Author V * Title ^ **s^ .LB..._ 1 131 Imprint 16—47372-3 GPO UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HISTORY NUMBER 8 STANDARD TESTS AS AIDS IN SCHOOL SUPERVISION ILLUSTRATED BY A STUDY OF THE STOUGHTON, WISCONSIN, SCHOOLS BY FRANK LESLIE CLAPP ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION MADISON 1922 &:V^., UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN STUDIES NUMBER 27 SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HISTORY NO. 8 DECEMBER, 1922 PRICE 50 CENTS Published bi-monthly by the University of Wisconsin, at Madison, Wisconsin. Entered as second class matter August 31, 1919, at the postofflce at Madison, Wisconsin, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Accepted for mailing at special rates of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized September 17, 1918. The Studies may be obtained from the Secretary of the Regents, University cf Wisconsin, to whom checks and money orders should be made payable. No. 1. The colonial citizen of New York City, by Robert Francis Seybolt. 40p. 1918. 50 cents. 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UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HISTORY NUMBER 8 STANDARD TESTS AS AIDS IN SCHOOL SUPERVISION ILLUSTRATED BY A STUDY OF THE STOUGHTON, WISCONSIN, SCHOOLS BY FRANK LESLIE CLAPP ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION MADISON 1922 m iiUpj,«Ha|WaM«tR^HinBM^"*-^^ LlSnARY OF CONGRESS DOCUMGNTS D^ViSIO ^ CONTENTS Section I — The School as a Whole / Page General explanation 7 General results of tests 9 ^ Significance of test results 12 The classification of pupils tested 13 Boys and girls compared ^ 16 Diagnosis of work in reading 19 Section II — Individual Rooms and Pupils The responsibility of the teacher 25 Plan for reporting results to teachers and pupils... 27 Diagnosing a showing in language : 32 ^Diagnosing a showing in arithmetic 32 -Remedial and constructive work in spelling 38 Grouping of pupils for instruction 39 Tests in the high school 42 Section III — Some Special Phases How elementary pupils spend their time 45 Some characteristics of instruction 50 How teachers spend their time 52 Results of intelligence and scholastic tests compared 53 INTRODUCTION The use of standard tests in the schools has become very common. In many cases, perhaps in the larger number, the work has ended with a mere evaluation of general conditions— a comparison of the showings of the various rooms with the standards. Two possible reasons account for this. First, the procedure to be followed in such analyses has not been determined in any complete way. Second, the amount of detailed work necessary for a complete analysis of the scholastic and intelligence levels of a considerable number of pupils is very great. The present study constitutes an attempt to exemplify in concrete form a procedure that may be used in a more detailed analysis of school conditions than is ordinarily attempted. Since the work has been completed, the imperfections of many of the methods used stand out clearly. It is hoped, however, that others may be encouraged to perfect a procedure that may be far more helpful in the work of our schools. As to the second of these considerations, there is no ques- tion as to the fact that teachers and supervisors are burdened with work. This condition comes, perhaps, from the very commendable conception that the first and all-important duty of teachers is to teach and of supervisors to direct the work of teaching. While this is true, it yet seems rather obvious that a careful and complete diagnosis of the conditions with which a teaching corps is working should be of considerable assistance in the most effective direction of that work. In fact, such a diagnosis would seem to be a first essential. It is true that the amount of work necessary for a study such as that made in the Stoughton schools and reported herein may seem altogether too large for a superintendent and his teach- ers to undertake alone. Such would be the case if the work is regarded as something aside from, and in addition to, the reg- ular work of teaching. However, there is large justification UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN STUDIES for the notion that such work is a legitimate part o£ the work of teaching and may well be substituted for a portion of the work of "hearing classes" or "directing study." The field work and general tabulation were carried on by a class of students in the University of Wisconsin in connection with a course entitled, Surveys and Tests, during the spring of 1920. In the summer following another class completed the detailed analysis of data. Grateful appreciation is hereby expressed to Superintendent C. J. Anderson of the Stoughton schools, now Assistant Su- perintendent of Public Instruction for Wisconsin. The study was made possible only by the active sympathy of Mr. Ander- son and his teachers toward such work and by their enthu- siastic and unstinted assistance. F. L. C. SECTION I THE SCHOOL AS A WHOLE General Explanation The purpose in using standard tests of scholastic attainment in the schools was to reveal the points of strength and of weak- ness in the school as a whole, in single rooms, and in the work of individual pupils. In order to do this at all fully, it seemed necessary to use a rather large number of tests. The follow- ing tests were used in all grades for which they are in- tended : Writing Arithmetic Ayres Woody Speed Addition Quality Subtraction Spelling Multiplication Ayres Division Geography Monroe Hahn-Lackey Diagnostic Tests Reading Clapp Monroe Problems Speed Language Comprehension Trabue Haggerty Completion B. C. Test I Clapp Test II Correct English Thorndike Charters Sentence Verbs Vocabulary Pronouns These tests will not be described, since most of them are well known. Since it seems desirable to make all comparisons with the standard medians^ in. the same terms, the percentage method was used. The following illustrations will make this method clear : * In connection with the Thorndike Visual Vocabulary Test and the Charters Language Tests no standards were available. Consequently these tests were omitted from Table 1, but in determining percentages for individual pupils the median for the room was used in the place of a standard median. 8 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES (a) A certain pupil in a sixth-grade room made a score of 18 (problems solved correctly) on Woody's Multiplication Scale. The standard median for sixth grades in this test is 15. The pupil's score is 120 per cent of the standard median score for his grade. We may say he surpassed the standard by 20 per cent. (b) The sixth-grade room in the West Side School made the records given below, v^ith each of which is given the cor- responding standard median : Test Class Median Standard Median Percentage class median is of standard median Writing Speed Quality Spelling Geography Beading Speed Comprehension . Sentence Arithmetic Addition Subtraction Multiplication . Division Problems Language Completion B Completion C— Correct English- Total 54.1 44.6 91.9 82.3 99.2 21.7 6.08 15.2 13.2 14.8 11.8 70.5 14.6 14.4 70.2 624.58 71 54 79 78 92 21 6.5 16 12 15 10 63.6 12.4 12.4 71.1 76 82 116 112 107 105 93 95 110 98 118 110 117 116 98 609.0 102.3== Percentages for the following were determined by the meth- ods illustrated above: (1) For each pupil in each test; (2) for each room in each test; (3) for each building in each sub- ject; (4) for the entire system in each subject; and (5) for the entire system in all subjects taken together.^ The use made of the percentages for individual pupils is explained on page 28. The other percentages appear in Table 1, page 10. It is to be noted in this table that those percentages ' This is not the average of the percentages above, but is obtained by dividing the sum of the class medians by the sum of the standard medians. ^ In calculating these percentages, use was made of Crelle's Rechentafeln which greatly reduced the amount of labor involved. STANDARD TESTS AS AIDS IN SCHOOL SUPERVISION 9 which indicate results in an entire building or for the system as a whole are not averages of preceding percentages, but each one is built up as explained in "b" above. General Results of Tests A school system even though small is complex, and it is practically impossible for any single individual or group of in- dividuals to secure accurate information concerning its strong and weak points by general inspection. The use of the tests listed above and the determination of percentages as explained made possible the "picture" of conditions in the system which is presented in Table 1. It is obvious from the explanation in "(b)" above that if the class median for a room is equal to the standard median, the percentage in Table 1 would be 100. Consequently, we may say that in those cases where the percentage is less than 100 the work is below average and needs to be given addi- tional attention. The percentages at the extreme right of the table are for the entire system. The one for all subjects, 103, is very gratify- ing to those responsible for the work of the school, since it may be said that as a whole the school is 3 per cent above the aver- age. Noting the percentages for the six subjects, we find the one for writing to be conspicuously low — 86 per cent. Table 1 was reproduced in the form of a large chart with each percentage which was lower than 100 appearing in red. Soon after the opening of school the following year Superin- tendent Anderson displayed the chart to his teachers and to- gether they discussed the weak points of the school as revealed by the tests. Since writing stood out as demanding attention primarily, conferences were held, with the result that early in October the following circular was issued: STOUGHTON PUBLIC SCHOOLS October 7, 1920. Teachers: What shall we do to improve the quality and speed of handwriting of our pupils? 1. We ourselves should learn to use the system we are teaching. 2. We should set higher standards for written work. Writing 10 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES o ° MO < ^ o <; ^ ir^ O o 12; H M h-5 B M 05 g & g p 02 Q Ph H ORRES Each SUBJ '-' ^ ^ H ►-i !^ ^l5 tM :^^^ •-] g Km t M 63 fe ^ H «^g fe g H O „ H to S? o ^ <) fc S E^ < S ^ i ^ s 5^ ^R Entire School 88 ! ! 3 IS S 1 ! 1 ! ! g 1 I ! ! ! 8 ! ! 1 iHlliHlrHrHll'll lllll 1 II 11 i 1 i I 1 ! i ! i i i 11; a >^ ^ ^ 1 1 1 i> 1 1 r- 1 1 1 1 1 (M .1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 S i 1 1 ^ i 1 S i j ! 1 i S i I 1 { j 1 i j 1 n IIIICO II Ii-hO l CO O 1 1 1 1 1 00 1 1 1 1 1 » 1 II g» 1 1 S j'S S ! i 1 I 1 "^ 1 ! j ! J S 1 j j «0 II rHIrHlrHrHrHill rH , ^^ rA la 1 !§S5 S5 lg IS ^ S 1 1 1 g S S §3 S ! 53 S S llrH "^j l'^'"''"'!!! i-lrHrnSl S SS ■<* 109 'ioi 122 112 104 105 121 94 120 123 a IIII-* II It-O iWS KSS ' ' ' • rH rH 1 M illiep II 11 1 1-^1:^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 It ! 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' ! o W u < Eh u 5 r-fC^ 1 1 C>] 100 OOlilll^illll-^ 1 II OoS 1 1 O 1 O rH 1 1 1 1 1 & 1 1 1 1 1 oS ■ II rHilrHlrHrHlllll lllll ■ II CO 1 lOat- OO lO lO 009 1 1 lO^OaOirHC^ 1 rH OW CD 1 llOrH -* ICO ICO OO 1 1 ICOQprHOOO 1 ^ trC* 1 llr-QO ^ li-H ICOCoS 1 1 ICSSrHrnS 1 S SS 1 1 rH 1 rH irH rHrH 1 1 irHrHrHrHrH 1 rH i iss-| i| II a 1 ! 1 i s § 1 g g i g a g 4 ! i^^ § il is 1 § I i i ^ s ^ s ^ i § S ^ i ISSS f; 1 1 |§ 53 1 1 i i s S S Sg I ! g 1 j ■* llllg II ISgS 1 1 IS§S§! I S S ! illl llirHiHrHljIiH rHrHl. rH '~'| eo liiicS II 13 S Icoo lO-W 1 ! 1 S lO "* 1 llllrH II jrHrH jrHrH IrHrH j 1 1 1 rH r^ 1 C-J Illicit II 11 1 li>Oi 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! 1 S ! 1 1 ! I i S S 1 ! I 1 1 1 1 j I I "^ till t II II 1 1 O tr^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 i I I ! ! ! i I ! S g 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! ! II o o a w w s ^ 1 (M «p 1 1 *r ICC lOlll.l^lllll^ 1 II r: o5 1 1 S loi rH 1 1 1 1 1 S 1 1 1 1 1 o 1 1 1 l'~'l '"''ll! I!ll ! It 00 1 ||§ 1 !§ |§ S § , i 1 g 1 § §8 § I ^ S §1 *- 1 ISS S IS: IS § § 1 I ! S § S § S ! S § g I ,r.rH rH I .^ ,H { ! ! -^ ^ , ^ rH to a o All subjects Writing Speed (Ayres") ... Quality (Ayres). Spelling (Ayres)... Geography Hahn-Lackey ... Reading Speed (Monroe). Comprehension Monroe Sentences Thorndike Directions Haggerty Questions Haggerty Arithmetic Addition Woody Subtraction Woody Multiplication Woody Division Woody Problems Clapp Language Completion Trabue— Scale B Completion Trabue— Scale Miscellaneous Clapp STANDARD TESTS AS AIDS IN SCHOOL SUPERVISION 11 functions only as we use it. That means that it functions in arith- metic, spelling, written English, etc. \ Two sets of arithmetic papers written by a second grade class are } now before me. The first set shows an utter lack of standards. Problems are scrawled all over the paper. Some numbers are re- versed. Some pupils started in the upper left hand corner and arrived at the lower right hand corner by working diagonally across the page. Every standard of form has been broken. The second set of papers were written by the same class one day , later. The teacher had given the pupils some very definite instruc- tions regarding the arrangement of their papers. She corrected some faulty letter formations. The result was astonishing. One can scarcely believe that the same pupils have prepared the two sets of papers. The teacher had set a standard and the pupils had risen to the occasion. If you do not set a high standard of form for written work, and require all work to conform to that standard you will get slovenly prepared papers. This has an important bear- ing upon writing, for writing is a form subject. We should supervise as much as possible of the writing done by pupils. Writing is a habit involving manual skill. This habit must be developed in the same manner as any other such habit — through the application of the principles of efficient learning. The forming of such a habit is dependent upon: (A) Correct form, and (B) Proper execution of the movement. A. Correct form involves: 1. Penholding. 2. Position of the arm and hand that does the writing. 3. Position of the other arm and hand. B. Learning to execute the movement is accomplished by the trial and success method. Certain conditions involved in this are under the control of the teacher. 1. There must be many repetitions of the right kind. 2. The pupil must give a high degree of attention to his work. Improvement will not take place otherwise. 3. The right kind of motives should be given the children. They should be conscious of the problem before them. They should know what defects need to be overcome. They should be able to measure the progress they are making by some objective standard. You have been given an "analysis of defects" sheet. Explain this to your pupils. Use it in commenting upon their writing. Show them how to discover their own writing defects, such as letter formation, poor spacing, lack of uniformity in slant and in alignment, etc. 4. A child can very much better imitate the process of perform' ing an act than the result of the act after it has been com- pleted. Therefore it is more valuable for the child to see the teacher writing than it is to see correct form in a copy book. 12 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES This was followed by a rather detailed discussion of certain principles that should determine procedure in teaching pupils to write and the circular closes with the following: The Unit Plan of Penmanship Practice. A. Problem. 1. In every room above the third grade there are at least three dis- tinct groups of writers, — the good, the mediocre, and the poor. 2. The needs of these three are as varied as the needs of a class in reading. 3. Where the teacher adapts her instruction to the needs of any- one class, the others suffer. B, Remedy. 1. Organize according to their needs in writing three groups In every room, — the poor, the mediocre, the good. 2. Form three adjacent class rooms into a writing unit (two or four may be used when necessary). Have all the poor pupils go into one room, all the mediocre into a second room, and the good into the third room. 3. Once each six weeks promote pupils from one group to the other. 4. Promote the best writers of the highest group to the lowest room of the unit and allow them to use the writing period for the study of other subjects or as "helpers" for the elementary group. 5. The writing of the pupils in the exempted group must keep up to a standard or they must return to the writing group again. The Significance of the Percentages in Table 1 The percentage for Reading, 117, is the highest of those for the various subjects in Table 1. This was doubtless due to the fact that special attention had been given to this subject for some time. Miss Elda Merton had been employed for one year as supervisor and had given special attention to reading. Together with Superintendent Anderson she had made care- ful studies of the work of pupils and had suggested to teach- ers many remedial and constructive measures.'* In connection with such percentages as those under discus- sion, it is evident that even though the percentage is equal to or greater than 100, a school is not justified in lessening its attention to the subject. Such percentage means simply that the work in the subject is as good as, or better than, that found in schools in general and obviously may still be improved. It must be remembered in this connection, however, that stand- *For a report of this work see the Elementary School Journal, Vol. 20, 685ff, May, 1920 and 772ff, June, 1920. STANDARD TESTS AS AIDS IN SCHOOL SUPERVISION 13 ard medians are not averages of class medians from various schools, but are the medians of individual pupil-scores from various schools. Consequently, while we may say that the percentage of 117 in Reading, for example, means that the work in this subject is 17 per cent above average, it is very likely true that one would find but few schools, anywhere, with a higher percentage. Until average or mean variations (above and below 100 per cent) have been determined for schools in general, we cannot state the exact significance of the 117 per cent for Reading. In general it seems safe to say that where such percentages approximate 100 the condition is a cause for congratulation, but it still could and should be improved— how much cannot be specified. With this understanding, attention was given to the various subjects in the light of general conditions set forth in Table 1 and according to more detailed conditions as described in the section on "Individual Rooms and Pupils" page 25. Con- ferences were held with the teaching group as a whole and a general policy based upon conditions and underlying principles was emphasized as in the case of writing. The Classification of Pupils Tested The gradation of pupils or their classification into groups of somewhat the same scholastic advancement is one of the diffi- cult problems in any school. In order to determine to what extent pupils in the school were properly classified a careful analysis of the test results was undertaken. In the determination of a method for this study, certain fundamental considerations appeared at once. Among the most important of these were: (1) Relatively few tests were used in the three lower grades ; (2) since a pupil may be graded either too hi^h or too low, both the first and the eighth grade should be omitted; (3) certain subjects are much more significant for classification than are others. These and other considerations prompted the adoption oi the follow- ing rules for the study: 1. Include grades 4, 5, 6 and 7 only. 2. Classify no lower than fourth-grade,— no lower than fifth-grade ■where a test was not used below that grade. 14 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES 8. Compare each pupil's scores with the medians for his building rather than with standard medians. 4. Keep the data for each building separate. 5. Consider Reading, Arithmetic, and Language only. In classifying a pupil he was recognized as being in the proper grade if his score on a test fell between the 75 per- centile for the grade below and the 25 percentile for the grade above.° If a fifth-grade pupil, for instance, made a score be- low the 75 percentile for the fourth grade in his building he was ranked in the fourth grade for that test. In the same way, if he made a score above the 25 percentile for the sixth grade, he was classed as a sixth-grade pupil, etc. Table 2 shows the results of such a classification in a fifth grade of the Central School. The numbers refer to individual pupils, thus enabling their identification. In determining the final classification in a subject the average of all rankings was taken. While this method is open to criticism it seemed as good as any other. It should be added, that in finding the averages, fractions, as a rule, were dropped or counted as one, according to which method would locate the pupil nearer the grade in which he was regularly classified. In Table 2 there are 66 classifications by subjects.'' Of these, 31, or 47 per cent, correspond to the grade in which the pupil is located; 19, or 29 per cent, are lower than this grade; and 16, or 24 per cent, are higher. Of the last group, 8 are one grade higher than the one in which the pupils are found; 6 are classed two grades higher; and 2 are three grades higher. Taking the combined rankings in the three subjects we have showings for 23 pupils. Of these 13, or 57 per cent, are properly classified; 5, or 22 per cent, are classed beyond their ability by one grade ; and 4, or 21 per cent, are classed one or two grades below their real scholastic advancement. Similar tables were prepared for all the rooms containing grades from four to seven, inclusive. While the percentages in some rooms varied greatly from those given above, in gen- eral they corresponded very closely so that it may be said with all confidence that while one-half of the pupils are properly 'See any book on statistics for explanation of these terms, e. g.. King's Elements of Statistics. • No rankings were made where it appeared that the pupil had taken an insufficient number of tests to justify classification. 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An extreme variation from the percentages given above is found in the case of the sixth grade in the West Side School where of 30 pupils 12, or 40 per cent, were properly classi- fied; 14, or 47 per cent, were classified too high, and 4, or 13 per cent, were classified too low. Another point of significance in Table 2 is the consistency of the showings of pupils in the three subjects. Of the 23 pupils 9 are classed in the same grade in all three subjects ; 8 in two subjects; and 6 have a different classification in each subject. Similar showings were found in the other grades. The findings just set forth will be no surprise to those who have made even a cursory study of the scholastic ability of pupils in a single grade. The widely varying abilities of their pupils were well known to the Stoughton superintendent and his teachers and they had been for some time following a pol- icy of promoting pupils by subjects, sending them into a lower grade for special work, and dividing the pupils in a single grade into groups according to their ability. The showing in connection with standard tests throughout the school not only justifies this policy, but would seem to indicate that it might be followed more extensively. Boys and Girls Compared The question of the relative ability of boys and girls often comes up in school work, especially in connection with the problem of interest in different subjects. Although the bear- ing of information concerning this question upon the prac- tical conduct of the school was not obvious, as a matter of in- terest the scores of the girls and of the boys were compared. Obviously, in comparing any two sets of scores many dif- ferent methods may be used and the conclusions drawn would not necessarily be the same in connection with the different methods. In making the comparison between boys and girls, it seemed reasonable to employ a method which would give answers to the following questions: (1) Of the scores made by each sex, what percentage was found to be higher than the integral group in which the median for the room fell? (2) What percentage was below this group? (3) What percentage STANDARD TESTS AS AIDS IN SCHOOL SUPERVISION 17 was found in this group ? (4) Of all the scores made by each sex, what percentage was in the "highest-in-the-room" group ? (5) Of all the scores made by each sex, what percentage was in the "lowest-in-the-room" group? In tabulating the data each test and each room were con- sidered separately. Only the tests in Reading, Arithmetic, and Language were included. The scores above the median in- tegral group which belonged to girls were counted as were those which belonged to boys. The same was done for those below the median group and those in this group. The cases where the highest score in a room was made by a girl were counted and the same for boys. In the same way the lowest scores belonging to each sex were counted. When the scores in each of these ten groups were totaled and percentages found, Table 3 resulted. In all, 5,223 marks are included in this table, of which 2,959 belong to girls and 2,264 to boys. On the whole the advantage is with the girls. In the three subjects taken together 45 per cent of the girls' scores are above the median group, while only 38 per cent of those be- longing to the boys are equally high. Below the mid-group we find only 39 per cent of the girls' scores, but 44 per cent of the boys'. Of all the scores belonging to girls 9 per cent were in the "highest-in-the-room" group, while the corresponding percentage for boys is 6. The "lowest-in-the-room" scores show the same relative ability, where we find 5 per cent of the girls' marks, but 7 per cent of the boys'. The total differences indicated above are due to Language more than to either of the other two subjects. In Arithmetic the boys almost hold their own. Five tests were used in this subject, vis., Woody's scales for each of the processes and Clapp's problem test. It is interesting to note that in the latter test, where reasoning is involved, only 40 per cent of the girls' marks were above the median group as compared with 50 per cent of the boys'. Below the median group were found 43 per cent for the girls as compared with 38 per cent for the boys. >^;^^^^^^^^ ■9aQpw«)™?Bni*' iiHipiiiimiiiimij jmiiiii ii.Mijipi 18 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES ^ B ^1 ,Q 'A S 1 ft a 1— * t3 +J o 0) H ,=) H CM o f^H P c Xfl"* ^.2 Eh 0) ^,pq AM ese S'ex ev3 EEE F tages, by Ea re s cB ^ ILITY Are cores M m ^^•» ;? fl ° ^o H « ^ -^ 9^ fc ^ S q oh^^ O „ a> 1^6 ei-a D OS ^ < m pqcc O COr-* Tj*t>. COU5 > lO 00 1— 1 -*• 2 O l-H W OJ o 1 1 en C^tH MO »o«o 03 05 Th tH I— I T-l as T-< U3 S »o w. >> O 05(M i-n>: Ot^ 0-«:t< 1—1 -!*< OS CO OS >n cO'<3< CO C^ o^ ■^oo T! oooo tooo oco -^ICO Cj CO CO OO l-H 'O s l-H o i-< 1—1 CM l-H 1—1 t-l-H C3 1—1 C^ 1—1 '^l b a> -M .s O -M m Tf< 1—1 1— (OO lO^rtH ooo n T-< -^ as CO ^co looo O OO (M (M 00 2 M a o +j ,Q OS m r-oo C30 ^-# t^io ^ CO -Tt" o--^ t-- lO CO'^ ^ OO ^ CO 5 •S ■M o .9 llW-We|gfrai nr STANDARD TESTS AS AIDS IN SCHOOL SUPERVISION 19 Diagnosis of Work in Reading No particular purpose would be served by reporting in de- tail the results of the reading tests in the various rooms, hence such data are omitted. Very definite efforts were made to analyze the papers of pupils in the various tests so that some basis or bases for remedial or advanced work might be suggested. Although the results were not what the importance of reading in general would demand in the way of diagnosis, they are reported in part, with the hope that the methods used may prompt others to undertake work of this kind which may be more successful. In connection with Monroe's tests an attempt was made to classify the errors made by pupils with the view of ascertaining what types of errors were made most often. It was found that the exercises could be arranged in five groups, and the study was made on that basis. The first thing that suggested itself in looking for types of exercises was that in certain exercises the answer was to be indicated in a particular manner, by underscoring a word or drawing a line around it — all such exercises are included in Group I. Such exercises as the one about the relative weight of oil, milk, and water (No. 1, Test II) require the power to reason and to indicate the conclusion by answering a direct question — these are classified as Group II. There are certain exercises, e. g., No. 1 in Test I, where the correct answer is found in the words of the exercise and is to be indicated by. answering a direct question — these form Group III. The next group is made up of a half dozen exercises, illustrated by No. 11 in Test II in which the pupil is to choose from a suggested list the word that expresses the idea of the exercise. The last group contains the five exercises that involve reasoning and the necessity of indicating the conclusion by choosing be- tween two alternatives as illustrated in No. 9, Test II — "if dry, draw a line under air ; if wet, draw a line under rain." It will readily be seen that Group I overlaps the other four. The five groups are as follows: I. Indicating the answer in a particular manner: Test I. Ex. 11, 12, 13, 15, 16. Test II. Ex. 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14. 20 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES II. Reasoning and indicating conclusion by answering a question : Test I. Ex. 3, 7, 10, 13. Test II. Ex. 1, 4, 5, 7, III. Finding answer in words of the exercise and answering a direct question : Test I. Ex. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 14. Test II. Ex. 2, 3, 6. IV. Choosing from a suggested Hst the word that expresses the idea of the exercise : Test I. Ex. 15. Test II. Ex. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14. V. Reasoning and indicating answer by choosing between two alternatives : Test I. Ex. 11, 12, 16. Test II. Ex. 8, 9. A list of the errors made by all the pupils in the four upper grades and about half of those in grades 3 and 4, 402 pupils in all, was made. The number of pupils who attempted each ex- ercise was recorded also so that the per cent of errors could be calculated. The errors were classified according to the groups described above, and the ratio of the number of errors to the number of attempts was expressed in per cents. The results are given below : TABLE 4 Showing Percentages of Errors Made in Connection with Various Types of Exercises in Monroe's Reading Test. . Per cent of Group Attempts attempts wrong I 1559 4.7 II 1513 10.4 III 1779 11.0 IV 670 14.3 V 639 23.0 The above analysis seems to indicate that after pupils have become accustomed to tests of this kind (as was the case with these pupils), the errors in Group I are negligible. In many STANDARD TESTS AS AIDS IN SCHOOL SUPERVISION 21 cases where this type of error occurred the wrong answer was indicated also. It is doubtless true that abilities required by Groups II and V have much in common, and drill for one will improve the other also. The large percentage of errcis in Group V indi- cates that the pupils need drill in the power of concentration — the power to hold three or more ideas in mind at the same time for the purpose of comparing them. Material for such drill might be found in problems in arithmetic, in texts in hygiene, history, and geography, in rules for playing games, and in instructions for work in manual arts and home eco- nomics. Exercises in expressing the meaning of a whole paragraph in one word, or the thought of a page in a single sentence, would be valuable drill to improve the type of reading ability required by the exercises in Group IV. To be most helpful such a study as this should be made for each room, or, better still, for individual pupils. The papers in Thorndike's Scale Alpha 2, Parts I and II, were analyzed with a view to seeing what kinds of interpreta- tions were most difficult for the pupils. The following classi- fication was made of the exercises : Part I. I. Finding answers in paragraph: Set I. Questions 1, 2, 3. Set II. Questions 1, 2, 3, 4. Set HI. Questions 1, 2, 3, 7. Set IV. Questions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. II. Reasoning: Set III. Questions 5,6. Set IV. Question 7. III. Following directions and observing carefully Set III. Question 4. Part II. I. Finding answer in paragraph: Set IV. Questions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Set V. Questions 1, 2, 3, 7. Set VI. Questions 1, 2, 3. II. Reasoning: Set IV. Question 1. Set V. Question 8. Set VI. Question 4. Set VII. Questions I, 2, 3, 4, 5. 22 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES h III. Following directions and observing carefully: Set V. Question 4. ly. Summarizing the paragra]>3i: Set V. Questions 5, 6, Doubtless, many would not agree with the above classifica- tion. It will be noticed that an exercise is classed as a reason- ing exercise even though it may involve nothing more than the translation of certain words in the paragraph into other words, e. g., Question 1, Set VII, Part 11, No attempt is made to justify the classification, but it was thought to be reasonably fair. The work of pupils in Grades 4, 5, and 6, in connection with Part 1 of the test was analyzed and that of Grades 7 and 8 in connection with Part II. Table 5 shows the results of this analysis: TABLE 5 Showing the Percentages of Ereob in Vabious Types op Exercises in Connection With Thobndike's Reading Scale, Alpha 2. Type of exercise Grades 4, 5, 6 Grades 7 8 Pupils Answers Per cent wrong Pupils Answers Per cent wrong Answer in paragraph Reasoning rollowing directions Summarizing 264 264 264 448.0 792 264 18 28 21 163 163 163 163 1956 1304 163 163 26 60 60 41 Table 5 shows conclusively that the difficult kind of inter- pretation for pupils in the school is that which involves simple reasoning or the drawing of inferences. This is not surpris- ing when it is remembered that practically all of the reading material which is put into the hands of pupils requires simply that they "find the answer in the paragraph," The study above at least raises the question as to whether or not material re- quiring more concentrated attention and more frequent oppor- tunities for tested judgment should not be introduced into the school. There were found in the reading material in the school, and especially that used in a supplementary way, many selections STANDARD TESTS AS AIDS IN SCHOOL SUPERVISION 23 that might be classed as of the "informational-story" type. These are stories which attempt, e. g., to depict the lives of primitive peoples by wrapping up in a story of a boy of primi- tive times, the manners and customs of his time, or to make clear a scientific truth or event by narrating an incident con- cerning some object in nature which was affected by the truth or concerned in the event. As a test of the pupils' ability to interpret material of this sort the following story was paraphrased from a poem and used as material for a test in Grades 6, 7, and 8: A STORY Hundreds and hundreds of years ago, so many, in fact, that none of us can tell how many, somewhere in a valley, there grew a fern, delicate, green, and slender. When the breezes crept down under the trees, they waved the fern gracefully about. Now and then a playful sunbeam darted through the leaves and found the fern; and at night drops of dew stole silently in and made a glistening crown upon its head. There were no children to find the fern for it was so long ago there were no children. Great fishes swam in the sea, and on the plains and in the forests there were animals of wondrous shapes and enormous size. Even the trees grew larger than man has ever seen. The little fern, however, grew in its own sweet way, spread its leaves, and became more beautiful every day. Suddenly one day the earth heaved up mighty rocks and threw them all about. The ocean broke loose and flowed over the land. It drowned the animals and tore up the great trees. The little fern was buried deep in the moist clay. Many centuries passed by and the soft clay that clasped the fern hardened into stone. Then one day a thoughtful man who studied nature's secrets wandered into a valley. He studied the flowers; he listened to the birds; he watched the fishes at their play. As he walked, he saw, lying in his path, a queer little rock. When he looked more closely he saw upon the rock a strange design as if some fairy had traced with magic pencil the picture of the little fern. Is it not wonderful that a thing so delicate as the fern could be kept so that after thousands of years man could find it and under- stand its history? If one looks closely he may often find "pictures" of plants on stone as this man did. The following questions were asked in written form: 1. What title would you suggest for the story? 2. What question do you think the story is intended to answer ? 24 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES 3. What part could be omitted and still leave the meaning clear ? The guiding purpose in selecting the questions above was to ascertain whether or not the pupils in any way grasped the idea that the story was intended to tell them how fossils are formed. In determining the number of correct interpretations credit was given in connection with any one or more of the questions, just so there was any evidence anywhere of an un- derstanding of the story. A pupil may have written for No. 1, "How fossils are formed," and omitted the other two; or he may have omitted No. 1 and in connection with No. 2, said "How do pictures get on stone?" Any one of such answers gave him full credit for a correct interpretation. The following percentages indicate the correct interpreta- tions for the three grades : Grade 6, 2 per cent ; Grade 7, 14 per cent; and Grade 8, 13 per cent. These percentages are extremely low. The writer would not suggest any final conclusion from this simple test, but he would suggest that some very careful attention be given to the interpretations placed by pupils upon such material. If its correct understanding is impossible when the pupil works alone, it would seem that such stories should be studied in class or supplanted by other material. SECTION II INDIVIDUAL ROOMS AND PUPILS The Responsibility of the Teacher One of the common objections to standard tests on the part of teachers is that they are not a full measure of their work and yet are liable to be so interpreted. Without any doubt the responsibility of a teacher for the showing made by her class on a test has been overrated in many instances. Information such as that presented in Table 1 has been interpreted as being a direct comparison of the efficiency of teachers. Even momentary consideration would seem to force the conclusion that such an interpretation cannot be put upon the table. The education of a pupil in a public school is a matter of cooperative and cumulative effort. What a fifth-grade pupil, e. g., knows or does not know is not chargeable to the account of his fifth-grade teacher, but in large part to the joint account of this teacher and those that have taught the pupil in preceding grades. In the first grade there is the difficulty of devising tests that constitute any adequate measure of the work of teachers since the methods used vary so widely. For example, one teacher emphasizes methods that arouse interest in subject matter in reading, while another emphasizes word drill, and still another the correct interpretation of subject matter. All of these methods have the same ultimate purpose, but the ability of pupils in two rooms as measured by a single test at the end of the year may vary widely while the same two groups at the end of the second or third year may be practical- ly equal. A conspicuous example of wide variation in first grades is found in Table 1 in the case of the Haggerty tests for reading. The statements in the preceding paragraph are not intended to absolve the teacher from all responsibility for the showings of her pupils. She is one of the factors that has produced the showing and as such should feel her due share of concern. Presumably, standard tests constitute a measure of the abil- 26 UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN STUDIES ity of a school in connection with the fundamentals of the va- rious subjects. Without any question, one duty of the school is to develop such ability on the part of each pupil. It is not ] possible, or desirable, to develop this ability to exactly the ', same degree in the case of each pupil, but a school should be reasonably sure when its pupils leave the eighth grade that they are fairly familiar with the essential elements of the va- rious subjects. The ability of a school to do this is dependent upon many elements, e. g., previous work of its pupils in schools from which they have been transferred, regularity of attendance, the choice of methods of instruction and textbooks, and the native ability of pupils. Each of these factors and many other minor ones play parts in creating conditions such as those set forth in the section on the classification of pupils, particularly in Table 2. For various reasons a pupil cannot always be placed in the room or grade in which the work as a whole best suits his individual scholastic needs. So far as concerns the essentials of a subject one pupil in a sixth-grade room, e. g., may need the work ordinarily given in the fourth grade, while another pupil may easily take up the work of the seventh grade. Not only is this true, but it often happens that in connection with the essentials of a subject one room, as a whole, will exceed another of a higher grade. All this means that a teacher has before her the task of not simply following the outline of work for her grade, but of ascertaining where her room as a whole and where each indi- vidual pupil stands in the line of progress towards the mas- tery of the fundamentals in the various subjects. Obviously, then, it is not sufficient that those responsible for the school know simply how the school as a whole stands in the various subjects, but they should know also how each room and each pupil stands. The more detailed this information the more effective may be the work of each teacher, and conse- quently, of the school as a whole in conducting remedial as well as advanced work. STANDARD TESTS AS AIDS IN SCHOOL SUPERVISION 27 Plan for Reporting Results to Teachers and Pupils In order to set forth as fully as possible such information as the above, a detailed analysis of the work in the different rooms and of that of individual pupils was undertaken. The meth- ods used in this analysis and typical results are presented next. In the beginning of the survey each pupil in a room was given a number which he retained throughout the entire work.'^ As the tests were completed and the papers scored the results in each room were presented as in Table 6. In this table the numbers on the base line indicated values or scores and the numbers above refer to individual pupils, e. g., pupils No. 15 and 16 each made a score of 44. TABLE 6 Showing How the Restji-ts of Tests Were Reported to Teachers. (Sixth Grade West Side School.) Numbers on the Base Line Indicate Scores and Those Above Indicate Individual Pupils. Arithmetic — Clapp's Test Standard median 63.6 Class median 70.5 38 23 34 19 4 30 17 7 1 18 20 6 3 24 32 22 8 5 14 9 16 21 2 15 26 10 11 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 100 The results of all the tests used in a room were arranged as indicated above on a single large sheet of cardboard and be- came the property of the teacher after being explained to the pupils by her. On this card the standing of any pupil in a number of tests (18 in the case of sixth-grade pupils) could easily be found and the showings of the class compared with the standard medians. One of the many difficulties in connection with the super- vision of schools is for the supervisor to secure, or if once secured, to retain in convenient form adequate records of the work of individual pupils. Yet the progress which pupils make under a teacher's instruction is the one and only test of that teacher's instructional skill, and if the supervisor is to be the judge of the teacher's success it would seem that complete records of each pupil's progress should be available. ^ Girls were griven even numbers and boys odd. ■ 28 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES After all, however, the mere evaluation of a teacher's work by a supervisor is of relatively small consequence when com- pared with the help which may be extended to the teacher when both the supervisor and teacher have in mind a scholastic "picture" of each child in the room. Since so many objective tests were being used in the survey, it seemed that advantage should be taken of the opportunity to prepare simple records for individual pupils which could be filed for ready reference by teachers and supervisor. In choosing terms and devising a form for such records the following considerations appeared : ( 1 ) The record should be graphic and yet fairly definite; (2) the measures of the pupil's work should be expressed in common terms — common for all pupils and for all subjects; (3) the form should afford room for records during the following years. The above and other minor considerations gave rise to the form on the opposite page, which has been filled out for a seventh-grade pupil. The common standard to which all records of a pupil are referred in using the above form is the standard median for his grade in the various tests. This median is represented by the heavy black line passing horizontally through the middle of the lower part of the card and which is marked "ICX)" at the left. A record on any test is expressed by locating a small circle above or below this line according as the record is more or less than 100 per cent of the standard for the pupil's grade. Finally these circles are all connected by a continuous line which enables a ready comparison with the standard line. The form on page 29 contains the actual record of a seventh-grade pupil and is to be interpreted as follows. The pupil's age is 105 per cent of the normal age for his grade. In speed of writing he exceeded the standard for his grade by almost 20 per cent. In quality of writing his score was less than 90 per cent of the standard score for his grade, etc. Records for the following year may be entered in red ink or the circles connected by a broken line. During this year the pupil will be in a higher grade and, of course, is expected to reach higher standards, but these standards would still be represented by the same 100 per cent line. 1 « «i t3 ^? J c CO snoaoBiraosiw V 6E eg 3 bO c a ^^ >• >> u snnoaojj r 13 ^ u- >l anqBJX aopaidmoo k ^^ 80JUOJ^ Aia-siBOTioaa s <5 ■^^^i 5* " c aojQojv •inK-sfBimoaa < '^ Jd •AlQ-'OBJ^ ^ ^ ■^ 80JOOH ■inw-"OBJii f 0"^ o i4= 90.1 aoj^ ■qns '-pPV-obJlI i, o sojnoH— Aid ,^ )* ^ 80JU0W— qns < s"^ T3 1^ 1 aoaaoK— PPV > *•* O iCpOO^— ATQ < .5 iCpooM— 'inw y -a ipooAV- qns > i£pooA\- PPV i **1»^. ddBio sca9iqoi<3 ^*< > 03 Ml aijipuaoqx iJjBinqBOOA 6D" V 4C r^ 01 1C5 sUTpaJoq.L saonsanas p» ^ aojooj^ uoisnaqajdmoo V ■? aoaaoK naads < saoiisanO N V S o AijaajiBH snoiioajia AanoBq-uquH ^qdBJ3o3f) S o c o < r 8 hi Saniads k V — ►* iillBnt) >l a. a paads 3anuM -iC -^' apBJQ— 83v V aonaaiiiaini , ^» u tn 1; < 1 1 ^ ! 5 C a r- 5 C 1 C ; s 1 ^ g ^ ^ 2 ^ 3 C 3 »/ in K tn O bO ^ 05 .'S «-• CO C <-i cup 30 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES EH li hJ m o "^ o^ w s ^ ^« -< P3 O og < H fa H OH M P4 III is o So o o o o o !>• o- 1^ >— 1 1— ' T-H 1— < rH 1— 1 1— * 1— 1 in m lo lo ic »o lo c^ o oi o o OS oi 05 oi oo 00 00 00 oo 00 <» oo tH T-l T-l 1— 1 1— 1 CO CO j j j j j j j i j I > 1 1 1 j j > 1 1 j 1 j j f> rH CO O CO j j j 1 1 1 j j > 1 j 1 > j 1 > > j 1 p> j [ 1 j j j 1 1 1 1 > j 1 I I 1 j I > ! I 1 1 >=* ! 1 ! 1 oo 1 1 1 ! I 1 1 1 I 1 I 1 1 1 ^ 1 1 ! 1 1 1 i ! 1 j j j j 1 } [ 1 1 1 j j j ;> 1 1 j p* 1 j j j j j CM 1 1 1 1 ! ! i 1 1 ! 1 1 1 ! 1 ! ! 1 1 ! I f* ^ ! 1 lO 1 1 ! ; ! 1 ; 1 1 1 ! 1 1 ! ! ; 1 i i i i 1 1 ! 1 0,1 1 I ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 I 11^ CO 1 1 1 1 ! ! ! 1 1^ 1- i 1 ! 1 ! 1 I ! ! 1 1 ! ! 1—1 j 1 1 j 1 [ j j 1 1 1 t> j 1 1 I ! 1 I 1 1 > > 1 § s j 1 j j j 1 i [ !> ] 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 j 1 ! f^ ss 1—1 ,|iiii|i|||iijj f»>.p>;>f>>(>K^, CO 1—1 j||j]]j|||]j!>|j > \>>>>>> \ ! ! ! I ! 1 I 1 1 ! ! I I ! ! ! I ^ 1 ! ! ! 1 ^^ s 1 ! ! ! 1 1 1 1 ! 1 ! 1 1 I 1 ! ! 1 ^ ! 1 1 1 I CO 1—1 \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \> > \> lll'^III!^ CM j]]]jj|?>]|j[|f>[ lli^^l^!!^ 1-H i-H j j j 1 j j 1 j j j j j 1 1 1 ! I I j 1 ^ 1 1 *, s j[jjj|j||k|j||| \ \ \ \> >^ > \ o. j 1 j j j j I j 1 [ ] t> 1 1 I ! 1 1 I 1 I 1 1 1 00 ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 "^ I I I ! I ! 1 c» } j 1 ] 1 > j ] ] ] j 1 j 1 1 1 ^ 1 ! 1 1 1 ! I CD m i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! 1 ! 1 ! 1 1 1 1 ^ 1 ! I I ! ! ^ j [ j j 1 j ] j [ p> 1 1 1 > [ 1 ! 1 1 I I 1 1 I CO CM 1 j j 1 ] j j ] { p> t> j j 1 [ 1 1 ! I ! 1 1 1 ! tH ' i ' ! ' 1 i ! 1 ! 1 J ! i i -^ ! i ! I i ! 1 ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Q 1 1 1 -r^ 1 1 1 C^ ' * ' ' ' |i^ ■ ' i ! '"S ! '1 1 ! !^ 1 i^i 1 ! i i 1 liii iSiiliillilfirrSpi •s-s -s-s >.-s. '^fl^^9sSa)aS«.S-r;o^S«3«a 'standard tests AS AIDS IN SCHOOL SUPERVISION 31 S SJ2j2s:^f2gg5 gggsgig^^^^^ ^^^^ss ^§ ;2;«« ^ ' ! ! ! ! 1 1 f* 1 ! ! ! ^ ^ 1 1 '*' 1 ^ ! '^^ ^ 1 ^ 1 1 ^ > t> > ! >* J !' ! > ! ! 1 ! f* ^ ! I ^ 1 1 1 ^ 1 >>>'>> > \ f >> , ijif>ijjp»t> j{>t>t>f>kl>t>| |!=*!|f*f* >> >> \ 1 > 1 p> i> \i> |f> j|p.j}p>f>f>>t> t>f>t>j>f> t>f> >>t> itiijjjjjj >f>f>>f>ijjt>| !|j!^f=* I^ o>!> > llllllll! I^llllllllf^lllll'^^^^'" 1 5>l!!!!^!l > \> \> \ \ \ \> > > > \> > \^ > > > j 1 j 1 P> J> \ 1^ ■'^ \ \ ] \ \ \^ \ \ ll^llf^ ^^ ^ \^ 1 ! llllllll ll^l^lllll \>>f'\> 11 >>> I ^i"l~l~l"l II II t>llj>lf*|>f>f>t> ]>>;>>> >> >P>K> i II II 1 1 1 lt>..lt>p."| 1 1 P> f> 1 j t> 1 P> > > p* t> > P» > t> P> j > ;> >- > t> O p»if>iii>.ji j. ij>i>>>t>> f»>t>j>> > > > > > j - j p. >. j f>~ j 1 f> I ' 1 I f> I > ] 1 > t> > p> f> [> E» p> f> > > > > f> > !!!!>!f*|| jij>jk>>>> t>!>;s.>>j t>> j>t> > p>j>'ji>ljf>j |f*>-!l!J!^I >>>>■>> > > > > > j (>jjjj;>t>jf> j>f>ji>jjif>> i>t>[f>> >f> >>> i iif>ip»p>jf>i f>|>i>j>p.f>^p» >^>}f>;s- > > > > > > i>>.i>f>iii jij>t>f>f>>t>> f>pi.t>>p>> >>■ >P»t> , j^joijjoo j>t>jjf>|if>|> |jjf>j> j!> >>> 1 1 1 ! ! ! !f^ ! ! >^> \ \> \ \ \ \ 1 I 1^ 1^ II 1*^^ -, iii^jt^i'ij'f^lll^^ll^^ f* If* 1^1 ^ ^ > >> p. ip>j>.jjf>>p> f>p>p.t>>(>t>f>>t> >t>jf>j> >> > \> 1 ij>[i>ii>i f>j>>jt>t>>|> l^lt^l** !^ > > > 1 >|>||P'||| jp»p>t>jf>kkf=>t> > f^ > > > \ > > > i^ > ! |o.| ! 1 1 1 1 1 If* I I 1 1 1^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1^ ^^ ^^"^ 1 llllllll! lllf*I!f*^f*! If^ll^f^ ^^ ^^^ > I \ \ \ \>> [> l>llllf*|lf* t>lkP>f>f> of^ |>f* 1 !>lllll|f*l f*f*!|f*!I!l! Illlf^f* f^l ^^^ 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 I I 1 III |f*f"^ I I 1 > I 1 l^f^ 1^ 1^^ , ,ijj^>|jf> f>jiji>if>i|> t>jf>jt>j >> >>>' 1 lf>ill|f*ll 11 ^11!!!!^ >jt>>i>p> ;>f> f>F>^ 1 if>i>iif>i!> j;>i>f>>>p>?»j |>>>|>|>t> t>l ;>f>P> 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 I |f* 1 I I 1^^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 !> If* f* I ^'^ 1 "saw" as past of see "who" or "that" as subject-rela- tive pronoun "did" as past of do , "have" indicating obligation Question mark after question - "were" as subjunctive "lie" to recline "eaten" as perfect of eat Comma between words of a series__ "were" as past with "you" in ques- tion "ly" as adverbial ending "knew" as past of know Quotation marks before quotation. "sit" to rest Period after abbreviation Comma before a quotation Quotation marks ending quotation- Apostrophe in ellipsis "could" with hardly "he" as subject instead of "him" when verb is omitted Capital beginning quotation "used" instead of "use" or "ust" Sequence of tense "me" as object pronoun ^Apostrophe before "s" when plural does not end in "s" Omission of "got" with have Apostrophe for possession when plural ends in "s" 7 "Your" modifying gerund \ 32 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES Such cards were filled out for each pupil from Grade 1 to 8, inclusive. Method of Diagnosing a Language Showing After knowing how her room compares with the standard and what the score of each pupil is a teacher can more eflfec- tively adapt her instruction to the needs of a class if she knows the points on which the class as a whole and each individual pupil are weak. To afford this information the points in each test were listed and the success or failure of each pupil in connection with each point indicated. This phase of the" work is illustrated in Table 7, which concerns the pupils in the sixth grade of the West Side School and has to do with Clapp's test for Correct English. Numbers at the top indicate individual pupils and the checks indicate errors or omissions. In Table 7 the tabulation has been rearranged from the original in order to show the percentages of success on the various points for the class as a whole in decreasing order. It is to be noted that these percentages vary from 100 for live of the points in the test to 8 for two of them. Just where in the list the teacher should begin drill for the entire class is perhaps a matter for her to decide. Since this test is intended as a measure of language habits rather than of language knowl- edge, it was suggested that it would perhaps not be a mistake for the teacher to drill the class on all points where the per- centage was less than 75. Above this point drill could be in- dividual and its character determined according to the errors made by each pupil. Early in the beginning of the next year these tabulations from all the rooms together with the other language work of pupils in connection with the survey were used in outlining the work in language. Diagnosing a Showing in Arithmetic In analyzing the work in Arithmetic, attention was given to Woody's Arithmetic Scales and Clapp's Upper Grade Arith- metic — a problem test. Monroe's Diagnostic Tests were used in the survey, but their tabulation and analysis proved to be too laborious for use in connection with the entire school. STANDARD TESTS AS AIDS IN SCHOOL SUPERVISION 33 In presenting this feature of the work a single fifth grade only will be used to represent the plan in general. This will be followed by a description of a special use of the results from all sixth and seventh-grade pupils. Tables 8 and 9 show the method of tabulation employed. The problems are given in order to make clear the basis for the suggestions which follow the tables. Since the methods used in connection with each of the Woody scales, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, were the same, only the material relating to one of these, addition, will be given. The scale is reproduced below : Series B ADDITION SCALE By Clifford Woody Date City County School Name When is your next birthday? . How old will you be Are you a boy or girl? In what grade are you? Teacher's name (1) 2 3 (2) 2 4 3 (3) 17 2 (5) 72 26 (7) 3 + 1 = (10) 21 33 35 (13) 23 25 16 (14) 25 + 42 = ( :i6) 9 24 12 15 19 (10) $ .75 1.25 .49 (20) $12.50 16.75 15.75 (21) $8.00 5.75 2.33 4.16 .94 6.32 (22) 547 197 685 678 456 393 525 240 152 (23) % + ^i^ ■ (24) 4.0125 L5907 4.10 8.673 (30) 2% 6% 3% T 34 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES (33) (36) .49 2 yr. 5 mo. .28 3 yr. 6 mo. .63 4 yr. 9 mo. .95 5 yr. 2 mo. 1.69 6 yr. 7 mo. .22 .33 .36 1.01 .56 .88 .75 .56 1.10 .18 .56 (38) 25.091+100.4+25+98.28+19.3614 = In determining the suggestions for the various classes in connection with the tests, only those problems were considered which might reasonably be considered to be within the ability of the class as indicated approximately by the class median. For example, in connection with the addition test, only the first sixteen problems were considered, the median number cor- rectly solved by the class being 13.8. On the basis of the show- ings in Table 8 the following suggestions were made for the work of the coming year: 1. Special types of problems upon which the class as a whole needs drill. a. Long-column problems — nine or more digits to the column and two or three columns. b. Problems in decimals where the addends are to be ar- ranged. c. Problems involving U. S. money. d. Problems involving fractions with denominators of dif- ferent value. 2. New work. a. A continuation of the types of problems indicated above, but with the individual problems more difficult. b. Problems involving mixed numbers with denominators of different value. c. Problems involving integers and decimals. STANDARD TESTS AS AIDS IN SCHOOL SUPERVISION 35 H c3 00 ^ Kl !=1 ^ II o coe':i050u50t>-iO(Meoeo«Deoeo t> (> f> f> > > t> > > p- CO to !>>>>>> 1 p> > > I ?>>>>>>> > CO SI > > > > > 1 I f> I > > j > I > \ t> > t> > > > o o eo ! I > 1 ! 1 I ! ! I I ! f> ! I I 1 > 1 ! I 1 j j p- > lO ^ 1 1 1 1 II II 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 >l>i>.>!>!l>I!p>p>!>jJ!>!i[!jj o ?5 I ! > f> 1 ?► I 1 I I j j >■ j i> 1 j j > 1 1 j 1 j 1 j II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t«. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 — < ■i-H 1 > > > I 1 1 1 > 1 j 1 j j j j j j j j j j j > >• > t* o (M > I f> t> I [ I I 1 > 1 1 j 1 I 1 1 j 1 1 j f> 1 j 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 W3 OS T-l 1 > I I 1 j j j 1 } 1 j j j j j j 1 j 1 j [ j i i i tH CD T-H f> I I > 1 > I 1 p- 1> 1 1 1 1 ! 1 > 1 1 j j >• 1 1 j j t^ ^ I 1 1 1 1 ;> ! I 1 j t> j j j > j I I 1 > I I 1 1 j 1 ■* «o 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1^ 1 1 1 j 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 I I 1 1 I 1 I tH o _____ V ^ 1 1 t> j j t> 1 1 1 1 f> j 1 1 !> 1 1 j j j 1 i j j { 1 ■>* lO ; 1 ; 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 ! ! 1 p> 1 1 1 j 1 1 1 1 1 j 1—1 0^ o OI > o tH 1 ! > j 1 1 1 1 1 !> 1 i j j 1 i ' CO ( ^1 M 3^co^oT>iot^a.;^f;^o^SMo^^ogooo^^o,o 33 1 QJ 1 S I O en •( u ,'36 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES CLAPP'S TEST FOR UPPER GRADE ARITHMETIC 1. Mr. Rook had 43 hogs and bought 24 more. How many had he then? 2. A cook buys 57 pounds of potatoes and uses 34 pounds. How many are left? 3. John has 18 cents. How many flags can he buy at 2 cents each? 4. Robert had 8 stamps on each of 6 pages. How many stamps did he have in all? 5. One platoon of soldiers had 16 men; another had 32 men; and a third had 48. How many men were there in all? 6. Out of a company of soldiers with 95 men, 27 were sick. How many were left for duty? 7. A boy delivered 36 papers each day. How many papers would he deliver in 24 days? 8. A man paid $602 for 86 sheep. How much was that for each sheep? 9. William had 13 rabbits. After he sold 4 and bought 7 more, how many did he have? 10. If 5 sacks of sugar cost $40, how much will 7 sacks cost? 11. Nellie had 10 pieces of candy. She ate one-half of them, and gave three pieces to Susie. How many pieces had she left? 12. One book weighs 5*/^ pounds and another one 6% pounds. How much do they both weigh? 13. A girl picked 6% gallons of berries one day, '2i^ gallons the next, S% gallons the next. How many gallons did she pick alto- gether? 14. A piece of goods contains 8y^ yards. If 5% yards are cut off for a dress, how many are left? 15. How much will 3% tons of coal cost at $9 per ton? 16. A tank contains 15.5 gallons of gasoline. If 7.25 gallons are drawn out, how many are left? 17. If I can walk 3.5 miles in one hour, how far can I walk in 4.3 hours ? 18. If it takes 5.3 ounces of silver to make one medal, how many medals can be made from 21.2 ounces? 19. A man had $2,800. He spent one-half of his money for a house and one-fourth of what was left for a horse. How many dollars had he left? 20. A yard is 42 feet long and 38 feet wide. How many square feet are there in it? 21. If I buy a house for $4,800 and gain 20 per cent when I sell it, how many dollars do I gain? 22. A lot is 126 feet long and 63 feet wide. How much will it cost to put a fence around it at 40 cents per yard? 23. What will be the interest on $4,200 for 6 years at 5 per cent? 24. If I buy a cow for $63 and sell her for $84, what per cent do I gain? 25. A man sells 18 cattle averaging 1,000 pounds in weight at $9.50 per hundred pounds. How much does he receive for them? STANDARD TESTS AS AIDS IN SCHOOL SUPERVISION 37 •^ o O^U3 0C|100i-lTj.co-^rH10t^COOJ»Ort •^'^S XX \xXX>i \>i XX xxxxx X « Ob-O X l-HrH 2 «« xxxx X 1 ^ xxxxxxxxxx MX j '^s^ 00 X> xxxx>x H \xxx \xxx> 1 XX 1 "S"» XX xxx>xx\>x>xxxxxxx>xxxxxx '*S'=^ 5S 1 « j xxx>>xxx \> \xx> \>xx>> 1 \x j ^^^ 14 15 j >\^\>\ \x>x>> ! ^ 1)11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 s 1 j X ! ! ! ! i ! i i i« ! ! !> i i i "'^° 3 1 I j 1 l> l> 1 jx I 1 j I I j j ^^"^^ T-l X X lllltlll 1 1 1 1 ^co^ 1 1 I 1 1 1 I |X .M |« |H 1 o XXXXXXXX]XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX\ ®c5*=' OS 1 ^ I 1 1 X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 xx> j X > Ix 1 j «^«« 00 > >x>> I i- XX X > 1 X X .H> j ^^'^ t^ X X > 1 K 1 1 I '^ i \x j 1 ^uso «o > > > 1 > > j 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 lOOO »o 1 j > j X j 1 1-Hi-HO 1 1 Tj* X i ! ' « X i ^ ! j O'^O CO X X 1 > \y- i > X i ^ I I.I.I -rftUiO ffa X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 o>-io 1—1 > 1 1 1 I > i^ l« ! ! > I 1 1 i- .2 ill R O o « '-1 .5 o 02 g S -U « CO "-M o O P.^^ u 38 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES / The following suggestions for the class were offered : / (1) Careful attention should be given to the processes in- volved in those problems missed, although the right method was used. This seems to be a matter of attention to individual / pupils, since these errors are scattered throughout the test. / (2) Concrete problems can hardly be classified by types, but I it is suggested that problems involving the same kinds of con- V ditions as those in problems frequently misinterpreted be given to the class repeatedly for the purpose of interpretation espe- cially. Such problems as No. 10 need special emphasis. (3) Problems should be stated in dififerent ways. Clapp's test lends itself more readily to diagnosis in the_ grades above the fifth. I Attention was called to the following pupils and the kind of \ work in which they were weak indicated : '^i No. 5 — written problems. No. 3 — subtraction. No. 25 — addition. No. 27 — all the processes and written problems. ' ■ No. 19 — addition and multiplication. \ No. 18 — written problems. No. 13 — all the processes and written problems. No. 21 — written problems. No. 30 — subtraction. No. 10 — division. Remedial and Constructive Work in Spelling In Spelling, the showing in Table 1 was made in connection with twenty-five words from the Ayres list. As a part of the survey and as a basis for remedial and constructive work in this subject the entire 1,000 words were pronounced in each room containing grades above the second and records were kept of the work of each pupil. As a working device in this connection a book for each room was prepared as follows. The 1,000 words were mimeo- graphed in columns of 50 words each. These columns were then separated and pasted singly at the left of blank sheets of paper 11x17 inches. A single book was then made up by tak-j ing twenty of these sheets with the words arranged in order of difficulty. Pupils in each room then ruled the sheets in both STANDARD TESTS AS AIDS IN SCHOOL SUPERVISION 39 directions and wrote in the name of each pupil at the top. The words were pronounced at the rate of 100 per day. Each pupil corrected his own work by checking the words missed and these checks were then transferred to the book either by pupils or by the teacher. These books were to serve as the text in Spelling the next year. The plan is for each pupil to learn thoroughly the words he missed which are below the 100 per cent standard for his grade. The teacher then takes the next column of words (on the scale, not in the book) and the class studies these words until the median for the class is equal to the standard, after which the work is individual and limited to those pupils who are not yet up. At frequent intervals all of the words preceding the point at which the class is working are reviewed in order to be sure that their correct spelling has become a matter of habit. Grouping of Pupils for Instruction Since the pupils from all the sixth grades are gathered into the seventh grade of the Junior High School and divided into groups according to scholastic ability, a study was made of the scores of these pupils in each arithmetic test and a certain grouping suggested. The same was done for the pupils in the seventh grade. Table 10 shows the number in each of these groups together with group medians and standard scores. Scores for the lower grades arc added for purposes of com- parison. The pupils in each of the four groups for Grades 7 and 8 were reported and it was suggested that classification for the work of the following year be made on this basis if possible. One of the problems which arise in any high school is the proper introduction of freshman students. Many pupils dur- ing their first year find themselves misunderstood scholastical- ly and unable to do the work which is expected of them. In order to protect the weak pupils in the ninth grade as far as possible during the coming year the following criterion was applied to the scores of the eighth-grade pupils in the various tests : How many scores of each pupil fell in the lower two- thirds of the first, or lower, quartile for the class? It was thought that those pupils whose scores fell in this group any considerable number of times in proportion to the total num- ber of tests should receive special attention. 40 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES ^ m < t5 . < E5 ^ 3 CO Q 5 « ^« o o b fa o w o^ M O S| EC fn K W ^ w OQ -a o o s 02 P. o a O T3 a OS C3 a 03 c3 T3 a 03 -M O e3 13 a DC cocsc^i-Hoodeoc^T-ios xot^oooocoe^coco t^THUTllOlOlrtt— t>»t^l>> « ««««a2c»cccc . ai a> iJ o ICC OQ CO (72 ^ tj-f^-M-M+J-M S Ol QJ OJ ^ orS.I-!.!-! .«.!-! .iX>t^eCO>OOOiXlOOW3t^iOOS05W3So>OCOmi=Jo •aniOO ^,~- 1>» CO eo b- iot>-t^eo OOOOSOtN. 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