fig. 133. Fig. 134. Twist Bit. Gimlet Bit German Bit. broken. It is not hard enough to drill nails with- out injury. It is useful in boring deep holes for screws. The gimlet bit is tapering as shown in Fig. 133 and is a good shape for boring holes for short, blunt screws. The German bit is also a good bit for boring small holes. You see by referring to Fig. 134 that this bit has but a single twist and therefore presents — •*■- ., -^^ a sharper edge to the wood than the ^ Fia 135 common gimlet bit. Center Bit. Fig. 135 is of a center bit, a very cheap bit and a good bit for rough work and for boring soft wood. Such bits are easily sharpened and are used by many where an auger bit might be spoiled. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 143 Bit-Brace The bit-brace, which is used to hold the auger bits, screw driver bits, countersinks, etc., consists of a chuck Fig. 136, a knob, and a handle, or sweep. The chuck is made to grasp the square shank M ^^^^ of the bit by revolving ■B=N, j&^JBLJi) the sleeve which forces 1 jj the jaws against the bit. I j Some bit-braces are ^ rfUBWfc sy quite expensive, yet the Fig. 136. Plain Bit Brace. m0 re simple styles are the best for ordinary work. The ratchet brace shown in Fig. 137 is convenient for use in places where the sweep cannot make an entire revolution, and for bor- ing in hard wood and for turning large screws. To insert the bit, grasp the sleeve firmly with one hand and revolve the brace by grasping the sweep handle with the other hand. Revolve the brace until the shank of the bit will pass be- tween the jaws, allowing the ends of the jaws to grasp the °, , - Fig. 137. Ratchet Bit Brace. round part ot the bit shank, the square portion passing into the chuck out of sight. After the bit has been placed 144 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK as far into the jaws of the chuck as it will go, revolve the sweep in the opposite direction until the bit is held firmly. Brushes For use in shellac and in the common paint stains a flat brush one inch wide, costing from five to fifteen cents, will be sufficient (Fig. 138). M p fc- i gpr Small round brushes having stiff ^^FigMZ bristles may be used in the glue (Fig. Flat Brush. 139), but for most gluing a small wooden paddle is sufficient. It is usually best to keep the shellac brush in the dish of shellac. The handle of the brush should project Bm^^m^gsmmmm up through the cover of the* can as pjg m 139. shown in Fig 201. Do not use Round Brush, sl dish having a tall cover for keeping the brush inside. Be very careful always to cover the dish when not in use even though it will be again used in a very few minutes. The brush and dish should be emptied and cleaned frequently. The dish used should be small, and but a little shellac kept in it at one time. When the brush or dish becomes dry and hard it should be thoroughly cleaned before using again. It is a bad practice to allow the brush to become dry and hard by leaving it out of the dish each time after using. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 145 Fig. 140. Plain Tanged Firmer Chisel Chisels The common firmer chisel (Fig. 140), the bevel- backed firmer chisel (Fig. 141), and the heavy firmer chisel (Fig. 142) represent the general types of hand chisels suitable for elemen- tary woodwork. Where but one style can be had the first is preferred. Either style may have either tanged blades, as shown in Figs. 140 and 141, or socket blades, as shown Fig: 142 The Fig- 141. Bevel Tanged Firmer Chisel. tanged blades are better for small hands and for light work. Keep the chisels sharp. The angle of the basil side should be as small as possible to not break when 4f*^^^ mmmt ^ mm ^ l ^^^^— B ^^^^ mr i n use - This ^^^^^■-^^^^^HMHHHIMHHl angle can be Fig 1 42. Socket Firmer Chisel . determined only by experiment for each person and for the various kinds of wood. The cutting edge should usually be straight and the basil a smooth, even surface, as shown in Fig. 143. When the chisel is sharpened on the oil stone, a new angle is formed, as shown by the line B in Fig. 143. This angle also varies with the nature of the tool and work. For soft wood the angle is smaller 146 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK than for hard wood, and usually each time the chisel is sharpened on the oilstone the end will become more blunt until it is necessary to change the angle by grinding the tool on the grind- stone. In whetting the chisel hold it firmly as in whetting the plane, F Vi%^l%t Fi s- 175 - Move H back and forth chisel is ground. B, so that the angle produced will Anqle at which the u 1 n 1 rm chiseiiswhet. Cjn- be even and flat - The common correct shape caused mistake in whetting chisels and by carelessness in . ° whetting or grinding, planes is to make the end round- ing as shown at C, instead of a true flat surface, Fig. 143. Should a wire edge develop it may be necessary to reverse the chisel, as shown in Fig. 144, and holding it firmly and flat ontheoilstone move it for- ward, break- ing off the wire edge. It may be necessary to change from the first to the second position several times before the wire edge will be removed. After using the oilstone the edge may be yet further improved by using a leather strop, as shown in Fig. 202. Fig. I4.4. Removing a Wire Edge. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 147 One side of the chisel should be kept perfectly flat to the cutting edge so that it may rest firmly against the surface of the part being worked, as in Figs. 39, 40, 43, 53, 73, etc. Should this side become rounding, either from wear or from carelessness in whetting or stroping, the end must be ground off on the grindstone until the surface is straight. For directions about grinding chisels, see what is said about the grindstone and its use. Clamps. Probably the old-fashioned wooden hand screws shown in Fig. 145 will never be entirely displaced. For most work they are better than any other style. J| L Care must be taken to keep the jaws sJLJL quite or nearly parallel, for if they H are not parallel one or both of the „. J~ V ' screws may be broken. Fig. 145. Wooden . J Hand Screw. In using them first tighten the screw which is nearest the center of the jaws. This screw is called the shoulder screw. The other screw near the end of the jaws is called the back or tail screw and is tightened last. Be sure that the shoulder screw is so tight that when the back screw is tightened the jaws will be parallel. Be very particular to see just how the jaws are pressing on the work. This may sometimes be determined by grasping the back screw between the jaws and pulling side wise. The 148 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK point on which the jaws turn is the point of greatest pressure. Sometimes it is necessary to use wedges between the work and the clamp. The iron clamp shown in Fig. 146 is better for some places than the wooden hand screws. These clamps are made in a variety of styles. g Some are supplied with quick adjusting devices. They all require wooden blocks to be placed be- tween them and finished surfaces. For some work this is quiet troublesome. Fig. 146. , . \ . . Iron Clamp. For clamping glue joints a very strong clamp is necessary. The one shown in Fig. 147 is a very good style. Common iron bench screws may be secured to a similar piece and when properly fastened make excellent clamps. Whatever style of clamp you are using, re- member that it may be overstrained -or broken. A Fig. 147. Bar Clamp. little experience and use of judgment will enable you to know when the strain has reached thelimit of safety. Do not be afraid of using too many clamps on work that requires great pressure. Some pieces are best clamped by using as many clamps as may be placed in position on the piece. For directions in clamping see Figs. 58, 77, 78, 79, 118. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 149 Compasses Fig. 148 illustrates the common compasses used by woodworkers. Fig. 99 shows a method of setting them, and Fig. 100 shows how to hold them in striking a circle. The ordinary difficulty in Fig. 148. Compasses. using compasses is to over- strain the adjusting screws or to grasp the compasses in such a manner that the distance between the points is changed by the pressure of the fingers. Hold them nearly vertical and revolve them in either direction according to the grain of the wood or the position of the circle. For most work it is better to sharpen the end of one leg of the compasses to a rather blunt lound point and the end of the other leg to a flat knife- like point. Do not use compasses to pry with, to make holes for screws, or for similar uses. Do not strike them on the top end with the hammer or use the hammer claws to turn the screws. Files Two files may be required by the beginner, an eight inch flat mill file and a three inch three cor- nered taper saw file. The mill file (Fig. 149) will be used in sharpening 150 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK compasses, the gauge spur, and similar work. The saw file (Fig. 150) will be used for filing saws. Files are so shaped that the teeth cut but — ■■■^ ' . HHHI one way, and therefore Fig. 149. Mill File. they should be pressed against the work only on the forward stroke. When learning to use a file, it is better to lift it entirely from the work on the return stroke. Always hold the file firmly and iiiMillllllMllllllllliiiii i move it as nearly the Fig. 150. Taper Saw File. entire length as the work will permit. In filing saws or any light, thin material, be very careful to have the work held firmly. For ordinary work the file is moved lengthwise, but sometimes it is moved side- wise, as in sharpening the scraper (Fig. 186). Gauge In selecting a gauge the inexperienced are apt to select the more expensive styles, thinking they will be able to do better work with the higher priced ^ tool. Taking every condition into ac- p? 151 count, the plain beechwood gauge (Fig. Plain Gauge. 151) with a boxwood screw and bar un- graduated is the best for the beginner as well as for the matured mechanic for most work. This gauge is light and strong, and as there is no brass on the face of the head, it is very easily planed smooth and straight when it wears uneven. It will keep in shape ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 151 longer than some which have the brass facing. In no case should one depend upon the graduations upon the gauge-beam, but use the rule as explained in Lesson 3. In advanced work and for use in projects where many mortises of the same width are to be made, a mortising gauge may be used to good advantage. For all elementary work and for most Fig. 152. other work the plain gauge is far better. MorHsvng ^ . . r ,-n. Gauge. I he mortising gauge (Fig. 152) has two spurs on one side at one end so that the lines for both sides of a tenon or mortise may ^, r^^^— , be drawn at the same time. There L_ ■ L-J j-j { is also a single spur at the oppo- *y V site side of the beam, that the Fig. 153. Gauge Spur. gauge may be used for drawing a single line. The spur on all the gauges should be sharpened with a file to a sharp, flat, wedge-like point. The n point should be a little rounded on the end, ■V making the edge which is in front as the gauge is used a little the shorter. When Fig. 154. properly sharpened and used it will make a Gauge neat, fine line. Fig. 153 indicates the shape Bar - of such a spur. The spur should extend at least an eighth of an inch from the lower surface of the bar, and for most work three-sixteenths of an inch is better. It should be out so far that the beam of the gauge will never be flat against the piece which is being lined. 152 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK It is sometimes convenient to have a lead pencil gauge line. This is easily accomplished by boring a hole through the gauge beam near one end and inserting the stub of a lead pencil. The pencil must have a very blunt point, as shown in Fig. 154. When much thin lumber is to be worked, a split- ting spur may be placed in the opposite end of the beam. Such a spur should split pine or basswood boards up to one-fourth inch in thickness. The spur may be Splitting Spur, made from the broken end of a knife blade as shown in Fig. 155. Before trying to split a piece, joint it carefully and then use the splitting gauge on both sides of the piece. Glue For elementary work use nothing but the best grade of prepared cold glue. Do not use it from a large dish or from the can in which it is sold. It may be used from a small bottle having a wide opening like a paste bottle. This bottle may be kept covered with a bit of paper or with the regular screw cover. A better plan is to place a small dish in a larger dish or box and fill the larger dish to near the top of the inner one with plaster of paris. This will keep the brush moist and keep the glue from drying if a little water is poured On the plaster ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 153 of paris often enough to keep it moist. The dish may have a loose or hinged cover of either wood or metal. For most purposes in applying the glue a flat stick is better than a brush. In case the glue becomes too thick add a little water. This should be added some time before the glue is to be used that it may become well mixed with the glue. For directions in applying and using the glue see Lesson 16, Fig. 58, Lesson 21, Figs. 77, 78, and 79. Glue sizing is explained in Lessons 31 and 34 and making glue joints is explained in Lesson 38. If, you have purchased a good quality of glue, do not blajne.the gltfe if it does not hold. Go over the directions carefully, remembering that the reason for the trouble may be in your not following some part of the directions which you think of no con- sequence, but which may be the whole cause of the trouble. Grindstone After edge tools have been whetted several times the cutting edge becomes so blunt that it is necessary to remove a considerable portion of the end in order to maintain the proper cutting angle. This is accomplished by using a grindstone or emery grinder suitable for this sort of grinding. Grind- stones are not likely to injure the tools if properly 154 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK supplied with water. Emery wheels are often so hard, and run at such a speed that they will spoil the tools unless one understands thoroughly how to use them. Ordinary grindstones are cut from natural sandstone. They vary greatly in quality. Some are much harder than others. Some are composed of particles of sand which are quite hard and sharp while others do not have this keen cutting quality. All wear more or less uneven by use and it is there- fore necessary to be careful in using them. Always try to grind down the high places and in grinding small tools such as narrow chisels and gouges you must keep them mov- ing across the face of the stone. If the grindstone were in perfectcon- Fig.156. Grinding. dition there would be little trouble about grinding tools. This however is almost never the case and you must there- ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 155 fore learn to grind on grindstones that are very much out of order. This is not so difficult a task as you may suppose. The best way is to learn to hold the tools freehand as shown in Fig. 156. This does not require a great amount of practice and when once learned will enable you to grind on almost any grindstone in a very satisfactory manner. Be careful to hold the tools firmly and at the proper angle. Grind back from the edge first and finish by grinding at the edge until the basil surface is straight, flat, and to an edge. The flow of water will help to indicate how the stone is cutting. The stone or emery wheel should revolve towards the edge of the tools as indicated by the arrow. One hand presses the tool to the stone and the other hand controls the angle. The motion of the stone has a tendency to roll the chisel or plane bit in such a manner that it will be cut too much at the upper corner. The hand which controls the tool must tend to roll it so it will tend to cut most at the lower corner. Grind very carefully and examine the tool often to see just how the stone is grinding. You must not expect to grind the edges of chisels, planes, and similar tools sufficient- ly fine for use. The grindstone is to remove the large quantity of material and give the proper shape and angle to the basil surface. The whetstone and strop must be used to produce the keen cutting edge. The directions for whetting chisels and planes are given under the descriptions of these tools. 156 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Hammer Fig. 157 illustrates a plain faced carpenter's ham- mer. Fig. 158 illustrates a bell faced carpenter's hammer. The plain faced ham- mers are used on ordinary work and are better for Fig. 157. Plain Faced Hammer. ^ uge Qf begin _ riers. The face of the bell faced hammer is rounded and is much more difficult to use except when one is constantly in practice with it. Hammers are made in many styles and sizes. The number two, weighing thirteen ounces, is a good size for boys. The correct position for using in the ordinary work of driving nails is shown in Fig. 25. There are times when the handle should be grasped quite near the head. Although the face of the hammer is of hardened steel, yet it may be injured by striking the ends of files or other very hard bits of metal. The most common injury is to the claws by wedging nails between them so tightly that the 1 ) thin sharp edges of the claws are J^ vro „ 77 „ , r & Fig. 158. Bell Faced injured. The ends of the claws may Hammer. be broken. Sometimes a block is used under the hammer head as shown in Fig. 29. Probably the Klllg Lilt? eilUS Ul ^Ill—IBM ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 157 most needless and foolish injury to hammers is done by striking them on the side of the head instead of on the face in ordinary hammering. There are times when the side of the hammer may be used, but it should not be, when the face can be used. Should you wish to work in metals do not use your carpenter's hammer, but rather use a hammer similar to those shown in Figs. 159 and 160. These hammers have the weight Fig. 159. Riveting Hammer. q{ mQ ^ x ^_ tributed in a different manner and will give a very different effect to the blow. If you will carefully watch the effect of the blows given by different hammers and the same hammer held or used in different ways, you will learn why one hammer can be made to drive a nail which another hammer will bend over and why one person can drive a nail into a piece p^jso. Mac of hard wood while others can not. ists Hammer. These are matters of very much importance which can be learned only by careful study, experiment, and observation. 158 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Knife Do not try to economize by using a poor knife. Only one that may be kept in first class condition should be tolerated. The knife should have two Fig. 161. Pocket Knife The smaller blade is to be used for drawing lines and the point of this blade must be kept very sharp. Knives with many blades or with tools in their handles should not be used. Neither should you try to use a knife having a chain attached to the handle. Always keep your knife sharp. Fig. 161 illustrates a well shaped knife. For directions in using the knife see Lessons 6, 8, 16, 18, 20, 21 and Figs. 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 32, 33, 42, 65, 92, 113. Be very particular to use your knife as directed, for very much depends upon mak- ing a straight, clean and correct line. Lumber The materials for these exercises may be of any easily worked soft wood. Probably white pine is the best. Basswood and whitewood or yellow pop- lar are also suitable. Black walnut and mahogany are good but expensive. Maple, oak, and ash are too hard. Chestnut and hard or yellow pine have a grain which is unsuitable for joinery. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 159 Always examine your material for defects and plan your work so that the defects will be cut out or covered up. Notice carefully the difference in texture of different pieces and the different parts of the same piece. You will not work enough pieces nor pieces large enough to give you very definite information, but if you will observe each piece carefully you will gather a fund of information which will aid you very much later on. Your principal study will be to learn how to discover the way of the grain, and how to plane and cut joints smoothly in cross grained pieces. This you will learn by experiment. Some pieces cannot be worked smoothly either way, but will generally work much' smoother in one direction than in the opposite direction. Notice also that certain parts of a piece require a much sharper tool than do other parts. Learn to distinguish pieces that will work easily and smoothly so that you can select the proper stock for fine work and also use pieces for rough jobs which will not work smoothly. You must learn to make these selections without testing them with the tools. Nails and Brads Very little need be said about brads and nails. They are made in such a great variety that it is scarcely possible to have use for any form or size 160 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK which is not for sale by some dealer. Each dealer will have a number of styles and sizes suitable for his own trade, and from these you should make your selection. It is best to become somewhat acquainted with what may be purchased in your own locality before planning any project that will require any hardware beyond the most common grades. This caution is nearly as necessary for those living in cities as for those living in small towns. There are nails with flat heads in very small sizes. For some work these are better than brads E—7— ■»» as the heads will not pull through soft Barbed Nail. wood. Some of these nails are rough or barbed on the lower end or the entire length as shown in Fig. 162-A. These are desirable for nail- ing such w T ork as the shelf border in lesson 12. Brads are made in many lengths, and the different lengths are made with different size heads and of different size wire. The larger sizes ^ ^m^ ^^ of this style of nails or brads are I I called finishing nails. Nails having t? lip %p$ a smaller size of wire than the com- p^ 162B. mon wire nails but a similar head Fancy Nails. are called box nails. These are very useful in mak- ing boxes and in fitting up about the shop. Sometimes you will find it a good plan to fasten the work together with common brads or nails, and then cover these nail heads with the large heads of fancy nails like those shown in Fig. 162-B. These ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 161 fancy nails are made in a very great variety of sizes and styles. They may be used in finishing the shelf border, lesson 12. Nail Sets There are several varieties of nail sets, of which the cup set and spur set are most common. The cup set (Fig. 163 A) has a cup-like cavity at the lower end to set over the head of the nail or brad. This style is excellent for very small brads. The spur set (Fig. 163 B) has a small point at the center of the Fig. 163. Nail Set. A — Section of a cup set, enlarged. B — Section of a spur set, enlarged. lower end. This point is quite small, but sufficiently large to keep the set from slipping off the nail head. The spur set is better for large brads and nails. Be careful to use a set of the proper size to correspond with the brad or nail on which it is to be used. The method of using the sets is shown in Fig. 27. Fre- quently the head of a brad or nail may be used instead of a nail set, as shown in Fig. 28. 162 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Oil Can One is apt in selecting an oil can to think that the more expensive sorts are the best. This is not always the case. For use on the bench, when oil is used only for oilstones, a very small and light can is better than a large heavy one. A can a little larger than those usually furnished with sewing machines is a good size. The hole in the spout should be quite small. It is far easier to take the necessary time to let oil flow from a small opening than to wipe up the excess which is sure to flow from a large spout with a large opening. Neatness and economy in the use of oil will help one to become neat and economical in the use of other materials. Be very careful in filling the can not to get any dirt into it, for a very small bit of dirt may stop the spout and cause a good bit of trouble. Oilstone There are many kinds of oilstones. Some are pieces cut from natural rock and some are made by pressing a powdered abrasive into a rectangular block. Most stones used for sharpening edge tools are used with oil and are called oilstones. The oil keeps the particles of metal from adher- ing to the surface of the stone, or, as we commonly say, keeps the surface from glazing over. Do not ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 163 use too much oil, only enough to keep the surface well moistened. Oil should not run over the ends or edges. Some oilstones work very much better after being well filled or soaked in oil. It is often better with a new stone not to wipe the oil off after using it. Wipe it only when the surface becomes dirty or filled with metal. Lard oil or other animal oils are better than mineral oils for use on oil stones. Some dealers sell oils especially for use on their oil- stones. It is a good idea to keep the stone in an iron box as shown in Fig. 144, or in a wooden box. Some prefer to keep the stone in the pasteboard box in which it is pur- chased, and hold it in the vise while using it, as shown in Fig. 175. The surfaces of oilstones may Fig. I64. Truing the Surface of an Oilstone, be made flat by rubbing them on a sheet of sandpaper or emery cloth laid on the bench, or on a smooth flat board as shown in Fig. 164. If you are careful to rub the plane bits and chisels the entire length of the stone, and to sharpen knives and small tools near the ends of the stone, it will keep in good shape for a long time. Most oilstones will break easily and must be handled with care. 164 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK There are many ways of testing the edges of tools to see if they are sharp. Probably the best method is to use the ball of the thumb as shown in Fig. 165. Another very good test is to try the tool on a scrap of pine. The Testing an Edge with the Thumb. Fig. 165 smoothness and glossiness of the surface of the cut will indicate very well the condition of the cutting edge. You should learn to test the edge with your thumb, because it is quicker and better for most purposes. Pencil A common pencil, such as is used in writing, is sufficient for ordinary work. If there is much lin- ing to be done on large or rough stock, a carpenter's pencil which has a wide flat lead should be used. The point need not be as sharp for writing on wood as for writing on paper. By pressing quite firmly ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 165 the writing will be pressed below the surface so that in sanding for the second coat of finish the writing will not be removed. If you desire to have lines which you can erase, use a soft pencil with a blunt point. For erasing pencil lines use a common pencil eraser. Do not attempt to erase pencil lines by using sandpaper. Planes Although there are many sorts and sizes of planes, yet for most work two or three planes are sufficient. For the exer- cises in this book two planes are all that are necessary. If we do the work with only two planes Fig. 166 A. Iron Smooth Plane, vve will likely receive more benefit and lay a better foundation for future work than if we should use a larger number of planes at the start. These two planes are the smooth pJane (Fig. Fig. 166B. Iron Jack Plane. 166 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Fig. 167 A Smooth Plane. 166 A) and the jack plane (Fig. 166B). It is not es- sential which plane is used at first for planing the first piece. You will select the one which best suits your strength. After you have had some practice, you will likely prefer the longer or jack plane for rough plan- II ooden Bottomed Iron. ■ & I ing, and the smooth plane for finishing and planing ends and miters. To do nice work on long pieces the jack plane should be set fine and used in- stead of the smooth plane. As you become more skilled in the use of the i '-{-{Fig. 167B. Wooden Bottomed Iron Jack Plane. planes, you will d keep them ground nearer straight across, and will change the set more often to accommodate them to the various kinds of work. The wooden planes (Figs. 168 and 170) have been nearly displaced by the iron planes. The wooden bottom iron planes (Figs. 167A and 167B) are pre- ferred by many workmen for use on soft wood. The beginner will undoubtedly have better success with the full iron plane. The iron planes are used rather because they are more easily adjusted and more easily kept in order than because they are capable of giving ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 167 any better results on ordinary work. Fig. 168 shows the proper position for holding the wooden jack plane. Fig. 168. Using the Wooden Jack Plane 168 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Adjusting the Planes There are various ways of adjusting iron planes. To make the plane cut a thicker or thinner shaving the milled thumb-screw A (Fig. 169) is turned. The proper way to turn it must be learned by experiment, as it is not t urned the same way in different styles of planes. Re- member that there is often a considerable lost motion in the screw and lever, so that the screw Fig 169. Sighting the Bottom of the Iron Plane. m u s t be turned a little before it will have any effect in changing the thickness of the shaving. In your first experiments at setting the plane, turn the screw so that the plane will not cut at all and then turn it in the opposite direction, testing ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 169 it on a bit of waste material to see when it is cutting properly. Turn the screw but a little at a time, testing it often on the piece of waste and also each Fig. 170. Sighting ilie Bottom of the Wooden Plane. time hold it as shown at Fig. 169 or 170, sighting lengthwise of the bottom or sole of the plane. You will soon be able to see how much the cutting edge 170 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK projects from the surface so that you can set the plane without using the piece of wood for testing it. As soon as the plane cuts at all look carefully Fig. 171. Withdrawing the Plane Iron of the Wooden Plane. to see whether it is cutting the shaving at the center or near one edge. If the shaving does not come up at the center of the plane, move the lever B ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 171 (Fig. 169) sidewise until it does. If there is no lever for moving the bit sidewise you must strike the side of the bit near the top end with a hammer as in adjusting the wooden plane (Fig. 170). Sometimes the bit does not stay in place after being adjusted. This may be caused by carelessness in handling, or the screw (Fig. 173 S) may be loose. This screw should be so adjusted that when the cam lever (Fig. 173) is down the bit will be held firmly in place. The wooden bottom iron planes are adjusted in the same manner as the iron planes. The wooden planes are adjusted entirely with a hammer. To withdraw the iron, the plane is struck with a hammer on the top near the front end as shown in Fig. 172. Jointing the Bottom of a Wooden Plane. Fig. 171. Strike the iron a light blow on the upper end to in- crease the thickness of the shaving. When the bottom of the wooden plane or the wooden-bottom iron plane becomes worn out of true, draw the iron well out of the way and dress the bottom of the plane, as shown in Fig. 172. This figure shows an iron jointer plane in use, but the work may be well done by using a good iron jack plane. 172 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Sharpening Planes Your planes should be sharp and ready for use when you get them and you should become quite familiar with these tools and be able to set them nicely before attempting to sharpen them in any manner. The first step in sharpen- ing is to learn to whet the bits on the oilstone. To re- move the bit, grasp the cam lever as shown in Fig. 173 with the thumb and finger and lift it upwards. This will loosen the bit. Be very careful to see and remember just how every part appears when in proper position. Lift the loosened parts from Fig. 173. Lining the Cam the plane and with a screw- Lever. o — The screw . which holds the cap and driver loosen the screw as iron in place. ghown ^ Mg m Either remove the cap iron or slide it to the top end out of the way. Observe carefully the angle at which the iron has been ground and hold it on the oilstone so that the oilstone will make a slightly blunter angle, as shown in Fig. 143, A being the angle at which the ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 173 Fig. 11 If.. Loosening the Cap Screw erly be used and which by practice you will discover. You should use only a simple for- ward and back- ward movement at first. The es- sential points which must ever be kept in mind iron was ground, and B the angle at which the iron is to be whetted. Use a sufficient amount of oil on the stone to cause it to cut freely. I Rub the bit forwards and backwards, keeping it at the same angle. Hold the bit very firm as shown in Fig. 175. As you become more accustomed to using the oil- stone you will give the tools a somewhat circular motion, varying the amount accor- ding to circumstances. There are a great variety of motions which may prop- Fig. 175. Whetting a Plane Bit. A chisel is whetted in a similar manner. 174 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK are to use the stone over its entire surface so that it will wear down evenly, and to keep the plane bit at the sa-me angle during the entire process of whetting so that the surface will be definite and not rounded in the least as examined from the edge, the same as the chisel (Fig. 143, B and C). There is always a tendency to whet the corners short, making the cutting edge rounding as shown in Fig. 176. This will do no harm if not too much. In fact, for beginners it is better to have at least one of the 1 planes, usually the jack plane, quite Rounded End of a rounding so that it will cut only a Plane Iron. narrow shaving and consequently not require so much strength to use it. As you become more skillful in using the planes you may whet them more nearly straight across until they are almost straight except very near the corners. After bringing the bit to an edge it is often necessary to turn the bit over and lay it flat on the oilstone to remove the wire edge, as in sharpening the chisel (Fig. 144). Generally it is necessary to reverse the bit several times before the rough edge will come off. After the wire edge has been removed the bit should be stropped on a bit of leather as the chisel is stropped (Fig. 202). Replace the cap iron, bringing it to about one thirty-second of an inch from the cutting ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 175 edge, and tighten the screw. Place the parts in the plane and adjust them as described on page 168. After the plane bits have been whetted several times they should be ground as described in the general directions for grinding under the topic Grindstone. Putty Good putty consists of whiting and linseed oil. By using white lead with common putty it will adhere better and become harder. Common white putty may be colored with ordinary colors to match the paint or stain which is being used. A little putty kept in a tightly covered jelly tumbler is often quite handy. As putty becomes hard by standing, some persons prefer to keep a supply of whiting and oil and make their own putty a little at a time as they use it. The hand mixed putty is not usually as good as the good grades of machine mixed. Do not use putty in any holes that can be plugged with wood. If the putty is too soft, wrap what you wish to use at one time in paper and in a few hours it will be much harder. Rule Probably no part of the shop equipment is so often improperly selected as the pocket rules. These should be selected for accuracy, convenience, and 176 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK to familiarize oneself with the rule which he is likely to use after leaving school. For this reason all two-foot, two-fold rules are unsuitable. Of the four-fold rules the number 84 is probably the best, price considered. In no case use the ten-cent style, or one having neither edge brass-bound. Be very particular to use the rule exactly as directed. Many of the directions given may appear wrong or needless to those not familiar with practical work, but nevertheless every direction given is the result of much experiment and use. Whenever possible we should use the rulings away from the end, as shown in Fig. 17. The corners not only soon become incorrect from wear but very often the grad- uations at the extreme ends are not made correctly. The number 84 rule and also the number 62 rule (Fig. 177) have the inches divided into eighths, six- teenths, tenths, and ^.^p.C^pi^Mfe^!^ fe^ ^ 11 ^ twelfths. These are a Fig. 177. Pocket Rule. The No. 84 very useful variety of Ride is the same as this one except graduations and VOU that only the outside edges are brass & > J bound. ' should accustom your- self always to use the rule in the same manner and then there will arise no trouble from getting the various scales confused. Hold the rule, opened to one foot long, in the right hand as shown in Figs 14 and 17, when using either eighths or sixteenths. The tenths and twelfths are on inside edges and therefore we never ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 177 use them by mistake if the rule is held in this manner. When opened to two feet long, if we always hold the rule on edge, the center hinge up, we are sure to use only eighths or sixteenths. To use the tenths or twelfths we must place the rule in an uncommon position. The drafting scales marked one fourth, one half, etc., may be used to take the dimensions from scale drawings. The even inches are measured with the rule in the ordinary manner. The fractions of an inch are obtained by setting the compasses to the distance on the drawing and then applying them to the scale as in setting them, as shown in Fig. 99. The proper method of using the rule in laying off given spaces is shown in Figs. 18, 123. Sandpaper Sandpaper is the name commonly applied to a tough paper coated with ground flint. Glue is used to hold the flint to the surface of the paper. There is considerable difference in the cutting and weaVing qualities of the different brands of sandpaper. For ordinary work the grades 0, J, 1, 1}, are sufficient. For very fine work 00 may be used. No. 2 may be used in rounding corners, edges, etc. Such places should be made quite smooth with the edge tools before using the sandpaper. If your work is to be inspected by an instructor do not use any 178 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK sandpaper until the piece has been examined and passed. For nearly all small work it is best to hold the paper without a block as shown in Figs. 46 and 47. On large surfaces and to give a smooth finish to corners and rounded edges a block may be used. Plane a block to about 4 J inches long by 2J inches wide and J inch thick. Keep this block for use when required. Blocks of other sizes and shapes may be required for special work. These may be of almost any size or shape but should always be carefully made and the paper very carefully folded around them. Never glue or nail the paper to the block. Fold it so that it may be changed in posi- tion until the entire surface has been used. Remem- ber that paper which has been used is often better than a fresh piece, and therefore do not throw any paper away until it has been entirely worn out. Sandpaper often becomes too dry to work prop- erly. If kept where it will not dry out nor be- come too damp it will work much better. It may be dampened by sprinkling a little water between the sheets and keeping them pressed tightly together for a few days. Always tear the paper carefully with a saw as shown in Fig. 44. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 179 Fig. 1 78. The common grades of both hand saws and rip saws are made this shape. Saws The saws used in elementary wood work are the hand saw, the rip saw, Figs. 178 and 179, and the back saw, Fig. 180. For special work we sometimes require the compass saw, Fig. 181. The proper methods of using the saws are shown in Figs. 37, 38, 72, 93, 94, 95. In using any saw in working around a curve the saw should work squarely through the piece, or at right am to the surface in both direct- ions. This applies particular- ly to the compass saw. The blades of saws are easily rusted and therefore you should not touch the blades with your hands. If from any cause the surface of the blade is mois- Fig. iso. Back Saw. tened, or if they are used in a damp room, they should be carefully wiped and the surface coated with vaseline or oil. Vaseline is probably the best anti-rust Fig. 181. Compass Saw material easily applied for keeping not only saws but all other bright tools from rusting. Fig. 179. Some of the better grades of saws are made this shape 180 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK When the saw refuses to work freely it should be put in order. The kinking of the blade is a ser- ious injury to the saw and therefore take no chances When the saw sticks or binds in the kerf, find where the difficulty is and correct it or stop sawing entirely and wait for assistance. Of all the tools used in working wood, none work so freely as saws when in order and properly used and none so badly when out of order. Fig. 182 indicates the forms of teeth usually given to small saws. A shows the teeth of a hand Hi U saw anc ^ ^ those of a rip saw. The shapes shown are only to Fig. 182. Teeth of Saw*, illustrate the general plan of A, Hand Saw. B, Rip Saw. the two kinds of saws. This is especially true of the hand saw which is filed at many different angles to suit it to various kinds of wood and different grades of work. The fitting of saws in the best manner is too difficult a task for even many of those who are con- stantly using them. The novice in woodworking should not attempt to fit his own saws. After he has become quite familiar with his saws and knows quite well how they should work when in proper shape, he may begin by pointing the teeth a very little when they become dull. The first thing to be learned is that there is great danger of filing too much and that too much filing is quite as bad as no filing at all. After a time he may attempt to joint ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 181 and file and finally to joint and file and set his saws. Fig. 183 shows a good clamp for holding saws while filing them. The boards should be a little Fig. 183. Saw Clamp. hollowed on the inside so that they will press firmly against the sides of the saw near the teeth. The saw should be held as low down in the clamp as will permit of holding the file at the proper angle. There are many kinds of saw clamps made of iron. These are good but not essential when one has but two or three saws to keep in order. It is very essential • that a clamp of some kind be used, for if the saw is not held very firmly the files will wear out rapidly and it will be very difficult to make the teeth of the correct shape. 182 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Saw Set The saw set, shown in Fig. 184, is for setting the teeth of saws so they will work more easily. This is not a very difficult tool to use except that it requires considerable experience to determine how much set should be given a saw to cause it to work to the best advantage. You should proceed with considerable care in order not to crush the teeth or kink the blade at the base of the teeth. There is also danger of breaking the teeth. The less set a saw has the better, pro- vided it works freely. Some saws are made so that they do not require any set. This is generally true of the back saws and other saws which are thin on the back. Scraper For cleaning off thick bits of finish and for smoothing cross grained pieces a scraper is required. One may be made from a piece of an r 1 old or broken saw blade. Various sizes „. 10K Fig. 185. and shapes may be purchased. They Scraper Bur. may be rectangular in outline or of any other shape required to fit the work. For the present work a small rectangular scraper is sufficient. ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 183 Fig. 186. Drawftling a Scrape, The cutting or scraping is done by a very fine edge or bur which is nearly at a right angle to the surface of the scraper. This is shown very much enlarged in Fig. 185. To produce this bur the edge of the scraper is first draw filed as shown in Fig. 186. The draw filing is to make the edge square and straight except that each end is rounded a little. For some work the edge is curved the entire length. After draw filing,lay the scraper Fi 3- 187 - La v in ^ the Bur - flat on the bench and rub the edge several times y — [ the entire length with the chisel, as shown in Fig. 187. The chisel is held nearly, but not Fig. 188. Bur Flat. quite, flat on the scraper. This smooths the edge and forces a bit of metal out as indi- cated in Fig. 188. Next change the chisel as shown in Fig. 189. Raising a Bur. 184 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Fig. 189 and draw it towards you, using all the force you can. This will turn the bur as shown in Fig. 185. You can turn a bur on but one edge or on each side of all the edges, and if you are careful in us- ing the scraper you will not cut your fingers on the edges. A little soapy water on the chisel will cause it to work ing a ocrapcr. Fig. 190. better and avoid tearing off the bur. Always hold the scraper firmly and as near perpen- dicular to the surface as the bur will cut. Remember that W he n Fig. 191. Pulling a Scraper. properly sharpened and used the scraper will cut off shavings, and therefore do not use it when it is so dull that it removes only dust. ^^ J^^V 1^^. T& f w -'4 mm ^^mmmmm ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 185 The scraper is usually held in one hand for scrap- ing thick places on finish as shown in Fig. 49. For finishing rough places on wood it is held by both hands, as shown in Figs. 190 and 191. Whether the scraper should be pushed from you or pulled towards you depends upon the Fig. 192. nature of the work and the strength of Swan Neck , , ^ in Cabinet your hands. Do not use any handle or Scraper, holder while scraping ordinary small work. Be careful to hold the scraper so that it will cut at the center of the piece and not round the surface. Change the position or direction of the stroke sufficient- ly often to avoid following the defects in the surface. Be careful not to scrape out the soft places and leave the hard grain above the remainder of the surface. For working in hollows a scraper like the one shown in Fig. 192 may be used. It is nearly always best to go over a surface with the smooth plane before using the scraper. Only on a very cross grained surface should one try to finish with the scraper directly from the planing machine. Some machines plane so smooth that the surface appears to be perfectly smooth except to the experienced eye, yet unless the hand plane is used the scraper will not be likely to remove the roughness so that it will not show through the finish. 186 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK Screw Driver Perhaps the most abused of all tools is the screw driver. There are many forms both for bit stock iMMBE r