Ff ^f •H THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND F 9 .E48 Copy 1 BY PHILIP EMERSON PRINCIPAL CENTRAL JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL LYNN 0tw pprfe THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1922 Ail rights reserved Copyright, igzi, hy The Macmillan Company ^^'• . _„ '6 «Solon ".""""MTA^ d SKowhegan j ton Snaron\ '-''^''^V>- "feiii > ' iyermo? ■ 't Xc^Pefth ■M I . [ Sherman MillsN itaceyviHe ^ D%)rjJ :°Ben9dicta^ .. ../'■ .^ffSrindstone I .agrsfigeoK W.Paris^ ^mujM'4J4t Norway?>*^7g y ^■' Bfo ifield „ „, , LiseGn- e^ Gifiucestef l \FaHs. P-^V cW.PbwRal B'ldgtoft^nioffo/ C U(M B(E R L '^ /"■ ^K Wenants A,.Ge(l;ani_VJrn/fi.4il ° j IT . •■■. "(Jo, i"'""" wKtbXS^^ °^rtlitnd \ \ ^ yv 7**,S. Portland fo/Oo C EL>I*B y er" ^■J. Berwick , qOgunquil /Berwick) wt»T£»" "6*0 APPROXIMATE POPULATION OF CITIES AND TOWNS 3 Over 50.000 (S) 25,000 to 50.000 © 10.000 to 23.000 @ 5.000 to 10.000 (D 2.500 to 5.000 Q 1.000 to 2.500 O Under 1.[^ ^VWestmbjLg. ■toi etvidere ^-Ss. V ^Albany CenJ-,1^ J ^r / ^ loverf/.-v4 ^^ V. - jLeminglon^ :olumbia i.Colgmtia «' ?( m Cfattsbi isBoro nsDcro O ;end ■v ) ^ lw\ck Lyndoi Shjnhnsl , / w JVunswick 7, ^Dumfner- Lakesid (jEasllHaVeilJ;'' I. ^i Percy ...GuildhjIlJKarn'e'O" W.Hilj[l' rfTrnsblrs S Weybri^. ■ ' ^ ■ '^ Middleburv /WASHI-NOTONj. I \G,oior, rpJJ t J GrWiteville ^top: r l^<;vp Lisbon Profile Houseo l^orthumberlandV yEHBACE MTK. ^* ;olfs J> Js"e'Son\Js— / Jr «.".. I. ■Chatham, -Jackson N em bury o] S\Newbjr>-_-,, ..„ , Corinth- K. JfctmerhlU N.Woodstock \ f Livfifm \y ft- i Sart'elt X,^.C J jBridMrt J ,E M^ddlebuW oGranvl^e^/ Cornwall . SalisbJry Sta.joj '"^vZ^ABraintfeeO R A^ N G^E Bfadfofd=^oP'ef'^''P' I ^W "Oj- n J .. ■ /Chelsea S. ^' " J^\;^Rando,pV / \ „ / > ■ -n /L.. r--^ i N Th^tfo/d, llflofd rOrfcfdville ■•OiJBJmioo T. \ oBenso'n^ Pittsfcrd^ 8^.^J PtocVl « ■■A.,., Fgr R U T L A iltney^ MiddleftwnSpi^ W^i'tngiOt ,JlS( CotAerVmL, S.VValTin^gford f oLyme ' N.Dorcheste lOOBiLOv Wentworth W. Campion^ I'.Rumney \ „^ Conway ^ R R ( Chlttende/>»-^ oOcrchester ^Ch^ende>»-^ Pomlret J P,=oPK ■', 7 O i^-.unJ',/ Woodstock White. TaftsvilleV rHanover Plymouth ^ 7 Ashland\s E Lebano? ,ebai Hartlind-^.^Cn^,„,^ !^ Vp ^=5 Hart(andoJ^,M,eld"'''" .^-<^' ^ TPlymouths C?t V Sprinfejjeid^ ^ ' Manchester's^^ Healdvilld' _fIydlov PefJo ' /Londonderry . r i£.Lon'3onderr AscutneyviHeJ ,>=^ y Clsfemonl jfTH'*" Village Cana3S"'T"''Li V'°°°' '^ )s'(^'-f> r^ oTuftonboro /■\Bfis;o|4*^-HamptdnH-rf,e Werr^ Danbury"! ' Hl(|2^" '"";"""\/.?LaCOIL Ardover ^FranHino^^ / VGilmantoA \ oElsloiCertar ¥ ew W^lebifo^ Wiotv nBelmont HT.KEtRaAROt \ iwbury iSpscawenl oarnsieaf - "' fQy.Charles^wr*' " "\ •b *^ Goshen B/adl'oi Vsuiootb Farrftln d Barn stead ^o^..=.wuM It/N Striffor'cl ^ f^enacook^ ■., \ ^.yy S'[ B,„,j^; . -hesier I V> Jamaic p £>otp=fff,Henni(ier "-^ ■*' ^^^=^= i" .cs/ / / -... n. i •fPd. ^T^traffofd N-Noi .Wakefield OornviUeCl l/ \. illsborO' gDesiingW" _ 1 Nottin ••-:<.^y^Aiib;inp^[on \Wln U Depot ; ^' '6h3i nDeoi M)weil Seabrooko ly ^v* Kye BeacQv mpton „*' pton .»■'' .0 .^^' Fig. 6 8 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND Questions on Fig. 6. — i. What natural ad- vantages favoring growth are enjoyed by the following cities : Manchester, Nashua, Burlington, Portsmouth? 2. Name and locate three towns famous for educational institutions. 3. Suggest reasons why the boundaries of counties contain so many angles. Compare these boundaries with those of counties in western states. Why the difference? 4. Compare routes followed by the railroads in these two states with important auto- mobile highways in the same states as shown on Fig. 49- Once farms were continuous along the valley terraces. Later dams and factories were built at the heads of rapids, and cities sprang up. To-day our water power is being still further developed and its usefulness extended by generating electricity. By this means power is carried to cities many miles away, so that factories and homes no longer need spring up only near a power site. Along the seacoast also, what contrasts we see ! On the cliffs and outer beaches of Cape Cod, Nantucket, and The uneven Martha's Vineyard are lonely distribution of ■' ■' population homes of lightkeepers and life- along the saving stations. Along the '^°^^^ ° ° 1. The forma- rugged shores farther north there tion of harbors are also farms and summer cottages. But here and there, within a river mouth or behind islands and headlands that afford shelter from storm waves, there are towns and cities as large or larger than those in the river valleys. Why are homes so un- evenly distributed here too? As you know (main text, p. 10) coasts have sometimes been slowly raised, changing the shallow ocean floor to a coastal plain, while other coasts have been depressed, and the ocean now covers the lower portions of what was once land. After the upland of New England had been raised and worn nearly to its present form, it was again de- pressed enough to give the uneven, hilly land a very irregular coasthne. The har- bors of New England are sim- ply drowned valleys. In fact, the tide flows far inland along the larger rivers, notably the Connecticut, Penobscot, and Kennebec. Since the glacial period there have been important changes. The rock waste Fig. 7. — "On the cliffs and outer beaches of Cape Cod, Nan- tucket, and Martha's Vineyard are lonely homes of lightkeepers and lifesaving stations." — The famous Highland Light near the northern tip of Cape Cod is just to the right of the bluff pictiured here. 2. Reasons for taken from mOUn- some harbor- less coasts tains, upland, and valleys was moved along in THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND the ice toward the lower end of the glacier. The ice front long remained near the south- ern coast of New England, and the waste that was deposited there when the glacier melted formed great Hnes of irregular hills, called moraines. Streams from the glacier washed great quantities of gravel and sand for- ward and spread it out in slop- ing plains. Therefore Cape Cod and the islands south of New England consist of moraine hills and sandy plains sloping gently toward their southern coasts. The shallow branching be- hind the sandbars of Martha's Vineyard indicates a slight depression since glacial times, but storm waves have changed these outer southern coasts much more, cutting back points of land and building their sands into bars across the bays. This has gone so far on Nantucket that only tiny bay heads remain, while the ocean has worn ^^ /m Fig. 9. — "The harbors of New England are simply drowned val leys." — New Haven harbor from Fort Hale Park. Photo by Boston & Maine R. R. Fig. 8. — " In New England the land is strewn with lakes." — Lake Winnepesaukee, New Hampshire. back Cape Cod so deeply as to form cliffs in the moraine hills. Their waste has been swept northward to build the hooked spit at Provincetown, with its drifting sand dunes, and southward to form Monomoy Island, a barren sandbar. These wave-worn outer coasts are dangerous to shipping during storms, and attract few sum- mer residents for the same reason, lack of harbors. A canal from Buzzards Bay to Cape Cod Bay, under national control, saves coasting vessels from the necessity for passing east of Cape Cod and handles a greater tonnage than the Suez Canal. The waves have not yet been able to wear away the tough granites of Cape Ann and eastern Maine, but sands and pebbles have been swept into coves to form pocket beaches. From Plum Island, 1 Willlamstowni^b WilliaiBBtown r^jBiackmiijn c l£'SnrtU A"/••"", Northampto \, W.To ■all*' .,^^ Millers Falls ePIeasanl ^^tr^Mi Tullyc ' Oran ^S.RoyalsIon ^ Bait)winsviiiav„s;;ri ■=^Athol ^ ^ ^Aihb'jrnhaT S Ashbufnham Temple Gardnei' =»-jnt' SWestminstei [ )■ Eeoniins Cr- Whate^JJj^.^'C ^^__J^ ^jAoaray Ban-em ii,-^ .AmTieist S\ Pres^li) V /? 7 ^ ) " lAmherat A \ |i O&mim./' M/^B^-e IS _ ..n. I ^< A>r / JJW. pi,i„ VJ -— — ( . f'Goo.. \ ofeckel SI \Vt ''^ ' S Lee V ^ Fd. „\„ Center J/ ^l^nesrer J[Hoo.salo(>ic ^ oW(Becket ^Tyringhamr twrrinEtpn r\ L. „ \^ VJi /■EremontM/ «"»!» (x /^l^,„e, WOlisN, ■• JV ai 'i.JCyHarti.ille . \5 ' New Marlboromontvil n.v^ricbier | i • ; -— ; -,r-^ ?"'l) Eakhainpto; HuntmgTofi qS Hadle/ — Off "'SFe,,, ^__^ v''?>iS S. Hadley. si^wSwJ', ■-^ . m-PJlir 1 RaJln \ ijpoxet RuUand^3^ W.Boylsl ..« ,^ ,tnl,e,d..,^ff^Ne„8,a:n..ei r'^'°"o 5rBr„„ki,^'%^__ \j2e(#'-«cferryVdlle,r \Blandlord M6fitgomery-4,YH01yOK©^?) Ludlow Center^ ^^a\ (IrBorifcsvill^""' Warreil>8/ooktiel4 ^(iies „ \ Blardlord j\,-t ifo. ^fl / to?'" LW^vi^Tf'^**"'^* Riveftv. Ouo™m»"n»>( p-i\ Woronoco"'\ ^ \\ C^eiVJ^*#«*!- 'l " ' "estf ieldT t-V**^ - -^ ■ (.WashinglOTi^ ^||\^ „ "-"T \Q /^„,h,ield '"•' "'"^ oltlland ,„ ^.,.. ^, lSI»/!on_. ^S* '"^ S , ...r,,,,.,/ f ^ I - Longmeadb* •^•T -^ J \/J j lu oLongJie^d ow ( — \ \ I 1..-M N N E C T I C U I n Charltono X't sKdale Cit/ Charlton /T m A^/., Depot nV N/Jxfor Charlton^ Ikoxfor ^^ v°Slurbridge A Ig "7 GENERAL DRAFTING CO INC . NY Ti^^.. Fig. ID MASSACHUSETTS and RHODE ISLAND Physical and Political Scale of Miles ,i, ^ t.jL.- i ^l^>-e,^,r i Boston Sut.c.ph.1 Barnstable County s... Fig. 10 12 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND Fig. II. — "A canal from Buzzards Bay to Cape Cod Bay saves coasting vessels the necessity for passing east of Cape Cod." Questions on Fig. lo. — i. Why is Boston the only city named in the rectangle on the main map bounded by dotted lines? What feature in this rectangle indicates the proximity of large cities to one another in the vicinity of Boston? 2. How do the elevations of Cape Cod agree with the state- ment of the way in which that cape was formed? 3. What is the only section of Massachusetts that could be called mountainous ? What effect has the topography upon transportation routes and the absence of large cities? By use of the scale and the indications of population of cities and towns, find the number of cities and towns containing more than 25,000 people within a radius of twenty miles of Boston ; of Providence ; of Springfield ; of North Adams. 4. What are the advantages of Boston, Gloucester, and Provincetown for trade in fish? Why have not New Bedford, Newport, and Fall River, other seaports, equal or greater advan- tages? 5. From a study of the text, explain the infrequency of railroads in western Rhode Island and in Plymouth County, Massachusetts. Massachusetts, to Casco Bay abundant sands have been formed into curving barrier beaches, and alongshore currents keep a bar across the mouth of the Merrimac that shuts out larger vessels. (Which beaches are the more frequented shore resorts?) In the protected lagoons behind the sandbars, and within shallow harbors, the waste brought by rivers and currents has been built up into grassy salt marshes. Although the coast of Maine has been raised somewhat since glacial times, sufficient time has not elapsed since its ele- 3. The harbors vation to smooth over with waste of the Maine the irregular sea bottom offshore. East of Portland numerous rocky islands and headlands separate navigable channels and bays with their many sheltered harbors. There is no single explanation for the grouping of population in coast cities. The early settlers preferred homes „ Reasons for near the coast. Here there was the growth of abundant fish for food and for "*'®^ export when salted. Before roads could THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 13 be made ships built at every harbor gave ready communi- cation with other colonies and Europe. And Indian warfare made settlements far from the coast dangerous. In recent years the coast cities have increased most rapidly in population. Fishing is still the mainstay of Gloucester and Provincetown at the ends of the capes. Commerce with both European and American ports is of prime importance to-day at Boston, on the inner end of the submerged portion '^" " of the Boston basin, and continues at Prov- idence and New Haven, similarly situated on the other two lowlands. The coast cities, however, like the valley cities, have grown chiefly because of their manufacturing. Some, like Fall River and Biddeford, had water power adjoining a harbor and established textile mills a century ago. When steam power came into use, factories were built in many seaport cities, since coal was cheapest where it could be brought by water from harbors toward the southwest. At someharbors, therefore, manu- facturing replaced fisheries, as at New Bed- Harkness Quadrangle, Yale University, New Haven. Why is New England so densely popu- lated ? — Forms of land and water control the distribution of population Because of the within New England. CUmate favorable cii- is more uniform and influences the mode of life and density of population similarly in all six states. We must study our climate and judge its effects. What do you already know of our seasons, temperatures, winds, and rainfall from your own observation ? From past study ? Does our cHmate favor agriculture, manufacturing, or other occupations? New England is midway between the ford, or commerce, as at Bridgeport, and equator and the north pole, not so far north it greatly aided the growth of Boston that its harbors are closed by ice in wanter and other commercial centers. Many hun- nor so far south that the climate lessens the dreds of workers came from upland farms vigor of its people (main text, p. 24). Since and shore villages and thousands from the westerly winds bring the extreme tem- other countries, finding work in the new peratures of the interior (main text, p. 240), factories near the harbors. Coast cities New England winters are severe ; but the continue to grow, for they are still fa- vored by ocean transportation, and now power from inland waterfalls is brought by wire to Portland and other distant coast cities. summers are warm enough for the growth of all fruits, vegetables, and grains of cool temperate lands. In summer the sun is high in the sky at noon and the con- trasts between day and night are marked. THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND IS Questions on Fig. 13. — i. Why is there no large city at the mouth of the Connecticut River? 2. Which cities of Connecticut of more than 25,000 population appear to depend for their importance upon advantages for transportation? 3. Criti- cize the accuracy of a statement that all the im- portant cities of Connecticut are less than 500 feet above sea level. If there are exceptions, name them. 4. What effect does the altitude of northwestern Connecticut have upon the distribution of population ? which reaches Cape Cod — a bUzzard with driving snow, strewing the coast with wreck- age. As a storm passes out to sea the pre- vailing northwest winds of winter bring the clear skies of a cold wave, with the mercury While the days are some- times intensely hot — except near the coast, where refresh- ing sea breezes are felt — the nights are usually com- fortable. The region is in the path of cyclonic storms from the west, and is occasionally reached by hurricanes from the West Indies. Southeast winds from the Gulf Stream bring winter rains as they rise over the upland. Such a wind may change to a cold " north- easter " from over the Labrador Current, Fig. 14. — " New England winters are severe." Brattleboro, Vermont. -Winter sports at Courtesy Anurlcnn AurieuUural Clicniicai Co. Fig. 15. " The summers are warm enough for the growth of all fruits, vegetables, and grains of cool temperate lands." — Growth of corn stimulated by commercial fertilizer. often well below zero on the uplands. Then southwest winds, in advance of another area of low pressure, may change the snow of southern New England to the slush of a " January thaw." Similarly the frosts of clear nights in spring and fall occur during periods of northwest winds, and the hot spells of summer are due to prevailing .^outhwest winds. Our cHmate, then, is charac- terized not only by great sea- sonal differences but also by weather changes every few days, with disagreeable storms from autumn to spring. Such changeable weather, however, i6 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND seems to make the white race vigorous and successful. The storms from fall to spring bring abundant rainfall to all New England, although the most rain and snow fall on the mountains and more fall near the coast than on inland valleys. While storms with heavy rainfall are uncommon in summer, thunder showers occur then and serve to distribute rainfall throughout the year, thus favoring agriculture and all industries using water power. When the cause of popular liberty seemed hopeless in Europe three centuries ago, Because of the many people were ready to threari" kn- leave the rule of king and bishop migrants in England to found a new home in America. Despite great hardships the little band of Pilgrims proved success pos- sible by settling Plymouth. As matters grew rapidly worse in England, Puritan leaders secured a royal charter to plant a colony on Massachusetts Bay. Thereupon Fig. i6. — Memorial over Plymouth Rock, where the Pilgrims landed. over twenty-five thousand people came to southern New England within ten years, settling first aljout Salem and Boston. Then the movement nearly ceased because new hope arose of gaining freedom in Eng- land. These settlers were all English, with ex- ception of a very few Scotch Presbyterians and French Huguenots who came later, ,LiLii Fig. 17. — Pilgrims' Monument at Province- town, Massachusetts. and they continued for a century and a half to multipl}^ and to possess the land without the intervention of others. No other sec- tion of our country has thus been settled by a large body of distinctively English people of the middle classes. The movement of so many people to a land of savages in the little ships of those times was really wonderful, and because of the hardships to be endured only the more determined and vigorous left their homes. Accordingly the i)eople of New England have been a distinct type in American life, even as the land is a distinct surface divi- THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 17 sion. Their energy, love of education, and habit of local self-government have been carried by their children westward through all the northern states of the Union. Doubt- less their enterprise has been one reason for the widespread settlement of New Eng- land and the growth of so many thriving towns and populous cities. In England the upper classes owned great estates, while many common folk were not Because of the landowners. So every family meirt oTthe °^ colonists was eager to own a upland farms home farm. Here there was land for all and every family needed land whereon to grow food. Most of the early villages were scattered along the coast and upon the fertile terraces of the Connecti- cut Valley, where they could communicate with one another by water. The families that gathered before the great fireplaces of the early homesteads were large, and as the children married they moved inland and took up new lands. This movement was checked by the long and bloody struggle of King Philip's War, and made dangerous and slow thereafter by French and Indian attacks from the north during the Colonial wars. After Queen Anne's War, however, farms were pushed outward over the up- lands of southern New England, and early in the nineteenth century the frontier had reached the Canadian border of Vermont and the great forest belt of the White Moun- tains and Maine. New England life changed slowly during the two pioneer centuries. As settlers car- ried the frontier forward they cleared the forest, piled the bowlders into stone walls, and raised on their farms the necessities of life, including grain and meat, which are now brought from the West. Travel was difhcult over the poor roads, so every com- munity depended on itself and every farmer was an independent manufacturer. He built his own house, fashioned rude furni- ture, raised wool and flax for homespun clothing, made his own soap and candles, and in many cases made his own shoes from Fig. 18. — A prosperous New England farm in winter. THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND hides tanned with hemlock bark ; in fact, he met all the necessities of shelter, food, and clothing. There was hard work for all the household save on the day of strict Sabbath rest ; even the amusements were neighborhood gatherings for house raisings and corn huskings, spinning bees or quilt- ing bees. While this movement to the frontier continued, no large towns could de- velop, and in 1800 Boston was the only town as large as the smaller cities of Massachusetts to-day. The tide of human occupation had hardly risen over the uplands to the mountain slopes when it began slowly to recede. There were lands of greater fertility and easier tillage in New York and the prairies beyond, and many sought new homes west- ward. The older towns had long passed the frontier stage, and their growing pros- perity called for goods from over the seas. This led many young men of enterprise and ability to leave the quiet, plodding life of the farm to seek the opportunities of a grow- ing commerce in the stirring seaport towns. For the past century there has been little further clearing of the land for farms ex- cept in the valleys of Aroostook County along the northeastern border of Maine. Commerce with Europe had been neces- sary to meet some wants from the first. At every river mouth and har- , . C6CalI56 or llS bor in Colonial times little ves- early maritime sels were built from timber '°'"™^'''^« cut near by. These craft carried fish, lum- ber, and surplus farm products to England, southern Europe, and the West Indies. After independence gave freedom from the EngHsh Navigation Acts, voyages were ex- tended to China and the East Indies, and manufactured goods and tropical products were brought home. The farmers and villagers took their prod- ucts to the nearest ports because only Fig. 19. — "Providence once had a larger fleet than New York. steamers docked at Providence. -- > Courtesy Providence Chamber of Commerce — Transatlantic and coastwise THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 19 rough roads connected the .harbors with interior places. Many coast towns therefore shared the commerce and grew rich on its profits. From the more remote uplands the farmers made annual trips with heavily laden wagons to the larger ports, returning with lighter loads of goods purchased from the merchants. Before the War of 181 2 Salem was the second town in New England, with more shipping than any other port of the nation. In those days Providence had a larger fleet than New York, and Portland long maintained a more extensive trade with the West Indies than either Bos- ton or New York. Middle- town, the central port of Con- necticut, was once its largest town. Conditions changed. As ships increased in size, only the deeper harbors could be used extensively. When New England master builders de- veloped the type of clipper- ships, which surpassed in speed the vessels of other nations, the United States gained a large share of the carrying trade of the world. (A class committee should report on the wonder- ful voyages of clipper ships.) The increase of population and production in the interior demanded better means of transportation between inland towns and the seaports than the roads afforded. Many canals were planned and two were built, one from Lowell to Boston, another from Northampton to New Haven, but they were long ago abandoned because of the invention of the steam engine. In time railroads were built to all parts of New England, radiating from a few harbors, and the less favorably situated ports lost their commercial importance. Moreover, iron steamships replaced the wooden ships destroyed in our Civil War. Saihng ves- sels are delayed by unfavorable winds ; steam power makes possible the profits from regular trips. Lines of steamers now SCALE OF MILES Fig. 20. — Colonial New England. connect a few ports, like Portland and Provi- dence, with other continents ; but the for- eign commerce of New England at the present day is mainly carried on from Boston and from New York, whence ship- ments may be made promptly to all the world. Thus commerce started the movement from country to city and built up many 20 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND Fig. 21. — Old Ironsides, at Chailestown, Mass. coast towns ; then it so developed that it centered growth at a few seaports and mainly in Boston. Our commerce, then, is one reason for a denser population in New Eng- land than that of the pioneer farmers and fishermen. In colonial times England restricted the manufacture of goods in America in order , ., that she might Because of its ° early start in compel the pur- manufacturing ^j^^^^ ^^ j^^^. ^^^,^ products. But when the Rev- olution secured industrial freedom New England used the wealth gained in com- merce to erect other factories than the early saw and grist mills. Many hands were needed to care for the ma- chinery, so movement from the uplands to homes in the valleys greatly increased. The Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 181 2 checked our commerce, and the con- sequent lack of manufactured goods led merchants to invest their idle capital in manufacturing. Water rights were secured at the falls of our large rivers, and dams were built. Rows of factories and streets of tenements soon followed. Thus the cities of Lowell, Lawrence, Manchester, Lewiston, and Holyoke sprang into existence. As the use of steam power increased, many cities that were able to obtain coal cheaply by water replaced their failing commerce by manufacturing interests. Salem, New Bed- ford, Providence, New Haven, and Bridge- port are prominent cities of this type. In- troduction of steam aided the towns, such as Hartford, Taunton, and Haverhill, that had developed at the limit of navigation on rivers. It was likewise of advantage to those whose situation beside falls close to tidewater had from the first combined cheap water power and facility for importing raw ma- terials. Illustrations of this class are Augusta, Fig. 22. — " Introduction of steam was of advantage to towns beside falls close to tidewater." — Mills at Biddeford and Saco, Maine. TTTE CEOnRAPIIV OF NEW ENGLAND 21 Brunswick, Biddeford, Saco, Dover, Fall River, Pawtucket, and Norwicli. The new industrial conditions, whereby goods were manufactured in city factories c -^ instead of in farm homes, de- Because of its network of manded railroads to bring foods railroads ^^^ ^^^^ materials to the busy growing cities, and to remove their products to market. Therefore railroads were ex- tended inland along the valleys. The Berk- shire upland was crossed by one line, through Pittsfield, and a tunnel under Hoosac Moun- tain made way for trains from the Deerfield Valley to that of the Hoosac River at North Adams. These railroads have contributed largely to the growth of Boston, for grain and other western products have formed the bulk of steamer cargoes thence for Europe. Notice on the state maps how these and other lines follow the valleys for gentle grades. For economy and ease of working, in- dependent connecting railroads were soon combined into through lines, and competing lines were later formed into great railroad systems. The Boston and Maine system covers most of northern New England ; the New York, New Haven, and Hartford serves southern New England. The Boston and Albany and the Rutland Road are part of the New York Central system. The Grand Trunk system connects Port- land with Canada and the West, and reaches deep water at New London over the Cen- tral Vermont line. This network of steel rails, closely meshed over the southern coastal region and threading the interior valleys. has strongly influenced the distribution of homes. Many of the first upland roads and villages were on hilltop clearings rather than in the swampy forest tangles of the valleys. After better highways were built in the valleys, followed by railroads, the hill towns lost population, while manufacturing and trading cities developed along the main rail- road lines. Worcester and Springfield are the best examples of those favored by numerous railway connections. A few railroad towns, like New Britain and Meriden, have become thriving cities because the special business talent of their citizens developed their ad- vantages. Many of these cities are aided to-day by transmission of water power by wire. Cities and denser population are found where railroads and highways are numer- ous. (See state maps.) When our rail- roads were first built there were already many homes in the lowlands and valleys, and rails were laid along their easy grades to serve those living there. The facilities ' 'Hirtffiij Uosl'tn Chamhcr of Commtrcc Fig. 23. — South Station, Boston. More people pass through this station each day than through any other in the world except Charing Cross Station, London. 22 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND for trade thus afforded factories and farms brought prosperity and led others from the uplands and from abroad to seek work and homes in valley towns and cities as well as at the better harbors. Under pioneer con- ditions New England could support no more homes than those it could supply with food from its lands in tillage. With, the devel- opment of manufacturing, and of commerce by steamship hues and railroads, population may increase to as many homes as the wealth produced by manufacturing can supply, through trade, with food and other needs drawn from the fields of all states and countries. While the industrial develop- ment of cities has drawn youth away from the upland towns, it supplies a near-by city market for farm products, and so tends to maintain a denser population throughout New England. New England's leadership in manufactur- ing. — Why does New England lead the United States in manufacturing ? The indus- trial history of your home city may help to answer this question. Divide the search among several small committees. One may examine local histories in the public library ; others may interview the secretary of the Chamber of Commerce, leaders in the indus- tries, members of the historical society. What do local factories produce ? When did these industries start? Why? What lo- cal advantages explain their development? What reasons for New England's industrial success are thus suggested? What reasons are evident from the study of previous prob- lems? With this basis we may best solve our third problem by seeking to answer the question for each main manufacturing in- dustry. Cotton mills built in the South since the Civil War make much cloth. They use water power, and are situated „,. ^ why are tex- beside the cotton fields. Yet tiles manufac- textiie i"i'''.r:.'!''i the — raw ma- terials are not produced ? Courtesy American ^Voolen Co. Fig. 24. — Carding wool at Lawrence, Massachusetts. New England is the center, making the most and best cloths. Over a tenth of the world's spindles for cotton and wool manufacture are here. To understand this we must learn the history of cloth manufac- ture in America. Fish and lumber were long the basis for a commerce that enriched the coast 1. How the , J- -NT T-' manufacture of towns of New Eng- cloth started in land, but agricul- ^°'°"'*' ''°'"*^ ture yielded no staple product for sale abroad in exchange for manufactures. The cold winters required warm cloth- ing, however, and gave lei- sure for its manufacture ; so the farmers raised flax and kept flocks of sheep to provide materials for their THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 23 " linsey-woolsey " suits. The sheep were washed and their fleeces sheared by the men, while the women used rude brushes with wire teeth, called cards, to comb out the tangled wool for spinning. Perhaps you have seen an old spinning wheel by whose swiftly turning spindle fiber has been twisted into yarn, or spun, as the wool was slowly drawn out to the right size between thumb and finger. During long winter evenings the homespun cloth was woven on heavy wooden looms. It was then fulled or soaped and worked with the hands until the fibers were thoroughly matted together, making the cloth thick and warm. This necessary household industry devel- oped slowly. Laws compelled each family to spin its share of yarn. In some villages skilled weavers wove cloth to order or went from house to house plying their trade. Little mills were built where farmers could have wool carded and cloth fulled. The Revolution re- moved the Eng- lish restrictions upon the manu- facture of cloth for sale in America, but new inventions in England enabled cotton or wool to be spun there rapidly and cheaply on machines bear- ing many spindles and driven by water power. Soon cloth was woven on power looms. English law strictly forbade exportation of textile machinery or of any drawings or descriptions of the machines. So the small American factories that were started could not make cloth as cheaply as it could be imported. At about the time the cotton gin was in- vented several skilled English mechanics came to New England and built spinning and weav- ing machinery like that familiar 2. How great to them. The most famous '°"r«^i^' were estab- was Samuel Slater, who started ^^^^^ successful mills in Rhode Island, with the aid of Pawtucket capitalists, when American cot- ton was first becoming available. Young men who had been trained with him established mills of their own at the many falls of the Blackstone, Pawtucket, and Quinebaug rivers, for the War of 181 2 prevented the impor- tation of cloth. They started with small mills and gave close attention to the work, so fine grades of yarn were produced and some mills made a specialty of certain kinds of cloth. These characteristics are still true of that section. When the War of 18 12 checked commerce, Boston merchants invested their money in Courtesy American Optical Co. Fig. 25. — A typical New England factory. Here eyeglasses are made. manufacturing. A mill at Waltham having proved successful, Boston capital built dams and mills at Lowell, Manchester, Lawrence, Nashua, Biddeford, and Lewiston. Fall River is an illustration of cities where local capital has developed industr3^ The water from ponds on the upland rim of the Narragansett basin here descends in falls to tide level, and cotton mills were built early in the last century. The moist climate favors cotton spinning. The profits from the first mills were invested in others driven by steam 24 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND power, making Fall River the leading cotton city of America. Cotton manufacture in New Bedford and Taunton has had a similar history. New Bedford was once famous as the leading port for whaling. The capital gained thereby was used for the first great mills. The city has recently increased its mills and their courtesy Sinilh find I'ltrc MJ\j- i'a Fig. 26. — Cotton thread mills at Andover, Massachusetts. output faster than any other in New England until it now rivals Fall River. It excels in the production of finer grades of cloth for dress goods. Adams and North Adams form an inland center of independent devel- opment where cotton mills have multiplied. Conditions have changed. The tariff gave continued protection for American facto- 3 The devei ^^^^ from English competition, opment of cot- Gradually American invention ton, linen, and sukmanufac- improved tc.xtile machmery until it is superior to foreign patterns in some lines, and American cloths are now sold in many markets of the world. This development required many workmen, and when famine in Ireland led scores of thousands of its people to New England many found work in the mills. After the Civil War many French Canadians came to the textile mills of our cities, and many others from Great Britain. In recent years their places are being taken by immigrants from eastern and southern Europe. Employers and employees have become separate classes of people. Finer textiles are produced in New England mills than formerly. Plain sheetings and shirtings have been their most common product, although nearly as much print cloth is woven. This print cloth, for calico, is printed in colors with engraved rolls, somewhat as paper is printed by a rotary printing press. For other goods, such as ginghams, the yarn is dyed, and is then woven in stripes or checks. With the growth of cotton mills through the Southern States, where the coarser yarns and cloths are produced near the cotton fields, Northern manufacturers began to turn their attention more and more to the finer grades of cloth and to mixtures of cotton with wool or silk that were formerly imported. In order that the industry may be further improved, textile schools have been es- tablished with state aid at Lowell, New Bedford, and Fall River, to train young men for leading positions in all departments. There have been changes in mills and machinery. In England there are separate mills for spinning, weaving, dyeing, and finishing, for each process was a separate trade before factories were built. And in THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 25 ufacture centers at Paterson, New Jersey, but much silk cloth is also woven at the large Cheney mills in South Manchester, near Hartford. The greater part of the American sewing and machine silk and floss and embroidery silks is made in New Eng- land, the largest mills being in North- ampton. Most woolen mills are smaller than cotton mills and more widely scattered, many being in towns along the smaller rivers. . *■ The de- This is natural, since they were veiopment of , , , . , , , ,, woolen mills developed from the many full- ing and carding mills that added ma- chines for spinning and weaving. In days when communication was difificult the abun- dant small power sites were of much value for supplying local needs. Berkshire, where many sheep were formerly raised, was then the leading county of Massachusetts for New England there are some mills which spin yarn for sale to mills that do not pro- duce enough for their own looms ; and while some cotton mills finish their own cloth, others send their sheetings to bleach- eries. In a few textile cities there are mills which do nothing but dye, print, or finish cloth for others. But American textile mills usually perform all the many processes necessary to change the cotton and wool to cloth ready for use. Sharp competition has compelled constant effort to cheapen manufacture. This has stimulated inven- tion, and old machines have been discarded for swifter and better ones repeatedly. Likewise small mills have given way to larger because in the larger mills cloth is woven more economically. There are now fewer cotton mills than a half century ago, yet more cotton cloth is produced. There are other textile prod- ucts which have local im- portance in New England. The difficult task of making strong cotton thread for sew- ing machines was first accom- plished in America at Wil- limantic. Now well-known brands are also made at Hol- yoke, where the abundant water power is used both by cotton and by woolen mills. Although flax is no longer grown in New England it is imported for a few mills that make linen shoe thread and twines. Many mills are en- gaged in the knitting of un- derwear, hosiery, and gloves. Some are in the Merrimac Val- ^ rmfi^rAmmrnn wnnunc, ley from Lowell north to Fig; 27- -'' English mechanics came to New England and built -^ . . spmmng and weavmg machmery like that familiar to them. — An Laconia. American silk man- example of the English spinning frame. 26 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND CouTtesy American Wonhn C/i Fig. 28. - " For woolen fabrics the wool is carefully sorted into different grades." — Sorting Australian wool. woolen factories. Pittsfield is still a cen- ter for woolens. The industry has pros- pered in recent years, especially in northern New England. Many mills are now owned and run by one great corporation, the American Woolen Company. Cloths from wool are of two kinds, ivoolens and worsteds. For woolen fabrics the wool is carefully sorted into dif- ferent grades, then washed and passed through a bur picker, whence it is blown as light flecks of clean fiber, ready for bleaching and dye- ing. It is passed through three carding machines and is then spun into a loose, weak, fuzzy yarn of tangled fibers. Cloth is loosely woven from this and fulled to close the meshes. For worsted cloth the wool is passed through a deli- cate machine called a comb, which removes the shortest fibers and lays longer ones parallel. Then a strong, closely twisted, smooth, hard yarn is spun, and this is closely woven into a cloth with a hard surface that needs no fulling. After a tariff was placed on worsted cloth during the Civil War, its manufacture devel- oped in America. Like cotton manufacturing, production is centered in the large mills of cities, because when it was first started it was necessary to im- port costly machinery and to bring skilled workmen from abroad. Lawrence and Providence lead in worsted manufacture ; but worsted goods are produced extensively in Lowell, Manchester, Fig. 29. Courtesy Amcrit .in u\'n/,it Co. " The wool is passed through a delicate machine called a comb." THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 27 Woonsocket, and Fitchburg. The industry is established in smaller places also, since worsted machinery is now made in New England. The manufacture of woolen carpets is im- portant in America, where the prosperity of the people causes a large demand for floor cover- ings. Although the mills of New England manufacture but a fifth of the carpets made in the United States, and the great centers of carpet weaving are at Philadelphia and nerr New York, carpet looms which have proved the best in the world were invented in Mas- sachusetts. The carpet mill at Clinton is the largest in the world, and there are other mills located at Lowell, Boston, Worcester, and Thompsonville, a village north of Hart- ford. These mills produce most of the more costly carpets made in the country, such as Axminsters, Wiltons, and Brussels. Manufacture of leather also had its origin in Colonial homes. There were tanners and shoemakers among the early colonists. In nearly every town there was once a tannery, where the hides taken from the cattle killed for food were converted The hides soaked for months in the tan vats between layers of crushed bark, oak or hemlock, until the tannin in the water changed the hides to tough leather which would not decay. When soft leather was needed, thinner hides were also oiled and worked until pliable. Since it was cheaper to take the hides to the forests than to transport the bark, the only remaining New England tannery of sole leather is among the hemlock forests of eastern Maine. Light upper leather which requires in its manufacture less tan- nin but more skill is made near the leather Why does New England lead in the manufacture of shoes? 1. Because of its continued •.1.1 facilities for the mto leather manufacture of " upper " leather Courtesy American Woolen Co. Fig. 30.- " This is closely woven into a cloth." — Weaving woolen fabric. market of Boston. Research and inven- tion have suppUed this industry also with better processes and improved machinery. In place of tannic acid from bark, chemical baths are now used to tan morocco and similar leathers. Many new factories in Peabody, which tan for leather nearly half the sheepskins used in America, warrant its claim to the name " The Leather City." Much leather is tanned near by in Lynn, Salem, and Woburn. When not busy with farm work the early shoemakers made shoes for their ^ Because of neighbors or went from house the early start . .of the shoe- to house plying their craft, makers' trade Seated on a low bench tlie lone '" *" "^*" workman cut, sewed, and hammered with 28 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND rude tools, like those used a thousand years before in Europe. Pieces of thin leather were cut, then sewed together to form the upper ; this was turned inside out, fitted over the wooden last or model of the foot, and tacked to the thick sole. The shoe was held on the knee by a strap passing un- der the foot while the upper and sole were sewed together, an awl being used to make a path through the pieces of stout leather for the slender needles. A century ago master shoe- makers had tiny shops where two or three workmen aided them in making up lots of shoes which were after- ward carried to Boston for sale. At a somewhat later time it was the custom to (.'oiirlcsy Slelson .sfi'^f Co Fig. 32. — "Expert judgment is needed to cut costly leather to advantage." ( 'ntirh '!j liuslun Chamber of Commerce Fig. 31. — Boston is a great leather market. fit up large central rooms for cutting the leather into all the necessary parts for shoes. These were then made into bundles, which were given out at Lynn and other centers to surrounding shops or sent to country towns of eastern Massachusetts and even into Maine. In the homes the up- pers were sewed by women and the heavy work on soles was done by men. The fin- ished shoes were returned to the cutting rooms ready for sale. This system lasted until about the year i860 and persisted thereafter in the manufacture of hand-sewed shoes. When the sewing machine was invented, the stitching of the uppers was transferred to the same building as the cutting room. Then came a THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 29 machine which could sew on the sole, and the shoe factory replaced little 3. Because of ' conditions favor- sllOe shoDS. Ma- ing the establish- ment of many chincs have been shoe factories ^dded to perform every step of the work, even to cutting the parts of the upper. Expert judgment is needed to cut costly leather to advantage, however, so handwork in shoe cutting is still the rule. New England men and machines make better shoes at less cost than are made in other lands, hence our large export trade in both shoes and shoe ma- chinery. Shoes were made near Boston in early Colonial times, where the success of the indus- try brought expert shoemakers from England. Some who were skilled in making women's shoes settled at Lynn, and after the Revo- lution French shoemakers, who could make the best women's shoes, were brought there from Paris. The making of men's shoes was estabHshed in towns south of Boston. Co'iT.'fsp Boston ChambiT u] < ummcTce Fig- 33- — A shoe factory in Boston. Each section has ever since maintained its specialty. The early factories were small and many were scattered through the dis- tricts where shoes had been made under the old system, to take advantage of the skill of the country shoemakers. Since shoe ma- chinery did not come into use until after steam had largely replaced water power, great factories were not erected at new cities beside rivers but in the leading shoe cities, where skilled labor to operate the various machines could be obtained more readily. Courtcsu I'nUfd Shoe .\facMnery Corporation Fig- 34 — The plant of the United Shoe Machinery Corporation, Beverly. 3° THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND Courtesy Hood Rubber Co.. Inc. Fig- 35- " There are large rubber factories near Boston." — The plant of the Hood Rubber Company at Watertown, Mass. facture of rub ber boots and shoes Although there are shoe factories in some one hundred fifty towns of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine, and a few in the other New England states, over two thirds of the product comes from Brockton, Lynn, and Haverhill, and the cities and towns near them. A natural offshoot from this factory indus- try in making leather shoes is that of making 4. The manu- overshoes and boots of rubber. Since the discovery by Good- year that rubber may be vul- canized — that is, heated in combination with sulphur so as to remain hard and durable — it has been made into a variety of articles and fabrics in New England factories. There are large rubber factories at Maiden and Chelsea, near Boston, at Woonsocket, and at New Haven. (A class committee should report upon Goodyear's discovery and its results.) Some metals have been mined in New Eng- land, notably iron. Water soaking through the glacial soils dissolved much iron, which ^ collected in rusty deposits in many springs^ ponds, and swamps. This inferior bog iron ore may still be dug from swamps or dredged from pond bottoms. Groups of pioneer farmers established rude forges where the iron was melted with charcoal ^j^ ^^^^ fires and either cast into such metal manu- , . , 1 , , 1 1 factures flour- articles. as kettles and cannon j^jjgj ^ j^g^ or roughly hammered into bar England? T 1 • 1. How iron iron. In many a chimney corner manufactures was a little forge which was kept ='"**'* busy during the evenings while father and sons hammered out nails from iron rods. During the second century of coloniza- tion richer ores were opened up in the Berk- shires, and pig iron good enough to be used for edged tools was produced in furnaces. Though the iron for the Monitor came from near Mount Greylock in Massachusetts, the development of still richer mines in Penn- sylvania and the West long ago led to the closing of most of the iron mines and furnaces in New England. No large mills for rolling iron bars and plates from pig iron can be maintained in New England in competition i^ith the mills of Pennsylvania. The extensive manufactures of metals in New England are in part direct outgrowths of early industries. For instance, while most nails are now made near the iron mines, over THE GKOCiRAPIIY OF NFAV ENGLAND 31 half the tacks of the country are still manufactured at Fair- 2. The types of havcu and other metal industry 1 j^^ SOUthcm that are now t" profitable Massachusctts. Stove foundries were earh' estabhshed to meet a need of the climate, and they still flourish. Silverware was made in the Colonies ; Paul Revere was a famous silversmith, and to-day there are prosper- ous corporations in southern New England making silver- ware. The early invention and application of a method of gold plating at Providence has led to the extensive manu- facture of jewelry and silver- ware there and in near-by towns. Wooden clocks were made in Colonial times, and now American-made watches, of highest quality from Waltham and of lowest price from Waterbury, are sold everywhere. A century ago brass buttons were made in Waterbury, which led to the rolling of brass and the manufacture of many other articles from it. By far the larger part of the brass rolled in the country is made in the Nauga- tuck Valley, and mills in operation elsewhere were established by men from Connecticut. faurtisij American Pin Co., Waterbury Fig. 36. — " The New England metal industries require Little metal but much skilled labor and exact machinery." — Making pins in a Water- bury factory. Note the coils of wire from which the pins are made. In general the New England metal indus- tries that have not removed to the .neighbor- hood of Western mines but have continued to develop where they started, are such as require little metal but much skilled labor and exact machinery. Thus half the tools for accurate work oh metals which are made in America come from southern New Eng- land. The largest screw factory in the world is in Providence. There is a great wire mill in Worcester. In the factories of many Connecticut cities and towns small articles ^iS^^^^^' BSS^*' 'm^mnlL Fig- 37- Conrtisij I'rii: iili'ncc Clmiuhi, Machinery is the most important type of metal goods manufactured in New England." The largest machine shop in the world, at Providence ; producing fine precision and measuring tools. 32 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND Covrtesr/ r.'j^'!c1 :'hm Mrc^liifry CorpoTfition Fig. 38. — Shoe machinery of a type that is produced in New England. of hardware for buildings, carriages, and other uses are produced. Study of the main industry of your section will often show that it has led to the estab- 3. The manu- facture of ma- lishment of SUb- chinery ... • , . . sidiarymdustnes, to provide supplies or to utilize by-products. Since every factory district recjuires a great deal of machinery, machinery is the most im- portant type of metal goods manufactured in New Eng- land, and machine shops are to be found in every in- dustrial city. Because the manufacture of textiles. shoes, paper, and other goods developed here, machine shops where the ideas of the inventors took form are also found. For instance, the best of textile looms are of New England invention, and there are great loom works at Worcester. In fact this city, so centrally located, is a great machine shop for supplying the needs of the cities round about. Naturally, too, as mills are built in the South, New England supplies their machin- ery. At Beverly, near the shoe and leather centers, are the shops of the United Shoe Machinery Company, whose complete factory outfits of machines are supplied to all coun- tries. Similarly machinery for tanneries is made in Peabody, and most American marble-finishing machines are built in Rut- land, " The Marble City." In general, the larger the city the more machinery made there ; hence the factories of Boston produce the most, ^ ^ 4. The manu- while those in Cambridge and facture and re- 1 . . r /~i -i-> f^^ °^ steam- other cities of Greater Boston to- ships and raii- gether make much more. The **^ "^"^ main New England plant of the General Elec- tric Company for electrical machinery is in Lynn ; and the great plant of the Fore River Pfrnlo byj Boston & Maine R. R. Fig- 39— "To- deserted." - day many remote neighborhoods are almost or quite — An abandoned farm in northern New England. THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 33 Shipbuilding Company for building steel steamships is within the Boston basin at Quincy. The repair of railway cars can also be centered at a few points, so the workshops of the railway systems form great industrial plants in some cities, and in Providence and Taunton there are great locomotive works. The decline of agriculture in New Eng- land, and its remedies. — One problem has The problem troubled New England for over stated r^ half-century, yet it remains for you to solve when you become men and women. While villages in the valleys have become prosperous towns and cities, the population of upland towns has dwindled decade by decade. To-day many remote neighborhoods and towns are almost or quite deserted. The last census shows no betterment. Vermont lost population, al- though its few cities prosper. Most small New Hampshire towns had fewer people, fewer farms, and less acreage under cultivation in 1920 than in 1910; so also in other states. Why did boys leave farms for the cities? What happened when the old people died ? Is it not surprising, when grow- ing cities and immigrant mul- titudes needed so much more food, that our farms should have failed to produce it? How can we account for this ? Consider conditions that affect farming, such as soil. Unfavorable ^^^P^' climate, and location with respect to mar- kets. In New England the soils are glacial. V\Tien the great glacier gradually melted away, all the materials in the ice, from large bowlders to finest rock flour, were dropped together as bowlder day, or lill. This basis of our present soil is the mingled waste from many places, and time has not yet been given for it to decay deeply, or to be enriched by the addition of much organic matter, so it is rarely highly fertile. The uneven upland districts have no broad levels for cultivation, and the settlers' plows were hindered by outcropping ledges and the abundant bowlders, part of which are now piled in stone walls. How different from the Western prairies and plains ! No wonder Horace Greeley, born in Vermont a century ago, gave advice, " Go West, young man, go West." The soils vary from field to field. In some regions till collected in great mounds beneath the glacier and was compacted into finely curving hills called driimJins. They are numerous in the Boston basin, also along the lower Merrimac, where Whittier says, " The hills roll wavelike inland." From near Worcester drumlins extend into Connecticut surface fea tures Fig. 40. — " In some legions till was compacted into finely curving hills called drumlins." — Revere Beach. Drumlins in left back- ground. 34 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND and New Hampshire. Being free from ledges, and having an even surface and moist soils, many were early cleared of trees and tilled, although their sides slope steeply. You have learned something of the various soils formed in our terraced river intervales, and about the many lakes behind glacial mo- raine dams. Many of the smaller and shal- lower glacial ponds have been filled by stream deposits and plant growth, and are now swamps, meadows, or peat bogs. So New England farms have no far-stretching levels of uniform soil devoted to some staple crop. Most have steep slopes and sandy plains that should be kept wooded, and fields of thin, stony soil fit only for pasturage, as well as acres that will produce good crops when cleared of bowlders or properly drained and fertilized. Each farm is a problem in itself. New England farmers have had to turn Compensating adverse conditions into assets advantages j^ order to prosper. Bowlders hinder cultivation, but built into stone j» - i.- walls they make fences that do not decay. Varied soils and slopes forbade far-stretch- ing fields of staple crops, but they made diversified farming the rule from the first, while this comes slowly in the South and West. Farm machinery and railway trans- portation enabled Western farmers to sell flour and feed in New England below cost of production here ; but machinery serves to harvest hay for dairy farms, while our railways hurry the milk to city markets. New England forests at first hindered agriculture, so trees were cut, piled, and burned ; but the leaf mold and wood ashes fertilized the soil for the first crops. Soon farmers used spare time to manufacture staves and shingles. From such begin- nings developed many local industries. Much lumber was required when cities be- gan to grow, so sawmills were busy in every town. Farmers used winters for logging and the forest became a chief re- liance as long as it lasted. But with rising prices for lumber por- table sawmills came into use and all remaining tracts of large timber were cut from farm woodlots. Growth of commerce and manufacturing tempted farm labor away to the cities ; but this gave compensating ad- vantages. In Colonial times most products not required on the farms had to find a market in the West Indies or Europe. As cities grew, surplus farm products were needed by them. Drovers bought up ^'a ' -" ' cattle and sheep and drove Fig. 41.— " Bowlders built into stone walls make fences that uu nui ^^^^ ^° Boston ; every city decay." — A typical farm scene in Vermont. obtained its beef, mutton, and THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 35 pork from near-by farmers. When the West came to sup- ply meat to the East, our cities called for more and more dairy products, eggs, poultry, fruit, and vegetables. Al- though many farms far from city markets have been aban- doned, others near thriving centers or railway lines have prospered. In early days cows were milked only when out at pas- The dairy in- ture, and lived dustry through the winter on scanty food. They were of no certain breed, and cattle were long valued for meat and as draft animals as well as for milk. To-day the dairy cow is a milk machine, as highly developed a product of human skill as a loom. Cows have been imported from the dairy districts of northern Europe, and the breeding of stock has been continued here so as to se- Fig. 43. — Scene on a large New England dairy farm. Fig. 42. — " The breeding of stock !i^.> :.^i,:i continued here so as to secure animals that turn their food into a large yield of rich milk." — A Jersey herd in northern Vermont. cure animals that turn their food into a large yield of rich milk instead of placing it in flesh and fat upon their bodies. On a modern dairy farm a record is made of the quaUty and quantity of milk produced by each cow, and only those are kept that give the owner a good profit. The feeding of stock is a scientific problem that has been worked out by the gov- ernment experiment stations. Hay is too bulky for cheap transportation, so it is nat- urally the most important crop raised on New England farms. Concentrated foods from corn, oats, and cotton- seed arc fed the cows and in winter ensilage is provided on some farms. Marketing milk is a business ^/( 36 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND in itself. Some farmers near cities gather the milk from several farms in the evening, bottle it, and deliver it to homes of customers in the morning. Greater Boston requires so much milk that most of its supply must be brought from a distance by train. Large firms contract with the farmers for milk and run trains of milk cars from Maine, from northern New Hampshire and Ver- mont, and from western Massachusetts. Fig. 44. — Bottling milk at a New England dairy. Similarly a milk train from Pittsfield takes milk from many farms to New York City daily. The contractors pasteurize milk, that is, heat it just enough to kill the germs that cause it to sour quickly, and then cool it. Some contractors own farms, and de- liver milk to stores and homes with their own teams. Some milk is sold from the depots to milkmen for sale at retail. State inspectors see that it is not weak, adul- terated, or dirty. When too much milk is received the contractors make the surplus into butter or ice cream. Buttermilk is sold. Much cream for sale comes from creameries in Maine. Creameries and cheese factories were formerly abundant in Vermont and the Berkshires, but some have closed since milk trains were extended to the Canadian border. Most butter and cheese now come from outside New England. Cities afford a market for fresh farm prod- uce. When truck farmers in the Southern States began to send their prod- Truck garden- ucts North, the raising of vege- "^^ tables near the Northern cities developed into a special industry to meet this com- petition. Market gardening does not re- quire extensive acreage, for it brings so large returns as to warrant thorough culti- vation of the soil and constant use of com- mercial fertilizers. Several crops a year are often raised from a field. Planting, cultivating, weeding, watering, and gather- ing the crops give employment to many hands. The products are taken in automo- bile trucks to city markets daily. Near Boston there are many gardeners who have groups of glass houses, heated by steam or hot water, in which cucumbers, lettuce, and radishes are raised in winter and tomatoes in the spring. All market gardeners have fields of hotbeds. Their long, deep trenches are filled with beds of fresh manure, covered with several inches of loam. A high fence shuts ofT cold north winds, while sashes of glass, thick mats, and board shutters, resting on an inclosing l)lank frame, protect the beds from the cold winter air. Decomposition of the manure produces heat, and the seeds sown in the loam germinate. On sunny days the mats and shutters are taken from the glass. THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 37 Radishes, dandelions, spin- ach, and cucumbers are raised in hotbeds in spring, and other plants are started in them to be transplanted later. While some farmers keep several kinds of farm animals and cultivate small areas of many orchard, fie'd, and gar- den crops, the tendency is to give special attention to some one crop or class of products in each section. Near the cities there are many hothouses for raising flowers — acres of pinks and orchids, of lihes and violets, of chrysanthe- mums and potted plants — the basis of a very extensive business. Aroostook County, Maine, is famous for its thousands of acres of potatoes, for the heavy yield of its valley soils, and for its great storage houses and potato starch factories. In early fall many people on Cape Cod are busy picking cran- Fig. 46. Truck gardening at Winchester, Massachusetts Fig. 45. — Growing celery at Arlington, Massachusetts berries, cultivated in the bogs that formed in depressions of the glacial sands. On the level terraces of the Connecticut Valley, whose soil of sand and silt is easily worked, there are extensive fields of tobacco and of onions. In Maine sweet corn is raised for the can- ning factories scattered through the towns. A few common vegetables have long been grown on all farms. The market gardeners also raise asparagus, celery, green peas, cauHflower, and other products which re- quire trained care while grow- ing or which must be mar- keted at once when mature. Celery, onions, and such root crops as turnips and car- rots are stored in cemented cellars for sale in winter after the suiplus from the farms has been marketed and the prices are higher. Strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, and 38 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND other small fruits are also grown. Because the very best fruits and vegetables secure a ready market at high prices, there are special seed farms. The owners grow seed carefully for sale, and strive to develop varieties that shall mature early or late and yield fairer, larger, and less perishable products. Once settlers eagerly made farms in forest clearings. Their grandchildren cultivated „ , all the countryside. But am- How may farm •' prosperity be bitious descendants have gone renewe westward and cityward, while scrubby woodlands replace pasture and field. State leaders ask how our industries can continue to compete successfully with fac- tories west and south while we bring most of our food from farms in distant states. Discuss possible remedies. What should be done to aid farming? How may education help? Ought methods of marketing farm products to be changed? Will extension of good state roads help? Can immigra- tion be turned from the city to the country ? Discuss reports of pupil committees on : the Grange ; agricultural schools and courses ; immigrants on farms ; State high- ways ; cooperative societies for buying and for storing, grading, and marketing crops. Conduct a debate as to whether it is better that every farm choose a special crop or activity for expert attention, or that farms should combine farm forestry and the dairy or poultry business with gardening or fruit growing. There are movements of population toward the country. Some immigrants have saved money while working in x . 1116 &ttr3c~ city mills and have bought farms, tions of country They give them the painstaking culture which they learned in crowded Europe ; and, as in pioneer times, all their large families share the labors of restoring upland farms or of weeding acres of onions in the Connecticut Valley. Many workers in commerce and the industries escape the strain of city life for at least a summer fort- Pfioto by Boston & Maine R. li. Fig. 47. — Prosperous upland farms at White River Junction, Vermont. THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 39 night to gain new health by country fare and Hfe. Coming at first as boarders at farmhouses and hotels, many families soon desire their own summer homes, so deserted farms are bought and old buildings are re- paired or new ones erected. The hundreds of summer residents who come to many towns supply a home market for the prod- uce of even those farmers who do not take boarders, and good prices are secured for eggs, milk, vege- tables, and fruit. Until recently school training turned boys and girls toward 2. Improved coUege or busiuess methods of agri- . ... ^.t culture —City life. Now there are not only state agri- cultural colleges ; there arc country and town high schools that give courses in agriculture and direct students in farm projects. County leaders or- ganize clubs of boys and girls for farm work. Many attend agricultural fairs and become enthusiastic over the oppor- tunities of country Hfe. Simi- larly more and more farmers follow scientific methods in production and marketing, for the state colleges give many courses and correspondence farmers, and county agents visit the farms to counsel with all who will accept advice. It is possible that the orchard industry will make many farms prosperous, for fruit of the 3. Advantages finest flavor and lasting quality for fruit growing ^^^ j^g g^wn in Ncw England. Apples form our largest item of agricultural export, large shipments being made from Portland and Boston. Some farmers in New England are now making orcharding on a large scale a successful business. Some have large orchards of peaches, pears, or plums. Some are installing machinery to handle the fruit in packing houses in their own orchards. Aided by government experiment stations and county agents, fruit growing ought to become increasingly successful. The poultry business may also be further developed, for fresh eggs and poultry com- ^■«r'•J- *?^ m^ '- '^ *-^v'>^^!^l.S- «V^ CouTtes7j SorosU Farm, MaTf}}ehead, Mans. Fig. 48. — " Large poultry farms are especially numerous in Massa- chusetts." short courses winter for mand higher prices than cold storage goods from the West. Since our winter climate is severe, large poultrv farms ^ ,^ ^ ' ° J^ ^ 4. Advantages have been especially numerous for raising poui- try in Massachusetts and Rhode Island near the warm waters southeast of Cape Cod. Nevertheless the many city markets make special poultry farms profit- able in each state. Government experi- ments and education aid here also. Disease is held in check, breeds are improved, and hens that cease to lay eggs are detected and 40 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND killed for market. The work of a poultry farm and of marketing the product is put on a business basis. Farmers gain by modern methods of com- munication. The rude cart roads of the 5. Better trans- scttlcrs Were Supplemented by portation chartered turnpike roads with toll-gates, but when railroads became gen- eral country roads were neglected. Since automobiles came into use the states have built highways that follow or connect the main valleys and extend from city to city. They are kept in condition for rapid travel and for heavy loads. Many town roads are now better built. Trolley lines help some towns. Rural free delivery brings mail and news to a farmer's door daily. Some use the parcel post to sell produce direct to city customers and to purchase from city stores. The telephone extends to every town and connects farm homes. Thus farms are no longer remote and lonely ; their contact with hfe makes possible social happiness and business success. Farmers are learn- ing how to cooperate to win success, g. Better In pioneer cooperation times they exchanged work with neighbors, helping one another in turn, and neighbor- hoods united for such tasks as corn-huskings and barn-raisings. These customs passed away as farm needs were met by purchase and farm crops were raised for sale. Farm- ers sold to middlemen, by barter to village stores, or to agents of city commission merchants. These business men kept books and made sure that prices gave them profits ; few farmers kept accounts ; few Courtesy New England Hotel Association Fig. 49. — The chief automobile routes of New England. could store crops THE GEOGRAPHY OE NEW ENGLAND 41 Fig. 50. ■ The highways are kept in condition for rapid travel and heavy loads." — A Connecticut highway. safely to await higher prices ; they did not act together — so many often sold at prices that gave no fair return for their labor. Thus when the timber had been cut from woodlands and the first fertility was exhausted on hill pastures, cooperation became necessary to secure proper prices for products, and to make possible econ- omies in farm methods that should make farming successful. Many agencies give aid. The national government counsels farmers and helps in the support of agricultural education in each state. It urges, for example, associa- tions of farmers for the coop- erative preparation and mar- keting of woodland products. The state governments supply young forest trees at cost for replanting woodlands and advise in the care of farm Avood- lots. Some state and county associations of city cham- bers of commerce are aiding farmers, upon whose prosper- ity cities depend, to sell all their products to advantage and to estab- lish central cold-storage warehouses. Farm- ers i)roducing milk are organized in the different states to secure their interests tlirough legislation and in fixing standard prices with the large milk dealers. The problem of New England farming is com- plicated, but many interests are working to solve it. Why have the fisheries become centered at a few ports ? — Fishing was the carhest industry of New England and Why formerly of the shores northward to Lab- |;;;P°New'Eng- rador. From the time of the land ports first explorers fishermen from France and England have resorted thither, curing their fish on shore and returning home heavily laden. The earliest English settlements on Cape Ann were made for the purpose of fishing, and the sale of fish was the basis of Colonial commerce and prosperity. There are good reasons for the importance of the industry. The cold Labrador Current and the warm drift of the Gulf Stream meet off Cape Cod, so that the fish native to both may be caught there. The shallow banks of the continental shelf offshore were strewn C^iirlffy OoTtun-Pew Flshfrie^ Co. Fig. 51. — Curing codfish at Gloucester. 42 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAxND with rock waste by icebergs from the re- treating glacial front. On such bottoms seaweed grows well ; in such places there is an abundance of the lower forms of animal life, which serve as food for cod, halibut, and other ground fish of northern waters. Schools of mackerel and herring, which feed at the surface of warmer waters, and of the swordfish and bluefish that prey upon them, are abundant during the summer, for the Gulf Stream is nearer the coast at this season. In Colonial times the cod and its allies, haddock, pollock, and hake, and a huge flatfish, the halibut, were abundant all along the coast. These fish were caught from the sides of vessels, or from dories with long hand-lines. The cod were salted and found ready sale in southern Europe and the West Indies. The fishermen of these early times were usually farmers in summer and engaged also in lumbering, shoemaking, or ship- Fig. 52. — Unloading a catch at Gloucester. building in winter. They became sailors and captains in overseas commerce. Fishing boats hailed from all the village harbors of the coast. Methods in all industries have changed. In fishing, to increase the catch and decrease the labor, trawls came into use How the - long horizontal lines with short ^^^^^e lines for baited hooks. Trawls changed are laid by dories, each end of a line a mile or two in length being anchored and marked by a buoy. After a few hours the trawls are hauled into the dories and the fish are secured. On board the schooner, unless they are to be sold fresh, the fish are spht, salted, and piled in the hold. The livers are sold for their oil, and the air bladders, which contain gelatine, are often cut out to be sold to manufacturers of isinglass. Trawling is hard, dangerous work. On the fishing grounds the men rise early and work late with no Sunday rest. The Hght dories must often be forced against the wind through toss- ing seas ; a sudden squall may overwhelm a dory ; during a fog the men may lose their bearings and drift away from the schooner and the sound of its horn. Hooks must be baited with bare hands even in icy weather. During winter storms waves run so high on the shoal water of the banks that schooners are sometimes lost, or return with flag at half mast for men swept overboard. Steam power and machin- ery are in part replacing man- ual labor in the fisheries, to speed up work, to make it THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 43 safe, and to lower costs. Steel vessels, driven by powerful engines, catch ground fish with great nets instead of baited hooks, and fish or make port in all weathers, never losing a man. Each has a trawl, a cone-shaped net, its mouth held open eighty feet wide by two otter boards that slide over the bottom on steel-shod edges while forced apart by- water pressure as the vessel steams ahead. Most cod swim strongly and escape, but the haddock are caught. A draw-string is pulled to close the opening at the small end of the net, the gear is hoisted on board, the fish are emptied into pens on deck, the trawl is lowered, and work proceeds. Thus it is only eighteen hours from start to finish of a steam trawler's trip out of Boston to banks any- where within a hundred miles of Cape Cod. As the fisheries became an industry that required expensive vessels and outfits, care- How these ful factory methods in curing affecfed thl^ ^^^' °^ elaborate commercial fishing ports connections for sale of fresh fish, the industry necessarily became centered instead of scattered. When bottom fish had to be sought on banks far from land, the outfit for a long voyage to the Grand Banks, to Greenland, or to Iceland was best secured at some larger port. Gloucester took the lead ; its fleet numbered over two hundred stanch, speedy schooners for trawl- ing from dories. It has an excellent harbor, far out on Cape Ann toward the fishing grounds ; and since the business of curing fish — salt-drying, smoking, boning, shredding, packing — and related industries for utilizing the skins and refuse for glue and fertilizer were thoroughly developed here, it still leads all others in this phase of the industry. The market for fish has changed. For- merly most fish were rudely preserved by dry-salting, then exported. This might be from any port. Now most of the product is sold fresh in the populous districts. This business centers at Boston because of its superior commercial and railway facilities. The Boston Fish Pier is the greatest commer- cial fish market in the world, handling 150,000,000 pounds of fish a year. Over half is haddock, for the fresh-fish industry depends on steam trawlers to provide a steady supply for shipments. Province- Fig. 53- — Fishing vessels in Gloucester harbor. tcsy Qorton-Pt a- I'i 44 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND r-. Ji Fig. 54. — " The Boston Fish Pier is the greatest conimercial fish market in the world." town, at the end of Cape Cod, and Portland, the leading commercial port and railway center north of Boston, are other important centers for the fisheries. The business is developing. The fish are caught quickly by a steam trawler, then dressed, washed, and packed in ice in the hold. A quick run is made to Boston, then the fish are iced again and expressed in re- frigerator cars to industrial cities of the Middle West, where the use of fresh ocean fish is increasing. England, populous, sur- rounded by the ocean, uses over fifty pounds of fish per person yearly, while the United States uses less than twenty pounds per person. The high value of fish as food and the stable low cost of fresh fish caught by steam trawlers will lead to further develop- ment of the industry. As a result of the centering of the fisheries at a few ports, the smaller fishing towns of the peninsulas and islands, like the upland villages, find their principal occupation in serving summer visitors. Many such visitors go by rail, steamer, and yacht to almost every point on the New England coast, escaping from the heated interior to the cool, salty sea breezes. The lumber industry — past, present, and future. — Because of the abundant rainfall. New England at the time of its Forces that settlement was everywhere for- i^ave depleted ested. There were heavy stands lumbering, of white pine on the lowlands ^®^' ^''ghts and the southern uplands, and such valuable hardwoods as oak and chestnut. Spruce, hemlock, fir, and hardwoods clothed the northern uplands and mountains, cedars the swampy lands. For nearly three cen- turies the forest remained a store of wealth, a bank on which farmers drew by winter labor to meet their needs for ready money, a THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 45 mine where our industries obtained raw materials. It was only at the befjinnin^ of the twentieth century that the last virgin forests were cut from the less accessible mountainous townships. And so long as clearings were not extensive, white pine had tended to reoccupy cut-over tracts, springing up from seedlings. In summer the prevailing westerly winds are weak and general rains are few. Thunder storms may give rain- fall in some sections, yet leave near-by towns dry. In seasons of drought fires sweep rapidly through cut-over lands and forests, killing seeds and seed- Hngs and sometimes destroying even the vegetable mold of the forest soil. Thereafter seeds of birch and poplar strewn by the winds germinate far and wide, and deciduous trees of small worth replace pine and oak. So long as lumber could be obtained cheaply little sys- tematic effort was made to prevent fires or to plant valu- able trees to replace those cut. Incidental to our extensive commerce with other lands, foreign insect pests and fungous diseases of trees have been introduced accidentally, se- riously damaging forests as well as orchards. The gypsy and browntail moths are held in check by spraying the foliage along high- ways to kill the caterpillars, and by import- ing from Europe the parasites that reduce their numbers there. Our chestnuts seem doomed, so those not already killed by the chestnut blight are being cut. The pine blister rust threatens all white pines, and all currant and gooseberry bushes near pine woodlands must be removed to save the ]iines. National, state, and town govern- ments are cooperating with citizens to save the forests. As population and commerce increased, more lumber was required for buildings, furniture, and manifold factory „. . ' _ ■' The increasing products. But during the demands upon closing decades of the last cen- """^ ""^^^^^ tury a new demand was made upon our Fig- 55-—" I" seasons of drought fires sweep rapidly through cut- over lands and forests.' forests. More and cheaper paper than rags could provide was needed, and a new use was found for forest trees. Paper was made from poplar wood, and then spruce proved better still. In the manufacture of wood pulp small logs are cut into short lengths, then placed within the grinders and pressed hard against a revolving sandstone wheel. The ground pulp is carried off in water, strained, then gathered in a thin layer on a broad cloth belt through which the pulpy water strains. To obtain longer fibers, for 46 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND Fig. 56. — Great paper mills at Rumford, Maine. t^uuTtesv JrUernational Paper Co, stronger, whiter paper, small wood chips are cooked in hot acid liquor under steam pres- sure, thus dissolving the pitch and separating the fibers. While the pulp and paper industry now ranks first in northern New England, the lumber industry formerly led, producing boards, timber clapboards, and shingles. Large sawmills were located at falls near tidewater, as at Bangor, which was for years Courtesy I/Uernalional Paper Co. Fig- 57- — " Small logs are cut into short lengths " (at left of picture), " then placed within the grinders and pressed hard against a revolving sandstone wheel. The ground pulp is carried off in water." the most important eastern primary lumber market. The large Maine sawmills are now on St. John's River. Great logs cut in winter on the forested uplands were floated down the flooded rivers when the snows melted in spring and were caught by log booms stretched across the rivers above the mills. From just below the mills lumber was shipped in coasting schooners to the growing Atlantic seaport cities. The larger forest trees, how- ever, have been cut, and much more wood than our eastern forests produce is needed for paper, so the lumber industry is now of minor importance. The methods of logging and driving have changed. There is still a vast Changes in the forest region ex- ^rSds tending from of cutting northeastern Vermont and the national forest of the Wliite Mountains across Maine into Canada. The paper companies have bought extensive areas on the mountains and uplands of the three northern states. The larger trees of a tract, eight inches or more in diam- eter, are felled with saws. THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 47 Smaller trees are left uninjured to grow. In old times all logging took place in winter, after supplies could be drawn to camp across frozen swamps. The trees are cut now in readiness to be drawn to the rivers on sleds when snow comes. When pulp wood is to be moved by rail the trees are felled in spring and summer, when sap is running and the bark may be peeled in the woods, thus low- ering freight charges. The danger and romance of spring log drives are largely past. few took pains to avoid waste or to replant cleared land even when unfit for other use. A century ago New England supjilied lumber to the nation, that is, the Atlantic states. Since then the forests about the Great Lakes have been cut away, and the Southern for- ests are rapidly disappearing ; so most of our lumber must come from the Pacific coast at heavy expense for freight. Over lialf our pulp wood, or paper, now comes from Canada. Now all realize forest values, Courtesy Bcr,\t-Fu. Fig. 58. — A great clothespin, toothpick, and butter-dish factory in Maine. and birch piled up for future use. Note the supply of hardwood The rivers have been cleared of bowlders and sandbars against which long logs often piled in jams, while dams hold the water back for use when necessary to float the logs. Pulp wood is often sawn into four- foot lengths that can be floated The problem down headwater brooks in of forest con- servation sprmg. Forests hindered settlement ; the early colonists cleared them away. In the century following widespread settle- ment our forests seemed inexhaustible and 1. New Eng- land's depend- ence upon a continued lum ber supply because costs of wood and paper have mul- tiplied. Our textile, leather, and fine metal in- dustries continue to develop because skilled workmanship adds so much to the value of the raw material that it can profitably be imported. Wood, however, is bulky and so are most of its products. If our industries that use wood are to continue to give em- ployment to workmen and prosperity to towns, the materials they use must be grown here. Formerly New England made furni- ture for the South. The Civil War stopped 48 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND this trade. The industry was reestabUshed beside the rich forests of the Middle West, and now Michigan, though its own forests are largely depleted, supplies furniture to New England. Many mills in our upland towns and cities still produce a great variety of products from wood : building materials such as sashes, doors, blinds, and moldings ; hardwood articles — chairs, pails, sleds, toys, clothespins, toothpicks, crutches, bob- bins, excelsior, and many others. Many thousand boxes and barrels are needed yearly to ship farm and factory products to market, so in southern New England more wood is used for boxes and crates than for all other woodworking industries combined, while every city has paper-box factories using Pig- 59-^ " The states have sought to encour- age reforestation." — Pine timber planted from seedlings. stock made from wood pulp. Clearly, to sustain these industries and to aid other New England industries we must renew our forests. Although the question has not yet been fully answered, some progress has neverthe- less been made toward its solu- 2. Means by tion. Fire prevention_ is fun- "^^t^^rL damental. Laws forbid start- ^"'■®'* ing fires in the open, save by permit. Spark arrestors are required on locomotives and portable steam engines. Slash, the waste where trees are cut, is not allowed to be left near a highway or another's property. In summer and autumn observers on hilltop towers watch for signs of woodland fires and telephone to the forest warden of a town where one is seen to have started that he may gather men to extinguish it. Such provisions have reduced our forest fire loss and make forest planting a surer investment. Are all measures named, or others, in force in your state? How must a campfire be managed to prevent spreading ? The states have sought to encourage re- forestation. The forest taxation laws are being changed with a view to taxing the lumber when cut rather than for its value each year during growth, that owners may afford to let it mature. State foresters have sought to acquaint the public with the need for tree planting and for care in lumbering. Since compulsion of private owners was judged impracticable, states have tried to stimulate action by making small state for- est reservations object lessons in profitable forestry. Most progress has been made in Massachusetts, where there are many small state plantations and large reserva- tions arc being secured, the purchase of 100,000 acres being authorized. In north- ern New England the paper-mill corpora- THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 49 h tions are planting native and Norway spruce on parts of their great forest holdings. There is need of cooper- ation in forestry by neighbors just as in other phases of farming. For several decades most lumbering in southern New England has been by owners of portable sawmills, run by steam or gasoline en- gines. They buy the stand- ing timber on a tract, cut all trees useful for boards or box lumber, and usually leave a waste behind. In Plymouth County, Massachusetts, there are still permanent neighborhood mills, and farm- ers cut larger trees on their own woodlands in winter and haul them to a mill to be sawn. Thereby saplings and small trees are saved to grow, and the stand of trees in the country is maintained. Every country district should have its own sawmill. The granite industry. — With city growth came a demand for more substantial and Fig. 60. Its history Fig. 61. — " Most progress has been made in Massachusetts A large Massachusetts nursery for reforestation purposes. - Planting pine seedlings on fire-swept waste. fire-proof building materials than wood ; brick and stone came into common use. The many exposed ledges of New Eng- land supply valuable stores of building materials. Granite is the most im- portant stone quarried. Though not easily or cheaply worked, it is a most durable stone for buildings, bridges, and monu- ments, and is highly prized because of the beauty of its crystaUine texture. As heavy teaming increased on the streets " of manufacturing cities, granite was needed to withstand the pounding of laden drays. Rounded cobble-stones from beaches were used at first in sea- port cities, then small paving blocks were made of granite. Granite may be separated into massive blocks and slabs by blasting, or by wedges driven into holes made by drills. Great numbers of curbstones and flagstones for street cross- ings were made by dividing and trimming blocks. Granite was early in demand for bridge abutments, foundation walls, 5° THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND dams, and embankment - [ '". ' though far inland and walls. So quarries were / "-x on the upland, produce opened in all parts of New / "^- stone of fine quality for England. lga^L™™v^^ monuments and build- The sinking of the coast lP^*'i^-^"l3||* /^-^^ ^"^^' ^^ ^^^ granite busi- has brought granite ledges |•v^i^^||i|^^'"^S^^^fca||^ ness is of great impor- next to deep water in ^^^«HK M^^^^^Ih ^ance there, employing many places, as on the is- .^if^* WBK' ^Uia^^^B hundreds of workmen, lands at the mouth of the '^^'* ''^~ IPHJi^mmI^^^B There are important quar- has been a leading in- i,^T"i^^^^^ Mm ^^Y^' ^^ ^^ Concord, dustry there, supplying ^m ^^^^^ ' Ji Those at Milford have paving blocks and build- ^W-^l "^HBt* V l^^^^l ^^^^ developed in recent ing stone for coast cities, ^^^^^-^i^ ^^P^jj years because the granites since transportation by ^fc^S^S!-j^^„_^__»j. "'i Maai there are easily quarried C ourtesy ijranite Rallu ay to schooner is mexpensive. pjg g^. _ The famous quarry of the and worked. Much of the by-product Granite Railway Company, Quincy. Here There are granite out- „f • ,„„,,i„, Ki ^ r, u„ in 1826 was built the first railway in Amer- • ,1 4. r -nt of irregular blocks has .^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^.^^ ^^^ 3^^^^^ j^j,, crops in all parts of New been used for govern- Monument. Granite for the Custom England and Substitutes for ment breakwaters. Other House Tower and Minot's Ledge Light- quarrying has eranite, and . house, Boston, and for the Gettysburg , , their effect famous coast quarries Monument came from this quarry. been started upon the quar- are at Quincy, Massa- at thousands ^"^s industry chusetts, and at Westerly, Rhode Island. of ledges. Many were soon abandoned be- The quarries about Barre, in Vermont, cause the stone did not prove to be of the high quality expected, or be- cause transportation was too expensive. But many good quarries are no longer worked. Only those supplying fine mon- umental granites and those so situated as to ship cheaply the coarser granites used for street and constructional work remain in prosperous activity. Few are increasing their output. The reasons are simple. Steel and cement are replacing stone in buildings and bridges. Gran- ite is too heavy to form the Courtesy Sullivan Granite Co. . _ . i -i i- - " Other famous coast quarries are at Westerly, R. L" - ^^^^^^ ""^ .^^'"^ ^^^^y buildings Quarrying granite two hundred feet underground. Cement is now used for sur- Fig. 63. THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND St facing streets and for bridges. Thus the de- mand for granite has not kept pace with the increase in population. Cement, however, is not equal to granite for city streets that are used for heavy Future pros- teaming. Paving blocks are now gr^he^^w- ^P^it 'o ^ uniform size and are ries carefully laid with a binder that makes the roadbed imper- vious to water. Granite curb- stones outwear cement curb- ing. Above all nothing equals granite for combined beauty and durability for monuments. The use of the power drill, held and di- rected by the hand and strik- ing swift blows by the force of compressed air or steam, makes it possible to shape tough granite blocks far more quickly and cheaply than for- merly. It is still preferred for the more massive stone work of the lower stories of steel frame buildings. The best and most accessible granites will remain in de- mand. New quarries of flinty rocks, even more resistant than granite, are being opened and worked in southern New England, as along the hard-rock rim of the Boston basin. Granite has special uses because it splits naturally into rectangular blocks. The even tougher rocks that blast into irregular frag- ments are crushed and the broken stone of sorted sizes is used with cement for roads and structural work. It is also used for macadamized roads with asphalt or oil for a surface binder. Quarries producing such rock do not require the skilled workmanship of granite or marble cutters ; they use power machinery and serve local needs. But the)' are likely to increase in number and output. Boston, the hub of New England. .\s village stores serve scattered farmers, so the wholesale stores and agents in the larger cities receive the surplus of the farms, goods from the factories, and many products from I'ourtt^stj Bn^ton Cftnmhcr of Commerce Fig. 64. — " The quarries about Barre, Vermont, produce stone of fine quality." outside New England and distribute them to retail stores in the towns. A few large seaports are the greatest trade centers. They receive raw materials — fibers, rubber, hides, dyestuffs — for factories situated in- land, and send away manufactured products from the factories. Boston is tlie largest of these centers. Its position has favored its commerce. It is situated at the center of a lowland basin, at the most westerly point of its advantages the coast north of Cape Cod ; "^ * p*"^ hence railway lines were readily built radiat- 52 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND ing from it to all the great mill cities. " The Hub " is an appropriate name. Not only do railway lines extend in almost every direction except due east ; Boston is like- wise a day's voyage nearer Europe than New York. The deep valleys in the Berk- shire upland, when connected by the Hoosac Tunnel, gave railway connection, with the Fig. 65. — Faneuil Hall, Boston. West by moderate grades, bringing grain, cattle, and other products of the prairies to Boston for distribution to all New Eng- land or for transfer to steamers for Europe. Great steamships leave Boston weekly for northern Europe, and other lines give regular connections with the Mediterranean and with important ports of the Americas ; while vessels discharge cargoes there every year from ports of every sea. There are over a score of foreign steamship lines with regular sailings to and from Boston, beside ten coastwise lines. Boston has a fine natural harbor which is being improved to meet modern needs. Since no narrow valley but a broad lowland dotted with hills of glacial clay is here over- flowed by the ocean, there is ample anchorage sheltered by many islands. The port is near the open sea, and a broad, deep ship channel is dredged to the wharves. The . older docks, with warehouses and grain elevators, are at East Boston, next the Navy Yard in Charlestown, and be- side the business section of Boston. The Commonwealth has made costly improvements at South Boston, providing a series of long piers with spa- cious warehouses, good railway connections, and deep water for the largest vessels. The great dry dock, nearly a quarter of a mile long, gives the port unsurpassed facili- ties for repairing steamships. During the World War the national government pur- chased the dry dock, and also built a great navy base ad- joining, with piers and ware- houses. Plans are drawn for another ex- tensive system of piers between East Boston and the harbor entrance, where land is now being reclaimed by raising the mud flats above high-tide level with clay pumped by dredges from the ship channel and anchorage basins. Several American ports surpass Boston in total exports, being nearer the great pro- ductive regions, but Boston ^^^ ^^^^ ^ ^ has a rich variety of exports, eign and do- the products of New England ™^^ "^ factories. Most exports go to northern THE GEOGTJ APin' OF NEW ENGLAND S3 Fig. 66. — " Boston has a fine natural harbor." Pholo by Gio. H. navU. Jr. Europe. Imports, however, come from all continents in more equal measure, and con- sist mainly of the various fibers and other raw materials used in our industries. The demand is so great that Boston is second only to New York in the value of its imports. Wool is the leading import. At the end of the World War Boston surpassed even London as a wool market. The costly stocks of wool, stored in great warehouses beside the harbor, are gathered from the North Central and Western states, from Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and Argentina, in fact from all the world. They offer so wide a range of choice that they attract buy- ers regularly from all American textile centers and at times from Europe, for here a pur- chaser may select wool of just the quality he needs. The offices of more than a hun- dred important firms engaged in the sale of wool are grouped near the South Station. Because New England mills make fine cot- ton fabrics, Boston imports more Egyptian and Peruvian cotton than any other Ameri- can port, and it also exports some American cotton. Brokers have agents in the Southern States buying up cotton, which is sold in Boston from samples and then shipped direct to the mill from the cotton gins. Banks loan the money to purchase the cotton, and receive it back with interest when the mills have made the fiber into cloth. Boston therefore is a great financial center, not only investing capital to establish mills, but also supplying that which is needed for their transactions. One of the twelve Fed- eral Reserve banks is in Boston ; to this bank all New England national banks, except 54 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND Fig. 67. — "Wool is the leading import." — Massachusetts Wharf, where ships unload their cargoes of wool. those of Connecticut, are related. Many national banks, as well as trust companies under state control, are in the business district, convenient to merchants and manuf ac tur ers whose working cap- ital is deposited with them. The banks aid foreign trade also, and the First National Bank of Boston, with a branch in Buenos Ayres and active bank accounts in the principal cities abroad, has next to the largest foreign business of all the banks in the coun- try. The banks ad- just their indebt- edness through the Boston Clearing Fig. 68. Boston Custom House, skyscraper. House, which ranks next to that of New York City in the number of checks han- dled. In the same portion of the city is the Boston Stock Exchange. Here too are the offices or agencies of the great insurance companies. Boston is the greatest American market for leather and leather goods. The tan- neries receive many skins and hides that are imported at Boston. Leather is shipped there from tanneries all over the country. A part of it is sold to factories out- side of New England. Some of the shoes made from this leather return to Boston for sale; in fact many shoe factories have Boston offices where their samples are displayed for ex- amination by pur- chasing agents from distant cities. Sim- ilarly most of the textile mills, ma- chine shops, and other New England factories have offices in Boston for sale of their products, al- though the business center for western Connecticut is New York City and many large corporations have offices in both cities. We have already noted that there Boston's only THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 55 are great textile factories in and near Boston, and that it surpasses other New England Its varied cities in the production of foun- manufacturing dry and machine-shop products, in us les Similarly, many shoes are made in Boston as well as sold there, and it leads in the production of shoe findings and cut stock for sale to factories. Populous com- mercial cities always tend to become the seats of many and varied manufacturing plants because of the availability of materials and labor and the readv markets near at hand or which supply building materials and heating plants are especially numerous in Boston, where contracts for work all over New Eng- land are awarded. The preparation of good products for ship- ment and sale is more important in Boston and its immediate suburbs than any other single industry. Sugar is imported and refined here ; cocoa is imported and manu- factured, one chocolate factory being the largest in the world ; while the making of confectionery has become a great industry, Fig. 69. — A great factory in the Boston basin. easily reached. Thus a fourth of the man- ufacturing establishments of all Massachu- setts are in Boston, and the goods manufac- tured there far exceed in value those of any other city of New England. Boston leads other New England cities in important hnes of manufacture, notably in the production of clothing and in the pub- hshing and printing of books and periodicals. It is the chief center of the country for building pipe organs for churches and, with Cambridge, makes more than half the pianos and other musical instruments made in Massachusetts. While every growing city employs men of many trades in erecting buildings, architects, contractors, and firms Courtesy Waltham Watch Co. - Here the famous Waltham watches are made. surpassing that of other cities. Tea is im- ported and packed for sale ; coffee is imported, roasted, and ground ; spices are ground and packed. Although most cattle are slaughtered in Western cities, trainloads of hogs are sent to pork-packing houses in Somerville and Cambridge, adjoining Boston, to be killed and dressed for the New England market. In addition to hundreds of neighborhood bakeries there are great factories that make crackers or fresh bread and cake for distribution by automobile throughout the metropolitan region and, in fact, all New England. The surface of the lowland basin in which Boston lies is varied and determines the 56 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND location of cities and homes. The glacier scoured the ledges of the rough rim ; hence Th d" b many of its rocky hills are still tion of popuia- wooded and the wilder portions Boston brsin ^^6 reserved for public parks. 1. In Boston Within the basin the glacier de- ^^°^" posited many drumlins. These rise from the mud flats of the harbor as islands, and form hills about the harbor head where many homes are located. On Beacon Hill is the State House, on the Charlestown hills the battle of Bunker Hill was fought. Since glacial times broad salt marshes have been built up along the rivers and behind barrier beaches. Areas of marsh and mud flats in Boston have been built up as val- uable " made land " for residences and ware- houses, but most marsh lands remain unoc- cupied. The harder basin rocks rise as hilly tracts south and west of Boston ; so residential districts are contin- uous there, except for the public lands of Franklin Park and the Arnold Arboretum, and such large private estates in Brookline and Newton as are not yet cut up into house lots. The large cities of Cambridge, Somerville, T .. Chelsea, and Everett adjoin Bos- 2. In the ■' vicinity of ton on the north, across the oston Charles and Mystic rivers, but have separate governments. Charlestown, Fig. 70. — " On the Charlestown hills the battle of Bunker Hill was fought." — Bunker Hill Monument. Brighton, Roxbury, and Dorchester were annexed to Boston soon after the Civil War, Hyde Park recently. Brookline, although nearly inclosed by parts of Boston and larger than many cities, prefers a separate town government. Many cities and large towns are situated just within the rim of the basin and others along the radiating val- leys. The settlers cleared these level lands for farms ; when turn- pikes were built from Boston, villages grew beside them ; after rail- roads came, the villages changed to cities, the homes for people en- gaged in business in Boston and the seats of important industries. Within the rim are Lynn, Maiden, Med- ford, Waltham, Newton, Quincy, and several smaller centers ; just outside are Melrose, Woburn, and residential towns like Winchester, Wellesley, and Ded- ham. The leading indus- tries in the cities have already been studied. Despite other indus- the large built-up areas, the tries of the value of agricultural products °^*°° *^™ grown in Boston and its environs is high, for the near market for flowers and fresh vegetables at high prices makes intensive market gardening and the use of hotbeds and hothouses profitable. This is notably im- portant in Arhngton and other towns north- THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 57 west of Boston. Steel ships are built at Fore River in Quincy, and there is a govern- ment arsenal at Watertown. Many problems resulting from the dense population „ , ,. , of the Boston Public works serving the basin have been Boston basin ^^j^^j . ^j^^ p^^_ vision of abundant pure water, the disposal of sewage, and the reservation of a park system to supplement local playgrounds. Near-by lakes pjg ^j could not store enough water or insure its purity. Boston built aqueducts from reservoirs as far west- ward as Lake Cochituate. One of the world's great reservoirs, in the upper basin of the Nashua River, stores water from the slopes southeast of Mount Wachusett. A Metropolitan Commission, appointed by the governor, administers the work for the nineteen towns and cities thus served. It also controls the Northern and Southern Sewerage Districts, whose great trunk sewers through the Mystic, Charles, and Neponset vallevs conduct the sewage from twentv-six ' ' i.-rj CtiaTtit>er oj C'ommcTct "Steel ships are built at Fore River in Quincy." — An airplane view. cities and towns in the lowland and the val- leys at the north and carry it to the outer harbor. The same commission also directs the great system of public reservations of the jNIetropolitan Park System. These total over ten thousand acres in thirty-eight towns and cities, and are located on the upland border and along the river banks and the water front, with connecting parkways. Every morning many thousands of people pour forth from the South Station as trains come in quick succession from Tributary towns sur- rounding the CouTtesv Boston Cfjnmhfr of Commfrce Fig. 72. — The Widener Memorial Library, Hsirvard University, Cambridge. the south and west of Boston ; other thousands pass through basin the North Station from the valleys to the north and west. Very many come by trolley, hundreds more in automobiles. Business men and employees gather daily from homes twenty miles away. These outlying towns and cities have industries of their own, yet are closely related to Boston. Fleets of auto trucks bring to them such materials as great bundles of leather and stores of food supplies, and carry back to the Hub cases of manufactured goods and loads of farm produce. From all these communities people 58 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND go to Boston to shop and for amusement and instruction. Industrially and socially, Boston extends throughout the metropohtan district. The industries of this outer Boston are nearly as varied as those of the Hub itself ; indeed some, like the Dennison factory in Framingham, have removed from Boston to points where operatives could purchase vil- lage homes. Cotton goods are produced at Salem ; cordage at Plymouth ; rattan fur- niture at Wakefield ; books at Nonvood ; shoes are a specialty, for example at Salem and Beverly and especially at Lynn. There are many summer homes for Boston people within easy reach of the city. They look seaward along the bold shores from Cape Ann to Plymouth, and cluster about the harbors, as at Marblehead, and beside the bathing beaches, as at Revere. There are cozy camps beside every little lake, while homes of the wealthy have replaced the simple farm buildings in many towns. Fig- 73- — " The new buildings of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology are in Cambridge beside the Charles River." and straw goods in towns near Franklin. Years ago hats were made in this vicinity from braided straw, in imitation of those imported from Europe, and this household industry was later transferred to factories. The shoe and leather industries are most common. South from Boston in Brockton and more than a dozen near-by towns, such as Rockland, Weymouth, and Middle- boro, there are large factories for making fine shoes for men and boys. These are also made in Maynard, Framingham, Mil- ford, and other towns west of Boston, while Marlboro ranks as the fourth shoe city in New England. North of Boston women's Boston is a great educational center. Students come from many states and coun- tries. The colleges and profes- ^^„^g^^ ^^ sional schools which constitute schools in and Harvard University, in Cam- °^" °^ °° bridge, with Radchffe College for women, form a busy and populous community in them- selves. The new buildings of the Massachu- setts Institute of Technology are also in Cam- bridge beside the Charles River. Near by, Tufts College overlooks Medford from a drumUn hill. In Boston itself are Boston University, Simmons College for women, and Northeastern College of the Y. M. C. A. Within the metropolitan area are Boston Col- THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 59 lege, and Wellesley College for women. State normal schools are situated at Bridgewater, Framingham, and Salem, and within Boston itself is the Boston Normal College, main- tained by the city. The State Normal Art School and pri- vate schools of music and the fine arts are in Boston near the rich collections of the great Art Museum and the noble building of the Boston Public Library, which has one of the most valuable collec- tions of books in the coun- try. In and near Boston there are also many schools for special purposes. The Comiecticut Valley lowland. — In the Boston basin population centers about the Fig- 74- Fig- 75- — " The tall tower and great public auditorium at the civic center beside the Connecticut River in Springfield." (p. 63.) " Within the metropolitan area is Wellesley College for women." harbor and along routes leading to it. Like- wise the cities of the long Connecticut low- land are beside watercourses or „, ,. ... The distribu- railways. Here also the largest, tion of popu- New Haven, is '^^°° situated at tidewater. Thence in Colonial times meat and lumber were shipped to the West Indies, and after the Revolution the China trade grew to large im- portance. When the Civil War checked foreign com- merce, manufacturing became the leading interest here, for coastwise trade supplies materials and distributes fac- tory products, and extensive railway repair shops are lo- cated here. Since the Con- necticut River reaches the sea by way of a narrow valley worn through hare/ upland rocks, there is no city below Middletown ; for there ^IL^ii iioslvn c 6o THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND the river leaves the lowland. (What changes in sea and land transportation turned this river port from its early Colonial leadership in commerce to manu- facturing?) Hartford, the capital of Con- necticut, owes much of its earlier growth to its position at the head of river navigation, for this favored the establishment of exten- LuufUsy bosiuti C'liamber of Commerce Fig. 76. — • The canal at Holyoke. sive and varied manufacturing industries. However, as a trading and business center to-day it is dependent on land routes, the steam and electric railways and the state highways that radiate from it through the rich agricultural lowland to many factory towns. The third city in size in this valley is Springfield, in Massachusetts, where two tributary valleys lead highways and rail- ways to a natural center for trade, and where varied industries are established. The at- tractive town of Greenfield at the northern end of the lowland is similarly situated be- tween the Deerfield and Millers rivers. Where the rivers have cut away the sands of the flood-plain terraces to ledges beneath, water power has given rise to manufactur- ing cities. Holyoke, where the Connecticut itself is dammed, is the largest, while Chicopee, Northampton, and Westiield are on tributaries. Water power is less impor- tant in Connecticut ; New Britain and Meriden are situ- ated where railways cross the lowland through gaps in the ridges. There are busy fac- tories also in Wallingford, Bristol, and other railway towns in this region. This long lowland has ample room for city growth ; its three chief commercial cen- ters need no suburbs in up- land valleys, so Orange and Athol, Palmer and Ware are merely the largest manufac- turing towns on tributaries in Massachusetts that lead to valley trade centers. Man- chester and Rockville, near Hartford, are also in a valley of the eastern upland. There is a great variety of manufacturing industries throughout this lowland. In Colonial days clocks, tinware, and " Yankee notions " made by hand in the southern 1 Manufac- turing valley towns for sale from ped- dlers' carts, while extension of railways over the lowland so stimulated production that The character- were istic industries THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 6i now over twelve hundred kinds of products are listed as regularly manufactured in Connecticut. The many fac- tories of nearly every city and industrial town in and near the lowland make a great variety of goods, although several cities are foremost in some one line. New Britain is the leading center for hard- ware and cutlery. Meriden produces silverware and more silver-plated ware than any other place in America. The United States Arsenal is in Springfield, and there are great private plants for mak- ing firearms and ammunition in the larger Connecticut cities and at Springfield and Chicopee. Holyoke is different. Instead of a slow development of various local industries to Fig. 77. Fig. 78. — "Truck gardens abound near the cities." string beans. In Massachusetts fields of onions are common in some river towns." large importance, outside capital built the dam and canals, the great textile and paper mills, and the related machine shops ; it is therefore a mill city. It leads in the manufacture of fine paper from rags, an in- dustry which is important also in other cities and towns within or near the Con- necticut lowland. Rags are received from the near-by seaports and great cities, and the water of this section is finely adapted to paper manu- facture. In the paper mills the rags are sorted and freed from buttons and dust, then cut, boiled, and soaked in chemicals until they form a mass of pure white pulp. This is washed, ground finer still, colored to the shade ulturat Chemical Co - Harvesting 62 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND desired, and then made into paper. The sheets are dried, rolled smooth, cut to size, and prepared for sale to be used in cor- respondence or in account books, or to be printed as bonds and stock certificates. prosperous farming region, for the soils are level and free from bowlders, and the climate is milder than on the uplands, while near-by cities and railways make it easy to market products. Truck 2. Agricultural Over half the fine paper of the country is gardens and dairy farms abound near the made in western Massachusetts. cities. Some farms raise garden seeds. In There are paper and textile mills at Massachusetts fields of onions are common Northampton and Westfield, but these cities in some river towns, and there are thrifty apple orchards on the hilly slopes of the upland. When late frosts blight fruit buds on the lowland, trees on the hills often escape. For this reason productive peach orchards have been developed among the hills bordering the lowland in Connecticut. The broad-leaved tobacco plant is here the most valu- able crop. Though the heavy soils of the lowest terraces, containing clay and fine silt, retain moisture and give large yields of heavy, coarse to- bacco, the light sandy soils of higher terraces are most used, for when heavily fer- tiUzed they produce a hght- colored, thin-textured leaf of the best quality for cigar wrappers. Much is grown also have the varied interests characteristic on the river terrace soils from Middletown of Connecticut. Long ago a Westfield man to Northfield, more being grown in Connecti- cut willow whips for passing teamsters ; cut than farther north in Massachusetts, from such homely start has grown a great The tourist finds beautiful scenes every- whip-making industry. There are great where in the valley. Some towns retain mills for spinning silk in Northampton, broad grassy commons, bor- signs of pros- Silk cloth of high quality is also woven at dered by stately elms that over- P^"*y the mills in South Manchester, near Hart- arch the old Colonial houses. Even the ford (p. 25). largest city, New Haven, is known as the Between the cities of this lowland is a Elm City because of the beautifully shaded Fig. 79. Courtesy Boston Char Much tobacco is grown on the river terrace soils in the Connecticut Valley." THE GEOGRAPHY OE NEW ENGLAND 63 Fig. 80. — " In Hartford are the great buildings that house the home offices of many important insurance companies." Streets about the central green. The scat- tered cities of this lowland have their own parks instead of a metropolitan park system, but the fine highways and country roads of the valley are virtually connecting park- ways. The cities have modern buildings of which they are justly proud, for example the tall tower and great pubhc auditorium at the civic center beside the Connecticut River in Springfield. In Hartford the state capitol stands in the central park ; near by are the great buildings that house the home offices of many important insurance com- panies, for Hartford is one of the largest insurance centers of the country. There are many famous educational in- stitutions throughout the length and breadth of the lowland, a source as well as a product of its prosperity. Yale University, at New Haven, is one of the oldest institutions of America, a rival of Harvard. Trinity Col- lege is at Hartford, Wesleyan University at Middletown. At Amherst is a famous old classical college, ^Ajnherst College, and also the Massachusetts Agricultural College. Near by are two colleges for women. Mount Holyoke College at South Hadley and Smith College at Northampton. There are state normal schools at New Haven, New Britain, and Westfield, and famous academies and private schools of high standing in other towns and cities. The Narragansett basin. — The largest city of the Narragansett basin. Providence, is a seaport where a tidal chan- _, ^ , ' _ _ The seat of a nel reaches far inland, as in the dense popuia- other lowlands that we have *'°" studied. As in the neighborhood of Boston, there are many manufacturing and residen- tial communities on the railway lines and 64 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND Fig. 8i. — joiiii M Greene Hall, Smith College. State highways that radiate from this com- mercial center. Several of these are ad- joining cities and towns — Pawtucket, Cen- tral Falls, East Providence, Cranston — while a succession of mill villages extends out along the Pawtuxet River in War- wick, and others extend north along the Blackstone to Woonsocket. The group re- calls Greater Boston in density of settlement, for four fifths of the people of Rhode Island live here, and within the metropolitan district of Providence as established by the state there are a half- million people. Here too it is necessary to bring water from the uplands, and a great reservoir is being constructed on the headwaters of the Paw- tuxet. All the surplus water will be used to generate electricity, which will be sold for power as at the Wachusett Reservoir in Massachusetts. The sewage system has Fig. 82. — The Civic Center, Providence. THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 6S 1. Its harbor and its com- merce been extended into the suburbs here as at Boston, and there is an extensive system of parks and parkways. Providence had an extensive commerce in Colonial times, but Boston's better rail- Providence way connections with the West and its deeper harbor facing Europe centered New England commerce there. The work of Samuel Slater turned Rhode Island capital to textile manu- facturing and made this the leading industry of the Narragansett lowland. Now com- merce is being fostered again as an aid to industry. A channel thirty feet deep has been dredged, a dry dock and a repair pier have been con- structed, and steamers of the Fabre Line between southern Europe and New York take on cargo at the state pier at Providence. There are several steamship lines to Atlantic ports ; coal, lumber, wool, cotton, and other raw ma- terials are received, and manu- factured products are taken to New York. One line from New York plies to Pawtucket. Great steamers bring fuel oil from Mexico and Texas to Providence, which is the nearest New England port and which is becoming the most important oil distrib- uting center on the Atlantic coast. While Boston is primarily commercial, Providence is mainly industrial. The value of its mill products is half the total for the state. The early mills were at near-by power sites, but when coal largely superseded water power great milh were built near the wharves. While the manufacture of worsted goods is most im- portant, there are many cotton mills and extensi\c bleaching, dying, and printing works. Tlie production of machinery is important as in other mill cities, but in the variety of its metal manufactures Providence is like the cities of the Connecticut lowland. Machine tools of finest quality, screws, files, and like products are made in large factories. Providence is still more famous for its manu- facture of jewelry, in which industrj^ many firms share, and for the production of silver- ware. These latter industries have extended 2. Its indus- tries Fig. 83. — Brown University, Providence. across the state line to Massachusetts towns of the lowland, where production of less expensive jewelry has made Attleboro and North Attleboro large and prosperous towns. A large factory in Taunton makes silverware. The Narragansett lowland resembles the Connecticut valley in being much larger than the Boston basin, but it _ „ The Massa- is broad rather than long, and is chusetts cities half submerged like that at Bos- ''^^^i^^^Z" ton. Since larger rivers enter near the eastern and western upland borders 66 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND Courfeity New Balford Board nf t'ommrrrf Fig. 84. — " New Bedford, a harbor outside the Narragansett basin." — Note the whalers and barrels of whale oil in the foreground. there are two branches of the bay with steamer channels. Certain important cities of this lowland are beyond the Hmits of metro- politan Providence, across the state line in Massachusetts. You are already acquainted with the leadership of Fall River in cotton manufacturing, and the more recent develop- ment of textile mills at New Bedford, a harbor outside the Narragansett basin. Taunton, at the head of navigation above Fall River, successfully con- tinues the manufacture of stoves and furnaces, es- tablished long ago with native ores. Its varied products recall those of Connecticut cities. Brock- ton and neighboring towns are within the Narragan- sett lowland, but their in- terests ally them with the cities of the Boston basin. While several towns of the lowland between Provi- dence and Fall The farms . , , River, m both Rhode Island and Massa- chusetts, share in the textile, jewelry, or foundry industries, agriculture is impor- tant in this region, as in the Connecticut lowland. Near Providence, especially in Cranston, there are large market gardens. Dairy farms are found near the cities, and milk is also brought to Providence from far out on the lowland and from back on the upland. Small fruits are raised in Bristol ouru^y bail liivtr Vhambir 0] CorrtmeTct Fig. 85. — " You are already acquainted with the leadership of Fall River in cotton manufacturing." — American Printing Co. and Iron Works MiUs at left. THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 67 County, whose Dighton straw- berries are well known. Poul- try farms are numerous, espe- cially in towns between the bay and New Bedford. The breadth of the Narragan- sett lowland gives the bay itself The islands— importance. The Newport Iqw hiUs of the former lowland are now broad islands, devoted to farming. The granite ledges at the outer end of Aquidneck, or Rhode Island, afford a fine harbor. Here Newport was settled and early developed a large foreign commerce. Al- though this was lost to main- land ports, the national govern- ment maintains a torpedo station here and a training station for naval apprentices. Yachts from New York often anchor here, for New- port is the most famous and fashionable coast resort of the country. Many stately dwell- ings, the summer homes of wealthy people of New York and other cities, overlook the Fig. 86. !ir!f-if l.i'U'il cnamh<'r of CommeTCe Fig. 87. — " Lowell, with a hundred great mills, is known as the city of spindles." — The Massa- chusetts Cotton Mills. l-}.ntn h'j linsron A Mctue R. R. ' Many stately dwellings overlook the ocean along the Cliff Walk." — Newport, Rhode Island. ocean along the Cliff Walk. Narragansett Pier and many points on the islands and shores of the bay are frequented by summer visitors and residents, as are the beaches of Boston harbor and the neighboring upland shores. Fishing fleets still use Newport wharves, since its outer harbor is convenient to the fishing grounds of the warm The fishing waters south of Cape Cod, and ^''"^'^ the catch can be shipped by rail or steamer to New York and Boston for the morning markets. Fish are taken in many fish traps in the bay and its shallows have been famous for shellfish — scallops, oysters, and clams. To foster the industry the state has main- tained lobster- and fish-hatching stations, and has leased grounds for oyster beds. Nevertheless the industry has declined be- cause of the growth of population and con- sequent pollution of the waters. The Merrimac Valley. — The largest city of each of the three lowlands that we have 68 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND Cities studied is a seaport. Newburyport, how- ever, at the mouth of the Merrimac River, is the smallest of all the older cities of the Merrimac Valley. This valley is nowhere very broad, and toward its mouth the river winds among drumlin hills and other glacial deposits. Thus it has no wide bay, like the lowlands, and the tides sweep the sands of Plum Island stream, it is close to Lowell and shares its commercial advantages. The state capital, Concord, and the smaller industrial cities of Laconia and Franklin are farther up the river, but it is only the portion from Man- chester to the sea that is densely settled and that resembles the Connecticut lowland below Holyoke. The leading industries were determined across its outlet and exclude deep-draught by the presence of abundant water power ocean vessels. The larger cities are situated near Boston. Dams were less costly than that at Holyoke on the broader Connecticut, and large lakes at the headwaters of the Merrimac favor a steady stream flow. Boston capital therefore started the textile industry here nearly as early as that of the Narragansett lowland. Lowell, with a hundred great mills, is known as the City of Spindles. Law- rence and Manchester have some of the largest mill build- ings of the world ; no other river supplies power to so many spindles and looms, some distance inland along the lower course Cotton is spun and woven in each large city of the river. Lowell, situated where the and by many mills on tributaries. Woolen river turns eastward, is the largest of these goods are produced in towns as well as cities. Courtesy Lowell Chamber of Commerce Fig. 88. — Memorial Auditorium, Lowell. cities. No large tributary enters below it ; falls here afford a good head of water for power ; the open valleys afford easy com- munication with the Boston basin by road, canal, and railway. Lawrence is situated at the lowest power site on the river ; with the adjoining mill communities of Methuen and the Andovers it rivals Lowell. Nashua ranks second only to Manchester in size among New Hamj)shire cities, for, though situated at a power site on a tributary of the main Lawrence leads in the manufacture of worsted cloth, surpassing even Providence, and there are worsted mills in both Lowell and Man- chester. There are carpet mills at Lowell and Lawrence, a mill for linen twines and shoe thread at Andover, and mills for knit- ting underwear and hosiery in many cities and towns. The leather and metal industries are also important. Haverhill was one of the centers of supply for the early shoemakers in little THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 69 village and farm shops, and, since it is at the head of navigation for coal barges, modern shoe factories have prospered there. It has long led in the manufacture of slippers and women's low shoes, and has recently in- creased its output in other lines. There are shoe factories in Newbury]3ort and in each city between it and Manchester. One series of New Hampshire factories is now part of a system operated by a large shoe corpora- tion of the Middle West. Because of the great textile interests, the construction and repair of mill machinery is an important industry in each city. A trunk railway line follows the valley and branches lead along tributaries, so there are great repair shops at Concord and near Lowell, while locomotives are built in Manchester and cars at Laconia. Following the tend- ency of industries to diversify in large cities, where skilled workers, materials, and markets are available, many other metal goods are produced, from silverware at New- buryport to needles in New Hampshire centers. The great cartridge factory near Lowell recalls the munition works of cities from Chicopee to New Haven, for the Merrimac cities repeat in new combination h'lini'ir if Commerce Fig. 90. • A modern business block, Manchester, New Hampshire. Education Fig. 89. - Dartmouth Hall. Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire. the industries of the lowlands, just as the terraced levels of the rather narrow valley, and its thick-set towns and cities, are similar to the Connecticut Valley in surface and population. There is, however, no college in the valley. The prosperity of the broad lowlands is of earlier date than that of mill cities in narrow valleys, and the colleges of southern New England, with Dart- mouth College on the upper Connecticut, long met the needs of the Merrimac Valley. The many old private schools of high rank, such as Bradford Academy at Haverhill for girls, Phillips Andover Academy near Law- rence and .St. Paul's school at Concord for l)oys, and Tilton Seminary for both boys and girls, show that education was valued here from early days. Lowell has a state normal 7° THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND school and a textile school of collegiate rank, receiving state aid, which trains mill superintendents, chemists, designers, and other industrial experts. The Massachusetts legislature has provided for a course in tan- ning at this school, although tanneries in and near Lowell are fewer than those about IVabody. / The upland belt bordering the lowlands. — "A belt some fifty miles wide between the Tu J ^-1 higher uplands and the lowland The industrial ° _ ^ cities in the basins corresponds to the ®^^ southern Piedmont. The val- leys of this belt that adjoin the three densely Courtesy Wurccslcr cli'imlttr uf Commerce Fig. 91. — "In Worcester there is Clark University." populated lowland basins share their life. Populous towns have developed about mills beside the rivers or around groups of factories along the many railways which lead to the great commercial centers. If from the great mills and bleacheries of metropolitan Providence one turns north- ward among the upland hills, one sees cotton- mill villages along the Blackstone River, then many yarn mills and other textile plants at the city of Woonsockct, with foun- dries, machine shops, and rubber factories, much as at Providence. Beyond, in Massa- chusetts, there are occasional woolen and cotton mills. Westward from the Narra- gansett lowland one mill village succeeds another until only the brooks and farms of the upland remain. But when railway and highway descend a tributary toward the Quinebaug Valley in Connecticut, there are once more cotton mills, bleacheries, and dye works, woolen and worsted mills, whether one follows the river to tidewater at Norwich or north to Webster, Southbridge, and smaller industrial towns of Massachusetts. The largest Webster textile plant still bears the name of S. Slater & Sons, the founders of American cotton factories ; for many of these mills were estabhshed a century ago by industrial leaders who invested capital that had been gained at Narra- gansett ports in developing and using inland water power. Farther north, in Massa- chusetts, there are cotton mills at some larger power sites, as in Fitchburg, Chnton, and Palmer, but the numerous smaller textile mills on head- water streams make woolen goods. Still farther north in Massachusetts and New Hampshire there are factories pro- ducing woodenware, such as tubs and pails, chairs, spools, rakes, and wheelbarrows. In some cases the industry has developed into the production of such specialties as toys, bas- kets, or baby carriages ; and at Gardner, on the upland, there are large factories for rattan furniture. In river towns and cities, from near the New Hampshire-Massachusetts border northward, there are mills which produce wood pulp or fiber board. Occa- THE GKOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 71 Trade centers sionally there are factories making various types of machinery, such as woodworking machinery, or specialties in cutlery and hard- ware. Worcester, the " Heart of the Common- wealth," is the trade center for central Massa- chusetts. Situated in the upper valley of the Blackstone, at the border of the higher upland on its west, and about equally distant from Boston and Springfield, Providence, and Lowell, it is a natural center for important railway lines. Since it lies at the western angle of the diamond-shaped district of dense industrial population in eastern Massa- chusetts and Rhode Island, its factories supply machinery to the mills of the lowland cities. There are also many factories like those of the lowlands — cotton and woolen mills, bleacheries, and shoe fac- tories. It makes also goods typical of Connecticut cities, such as hardware and cor- sets, and the long list of prod- ucts to be expected in a large city of this region, for Wor- cester is the third city of New England. The development of industries at natural trade centers has given rise to numerous smaller cities on the upland. Several val- leys and railways meet in Connecticut where the Air Line railway passes across the up- lands from Boston to New York, but it is the cotton thread and sewing silk made there that make the name of Willimantic fa- mihar. In New Hampshire the roads and railways of several tributary valleys center in the fer- tile basin of the Ashuelot River, giving Keene the advantages of good soil, the trade of villages on valley roads, and water power — first from local streams, now from the Connecticut ])y wire. Local enterprise has established varied manufactures of textiles, shoes, machinery and finer metal goods from imported materials, and woodenware and mica from resources of the uplands. WTiile Keene is a small city, it is yet the largest Fig. 92. CuuTlcxy jrorr(\v(tr Chutnber uf Commerce "Worcester is the third city of New England." — Main Street, looking north. center within the Connecticut basin north of Massachusetts. In New York state there is a belt of dense population along the lowland transpor- tation line of the New York centers of Barge (Erie) Canal and Hudson population T3- c 1 . • -1 1 along the River. Somewhat smularly tmnk-iine there are large towns and cities railroads along the line of railway that brings Western products through the Hoosac Tunnel and across the uplands to Boston. The largest is Fitchburg, where a stream descends rapidly 72 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND in a narrow valley over the dams of cotton, worsted, and paper mills and past machine shops and foundries. Down the valley are the mills and comb factories of Leominster, westward the chair town of Gardner on the upland, and the machine shops of Athol and Orange toward the Connecticut. There are large towns also along the Boston and Albany Railroad, both east and west of Worcester. This is in contrast to the arrangement of large towns and cities along north-and-south valleys elsewhere in New England. quarries, the ujiland towns must lind pros- perity by developing their farms to sup- ply dairy and poultry, garden and wood- land products to meet lowland needs. The higher uplands. — As we learned on pages 33-41, the problem of restoring farm prosperity in New England is . . an acute one. The uplands of 1. The aban- the Berkshire Hills, those west <'<>°«'i ^"""^ of the Merrimac River, and the Green Moun- tains attain elevations of from 1,000 to more than 3,000 feet above the sea. Farms on the Photo tiv Boston .t Maine R. R. Fig. 93. — Mt. Washington, in the White Mountains. Education While many youth of the uplands attend the great universities and famous schools of the lowlands, educational advantages are not lacking in the upland valleys. In Worcester there are Clark University, the Worcester Polytechnic Institute, and Holy Cross College. Worcester, Willimantic, and Keene are natural centers for normal schools, and one at Fitchburg serves north central Massachusetts. The Connecticut Agricultural College is near Wil- limantic, on the upland, for aside from the mills of riverside villages, and scattered upland are isolated, cold, and bleak in win- ter, and their crop season is limited by frosts. Arable lands in many of the lesser valleys occupy narrow areas between the pastures and the woodlots of the valley slopes. From northern Massachusetts the Green Moun- tains form a belt of rugged and forested highlands ten or more miles in width. North of Mount Monadnock in New Hamp- shire groups of wooded peaks occupy more and more of the surface up to the White Mountains. Some villages here are thrifty and attractive ; yet there are abandoned THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW IINGLAND 73 farms on back roads and even deserted school districts and villages. Milk trains now traverse the valleys (p. 36), but many towns and farms lie well back 2. The dairy from railway Hnes, industry gQ ^\-^^i creameries and cheese factories have sprung u]) in order that dairy products may be transported to advantage. In Vermont much of the milk is now con- densed or evaporated in fac- tories. Improved processes and machinery, under expert care, produce butter and cheese of high excellence, which command a higher price in the open market than similar products gathered from small farms. The cheese fac- tories are mainly in the southern third of Vermont, and most of the creameries are also I'fiofo by Boston •& Maine R. R Fig- 95- — " Vermont is the center of maple sugar production." Gathering the sap. Fig. 94. — A prosperous New England farm. in this state. The value of the butter pro- duced is many times that of the cheese. Northward of the forking of the Green Mountains in Vermont (see map), railways and highways 3 Farming in pass on easy ^"'"o"* grades through the valleys from east to west. There the surface is less irregular and there is more improved land and good pasturage, although rural population has decreased everywhere except on the level islands of Lake Champlain. The best grasslands and tillage are along the terraced intervales of the Connecticut, and in western Vermont where a broad lowland, occupied in large part by Lake Champlain, extends from Canada south- ward into the Hudson Valley. At the close of the glacial 74 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND period northern New England was depressed and fertile clay soils were deposited in the shallow waters that then covered the lake shore lowlands and the Otter Creek Valley. Here the farms are large and yield abundant crops of hay and grain. Apples and other I'lmtu by Boston it- Moinc R. R. Fig. 96. — "The mills of Springfield, Vermont, are on a smaller stream where it descends to the main valley." fruits bring good returns along the shore of Lake Champlain, where westerly winds from over the water delay blooming until spring frosts are past. (See main text, p. 56.) On the uplands hay for the dairy herds is the leading crop. There are occasional small flocks of sheep, raised mainly for mut- ton. Wool was once an important export, the crops being fed to sheep as well as to cattle. Vermont was then famous for Merino sheep and Morgan horses, sold from its stock farms to other states. Its dairy herds are of high grade to-day, and horse breeding is still carried on on some farms. The most characteristic product of the up- lands, however, is maple sugar. While snow still covers the rocky slopes in upland maple orchards, periods of clear skies in early spring, with warm sunhght following frosty nights, give the conditions necessary to ac- tive flow of the maple sap. Vermont is the center of maple sugar production. Wliile the uplands and valleys are dis- tinctively rural and form the farming region of New England, their farm prod- Manufactiu-- ucts are of less value than the "'S output of quarries and of mills in the valley towns. The tourist following the Connect- icut River highways comes to many towns which form trade centers for the tributary valleys, where water power has occa- sioned industrial growth. Brattleboro, with its great factories for reed organs, is at the junction of the West River. At Bellows Falls there are paper mills and shops making machinery for creameries and for farms. The mills and machine shops of Claremont and Lebanon, New Hampshire, and of Springfield, Vermont, are on smaller streams where they descend to the main valley. Below Lancaster the Connecticut turns from its pre-glacial course into the Androscoggin and now flows westward across the old di- vide. No railway follows this new valley and industrial towns are on the tributary streams. St. Johnsbury is at a valley and railway center on the ancient headwaters of the Connecticut, now the Passumpsic. Here has been developed the largest scales factory anywhere in operation. Where smaller streams gather to form the Winooski is situated the trade center of Montpelier, a natural choice for the state capital. Its prosperity and, even more. THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 75 that of Barre are dependent upon their quarries of fine gray monumental granite, the " Rock of Ages." There are no other cities between the dividing ranges of the Green Mountains, for trade and in- dustry seek the fertile west- ern lowlands. Following the Winooski, or any one of the four valleys leading to Lake Champlain, one reaches the central lake port of Burlington. Its history recalls that of early seaport cities, for years ago the goods received there from steamers and by canal boats from the St. Lawrence and Hudson valleys were sent on to valley and upland towns in great eight-horse wagons, lumber and woodworking mills are found in some towns of the higher upland valleys, few CourlLSi/ Boston Chamber of Commfrce Fig. 97. — '■ St. Johnsbury is at a valley and railway center on the ancient headwaters of the Connecticut, now the Passumpsic." While small have developed specialized industries as on the lower eastern uplands. Burhngton, how- ever, was long a leading .\merican lumber T" .^^C8t ^»n■ mm I'holo by Boston 4 Maine R. li. Moiiipelier, a natural chuice fur the sUle capital." 76 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND market, milling Canadian lumber for dis- tribution, and its factories still make doors, sashes, blinds, screens, shade rollers, and refrigerators. Long the main trade center for the Vermont uplands, it has large whole- sale and retail stores and varied manufac- tures. There are cotton mills in Burlington and woolen mills across the river at Winooski. Industrial towns are few. Near Canada is St. Albans, seat of the offices and shops of the Central Vermont Railway and of manu- facturing interests, still a growing city al- Fig. 99. — " Over half the marble used in the country comes from Vermont." though its great creamery was closed when trains began to carry Franklin County milk to Boston. In a valley in southern Ver- mont lies Bennington, with varied indus- tries — woolen and hosiery mills as across the state line in New York, mills for wooden- ware and paper as elsewhere within the up- lands, machine shops for scales, and knitting machinery. More central, in the Otter Valley, is Rutland, an important trade cen- ter, with factories for scales, farm tools, and refrigerators, like other Vermont cities and towns, but distinctive in its production of quarry machinery and as the business cen- ter for the great marble industry of near-by towns (see below). West of the uplands of New England and the southern Piedmont are valuable deposits of slates and beautifully colored rriarbles. The slate production of the Vermont towns along the New York border is exceeded only by that of Pennsylvania. The limestone and marble formation is east of the slate belt, across the Taconic Range. Vermont pro- duces more marble than any other state and nearly all the marble that is used for monu- ments. Quarries were opened soon after the Revolution, and over half the marble used in the country since that time has come from Vermont. The method of quarrying marble is in- teresting. On the level floors of the deep marble quarry pits are movable railways on which are channeling machines for cutting long, deep grooves in the marble floor by blows of vertical chisels. Series of holes are then drilled by another machine, mark- ing off the stone into blocks, which are separated by the use of iron wedges, since blasting would injure the marble. At the mills the blocks are sawn into slabs. For this purpose sand, borne by a stream of water, is ground against a block of marble by means of strips of soft iron held in a frame and moved back and forth with their edges on the stone. This wears narrow grooves that finally divide the block into slabs. With the aid of sand other machines turn and shape, smooth and polish the mar- ble, much as wood is turned smoothly on a lathe. Marbles have also been quarried in Berk- THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 77 shire County, Massachusetts, and Umestone burned for Hme ; but since this district is near the lowland industrial centers and seaport cities the textile, high-grade paper, and machin- ery industries are of prime im- portance. The largest centers of pop- ulation of the higher uplands _^ , are where the two The larger lenters of pop- railway lines to "^^^^^ Boston cross the valley (see map). North Adams and Adams have large cotton and woolen mills and machine shops. Pittsfield has both textile mills and a great plant of the General Electric Company. Its mills make fine papers, while paper for bank notes is made in the adjoining town of Dalton. In towns south of Pittsfield, and especially at Lenox, the beautiful scenery has led wealthy people Education Fig. 100. — "On the level floors of the deep marble quarry pits are movable railways on which are channeling machines for cutting long, deep grooves in the marble floor by blows of vertical chisels." from New York to erect costly dwellings for summer or autumn homes. Colleges were established in the valleys of the higher uplands long ago. Dartmouth College is at Han- over, New Hamp- shire, on the Connecticut terraces ; Williams College is at Williamstown in the Hoosac Valley. The Uni- versity of Vermont is at Bur- lington, and Middlebury College is in the Otter VaUey. Norwich University ranks high as a military school. There is a state normal school in North Adams. The Connecticut uplands. — In Litchfield Fig. loi. — " Other machines turn and shape, smooth and polish tlie marble." Surface fea- County, Connect- tures and oc- icut, the uplands '="P^'^°'^^ rise to fifteen hundred feet 78 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND in height at the northwest, with peaks still higher. Only one railway line crosses the highland from the Connecticut to the Hudson. As in Vermont, dairy farming is the leading industry of the upland towns, the milk going to New York or higher uplands, the Naugatuck Valley is close to the Connecticut lowland and con- nected with it by highways and railways. From early days its people shared the in- ventive spirit and business enterprise of industrial New England ; hence in every to valley towns. Like the near-by Connect- village and city from Winsted and Torring- icut lowland it is an apple-raising section, ton at its source, past Waterbury and and tobacco is grown on fertile valley lands. Naugatuck, and on to Ansonia and Derby, A deposit of kaolin is quarried for sale to there are busy factories and mills. The porcelain makers. Much of the feldspar- products are of many sorts — of cotton, wool, silk ; of wood, paper, rubber ; hardware, silverware, ammunition, tools, and machinery, just as in the Connecticut lowland. Waterbury, however, a rail- road center and the fourth city of Connect- chief centers icut, is the center "^ population of the brass industry of Amer- ica and is noted for its pro- duction of watches and clocks (p. 31). Because of continual improvement in designs, machines, and methods this industry continues in New England although the cost of labor is high. Danbury, a second railway center in the descending upland next the New York border, has been for over a century the leading community in the country for the manufacture of hats and caps. Machinery for cutting fur and for felting- and shaping it into hats is made here. The New England coast. — The uplands of Connecticut descend gently to the sea, so only the larger rivers have The coast of long tidal estuaries. Sands and e^it^S"*~ clays from the melting glacier industries filled the heads of many bays, forming plains Fig. 102. A portion of the campus of Williams College, WiUiams- town, Mass. This college, founded in 1793, is one of the best- known smaller colleges. mined and ground in the United States is from the Connecticut upland rocks, the most active quarries being near the lower Connecticut River. Limestone and asbes- tos are also quarried. The quiet beauty of Litchfield and other colonial towns of the upland is also an asset, attracting summer residents ; and as one nears New York City private boarding schools become frequent. Wliile manufacturing is no more impor- tant along the middle course of the Housa- tonic than in other narrow valleys of the THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 79 Sewing machines are made in Bridgeport." — The great Bridgeport plant of the Singer Sewing Machine Company. which are easily cultivated. The growth of salt marshes has further reduced the size of the indentations, yet there are many small harbors of use to the motor and yachting fleets of summer residents. The New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railway connects the towns of Fairfield County so closely with New York City that they are within its outer residential district and share its stimulus to growth in industry and population. The dense population of the Connecticut lowland continues without break along the coast to New York City. Like those of the Con- necticut lowland and Naugatuck Valley, the cities of this coast have a great variety of products — textiles, machinery and tools, hardware and cutlery, and brass goods. Hats are made at Norwalk. Bridgeport is the second city of the state. It was an important Colonial port and now ranks as one of the great industrial centers near the port of New York. Many kinds of machinery are made here — sewing machines, talking machines, typewriters, elec- m^x. I'ir.a^'^i.ajt^ .-j^tt Fig. 104. The estuary of the Thames gives New London the best harbor on the sound." 8o THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND trical apparatus, automobiles — and it partici- pates in many other Connecticut industries using brass, silver, rubber, cotton, silk, wood, and paper for manifold products. As a center for the manufacture of firearms and ammunition, its growth during the World War was very rapid. Since the munition factories were taken over after the war by cor- porations for the manufacture of other goods, the population of the city remains large. The coast cities from New Haven west- ward have the life and industry of ports as and commercial life follow the northern boundary of the lowland and only small villages and summer homes are found along the shore east of the mouth of the Connecti- cut. Farther east the northern moraine of Long Island appears only as islands leading to the Rhode Island shore, so the ports of New London and Stonington easily reach the open ocean. Years ago their whaUng and sealing fleets brought them prosperity, but to-day their production of textiles and machinery is much more important than Fig. 105. — Watch Hill, Rhode Island. Courtesy Boston Chamber of Commerce well as of industrial towns near a metropolis. Long ago ships were made here from local timber ; while in this day of steel ships the industry is gathered about the port of New York, motor boats and launches are built at these smaller harbors. Although shut away from ocean fisheries by Long Island, the sheltered and shallow waters of the sound favor the growth of oysters. These are dredged and brought to market at these western ports near New York. East of New Haven the coast is of the same character as to the west, irregular up- land shore separated by the sound from the moraines of Long Island. But industrial coastwise commerce or fisheries. The estuary of the Thames gives New London the best harbor on the Sound, so it is the seat of a naval training station and there are shipbuilding plants. East of Stonington to Narragansett Bay glacial moraine hills lie so near the border of the Rhode Island upland that the Glacial streams are turned westward, ^^^^^ uniting to form the Pawcatuck ^ ,, ° 1. Along the River. Fresh water lakes and south shore extensive swamps lie between upland and moraine. The shore line railway from New York follows along the edge of the upland, where there are prosperous inland farms THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 8i Fig. 1 06. — " Cape Cod and lands back of the moraine in Plymouth Coimty surpass all other sections of the country in the production of the cranberry." and mills for woolens and worsteds at the power sites. The only port is Westerly, where the Pawcatuck enters the sound behind Watch Hill. Its connections by rail and water, its factories for textiles and machinery, and its granite quarries at tidewater have occasioned its growth. Farther east the moraine reappears as the Elizabeth Islands and the hills of the main- land from Woods Hole to Plymouth, while Buzzard's Bay partly separates it from the upland border. The north shore of this bay repeats features of the Connecticut shore : many small harbors, and summer homes ; quiet shore towns with poultry farms ; one busy city, New Bedford (p. 66). Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard, and Nan- tucket shared pioneer prosperity ; whale ships brought valuable catches and near-by of oil and bone to Nantucket, and every harbor of the cape shared the cod fisheries and foreign com- merce. Provincetown remains an important home port for schooners that lay trawls on the banks (p. 43), while men of many cape and island ports are engaged in the shellfish industry — raking oysters, tonging scallops, digging clams. The soils are not so fertile as to favor farming, and large areas are covered with a scrubby growth of trees ; yet while the census records a decHning population for most towns, every one has its summer colony ; for ocean breezes make the climate cooler than that of interior counties. In one product, however. Cape Cod and lands back of the moraine in Plymouth County surpass all other sections of the country — the cranberr)'. The rich black soil of the bogs in the glacial depressions is cleared of bushes and covered with sand to prevent the growth of weeds. Cranberry plants are set out, take root in the peaty soil, and cover the sand with a mat of vines that are crowded with dark red berries in September. Winds from the sea tend to prevent early frosts ; the beds are easily 82 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND Fig. 107. — "At Portland is a safe port for steamships which cross the Atlantic laden with grain received in winter from southern Canada." now be more cheaply de- livered in cities by auto- trucks from local brickyards ; but bricks are still made at yards in New Hampshire and southern Maine as well as at the claybeds of the Boston and Narragansett basins and along the Connecticut coast. The best harbor northeast of Boston is at Portland. This is a large, deep, safe, and ice-free port for steamships which cross the Atlantic to Liverpool laden with grain and other products received in winter from southern Can- ada by way of the Grand Trunk Railroad. Steamship flooded for protection in winter or to kill lines also connect Portland with the leading insect pests. American coast cities, and railroads radiate to North from Plymouth to Cape Ann the the manufacturing cities and towns at the falls coast is closely associated with the life of of the large rivers of Maine. There are rail- Boston, but thence northeast- road repair shops here, and dry docks for re- Ann to Port- ward it has char- '^""^ acteristics of its own. A glance at the map shows two divisions, one sHghtly indented, the other most irregular. From Cape Ann to Casco Bay there are many long sandbar beaches with summer hotels and growing vacation colonies. Between the tidal marshes and the upland are abundant beds of clay. It was long the custom of the farmers here to make bricks when work on crops was slack, then to ship them in small schooners to ,.„.,.., Poman^ cnam^er of comr^eru the coast cities. Brick can tig. 108. — Congress Square, Portland, Maine. THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND 83 The Maine coast north- east of Port- land 1. Surface fea tures pairing vessels. Like all important trade cen- ters Portland has varied manufactures. Here are the largest foundries and machine shops in Maine, making engines and machines for lumbering, pulp making, ice cutting, quar- rying, shipbuilding, farming, and other in- dustries of the state. The residential suburb of Deering has been annexed to Portland, but two adjoining small cities remain separate — South Portland with its ship- yards, Westbrook with its great pulp and paper plant and textile mills. On the islands of Casco Bay are many sum- mer cottages and hotels. Northeast of Portland the coast line is very irregular, a typical sub- merged coast, and many lighthouses are needed to warn ships away from the rocky islets and reefs. The headlands are bold and several mountain peaks and groups rise near the coast. Fishing, shipbuilding, and commerce once brought prosperity to most towns on the islands and long peninsulas, but changes in the methods of industries and in transporta- tion have built up a few centers while the population of most towns has decreased like that of the uplands. However, the little steamers that thread the channels among the islands bring many summer residents to the picturesque coast, and some places have become prosperous through supplying the wants of cottagers and boarders, the most famous being Bar Harbor on Mount Desert Island. The fisheries are important. Once every coast village sent schooners to the fishing banks ; now few sail from any Maine port 2. Fisheries except Portland. But the shore fisheries are more valuable than a half century ago, for many factories are engaged in canning small herring, lobsters, and clams. Lobsters are protected and propagated by the state government, power boats have replaced dories for the fishermen, and the business of marketing the catch has been perfected. The clam beds of Maine have gained value as those of Massachusetts and Rhode Island have become depleted. The herring pack of eastern Maine, however, Fig. 109. Photo iy Boston 567 30,361 Hancock Ellsworth 1,522 I Taunton J 63,844 Kennebec Augusta 879 4,372 Dukes Edgartown 107 26,245 Knox Rockland 351 [ Lawrence 15,976 Lincoln Wjscasset 457 481,478 Essex < Newburyport 497 37.700 Oxford South Paris 1,980 I Salem 87,684 Penobscot Bangor 3,258 49,361 Franklin Greenfield 697 20,554 Piscataquis Dover 3,770 300,2.54 Hampden Springfield 636 23,021 Sagadahoc Bath 250 69,552 Hampshire Northampton 585 37,171 21,328 Somerset Waldo Skowhegan Belfast 3,633 724 778,352 Middlesex 1 Lowell 1 I Cambridge / 832 41,709 Washington Machias 2,528 2.797 Nantucket Nantucket 51 70,696 York TOTAL Alfred 989 219,081 156,968 Norfolk Plymouth Dedham Plymouth 410 767,996 29,895 675 835,522 Suffolk Boston 51 2. New County Hampshire County Seat Area in Square Miles 455,136 Worcester TOTAL 1 Fitchburg 1 I Worcester ' 1,556 Population 3,851,569 8,039 21,178 Belknap Laconia 397 15,017 Carrol! Ossipee 955 30,975 Cheshire , Keene 728 5. Rhode Island 36,093 40,572 Coos Grafton Lancaster WoodsviUe 1,798 1,729 Population County County Seat Area in Square Miles 135,512 Hillsborough Nashua 895 23,113 Bristol Bristol 24 61,770 Merrimack Concord 932 38,269 Kent East Greenwich 174 .52.498 Rockingham Exeter 691 42.893 Newport Newport 114 38,546 Strafford Dover 379 475,190 Providence Providence 430 20,922 Sullivan Newport 527 24.932 Washington Kingston 325 443,083 TOTAL 9,031 604.397 TOTAL 1,067 3. Vermont Population 18,666 County Addison County Seat Middlebury Area in Square Miles 756 Population 6. County Connecticut County Seat Area in Square Miles 21,577 Bennington { Bennington 1 I Manchester / 661 320,919 Fairfield 1 Bridgeport 1 I Danbury / 631 25,755 Caledonia St. Johnsbury 618 336,016 Hartford Hartford 729 43,708 Chittenden Burlington 543 1 Litchfield 7,364 Essex Guildhall 638 76,262 Litchfield New Milford . Winsted 925 30,026 Franklin St. Albans 652 3,784 Grand Isle North Hero 83 47,550 Middlesex Middletown 369 11,858 17,279 Lamoille Orange Hyde Park Chelsea 436 676 415,196 NewHaven j New Haven \ Waterbury 603 23,913 46,213 Orleans Rutland Newport Rutland 688 911 104,611 ^, _ , / New London \ New London i .^ . , [ ^ Norwich J 659 38,921 Washington Montpelier 719 27,216 Tolland Tolland 404 26,373 36.984 Windham Windsor TOTAL Newfane Woodstock 795 948 9,124 52,815 Windham TOTAL ( Putnam 1 I Willimantic / 500 352,421 1,380,585 4,820 90 APPENDIX B PLACES HAVING A POPULATION OF 1500 OR MORE (CENSUS OF 1920) 1. Maine Anson . Ashland Auburn Augusta BaileyvjUe Bangor Bar Harbor Bath Belfast Berwick Biddeford Blue Hill Boothbay Ha Brewer Bridgton Brownville Brunswick Buxton Calais . Camden Cape Elizabeth Caribou Chelsea Deer Isle . Dexter Dover . . Eagle Lake East Livermore Eliot . . Ellsworth Fairfield Farmington Fort Fairfield Fort Kent Foxcroft . Frenchville Gardiner Gorham Guilford Hallowell Hampden Houlton Island Falls Jay . . Jonesport Kennebunk Kittery . Lewiston Limestone Lincoln Lisbon . Lisbon Falls Livermore Fa! Lubec . . Machias Madawaska Madison . Mars Hill Mechanic Fa! Mexico Millinocket Milo . . Newport . Norridgewock North Berwicl Norway Oakhill Oakland Old Town Orono . Paris . . Patten Pittsfield . Portland . Presque Isle Rockland . Rockport . Rumford . bor 2.593 2,391 16,985 14,114 2,243 25,978 3,622 14,731 5,083 2,057 18,008 1,564 2,025 6,064 1,545 1,743 5,840 1,560 6,084 3,403 1.534 6,018 2,050 1,718 4,113 1,979 1,772 2,636 1,530 3,058 2,747 1,650 1,993 4,237 2,071 1,586 5,475 2,870 1.687 2,764 2,352 6,191 1,683 3,152 2,129 3,138 4,763 31,791 1,506 1,586 4.091 2.295 2.300 3.371 2.1,52 1,933 2,729 1,783 1,614 3,242 4,528 2,894 1.709 1 .532 1 .652 2.20S 1.832 2.473 6,6.30 3.133 3,6.56 1,498 2,146 69,272 3,4,52 8,109 1,774 7,016 Saco . . . . Saint Agatha Saint George Sanford . . . Scarboro . Skowhegan South Berwick . South Paris . South Portland South Windham Tenants Harbor Thomaston Topsham . Van Buren Vassalboro Vinal Haven Waldoboro Warren Washburn Waterville Wells . . . . Westbrook Wilton . . . . Winslow Winthrop . . Yarmouth York . . . . 2. New Hampshire Berlin . . Charlestown Claremont Colebrook Concord Conway Derry . . Dover . East Jaffrey Enfield . . Exeter . . Farmington Franklin Goffstown Gorham Groveton . Hanover Haverhill . Hillsboro . Hinsdale . Hookset Hudson Jaffrey Keene . Laconia Lakeport . Lancaster Lebanon . Lisbon Littleton Manchester Meredith Mil ford . Nashua Newmarket Newport North Conway Northfield Northumberla Pembroke . Penacook . Peterboro . Pittsfield . Plymouth Portsmouth Rochester . Salem Salmon Falls Seabrook . nd 6.817 1.669 1.654 10.691 1,832 5,981 2,955 1,793 9,254 1.932 2.060 2.019 2.102 4,594 1,936 1,965 2.426 1.500 1.870 13.351 1.943 9.435 2.505 3.280 1.902 2.216 2,727 16,104 1,505 9,524 1,811 22,167 3,102 5,382 13,029 1 ,765 1,577 4,604 2,461 6,318 2,391 2,734 1,880 1,551 3,406 1.550 1.773 1.882 1 .9.54 2.303 11.201 10.897 3,199 2,819 6,162 2,288 2,308 78.384 1.680 3,783 28,379 3,181 4,109 1 ,523 1,.522 2..567 2.563 3.010 2.615 1.914 2.3.53 13.569 9.673 2.318 I,S90 1,537 Somersworth Suncook Swanzey . Tilton . . . Walpole Winchester Wolfeboro Woodsville 6,688 2,890 1,593 2,014 2,553 2,267 2,178 1,775 3. Vermont Barnet Barre Barre (town) Barton Bellows Falls Bennington Bethel Brandon Brattleboro Brighton Burlington Cambridge Castleton Chester Colchester (Became city in 1922. Includes Winooski Danville Derby Enosburg Essex Fairfield Fair Haven Hardwick Hartford Island Pond Ludlow Lyndon Lyndonville Manchester Middlebury Milton Montpelier Morristown Morrisville Newbury Newport . Northfield . . Pittsfield . . . Poultney . Proctor Randolph . Richford . . . Rutland . . . St. Albans . . St. -Albans (town) St. Johnsbury . Springfield . . Stowe .... Swanton . Troy . . - . X'ergennes Wallingford . . Waterbury . . West Rutland . Williamstown Windsor . Winooski Woodstock 4. Massachusetts Abington .\cton Acushnet . Adams .\gawam .Amesbury Amherst 1,685 10,008 3,862 3,506 4,860 9,982 1,782 2,874 8,332 2,280 22,799 1,593 1,919 1,633 6,627 ) 1,494 2,201 2,231 2,449 1,532 2,540 2,641 4,739 1,837 2,421 3,558 1,878 2,057 2,914 1,523 7,125 2,813 1,707 1,908 4,976 3,096 2,098 2,868 2,789 3,010 2,842 14,954 7,588 1,583 8,701 7,202 1,800 3,343 1,869 1,609 1,581 3,542 3,391 1 ,526 3,687 4,932 2,370 5.787 2,162 3,075 12.967 5,023 10.0.36 5,550 91 92 APPENDIX B Andover Arlington Ashburnham Ashland Athol . Attleboro Auburn Avon Ayer Baldwins ville Barnstable Barre Belchertown Bellingham Belmont . Beverly Billerica Blackstone Bondsville Boston Bourne Braintree Bridgewater Brockton Brookfield Brookline Cambridge Canton Chelmsford Chelsea Chicopee . Chicopee Fall Clinton Cohasset Colerain Concord Dalton Danvers . Dartmouth Dedham Deerfield Dennis Dighton Douglass . Dracut Dudley Duxbury . East Bridgewater Easthampton East Long Meado Easton Everett Fairhaven Fall River Falmouth Fitchburg Foxboro Framingham Franklin . Gardner Georgetown Gilbertville Gloucester Grafton Great Barrington Greenfield Groton Groveland Hadley . Hanover . Hanson Hardwick Harvard . Harwich Hatfield . Haverhill Hingham Holbrook Holden . HoUiston Holyoke Hopedale Hopkinton Housatonic Hudson Hull . . Hyannis Ipswich Kingston . Lancaster Lawrence Lee . . Leicester . Lenox Leominster Lexington Longmeadow 8,268 18,665 2,012 2,287 9,792 19,731 3,891 2.176 3,052 2,360 4,8.36 3.357 2,058 2,102 10,749 22,561 3.646 4,299 2,050 748,060 2.5.30 10.580 8,438 66,254 2,216 37,748 109.694 5,945 5,682 43,184 36.214 11,500 12,979 2,639 1,607 6,461 3,752 11.108 6,493 10.792 2,803 1,536 2,.574 2,181 5,280 3,701 1,553 3.486 11,261 2.352 5.041 40.120 7.291 120.485 3,.500 41,029 4,136 17,033 6,497 16,971 2,004 2.760 22.947 6.887 6.315 15.462 2.185 2.6.50 2.784 2.575 1,910 3,085 2.546 1.846 2.651 53.884 5,604 3,161 2.970 2,707 60,203 2,777 2,289 3.010 7.607 1.771 1.565 6.201 2.505 2.461 94,270 4.085 3.635 2.691 19,744 6,350 2,618 Lowell Ludlow Lynn Maiden Manchester Mansfield Marblehead Marlboro Maynard . Medfield . Medlord . Medway . Melrose Merrimac Methuen . Middleboro Milford . Millbury Millers Falls Millville . Milton Monson Montague Nantucket Natick Needham New Bedford Newburyport Newton North Adams Northampton North Andover North Attleboro North Brookfield Northfield Norwood Onset . Orange Oxford Palmer Peabody Pepperell Pittsfield Plymouth Provincetown Quincy Randolph Raynham Reading Rehoboth Revere Rockland Rockport Rutland . Salem . Saugus Scituate Seekonk Sharon Sherborn . Shirley Shrewsbury Somerset . Somerville South Barre Southboro Southbridge South Hadley Spencer Springfield Stockbridge Stoneham Stoughton Sturbridge Sutton Swampscott Swansea Taunton Templeton Tcwksbury Townsend Upton Uxbridge Wakefield Walpole Waltham Ware . . Wareham Warren Watertown Waverley Wayland . Webster Wellesley Westboro West Bridgewater Wcstfield . . 112,759 7,470 99,148 49,103 2,466 6,255 7,324 15,028 7,086 3,595 39.038 2.956 18,204 2,115 15,189 8,453 13,471 5.653 2.050 2,224 9,382 4,826 7,675 2,797 10,907 7,012 121,217 15,618 46,054 22,282 21,951 6,265 9,238 2,610 1,775 12,627 1,975 5,393 3,820 9,896 19,552 2,468 41,763 13,045 4,246 47.876 4,756 1.695 7,439 2.065 28.823 7.544 3.878 1,743 42,529 10,874 2,534 2,898 2,468 1.558 2,260 3,708 3,520 93,091 1,782 1,838 14,245 5.527 5.930 129,614 1.764 7,873 6.865 1.573 2,.578 8.101 2,234 37.137 4,019 4,450 1,575 1,693 5,384 13,025 5.446 30.915 8.525 4.415 3,467 21,457 4,060 1,935 13,258 6,224 5,789 2,908 18,604 Westford 3,170 Weston 2,282 Westport 3,115 West Springfield 13,443 Weymouth 15,057 Whitinsville 5,877 Whitman 7,147 Wilbraham 2,780 Williamsburg 1,866 Williamstown 3,707 Wilmington 2,581 Winchendon 5,904 Winchester 10,485 Winthrop 15,455 Woburn 16,574 Worcester 179,754 Wrentham 2,808 5. Rhode Island Barrington 3,897 Bristol 11,375 Burrillville 8,606 Central Falls 24,174 Coventry 5,670 Cranston 29,407 Cumberland 10,077 East Greenwich 3,290 East Providence 21,793 Hopkinton 2,316 Jamestown 1,633 Johnston 6,855 Lincoln 9 543 Middletown 2,094 Newport 30,255 North Kingstown 3,397 North Providence 7.697 North Smithfield 3.200 Pawtucket 64.248 Portsmouth 2.590 Providence 237..595 Scituate 3,006 Smithfield 3,199 South Kingstown 5,181 Tiverton 3,894 Warren 7,841 Warwick 13.481 Westerly 9.952 West Warwick 15,461 Woonsocket 43,496 6. Connecticut Ansonia 17,643 Berlin 4,298 Bethel 3,201 Bloomfield 2,394 Branford 6,627 Bridgeport 143,555 Bristol 20,620 Brooklyn 1,655 Canton 2,549 Cheshire 2,855 Chester 1,675 Colchester 2,015 Collinsville 3,009 Coventry 1,582 Cromwell 2,454 Danbury 22,325 Danielson 3,130 Darien 4,184 Derby 11,238 East Haddam 2,312 East Hampton 2,394 East Hartford 11,648 East Haven 3,520 East Windsor 3,741 Ellington 2,127 Enfield _ 11,708 (Includes Thompsonville) Essex 2,815 Fairfield 11,475 Farmington 3,844 Glastonbury 5,592 Greenwich 22,123 Griswold 4,220 (Includes Jewett City) Groton 9,237 Guilford 2,803 Haddam 1,736 Hamden 8,611 Hartford 138,036 Harwinton 2,020 Jewett City 3,196 APPENDIX B 93 Killingly (Includes Danielson) Litchfield . Madison Manchester (Includes South Ma; Mansfield . Meriden Middletown . Milford . . Naugatuclc New Hritaia New Canaan New Hartford New Haven . Newington New London New Milford Newtown North Canaan North Haven Norwalk . . Norwich . . nchester) 8,178 Orange (Includes West Haven) 3,180 Plainfield 1,857 Plainville 18,370 Plymouth Portland . 2,.574 Putnam . 34,764 Ridgefield 22.129 Rockville lO.llW Rocky Hill 1.5,0.51 Salisbury 59,31f) Seymour . 3,895 Sharon 1,781 Shelton . 162,537 Simsbury 2,381 Southington 25,688 South Manchester 4,781 South Windsor 2,751 Stafford 1,933 Stamford . 1,968 Stonington 27,743 Stratford . 29,685 Suffield 16,614 Thomaston 3,993 Thompson 5,055 7,926 Thompsonville 3,515 4,114 Torrington 22,055 5,042 Trumbull 2,597 3,644 Vernon 8,898 8„397 (Includes Rockville) 2,707 Wallingford 12,010 7,726 Wasliington 1,619 1,633 Waterbury 91,715 2,497 Watertown 6,050 6,781 West Hartford 8,854 1,585 West Haven 12.369 9,475 Westport 5 114 2,9.58 Wethersfield . 4.342 8.440 Willimantic 12,330 8,036 Winchester 9,019 2,142 (Includes Winsted) 5,407 Windham 13,801 40,067 (Includes Willimantic) 10,236 Windsor 5,620 12,347 Windsor Locks 3,.554 4,070 Winsted 8,248 APPENDIX C INDUSTRIAL STATISTICS 1. CENSUS OF MANUFACTURES (New England) Number of establishments . . Persons engaged in manufactures Proprietors and firm members Salaried employes . Wage earners (average) Primary horsepower Capital Services Salaries Wages Materials Value of products Value added by manufacture (value of products less cost of materials) Per Cent ot Increase 1914 1909 1919 1914 1909 1919 1914 25,519 25,193 25,351 1.2 -0 6 1,535,974 1,268,238 1,212,158 21.0 -4-6 21,474 22,493 24,171 -4.5 -V.O 162..348 105,512 86,697 53.8 22.0 1,3.52,152 1,140,2,33 1,101,290 18.8 3.6 3.7,55,4,56 3,125,629 2,715,121 20.0 15.0 ;5,78i.ti7fl.noo $2,948,040,000 S2„503,S54,000 96.0 17.9 l,.'!3.5.3fi,S.OOO 777,426,000 669,915,000 136.0 16,1) 340.21(4,000 149,017,000 112,2,84,000 128.0 33.0 1.495.074,000 628,409,000 557,631,000 138.0 12.7 3,954,029,000 1,6,57,674,000 1,476,297,000 139.0 12.2 7,188,636,000 2,926,675,000 2,670,065.000 145.0 9.2 3,234,607,000 1,269,001,000 1,193,768,000 154.0 6.(t S, NUMBER OF AUTOMOBILES 1914 1920 Maine 10, ,570 51,783 New Hampshire 7,420 30,415 Vermont 5,430 26,636 Massachusetts 60,826 233,258 Rhode Island 9,894 44,000 Connecticut 23,263 100,550 Total 117,403 486,642 3. SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN NEW ENGLAND — COMPARISON WITH UNITED STATES 1919 Value of Products U. S $62,581,905,000 Per cent gain 158.5 Southern New England 6,153,374,000 Per cent gain 149.0 Per cent of total 9.8 Northern New England 1,035,262,000 Per cent gain 124.0 Per cent of total 1.7 1920 Population U. S 105,708,771 Southern New England 5,837,384 Per cent of total 5.5 Northern New England 1,563,,525 Per cent of total 1.5 1914 1909 $24,246,435,000 $20,672,052,000 17.3 2,466,401,000 2,261,145,000 9.0 10.2 11.0 460,274,000 408,920,000 12.5 1.9 2.0 1910 Per Cent Gain 91,972,266 14.9 4,993,782 16.» 5.4 . . 1,528,899 2.a 1.7 4. MAINE — CENSUS OF MANUFACTURES 1919 Number of establishments 2.996 Persons engaged in manufactures 100.101 Proprietors and firm members 2,747 Salaried employes 7.982 Wage earners (average) 89,372 Primary horsepower 566,705 Capital $420,651,000 Services 112,018.000 Salaries . 17,,560,000 Wages 94,458,000 Materials 2.58,823,000 Value of products 461,415,000 Value added by manufacture (value of products less cost of materials) . . . 202,592,000 04 Per Cent of ncrease 1914 1909 1914 1909 1919 1914 3,378 3„546 -11.3 -4.7 90,758 88,476 10.3 2.6 3,344 3,661 -17.9 -8.7 5,265 4,860 51.6 8.3 82,149 79,955 8.8 2.7 487,21 1 459„599 16.3 6.0 $233,844,000 $202,260,000 79.9 15.6 50,523,000 43,429,000 121.7 16.2 7,269,000 5,797,000 141.6 25.4 43.254,000 37.632.000 118.4 14.9 117,6.55,000 97.101,000 120.0 21.2 200.450.000 176,029.000 130.2 13.9 82,795,000 78.928.000 144.7 4.9 APPENDIX C 6. NEW HAMPSHIRE — CENSUS OF MANUFACTURES 95 1919 Number of establishmenla 1.497 Persons engaged in manufactures 89.09!) Proprietors and firm members 1.426 Salaried employes .5.H10 Wage earners (average) 82.7(>;i Primary liorsepower 311.722 Capital $.'!2S. 138.000 Services llL',ss2.()nit Salaries l:i,0'.l7.IHI0 Wages 7ll.7s.j,()00 Materials 2:iS.(i41 .000 Value of products 4O,".,7:i9.O00 Value added by manufacture (value of products less cost of materials) . - 107.0'J8.000 $156 40 40 114 182 67 1914 1,736 85,013 1,646 4.374 78,993 344,093 ,749,000 ,.")24.000 ,881.000 ,043,000 ,994,000 ,844,000 ,850,000 1909 1 ,961 84,191 2,014 3,519 78,6.58 293,991 JI39,990,000 40,391.000 4,191.000 36.200.000 98.1.57.00{) 164. ,581. 000 66,424,000 Per Cent of Increase 1914 1909 1919 1909 -13.8 -11.5 5.9 -13.4 32.8 4.8 -94 109.5 99.6 122.7 96.3 107.5 121.9 140.3 1.0 -18.3 24.3 0.4 17.0 12.0 15.2 40.3 12.3 17.2 11.1 2.1 6. VERMONT — CENSUS OF MANUFACTURES 1919 Number of establishments . . Persons engaged in manufactures Proprietors and firm members Salaried employes .... Wage earners (average) Primary horsepower 1,790 38,845 1.804 3..550 33.491 185.095 Capital $134,314,000 $79 Services 41,429,000 22 Salaries 7,.345,000 3 Wages 34.084,000 IS, Materials 95.173.000 42, Value of products 168,108,000 76, Value added by manufacture (value of products less cost of materials) . . 72,935,000 34 1914 1,772 37,217 1,787 2,726 32,704 172,637 ,847,000 ,002,000 ,385.000 .617.000 .706.000 .991.000 .285.000 1909 1,958 3S,.5,SO 2,113 2,679 33,788 1,')9,445 $73,470,000 20,075,000 2,803,000 17,272.000 34,823.000 68,310,000 33,487,000 Per Cent of Increase 1914 1909 1919 1914 1.0 4.4 10 30.2 2.4 7.2 68.2 88.3 117.0 83.1 112.9 U8.3 112.7 -9-5 -3.5 -15.4 1.8 -3.2 8.3 8.7 9.6 20.7 7.8 22.6 12.7 2.4 Value of farm products Value of farm animals \'alue of dairy products Total number of pounds of milk produced (1920) Total number of horses Total number of sheep Total number of hogs Total number of cattle Total acreage of farms Value of farms and equipment Value of marble and granite products (1020) Production of maple sugar (1922) Production of maple sirup (1922) Percentage of U.S. production of maple sugar (1922) Percentage of U.S. production of maple sirup (1922) Maple trees tapped (1922) Percentage of maple trees in U.S. tapped (1922) $47,999,600 42,175,425 27,207,813 786,606,160 77,231 62,756 72,761 435,480 4,235,811 $93,100,253 15,605.000 3,152,000 lb. ,000,005 gal, 59.2 28.9 5,559,000 33.9 7. MASSACHUSETTS — CENSUS OF MANUFACTURES Number of establishments Persons engaged in manufactures Proprietors and firm members Salaried employes Wage earners (average) Primary horsepower Capital Services Salaries Wages Materials Value of Products Value added by manufacture (value of products less cost of materials) 1919 11. ,892 812,338 9.457 89.222 713.659 1.729,,529 $2,964,439,000 1.010.176.000 184.149.000 826.027.000 2,258,232,000 4,011,058.000 1,752,826,000 $1 1914 12,013 676.642 10.710 59,234 606,698 1,396.722 ,548,961,000 425,024,000 83,714,000 341,310.000 931.384.000 .641.373.000 709.989,000 1909 1 1 .689 644.399 11,194 48,646 584,559 1,175,071 $279,687,000 364.4.52.000 63.279.000 301.173.000 .830.705.000 1,490,529.000 659.704.000 Per Cent of Increase 1914 1909 1919 1914 -1.0 20.1 11.7 50.6 17.6 23.8 91.4 137.7 120.0 142.0 142.5 144.4 146.9 -2.8 5.0 4,3 21.8 3.8 18.9 21.0 16.6 32.3 13.3 12.1 10.1 7.6 VALUE OF PRODUCTS FOR SELECTED LEADING MASSACHUSETTS INDUSTRrES Percent of total for v. S. 1919 1914 1919 1914 Boots and Shoes $442,466,000 $200,530,000 38.5 40.0 Boots and Shoes. Cut Stock 86.214.000 35.037.000 54.6 59.5 Boots and Shoes. Findings 44.357.000 19.012.000 70.8 67.2 Bread and Bakery Products "•"'"'ISS" 33.309.000 4.7 6.8 Rubber Shoes 59.579.000 23.789.000 45.0 44.0 Confectionery ' ' 68.897,000 22,935,000 10 8 10,9 96 APPENDIX C VALUE OF PRODUCTS FOR SELECTED LEADING MASSACHUSETTS INDUSTRIES (Continued) 1919 1914 Cotton Goods 696,880,000 195,482,000 Electrical Machinery 91,939,000 43,869,000 Foundries 112,274,000 65,605,000 Knit Goods 52,424,000 17,419,000 Tanning 129,249,000 45,265,000 Paper and Pulp 87,591,000 43,353,000 Rubber Goods 86,358,000 23.011,000 Slaughtering 97,533,000 51,725,000 Woolen and Worsted Goods 342,626,000 127.351,000 Printing and Publishing 88,428,000 46,964.000 Jewelry 34,817.000 14,176.000 Cutlery ■ 19,673,000 4,354.000 Silk Goods 34.194.000 10.677.000 Wire 24..552,000 ' 8.3S9.000 Tools r 29,159,000 8,620,000 Percent of total for U. S. 1919 1914 31.7 11.0 4.8 7.7 13.9 11.0 8.8 2.6 32.6 5.9 17.1 31.4 5.0 15.1 20.1 28.8 13.1 7.6 6.7 12.3 13.2 10.3 3.5 33.6 5.8 17.4 17.0 4.2 10.2 25.4 8. RHODE ISLAND — CENSUS OF MANUFACTURES 1919 Number of establishments 2,466 Persons engaged in manufactures 15,5,547 Proprietors and firm members 2,118 Salaried employes 13,764 Wage earners (average) 139,665 Primary horsepower 318,673 Capital $,589,937,000 Services 168,075.000 Salaries 31,004.000 Wages 137.671.000 Materials 416.318.000 Value of products 747.323.000 Value added by manufacture (value of products less cost of materials) . 331.005.000 1914 $308, 72, 13 59, 162, 279, 117 2,190 124,109 1,883 8,801 113,425 269,854 ,445,000 ,622.000 ,2,56,000 ,366,000 ,425,000 ,546,000 ,121,000 1909 1,951 122,641 1,721 7,382 113,538 226,740 $290,901,000 65,811,000 10,577,000 55,234,000 158,192,000 280,344,000 122,152,000 Per Cent of Increase 1914 1909 1919 1914 126 25.3 12.5 56.4 23.1 18.1 91.3 132.3 133.9 131.9 156.3 167.3 182.6 12.3 1.2 9.4 19.2 -0.1 19.0 6.0 10.3 25.3 7.5 2.7 -0.3 4.1 9. CONNECTICUT — CENSUS OF MANUFACTURES 1919 Number of establishments 4.878 Persons engaged in manufactures 339,144 Proprietors and firm members 3,922 Salaried employes 42,020 Wage earners (average) 293,202 Primary horsepower 643,732 Capital $1,343,900,000 Services 4I0,18.H,000 Salaries 87,139,000 Wages 323,040,000 Materials 686,842,000 Value of products 1,394,993,000 Value added by manufacture (value of products iess cost of materials) . . 708,151,000 1914 4,104 254,499 3,123 25,112 226,264 453,812 $620,194,000 160,731,000 35,511.000 125,220.000 2SS. 5 11.000 ,545,482,000 256,961,000 1909 4,251 233,871 3,468 19,611 210,792 400,275 $517,547,000 135,756,000 25,637,000 110,119,000 257,259,000 490,272,000 233,013,000 Per Cent of Increase 1914 1909 1919 1914 18.9 33.3 25.6 67.3 29.6 41.8 116.7 155.2 145.4 158.0 138.1 155.7 175.6 -3.5 8.8 -9.9 28.1 7.3 13.4 19.8 18.4 38.5 13.7 12.1 11.3 10.3 VALUE OF FARM CROPS (1920) Maine $100,1.52,324 New Hampshire 23,509,665 Vermont 47,999,600 Massachusetts 53,700,925 Rhode Island 5,340,378 Connecticut 454,492,385 % \ H. LIBRfiRV OF CONGRESS 014 042 547 3 # LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 014 042 547 3