kOO. ^%^- .^^% U. 0° ^Vr^,% -^= ,^:^ -^^. r ." .^ \r %: " o ''^''^a^.^ A Xi. .J- .\- S>o^ * , n^' ,0 > ' 'J N % ^'^• .# .\ O '- .\ . '^ ' '■ « -^o v^* '^ LEADING FACTS OF HISTORY SERIES By D. n. MONTGOMERY BEGINNER'S AMERICAN HISTORY (Biographies of Eminent Americans) List price, 60 cents AN ELEMENTARY AMERICAN HISTORY List price, 75 cents THE LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY (Revised Edition) List price, Si-oo THE STUDENT'S AMERICAN HISTORY (Revised Edition) List price, $1.40 THE LEADING FACTS OF ENGLISH HISTORY List price, Si:.. 3 THE LEADING FACTS OF FRENCH HISTORY List priced.,. Ubc %ca^im jfactg of Ibtstor^ Serfeg THE LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY BY D. H. MONTGOMERY 'America is another word for Opportunity" Emerson RETISED EDITION GINN AND COMPANY BOSTON . NEW YORK . CHICAGO • LONDON COPYRIGHT, 1890, 1895, 1896, 1899, 1910, BY D. H. MONTGOMERY ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 810.I F/78 J tgfie atftenceum J^ttes GINN AND COMPANY- PRO- PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. gGl.i^25«63'J D-H-M TO D-A-M-AND-D-W-M PREFATORY NOTE This work is based on a careful study of the highest recognized authorities on the subject. Its purpose is to present in a dear, connected, and forcible manner the important events in the his- tory of our country. The author has had three chief objects in view, — accuracy of statement, simplicity of style, impartiality of treatment. In the preparation of this work his grateful acknowledgments are due to John Franklin Jameson, Director of the Department of Historical Research of the Carnegie Institution of Washing- ton, for his valuable assistance in the revision of the proof sheets. The author also desires to express his thanks for the use of books and papers in the Library of Harvard University, the Library of Congress, and the Library of the Massachusetts Historical Society, and he is especially indebted to the Librarian and the attend- ants of the Boston Athenaeum for the aid they have so courte- ously rendered him. The present edition has been revised throughout and brought up to date. DAVID H. MONTGOMERY CONTENTS Page Leading Dates ^'^ TEXT I. The Discovery and Naming of America, 1492-1522 . . i II. Attempts at Exploring and Colonizing America . . 20 III. Permanent English and French Settlements; the Thirteen Colonies 4i IV. The Revolution; the Constitution, 1763 -1789 • • • i34 V. The UnioM — National Development; the Federalist Party in Power ^T^ VI. The Democratic Party in Power 191 VII. The New Democracy 226 VIII. The Civil War, 1861-1S65; the Republican Party in Power 280 IX. Reconstruction — THE New Nation, 1865 to the Pres- ent Time 328 APPENDIX 1. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE (WITH AN INTRODUCTION AND NOTES) ^ 2. THE CONSTITUTION (WITH AN INTRODUCTION AND NOTES) . vi 3. TABLE OF ADMISSION OF STATES ^^^^ 4. TABLE OF PRESIDENTS XXVIU 5. LIST OF BOOKS ON AMERICAN HISTORY XXX 6. TABLE OF BOUNDARIES OF THE UNITED STATES XXXVU 7. TABLES OF POPULATION AND REPRESENTATION OF THE UNITED STATES XXXIX 8. QUESTIONS 9. TOPICAL ANALYSIS ^^" INDEX (WITH NUMEROUS DATES AND THE PRONUNCIATION OF DIFFICULT WORDS) ^^^^ LIST OF LARGER MAPS Page I. The World about the Time of Columbus 5 II. Expeditions of De Soto and Coronado 23 III. Early Voyages to America and around the World 29 IV. Indian Tribes of the United States (colored) 36 V. Physical Features of the United States (with type page) . . 42-43 VI. First Settlements made on the Eastern Coast of North America 51 VII. Homes of the Pilgrims in England and Holland 67 VIII. The Thirteen English Colonies and the French Settlements . .111 IX. The French and Indian Wars 114 X. The Revolutionary War — Northern States (colored) . . . .138 XI. The Revolutionary War — the Southern States (colored) . . . 164 XII. The United States at the Close of the Revolution (colored) . .170 XIII. The Northwest Territory, 1787 (colored) 172 XIV. The United States in 1 792 (colored) 194 XV. The War of 181 2 203 XVI. The Missouri Compromise, 1820 214 XVII. The Mexican War 253 XVIII. Area of Freedom and Slavery, 1857 270 XIX. The United States, 1 861-1865 (double page, colored) .... 2S6 XX. Territorial Growth of the United States (double page, colored) . 334 XXI. The United States at the Present Time (double page, colored) . 360 XXII. The United States and Island Possessions (colored) 382 LIST OF LARGER ILLUSTRATIONS Page I. Stuart's Washington Frontispiece II. Columbus approaching Land ii III. Captain John Smith 49 IV. Penn's Charter 102-103 V. Washington before the Revolution 118 VI. Benjamin Franklin 133 VII. Franklin's Letter to Strahan (script) 147 VIII. Thomas Jefferson 151 IX. Alexander Hamilton 181 X. Henry Clay 220 XI. John C. Calhoun 233 XII. Daniel Webster 235 XIII. Abraham Lincoln 275 XIV. Grant's " LInconditional Surrender " Letter (script) 293 XV. General Lee 299 XVI. Lincoln's Proclamation of Emancipation (script) 303 XVII. The High -Water-Mark Monument at Gettysburg 304 XVIII. Soldiers' Monument at Gettysburg 305 XIX. View from Lookout Mountain 311 XX. General Grant 313 XXI. Admiral Farragut with Porter and Foote (Civil War) . . . .317 XXII. Generals Sherman, Sheridan, Thomas, Hooker, and Hancock (Civil War) 319 XXIII. Sherman's Field Order announcing Lee's surrender .... 322 XXIV. Lee's Letter to Grant (script) 323 XXV. Spanish War, — Naval Commanders 375 XXVI. Spanish War, — Army Commanders 379 LEADING DATES 1492. 1497. 1607. 1619. 1619. 1620. 1626. 1630. 1636. 1636. 1639. 1639. 1643. 1647. 1649. 1675. 1676. 1704. 1763. 1765. 1773. 1774. 1775. 1775. 1776. 1777. 1781. 1781. 1783. 1787. 1787. 1789. 1789. 1790. 1790. 1791. 1792. 1792. 1793. . Columbus discovers America (§ ii). . Cabot discovers the continent of North America (§ 14). , EngHsh colonization of America be- gins (§27). Permanent English colonization of Virginia (§46). Representative Government estab- lished in Virginia (§51). Negro Slavery introduced (§ 52). The Pilgrims settle Plymouth (§ -j^. Purchase of Manhattan Island (§60). The Puritans settle Boston (§ "]'•]). Entire Religious Toleration in Rhode Island (§ loS). Harvard College founded (§ 80). The Constitution of Connecticut (§96). First Printing Press (§ So). New England Confederation (§81). Public Schools established (§ 80). Act of Toleration in Maryland (§ 102). King Philip's War (§ 86). The Bacon Rebelhon (§55). First Newspaper established (§ 146). Treaty of Peace with France (§ 143). 'Phe Stamp Act (§ 157). The Colonists destroy taxed Tea (§ 159) . First Continental Congress (§ 160). Lexington and Concord (§ 161). Battle of Bunker Hill (§ 163). P)eclaration of Independence (§ 167). Burgoyne's Surrender (§ 179). Surrender of Cornwalhs (§ 1S9). Articles of Confederation "(§ 192). Treaty of Peace (§ 191). Ordinance for the Northwest Terri- tory (§ 195). The Constitution adopted (§ 196). The Constitution goes into operation (§ 199). The First Tariff (§200). Provision for paying off the Public Debt (§ 2oi). The First Census (§ 202). First Bank of the United States (§202). Rise of Political Parties (§ 203). Claim to Oregon (§ 216). Washington's Proclamation of Neu- trality (§ 203). 1832 1837 1844 1845. 1845. 1793. Invention of the Cotton Gin (§ 205). 1795. Jay's Treaty (§ 207). 1798-1799. The Kentucky and the Virginia Resolutions (§ 210). 1803. Purchase of Louisiana (§215). 1807. The First Steamboat (§ 220). 1811. The National Road begun (§244). 1812. War with England (§226). 18.14. The Hartford Convention (§ 233). 1816. Second Bank of the United States (§ 265). First Savings Bank (§ 423). 1819. Purchase of Florida (§ 238). 1820. The Missouri Compromise (§243). 1823. The Monroe Doctrine (§246). 1825. The Erie Canal opened "(§ 250). 1830. The First Passenger Railway (§ 254). 1832. Jackson vetoes the United States Bank Bill (§265). Nullification in South Carolina (§ 267). Great Financial Panic (§ 275). First Telegraph Line opened (§ 2S4). Annexation of Texas (§ 2S5). The Horse Reaper comes into use (§303). 1846. Ether begins to come into use (§284). 1846-1848. The Mexican War (§ 290). 1848. Discovery of Gold in California (§295)- 1848. Mexican Land Cessions (§ 294). 1850. Compromise on Slavery (§ 299) 1854. Kansas-Nebraska Act (§ 305). 1857. The Dred Scott Case (§310). 1861. The Civil War begins (§ 320). 1863. National Banks established (§324). 1863. Emancipation Proclamation (§340). 1863. Battles of Gettysburg and Vicksburg (§§343,344)- 1867. Reconstruction Act (§ 364). 1867. Purchase of Alaska (§ 368). 1869. First Railway to the Pacific (§ 370). 1871. Arbitration Treaty with England (§374). 1879. Specie Payment resumed (§ 379). 1883. Civil Service Reform (§ 381). 1898. War with Spain (§414). 1898. Territorial Expansion (§419). 1900. The Gold Standard Act (§ 425). 1903. The Panama Canal (§425). 1908. Meeting for the Conservation of our Natural Resources (§430). THE LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY I " He [the Most High] gave to thee [Columbus] the keys of those gates of the Ocean . . . which were fast closed with such mighty chains." — Dream of Columbus^ see his Letter to the King and Queen of Spain ^ 1503- THE DISCOVERY AND NAMING OF AMERICA^ (1492-1522) COLUMBUS • CABOT • AMERIGO VESPUCCI 2 I. Birth of Columbus; Ideas about the Earth; the "Sea of Darkness." Christopher Columbus, the discoverer of America, was born in Genoa, Italy ,^ At that time the earth was generally supposed to be flat, to be much smaller than it actually is, and to be habitable on its upper side only. The countries laid down on the rude and imperfect maps then in use were the continent of Europe, part of Asia, a narrbw strip of northern and eastern Africa, and a few islands, the largest of which were the British Isles and Iceland. (Map, p. 2.) 1 Reference Books. R. G. Thwaites' " Colonies," pp. 21-25 ^ ^ ■ C- Bryant and Gay's "United States" (revised edition), I, ch. 3, 5, 6 ; J. Fiske's "Discovery of America," I, 148-255, 335-446; \V. Irving's "Columbus" (abridged); T. W. Higginson's "American Explorers," pp. 21-32; E. G. Bourne's "Spain in America," pp. 9-60 ; A. B. Hart's " Source Book," pp. 1-6 ; A. B. Hart's " Ameri- can History by Contemporaries," I, 28-49. ^^^ ''^so the classified List of Books in the Appendix. 2 Amerigo Vespucci (a-ma-re'go ves-poot'che) . 3 The date of the birth of Columbus cannot be determined with certainty ; it ranges all the way from 1430 to 1456. LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [850-iooo The Atlantic was called the " Sea of Darkness." People gen- erally believed that it was covered with thick black fogs, and was guarded by terrible monsters which made it impassable. Long before Columbus was born, storm-driven sailors chanced to discover the Canaries and the Azores. These islands, with Iceland, marked the western limit of voyages. Navigators, even with the help of the mariner's compass, did not dare venture beyond them. All the countries of south- ern and eastern Asia were at that time known under the general name of the Indies. 2. The Voyages and Dis- coveries of the Northmen. But in saying this we must make one exception : the Northmen, those daring sailors of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, from whom the English-speaking race has largely sprung, ^ braved even the tempests and the ter- rors of the Atlantic. By acci- dent they made a number of remarkable discoveries several centuries before Columbus. Though they had no compass, — no guide, in fact, but the sun and the stars, — yet they frequently made long voyages in rudely built vessels not larger than fishing boats. In these voyages the Northmen discovered and settled Iceland (850) and, later, Greenland. Finally, about the year 1000, Leif 1 The Northmen invaded and permanently settled the northeastern half of England in the 9th century. In the next century they established themselves in northwestern France, which district was called from them. Normandy (the country of the Normans, or Northmen). In 1066 the Normans crossed the Channel and conquered England. Hence many English, since the 9th century, and their descendants in America must have sprung from the Northmen. Furthermore, Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish immigrants have come to America in great numbers and are still coming. They are noted for their intelligence, industry, and thrift, and they make excellent citizens. "~ — d , >-■'-{ ^C^ tmr^ i f\ m As/a *=^r d ^^ r^^^^''^$^ c ^^ '-'"~\c>^ y Indian X V J Ocean V Copy of a Map of the World as KNOWN IN 1496 The faint, dotted outline of the coast of Africa shows the unexplored portion. The monsters represent the terrors of unknown regions. 1000] VINLAND Ericson, a Northman, who was afterward known as " Leif the Lucky," discovered the coast of North America. He named the new country Vinland,i because of the quantities of wild grapes which he found there. It is impossible to say where Vinland was, but it seems prob- able that it was on some part of the coast of New England or Nova Scotia. 3. The Discovery of America by the Northmen had no Prac- tical Result. But although it is interesting to know that the Northmen visited our shores as early as the year 1000, still their discovery led to nothing. The North- men did not found a permanent colony in Vinland, and the memory of it grad ually died out. Columbus never seems to have heard of such a country. He sailed '*'NM%.' on his famous voyage nearly five hundred years after " Leif the Lucky " ^^r^-- landed on the coast ^^^i; of North America. --T We are therefore quite safe in saying that when Columbus set out to cross the Atlantic one half the world did not so much as suspect the existence of the other half. 4. What Land Columbus wished to reach; Marco Polo's Travels; the First Reason why Columbus wished to go to the Indies. What, then, let us ask, first induced Columbus to under- take a voyage that no other man of that age dared embark upon ? It was not because he expected to find a new continent beyond 1 The Northmen used to relate accounts of their voyages, and in one of these accounts, which was written out hundreds of years later, we read : " And when spring came they got ready and sailed off; and Leif gave a name to the land after its sort, and called it Vinland (Vineland). They sailed then . . . until they saw Greenland . . . after that, Leif was called ' Leif the Lucky.' " Leif Ericson's Vessel 4 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1453 the Atlantic, for no one then expected that. What he set out to do was simply to find a new way to reach the Indies by sailing westward. Columbus burned with a desire to explore the marvelous eastern lands which had been described by the great Venetian traveler, Marco Polo, more than two hundred years before (1260- 1295). Polo had made an overland journey to India and China and had spent nearly thirty years there. He also gave some account of Japan, — a country which Europe never had heard of before. Columbus believed that God had chosen him to go out as a missionary to these far-off lands. He kept that belief to the end. It gave a certain dignity to his work, and made his life noble in many ways. 5. The Second Reason why Columbus wished to reach the Indies. But the question naturally arises, if Columbus wished to reach the Indies, why did he not follow in the footsteps of his predecessor, Marco Polo (§ 4), and go overland to that country ? It was because Columbus, being a sailor, naturally wished to open up direct trade by water with the rich countries of the East ; for commerce always prefers the sea, when practicable, as the cheapest and easiest route. In that age the people of Europe used great quantities of spices, not only to flavor their food but also to preserve it. They obtained these spices from the Indies. They also imported silks, perfumes, precious stones, and many other articles from that part of the world. Genoa and Venice had carried on this trade for centuries ; one by way of the Black Sea, the other by the Red Sea (Map, p. 5), but in both cases the goods had to come part of the way over- land. About the middle of the 15th century (i453) the Turks took Constantinople and broke up the Genoese branch of the trade with the Indies. Later, the Venetian branch by way of the Red Sea was broken up by the same people. 6. Attempt of the Portuguese to reach the Indies by a New Route. This great change compelled the nations of southern The World as known shortly before and shortly after the Sailing of Columbus Light arrows show voyages made up to 1492 ; light track, Da Gama's voyage, 1497-1498. Dark arrows show voyages of Columbus and Cabot. White crosses show countries of which something was known before 1492. White area, including western coast of Africa, shows the world as known shortly before the sailing of Columbus. 6 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1487 Europe to seek a new route to the Indies. The King of Portugal thought that possibly he might find a way round the continent of Africa into the Indian Ocean. No one then knew how far the "Dark Continent" extended southward. The King's ships made voyage after voyage and slowly worked their way down the coast, but it took them more than fifty years to reach the southern point. Diaz, the Portuguese navigator, finally got to that point (1487), but he had such a rough experience that he named it the Cape of Storms. When he returned with the great news that he had actually come to the end of the African continent, the Portuguese monarch felt sure that he could accomplish what he had set out to do. To show his confidence in the new route, he called for Diaz's chart, drew his pen through the name Cape of Storms, and in its place wrote in bold letters that name full of promise, — the Cape of Good Hope. He was right, for not many years later another Portuguese navigator sailed round that cape, reached the peninsula of India (1498), and established a trading post there. 7. Plan of Columbus for reaching the Indies by sailing West. Meanwhile Columbus felt certain that he could find a shorter and better way of reaching the Indies than the course Diaz had marked out. Instead of sailing east, or south and east, he pro- posed to sail directly west. He had four reasons for such an undertaking : 1. In common with the best geographers of his day, Columbus believed that the earth was not flat, as most men supposed, but a globe. 2. He supposed the globe to be much smaller than it is, and the greater part to be land instead of water. 3. As he knew nothing and guessed nothing of the existence of the continent of America or of the Pacific Ocean, he imagined that the coast of Asia or the Indies was directly opposite Spain and the western coast of Europe. 4. He estimated the entire distance across from Spain to Japan at less than 4000 miles. 1485-1486] COLUMBUS SAILS 7 His plan was this : he would start from Europe, head his ship westward toward Japan, and follow the curve of the globe until it brought him to what he sought. To his mind it seemed as sure and simple as for a fly to walk round an apple. If successful in the expedition, he could enter the Spice Islands and the whole region of the Indies directly by the front door, while the Portuguese could only enter them in a roundabout way, and by a sort of side door. Had Columbus correctly reckoned the size of the globe and the true length of the voyage he proposed, he probably would not have sailed, since he would have seen at once that the Portuguese route (§ 6) was both far shorter and cheaper than his. Furthermore, if he had imagined that the American continent lay right across his path, that would have been another discouraging circumstance, because his object was not to find a new country, but a new way to an old one. 8. Columbus seeks and obtains the Assistance of Spain. Colum- bus meditated on his great voyage for many years, during which time he sought to get the help first of his native city, then of Portugal, and finally of Spain (1485-1486). He met with noth- ing but disappointment. He was regarded as a foolish schemer, and the street boys openly mocked him as a lunatic. At last, worn out with waiting, and sick at heart, Columbus set out to leave Spain, but he was recalled. He had a few stanch friends at court who believed, with him, that " wherever ships could sail, man might venture." Through their aid, and espe- cially through the gift of a large sum of money from Queen Isabella, he obtained the assistance he required.^ Thus, chiefly by a woman's help, the brave sailor got the power to undertake his daring enterprise. 9. Columbus sails. Columbus had succeeded in getting his own terms, — he had received the rank of admiral, he was to be governor of all lands that he might discover or acquire, and he was to have a tenth of whatever treasure he might find. When 1 The whole amount raised to fit out the expedition was about $93,000, of which sum the Queen seems to have contributed over two thirds. See Harrisse's " Columbus." LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1492 all was ready for the voyage he and his men went to church, and implored the blessing of God on their great enterprise. The next day, Friday, August 3, 1492, " half an hour before sunrise," Columbus set sail from Palos, Spain, with three small vessels and one hundred and twenty men.^ Of these vessels, only the largest, the Admiral's ship, had an entire deck, and even that was probably of not over one hundred tons' burden, or about the size of an ordinary coasting schooner. Chart representing that by which Columbus sailed 1492 ATLANTIC OCEAN •^%,TropJ_c__of_ Cancer \f;§, !^5|^|, AUSTRAM, Correct Chart of Westward Route from Europe to Asia, for Comparison with the Chart of Columbus given above 1 Columbus kept a regular journal of the voyage from the start. In the introduction to that journal he says, respecting one object he had in view : " In consequence of the informa- tion which I had given to your Highnesses [the King and Queen of Spain] of the lands of India, and of a prince who is called the Grand Khan, which is to say . . . King of Kings . . . therefore your Highnesses . . . determined to send me, Christopher Columbus, to the said parts of India to see the said prince and the people and lands . . . and to discover the means to be taken for the conversion of them to our holy faith ; and ordered that I should not go by land to the East, by which it is the custom to go, but by a voyage to the west, by which course, unto the present time, we do not know for certain that any one hath passed." 1492] ROUTE OF COLUMBUS Columbus took his route by way of the Canary Islands, because Japan, the nearest Asiatic land, was supposed to lie in that lati- tude. (Maps, pp. 8, 9.) At the Canaries he was detained several weeks repairing the rudder of one vessel and altering the sails of a second. On September 6 he hoisted anchor and resolutely set out to cross that ocean which no civilized man had ever before at- tempted to pass over. As the last dim outline of the islands faded from their sight many of the sailors were completely overcome. Some shed tears, as if they "had taken leave of the world"; Route of Columuus, isnz others, unable to restrain their grief, broke out into loud and bitter lamentations. But Columbus himself had no such fears. He did not feel that he was making a leap in the dark. He was an experienced navigator, and he had carefully calculated everything and provided for everything. 1. He had a chart of the globe, made by himself. 2. He had the mariner's compass for his guide. 3. He carried with him an improved astrolabe, the instrument which was then used for determining position, at sea, by observa- tion of the sun. But these things were not all. In fact, these were but the mate- rial and mechanical means of success. He had the conviction that he was engaged in a Providential work, and that he was certain to accomplish it. There are occasions in life when such a faith is worth everything to its possessor : this was one. LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1492 10. The Voyage ; Variation of the Needle ; the Crew are greatly alarmed ; the Winged Guides. F'or a time all went well ; then a new and strange circumstance was noticed. It was found that the compass no longer pointed toward the north star, but that it varied more and more, as they went on, to the west of north. This astonished Columbus and greatly alarmed the sailors. Tho^r K^n-o,^ fr^ fKii^v ^^^t thcy had now entered a region where the ordinary laws of nature were suspended, and that to persist in keeping on would be destruc- tion. Columbus pacified their fears as best he could. He, how- ever, would not hear of turning back then, though he afterward promised to do so if land was not discovered in a few days. On October 7 a flock of land birds was seen flying toward the southwest, and Columbus decided to change his course and follow them.i 1 1 . Land ! San Salvador ; the West Indies and the Indians. A few nights later, when Columbus was standing on the deck of his ship peering into the darkness, he suddenly saw a distant light. It moved about like a torch, carried in a man's hand. Very early the next morning, Friday, October 12, a sailor raised the joyful cry of " Land ! Land ! " It proved to be a small island of the Bahamas,^ now thought to be Watlinsr's Island. Columbus sees a Distant Light 1 Read Joaquin Millers spirited poem on Columbus in Lane and Hill's " American History in Literature" [Ginn and Company]. 2 On his first voyage (1492) Columbus discovered the Bahamas and some of the West India Islands. On his second voyage (1493) he discovered the islands of the Caribbean Sea, besides Jamaica and Porto Rico. On his third voyage (i49S)he discovered Trinidad, off the coast of \'ene2uela, South America; and on the ist of August, the mainland of that conti- nent, at the mouth of the Orinoco River. On his fourth and final voyage (1502) he explored the coast of Central America and of the Isthmus of Panama. He died in Spain in 1506. 12 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1492-1493 When the sun rose it revealed a low sandy shore. It was the humble threshold of the New World. Columbus, richly dressed in scarlet, landed with his men. Kneel- ing, they kissed the soil, and with tears gave thanks to God for having crowned their voyage with success. Then, with solemn ceremonies, the Admiral planted the royal flame-colored banner Columbus lands on San Salvador of Spain, and took possession of the country for Ferdinand and Isabella. To the island he gave the name of San Salvador, or the Holy Redeemer. Columbus believed this little island to be part of the Indies which he was seeking. Since he had reached it by sailing west- ward he called the group to which it belongs the West Indies. To the natives he naturally gave the name Indians. Columbus never found out his mistake in regard to this country. He made three more voyages hither ; but he died firmly convinced that America was part of Asia, and that he had discovered a short and direct all-sea route westward from Europe to the Indies. We should distinctly understand that Columbus never saw any part of the mainland of what is now the United States. 12. Columbus returns to Spain ; his Reception ; the Pope's Divi- sion of the World. Columbus built a small fort in Haiti and left a few men to hold it. He then sailed for Spain (1493). 1493-1494] LETTER OF COLUMBUS Ferdinand and Isabella gave the great sailor such a reception as the first civilized man who had crossed the Atlantic merited. Those who a year before had laughed at him as crazy, now, cap in hand, bowed low before him. Yet the only printed account which appeared describing his wonderful voyage was a copy of a letter which he had written to the King and Oueen. It was entitled : "H Xcttcr of Cbrietopbcr Columlms, (to whom our Age is much indebted) respecting the Islands of India, beyond the Ganges, lately discovered."^ One important result of this supposed discovery of a western route to the Indies was the division of the worlcl^ by the Pope. Spain and Portugal were rivals. Both were eager to get control of the commerce with the Far East — especially with the Spice Islands of the Indies. In order to keep the two nations from fight- ing each other, the Pope drew a perpendicular line, one hundred leagues west of the Azores, from the north pole to the south pole. The King of Portugal was to have all lands dis- covered east of that line, and the King of Spain all those west of it. Later (1494), this dividing line was fixed three hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. 13. Disappointment of Spain with the newly found " Indies " ; Death of Columbus. Meantime Spain was pic- turing to herself the unbounded wealth she would gain through future voyages of Columbus. But he failed to find any rich spices or mines of precious metal, and sore was the disappointment. His men brought back no gold, but only a mockery of it in their yellow, emaciated faces, discolored by disease. 1 This letter may be found complete in Major's " Select Letters of Columbus." Map showing the Division OF THE World made IN 1494 new governor for the island of Haiti (§ 12). 14 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1403-1500 Loud was the outcry against Columbus. The rabble nicknamed him the "Admiral of Mosquito Land." They pointed at him as the man who had promised everything, but who had found noth- ing but "a wilderness peopled with naked savages." So strong was the feeling against him that the King appointed a He arrested Columbus and sent him back in chains to Spain ( i 5 00) . He was released as soon as he arrived, and lived to make one more voyage. Broken in health, broken in heart, the great sailor died in Spain in neg- lect and poverty.^ But though his clos- ing days were pitiful, yet none the less the voice that he imag- ined he once heard in a dream spoke truly .^ He had accomplished what no one else had done, for he had unlocked " those gates of the ocean," which until 1 Columbus died at Valladolid in 1506. He was buried there, but later his body was removed to Seville. In 1536 it was transported to the island of San Domingo. After the cession of that island to France by the Spanish the body of Columbus was taken up (as was then siiffoscd), carried to Havana, Cuba, and there deposited in the cathedral. These reputed remains were sent back to Spain in December, 1S9S, and were deposited in the cathedral of Seville. But it may be that the true remains of Columbus still rest in San Domingo. Three years before his death he wrote to the King and Queen, saying, " I was twenty- eight years old [these figures are bc'lieved to be a mistake] . . . when I came into your Highnesses' service, and now I have not a hair upon my head that is not gray: my body is infirm, and all that was left to me has been taken away and sold. . . . Hitherto I have wept over others ; may Heaven now have mercy upon me, and may the earth weep for me I " — Letter of Cohimbjts, 1503. 2 See quotation from the letter of Columbus at the beginning of this chapter, page i. It was vvhile he lay sick and in great trouble, on the Isthmus of Panama, that he fancied he heard the consoling voice. 1407] JOHN CABOT 15 The J.ight Farts of this Map show how much ok America Columbus Discovered then had been "fast shut with chains," — the chains of ignorance and fear. He failed to find the Indies — but he did something immeasurably greater — he discovered y^wmr^. 14. John Cabot discovers the Continent of North America. But great as was the merit of Columbus, he was not destined to be the first to look on the mainland of America, nor was he to give it the name it bears. The dis- coveiy of the continent was made by a fel- low-countryman, John Cabot, of Venice, then re- siding in Bristol, England. The great voyage of Columbus moved him to see what he could discover. He hoped to find a northern ^^^^ passage to the Indies t-^J=^K> = and China, in order that he might secure the spice trade for the English sovereign. He failed to discover what he sought ; but he did better, for he saw what no civilized man had yet beheld, — the con- tinent of North Amer- ica. The point where he made the discov- ery was probably in the JuHN C Vl.Ol VlIROACllINU L\ND vicinity of Cape Breton Island, at the entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. On a map drawn by his son Sebastian we read the following inscription : 1 6 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1497-1499 "/« the year of our Lord I^gj, John Cabot, a Venetian, and his son Sebastian discovered that cotmtry which no one before his time had ventured to approacJi, oji the Z^j-tJi of June, about five o' clock in the morning." Cabot planted the English flag on the coast, and took possession of the country for Henry VII, King of England. The next year Sebastian Cabot made a voyage, and explored the coast from Nova Scotia to Cape Hatteras, or perhaps even farther south. Henry VII was notoriously fond of money, and knew how to hold on to it ; but in this particular case he tried to be generous. He ap- pears to have given John Cabot a small pension ; for after his death this rhemorandum was found in the King's private expense book : '' lOth August, I 4^7. To him that found the new isle, £,10^ The King certainly got his money's worth ; for on that voy- age of Cabot's the English based their claim to this country. Nearly three hundred years later, Edmund Burke, the eminent British statesman, said in Parliament, " We derive our right in America from the discovery of [John] Cabot, who first made [saw] the northern continent in 1497-" 15. How America got its Name. Two years after John Cabot's voyage (1499) another Italian, Amerigo Vespucci,^ went out from Spain on an expedition of exploration. Following directly in the track of Columbus, and using his charts, he reached the northeastern 1 Vespucci's voyages : according to what purports to be his own account, Amerigo Ves- pucci made his first voyage in the spring of 1497, and saw on June 6th of that year "" a coast which," he says, " we thought to be that of a continent." If that coast was the continent, he discovered the mainland of America eighteen days before John Cabot did (June 24, 1497); and more than a year before Columbus saw it, on his third voyage (August i, 1498). In 1499 Vespucci, following in the track of Columbus, visited the northeastern coast of South America, part of which had been seen and described by the great navigator the previous year. Later, Map showing how much of North America was dis- covered BY THE CaBOTS 1499-1507] HOW AMERICA GOT ITS NAME 17 part of the South American coast, somewhere in what is now Dutch Guiana. In the course of the next four years he made two more voyages in which he visited Brazil. On his return to Europe he wrote a pretty full account of what he had seen, which was published soon after (1504). A teacher in the college of St. Die, in eastern France, read Vespucci's little pamphlet. He was greatly interested in it because it was the first printed descrip- tion of the mainland of the Western Hemisphere. In the year 1 507 this teacher published a small book on ge- ography. He spoke of the different voyages which had been made across the Atlantic, and ended by saying, " The fourth part of the zuorld hav- ing been disccoeredby Amerigo or Americns, zve may call it Amerig^, or AMERICA." People seemed to like the idea, and so half of the globe received the name it now bears. One Italian had found the out- posts of the New World, and claimed them for Spain (§ 11); a second had seen the north- ern mainland, and taken pos- session of it for England (§ 14) ; the others, gave to it, perhaps without his own knowledge, title it now possesses in every atlas and history. No man that ever lived before or since has such a monument as Amerigo Vespucci ; for a name derived from his is written across Vespucci visited Brazil. Authorities are divided, but perhaps the greater part now believe that Vespucci did not make his first voyage until 1499, and that, therefore, John Cabot was the true discoverer of the continent of America. (See Winsor's " Narrative and Critical History of America," II, 129-179; Channing's "United States," I, 42-44.) St. Die, France finally, a third, coming after both the 1 8 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1507-1522 the map of two entire continents. If he deserved it, it is right that he should have the honor ; but that is a point which cannot be settled. It may be that he has received by chance fame which he did not fairly earn, and which, perhaps, he did not even seek, 16. How America finally came to be considered a New and Distinct Continent. But even after America was named, the idea that it was a distinct and separate division of the globe was not generally accepted. Some thought that South America was a great island or southern continent (like Australia) ; but the majority be- lieved, with Columbus, that it was simply an immense peninsula projecting from southeastern Asia, People, indeed, spoke of the " New World," but all that they usually meant by that expression was newly discovered lands. The real character of America was first found by Magellan, a Portuguese captain who crossed the Atlantic in the early part of the 1 6th century. The King of Spain sent him on a voyage to the southwest (15 19), to see if he could find a new way to -reach the Spice Islands. He discovered the strait which now bears his name, and, passing through it, entered that great ocean which he called the Pacific, He pushed on westward until he reached the Philippines, where he was killed by the natives. One ship of the expedition kept on its course until it crossed the Indian Ocean, doubled the Cape of Good Hope (§6), and finally reached Spain (1522), (Maps, pp. 5, 8.) The Spanish King was so pleased with the result that he gave the commander a coat of arms representing a globe bearing the motto : " Yon first sailed round ineT Then men's eyes were opened to the truth. Then they saw that America, instead of being a part of the Old World, was in all prob- ability an immense, independent continent, a real new world. Was that discovery hailed with delight 1 Not at all. Europe was still bent on finding "that hidden secret of nature," — a direct passage to Asia and the Indies, — and there stood America bar- ring all progress. It is true that when the Spaniards found gold and silver in Mexico and Peru, they became reconciled in a measure to 1519-1522] SUMMARY 19 ASIA C 7 r^CATER CALLED A JNORTH AJIBBICA UPPER INDIA) << japanS f Equator ^ ^^^AVA V. AMERICA I their disappointment. Still, for more than a hundred years after Columbus, most of the explorers spent their efforts not so much in seeking to find out what was in the new country, as in trying to hit on some passage through it or round it which should be shorter and better than that which Magellan had sailed through, 17. Summary. In 1492 Columbus, while attempting to open up a direct western all-sea route to Asia, accidentally came upon the West India Islands, — in other words, he discovered America. He had no true idea of the magnitude of his discovery, but supposed the land which he had found, and all that which he afterward saw, to be part of Asia. His great merit was this : he was the first civilized man who dared to cross the unknown sea of the Atlantic. The glory of that bold exploit will always be his. John Cabot, a Venetian, discovered the American continent in 1497. The voyages of Amerigo Vespucci, who, like Cabot, was a native of Italy, and therefore a fellow-countryman of Columbus, suggested the name America. Last of all, Magellan's expedition round the world (15 19-1522) proved the earth to be a globe, and showed that America was, in all probability, a distinct continent, and not a part of Asia. 1 In igoi a map was found in Germany which eminent scholars believe was made in 1507 by Waldseemiiller, the teacher at St. Die, referred to in § 15. It shows the earliest use of the name America on a map. The name is placed on the continent of South America on what is now the northern part of the Argentine Republic. This map of 1507 is not as well adapted to reproduction in a book of this grade as that of 15 15, given above, and which may be found in J. Winsor's "America," II, 118. For a reduced copy of that part of Wald- seemiiller's map of 1507, which shows the name America, s,^^ E. G. Bourne's "Spain m America," p. 100; for the complete map, see Fischer and Wieser's Atlas of "The Oldest Map with the Name America." Map of America^ from a Globe MADE IN 1 51 5 II The discovery of America was " the great event which gave a new world not only to Spain, but to civilized man." — Charles Sumner. ATTEMPTS AT EXPLORING AND COLONIZING AMERICA^ THE COUNTRY • THE NATIVES • EFFECTS OF THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA ON EUROPE (1509-1600) i8. Ponce de Leon's Expedition; Discovery of Florida. Early in the sixteenth century the Spaniards conquered Cuba. A number of years later Ponce de Leon, governor of Porto Rico, resolved to start on an exploring expedition to the northward. De Leon was growing old, but the Indians excited him by tell- ing him of a wonderful land not very far away. They said that he would find plenty of gold there, and a fountain which would make the old young again. He obtained a charter ^ from the King of Spain, which gave him power to go in search of that land of promise, and when found, to hold it as governor for life. The veteran adventurer felt that if he could once bathe in the waters of the miraculous fountain, and get back his youth, he would be pretty sure of a long term of office. After cruising about for several weeks he struck the mainland of North America (15 13). It was Easter Sunday, a day which the 1 Reference Books. R. G. Thwaites' " Colonies," pp. 1-7, 7-19, 27-44 ; F. Park- man's " Pioneers of France in the New World," pp. 1-15, 85-162 ; W. C. Bryant and Gay's " United States " (revised edition), I, ch. 7-10; L. Farrand's " Basis of American History" (The Indians), ch. 14-15; E. G. Bourne's "Spain in Amer- ica," pp. 108-1 1 r, 133-136, 162-168, 169-174, 177-189 ; L. G. Tyler's " England in America," pp. 18-33 ; A- B. Hart's " Source Book of American History," pp. 6-14 ; A. B. Hart's " American History by Contemporaries," I, 57-64, 81-95; G. Ban- croft's " United States," I, ch. 2-5 ; N. S. Shaler's " Story of Our Continent " (Physical Geography, etc.). See also the classified List of Books in the Appendix. 2 Charter : a written grant made by the king or head of a government, conferring certain rights and privileges. 20 1513] BALBOA'S EXPEDITION Spaniards call Pascua Florida, or Flowery Easter. Shortly after, De Leon landed at a point not very far from where St. Augustine now stands. (Map, p. 29.) There he planted the cross, raised the Spanish flag, and in commemoration of the day when he had first seen the coast, he named the country Florida. Winter is almost unknown in that climate, and the dense foliage and profusion of bright flowers fully justified the name. De Leon failed to discover gold. Worse still, he found no mag- ical fountain that could make a man approaching three-score a man of twenty. Disappointed in what he most cared for, he set sail for Porto Rico. Later, he went back to Florida to colonize the country, but was killed by an In dian. Thus the old man found ^ death lurking for him in that " Land of Plowers," where hv had hoped to find both riches and his lost youth. 19. Balboa discovers a New Ocean ; Cortez in Mexico ; his Plans for a Panama CanaL In the autumn of the year when De Leon first saw Florida (15 13), Balboa, a fellow-countryman, undertook an exploring expedi- tion on the Isthmus of Panama. His object was to find a great body of water which the natives told him could be seen toward the south from the top of the moun- tains. After terrible hardships, Balboa reached the summit of the ridge. Looking down, he beheld that magnificent expanse of water which Magellan, seven years later, sailed across on his way round the world (§ 16). A number of days afterwards, Balboa, struggling over rocks, wading streams, and cutting his way through tangled vines, suc- ceeded in getting to the shore. Drawing his sword with one hand, and bearing a banner in the other, he marched out knee-deep into the smooth sea, and took K;^' Balboa discovers the Pacific 22 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1513-1535 possession of it and of all lands bordering on it for the sovereigns of Spain. Waving his sword, he said, " I am ready to defend " their claim "as long as the world endures, and until the final day of judgment of all mankind." He named that ocean the South Sea because he first saw it to the south of where he stood, but Magellan named it the Pacific (§ i6). Six years later, the Spanish general, Cortez, landed in Mexico, conquered that country, and thus established the power of Spain on the Pacific slope of the North American continent. Cortez saw what an immense advantage it would be to Spain to cut a canal through the Isthmus of Panama. He suggested it to the King, but that prudent monarch refused to undertake a work which he said would drain his treasury of its last cent. To-day the United States has an army of canal laborers on the Isthmus who are " making the dirt fly." Many of them are Spaniards. 20. French Explorations; Montreal. Up to this time France had obtained no part of the New World. But the King of that country did not intend to let the other powers of Europe get it all. The Pope had, as we have seen (§ 12), granted the new lands to the rival nations of Spain and Portugal, but the King of France cared nothing for that. " Show me," said he to the sovereigns of those nations, " ' the words in the will of " Father Adam ' which divides the earth between the Spanish and the Portuguese, but shuts out the French." No one found it convenient to produce the will, so the King of France sent out an expedition (1524)1 to obtain his share of America. Later (1535), Cartier,^ a French navigator, discovered a great river in the northern part of America, to which he gave the name of St. Lawrence. Ascending the stream, he came to an island where he climbed a lofty hill. He was so delighted with the grand view that he called the height Montreal, or Royal Mountain. 1 This was the expedition said to have been undertaken by Verrazano in 1524. He states that he landed in the vicinity of Cape Fear, North CaroUna ; then sailed about 150 miles southward along the coast, and then, turning north, sailed to what is now New York Bay, afterward cruising along the coast of New England. 2 Cartier made his first expedition in 1534, to Newfoundland and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 1539-1541] DE SOTO'S EXPEDITION 23 21. De Soto's Expedition in the East. Meanwhile De Soto, a Spaniard, as greedy for gold as he was cruel, and as daring as he was greedy, set out on an expedition to the west. He sailed from Cuba (1539) with a force of about 600 picked men and over 200 horses. The expedition landed at Tampa Bay, Florida, and began its march of exploration, robbery, and murder. The soldiers seized the natives, chained them in couples, and forced them to carry their baggage and pound their corn into meal for them. De Soto's Expedition in the East, and Coronado's in the West In the course of two years, De Soto and his men traveled up- wards of fifteen hundred miles through what are now the states of Florida, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. They picked up no gold worth mentioning, but, in place of it, they found hunger, suffering, and death. They deserved what they found. At length (1541) the Spaniards, worn out, sick, and disheart- ened, came out from the forest on the banks of the Mississippi.^ There De Soto called a halt. He was the first white man that had 1 Probably at or near a place now called De Soto Front, De Soto County, in the north- western corner of the state of Mississippi. 24 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1542 ever looked on the main body of that mighty stream which rolls for nearly three thousand miles through the heart of the conti- nent, and, with its tributaries, has a total navigable length of over twenty thousand miles. The river at that point is so wide that a person standing on the bank can just see a man standing on the opposite side. Here the Spaniards crossed. They made a long march westward, getting no treasure, but meeting, as they declared, " Indians as fierce as mad dogs." After a time they came back to the great De Soto discovers the Mississippi river (1542) at that point in Louisiana where the Red River unites with it. Here De Soto ended his career. Here he died, and was secretly buried at midnight in the muddy waters of the Mississippi. The survivors at length reached the Spanish settlements in Mexico. They were a forlorn band, half-naked, half-starved, look- ing worse than the savages they had gone out to subdue. 22. Coronado's Expedition in the "West. While De Soto had been moving westward, Coronado, a Spanish governor in Mexico, heard of seven wonderful cities in the northeast. The Indians said that the principal houses of these marvelous cities were ornamented with precious stones, and that the women wore strings of gold beads and the men belts of gold. Coronado set out (1540) to 1540-1562] CORONADO'S EXPEDITION 25 find and conquer these places, (Map, p. 23.) He discovered the Grand Canyon of the Colorado ^ in Arizona, and a number of Indian pueblos, or villages, in New Mexico, built of stone and adobe or bricks made of mud dried in the sun. But he found no gold, and nothing more valuable than some bright blue stones. Disappointed in his hopes of plunder, he pushed on until he reached the plains of Kansas. There he first saw and hunted the famous "hunchback cows," or buffalo. Had he kept on, he might have met his country- man, De Soto (§ 21) ; but he was disgusted with the Indians, who were so miserably poor that he could rob them of nothing, so he made his way back to Mexico. 23. Attempts of the Huguenots'^ to establish Colonies. Menendez destroys them and builds Fort St. Augustine. For twenty years after De Soto's death (§21), Florida, with the adjacent country, was left to the undisturbed possession of the Indians. Then (i 562) a small party of Huguenots attempted to plant a colony at \vhat is now Port Royal, South Carolina, but the wil- derness made them homesick and they soon went back to France, CORONADO DISCOVERS THE GrAND Canyon of the Colorado 1 Canyon of the Colorado : this tremendous gorge extends for over 300 miles. Its rocky walls rise from 3000 to over 7000 feet above the river. Nothing equal to it can be seen in any other part of the world. 2 Huguenots : a name given to the early French Protestants, For a full account of them, see "The Leading Facts of French History," in this series. 26 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1564-1565 The next year (1564) a second band of Huguenots landed on the St, Johns River in Florida and built a fort. The King of Spain claimed the whole of that region by right of discovery (§§ 11, 18). He resolved to break up the French settlement, and sent an officer named Menendez to do the work. Menendez found the French at the mouth of the St. Johns River (1565), but decided not to attack them that day. He sailed southward and built a fort which he named St. Augustine. He then advanced to the St. Johns, surprised the French gar- rison, and massacred all but the women and children. Meanwhile the leader of the French forces had started to attack the Span- iards. Both hated each other, both were equally cruel, and in such a war neither would spare the other. The French ships were wrecked and the soldiers thrown helpless upon the beach. Menendez soon found them and put them to death. Later, Menendez found the French leader and sev- eral hundred more of his men. They were too ex- hausted to make any resistance. The Spaniards made part of them slaves for life ; then they took nearly a hundred and fifty more, bound their hands behind them, and drove them like cattle to St. Augustine. There they slaughtered them. In this way Menendez laid, in blood, the foundations of the oldest town in the United States (1565). 24. Revenge by De Gourgues. A French Catholic named De Gourgues vowed vengeance on the murderers of his countrymen. Driving the French Captives to Fort St. Augustine 15G7-157.S] ENGLISH EXPLURAflUN 27 He sailed for Florida. Reaching the St. Johns River, he captured the Spanish garrison that Menendez had left there (§ 23), bound the prisoners, and hanged them. Over their heads he placed a pine board on which he burned these words with a hot iron : " I do this not as to Spaniards, but as to assassins." Then he set sail for France. The French never made a second attempt to colonize Florida, and the Span- iards were left in full possession not only of Florida, but of the whole of North America. 25. English Exploration : Frobisher ; Davis ; Gilbert; Drake. It was nearly eighty )eais after John Cabot planted the English flag on the coast of North America (§ 14) before another such expedition was undertaken. Then (1576) Sir Martin Fro^ bisher, followed by Captain John Davis, made new attempts to dis- cover a northwest passage to the Indies. But the ice fields of the Arctic Ocean compelled them to turn back. A little later (1578) Sir Hum- phrey Gilbert set out on a voyage of discovery. He took possession of Newfoundland, but was soon afterward lost at sea. >^' Meanwhile Sir Francis Drake, a noted English sailor and fighter, started on a piratical expedition against the Spanish setUements on the western coast of America. He passed through Magellan's Strait (§ 16) into the Pacific, plundering Spanish towns and Spanish treasure ships as he made his way up the coast. He landed at some point in California, probably near the Golden Gate. Then he sailed north as far as the upper part of the state of Washington. (Map, p. 29.) He hoped Drake claims the Northwest Coast for England 28 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1578-1585 he should have the good luck to discover a strait leading through to the Atlantic, so that England could establish direct trade with China and the Indies. Failing in that, he took possession of the whole northwest coast of America in the name of Queen Elizabeth. Crossing the Pacific, he returned to England by way of the Cape of Good Hope. Like Magellan {§ i6), he had "plowed a furrow round the world." He was the first Englishman to perform that feat (1 577-1 580). 26. Walter Raleigh's Exploring Expedition to Virginia. A few years later (1584) Queen Elizabeth granted one of her favorites, Walter Raleigh, a charter giving him the right to explore and settle the eastern coast of America. He was one of the few men of that day who believed that the northern part of the New World was worth settling. Most of the expeditions that had crossed the Atlantic went out mainly to dis- cover a way through or round the continent to Asia (§§ 14, 16, 25) ; but Raleigh thought that England might find that America would be worth as much as Asia, or even more. He sent out two ships (1584) to explore. The English reached Roanoke Island, off the coast of what is now North Carolina. The explorers were delighted with the " native Americans," and spent several weeks " eating and drinking very merrily " with the red men. When the explorers returned to England, the Queen was so highly pleased with their description of the " Good Land " that she named it Virginia, in honor of her own maiden life, and knighted the fortunate Raleigh, who now became Sir Walter, 27. Sir Walter Raleigh's Colony; the New " Root" and the New Weed. Raleigh sent out a number of emigrants to make a settlement on Roanoke Island (1585). They stayed less than a year and then returned to England. Still the experiment was not a complete failure, for they carried back a peculiar kind of "root" — as they called it. The Eng- lish baked it and found it excellent. Thus the potato ^ became an article of food in the British Islands. 1 The potato, by which is meant the common, not the sweet, potato, was not cultivated by the Indians. Strictly speaking, the potato is not a true root, but an underground stem. 1585] SIR WALTER RALEIGH'S COLONY 29 But this was not all. The Indians had a weed whose leaves they dried and smoked with great satisfaction. They told the white men at Roanoke that " it would cure being tired." The emi- grants tried it, and one of them said that it had so many virtues Early Voyages to America and around the World that " it would take an entire volume to describe them all." Queen Elizabeth smoked a very little of this wonderful plant and confessed that it was " a vegetable of singular strength and power." We shall see later (§ 50) that Virginia tobacco came to have a very im- portant influence on American trade, and also on American history. 30 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1587-1600 28. Raleigh sends out a Second Colony. Raleigh, though dis- appointed at the return of his first colony, resolved to send out a second (1587). John White, the governor of the new colony, laid the log foundations of the " City of Raleigh." The Governor's daughter, Eleanor Dare, was the wife of one of the settlers. Shortly after her landing, Mrs. Dare gave birth to a daughter. She was the first child born of English parents in America, and was baptized by the name Virginia. Governor White soon sailed for England to get further help for the colony, leaving his daughter and his granddaughter, little Virginia Dare, to await his return. That was the last he ever saw of them. When he returned the island was deserted ; not one of the colonists was ever found. Sir Walter Raleigh was obliged to give up his project ; and America was left with not a single English settler, but with many " English graves." Raleigh had spent over forty thousand pounds on the colony. He could do no more ; but he said, " I shall live to see it an Eng- lish nation." He did live to see a permanent English settlement established in Virginia in 1607. A hundred and eighty-five years after that event (1792) Sir Walter's name was given to the seat of government of North Carolina, and thus the " City of Raleigh " was enrolled among the capitals of the United States. Sir Walter's example was not lost ; for from his day England kept the colonization of America in mind, until it was finally accom- plished. For these reasons Raleigh is righdy regarded as one of the founders of the American nation. 29. White Settlers in 1600 in what is now the United States. As late as the year 1 600 there seemed small promise that this coun- try would ever be settled and governed by the English-speaking race. Look at the situation. More than a hundred years had passed since Columbus landed, yet the only white inhabitants of the territory now embraced in the United States were a few hun- dred Spaniards in St. Augustine, Florida (§ 23), and perhaps a few hundred more in Santa Fe, New Mexico. Over the rest of the country, embracing more than three mil- lions of square miles, the Indians ruled supreme. France had tried 1600] WHITE SETTLERS IN 1600 31 to get a foothold on the Atlantic coast and had failed (§§23, 24); England had tried and failed likewise (§§ 26-28), Spain alone had succeeded. In 1600 it certainly looked as though her flag was destined to wave over the whole continent from sea to sea, 30. What America was found to be ; its Physical Geography. Looking at the territory now included in the United States, let us see what the explorers of that age, and of a later one, found America to be. In great measure it seemed to them Europe re- peated. It has practically the same climate and the same soil. It produces, or is capable of producing, the same trees, the same fruits, the same crops, with the valuable addition of cotton, sugar, and rice. In all ways it is equally favorable to human health and life. But this is not all. In two important respects America is supe- rior to Europe, That continent commands the Atlantic only ; but America commands two oceans, — the Atlantic and the Pacific, We can send our ships direct to Europe and Africa from our eastern coast, and from our western coast we can send them direct to Asia and Australia, This is our first advantage. Our second advantage is, that though America repeats all the natural features of Europe, — its lakes, mountains, plains, rivers, and forests, — yet it repeats them on a far grander scale, Europe has no chains of mountains which can compare with the " Rockies," no lakes equal to our Great Lakes, no river like the Mississippi, no falls like Niagara, no chasm like the Canyon of the Colorado (§ 22), no prairies like those of our western states. In fact, no continent on the globe ranks higher than America, and the United States holds the best part of it. Besides the natural wealth our country possesses above ground in its climate, soils, and forests, it has vast stores of wealth underground. Look at its quarries of stone for building, its beds of clay for making brick, its varied mineral products, gold, silver, copper, and lead. Better still, it has immense mines of the two most useful minerals known to man — coal and iron. From these gifts of na- ture we have drawn riches for generations ; now we shall safeguard them against waste (§ 430, No. 3), so that we may continue to draw riches from them for generations to come. 32 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [icoo That distinguished Enghsh statesman, the late William Glad- stone, declared that "America has a natural base for the greatest continuous empire ever established by man." Later on we shall see that the physical geography of our country has had a most important influence on its history. (Map, p. 43.) Such was the land spread out before the explorers. It seemed to offer to all who were disappointed with the Old World an oppor- tunity to try, in America, what they could make of life under new and broader conditions. 31. The Indians; the Population then and now. One strange fact about the country was that east of the Mississippi the whole vast area was well-nigh a solitude. Where to-day more than fifty million white men live, there were then only two or three hun- dred thousand Indians. Sometimes the explorers would travel for days without meeting a human being. The only roads through the forests were narrow Indian trails ; the only farms were scattered patches of Indian corn ; the only cities and towns were occasional clusters of Indian wigwams.^ The truth is, that the Indians did not really occupy the land : they simply possessed it. To them it was mainly a hunting ground to roam over or a battlefield to fight on. 32. Personal Appearance of the Indians; the "Scalp Lock." Columbus called the natives Indians (§ 11), but they called them- selves simply '" Men," or " Real Men " ; " Real Men " they cer- tainly often proved themselves to be. The most numerous body of Indians in the East was the Algonquins ; the ablest and the most ferocious was the Iroquois. (Map, p. 36.) They were a tall, well- made race, with a color usually resembling that of old copper. The men cut all of their hair off close to the head, with the exception of a ridge or lock in the middle. That was left as a point of honor. It was called the " scalp lock." Its object was to give an adversary — if he could get it — a fair grip in fight, and also to enable him to pull his enemy's scalp off as a trophy of the batde. That lock was the Indian's flag of defiance. It waved above his head as the colors do over a fort, as if to say, " Take me if you can ! " 1 See Whitelaw Raid's " Greatest Fact in Modem History." IGOO] HOW THE INDIANS LIVED 33 33. How the Indians lived. The Indians were savages, but seldom degraded savages. They Hved by hunting, fishing, and farm- ing. Their farming, however, was of the rudest kind. For weapons they had bows and arrows, hatchets made of flint, and heavy clubs. The Indian believed in a strict division of duties. He did the hunting, the fighting, the scalping ; his wife did the work. She built the wigwam, or hut, of bark.^ She planted and hoed the corn and tobacco. She made deerskin clothes for the family. When they moved, she carried the furniture on her back. Her house- keeping was simple. She kindled a fire on the ground by rubbing two dry sticks rapidly together ; then she roasted the meat on the coals or boiled it in an earthen pot. There was always plenty of smoke and dirt, but no one complained. Housecleaning was unknown. 34. The Moccasin ; the Snowshoe ; the Birch-Bark Canoe. The most ingenious work of the Indians was seen in the moccasin, the snowshoe, and the birch-bark canoe. The moccasin was a shoe made of buckskin, — durable, soft, pliant, noiseless. It was the best covering: for a hunter's foot that human skill ever contrived. 1 The wigwams were of various kinds. Some would hold only a single family ; others, as among the Iroquois. tribe, were long, low tenement houses, large enough for a dozen or more families. Some wigwams were made of skins or built of logs. 34 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [looo The snowshoe was a light frame of wood, covered with a net- work of strings of hide, and having such a broad surface that the wearer could walk on top of the snow in pursuit of game. Without it the Indian might have starved in a severe winter, since only by its use could he run down the deer at that season. The birch-bark canoe was light, strong, and easily propelled. It made the Indian master of every lake, river, and stream. Wher- ever there were water ways he could travel quickly, silently, and with little effort. He could go in his own private conveyance from the source of the Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico ; or he could go from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to the Falls of Niagara ; then he could pick up his canoe, carry it round the falls, and begin his journey again on Lake Erie westward to Duluth or Chicago. 35. Indian Government; "Wampum." Each tribe of Indians had a chief, but the chief had little real power. All important matters were settled by councils. The records of these councils were kept in a peculiar manner. The Indian could not write, but he could make pictures that would often serve the purpose of Treaty Belt made of Wampum writing. The treaty made by the Indians with William Penn was commemorated by a belt made of " wampum," or strings of beads made of shells. It represented an Indian and a white man clasping each other by the hand in token of friendship. That was the record of the peace established between them. But quite independent of any picture, the arrangement of the beads and their colors had a meaning. When a council was held, a belt was made to show what had been done. Every tribe had its " wampum " interpreters. By examination of a belt they could tell what action had been taken at any public meeting in the past. 1000] INDIAN "TOTEMS" 35 The beads of these "wampum" strings had another use : they served for money, and a certain number of them would buy a bushel of corn. But the Indian rarely needed these beads for this purpose. The forest supplied him and his family with food, clothes, and medicine. Under such circumstances a pocket full of money would have been as useless to him as to a bear, 36. Social Condition of the Indians; "Totems." The Indian had less liberty than the white man. He was bound by customs handed down from his forefathers ; he could not marry as he pleased ; he could not sit in whatever seat he chose at a council ; he could not even paint his face any color he fancied, for a young man who had won no honors in battle would no more have dared to decorate himself like a veteran warrior than a private soldier in the United States army would venture to appear at parade in the uniform of a major 'general. Each clan had a "totem " or badge, to designate it. The " totem " was usually the picture of a squirrel, crow, or some other wild crea- ture. Among the Iroquois the figures of the Bear, Turtle, and Wolf were the coats-of-arms of the " first families " of the Indian aristocracy. The " totem " was also used as a mark on gravestones and as a seal. When the United States sells a piece of land to a western farmer, it stamps the deed with the government seal, so when an Indian sold a tract of land to a white man, he marked the deed with a rude representation of the " totem " or great seal of his tribe. 37. Indian Religion ; Indian Character. The Indian usually be- lieved in a " Great Spirit " — all-powerful, wise, and good ; but he also believed in many inferior spirits, some good and some evil. Often he worshiped the evil spirits most. He said : The Great Spirit will not hurt me, even if I do not pray to him, for he is good ; but if I don't pray to the evil spirits, they may get mad and do me mischief. Beyond this life the Indian looked for another. There the brave warrior who had taken many scalps would enter the happy hunting grounds ; there demons would flog the coward to never- ending tasks. 36 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY It has sometimes been said that " the only good Indian is a dead Indian " ; but judged by his own standard of right and wrong, the red man was conscientious. He would not steal from his own tribe ; he would not lie to his friends ; he never became a drunkard till the white man taught him. 38. The Indian's Self-Control ; Torturing Captives ; Respect for Courage. The Indian rarely expressed his feelings in words, but he frequendy painted them on his face in red, black, or yellow paint. You could tell by his color whether he meant peace or war, whether he had heard good news or. bad. He sometimes laughed and shouted ; he seldom, if ever, wept. From childhood he was Stark running the Gantlet taught to despise pain. A row of litde Indian boys would some- times put live coals under their naked arms and then press them close to their bodies. The game was, to see which one would first raise his arms and drop the coal. The one that held out longest became the leader. If an Indian had met with an accident, and was mortally wounded, he scorned to complain ; he sang his "death song" and died hke a veteran warrior. The Indians either adopted their captives or tortured them. They liked to see how much agony a captive could bear without crying out. The surest way for a prisoner to save his life was to show that he was not afraid to lose it. The red man never failed to respect courage. When General Stark of New Hampshire was taken prisoner by the Indians (1752), he was condemned to run the gantlet. IGOO] THE INDIAN AND THE WHITE MAN 37 Two long rows of stalwart young warriors were formed. Each man had a club or stick to strike Stark as he passed. But Stark was a match for his tormentors. Just as he started on the terrible race for life he snatched a club out of the hands of the nearest Indian, and knocking down the astonished savages right and left, he escaped almost unhurt. The old men of the tribe, who stood near, roared with laughter to see the spruce young warriors sprawling in the dust. Instead of torturing Stark, they treated him as a hero. 39. The Indian and the White Man; what the White Man learned from him. The Indian was a treacherous and cruel enemy, but a steadfast friend. He would return good for good, but he knew nothing about returning good for evil ; on the contrary, he always paid bad treat- ment by bad treatment and never forgot to add some interest. If he made a treaty he kept it sacredly ; it is said that in no instance can it be proved that he was first to break such an agreement. Those of the early white settlers who made friends with the red man had no cause to regret it. The Indian's school was the woods. Whatever the woods can teach that is useful, — and they can teach much, — that he learned. He knew the properties of every plant, and the habits of every animal. The natives taught the white man many of these things and helped him to get fish and furs ; but the most useful thing they taught the European settlers was how to raise corn in the forest without first cutting down the trees. They showed them how to kill the trees by burning or girdling them. Then, when the leaves no longer grew, the sun would shine on the soil and ripen the corn. There were times in the history of the early settlements of white men when that knowledge saved them from starvation, for often they had neither time nor strength to clear the soil for planting. 40. Influence of the Indians on the Early History of the Coun- try. But we shall see that the contact between the red men and the white men had influences in other ways. Sometimes the red men and the white settlers made covenants of friendship and 38 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [looo- agreed to help each other fight; for instance, the Iroquois In- dians in New York state agreed to help the English fight the Canadian French. By doing so, they enabled the English to keep possession of the Hudson River. If the Canadian French could have got that river, they might have separated the Eng- lish colonists in New England from those in Pennsylvania and Virginia and so have got the control of a large part of the Atlantic coast. Finally, the Indian wars prevented the English from scatter- ing over the country. These contests forced the white men to stand by each other, and thus trained them for union and for independence. 41. Effects of the Discovery of America on Europe. What, now, were the effecfs of the discovery of the New World on Europe ? They may be summed up as follows : 1. There was a sudden and immense increase of geograph- ical knowledge. That made it necessary to construct an entirely new map of the globe. That map showed what no other ever had — the continents of North and South America and the Pacific Ocean. 2. The New World invited new enterprise : it offered vast regions to be explored and conquered. Spain, Portugal, France, and England began to plan western empires beyond the Atlan- tic. These plans gave rise to a struggle for the mastery, and to important and decisive wars, especially between England and France. Men of every rank turned their attention to America, — some sought wealth, others political power, others a refuge from religious or political oppression. Here was room and opportu- nity for all. 3. The discovery of the precious metals in Mexico and South America had far-reaching effects. Before those mines were found there had often been great scarcity of gold and silver in Europe. But the treasure Spain obtained from America enabled her mon- archs to equip armies, build palaces, and make public improve- ments of all kinds. Thus the riches which poured in from the New World gave a great impulse to the life of the Old World. 1(500-] WHAT AMERICA DID FOR EUROPE 39 4. Intercourse with America had an immense influence on trade and navigation. Before Columbus sailed, the commerce of Europe was confined chiefly to the Mediterranean. Then little vessels crept cautiously along the shore, peddling out their petty cargoes from port to port. But now men began to build large and strong ships, fit to battle with Atlantic storms, and ocean commerce commenced. Trade took its first great step toward encircling the globe. 5. New products were obtained from America. We gave Europe Indian corn,i the tomato, the turkey, and the potato, for which tens of thousands of half-fed European laborers were grateful. We also gave the people of Europe such luxuries as cocoa and tobacco, and such drugs, dyestuffs, and valuable woods and gums as Peruvian bark, cochineal, logwood, mahogany, and India rubber. 6. Before the discovery of America sugar, cotton, rice, and coffee, when used at all, were imported by Europe from the Indies. But these things were then so costly that only the rich could afford to use them. Now they were either rediscovered in America, or transplanted here. In time they became cheap and plentiful, so that even the poor of the Old World came to regard them as necessaries of life. 7. But the discovery of America had still greater results, for it made men's minds grow larger because it compelled them to think of a much larger world than they had ever thought of in the past. The voyage to America was like a journey to another planet. It made the people of Europe acquainted with a new race — the Indians — and with new animals, new plants, new features of nature, new fields of enterprise. Everybody felt that America meant oppoTtunity. That was a wonderful thought. It filled the minds and hearts of men with new hope, with new courage, and it stimulated them to undertake what they would not have dared to do before, 1 Maize, or Indian com, if not first introduced to Europe from America, was first practi cally introduced from here ; so, too, was india rubber. 40 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [leoo- 42. Summary. The period embraced in this section covers the greater part of a century. In it we have three classes of discoveries and explorations : 1. Those of the Spaniards; these were confined to the south. They comprised Florida, the Pacific, the Mississippi River, Mexico, and part of the country north and east of it. 2 . Those of the French ; these related to the river St. Lawrence and to expeditions to the eastern coast of Florida and vicinity. 3. Those of the English ; these included explorations in the north, those of Drake on the Pacific, but, more important than all, those sent out by Raleigh to Virginia. We have followed the Spanish expeditions of Ponce de Leon, Balboa, Cortez, De Soto, and Coronado. We have witnessed the struggle between the French and the Spaniards for the possession of Florida, and have seen it end with the triumph of the Spaniards and the founding of St. Augustine (1565), the oldest town in the United States. On the other hand, we have seen that the English expeditions of P"robisher, Davis, and Gilbert, with Raleigh's attempts to estab- lish a colony in Virginia, all failed, and that the country was left in 1600 with no white occupants but the Spaniards, who seemed destined to keep all of America to themselves. Finally, we have compared the physical geography of America with that of Europe, considered the effects of the contact of the white men and the Indians, and have set forth the important results of the discovery of America on Europe. Ill " It cannot be denied that with America and in America a new era com- mences in human affairs." — Daniel Webster. PERMANENT ENGLISH AND FRENCH SETTLEMENTS^ THE THIRTEEN COLONIES • FRENCH EXPLORATION OF THE WEST • WARS WITH THE INDIANS AND WITH THE FRENCH • COLONIAL LIFE • GENERAL VIEW OF THE COLONIES (1607-1763) I. Virginia, 1607 43. The desire to go to Virginia ; King James I grants a charter. At the beginning of the seventeenth centuty work was hard to find in England. This caused much distress, and thousands who were out of employment naturally turned their eyes toward America. Many felt that Virginia (§ 28) stood like an open door inviting them to settle in the New World. 1 Reference Books, (isi, The Thirteen Colonies.) R. G. Thwaites' " Colonies," ch. 4-10, 13 ; W. C. Bryant and Gay's " United States " (revised edition), I, ch. 11-21; II, ch. 1-19; G. Bancroft's "United States" (revised edition), I, Part I, ch. 6-19, Part II, ch. 1-19; II, Part III, ch. 1-4, 15-16; R. Hildreth's "United States," I, ch. 3-15; II, ch. 16-24; A. B. Hart's "Source Book," ch. 3-5, 7-8; A. B. Hart's "American History by Contemporaries," I, ch. 6, 8, 10-26; II, ch. 3-16; L.G.Tyler's "England in America," ch. 3-19 ; C. M. Andrews' " Colonial Self-Government," ch. 1-19; E. B. Greene's "Provincial America," ch. i, 15-18. (2d, The French Exploration of the West.) Bryant and Gay (above), II, ch. 21 ; F. Parkman's " Discovery of the Great West," ch. 5-20 ; R. G. Thwaites' " France in America," ch. 4 ; Hart's " Source Book " (above), p. 96 ; Hart's Contemporaries (above), I, 136, 140. (j(/, The French ami Indian Wars.) Thwaites' " Colonies " (above), pp. 254- 2575 -77--7^; A. B. Hart's "Formation of the Union," pp. 23-41 ; F. Parkman's " A Half-Century of Conflict," II, ch. iS-20 ; F. Parkman's " Montcalm and Wolfe," II, ch. 24-25, 27-28; Hart's Contemporaries (above), II, ch. 19-20. (4th, The Colonies in 1763.) G. C. Eggleston's " Life in the Eighteenth Cen- tury," ch. 13, 17, 19-21; E. Eggleston's "American Colonists," in the Ccntioy Ma^s^azine, March and May, 1883, January, June, and October, 1884, and April and July, 1885 ; J. Schouler's "Americans of 1776." See also the classified List of Books in the Appendix. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY See Winsor^s ^'America," IV, i-xxx; Shaler's "^^ United States" and ^' Our Continent" ; Farrand^s ^^ Basis of American History"; Semfle's "^^ American History and its Geographic Conditions." The physical geography of the United States has had and must continue to have a pow- erful influence, not only on the health and industry but on the character and progress of the American people. I. The English colonies were planted on rivers or harbors which invited settlement and favored their commercial intercourse with the mother country, with the West Indies, and with each other. II. The Appalachian range barred the West against the colonists and confined them to a long, narrow strip bordering on the sea. This limitation of soil had important effects on the occupations and the exports of the settlers, while it encouraged the development of union, political strength, and independence. III. The Canadian French, on the other hand, having control of the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes, soon got temporary possession of the Mississippi Valley. This led to a war which ended by giving the West to the English colonists. IV. The first English-speaking settlements made west of the Alleghenies were planted on streams flowing into the Mississippi, — a river system 35,000 miles in extent, watering the great central valley of the continent. Later, the steamboat made that vast region accessible in all directions. V. After the colonies secured their independence, the boundaries of the American Republic were fixed by successive treaties. These boundaries were determined, to a great extent, by (i) coast lines ; (2) rivers and lakes ; (3) watersheds ; (4) mountain ranges. In 1783 our possessions bordered upon the Atlantic only ; in 1S03 they touched the Gulf of Mexico ; in 1846 they reached the Pacific (see "Table of Boundaries"). VI. The most pressing question with every rapidly growing people is that of food supply. Some nations of Europe — notably Great Britain — can only feed themselves by importing provisions. America is so fortunate in soil, cHmate, and extent of territory, that the people produce not only all the breadstuffs and meats they require, but they have an immense sur- plus for exportation. VII. Next in importance to grain and meats are cotton, wool, timber, coal, petroleum, iron, copper, and the precious metals. These products are powerful factors in the develop- ment of modem civilization, and it is believed that no continent is richer in them than our own. VIII. While cotton fastened slavery on the South, the abundant water power of New England gave the first impulse to American cotton manufacturing. On the other hand, the western prairies stimulated agriculture and immigration, and encouraged the building of railways, which in twenty years did more to open up the country than two centuries had done before. Again, physical geography has influenced legislation respecting labor, the tariff, trade, currency, and the building of roads and canals ; furthermore, it determined decisive military movements in the Revolution (see Washington's retreat across the Dela- ware, § 173) and the Civil War (see §§ 334, 335, 336). IX. Experience proves that the physical conditions of the United States favor health, vigor, and longevity. Statistics show that in size and weight the American people are fully equal, if not, indeed, superior, to Europeans, while their average length of life appears to be somewhat greater (see Rhodes's " United States," III, T},., 74). X. The conclusion of eminent scientists is that no part of the globe is better suited to the requirements of one of the master races of the world than the United States, and such statesmen as Lincoln and Gladstone have declared their belief that this country has a nat- ural base for the greatest continuous empire ever established by man. 42 ^^^^^^i ?^MKBseBl^SMB(t8i^i> £tt F 1 > ^9^Bw^RH^HR^B^WB^»^^^HBaV IP S^^^^^gBP^^^B^^ ^B • vr ,'i^BJBi^^lB8ipwKw^ S^!l!^ r ^es i^isss Sfe^^^ 1 '^^^ ^^^Pfo ^' '■/ ^-r^ 7«asw»=**^ 43 44 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICx\N HISTORY [1607 Virginia was a country of vast extent. It stretched northward from Cape Fear to the middle of Nova Scotia, — a distance of a thousand miles ; westward it reached to the Pacific. King James I granted a charter authorizing two trading com- panies in England to send out emigrants. The London Company had the right to plant a colony in the southern part of Virginia, while the Plymouth Company had power to plant one in the northern part, but it never succeeded in doing so. (Map, p. 51.) Both companies were full of great expectations. They hoped to find mines of gold and silver in the Virginia woods, or, if they failed in that, to find a water passage through the countiy to the Pacific, the Indies, and the Spice Islands (§ 14). 44. Government of the Virginia Colonies. The royal charter provided that each colony should be governed by a council in Virginia, which was subject to a council in England under con- trol of the King. The most important article in the charter was that in which the King declared that the settlers in Virginia should enjoy all the rights and pnvilegcs possessed by the people living in England. This article he repeated in many other colonial charters. We ought to bear in mind that the English sovereign was the only one in Europe who would grant such an advantage as that to those who left their homes to go to America. Many additional instructions were given, among them were four which required : 1. That the colonists should establish the Church of England as the only form of worship. 2. That for five years no land should be granted to any settler, but all were to deposit the products of their labor in the Company's warehouses, from which they would receive necessary supplies of provisions and clothing. 3. The colonists were expected to carefully explore all the rivers near them to see if they could find a short and easy way by which vessels might get to the Pacific Ocean. 4. The colonists were ordered to take pickaxes with them to dig for precious metals. 1607] JAMESTOWN SETTLED 45 45. The London Company's Colony sails ; Captain John Smith. The London Company (§43) soon sent out emigrants. Very few of them were fit to struggle with the rough life of the American wilderness. The majority had no intention of remaining. They expected to pick up fortunes and then go back to England to spend them. Luckily there was a young man of decided ability among them. This was Captain John Smith. His energy and courage saved the emigrants from starvation. 46. The Emigrants settle Jamestown, Virginia, 1607 ; Condi- tion of the Colony. The expedition reached the American coast in the spring of 1607. The colonists numbered 104 ; all were men. They sailed up a river of Virginia, which they named the James River, in honor of the King ; for the same reason they named the settlement which they began (May 13) on a peninsula (now an island) on that river, Jamestown. But although the royal charter gave the settlers the same rights in America which they had enjoyed in England (§ 44), yet they did not receive them at once. At home many of them had the power to vote and to take part in making the laws by which they were governed ; in the Virginia forests they could do neither. But we shall see that some years later the colonists obtained all the rights which the King had promised them. Next, they owned no land, and the work of their hands did not belong to them. In this last respect they were worse off than the poorest day laborer they had left behind them. Furthermore, the idle man was certain that he would not suffer, for he could draw provisions out of the common storehouse ; the industrious man, on the other hand, knew that by the sweat of his toil he must feed the idle. Yet we should never forget that, in spite of all these drawbacks, this little band of men laid the first foundation stone of the American Republic. Three hundred years later (1907) we celebrated that landing at Jamestown, and the great nations of the world sent war ships to join us in that celebration. 47. Sufferings of the Colonists ; Search for the Pacific ; Poca- hontas. The new settlers built a small fort as a defense against 46 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [ig07 the Indians. Then instead of building houses they made them- selves some rude shelters out of branches of trees or old sails. Soon many fell sick, and by autumn half of the colonists had died. When the cool weather set in matters began to improve, and the men put up some log cabins for themselves. Later, they urged Captain Smith to lead an exploring expedition to find the Pacific Ocean (§§43, 44). They set out in high spirits, supposing that, at that point, the country was less than 200 miles across from the Atlantic to the Pacific ! In the course of the exploration Smith was captured by the In- dians, and taken to their chief, Povk'hatan. The chief was "a tall, Building the Fort at Jamestown sour-looking old man"; he ordered his warriors to knock Smith's brains out. According to the captain's account, he was saved by Pocahontas, the chief's youthful daughter, who ran up, just as the club was raised, and put her arms around the prisoner's head.^ Some years afterward, John Rolfe, a Virginia colonist, became in- terested in Pocahontas. He labored to convert that tender-hearted heathen and make a Christian of her. While engaged in this agreeable work he fell in love with her and married her. The marriage made Powhatan the firm friend of the colony at a time when it needed all the friends it could get. 1 Up to i860 the truth of the Pocahontas story had never been questioned ; but certain inconsistencies in Smith's account of the affair led the late Mr. Charles Deane to deny its authenticity; see Winsors "America," III, i6i. For a defense of Smith's account, see Professor Arber's edition of Smith's works, and his article in the Encyclopaedia Britannica on " John Smith " ; also John Fiske's article in the Atlantic Moiithly, December, 1S95. 1608] THE FRENCH SETTLE IN CANADA 47 48. Gold? the French settle in Canada (1608); the Colony's Debt to Smith; the Colonists set out to leave Jamestown. Not long after Smith's adventure with the Indians, one of the settlers found a yellowish substance which some said was gold. Smith called it "rubbish," and declared that the American cod fisheries would be worth more to the English people than any gold mine. But the colonists loaded a vessel with the " gilded dust " and sent it home. The stuff turned out to be that worthless kind of glitter- ing iron ore popularly known as " fool's gold." In the summer of that year (1608) an event occurred destined to have important results. Champlain, a famous French explorer, sailed up the St. Lawrence to Quebec, and there established the first permanent French colony in America. It was the feeble be- ginning of a rival power which was one day to dispute the right of the English to possess any part of the country. Shortly after this date Smith was chosen governor of the colony. He made a mle that no one should stand idle. Under him those who tried to live without working soon found that they must also try that harder thing — to live without eating. But the Captain's term of office was short, for he met with a fearful accident that made it necessary for him to return to England. He never revisited the colony. After he had gone, the Indians began depredations. Every- thing went to rack and ruin. Sickness and famine set in. In six months only sixty persons were left out of five hundred. A ship came, bringing more colonists and some supplies ; but matters looked so discouraging that the settlers resolved to abandon the country and go back to England. 49. Lord Delaware; Governor Dale; the Great Land Reform. Lord Delaware, the new governor sent out from London, met them as they were leaving Jamestown, and compelled them to turn back. He had the power of ruling by military law, and could hang a man without a jury to decide his guilt. Lord Delaware was succeeded by Governor Dale. He was a stern old soldier, determined to preserve order. If a colonist talked against his regulations, the Governor bored a hole through his 48 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [IGO8-I612 tongue : that kept him quiet for a while. If a man refused to go to church, he put him on short allowance of victuals, and whipped him every day until he begged to hear preaching. But the new governor was not a tyrant. He really sought the welfare of the colony. He practically abolished the old system of living out of the public storehouse (§ 46). To every settler he gave a small piece of land, and allowed him a certain number of days in the year to work on it for himself. From this time a new spirit animated the community. Before this, no matter how hard a man toiled he had nothing he could call his own. But now every man could look with pride on his little garden, and say, ''This is miney That feeling gave him heart ; before, he 'had worked in silence ; now, he whistled while he worked. Before, he had not cared much whether he had the right to vote or not ; but now that he was a property holder, he wanted that right, and, as we shall see, he soon got it. 50. What Tobacco did for Virginia. At this time (161 2) John Rolfe, the husband of Pocahontas (§ 47), began the systematic cultivation of tobacco (§ 27). In the course of a few years it came to be the greatest industry in Virginia. ^ At one time even the streets of Jamestown were planted with it. It took the place of money, and clergymen and public officers received their salaries in it„ Before this, America had practically nothing to export. With tobacco, commerce began ; for Europe was ready to buy all the colonists could raise. The outlook of the colony now began to change for the better. The cultivation of tobacco had four important effects : 1. It directly encouraged the settlers to clear the land and undertake working it on a large scale. 2. It established a highly profitable trade with Europe. 3. It induced emigrants who had some money, and also in- dustrious farmers, to come over to Virginia and engage in the new industry 1 The value of the tobacco crop of the United States is now nearly $57,000,000 annually ; that of cotton, the cultivation of which was begun about the same time, but not then extended, is upwards of $323,000,000. See Abstract of Census of 1900, p. 220. Cai'tain John Smith 49- 50 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [IG12-IG19 4, It introduced the importation of negro slaves as the cheapest means of carrying on great tobacco plantations. The tobacco farms were on the banks of the James or other rivers, and vessels could load at them direct for England. But the cultivation of tobacco exhausted the soil. This compelled the planters to constantly add new land to their estates, and so pushed the owners farther and farther apart from each other. One result of this separation and of the lack of towns was that neither schools nor printing presses came iilJ"^!Wr^V'°^ "''*' I ^^^'^ existence until ii!) ' ' 1 very late. The mass of the people had to get their education from nature, not from books or newspapers. Another result of the want of towns was that men seldom met to discuss public matters. 51. Virginia becomes practically Self-governing, 1619; Im- portation of Wives. The year 1619 was a memorable one in the histoiy of the colony. That year Sir George Yeardley came over from England as governor. Acting under instructions from the London Company, he summoned a general assembly or Legisla- ture, to be elected by all the freemen of Virginia. Later, none but taxpayers could take part in the election of members of the Legislature. The choosing of this Assembly was the first step in carrying out that provision in the charter which gave every colonist a/l the rights and privileges he had at home in England (§ 44). Loading a Cargo of Tobacco 52 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [iGio The colony now consisted of eleven plantations, or towns,^ later called boroughs. Each of these boroughs was invited to send two representatives or burgesses. They met in the church at Jamestown, Friday, July 30, 1619. This House of Burgesses was the first lawmaking assembly that ever came together in America. At last the colonists had practically obtained the right of managing their own affairs. Spain would not grant that power to her colonists in St. Augustine or elsewhere. France would not grant it to Quebec or to her other settlements. England gave that privilege — the greatest she could give — to her colonists in the New World. Later, the right was restricted, but it was never wholly taken away. When the American Revolution be- gan we find that Washington, Jefferson, Lee, Patrick Henry, and many other eminent men were active members of the Legislature of Virginia. But though the men could now discuss politics and make laws, many of them had no proper homes, for but few unmarried women had emigrated to Virginia. To remedy this serious dehdendy, the London Company sent out a goodly number of young women. The cost of the passage for each was fixed at 120 pounds of the best tobacco. When the long-looked-for ship arrived, the young unmarried men were waiting at the wharf, and those who had their tobacco ready soon managed to get wives in exchange. The brides liked the country so well that they wrote back to England, and persuaded more maids to come over and take pity on the forlorn bachelors in the American wilderness. 52. Introduction of Negro Slavery, 1619 ; White "Appren- tices " or " Servants." In the records of this same remarkable year of 16 19 we read: "About the last of August came in a 1 No counties had then been laid out in Virginia. Later, when counties were organized, nearly all the representatives were sent from them. This made the Virginia system of gov- ernment far less democratic than that of Massachusetts (settled later), for in Massachusetts all public affairs were at first decided by the whole body of voters, and not by a selected number of persons representing them. When the population of Massachusetts became too large for this, the towns, instead of the counties, sent representatives to the Legislature. 1619] THE FIRST SLAVES 53 Dutch man-of-war that sold us 20 Negars." This was the begin- ning of African slavery in the English colonies of America. At that time every leading nation of western Europe traded in negroes. No one then condemned the traffic, for no man's conscience was troubled by it, and at a much later period the King of England derived a large income from selling slaves in America. The system gradually spread over the country, and a little more than a hundred and fifty years later (1776) every one of the thirteen American colonies held slaves. At the North the negroes were mostly house servants, and were not very numer- ous ; but at the South they were employed chiefly in the fields. Many of the wisest and best men did not then see how to- bacco, rice, and cotton could be raised without slave labor. Still, for a long time the increase of negro slaves in Virginia was very slow, for many white people were sent over from England to be bound out as ""ap- prentices" or "servants" to planters for a certain number of years. These apprentices came from different classes : 1 . Some of them were enterprising young men who wanted to get a start in America, but, having no money to pay their passage, bound themselves to work for the London Company, provided they would bring them over. 2. Some were poor children, picked up in the streets of London and sent over to Virginia to get homes. 3. Others were young men who were kidnaped at night by gangs of scoundrels who shipped them off as " servants " to America. The First Negro Slaves brought TO Virginia 54 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [i(iiy-iG24 4. At a later date, when wars and insurrections broke out in England, many prisoners taken in battle were sent over here and sold to planters. 5. Finally, the King sent some convicts to Virginia. Again, English judges opened the jails from time to time and sent over batches of criminals, some of whom had done nothing worse, per- haps, than steal a loaf of bread to keep from starving. Thus, many elements contributed to build up the new common- wealth. In this respect Virginia resembled the " made land " of some of our cities. There is good material in it, and there is some not so good ; but in time it all helps to make the solid foundation of stately streets and broad avenues. While the South was thus growing, Dutch and English emi- grants had settled at the North. The former established them- selves in what is now New York, the latter, a little later, founded Plymouth, Massachusetts. 53. Virginia becomes a Royal Province; Governor Berkeley; the Puritans and the Cavaliers. After a time King James I took away the Company's charter (1624). In future the colony was to be governed by the King as a royal province ; but the Assembly or Legislature (§51) was not prohibited, and the people continued to make their own laws to a considerable extent. The next king, Charles I, sent over Sir William Berkeley as governor. The new governor had small faith in government by the people, in education of the people, ^ or in any religion but that of the Episcopal Church of England. The majority of the well-to-do colonists and of the rich tobacco planters agreed with the Governor. They thought it was better not to give the privileges of education and the right to vote and to hold office to eveiybody who asked for them, but to grant them only to persons of property and standing. But at that time there was a strong party in England who called themselves Puritans, because they insisted on purifyiiig, 1 Speaking of the colony in 167 1, Governor Berkeley said : " I thank God there are no free schools nor printing, and I hope we shall not have them these hundred years." His reason was that he thought common-school education would make the mass of the people discontented and rebellious against authority ; but he subscribed toward a college. 1624-1G60] THE NAVIGATION LAWS 55 as they said, the national Episcopal Church from some of its cere- monies and methods to which they conscientiously objected. The Puritans were opposed to King Charles, because he attempted to rule the country contrary to law. Finally, civil war broke out in England. On one side the King had an army made up of Royalists, or Cavaliers ; the army on the other side was made up of Puritans. Many of the Puritans had now left the national Church. They called themselves Separatists, or Independents, and set up a form of worship of their own. The war went against the King. He was taken captive and beheaded. The Puritans then declared England a republic under Oliver Cromwell, and Governor Berkeley of Virginia, who was a stiff Royalist, retired from office. Most of the leading Cavaliers, or Royalists, were men of rank, and before the war had been men of property. They found the new order of things in England very uncomfortable, and hundreds of them emigrated to Virginia. Some of the most illustrious names in Virginia history are those of Cavalier emigrants or their descendants. Richard Henry- Lee was one, and Washington was probably another.^ When the American Revolution broke out, these illustrious men gave their strength, heart and soul, to the establishment of the United States of America. 54. Governor Berkeley again in Power ; the Navigation Laws ; the King gives away Virginia. When monarchy was restored in England (1660), Sir William Berkeley put on the Governor's silk robe of office again. For sixteen years he, with an Assembly that was in sympathy with him, ruled the colony according to his own imperious will. During that long period no new elections were held, and consequently the mass of the people had no voice in the government. This grievance was not all. During Cromwell's time certain laws, called Navigation Laws, had been enacted in order to pre- vent the Dutch from competing with England in trade by sea. 1 On the genealogy of the Washington family in England, see W. C. Ford's " The Writ- ings of Washington," XIV, 319. There is a strong probability that George Washington's ancestors belonged to the Cavalier party which fought for the King. 56 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1660-1676 These laws were not intended to injure the American colonists, but they forbade the colonists to send any tobacco out of the coun- try except in English or colonial vessels going to England, or to purchase any foreign goods except those brought over in English or colonial vessels. Under King Charles II these laws were made much more strict ( 1 660-1 672). However, they were not really as unfair as they seemed (§ 146). But the Virginia planters complained bitterly of them, and they soon found means of doing pretty much as they pleased about obeying them. Some years later (1673) Charles, who was a wasteful and profli- gate monarch, gave away the whole of Virginia — a territory then having a population of 40,000 — for thirty-one years, to the Earl of Arlington and Lord Culpepper, two of his favorites. This caused a long and bitter dispute about the question of the true ownership of the land, but it was finally settled in favor of the colonists. Meanwhile, English emigrants, both Pilgrims and Puritans, as we shall presently see, had established flourishing colonies in New England ; the Dutch, who had taken possession of New Nether- land (or New York), had been forced to give up that region to the English, and English Quakers had bought New Jersey. In the South, English Catholics had settled in Maryland, and colo- nies of Englishmen had been founded in the Carolinas. Thus (1675) an English-speaking population practically held control of the whole Atlantic coast of America from Maine nearly to the borders of Florida. 55. Deplorable State of the Virginia Colonists; Indian War; the Bacon Rebellion. The people of Virginia were now in a de- plorable state. They had no homes that they could certainly call their own ; they had no Assembly that really represented them (§ 51), they were heavily taxed, and sometimes they could get but little for the tobacco they exported. Still their lives were safe, and while life was left, hope was left. But the Indians suddenly rose (1676), as they had just done in New England, and began massacring the inhabitants. It was not the first attack, but, in some respects, the most terrible. 1676] BACON'S REBELLION 57 The people begged Governor Berkeley's help, but he did noth- ing. Then Nathaniel Bacon, a wealthy planter, raised a force and went out to fight the Indians, His influence finally com- pelled Governor Berkeley to allow the people to elect a new Assembly. They did so, chose Bacon for one of their representatives, and passed a number of reform measures known as the " Bacon Laws." But as Bacon dis- trusted the Governor, civil war soon broke out, and the " Virginia rebel," as he was called by those in authority, marched on Jamestown. Seiz- ing a number of the wives of the Governor's friends, he placed them in front of his troops. This " White Apron Brigade " saved him from the fire of the Governor's gims. That night Jamestown was abandoned. In the morning Bacon entered it, and burned the place to the ground. It ^' was never rebuilt. As you go ^- up the James River to-day you see the ruined tower of the old brick church stand- ing a melancholy memorial of the in America, Bacon soon after died ; but one of his chief supporters, named Drummond, fell into the Governor's hands. " Mr. Drummond," said the Governor, '" I am more glad to see you than any man in Virginia. Mr. Drummond, you shall be hanged in half an hour." He was executed forthwith. In all, Governor Berkeley put to death over twenty persons. When the King of England heard of it, he exclaimed, in an outburst of anger, "That old fool has Ruins at Jamestown first English town settled 58 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [iotg hung more men in that naked country than I did here for the murder of my father." ^ The Virginia colonists never wholly forgot the meaning of the Bacon rebellion, and its protest against tyrannical govern- ment. Just a century after the people's Assembly passed the famous " Bacon Laws " (1676) their descendants met at Williams- burg, nearly in sight of the ruins of Jamestown, and there (1776) declared themselves independent of Great Britain. 56. Summary. Jamestown, the first town built by the first per- manent English colony in the New World, was founded in 1607. There the first American legislative assembly met in 16 19. Negro slaves were introduced the same year. The cultivation of tobacco built up commerce and largely increased the population, but did not favor the growth of towns. The colony was strongly Royalist, and received many Cavaliers from England. Later, the Naviga- tion Laws injured its prosperity. There was a period of bad gov- ernment, and Bacon attempted reform. His undertaking failed. But the people remembered the man and his work, and Virginia a hundred years later (1776) was the first colony to propose the establishment of American independence. IL New Netherland, or New York (1614) 57. Henry Hudson's Expedition. In the seventeenth century (1609) the Dutch East India Company of Holland sent Henry Hudson, an English sea captain, across the Atlantic to explore. They hoped that he would find a passage by water through or round America to China and the Indies (§§ 14, 16, 25, 44, 47). Hudson, with his Dutch crew, entered what is now New York Bay, and was the first Englishman who sailed up that noble river which to-day bears his name. He reached a point about 150 miles from the mouth of the river, at or near where Albany now stands. It was the month of September, and Hudson had good reason for saying, " It is as beautiful a land as one can tread upon." 1 King Charles II had tried and executed only six out of the fifty-nine judges who had sentenced his father (Charles I) to death (§ 53). 1G13-I(32tj] NEW NETHERLAND 59 About a month before, Champlain (§ 48) had come ahnost as far south as that, on an exploring expedition from Quebec. He gave his own name to the lake, known ever since as Lake Cham- plain, and claimed the country for France, 58. The Indians give Hudson a Reception on Manhattan Island ; the Strange Drink. The Indians thought that the English cap- tain, in his bright red coat trimmed with gold lace, must have come down from the skies to visit them. The Captain handed the chief a glass of brandy. Soon every red man present had tried the new and strange drink. Hudson meant the gift in no unkindly spirit, but to the natives it was simply poison. For them alcohol had a fatal fascination. Since then liquor has prob- ably destroyed more Indians than war and disease combined. The Indians were afraid of the white man's gun ; it would have been far better for them if they had been still more afraid of the white man's drink. 59. The Dutch take Possession of New Netherland; Jealousy of England and France. The Dutch, finding from Hudson's report that valuable furs could be bought of the Indians at enor- mous profit, soon sent over ships and opened trade with the natives (161 3). Then (1614) the Republic of the United Nether- lands, or Holland, took possession of the country on the Hudson River, and gave it the name of New Netherland. Both the English and the French now had good reason for turning jealous eyes on New Netherland, for that province was like a wedge. It separated the colony of Virginia from the un- settled region of New England, and the point of it at the north entered that territory which Champlain claimed as part of New France (§48). A number of years later (1623) the Dutch made that wedge more dangerous still by building Fort Orange on the upper Hudson where the city of Albany now stands. 60. The Dutch buy Manhattan Island, 1626. In 1626 the Dutch West India Company sent out a colony under Governor Peter Minuit to settle in New Netherland. He landed with his emigrants on the island of Manhattan, where a Dutch trading post already existed (161 3). The Governor bought from the Indians the 6o LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1626- "^ entire island of 14,000 acres for twenty-four dollars' worth of scarlet cloth, brass buttons, and other trinkets, or at the rate of about one sixth of a cent an acre.^ The city of New York, which now occupies that land (with additional territory), is valued at many thousand millions,^ and the value steadily increases. The new settlement consisted of a fort, a stone warehouse, and a cluster of log huts. This was the beginning of the greatest and richest city of Amer- ''^•. ica. The Dutch called the place by its In- dian name of Man- hattan, but later gave it the name of New Amsterdam. 61. The Patroons. In order to get emi- grants to go out to New Netherland, the government in Hol- land made very gen- erous offers. They promised to give a large amount of land on the Hudson River to any member of the Dutch West India Company who would take or send out fifty settlers. The proprietor of such an estate received the honorary title of " Patroon," or protector. If he located on one bank only of the river, he was to have sixteen miles of water front ; if on both banks, he was to have eight miles on each. Inland he might extend his settlement as far as he could occupy the soil to advantage. In all cases he was to purchase the land of the Indians. "Amsterdam, Nov. 5, 1626. 1 " High and Mighty Lords : Yesterday, arrived here the ship ' The Arms of Amster- dam,' which sailed from New Netherland ... on the 23d of Sept. They report that our people are in good heart and live in peace there. . . . They have purchased the island of Manhattan from the Indians for the value of 60 guilders [^24.00]. . . . " Herewith, High and Mighty Lords, be commended to the mercy of the Almighty. " Your High Mightinesses' obedient, " P. SCHAGEN." 2 The assessed value of the real estate in 1908 was nearly $7,000,000,000. Governor Minuit buys Manhattan Island 1626-] THE PATROONS 6i The Patroon who began a settlement agreed to do three things : 1 . To pay the expenses of the emigrant's passage from Holland, 2. To stock a farm for him on his estate with horses, cattle, and all necessary agricultural implements, at a small rent, and free from taxes. 3. To provide a schoolmaster and a minister of the gospel. In return, the emigrant bound himself in many ways, of which the three following were the prin- cipal ones. He agreed : 1 . To cultivate the Patroon's land for ten years, and not to leave it without permission. 2. To give the Patroon the first opportunity to buy any grain or other produce he might have to sell. 3. To bring all disputes about property and rights to the Patroon's court, of which the Pa- troon himself was judge. ^ A patroon named Van Rensselaer ^ took an estate of 700,000 acres in the vicinity of Albany. It extended along both banks of the Hudson for twenty-four miles and reached back twice that distance. He made additions to this enormous property, so that eventually it embraced the three present counties of Albany, Rensselaer, and Co- lumbia. The total area of his vast domain was greater than that of the state of Rhode Island. Such a proprietor ^vas richer than many a Ger- man prince. He was at once owner, ruler, and judge. He not only had a population of white settlers who were his servants 1 In cases involving more than $20.00 value the settler might appeal from the Patroon's court to the Company. Other points were these : (i) the settler agreed to bring his grain to the Patroon's mill, and pay for the grinding; (2) he could not fish or hunt on the Patroon's estate ; (3) he was not to weave any cloth, but buy that imported from Holland ; (4) if he died without leaving a will, all of his property fell to the Patroon. 2 Besides the Van Rensselaers, other noted families dating from that period are the Schuylers, Van Cortlandts, and Roosevelts. Land held by KiLIAEN VAN Rensselaer 62 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1647 and laborers, but he had the promise from the Dutch West India Company of as many negro slaves as they could " conveniently provide " him. There was no one to contradict the Patroon's will. He was actually " monarch of all he surveyed." 62. Peter Stuyvesant, the last Dutch Governor of New Nether- land. Peter Stuyvesant came out to New Amsterdam {1647) as fourth and last governor of the province. Governor Stuyvesant was an old soldier who had lost a leg in the service of his coun- try. He was hot-tempered and headstrong ; but he was honest, fearless, and determined to keep order in the colony at any cost. If a man was disorderly, a constable took pains to show him the shortest road to the public whip- ping post ; if he was a robber or murderer, he was marched straight to the gallows. The inhabitants complained of the taxes, and wished to have a w^ord to say about how the money should be raised and spent. The Governor strenuously objected, but finally agreed that a council of "Nine Men" should be elected to Peter Stuyvesant assist him in that matter. Later, when the people de- manded the right of electing their own officers, he emphatically refused. If, said he, citizens once get the liberty to elect whom they please, "the thief will vote for a thief and the smuggler for a smuggler." The Governor was equally decided in rejecting liberty of wor- ship. He fined a minister $500 for venturing to preach doctrines different from those of the Dutch Protestant Church ; next he fined those who went to hear him ^100 each. This made free thought expensive. When some Quakers came into the colony and began to pro- claim their peculiar doctrines (§ 85), Stuyvesant punished them cruelly. i(;47-i(;(i4] GOVERNOR STUYVESANT 63 The authorities in Holland rebuked him, and ordered that every man should be permitted to worship God in his own house in his own way ; but the Governor did as he liked. Still, in many ways Peter Stuyvesant showed himself a good ruler. He made numerous improvements in the " city " of New Amsterdam, and in order to better defend the place, he built a high and strong fence across the north of the town. That fence, or palisade, marked the beginning of Wall Street, which is to-day the great money center of America. The population of the town was made up of Dutch, French, and English. On this account the laws had to be published in three languages. Even then New Amsterdam was beginning to represent all nationalities. The Dutch pre- dicted that the time would come when its " ships would ride on every sea." To- day the miles of wharves on the East and North rivers, lined with great ocean steamers and vessels hailing from all the ports of the globe, show how far their judgment was correct. But the Dutch did not keep posses- sion of New Netherland. The English king, Charles H, claimed the whole coun- try on the ground that John Cabot had discovered the coast (§ 14) and planted the English flag on it in 1497. For this reason Charles now gave it to his brother James, Duke of York. England and Holland were at peace; but suddenly (1664) a British fleet sailed up to New Amsterdam and demanded its surrender. Governor Stuyvesant was furious. He swore that he would never surrender "as long as he had a leg to stand on or an arm to fight with"; but, finding that the citizens refused to uphold him, he had to submit. The English promised full protection of life, liberty, and property to the inhabitants. Furthermore, they agreed to grant religious liberty, freedom of trade, and to allow the people to have a voice in making the laws. New Amsterdam 64 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1017 The result was that the Dutch flag on the fort was hauled down, and the English hoisted their flag in its place. Then, in honor of James, Duke of York, the name New Netherland was dropped, and the country was called the province of New York. In like manner the quiet Dutch " city " of New Amsterdam became "' his majesty's town of New York." ^ Ex-Governor Stuyvesant went back to Hol- land, but soon returned to spend the rest of his days on his " great bowery," or farm, which was on the east side of the island, just out- side the city limits. The street now called The Bowery recalls the " Bowery Lane" which once led to the stern old soldier's home. 63. Summary. While en- deavoring to find a way either round or through North Amer- ica to China and the Indies, Henry Hudson (1609) sailed up the river named for him. The Dutch claimed the countiy and called it New Netherland ; they founded the city of New Amsterdam on Manhattan Island. Later (1664), England took possession of the country and named it New York, in honor of James, Duke of York, the King's brother. Hoisting the English Flag over New York III. New Jersey (161 7) 64. The Dutch claim the Country between the Hudson and the Delaware; New Jersey. The Dutch crossed over from Manhat- tan Island (§ 60), and built a fort at Bergen, on the west bank of the Hudson. Later, they built a second fort nearly opposite 1 In 1673 New York was captured by the Dutch during war between Holland and Eng- land, but was given up to the English again when peace was made, less than a year later. From that time until the Revolution it remained subject to England. 1G74] NEW JERSEY 65 where Philadelphia now stands. They claimed the country between these forts as part of New Netherland (§ 59). But the English declared that the country belonged to them (§§ 14, 62). The Duke of York, when he came into posses- sion of New Netherland, gave the whole territory between the Delaware River and the Hudson to his friends Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. Sir George had been governor of the island of Jersey in the English Channel. During the civil war in England (§ 53) he gallantly defended that island in be- _ '''' half of Charles I, the Duke of York's father. For this rea- son the Duke named the coun- try which he granted to him and to Lord Berkeley, New Jersey. An English settle- ment was made (1664) at a place which the emigrants called Elizabethtown, in honor of Lady Elizabeth Carteret, wife of Sir George. The proprietors of the prov- ince granted the settlers very liberal terms, and the peo- ple had a direct part in the government. 65. The Friends, or Quak- ers, buy New Jersey ; Treaty with the Indians ; Prosperity of the Country ; New Jersey becomes a Royal Colony. Some Eng- lish Friends, or Quakers, bought Lord Berkeley's share, or West Jersey (1674), and later, William Penn and other members of the Society of Friends bought the other half, or East Jersey, from the heirs of Sir George Carteret. The Friends made a treaty with the Indians at Burlington which entirely satisfied the savages. After that if they found an He is an Englishman; he is asleep; LET HIM Alone" 66 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1620 Englishman sleeping in the path, they would not molest him, but would say, " He is an Englishman ; he is asleep ; let him alone," In the same spirit of good will the Friends granted self-government to the colonists. The people levied their own taxes, made their own laws, and all settlers enjoyed religious liberty. But eventually trouble arose about titles to land, and the pro- prietors thought it best (1702) to put the two colonies directly into the hands of the English government. They were united under the jurisdiction of the governor of New York; but later (1738), New Jersey became a separate province. From this time until the Revo- lution it was ruled by a governor of its own appointed by the King of England. The last of the royal governors was William Franklin, son of Benjamin Franklin. 66. Summary. The Dutch first claimed possession of what is now New Jersey. The English Duke of York seized the countiy and gave it to two of his friends, naming the province from the British island of Jersey. A company of English Quakers then bought the land, grant- ing to the settlers most of the privileges of self-government. The Quaker proprietors surrendered their rights to the English sovereign (1702), and New Jersey became a royal colony until the Revolution. IV. Massachusetts (Plymoutit Colony, 1620) 67. Former Lack of Religious Liberty in England; Catho- lics; Puritans; Separatists. When the English began to make permanent settlements in America in 1607 (§46), no country in Europe had that freedom of worship which every civilized nation enjoys to-day. In England the law required every one to attend the Protestant Episcopal Church established by the government, and compelled all persons to pay taxes to support that church. Three classes of good and loyal citizens objected to that law : I. The Catholics, who protested against being obliged to pay for maintaining preaching which they did not believe in. 1620] PURITANS AND SEPARATISTS 67 2. The Puritans (§ 53), who thoroughly believed in the doctrines of the English Protestant Church, but decidedly objected to some of its ceremonies. 3. The Separatists, who, like the Puritans, accepted the religious teachings of the Church of England, but who had withdrawn from it because they did not like its form of worship, and had set up independent congregations of their own. 68. Emigration of those who sought Religious Liberty; the Separatists go to Holland. Not being able to obtain the freedom E A hJ- ^^ i Amsterdait ? ^ outh L,y,u,^; \ y^ r^ J if^ ^ V ^ ^J!p^f) ■'y^-' .1 bElgi (IM 1 J . \ D i,^ ^'- The Connecticut paapie looKcd upon that document as the title deed of their liberties, and resolved never to give it up, even if the King himself demanded it. Andros met the Legislature, and discussed the matter until evening. At hi^ order, the box holding the precious charter was brought in and placed on the table. Then, according to tradi- tion, the candles were suddenly blown out, and when they were relighted the charter had disappeared. It is said to have been 1 According to tradition, Goffe saved the town of Hadley, Massachusetts (where he was hving concealed in 1675), '" an Indian attack during King Philip's War (§ 86). The savages were on the point of gaining the day, when a venerable man with a long white beard suddenly appeared, rallied the inhabitants, and drove off the assailants. He then disappeared. Some thought they owed their victory to an angel. LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1(587 hidden in a hollow oak not tar off, which was ever after known as the Charter Oak.i Andros, however, declared that the colony should no longer be governed under the charter, and, to show that the end had come, he ordered the clerk to write " Finis " at the close of the record of the meeting. When the people of Boston (§ 88) compelled Andros to give up the power he had abused, the charter was f#^ Governor Andros demands the Charter of Connecticut brought from its hiding place, and Connecticut maintained her government under it not only until the Revolution but for many years afterward (1818). 99. Summary. Connecticut was settled chiefly by emigrants from eastern Massachusetts and from England. It was the first colony in America to frame a written constitution of government — one which gave the right to vote to every citizen. The King granted the colonists a charter confirming their power of gov- erning themselves. Governor Andros, by the order of James II, tried to get possession of the charter, but failed. Except for a very short period, Connecticut practically continued to maintain her own laws. 1 See Palfrey's '" History of New England," III, 542-545. The famous Charter Oak stood in what is now Charter Oak Place, Hartford. It was blown down in 1856. The spot is marked by a marble tablet. 1634] THE CATHOLIC PILGRIMS 89 Vn. Maryland (1634) 100. The Catholic Pilgrims; Lord Baltimore; Maryland. We have seen how a band of Protestant Pilgrims (§ 69) settled Plym- outh in 1620; fourteen years later (1634) a company of Catholic Pilgrims came to America for a like reason — that they might build up a state where they could worship God without molestation. 1 George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, a Catholic nobleman of ex- cellent ability and high standing, resolved to provide a refuge in the New World for the persecuted people of his faith. From his friend King Charles I he obtained the promise of a grant of land in northern Virginia. Lord Baltimore died be- - |' fore the charter was completed, but his son, = Cecil Calvert, the second Lord Baltimore, re- ceived the grant. It made him practically all but king over a territory north of the Poto- mac, to which Charles I gave the name of Maryland, in honor of his wife, Mary, who was a Catholic. 101. The Settlement of St. Marys ; the Wig- The First English wam Church. The first colony, led by Gov- Catholic Church J ^ J IN America ernor Leonard Calvert, — a younger brother of the second Lord Baltimore, — landed on the northern bank of the Potomac, near its mouth, and founded the town of St. Mar)'s {1634). About twenty of the colonists were gentlemen of wealth and standing, — most of them probably' Catholics ; the rest of the emigrants were laborers, and seem to have been chiefly Protestants. Father White, a priest who accompanied the expedition, got per- mission from an Indian chief to convert his wigwam into a chapel. That humble hut, made of strips of bark, was the first English Catholic church in America. Virginia would not have permitted 1 The English law imposed the ruinous fine of twenty pounds a month — a sum equal to not less than 3^700 to $Soo now — on every Catholic who refused to attend the services of the Church of England. This law was not always strictly enforced, but large sums were frequently extorted by the government from the Catholics by way of compromise. 90 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [i(>34-i(M9 that church to stand ; New England would not. It was only in the wilderness of Maryland, in that mixed population of Catholics and Protestants, that it was safe. 102. Political and Religious Freedom of the Colony; the Toler- ation Act, 1649. From the beginning all the colonists took part in making the laws by which they were governed, and in a few years Lord Baltimore granted them the power of originating those laws. In religion absolute freedom of worship was given to all Chris- tians,^ but to Christians only. No other colony in this country then (1634) ehjoyed such liberty, and it was unknown in England. In 1649 the famous Toleration Act^ confirmed their liberty. The result was that Maryland became a refuge not only for the oppressed Catholics of England, but also for many of the oppressed Protestants of the other colonies of America. Puritans driven out of Virginia by the Church of England (§ 44), Quakers exiled from Massachusetts by the Puritans (§85), both came to Maryland and found homes there. 103. The Clayborne and Ingle Rebellion ; Lord Baltimore's Gov- ernment overthrown ; Persecution of the Catholics. The colony, however, was not to enjoy the peace for which it hoped. William Clayborne, a Virginian and a Puritan, had established a fur-trading post on Kent Island in Chesapeake Bay within the limits claimed by Lord Baltimore. He endeavored to hold the island by force, but was driven out. When the civil war (§ 53) broke out in Eng- land, the colonists of Maryland, like the people of Great Britain, took sides for or against the King. Taking advantage of this division, Clayborne stirred up a rebellion (1645) and kept the whole country in a turmoil for two or three years. Captain Ingle, who asserted that he acted 1 It is true that Lord Baltimore, holding his charter, as he did, from the Protestant sovereign of a Protestant nation, could not have safely denied liberty of worship to Protes- tants ; but it is also tme that he evidently had no desire in his heart to deny such liberty. The fact that he invited Puritans into the colony and protected them from persecution shows the man's true spirit. 2 The Maryland Toleration Act of 1649 declared that no person professing belief in Jesus Christ shall be " in any ways troubled, molested, or discountenanced for or in respect of his or her religion, nor in the free exercise thereof." This law did not protect Jews or any others who denied the doctrine of the Trinity. UU5-1689] LOSS OF THE CHARTER 91 under the authority of the Puritan Parhament of England, but who was practically a pirate, got possession of St. Marys. He plundered it, and, seizing "the venerable Father White," sent him to Eng- land in irons on a groundless charge of treason against the Parlia- ment of that country. But worse was to come. After the King was dethroned and exe- cuted, and a republic set up in England, the authorities there sent commissioners to compel the people of Maryland to swear fidelity to the new government. At the same time Lord Baltimore in- sisted that as Mar}dand was his property the settlers should swear fidelity to him. The Puritans in the colony objected to taking this last oath, on the ground that Lord Baltimore was a Catholic. The commissioners went to Maryland, forced Governor Stone, who had succeeded Governor Calvert, to resign, and put one of their own choice in his place. They then caused a General Assembly to be summoned at St. Marys, but ordered that no Catholic should be elected to it, or should cast a vote for any representative. The new Legislature repealed the Toleration Act of 1649, which granted religious freedom to all Christians (§ 102). In its place they enacted a law prohibiting Catholic worship throughout Mary-land. Furthermore, the Assembly declared that Lord Baltimore no longer had any rights whatever in the colony which he himself had founded, and to which he had invited many of the very people who now turned against him. That action must have reminded him of the story of the camel that begged shelter in his master's tent, and, when he had got it, kicked the owner out. 104. Lord Baltimore restored to his Rights ; Loss of the Charter. But about four years later (1658) Parliament restored Lord Balti- more to his rights. Freedom of worship was again established, and for the next thirty years the colony prospered. Meanwhile, England had again become a monarchy (§§ 53, 54), and William and Mary, who were pledged to support the Protestant cause, came to the throne (1689). In Maryland there was an unavoidable delay on the part of the Governor in proclaiming the new sovereigns. The enemies 92 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1715-17G7 of Lord Baltimore circulated the report that this delay was part of a plot, and that the Catholics of Maryland — who were now not nearly so numerous as the Protestants — had conspired with the Indians to massacre all the people of the colony not of their faith. The story was wickedly false, but many of the Protestants be- lieved it. They rose in revolt, and in consequence the new King thought it wise to take the government of the colony into his own hands. "' The best men and the best Protestants " of the colony stood up for Lord Baltimore, but without avail. 105. Establishment of the Church of England; Restoration of Maryland to Lord Baltimore; Mason and Dixon's Line. The Chuich of England was now established as I ^ . the government church in Maryland, and every 'L ' I taxpayer, no matter what his religion, had to pay forty pounds of tobacco yearly towards its support. The Catholic wor- ship was not again allowed to be openly observed until Maryland became independent (1776). On the death of the third Lord Baltimore (171 5), his son, who had become a Protes- tant, was made proprietor and governor of Maryland. He and his descendants held it until the Revolution (1776). Mean- while (1729), the city of Bal- timore was founded, and named in honor of the originator of the colony. William Penn had already founded the colony of Pennsylvania (1682), and from that time for many years there were bitter dis- putes about the boundary between that colony and Maryland. At length Mason and Dixon, two eminent English surveyors, were employed {\j6i-\'j6']) to establish a boundary that would be satisfactory to both colonies. m ^^^ Mason and Dixon laying out the Boundary Line 163G] SUMMARY 93 They ran the main border line due west nearly two hundred and fifty miles ; later it was carried thirty miles farther. When prac- ticable, they set up a stone at every fifth mile, with the coat-of- arms of William Penn cut on the north side, and that of Lord Baltimore on the south. That boundary — the Mason and Dixon's Line of history — became famous, for it was looked upon as mark- ing the division between the free and the slave states formed from the original thirteen which entered the Union. io6. Summary. The colony of Maryland was planted by Lord Baltimore, an English Catholic. He, first in America, established freedom of worship for all Christians. The peace of the colony was interrupted by civil war, and enemies of Lord Baltimore, join- ing with Puritan settlers who had come in, overthrew the govern- ment and forbade the exercise of the Catholic religion. Lord Baltimore succeeded after a time in regaining his power and again granted freedom of worship ; but, finally, the King took possession of the colony and compelled the people to maintain the Church of England until the Revolution, though the gov- ernment of the colony was eventually restored to the Baltimore family, who had become Protestants. VIIL Rhode Island (1636) 107. Roger Williams seeks Refuge among the Indians ; settles Providence. When (1636) Roger Williams fled from Massachusetts (§ 79) into the wilderness, his situation was one of extreme peril. It was midwinter and the snow was deep. Williams was in feeble health and a wanderer in a trackless forest. Fortunately he had made the Indians his friends and could speak their language. The exile made his way to the hospitable wigwam of the chief Massasoit (§ 74), at the head of Narragansett Bay. There he found a home till spring. Then with five friends, who had joined him from Massachu- setts, he went to the Seekonk River ^ and built a cabin on its eastern bank. Finding that the place he had chosen was under 1 Seekonk River, on the east side of the city of Providence. 94 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [UJ.x-1039 the control of Plymouth colony, he and his companions crossed the river in a canoe. They were hailed by some Indians who were standing on a ledge of rock on the western bank.i "What cheer? " cried the friendly red men to the wanderers. This welcome from the natives led Williams and his friends to land for a short time. Then they paddled down the river and again landed at the foot of some rising ground, where they found a spring of excellent water. There (1636) they determined to stav and build homes for themselves. Out of gratitude to •'*■ ^*' "What Cheer Rock" " God's merciful Providence to him in his distress " Roger Wil- liams gave to the place the appropriate name of Providenxe. There he, with others, founded (1639) the first Baptist church in America. To-day Providence ranks as the second city of New England in population and wealth. So we see that in Roger Williams's case banishment instead of destroying his influence made it far greater. 108. Williams establishes a Colony; Liberty of Conscience; Growth of the Principle. More settlers came and the town of Providence took firm root. From the beginning entire freedom 1 " What Cheer Rock," on the east side of Providence, foot of Power Street. mu] SETTLEMENT OF RHODE ISLAND 95 of conscience was given to every one. Maryland (§ 102) had granted such liberty to all Christians, but the colony of Provi- dence granted it not only to Protestants and to Catholics, but to Jews. More than that even, it protected unbelievers, and de- clared that men of all religions and men of no religion should live unmolested so long as they behaved themselves. Furthermore, Roger Williams denied that the government had the right to tax the people, against their will, to support any church. He first put in practice the American principle — that government has nothing whatever to do with maintaining any particular form of religious worship. That idea was so new and strange that the other colonies thought it false and dangerous, and predicted that it would soon die out. Instead of that it steadily grew and spread, until in time it became a part of the Constitution of the United States, and there we read this sentence, which Roger Williams him- self might have written, " Congress shall make no law respect- ing an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof!' ^ 109. Settlement of Rhode Island; the Charter. Later, emi- grants from Massachusetts planted colonies at Portsmouth, New- port, and Warwick. Williams went to England (1644) and got a charter which united these colonies and practically gave them full power to rule themselves by such form of government as they thought best. That charter was confirmed by a second, and though Andros (§ 98), when he was made governor of New England, tried hard to get possession of it, yet Rhode Island kept it as her form of government until long after the Revolution (1842). Rhode Island always remained true to the principle of "soul liberty," first successfully put in practice by Roger Williams (§79); and though at one time Catholics and Jews were not allowed to vote,^ yet they had full freedom of worship, and not 1 See Amendments to the Constitution of the United States, Article I. Compare also Article VI of the Constitution : "" A'o religious test shall ever be required as a qualijication to any office or public trust under the United States." 2 On this point see Winsor's "America," III, 379, 380. 96 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1638 a single blot of religious persecution rests on the fair pages of the history of the colony. During the Revolution every man in Rhode Island stood ready to fight for independence. no. Summary. Roger Williams, an exiled minister from Mas- sachusetts, with others, colonized Rhode Island and first established entire freedom of worship in this country. That principle now forms part of the Constitution of the United States. Illir IX. New Sweden, or Delaware (1638) III. The Swedes plant a Colony on the Delaware; it is cap- tured by the Dutch. The names of the first European colo- nies in America were generally ex- pressive of ambi- tion, youth, and hope. It was be- cause the nations of the Old Worid had resolved to build up grander nations in the New. Thus the Spaniards had founded a New Spain ^ ; the French a New France ^ ; the Dutch, or Netherlanders, a New Netherland (§59); the English, a New England. The Swedes, animated by a like feeling, endeavored to begin here a New Sweden (1638). That year their government sent over a colony which landed on the western bank of the Delaware River. At a point near where Wilmington now stands the emi- grants built a fort which they named Christina in honor of young Queen Christina of Sweden. The Swedes making a Settlement on the Delaware River 1 New Spain. This name was given by the Spaniards to Mexico, but Florida was also sometimes so called. 2 Canada was also known by the name of New France. 1663-1703] THE ENGLISH TAKE THE COUNTRY 97 The Dutch had already attempted to settle Delaware (1629). They claimed the territory ; and Governor Stuyvesant (§ 62) came with a fleet from New Amsterdam (1654), captured the country, and sent home those of the colonists who would not swear fidelity to the Dutch government. 112. The English take the Country; the State of Delaware. The Dutch had been in possession of the land a little over ten years when the English Duke of York seized it (1665), as he had already seized that on the Hudson (§ 62), He sold it (168 1) to the Quaker, William Penn (§§ 65, 1 19), Penn called the country " The Territories," or " The Three Lower Counties on the Delaware." Up to the Revolution it was considered a part of Pennsylvania and was under the control of the governor of that province, although after a time (1703) the people — among whom were many English Quakers and Welsh — obtained the privilege of having a Legislature of their own. In 1776, when the war against Great Britain broke out, the inhabitants of " The Territories " declared themselves a free and independent state, and took the name of Delaware from the river which forms the northeastern boundary of the state. Though the smallest of all the states, save Rhode Island, Dela- ware was foremost in accepting the national Constitution (1787), and was therefore the first to enter the American Union. On that roll of honor her name leads all the rest. 113. Summary. This colony, setded by the Swedes as New Sweden, was taken by the Dutch, and then by the English, who sold it to William Penn. He governed it as part of Pennsyl- vania. When it became independent it took the name of Delaware. After the Revolution it was the first state to adopt the Constitu- tion of the United States. X-XI. North and South Carolina (1663) 114. Grant of Carolina; First Settlements. Charles II of England granted an immense tract of land (1663) south of Vir- ginia to a company composed of Lord Clarendon and seven 98 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [ig70-ig80 associates. Out of compliment to the King the territory was called Carolina.^ On the coast it embraced the entire region now included in the states of North and South Carolina, Georgia, and a part of Florida ; like Virginia (§ 43), Massachusetts (§ "JJ), and Connect- icut (§98), it extended westward to the Pacific. 115. Settlement of Charleston; the Huguenots. The first set- tlement direct from England was made (1670) on the banks of the Ashley River, in the southern part of Carolina. Ten years later (1680) the colonists moved across to the pen- insula between the Ashley and Cooper rivers, and there laid the foundations of the city of Charleston. From the outset the Company granted reli- gious liberty to all colo- nists. One of the results of that wise policy was that many Huguenots, or French Protestants (§23), fled to Carolina to escape the terrible persecution to which they were subject in their native land. No better class of emigrants could have been desired. They represented not only the best bone and sinew, but the best intellect and conscience of France. They brought with them that power and influence which spring not from rank or money but from character. A hundred years later, two of the descendants of those South Carolina Huguenots — Henry Laurens,^ the statesman, 1 Carolina : the name was originally given to the country by Charles IX of France at the time of the attempted French settlements (§ 23), and was retained out of honor to the Eng- lish king Charles II. The name was derived from Carolus, Latin for Charles. It was cus- tomary for kings to employ the Latin form for their names. 2 Henry Laurens: he was the fourth president of the Continental Congress (1777) and was one of the commissioners sent to Paris to sign the treaty of peace with Great Britain at the close of the Revolution. Laurens and Marion 1693-1712] NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA 99 and General Marion/ the noble Revolutionary leader — won im- perishable renown by their services in the cause of American liberty. 116. The "Grand Model"; Division of the Territory into North and South Carolina. Meantime (1670), the eminent Eng- lish philosopher, John Locke, had drafted a constitution for Caro- lina, called the " Grand Model." The " Grand Model " established a nobility who practically held all power. It also set up courts of justice intended to regulate everything from the gravest questions of law down to the cut of a man's coat, or the trimming of a woman's bonnet. This remarkable constitution gave the common people no rights. They could not vote ; they could not hold landed property ; they could not even leave the soil they tilled, without permission from the nobleman who owned it. When a wealthy planter bought a tract of land in Carolina he expected to purchase the white laborers on it : they, like the trees and the stones, were considered a part of the estate. But most of the inhabitants of the territory decidedly objected to the " Grand Model." They were resolved to own themselves, to own the labor of their hands, to own all the land they could honestly buy, and, lastly, to make their own laws. After twenty years of contest they succeeded. The colony was eventually divided (1 7 1 2) into North and South Carolina, and from that time until the Declaration of Independence (1776) each was subject to a governor appointed by the King. 117. Growth of the Two Colonies; Introduction of Rice and Indigo Culture; Charleston. The growth of North Catolina was very slow, and the manufacture of pitch, tar, and turpentine did not tend to build up large towns. In South Carolina, Charleston made little progress for the first twenty years. But about that time (1693) the Captain of a vessel coming from the Far East gave the Governor of the colony a bag of rice to plant as an experiment. He distributed the rice 1 General Marion : one of the heroes of the War of Independence (§ 1S4). His epitaph declares with entire truth that he '■ lived without fear, and died without reproach." lOO LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1741 among the planters and they set their slaves to raising it. In time South Carolina became the largest rice-producing and rice- exporting state in the Union, Next, a lady living near Charleston planted a little indigo (1741). The frost killed it. She planted more and the worms destroyed it. She began again and this time she succeeded. To the colonists the news of her crop, small as it was, was like the report of the discovery of a gold mine. Indigo then brought in Europe sometimes ^\A \ -- x^ a dollar and a half a pound ; and shortly before the Revo- lution Charleston ex- ported over a million pounds in a single year. After the Revolution (1793) cotton (§205) was found to be even more profitable than indigo, and so the cul- ture of that plant was given up. The exportation of rice and indigo made the city grow rapidly. Josiah Quincy of Bos- ton visited it (1773), and said of it, ""In almost everything it far surpasses all I ever saw or ever expected to see in America," 118. Summary. Carolina, which was eventually divided into North and South Carolina, was settled by emigrants from Vir- ginia, by English, and also by Huguenots, or French Protestants. General Marion of the Revolution was a descendant from a Huguenot family. The English Company owning the province undertook to govern it by a constitution called the "" Grand Model," but the people refused to accept it and insisted on The Gift of Rice to South Carolina 1681] GRANT TO WILLIAM PENN lOi governing themselves. North CaroHna engaged in the manufac- ture of tar, pitch, and turpentine ; South CaroHna began the culture of rice and indigo, both of which proved highly profit- able. At the time of the Revolution Charleston was one of the chief cities of America. XIL Pennsylvania (i68i) 119. Grant of Pennsylvania to William Penn; the " Holy- Experiment." Charles II owed William Penn, the most influen- tial of the English Friends, or Quakers (§ 83), a large sum of money. As that good-natured but extravagant monarch always contracted as many debts as possible and paid as few, Penn suggested to his Majesty that he might easily settle his claim by granting him a tract of land in America. The propo- sition pleased the King, and he gave Penn a territory of about forty-eight thousand square miles fronting on the Delaware River. Charles named this vast region (which was nearly as large as the whole of Eng- , ., T. , . -r. > Penn at Newcastle land) Pennsylvania, or Penn s Woods. Penn was well known in Europe for his fair dealing. Everybody had confidence in him. P^or this reason not only English Quakers but many Germans got ready to emigrate to Pennsylvania. In those woods Penn resolved to begin what he called his "Holy Experiment." He set out to establish a "free colony" on the basis of that Golden Rule which commands us to do unto others as we wish them to do unto us. The Quaker founder thought that even the North American savages could understand that principle and would let the people who practiced it grow up in peace. The King suggested that the savages would be more likely to respect a well-armed regiment of soldiers ; but Penn had I02 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1681 fHlt' IXIClb _^Mjl Xfvrtjvii Cut tnmi!«i >i»4»fg' ^ f "^ , nvtmnet-i PAKr OF THL BORDLK AND ItXl Ut kiNG LUAKLLb no faith in the virtues of gunpowder and would not send so much as a single musket to protect his colony. 120. Emigration to Pennsylvania; Land- ing at Newcastle; Philadelphia. Penn sent out some emigrants (1681), and followed the next year with one hundred English Quak- ers (§83). He landed at Newcastle in what is now Delaware. He had purchased that territory from the Duke of York (§ 112), to add to Pennsylvania. The whole population of the region gath- ered to welcome him and to witness the in- teresting ceremony of his taking possession of his vast estate. First, a piece of turf was handed to Penn — that meant that he owned the land and all that grew on it; next, a dish filled from the Delaware River was given to him — that signified that he owned the water ; finally, the key of the fort was solemnly presented to him — that act completed the transfer, for it acknowledged his 1G81-1()83] THE "GREAT LAW" 103 II's Charter to Penn, with Portrait of the King ^ '^y^.. right to hold both land and water by military force, — the last thing he, as a zealous Quaker, would wish to do, Penn then proceeded up the Delaware River and founded a city to which he gave the Bible name of Philadelphia, or Brotherly Love (Reve- lation iii. 7-8). He had planned it all before he left England, It is said that not even a thousand dollars has had to be spent since in straightening or widen- ing streets, for that work was done, once for all, in Penn's orderly brain before the first house was built (1683). 121. The " Great Law." Furthermore, Penn called an assembly at Chester, and he with the people enacted the "Great Law" (1682). That constitution had a twofold foundation, — liberty of the people to make their own laws, and obedience to the laws they had made ; for, said Penn, " Liberty without obedience is confusion, without liberty is slavery." \ and obedience I04 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1682 By the " Great Law " it was provided : 1. That all colonists should be protected in their worship of God, but that no one should be compelled to support or attend any form of worship against his will.^ 2. That all resident taxpayers should have the right to vote, and that every member of any Christian church might hold office and become a member of the legislative assembly .^ 3. That every child, after reaching the age of twelve, should be brought up to some trade or useful occupation. 4. That the death penalty should be inflicted for two crimes only, instead of for two hundred, as in England ; those two were murder and treason. 5. Furthermore, it was ordered — perhaps for the first time in the history of the world — that every prison should be made a workshop and a place of reformation.^ 122. The Great Treaty; Growth and Importance of Philadel- phia. Penn's next act (1682)* was a treaty with the Indians. According to tradition he met the Red Men under the branches of a wide-spreading elm in what was then the vicinity of Philadel- phia.^ There solemn promises of mutual friendship were made. In accordance, however, with the principles of the Quaker faith, no oaths were taken (§83), Each trusted to the other's simple word. That treaty was " never broken," ^ and for sixty years, or as long as the Quakers held control, the people of Pennsylvania 1 No person believing in God and living peaceably and justly " shall in any wise be molested." — The "Great Law^'' Section i, Hazard's "Annals of Pennsylvania." 2 This is according to Section 65 of The "Great Law " ; but Section 2 of the same would appear to limit the right to elect members to the assembly to " such as profess and declare they believe in Jesus Christ." 3 The prisons of Europe at that time were dens of idleness and disorder, and the criminal usually came out actually worse than he went in. 4 See Hazard's " Annals of Pennsylvania," p. 635 ; but some authorities fix the date at 16S3 and consider the treaty to have covered the purchase of lands. 5 The treaty was made at Kensington, in the northeastern part of the city. The Treaty Elm was blown down in 1810. So great was the regard for the old tree that during the Revolution, when the British forces occupied Philadelphia, General Simcoe, their com- mander, stationed a sentinel under it to prevent his soldiers from cutting it down for fire- wood. The monument marking the spot where it stood is on the west side of Beach Street, north of Columbia Street, Kensington. 6 Voltaire, the French historian, said that it was " the only treaty which was never sworn to and never broken " ; if he had heard of Carver's treaty (§ 74) , he would have mentioned that too. 1682-] SUMMARY 105 lived at peace with the natives. The site of the tree under which that memorable transaction took place is now marked by a monument. The Indian record of the treaty — a belt of wam- pum representing Penn ^ and the chief clasping hands — is still preserved.^ Philadelphia grew rapidly, and at the beginning of the Revo- lution it was the largest and the most important city in the American colonies. There the first Continental Congress met (1774), there inde- pendence was declared (1776), there too the present Constitution of the United States was framed ^-^ (1787), and there the seat of gov- -" -^~ — ^; ernment remained (1790- 1800) un- til it was removed to Washington, then " a backwoods settlement in the wilderness." 123. Summary. William Penn founded the colony of Pennsylvania, or " Penn's Woods." He gave the people the right to take part in mak- ing the laws, and all persons believ- ^ ing in God were protected in their " ... TT 1 f The Penn Treaty Monument religion. He made a treaty of peace with the Indians which was sacredly kept. At the opening of the Revolution Philadelphia was the chief city of the country and long the seat of government. 1 William Penn set sail for England, August 12, 1684, having spent not quite two years in Pennsylvania. He visited the colony again in 1699, and returned to England in 1701, where he spent the remaining seventeen years of his life. His outlay in Pennsylvania had involved him heavily in debt, and in 1709 he was obliged to mortgage his province for ^6600. Other misfortunes fell upon him, and at one time he was a prisoner for debt in London. He was negotiating a sale of his right in Pennsylvania to the English government at the time of his death. His successors were unlike him, and their greedy and unjust policy created constant irritation. In 1779 the state of Pennsylvania purchased their rights for ;?55o,ooo. 2 For cut showing this belt see §35. Penn is the right-hand figure. The belt is in the pos- session of the Pennsylvania Historical Society, Philadelphia. See their " Memoirs," Vol. VI. io6 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1733 XIII. Georgia (1733) 124, Oglethorpe's Project for the Settlement of Georgia; his Three Objects, Many years after Penn founded his colony the English general James Oglethorpe, with others, obtained from George II a charter for colonizing the unoccupied part of South Carolina. In honor of the King the new colony was named Georgia, It extended along the coast from the Savannah River to the Altamaha River. Westward, as in the case of Virginia (§ 43)> Massachusetts (§ J'j), the Carolinas (§ 1 14), and Connecticut (§ 98), the tract extended to the Pacific. (Map, p. 51.) In this undertaking Oglethorpe and his associates had three great objects in view. 1 . They wished to help the poor debtors in prison in England to go to America. Many of these men had been thrown into jail in London because they could not pay some trifling debt which they had contracted through sickness or misfortune. They were often honest, hard-working people, and Oglethorpe believed that in Georgia they would have an opportunity to make a new start in life. 2. Oglethorpe also wished to open a refuge in America for Protestants who were being driven out of southern Germany on account of their religion. 3. He wanted to establish Georgia as a frontier colony which would protect Charleston, South Carolina (§ 115), from attacks by the Spaniards of Florida (§ 23). 125, The Settlement at Savannah; Silk Culture. Oglethorpe went out with the first emigrants and built the town of Savannah on the Savannah River (1733). Mulberry trees grew wild in Georgia, and as their leaves are the best food for silkworms, the colonists hoped to produce silk in large quantities. The silk culture, however, never went very far, and in the end cotton was found to be much more profitable. 126, Restrictions on the Colony. Oglethorpe and his associates were determined to make Georgia a model colony where every 1733-] GOVERNMENT OF GEORGIA 107 man should work with his hands and where none should indulge in strong drink. In every one of the other twelve colonies in America the people held slaves and made use of West India rum, which was then a common beverage everywhere. But the people of Georgia were forbidden to buy either ne- groes or rum. This regulation produced great discontent, since without slaves the colonists could not raise rice, like the South Carolinians (§117), and unless they could import rum from the West Indies, as the other colonists did, they could not open a trade with those islands. Furthermore, Oglethorpe and his associates established a government which provided that for twenty-one years the colonists should have no voice in making the laws. This regulation kept the great body of the people like children and made that best of all education — the education which comes from self- government — impossible. Liberty of worship was granted, but not to Catholics. Finally, a fourth regu- lation confined the ownership of land to those who could do mili- tary service in its defense. This cut off women from inheriting real estate, and all colonists who did not have sons protested against it. 127. The Wesley s; Whitefield ; Restrictions removed ; the Span- iards; Natural Resources of Georgia- John and Charles Wesley, the founders of the Methodist church in England, went out to Georgia as missionaries to the Indians. Later, another noted preacher of one branch of that denomination, the Rev, George Whitefield, established an orphan asylum near Savannah, which he partly supported by slave labor. John Wesley hated slavery The Landing at Savannah io8 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1750-1752 and believed that it was a sin against God and man ; but White- field believed that the negro was not then fit to be free, and that slavery was just the sort of schoolmaster he needed. Whitefield, with others, succeeded in getting the proprietors of the colony to permit the planters to purchase slaves to work in their rice swamps (1750); next, the prohibition on the importation of rum from the West Indies was removed, and the land laws were changed for the better. The result was that Georgia built up a flourishing commerce and became able to hold her own with the Carolinas. The colony was successful in checking the attacks of the Spaniards. Oglethorpe defeated an expedition which they sent to conquer and drive out the settlers, and he did the work so thoroughly that the enemy had no desire to make his further acquaintance.! Soon afterward Georgia became a royal province (1752) and was governed by the crown until the Revolution. No colony planted by the English possesses greater natural resources or nat- ural wealth — in cotton, coal, and iron — than the territory that was first settled by the philanthropist Oglethorpe, who sought the prosperity of all. If he could see what Georgia has become, and, better still, see its probable future, he would feel that he could not have chosen more wisely. 128. Summary. Georgia, the last of the thirteen colonies, and one of the richest in its natural advantages, was settled by Eng- lish emigrants brought over by General Oglethorpe, as a work of charity. One chief object of the colony was the raising of silk. That, however, was unsuccessful. In the outset the settlers had no power of self-government, and the land laws caused much discontent. Slavery and the importation of rum from the West Indies were forbidden, but later both were allowed, the people got the management of the colony, in considerable measure, and Georgia opened a profitable trade with the West Indies. 1 The defeat of the Spaniards had the effect of extending the southern boundary of Georgia to the St. Johns River, Florida. In 1763 it was fixed at the present Hne. 1669-1673] FRENCH EXPLORATION 109 The French Exploration of the West 129. French Exploration of the Great Lakes and the Missis- sippi Valley; the Catholic Missionaries. While the Enghsh col- onists had been getting firm possession of the coast from Maine to Georgia, the French in Canada (§48) had not been sitting still. In fact, it was they, and not the English, who were the explorers of the West. Among the first Europeans who dared to push their way into that vast wilderness were Catholic mis- sionaries, who had come here to convert the Indians. In their zeal for this work they braved all dangers — enduring hunger, cold, and torture without a murmur. Long before William Penn's emigrants had felled the first tree for the first log cabin in Philadelphia, these missionaries had reached the western shore of Lake Michigan (1669) and had planted missions among the Indians at Mackinaw, Sault Ste. Marie, and Green Bay, (Map, p. III.) 130. Joliet and Marquette on the Mississippi. A few years later (1673) Joliet, a famous French explorer and fur trader, and Father Marquette, a Catholic priest, set out from Mackinaw to find a great river which the Indians told them lay west of Lake Michigan, Making their way in birch-bark canoes (§ 34) to the head of Green Bay, they paddled up the Fox River to a place which they called Portage ^ ; then carrying their canoes across a short distance, they embarked on the Wisconsin River. (Map, p. III.) Borne by the current, they dropped down the Wisconsin until, on a beautiful day in June, they floated out on the broad, shining bosom of the upper Mississippi, The sight of it was enough : they knew that they had found that mighty stream which the Indians called the " Father of Waters," Turning their canoes southward, they let the river bear them where it would. Day after day they kept on their silent jour- ney. They glided by castle-shaped cliffs, open prairies, and hun- dreds o,f miles of unbroken forest. Thus they drifted on, past the 1 Portage : a French word, meaning a carrying place, because at such points canoes or goods were carried across from one stream to another. (See Map, p. iii.) no LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1G73-1679 muddy torrent of the Missouri, past the mouth of the beautiful Ohio. In about three weeks the explorers came to the spot where De Soto (§21) had crossed the river more than a hundred years before ; then, pushing on, they reached the mouth of the Arkansas. There some Indians told them that the tribes below were hostile to strangers and that they had better return. Joliet and Marquette took their advice, got into their canoes, and patiently paddled their way back. Under the burning sun they battled for hundreds of miles against the powerful current; it was indeed a tremendous piece of uphill work. At last they reached the mouth of the Illinois ; they worked their way up that river to an Indian village just below Ottawa, Joliet and Marquette entering the Mississippi and then made their way across to Lake Michigan. They had not followed the Mississippi to the Gulf, as they intended, but who will say that they had not made a good beginning ? 131. La Salle reaches the Mouth of the Mississippi. Six years later {1679) La Salle, the greatest of the French explorers, a man of active brain and iron will, set out from Canada to complete the work of Joliet and Marquette. On the Niagara River, not far above the falls, he built the first sailing vessel ever launched on the upper Great Lakes. In her he sailed to Green Bay ; then, sending the vessel back for supplies, he and his companions went in canoes to the St. Joseph River, ^ near the southeastern corner of Lake Michigan. (Map, p. in.) There they built a fort ; then, crossing over to the head waters of the Kankakee, a tributary of the Illinois, they descended that river to the point where Peoria now stands. There they built a second fort. 1 La Salle paddled from Green Bay round to the St. Joseph River, Michigan. 1679-] LA SALLE REACHES THE MISSISSIPPI ill Leaving a small garrison to hold this position, La Salle, near the end of winter, went back on foot to Fort Frontenac (now Map showing the thirteen English Colonies and the P"rench Explorations and Settlements in the West Kingston), on Lake Ontario, in eastern Canada. (Map, above.) He made that journey of a thousand miles to get the supplies which he needed for the exploration of the Mississippi. 12 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1681-1682 While he was gone, Father Hennepin, a Cathohc missionary in La Salle's expedition, set out from the fort to explore the country. After many startling adventures he finally reached a cataract on the upper Mississippi, which he named the Falls of St. Anthony. When La Salle returned to Illinois (1681), he found his fort deserted and in mins. But the brave Frenchman knew no such word as fail. In the autumn he set out on his great expedition for the third time. Landing at the head of Lake Michigan, where Chi- cago now stands, he crossed over to the Illinois and, go- ing down that river, entered the Mississippi in February (1682). The weather was " bitter cold," and the river full of floating ice ; but La Salle started with his com- pany on his perilous voyage. Nine weeks later he reached the sunny waters of the Gulf of Mexico. There he set up a rude wooden cross, on which he fastened a metal plate bear- ing the arms of France.^ Then with volleys of musketry and loud shouts of " God save the King!" La Salle took possession of the vast territory watered by the Mississippi and the streams which flow into it. To that region of unknown extent — twice as large as France, Spain, and Germany united — he gave the name of Louisiana, in honor of La Salle taking Possession of Louisiana 1 Arms of France : a shield decorated with representations of the heads of lilies (here resembling small crosses) . The latest French life of La Salle says he fastened the arms of France to a post and erected a cross beside it. 1701-1718] MOBILE AND NEW ORLEANS 113 Louis XIV, then the reigning sovereign of France. So the " Grand Monarch," as he called himself, boasted that he held the heart of the American continent. 132. The Founding of Mobile and New Orleans. Many years later John Law, an enterprising Scotchman, got permission from France to establish a colony in Louisiana. Law expected to find rich mines of gold and silver, and every needy and greedy French- man who could manage to scrape a few dollars together wanted to buy stock in the company. The speculation failed and made thousands beggars. Still the undertaking had some permanent results for good. A Frenchman named Iberville had established a colony at Mobile, on the Gulf of Mexico (1701). His brother, Bienville, was ap- pointed governor of Louisiana. It was hoped that he would send shiploads of treasure back to France. He sent nothing of the sort, but did far better, for he founded the city of New Orleans (17 1 8). The settlement consisted of a few log huts built around a fort ; it was destined to become the commercial metropolis of the great Mississippi Valley, — a valley capable of producing food enough to feed all the civilized races of the globe. 133. The English hold the Atlantic coast, but the French hold the interior of the country. Meanwhile, what had the English colpnists in the East done toward exploring and occupying the country .? Practically nothing. They simply continued to hold their first settlement on the Atlantic coast ; in other words, the east- ern edge of what is now the United States. The long range of the Allegheny Mountains, rising like an immense wall, seemed to hem them in. But the French, starting from Canada, had obtained a firm grip upon the interior of the country. They held the Mississippi, and with it they claimed to hold the great central West, extending from the Alleghenies to the base of the Rocky Mountains. What they held they meant to keep ; La Salle showed that when he built forts at the most important points of his explo- rations, all the way down from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico. (Map, p. 1 1 1 .) 114 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1689-1697 The French and Indian Wars (1689-1763) 134. War with the French; Attacks on Schenectady, Haver- hill, and Deerfield ; the French lose Acadia. In Europe the French and the English had long been enemies. The desire of each to get possession of America did not make them any better friends. In 1689 war broke out between the rival colonists. With intervals of peace that contest ^ extended over seventy years (1689-1763). SCALE OF MILES Map illustrating the French and Indian Wars (1 689-1 763) -^ In Europe the same war was fought between England and France, and it lasted even longer. In the first or " King William's War " (1689- 1697) the French Governor of Canada sent an expedition of French and Indians to attack the colonies on and near the Hudson. They secretly came upon the litde village of Schenectady, New York, at midnight. They burned it and massacred most of the inhabitants. But some Indians who made an attack on Haverhill, Massachusetts, met 1 This war and those that follow were simply the American side of a hundred years' struggle waged in Europe and Asia, between the English and the French, for the posses- sion of India and of the continent of America. See Seeley's "Expansion of England," Lecture II. ^ 1G97-1748] TAKING OF LOUISBURG 115 their match. A small party of savages carried off Mrs. Hannah Dustin captive, intending to sell her as a slave in Canada. She got possession of some tomahawks, and with the help of another woman and a boy, also prisoners, she split the heads of the sleep- ing Indians, and carried home their scalps, ten in all, in triumph. A regiment of such women would have soon made both French and Indians beg for peace. During this war an expedition from Boston, led by Sir William Phips of Maine, captured the French fort at Port Royal, Acadia, now Nova Scotia, but it was returned to the French the next year (1691). In the second or "Queen Anne's War" (1702-1713) a party of French and Indians burned Deerfield, Massachusetts. On the other hand, the New Englanders recaptured Port Royal and named it Annapolis in honor of Queen Anne of England. They also undertook an expedition against Quebec, which ended in ship- wreck and terrible loss of life. When peace was made (17 13) the English not only kept Annapolis but got possession of Acadia, which they now named Nova Scotia. 135. The Third War ; Taking of Louisburg. There was a long interval of peace, and then the third or "King George's War" broke out (i 744-1 748). During this contest the New England colonists gained a remarkable victory. France had spent millions in fortifying Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island, so that it might guard the entrance to the Gulf and the River St. Lawrence. ^ The fort was of immense extent and had walls of solid masonry thirty feet high. Colonel Pepperrell of Maine, with a force of a few thousand Yankee farmers and fishermen, set out to capture this great stronghold. The expedition seemed so foolhardy that even Benjamin Franklin ^ ridiculed it. Though himself a native 1 France needed the fortified harbor of Louisburg as a shelter for her vessels, as a protec- tion to her commerce and fisheries, and for maintaining free communication with Canada. 2 Benjamin Franklin, bom in Boston, 1706; died in Philadelphia, full of years and honors, in 1790. He was the son of a soap boiler and candle maker. He learned the printer's trade and went to Philadelphia, where, in 1729, he became editor and proprietor of the Pennsylvania Gazette. Later, he entered public life, went abroad as agent of the colonies, and rendered the whole country his debtor by his eminent services in the cause of American independence. The succeeding pages of this history will show that his name deservedly ranks with that of Washington as one of the founders of the United States. For a full account of him see " Benjamin Franklin's Life by Himself" [Ginn and Company]. Il6 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1745-1754 of New England, and full of faith in New England grit, he wrote to his brother that Louisburg was far too hard a nut for their teeth to crack. But, with the help of a British fleet, Pepperrell and his men, after six weeks' fighting, did crack it (1745), and Boston fairly went wild over the great news.^ The victory had two important results : 1. It broke up the nest of French pirates at Louisburg, and so put an end to their capturing and plundering Massachusetts fishing vessels. 2. It made the New England people feel that they could "beat the French even when they had granite walls to protect them. Taking OF Louisburg — Dragging the Guns across the Marsh At the end of the war England gave Louisburg back to France ; but she could not give back the confidence the French once had in the famous fortress. The " Yankees " had taken it ; and what men have done, they can do again. 136. The Fourth or "French and Indian War"; the Great Line of French Forts. The fourth and final struggle (i 754-1 763) was known as the " French and Indian War." It was fought to decide the great question whether the French or the English should control the continent of America. The English outnumbered the French fifteen to one ; but the French had got possession of the two chief rivers of the countty, — the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi (§§48, 131, 133). To 1 Notwithstanding the bravery of Pepperrell and his gallant little force, it is not likely that they, even with the help of the British fleet, could have taken Louisburg had that fort possessed an efficient garrison and a competent commander. It had neither, and hence it fell. England was astonished, and the King was so delighted that he made the American commander a baronet, — Sir William Pepperrell. He was the first native of New England who received that honor; though William Phips (§ 134) had been knighted move than fifty years before. 1753-1754] THE OHIO COMPANY 117 clinch their hold they built fort after fort, until they had a line extending from Quebec to the Great Lakes, and thence down the Wabash, the Illinois, and the Mississippi to the Gulf. (Map, p. III.) Where many of those and succeeding forts stood, flour- ishing cities have since risen, which still keep the old French or Indian names of Detroit, Chicago, St. Louis, Natchez, New Orleans. That shows the forethought of the French explorers. When they selected a spot to fortify, they seem to have thought not only of its military strength but also of the possibilities of its growth as a center of business and commerce. 137. The Ohio Company; Governor Dinwiddie's Messenger. But at last the English began to open their eyes to the danger which threatened them. They saw that unless they moved into the rich territory west of the Alleghenies, they would lose the heart of the continent and the French would have everything their own way. To prevent such a disaster the Ohio Company was formed in Virginia (1748), to plant a colony of emigrants on the east bank of the upper Ohio.^ The French at once resolved to stop the movement, and began a new line of forts, extending southward from Erie on Lake Erie to the point where the Allegheny and the Monongahela rivers unite to form the Ohio. That point at the head of inland navigation was called the '" Gateway of the West." Both parties knew its importance ; both meant to seize and fortify it. (Map, p. 114.) Governor Dinwiddle of Virginia determined (1753) to send a messenger to Venango, — one of the new French forts,^ — and warn off the intruders .^ Whoever undertook such a journey must travel at least three hundred miles on foot, climb a succession of mountain ranges, cross rivers as best he could, and risk his life among hostile Indians. 1 The first Ohio Company (174S), whose chief manager, Lawrence Washington, brother of George Washington, died in 1752, received a grant of 500,000 acres on the east bank of the Ohio, between the Great Kanawha and the Monongahela rivers. The region is now embraced by West Virginia and southwest Pennsylvania. 2 The English maintained that they had purchased the Ohio Valley region of the Iroquois Indians, who declared that they had conquered it many years before. There is no evidence that the Iroquois had any right to sell the land. 1 8 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1753 The Governor finally decided to intrust this difficult and dan- gerous work to the brother of the late chief manager of the Ohio Company, a young man of twenty-one, who was a skill- ful surveyor, knew all about life in the wilder- ness, and did not know what fear meant. The name of that young man may still be read on a lofty limestone cliff of the Natural Bridge in Virginia, where, when a lad, he climbed up higher than any of his compan- ions dared to go, and cut it with his hunt- ing knife, — GEORGE WASHINGTON.! 138. Results of Washington's Journey. Washington performed the journey (1 75 3), but the French commander sent back an unsatis- factor)^ reply to the Governor. The expedition had, however, two important results : I. It impressed W'ashington with the immense value and fu- ture growth of the Ohio Valley. In time he came to hold more land there than any one else in that section. Throughout his 1 George Washington was born at Bridges Creek, Virginia, on the Potomac, about fifty miles south of where Washington now stands. His father, soon after the birth of George, removed to an estate on the Rappahannock opposite Fredericksburg. Nothing remains of the old homestead at Bridges Creek : but a stone slab marks the site of the house, and bears this inscription: "Here, the nth of February, 1732, George Washington was born." Dif- ference of reckoning now makes the nth the 22d. Washington's great-grandfather, John Washington, emigrated from England to Virginia about 1657. It is generally thought that he belonged to one of the old Cavalier families that fought in behalf of Charles I during the ;fore the Revolution 1754] THE ALBANY CONVENTION 1 19 life he used his influence in ever}' way to build roads and canals to open up and settle the '" West," or what was then known by that name; 2, The French commander's answer was plainly a challenge to fight. The Ohio Company (§ 137) accepted the challenge and began to build a fort at the "Gateway of the West" (§ 137); but the French drove them out, finished building it, and named it Fort Duquesne in honor of the French governor of Canada. Washington then began a small fort, which he called Fort Neces- sity, about forty miles south of Fort Duquesne ; but the French came in overwhelming force, and compelled him to surrender it. (Map, p. 114.) 139. The Albany Convention; Benjamin Franklin's Snake; Franklin's Plan. A con- vention of the Northern colonies met at Albany (1754) to consider what should be done. The Iroquois Indians of New York (Map, p. 36), who were stanch friends of the English, sent some of their people to the convention. They warned the colo- nists that if they did not take up arms, the French would drive every Englishman out of the country. Benjamin Franklin, who came from Philadelphia to attend the convention, printed a rude wood cut in his paper, the Pennsyl- vmiia Gazette, which told its own story. It represented the col- onies in the form of a snake cut in pieces, with the motto "Unite or die." Franklin proposed a plan for binding the colonies together for self-protection, but it was not adopted. The English government rejected it as too democratic, though the colonists thought it not democratic enough. Even then, the English Civil War. George Washington received a fair English education, but nothing more. He excelled in athletic sports and horsemanship, and was fond of life in the woods. He became a skillful surveyor, and found the work highly profitable. By the death of Lawrence Washington, an elder brother, George came eventually into possession of the estate of Mount Vernon (of several thousand acres, with many slaves), on the Potomac, a short distance below the present city of Washington. Washington's mission to the French commander at Venango first brought him into public notice. In 1759 he married Mrs. Martha Custis, a wealthy widow. From this time until his death, in 1799, he will stand prominent in this history. For a full account of Washington, see " Washington and His Country" [Ginn and Company]. I20 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [175 authorities in England " dreaded American union as the key- stone of independence." ^ 140. Braddock's Defeat; Washington. The next year (1755) General Braddock came from England with troops to drive the French and Indians out of the Ohio Valley. He advanced from Alexandria, Virginia, across the mountains to attack Fort Du- quesne (§ 138). (Map, p. 114.) Washington accompanied him. All went well until the British army had nearly reached the fort. Sud- denly a savage yell rose from the woods through which the men were marching, followed by a murder- ous volley of bullets which killed many. The English general was mortally wounded. A panic set m ; his men ran like sheep, and were shot down as they ran. A I 5. ' '"Ij-' ^ |J^ it^w days later Braddock died, t" V , / ,,,«««. ^''' ^feii, and was secretly buried at night. Colonel Washington read the fu- neral service over his grave by torchlight. It was said in Virginia that Braddock lost the victory, but that Washington's coolness and courage saved the army. A Vir- ginia clergyman, who preached on the disaster, said he believed that " Providence had saved Washington for some important serv- ice to his country." 141. The Acadians; Pitt and Victory; Fort Duquesne taken; the French driven to Canada. In the course of the next two years the English took the French province of New Brunswick, and drove many thousands of Acadians, or French inhabitants of Nova Scotia, into exile. This act caused much suffering and Braddock's Defeat 1 Part of Franklin's plan was that the colonies should have a president appointed by the crown, and a council chosen by the people. 1759] , FALL OF QUEBEC I2I it seemed a cruel thing at the time, but apparently the English had to do it.^ William Pitt, later known as Lord Chatham, had now become the chief councilor in the English government. He was one of the tmest friends that America ever had. He sent fresh troops to fight for the colonists, and the English recaptured and held the famous fort at Louisburg (§ 13S). A second expedition, in which Colonel Washington again took part (§ 140), attacked Fort Duquesne. The fort was taken and named Fort Pitt, in honor of the distinguished statesman who had made the victory possible. To-day we know the place as Pittsburg, the center of the most extensive iron works in the United States. The victory gave the English the control of the Ohio country, and drove the French back to Canada. 142. Fall of Quebec (1759) ; Pontiac's Conspiracy. The French had lost Fort Frontenac, now Kingston, Canada (Map. p. iii), but they still held the formidable stronghold of Quebec. This fortress — the "Gibraltar of America" — was built on a lofty rock, overlooking the St. Lawrence. Montcalm, one of the ablest and noblest generals of France, was commander of the fortress. General Wolfe, an English soldier of equal character and courage, resolved to wrest it from him. He had only a few thousand men, a part of whom were American colonists, but every one of these men believed in him heart and soul. They believed, too, just as much in the " Hot Stuff " which Wolfe gave the enemy .^ The death struggle came when Wolfe, with his troops, climbed up from the river to the top of the lofty plain called the Heights 1 Longfellow has made this exile of the 7000 Acadians the subject of his poem of " Evangeline." Burke called the expulsion " an inhuman act," but recent investigation seems to show that the English were justified in driving out the French, since they positively refused to take the oath of allegiance to England, and their sons were secretly fighting against her (see Parkman's " Montcalm and Wolfe," I, 234-284). 2 Among the rousing battle songs sung by Wolfe's men was one about " Hot Stuff," which began with this appeal : " Come, each death-daring dog who dares venture his neck, Come, follow the hero that goes to Quebec ; And ye that love fighting shall soon have enough : Wolfe commands us, my boys ; we shall give them ' Hot Stuff'.' " 122 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1759 of Abraham 1 and attacked the French (1759). In the terrible battle both commanders found the truth of the words, " The paths of glory lead but to the grave," ^ which Wolfe quoted to his brother officers on the eve of the contest ; for both were killed. They met death as only heroes can. The English gen- eral exclaimed when he heard that his men had gained the hard-fought field, " Now, God be praised, I die in peace." The French leader, when told that he must soon breathe his last, said, " So much the better ; I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." The fall of Quebec practically ended the war ; but four years later, Pontiac, chief of a tribe of Michigan Indians and friendly to the French, rose in revolt. He formed a secret league with other tribes, — the Iroquois, of New York (§40), refusing to join, — to drive the English from the whole Western coun- try. A young Indian girl betrayed the plot to the commander of the fort at Detroit. Many white settlers were mas- sacred, but Pontiac's attack failed, and he himself was forced to beg for peace. The Indians did not make another gen- eral attempt to reconquer the land which the white man had taken from them until Tecumseh rose (§225) nearly fifty years later. 143. What the French and Indian War settled; the Treaty of 1763. The battle of Quebec was "one of the great battles of the world," for it marked a turning point in American history. When Wolfe with his brave men climbed in the darkness up the rocky heights back of that great fortress (1759), the whole West, 1 The Heights of Abraham extend for three miles along the St. Lawrence southwest of Quebec. The French believed that these Heights were inaccessible from the river. 2 Gray's " Elegy written in a Country Churchyard," 1749. " Gentlemen," said Wolfe to his officers, " I would rather have written those lines than take Quebec." The English climbing THE Heights of Abraham 1759-1763] THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH WARS 123 from Quebec to the Mississippi and New Orleans, belonged to France. (Map, p. 1 1 1 ,) When the sun went down the following day, France had lost her hold on America forever. By the treaty of peace of 1763 the French king gave to England the whole of his possessions on this continent. Of all the magnificent territory which he had owned on this side the Atlantic he now had nothing left except a small portion of the West Indies, and two little barren islands (Miquelon and St. Pierre) off the coast of southern Newfoundland, which the English permitted him to keep, to dry fish on. The war settled the fact that America was not to be an appendage of France, but was to become the home of the chief part of the English-speaking race. Spain had owned Florida ever since its discovery by Ponce de Leon (§ 18), She had fought on the side of France against England : now that France was defeated Spain was forced to give up Florida to Great Britain, who held it for twenty years and then ceded it back to Spain (1783). Thus by the end of 1763 the English flag floated over the whole eastern section of this continent, from the Atlantic to the great river of the West, with the single exception of New Orleans, which, with the Louisiana territory west of the Mississippi, France had secretly transferred to Spain. Another result of the treaty of 1763 was that England (in order to make Spain a rival of France) now recognized Spain's claim to the great province of Louisiana. This made the Missis- sippi the western boundary of the American colonies, so that none of them could henceforth claim territoiy extending to the Pacific. (Maps, pp. iii, 168.) 144. Results of the Four English and French Wars. The four great wars between the English and the French in this country (§§ 134-136) had decisive results : I. They united the inhabitants of the colonies — especially those north of the Carolinas — and inspired them with new strength. 124 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [17G3 2. They trained thousands of resolute men in the use of arms, taught them to face an enemy, and thus in a measure prepared them for the War of Independence not many years distant. 3. They removed all danger of attack by the French and so made the colonists feel less need of British protection, 4. They cleared the ground east of the Mississippi of rival and hostile forces, and left it open for our ancestors to lay — when the right time should come — the corner stone of the United States. General State of the Country in 1763 145. The Thirteen Colonies in 1763; Growth of the Country; Number and Character of the Population. The growth of the colonies from the first permanent English settlements in 1607 (§46) and 1620 (§73) to the end of the French and Indian War, 1763 (§ 143), had been slow but steady. When a gardener finds that a healthy young plant shows but little progress, he is not discouraged. He says cheerfully, " It is all right ; it is making roots, and will last the longer." For a century and a half the colonies had been "making roots," — getting that firm hold so necessary for the future growth of a free and power- ful nation. In 1763, when England made peace with France (§ 143), the entire population of the thirteen colonies probably did not greatly exceed half that of New York City now. Of this about one sixth were negro slaves ; every colony had some, but by far the larger part were owned south of the Potomac. The popu- lation was nearly all east of the Alleghenies. West of those mountains the country was an almost unbroken wilderness. The majority of the colonists, especially in Virginia and New Eng- land, were English or of English descent. Next in number came the Germans in Pennsylvania (§ 119), the Dutch in New York (§ 59), the Irish and Scotch-Irish (§ 92), who had settled to some extent in all of the colonies, and finally, the descendants of the Huguenots, or French Protestants, most numerous in South Carolina (§ 115). 17G3] LANGUAGE 125 146. Language ; Religion ; Social Rank ; Cities ; Trade. Nearly all of the colonists spoke English, and nearly all were Protes- tants.i Most of them had sprung from the same social class in the mother country. A witty Frenchman of that day said that the people of England reminded him of a barrel of their own beer — froth on the top, dregs at the bottom, but clear and sound in the middle. That energetic, industrious, self-respecting middle class furnished the greater part of the emigrants to this country. In none of the colonies was there a titled aristocracy holding land and established by law, as in Europe. In Virginia, how- ever, the great plantations were usually handed down to the eldest son, after the English fashion. America had men of intelligence and wealth, but no lords; she had learned and influential clergy- men, but, outside of certain royal provinces (§ 147), she had no bishops. Philadelphia, New York, Boston, and Charleston were the chief cities, yet even Philadelphia, then the largest, had only about twenty thousand inhabitants, and not one of these cities published a daily paper and did not until more than twenty years later.^ The foreign trade of the country was prosperous. The South exported tobacco, rice, indigo, tar, and turpentine ; the North, fish, lumber, furs, and iron. New England built and sold so many sailing vessels that the ship carpenters of Great Britain complained that the Americans were ruining their business. Manufactories were comparatively few. England treated her colonies in a broader and more generous ' spirit than any other nation in Europe, but she wished, so far as practicable, to com- pel the Americans to buy all their goods from her. On this account she endeavored to prevent them from weaving a yard of fine woolen cloth, casting an iron pot, or printing a copy of the 1 The greatest number of Catholics were in Maryland ; there they may have constituted a fifteenth of the population. - The Boston News Letter, 1704 (weekly), was the first regular newspaper published in America. The American Daily Advertiser, Philadelphia, 1784, is said to liave been the first daily. 126 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [17(53 Bible. Furthermore, England passed laws, like the Navigation Acts (§ 54), to compel the colonists to confine all their most profit- able commerce to English ports. On the other hand, England paid the colonists liberal premiums or bounties for exporting such products as indigo, and "" naval stores " such as hemp, tar, pitch, turpentine, rosin, and masts for vessels. Besides this England bought all the tobacco they wanted to sell and also purchased a good deal of their iron. The people of this country did not openly dispute the right, or supposed right, of the mother country to restrict their trade ; but they smuggled goods, especially tea, wines, silks, and other luxuries, from Europe ; and the custom- house officers at Philadelphia, New York, and Boston winked at the landing of such articles. 147. Government of the Colonies ; Law ; Unity of the People. The colonies did not all have the same form of government. Connecticut and Rhode Island held charters, by which they prac- tically managed their own affairs in their own way. Eight of the remaining colonies were royal provinces ^ ruled by governors ap- pointed by the King ; the three others, Pennsylvania with Delaware (§ 120) and Maryland (§ 100), were governed by their proprietors, the descendants of William Penn and of Lord Baltimore. All the colonies had legislative assemblies elected by the people ; by means of these assemblies they levied their own taxes and had the chief voice in making their own laws.^ In New England all matters of public interest were openly and fearlessly discussed in town meeting ; in Virginia, county meetings were held occasion- ally for the same purpose. Every white man in the thirteen colo- nies had the right to trial by jury and to the protection given by the common law of England (§ 44). The colonists, though loyal to the King, were full of sturdy independence of character. Some of them adopted a flag (1775) on which was a rattlesnake coiled ready to strike, and the words, i Massachusetts had a charter, but could make only such laws as her Governor, appointed by the King, saw fit to approve. 2 The laws enacted by the colonial assemblies required the Governor's approval, except in Rhode Island and Connecticut, where the people elected the Governor and could legis- late, if they chose, without his consent. 17G3] LIFE AMONG THE FARMERS 127 "Don't tread on me"; that flag expressed what their real spirit had always been. Though there was but little communi- cation between the colonies, yet they were essentially one peo- ple, — they spoke the same language, they appealed for justice to the same general law, they held, with some few exceptions, the same religion. 148. Life among the Farmers. Few of the colonists were very rich ; fewer still were miserably poor. The mass of the people lived simply but comfortably. The farmhouses were generally built of huge timbers covered with rough, unpainted clapboards, often with the upper story projecting, so that in case of an attack by Indians the owner could fire down on the savages and give them a reception they would remember. Usually the center of such houses was taken up by an immense open fireplace, so big that it was a fair ques- tion whether the chimney was built for the house or the house for the chimney. On a stormy winter's night there was no more cheerful sight than such a fireplace piled up with blazing logs, around which our forefathers and their sturdy families sat contentedly, watching the flames as they leaped up the chimney.^ But these roaring fires meant work. During the day the woodchopper seemed to hear them forever crying " More, more," and if by ill chance they went out at night, there were no matches to rekindle them. That had to be done by striking a spark with flint and steel, catching it on a bit of old half- burnt rag, and then blowing that spark to a flame. If we are tempted to envy our ancestors their cosy winter evenings, probably few would envy them their winter mornings in case the fire failed to keep over. 1 Read the description of such a fireside in Whittier's deHghtful poem of " Snow-Bound." A Farmi 128 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [17G3 The cooking was done either over or before these open fires, or in huge brick ovens. The food was very simple, — often nothing more than corn-meal mush with molasses for breakfast, — but there was plenty of it, and no lack of healthy appetite. The farmer bought little at the store. He raised his own food ; his sheep furnished wool, and his wife and daughters spun and wove it into stout "homespun" cloth. In such households there were few idle days, but many happy ones ; and for recre- , : ation the young people had sleighing par- ,'■ ,y -■'■""' ^^„.,g?#?5C ties, husking bees,^ general trainings,^ and other merrymakings. 149. Life in the Cities and on the Great ; 7 Virginia Plantations. In the cities and large towns, and on the great plantations at the South, there was a good deal of luxury. Rich men like Washington, who was one of the wealthiest landholders in the coun- try, sometimes lived in stately mansions, furnished with solid oak and mahogany im- ported from England. Their tables shone with silver plate and sparkled with costly A Virginia Planter's wines. They owned their black servants in- stead of hiring them. Gentlemen, when in full dress, wore three-cornered cocked hats, long velvet coats, lace ruffles at their wrists, knee breeches,^ white silk stockings, and shoes with silver buckles. They kept their hair long, pow- dered it white, and tied it back in a twist or a queue with a black silk ribbon. Ladies wore gowns of brocade^ and rich silk almost stiff enough to stand alone. They also powdered their hair, so that 1 Husking bees : at these gatherings the young people met to husk com ; there was usually quite as much fun as work on such occasions. 2 General trainings : meetings for military drill. They occurred once or twice a year, and were regarded as holidays. 3 Knee breeches : breeches coming down to the knees ; before the introduction of trousers they were worn by men of all classes. 4 Brocade : cloth or stuif richly embroidered with raised flowers or other figures in silk or gold and silver thread. 17(33] LIFE IN THE COLONIES 129 all people of fashion, whether young or old, looked stately and venerable. In general, life moved in somewhat the same stately way : there was no hurrying to catch trains, no rush and scramble for electric cars, no flashing of telegrams from one end of the coun- try to the other, no newsboys shouting daily papers, no instan- taneous photographs, no pushing and hustling in overcrowded streets. On Sunday every one, or practically every one, went to church ; and, in New England, if a man was absent the minister of the parish told him, in a way that could not be mistaken, that he must know the reason why. 150. Travel; Letters; Hospitality; Severe Laws. People sel- dom traveled. When they did, they generally preferred going by water if possible, in order to avoid the bad roads. But as such traveling was wholly in sailing vessels, the time when a man reached his destination depended alto- gether on the wind, and the wind made no promises. Knowing this fact, some chose to go by land. To accommodate these venturesome people a lumbering „ ,,"1, ~ „;r ^ ^ * The Plying Machine covered wagon ran once a week be- tween New York and Philadelphia, traveling at the rate of about three miles an hour. Later (1766), an enterprising individual put on a wagon which actually made the trip of ninety miles in two days. On account of its speed it was advertised as the " Flying Machine " ; the cheaper conveyances, which did not "fly," took a day longer to make the journey. In the wet season of the year the passengers often worked their passage as well as paid for it, for they were frequently called on to get out and pry the wagon out of the mud with fence rails. Sometimes a wheel gave out and the wagon stuck fast. The expense of carrying the mails made postage so high that but few letters were written. These were rarely prepaid ; and as a charge of twenty-five cents on a single letter was not very uncom- mon, most persons preferred that their friends should think of them often but write to them seldom. I30 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1763 Yet if people rarely wrote to each other and traveled but little, they were quite sure of being hospitably entertained along the way when they did venture from home. This was especially the case in Virginia. The rich planters in that section considered a guest a prize. He brought the latest news and the newest gossip. It was no strange thing for a planter to send out one of his negroes to station himself by the roadside to watch for the coming of some respectable-looking stranger on horseback. Then the servant, smil- ing and bowing, begged him to turn aside and stop over night at his master's mansion. There he was sure to be treated to • the best there was in the house ; and as no temperance society had then come into existence, the best, both North and South, always meant plenty to drink as well as plenty to eat, followed perhaps by a fox hunt, or some other sport, the next day. But if the times were hospit- able, they were also somewhat rough and even brutal. A trifling offense would often send a man to the stocks for meditation, and something more serious to the pillory, where the passers-by might stop to pelt him with a hand- ful of mud, a rotten apple, or something worse. Imprisonment for debt was a common occurrence ; petty thieves and disorderly persons were publicly whipped, while men guilty of highway rob- bery or murder were paraded through the principal streets and then hanged before the crowd. 151. Education; Books; Jonathan Edwards and Benjamin Franklin. Most of the colonists, especially in New England, where free schools had long been established by law (§ 80), could read and write fairly well ; and a small number, particularly How THEY SPENT THEIR TiME IN THE Pillory and in THE Stocks 17G3] FRANKLIN'S ELECTRICAL EXPERIMENTS 131 clergymen, were highly educated. Very few books were published, but the rich imported a stock of the best English authors, and, what is more, they read them. The two ablest American writers of that day were the Rev, Jonathan Edwards of Connecticut, who later became a resident of Massachusetts, and Benjamin Franklin, born in Boston, but who soon became a citizen of Philadelphia, Edwards wrote his great work " On the Freedom of the Will " for that small number of readers who like a book which forces them to think as well as read. Not many can grasp Edwards's thought about the "Will," but we can all understand how nobly he used his own will when he made these two resolutions : (i) "^^ To do ivhatevcr I think to be my dutjiy (2) ''To live zvitJi all my might while I do live!' Franklin's best known work was his Almanac, commonly called " Poor Richard's Almanac," ^ which he published for many years. It was full of shrewd, practical wit and wisdom, and it suited a hard-working people. Men who had begun life with no help but such as they got from their own hands and their own brains liked to read such sayings as these: ''Diligence is the mother of good Incky "He that can have patience can have ivJiat he ivilir "Heaven helps those zuho help themselves y Thousands of young men learned these maxims by heart, put them in prac- tice, and found their reward in the prosperity and independence to which they led. 152. Franklin's Electrical Experiments. But Franklin did not confine himself to writing ; he was also greatly interested in scien- tific experiments. Everybody has noticed that the fur of a cat's back, when stroked vigorously the wrong way on a winter's night, will send out a multitude of electric sparks, Franklin, who never minded the cat's claws, asked himself. Are these sparks the same as the flashes of lightning seen in a thundershower } He resolved to find out. To do this he sent up a kite during a shower, and fast- ened a door key near the end of the string. Touching his knuckle 1 Because Franklin represents a curious old fellow, whom he calls " Poor Richard," as uttering the sayings which made the almanac famous. Franklin later wrote his " Auto- biography." See Montgomery and Trent's "■ Franklin" [Ginn and Company]. 132 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1G07-17G3 to the key, he got an electric spark from it. This, and other ex- periments, convinced him that his conjecture was right ; electricity and lightning, said he, are one and the same thing. That discovery, simple as it now seems, made Franklin famous. When he went to England on business for the colonies he needed no introduction, — everybody had heard of the American who had found the " key to the clouds " and to electrical science as well. Even George III, though he heartily hated Franklin for his independent spirit, actually put up a bungling kind of Franklin lightning rod — one with a ball instead of a point — on his palace in London. To-day we light our cities, propel our street cars, some of our motor cars, the trolleys on our great network of electric roads, drive machinery of various kinds, ring our fire alarms, and send our messages across continents, under oceans, and through the air, by this mysterious power. We owe the practical beginning of much of this to Franklin. He said, " There are no boimds . , . to the force man may raise and 7 is e in the electrical way!' In view of what is now being done in this "electrical way," the words of the Philadelphia printer, philosopher, and statesman — written more than a hundred years ago — read like a prophecy, 153. General Summary. The thirteen colonies were settled, mainly by the English, between 1607 and 1733, — Virginia was the first colony founded (1607), Massachusetts the second (Plym- outh, 1620; Boston, 1630), Georgia (1733) the last. During the closing seventy years of this period (1689-1763) the colonists were engaged nearly half of the time in wars with the French of Canada, who claimed the West by right of exploration. In these wars many Indian tribes (but not the Iroquois of New York) fought for the French. The colonists, with the aid of England, gained the victory, and thus obtained possession of the country from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. Up to that time (1763) the people had been growing in prosperity, in intelligence, and in the determination to maintain all those rights which the King had originally granted them by his written charters, and to which, as English colonists, they were justly entitled (§ 44). Benjamin Franklin 133 IV " Resolved, That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES." — Motion made in the Continental Con- gress at PJiiladelpliia, June 7, 1776, by Ricliard Henry Lee of Virginia, seconded by John Adams of Massachusetts. THE REVOLUTION • THE CONSTITUTION^ (1763-1789) THE COLONISTS RESIST TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION, 1764-1775 • THEY MAKE WAR AGAINST ENGLAND IN DEFENSE OF THEIR RIGHTS AS ENGLISH SUBJECTS, 1775-JULY 4, 1776 • THEY DECLARE THEM- SELVES INDEPENDENT, JULY 4, 1776 • THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES ADOPT THE CONSTITUTION, 1787-1788 154. American Commerce; the New King, George III; how he interfered with Trade. Up to the close of the war by which Eng- land had compelled the French to give up their hold on America (1763) the people of this country had prospered. During that war (§ 143), and for a long time before it, the laws which for- bade the colonists to trade with any country except Great Britain (§§ 54, 146) had not been enforced. The New Englanders had made a great deal of money by trading with the French and the 1 Reference Books. (The Revolutio7i.) A. B. Hart's " Formation of the Union," ch. 3-4 ; G. E. Howard's " Preliminaries of the Revolution," ch. 3-18 ; C. H. Van Tyne's " The American Revolution," ch. 1-17 ; A. B. Hart's " American History by Contemporaries," II, ch. 21-35; ^- ^- Hart's "Source Book," ch. 9; J. Fiske's "War of Independence," ch. 4-8 ; H. C. Lodge's "The Story of the Revolution," 2 vols.; W. C. Bryant and Gay's " United States " (revised edition), III, ch. 13-24; IV, ch. 1-4. [The Articles of Confederation and the Constitution.) A. B. Hart's " Formation of the Union," ch. 5-7 ; A. B. Hart's " American History by Contemporaries," III, ch. 6-12; A. B. Hart's "Source Book," ch. 10; A. C. McLaughlin's "The Confederation and the Constitution," ch. 3-18 ; J. Fiske's " The Critical Period of American History," ch. 3-7 ; W. C. Bryant and Gay's" United States " (revised edi- tion), IV, ch. 5 ; J. B. McMaster's " United States," I, pp. 436-502 ; J. Schouler's " United States," I, ch. i. See also the classified List of Books in the Appendix. 134 1763] THE KING PROPOSES TO TAX THE COLONIES 135 Spanish West Indies — sending them lumber and fish, and bring- ing back molasses and sugar from the French islanders, and kegs of silver dollars from the Spaniards. The new king, George III (1760), resolved to enforce the English laws and so break up this profitable commerce. He was conscientious but narrow-minded, obstinate, and at times crazy. 1 He stationed ships of war along the American coast to stop trade with the French and the Spaniards with whom Eng- land was at war. Moreover, in Boston and other large towns, the King's officers, armed with general warrants called " Writs of Assistance," began to break into men's houses and shops and search them for smuggled goods. '-^ They did not ask for proof of guilt ; they entered and searched when and where they pleased. New England saw her trade broken up. It began to look as though the King meant to ruin every merchant and ship- builder in the country. James Otis,^ of Boston, made a power- ful speech against these "Writs of Assistance," but his appeal was in vain. 155, The King proposes to tax the Colonies; Object of the Tax; Protest of the Americans. This, however, was only the beginning of evil. The cost of the late war with France (§ 143) had been enormous, and English taxpayers protested against pay- ing out more money. But the King determined to send at least ten thousand troops to America, to protect, as he said, the colonies against the Indians and the French. In order to raise money to pay these soldiers, whom the Ameri- cans did not want, George III proposed an entirely new measure — that was to levy a direct tax on the people of this country, 1 The King had his first attack of insanity — a mild one — in 1765, while the Stamp Act was under discussion. In 17SS he felt that his mind was seriously affected; bursting into tears, he exclaimed that " he wished to God he might die, for he was going mad." He soon became so. - In an ordinarj' search warrant the person applying to the magistrate for it must swear that he has good reason for suspecting the person he accuses, and must have the name of the accused person, and no other, inserted in the warrant. In the case of the " Writs of Assistance " the officers wrote any name they pleased in the warrants, and then entered and rummaged the man's house from attic to cellar. Sometimes this was done purely out of spite. 3 Otis held the office of advocate general under the King, but he resigned that office in order to attack the King's " Writs of Assistance." 136 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1765 The colonists believed that according to the principles of English law the King had no right to demand his people's money except by consent of the men whom they should elect to represent them in Parliament.^ The Americans had no such representatives, and, what is more, they were not permitted to send any. For this reason they protested against the tax. The best men in Parliament — such men as William Pitt (§ 141) and Edmund Burke — took the side of the colonists.'^ Burke said that if the King undertook to tax the Americans against their will, he would find it as hard a job as the farmer did who tried to shear a wolf instead of a sheep. 156. The Stamp Act proposed. But the King thought that the Americans were like lambs and that they would stand any amount of shearing without once showing their teeth. Accordingly Parliament made ready to pass the Stamp Act. The proposed act required that the col- onists should use stamps — resembling our postage stamps — on all important law and business papers, and also on pamphlets and newspapers. The stamps cost all the way from a half-penny (one cent) up to ten pounds (fifty dollars). Such a law, if en- forced, would tax everybody in spite of himself ; for every one would have to pay that tax when he bought a newspaper or an almanac, took out a policy of insurance on his house, or made his will. 157. The Colonists resist the Stamp Act; the Stamp Act Con- gress, 1765. Benjamin Franklin (§ 151), who was in London as agent for the colonies when the Stamp Act was under discus- sion, fought against it with all his might, but he said he might as well have tried to stop the sun from setting. In Boston, British Stamp 1 The British ParHament, which sits in London, is to England what Congress is to the United States. It is a law that no tax shall be levied on the British people except by members of Parliament elected by the people as their representatives. 2 Pitt thought it was not right to tax America ; Burke thought it was not wise to do so. 1705] THE STAMP ACT 137 Samuel Adams, the " Father of the Revolution," ^ denounced the proposed act at a town meeting held in Fanueil Hall — the " Cradle of Liberty," as it was called. But Parliament passed the law in 1765. Then the indignation of the American colonists blazed out in an unmistakable manner. In the Virginia Assembly Patrick Henry 2 made a speech which fired all hearts, and moved that body to take decisive action. The Assembly boldly resolved that it would not obey any act of Parlia- ment which forced the people to give money to the English gov- ernment without their consent (§155). In his speech against the "Writs of Assistance " James Otis (§ 154) had declared, "Taxation without representation (§155) is tyranny." Finally, delegates from nine of the colonies met in New York in the " Stamp Act Con- gress " (1765). That Congress drew up a dec- laration of rights which said : 1 . The American colonists possess the same rights as all other British subjects in England (§44). 2. But they are not represented in the English Parliament, therefore Parliament has no power to tax them. When the hated stamps came the people destroyed them, and even the boys shouted, " Liberty, property, and no stamps ! " Many leading citizens now pledged themselves not to buy any more English goods until the hated Stamp Act was repealed, 1 Samuel Adams, one of the great leaders of the Revolution, was a member of the Massachu- setts House of Representatives. It was said that he had the most " radical love" of liberty of any member of that House ; he declared ( 1 769) , " Independent we are, and independent we will be." 2 Patrick Henry was a prominent member of the Virginia Legislature. He was an orator of marvelous power and he always spoke on the side of liberty, Faneuil Hall, the "Cradle of Liberty," as it appeared IN 1765 138 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [17GG-I7(i7jj 158. Repeal of the Stamp Act; the Declaratory Act; the " Boston Massacre " ; Destruction of the Gaspee. When news of these vigorous proceedings reached London, WilHam Pitt (§ 155) said in Parhament : "In my opinion, this kingdom has no right to lay a tax on the colonies. ... I rejoice that America has resisted." The Stamp Act was speedily repealed {1766). Parlia- ment, however, put a sting in its repeal, for it passed a Declara- tory Act, maintaining that the British government had the right to bind the colonies " in all cases whatsoever." The Americans did not then see just what that declaration meant. They saw it, however, when the King sent troops to be quar- tered here at the expense of the people. New York promptly refused to pay the bill. Later, General Gage, the British com- mander at New York, came to Boston with two regiments (1768). He quartered his troops in the very center of the town, and they had frequent quarrels with the citizens. Finally (1770), a fight occurred in which the soldiers fired, in self-defense, and killed several of the people. This was called the " Boston Massacre " ; the citizens never forgot or forgave the blood stains then made on the snow of King Street.^ Later, that feeling showed itself in the destruction by the Rhode Islanders of the Gaspee, an armed British vessel stationed off the coast to prevent smuggling. 159. The New Taxes; the "Boston Tea Party." The repeal of the Stamp Act {§ 158) was followed by the passage of the Townshend Acts (1767). These acts imposed import duties on window glass, paper, paints, and tea, — all articles which Parlia- ment believed the colonists could not do without. The two main objects of these new taxes were : 1 . To pay the soldiers sent here by the King. 2. To pay the governors, judges, and other officers of the crown in the colonies and so make them entirely dependent on the King and ready to do his will. 1 King Street, now State Street. The soldiers were tried for murder ; John Adams and Josiah Quincy, Jr., of Boston, defended them. All but two were acquitted. They were con- victed of manslaughter and branded in the hand in open court my] THE "BOSTON TEA PARTY" 139 The Americans generally looked upon the Townshend Acts as a trap to get their money. Many merchants throughout the colonies refused to import any of the taxed articles. Others, like Samuel Adams (§ 157), bound themselves "to eat nothing, drink nothing, wear nothing " imported from England until all the duties on goods should be taken off. Finally, Parliament decided to take off all the Townshend duties or taxes except one of a few cents a pound on tea. This duty was retained to show that England meant to tax the colonies without their consent. The price of the tea was put so low that the Americans could buy it, even with the tax on it, cheaper than they could smuggle it from Holland. But the colonists declared that they would not take the tea, even as a gift, if any tax whatever was demanded. None the less cargoes of tea were dispatched (1773) from London to New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Annapolis, and Charleston. In only one instance — that of Charleston — were the vessels allowed to land the tea, and then it was left to spoil. At Phila- delphia a committee told the captains of the tea ships that they would tar and feather them if they did not turn back. At New York the " Sons of Liberty " took action just as decided. At Annapolis the Maryland people actually compelled the owner of the tea ship Peggy Steivart to burn his vessel, tea and all. Meanwhile, the case which caused the greatest excitement occurred at Boston. Three tea ships came into the harbor, but the people refused to let them unload their cargoes. The Gov- ernor would not let them go back until they were unloaded, and the people, under the lead of Samuel Adams (§ 157), made up their minds to do the unloading in their own way. An immense meeting was held in the Old South Meeting House in regard to the matter, but nothing could be done. That night a band of citizens disguised as Indians rushed down to the wharf and emptied every chest of tea — nearly $100,000 worth — into the harbor. A Bostonian had jokingly asked, " Will tea mix with salt water.?" The patriots settled that question and the tax at the same time. I40 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1774 (7) 1 60. Parliament closes the Port of Boston and places a Military Governor over the People; the First Continental Con- gress, 1774; Action of Massachusetts; the '' Minutemen "; the Tories. When Parliament heard of the destruction of the tea at Boston, the wrath of the King's party rose to white heat. I . They closed the port of Boston (1774) to all trade until the people should pay for the tea, and make humble sub- mission to the King. 2. They took the government entirely out of the hands of the people and put the col- ony under the rule of General Gage (§158). Parliament enacted two other arbitrary meas- ures 1 which completed what the Americans called the four "In- tolerable Acts." Patrick Henry of Virginia (§ 157) was so indignant at the treat- ment which Massachu- setts received that he said in the Virginia Convention : " There is no longer any room for hope. We must fight. I repeat it, sir ; we must^g-/it." Samuel Adams (§157) had planned "Committees of Correspondence" 1 These were the Transportation and the Quebec acts. The first gave British officers who were accused of committing murder — as in the case of the " Boston Massacre" — the right of trial in England, where, of course, everything would be in their favor. (By a law of a different date, Americans who committed murder, in resisting oppression, might be sent to England for trial, where, of course, everything would be against them.) The Quebec Act united the territory north of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi — which the colonists considered theirs — with Canada. The object was to conciliate the French Canadians, and, if need be, to get their help in punishing the colonists. Samuel Adams planning the "Committees OF Correspondence" I77i-1775] THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS 141 that kept the colonies informed by letters of all that was going on. This prepared them for united action, and in 1774 a Conti- nental or General Congress — the first ever held in America — met in Carpenters' Hall, Philadelphia, to consider what course the colonies should take. The spirit of that Congress was unmistakable. It was per- fectly calm, perfectly respectful, but perfectly determined. The delegates who met there, of whom George Washington was one, did not want to have war with England ; they wanted peace — peace if they could get it, but justice at any price. They did not ask for representation in Parliament, for they saw that they could not be properly represented in that body 3000 miles away. But they did three things of great importance : 1 . They issued a Declaration of Rights in which they demanded the right to levy all taxes. 2. They organized the "American Association" which bound ail the colonies joining it to stop buying or using British goods until Parliament should repeal its unjust laws. 3. They humbly petitioned the King to redress their wrongs. They might as well have petitioned the " Great Stone Face " in the White Mountains of New Hampshire. Not long after this, Massachusetts set up a government (1775) quite independent of the military rule of General Gage, and made John Hancock, a wealthy and influential merchant of Boston, head of it. The colony next raised 12,000 volunteers ; a third of them were " minutemen " — men ready to march or fight at a minute's notice. The spirit of liberty was universal ; as a South Carolina paper said, " One soul animates 3,000,000 of brave Americans, though extended over a long tract of 2000 miles." But the Carolina paper forgot the Tories, who constituted a third of the population. They positively refused to take up arms against the King. Like the patriots they were 'brave men ; they loved their country ; but they believed that the quarrel could be settled without drawing a sword or firing a gim. In the end the Tories were driven out of the United States, and the patriots seized their houses and lands. 142 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1^ I. From the Beginning of the War in 1775 by the Colonists in Defense of their Rights as Eng- lish Subjects, to the Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776 161. The British Expedition to Lexington and Concord; Paul Revere; the Battle; the Retreat. General Gage having learned that the patriots had stored a quantity of powder and provisions at Concord, about twenty miles from Boston, sent a secret expe- dition to destroy both. The soldiers had orders to go by way of Lexington, and there arrest Samuel Adams (§§ 157, 159) and John Hancock (§ 160), who were stopping with a friend in that village. The London papers boasted that the heads of these two " rebels " would soon be exhibited in that city ; but General Gage found out that Adams and Han- cock were not the kind of men to lose their heads so easily. The British troops left Boston just before mid- night of April 18, 1775. Paul Revere, a noted Bos- ton patriot, was on the watch ; at his request two signal lanterns flashed the news abroad from the steeple of the Old North Church, and he galloped through the country giving the alarm. When he reached the house in Lexington where Hancock and Adams were asleep, a man on guard cried out to him, "Don't make so much noise." "Noise!" shouted Revere i; "you'll have noise enough before long ; the ' regulars ' are coming." Just before daybreak of April 19 the British "regulars" marched on to the village green of Lexington where a number of " minutemen " had collected. " Disperse, ye rebels ! " shouted 1 Read Longfellow's " Paul Revere's Ride," though it is not strictly historical. " Disperse, ye Rebel; 1775] LEXINGTON AND CONCORD 143 Pitcairn, the British commander. No one moved ; then Pitcairn cried, " Fire ! " A volley blazed out, and seven Americans fell dead. Some scattering shots were fired in return. Advancing to Concord, the soldiers destroyed such military stores as they could find ; at Concord Bridge they were met by the patriots. It was the opening battle of the Revolution, — several men fell on each side. There the first British were killed, there the first British graves were dug. The " regulars " then drew back, leaving the Americans in possession of the bridge, and began their march toward Boston. But the whole country was now aroused. The enraged farmers fired at the British from behind every wall, bush, and tree. The march became a retreat, the re- treat something like a run. When the " regulars " got back to Lex- ington, where Lord Percy met them with reenforcements, they dropped panting on the ground, " their tongues hanging out " like those of tired dogs.^ From Lex- ington the " minutemen" chased the British all the way to Charles- town. Nearly three hundred of the " redcoats," as the Americans nicknamed the English soldiers, lay dead or dying on the road. Percy had marched gayly out of Boston to the tune of "' Yan- kee Doodle," played in ridicule of the Americans, but it was noticed that his band did not play it on reentering the town — they had had quite enough of all that was "Yankee" for that day. The next morning the British army found themselves shut up in Boston. The Americans had surrounded it on the land side ; they dared the British to come out and fight — the siege of Boston had begun. (See Map, above.) 1 So says an English officer. See Stedman's " American War," I, 118. The American Army besieging THE English Army in Boston 144 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1775 162. The Second Continental Congress; Washington made Com- mander in Chief; Ethan Allen's Victories. The Second Conti- nental Congress (§ 160) met at Philadelphia on May 10, 1775. It recognized George III as the "rightful sovereign" of the American colonies, but it voted to raise 15,000 men to defend the liberties of the country, and it appointed George Washington (§§ 1 37-141) commander in chief of the American army. From this time until the Ar- ticles of Confederation were adopted.( 1 7 8 1 ) Congress prac- tically (§ 192) governed the country. Early in the morn- ing of the day on which that Congress met, Ethan Allen, a " Green Mountain Boy," sur- prised the sentinel on duty and got entrance with his men to Fort Ticonderoga on LakeChamplain. Allen burst into the commandant's room and demanded the immedi- ate and unconditional surren- der of the fort. " By what authority ? " asked the aston- ished officer. " In the name of the great Jehovah and the Continental Congress," thundered Allen. The com- mandant surrendered ; the Americans got possession of cannon, arms, and military stores which they sorely needed. Crown Point, a small fort on the lake, north of Ticonderoga, was taken the next day. 163. Battle of Bunker Hill. General Gage (§ 160) had received reenforcements from England under the command of Generals Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne. He now had a force of about Ethan Allen takes Fort Ticonderoga BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL 145 8000 men. Near the middle of June (1775) he planned an ex- pedition to seize Bunker Hill.^ This hill is in Charlestown and overlooks part of Boston. Gage was afraid that the Americans might get possession of it ; if so, they could fire into his camp and make him very uncomfortable. (Map, p. 143.) What, then, was his surprise when he found on the morning of the 17th of June that the "rebels," under the command of Colonel Prescott, had got the start of him, and that, .during the night, they had actually seized and fortified the hill. General Gage saw that he must drive the Americans out of their entrench- ments or they would drive him out of Boston. He sent Howe to make the attack with 3000 British "regulars." The Ameri- can officers had about half that number of men. As the British moved up the hill the patriots received this order : " Don't fire till you see the white of their eyes." They obeyed ; when they did fire the destruction of life was terrible. The smoke lifted and there lay "The 'redcoats' stretched in windrows as a mower rakes his hay." ^ The British fell back, rallied, made a second attack, and again fell back. A third time Howe led his men up the hill. This time he was successful. The Ameri- cans had fired their last round of ammunition, and, fighting des- perately with the butt ends of their muskets and even with clubs and stones, they slowly retreated. They were driven back because they no longer had the means to continue the battle. CuLONEL Prescott on Eunker Hill 1 The name Breed's Hill did not then exist. See Frothingham's '' Joseph Warren," p. 507, and Winsor's " America," VI, 135. '^ Read O. W. Holmes's fine poem, " Grandmother's Story of Bunker Hill." 146 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1775 In an hour and a half the British lost over 1000 men out of 3000. The American loss was somewhat less than half as much.^ During the engagement Howe ordered Charlestown to be fired, and by night the greater part of the town was in ashes. This act roused Benjamin Frank- lin's indignation, and he wrote a letter to his former friend Strahan, member of the English Parliament, which showed that though he was a man of peace, yet he knew when to , be angry (see Franklin's letter on the oppo- site page). When Gen- eral Washington heard - - ' how the Americans had fought at Bunker Hill .^ he exclaimed, " The lib- erties of the country are safe ! " 164. Washington takes Command of the Army ; Expedition against Que- bec. Washington reached Cambridge and took com- mand of the army (§162) of 15,000 poorly armed and untrained men (1775). Meanwhile Congress had learned that the British in Canada were intending to attack points in northern New York. To give them something else to think of nearer home. General Montgomery of New York set out to take Quebec. He descended Lake Champlain and cap- tured Montreal. \ Watching the Battle of Bunker Hill FROM the North End, Boston 1 American loss 449, British 1054. Gage was ordered back to England and General Howe received command. .^^^^^yu^,.^^ C^^^^^^I^. >^7^- ^^^C'-i^TT-uC^) '^.^2^''^^t''C*:'rr^ ^_^tn*^>^ Franklin's Letter to Strahan 148 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1775-1776 Benedict Arnold of Connecticut, one of the bravest soldiers of the Revolution, started with over looo men to join in the attack. Setting out from Newburyport, Massachusetts, Arnold undertook to make his way from the mouth of the Kennebec through the forests of Maine. He was six weeks getting across the wilderness. The suffering was so terrible that many men deserted, and the rest, after having been compelled to eat their moccasins, nearly perished. At last Arnold reached Quebec with his ragged, barefooted, half -starved, and sadly diminished litde army. Montgomery joined him with a few hundred men, and with this small force they attempted, on the last day of the year (1775), to storm "the strongest fortified city of America" (§142). Mont- gomeiy was killed at the head of his troops, and Arnold badly wounded — it would have been a happy thing for the latter if he, too, had fallen dead on the field (§ 186). A few months later the Americans were driven out of Canada. 165. Washington enters Boston ; the Brit- ish repulsed at Fort Moultrie. Throughout the winter (i 775-1 776) want of artillery and powder prevented Washington from doing anything more than simply keeping up the '''■'"''' siege of Boston (§161). At length General Knox succeeded in dragging fifty cannon on ox sleds through the woods from Ticonderoga to Cambridge. Early in March (1776) Washington seized Dorchester Heights (South Boston) overlooking Boston on the south. He got his cannon into posi- tion and then gave General Howe (§ 163) his choice of withdraw- ing his forces from the town or having it battered to pieces about his ears. Howe took a good look, through his spyglass, at the American guns on the Heights, and ordered his men to embark as rapidly as possible (March 17 — St. Patrick's Day — 1776) for Halifax. Arnold's Expe- 177(i] WASHINGTON ENTERS BOSTON 149 Reduced Copy of the Gold Medal presented to Washington by Congress to commemorate HIS DRIVING the BRITISH OUT OF BoSTON The following day Washington entered Boston in triumph. The British had left it never to return. With them went about a thousand Tories, as those Ameri- y<^W^^^^ X^^^WMo* cans were called who opposed the war and wished to submit to the King (§ 160). About mid- summer (1776) a British fleet ^ at- tacked Fort Sulli- van, in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. The British hoped to get pos- session of the city ; but Colonel Moultrie, aided by such heroes as Sergeant Jasper, defended his log fort with such energy that the enemy were glad enough to withdraw.'-^ 166. " Common Sense " ; the Americans decide to separate from Great Britain. Up to 1 776 the Americans had been fight- ing in defense of their rights as English subjects. Washing- ton said, '" When I first took command of the Continental army I abhorred the idea of independence." But in Jan- uary (1776) the King's proclamation- reached Congress. In it he called for troops to put down "the rebellion" in America. That was the only answer he gave to their humble petition for justice (§ 160). 1 General Clinton left Boston in the winter of 1776 and sailed to attack the Carolinas. He was joined there by a fleet from England under Sir Peter Parker and Lord Comwallis. After theii defeat at Fort Sullivan, Comwallis and Clinton, with their men, went to New York. 2 After the victory Fort Sullivan was named Fort Moultrie. iii I '1M)I I 1 MM N( b II \I I " PhII DELPHIA, as IT APPEARED IN 1776 ISO LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [me The very day that proclamation came, a remarkable pamphlet was published in Philadelphia. It was entitled " Common Sense." The writer was Thomas Paine, an Englishman who had come here to live. He boldly said that the time had come for a "' final sepa- ration " from England, and that " arms must decide the contest." The pamphlet sold by tens of thousands, because it gave voice to what tens of thousands were thinking. The English people would not volunteer to fight the Americans, and the King had to hire nearly 30,000 Hessians, from the Prince of Hesse in Germany, to help do the work. The knowledge of that fact cut the last thread that held us bound to the mother country. The Americans had not sought separation ; the King — not the English people — had forced it on them. 167. The Declaration of Independence. In June, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia offered this resolution in the Continental Reduced Copy of the Last Line of the Declaration of Inde- pendence (in Jefferson's Handwriting) with the First Three Signatures Congress which was sitting in the Old State House in Philadel- phia : " Resolved : that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES." John Adams of Massachusetts seconded the resolution. A committee of five — Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, John Adams of Massachusetts, Thomas Jefferson 15: LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1776 Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Roger Sherman of Con- necticut, and Robert R. Livingston of New York — was chosen to draw up a declaration embodying that resolution. Thomas Jefferson did the work. On the Fourth of July, 1776, John Hancock (§ 160), President of Congress, signed the Declaration of American Independence in that bold, decided hand which "' the King of England could read without spectacles." Then the patriots of Philadelphia rang the "" Liberty Bell " in the Old State House {now called " Independ- ence Hall " ) till it nearly cracked with the joyous peal. In New York City the people pulled down a gilded lead statue of the King and melted it up into bullets. Later, the representatives of the colonies added their names to the Declaration, That com- pleted the work ; the thirteen British colonies had ceased to ex- ist ; in their place stood a new na- tion—the UNITED STATES It was cracked in 1835, while tolling for the. QF AMERICA yOUr COUlltry death of Chief Justice Marshall. , and mine. 168. Summary. George III endeavored to tax the English colonists in America against their will, and in violation of their rights as English subjects. The colonists resisted, and finally took up arms to defend themselves. The King refused to do justice to the Americans, hired a foreign army to help subdue them, and so drove them to separate from Great Britain and to declare themselves inde};^ndent. Liberty Bell, Independence Hall, Philadelphia 177(J] THE BRITISH AIM AT NEW YORK 153 II. The War of Independence, from July 4, 1776, TO THE Victory of Saratoga, 1777 169. The British aim at New York; Our Navy. Driven out of Boston (§ 165) and defeated at Charleston (§ 165), the British determined to strike New York. Their plan was to get posses- sion of the city and of the Hudson River. They could then pre- vent the New England colonists and those south of New York from helping each other, for our force on land was small, and we had no proper war ships to attack the enemy by sea. Later, we built a little navy. It was commanded by such heroes as John Barry (§ 214), who captured the first English armed vessel taken by us (1776), and Paul Jones, who did a great work a little later (§183). Our privateers also captured many English merchant ships laden with powder and war supplies. 170. Washington's Preparations to receive the British; Fort Washington and Fort Lee. Washington foresaw this design of the enemy and prepared for it. When General Howe (§ 165), with his brother, Lord Howe, commander of the English fleet, reached New York in the summer (1776) they found Washington in possession of the city. They found, too, that they could not send their ships up the Hudson as easily as they had hoped, for the Americans had built Fort Washington and Fort Lee expressly to prevent it. (Map, p. 138.) 171. The Two Armies; the Battle of Long Island. Still the British were confident that they could win the day. Howe and his brother were experienced military commanders. They had the aid of General Clinton and General Cornwallis, and over 30,000 well- armed soldiers — men who fought for a living. Washington had less than 18,000, most of whom knew nothing of war, while many had no muskets fit to fight with. But Washington held the city and the forts on the Hudson and he had possession of Brooklyn Heights on Long Island, directly opposite the city on the south. General Howe, with his army, was on Staten Island. He saw that if he could take Brooklyn Heights and plant his cannon 154 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1776 there, he could drive Washington out of New York, just as Washington, by seizing Dorchester Heights, had driven him out of Boston (§ 165). General Putnam was in command of the Heights with a force of 9000 Americans. In the battle of Long Island (August 27, 1776) the gallant litde American army met with defeat, Putnam with his whole force would certainly have been cap- tured if it had not been for Washington's energy and skill. During the night a dense fog came up, and under cover of it Washington got all of Putnam's men safe across the river in boats to New York. In the morning, when the British com- mander stretched out his hand to take the " nest of rebels," as he called it, he got the nest indeed, but it was empty — the birds had flown. 172. Washington retreats Northward; Nathan Hale; Fort Washington taken; Lee's Disobedience. Washington was now forced to abandon New York and retreat up the east side of the river. He was naturally very anxious to find out what the British meant to do next. Captain Nathan Hale of Connecticut volun- teered to try to get this information for him, but the brave young man was arrested and hanged as a spy. As he stood on the gallows he said to the British officer in charge, '" I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country." Washington ordered West Point (Map, p. 138), the strongest place on the west bank of the Hudson, to be fortified, to pre- vent the enemy from going up to Albany. He then crossed to the west bank of the river, but could not hold his ground against Lord Cornwallis, and he lost both Fort Washington and Fort Lee (§170). He had left some of his best soldiers, under the command of General Charles Lee, on the east side of the Hud- son. He now ordered Lee to join him, but that traitorous officer disobeyed him.^ 1 General Charles Lee was bom in England. He had been an officer in the British army, but had left that service, come to this country, and had obtained the rank of major general in the American army. He was in no way connected with the Lees of Virginia. While he was in command on the Hudson he was trjdng to prejudice Congress against Washington, in hope of getting his place. Later, he showed himself to be utterly unprincipled and treacherous (§ 182). 1776] GENERAL LEE CAPTURED 155 173. Washington retreats across the Delaware; General Lee captured. Washington with his small force now began to retreat across New Jersey toward Philadelphia. He broke down bridges after he had crossed them, destroyed the provisions Cornwallis hoped to get for his army, and so delayed the enemy that it took them nearly three weeks (November 19 to December 8) to march less than seventy miles across a level country. Cornwallis and his '" redcoats " followed the retreating Ameri- cans sometimes at a distance, then again close on their heels. Inhere were times when the British would be entering a town just as our men were hurrying out of it. Many patriots began to despair of success. How, they asked, can our fugitive army of only 3000 men, wretchedly armed, scantily clothed, and half fed hope to escape their pursuers .? Under any other general they could not have escaped ; but they had Wash- ington for their leader, and Washington was the heart, strength, and soul of the Revolution. Finding that he could not hold New Jersey, he was forced at last (December 8, 1776) to cross the Delaware at Trenton. The British would have pushed on after him ; but the American gen- eral had seized every boat for nearly a hundred miles up and down the river. All that the British could do was to sit down on the bank and wait for the stream to freeze over. Not long after Washington had reached Pennsylvania the false-hearted Lee (§ 172) crossed the Hudson and marched with 4000 men toward Morristown, New Jersey. While he was asleep in a tavern several miles from his men, a squad of Brit- ish soldiers surprised and captured him. His army, thus fortu- nately rid of him, advanced and found an opportunity to join Washington. 174. The Victory of Trenton. On Christmas night (1776) Washington, with a force of less than 2500 men, recrossed the Delaware — then full of floating ice — and marched on Trenton in a furious snowstorm. There he surprised a body of Hessian (§ 166) soldiers and took 1000 prisoners and a large quantity of arms and ammunition. 156 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1776-1777 All this he did with scarce the loss of a man. It was not only a bold stroke, but a great victory, because it had great results. Thousands of patriots had begun to despair ; now their hearts leaped with joy. It was a Christmas long to be remembered. 175. What Robert Morris did for Washington. But it was near the end of the year ; the time for which many of Washington's men had enlisted would be up in a few days, and he needed money to get them to reenlist. Congress had indeed tried hard to manufacture money. It had printed bills, called " continental currency," by the wagon load. But the poor soldiers, barefooted, half-starved, ragged, and miserable, did not want what Congress offered them. They had left wives and children at home who were crying for bread, and the men wanted to send them something that would buy it. They knew by sad ex- perience that a dollar bill issued by a government that had no silver or gold to make it good was worth just as much as any other dingy scrap of paper of the same size — and worth no more. Washington sympathized with the men. He felt that on this occasion he must have money that had the wrote to his friend Robert Morris, Philadelphia, begging him to send $50,000 in hard cash, Morris set out on New Year's morn- ing (1777) before it was light, went from house to house, roused his friends from their beds, and got the money. He sent it at once to Washington. It was as good as another victory. It saved the army. 176. Cornwallis outwitted ; Victory of Princeton ; Winter Quar- ters at Morristown ; Coming of Lafayette, De Kalb, and Steuben. Cornwallis, leaving part of his force at Princeton, New Jersey, hurried south to catch Washington. He found him between Tren- ton and a bend of the Delaware. That night the British oreneral RonERT Morris collecting Money genuine ring in it. He merchant and banker, of 1777] BURGOYNE'S EXPEDITION 157 went to sleep, certain that Washington could not get away. For how could he hope to escape, with the British army in front and the broad, deep Delaware River full of floating ice behind him ? Cornwallis told his brother officers that they would "bag the old fox " in the morning. While the English general lay dreaming, Washington like an " old fox " crept stealthily round him, and got to Princeton. In the battle there (January 3, 1777), the American advance force was driven back. Just then Washington came up and saved the army from defeat. Then the American general with his little army made themselves snug and safe in the hills about Morris- town, in northern New Jersey. There they spent the winter (1777-1778). (Map, p. 138.) Cornwallis knew that he could not drive Washington out of his strong position without a desperate battle, so he hurried back to New Brunswick, New Jersey, for fear that the Americans would cut off his food supplies from New York City. The next summer Lafayette, a French nobleman of nineteen, came from Paris to offer his services to Washington in behalf of American liberty. He became one of Washington's generals, and not only gave his services to the country, but equipped many of the men under his command with arms and clothing furnished at his own expense. Lafayette brought with him Baron de Kalb, a German military veteran, who also became a general in the United States army. Later, Baron Steuben, a Prussian military engineer, joined the Americans and made himself of the greatest use in drilling and disciplining our troops. Kosciusko and Pulaski, two eminent Polish patriots, joined our army at the same time. 177. Burgoyne's Expedition; Battle of Oriskany; Battle of Bennington. Meanwhile, the British made a new move. General Burgoyne (§ 163) marched down from Canada (1777) with 8000 men by way of Lake Champlain, and took Fort Ticonderoga (§ 162). He then pushed forward toward the Hudson, expect- ing to join a part of Howe's army there. Another British expedition started from Oswego with a force of Iroquois Indians (§ 32) and Tories (§ 160) to unite with Burgoyne. 1 58 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1777 The three EngHsh armies expected to get control of all New York and the Hudson River, and so cut off New England — " the head of the rebellion " — from the other colonies, (Map, p. 138.) The enemy coming from Oswego might have taken Fort Stan- wix, later named Fort Schuyler, had not General Herkimer met them at Oriskany. In the battle Herkimer received his death wound ; but the brave old man propped himself against a tree and kept up the fight until the British, Indians, and Tories fled. All went well with Burgoyne until he stnick into the wilderness south of Lake Champlain. There General Schuyler of Albany broke down all the bridges, felled trees across the only road there was through the woods, and made Bur- goyne's life miserable. Next the British gen- eral's horses and pro- visions gave out. He sent a thousand men to Bennington, Ver- mont, to get more. Colonel John Stark, one of the heroes of Bunker Hill (§ 38), started with a small force to meet the enemy. Pointing to the " redcoats," he said, " There they are, boys ; we beat them to-day or Mollie Stark's a widow." Mrs. Stark had no occasion to put on mourning ; for her husband, with his men, whipped the British (August 16, 1777) so badly that less than a hundred out of the thousand ever got back to Burgoyne. Washington called the victory a "great stroke." It was, indeed ; for it prepared the way for Burgoyne's downfall. 178. Howe's Expedition to Pennsylvania; Battle of Brandy- wine; Philadelphia taken; Battle of Germantown. While these events were happening Howe started from New York (§ 170) to General Hekkimer ai Okiskvnv 1777] TURNING POINT IN THE REVOLUTION 159 march to Philadelphia. Washington had not men enough to meet the British general in open fight, but he so worried him and wasted his time that General Howe finally went back with his army to New York in disgust. Howe then started to go to Philadelphia by sea. Poinding the Delaware River fortified against him, he landed at the head of Chesapeake Bay and marched against the " Quaker City." Washington met him at Brandy wine Creek, and tried to check his advance ; but Howe had a much stronger force, and the battle (September 11, 1777) delayed but did not stop the British. (Map, p. 138.) Two weeks later the enemy entered the city which was then the capital of the United States. Leaving a small force at Germantown, now a part of Philadelphia, Howe went down the Delaware to capture the forts and get possession of that river. While he was gone Washington attacked the British at German- town, but was repulsed. He then fell back to the hills on the Schuylkill at Valley Forge, about twenty miles northwest of Phila- delphia. (Map, p. 138.) 179. The Turning Point in the Revolution; Battle of Saratoga, 1777; the Stars and Stripes; Help from France. Meanwhile, great events had happened in the North. Burgoyne had fought two batdes in the neighborhood of Saratoga, September 19 and October 7, 1777; he had been utterly defeated, and his entire army, numbering about 6000 men, captured. (Map, p. 138.) If to this number we add that of the prisoners taken by us before the surrender, and the loss of the enemy at Bennington (§ 177), it will give a total of nearly 10,000 — or about one third the entire British force then in America. The captured army was marched off by the American officers triumphantly bearing the Stars and Stripes,^ which had just been adopted as our national 1 The first United States flag (adopted by Congress, June 14, 1777) having the stars and stripes was made, it is said, out of a soldier's white shirt, an old blue army overcoat, and a red flannel petticoat. It was hoisted by our army at Fort Stanwix (near Rome), New York, during Burgoyne's campaign in 1777. I'aul Jones appears to have first raised this flag at sea (§ I S3). The flag raised by U'ashington at Cambridge when he took command of the army was the English flag with thirteen red and white stripes added. In the flag adopted by Congress the stars represent all the states ; the stripes, the first thirteen states. The stars and stripes on Washington's coat of arms may have suggested the flag. [6o LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1777 flag. General Gates ^ got the credit of the victory ; but Benedict Arnold (§ 164) and Daniel Morgan ^ with his sharpshooters were the men who really won it, partly by gallant fighting, partly by cutting off all supplies from the enemy, and at last by literally In the wars of over twenty centuries an eminent English writer finds only fifteen battles that have had a lasting influence on the world's history. The American victory at Saratoga, he says, was one of them.^ It had two immense results : 1. It completely broke up the English plans for the war. 2. It secured for us the aid of England's old and powerful enemy, France. Some time after the victory Lafayette (§ 176) received let- ters from Paris. He was then atValley Forge (§ 178). When he had read the letters he ran to Washington and cried out with tears of j oy , " The King, my mas- ter, has acknowledged the inde- pendence of America, and will It was true. Men like to help those who show that they are trying their best to help themselves. We had shown it, and now the King of France held out his hand to us. The next year (February 6, 1778) Benjamin Franklin, our minister at Paris, obtained the treaty or agreement by which the 1 General Gates, like General Charles Lee (§ 172), was born in Great Britain and had served in the English army. He appears to have taken no direct part in these battles ; in fact, he was not actually on the field in either. 2 Daniel Morgan of Virginia. He commanded a force of five hundred picked riflemen — " sharpshooters " — with aim so accurate that it was humorously said that any one of them could toss up an apple and shoot all the seeds out of it as it fell. The enemy who had to face these riflemen never disputed the story. 3 " The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World," by Sir Edward S. Creasy. Victory of Saratoga sign a treaty to help you establish it 1778] WASHINGTON AT VALLEY FORGE i6i French King pledged himself to send us men, ships, and money for the war. Franklin and Washington were the two great men who carried the war to final success : Washington by destroying enemies, Franklin by gaining friends ; Washington by the sword, Franklin, like Morris (§ 175), with the purse. ^ 180. Summary. The War of Independence began with the Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776. In the first battle, that of Long Island, the Americans were defeated. Washington retreated across the Delaware, but returned and gained the bril- liant victory of Trenton. Howe took Philadelphia ; but shortly after, the Americans captured Burgoyne and his whole army at Saratoga ; in consequence of that success France recognized the independence of America, and pledged herself to help us fight our battles by land and sea. _ III. The War of Independence, from the Treaty with France to the End of the War (i 778-1 783) 181. Washington at Valley Forge (1777-1778); Peace offered; Howe leaves Philadelphia. But though the great victory of Sara- toga in the autumn of 1777 {§ 179) filled the land with joy, yet the winter which followed was a terrible one. While Howe and his officers were living luxuriously in Philadelphia (§ 178), Washington's men, " naked and starving," were dying of putrid fever on the frozen hillsides of Valley Forge (§ 178). They were dying, too, before the good news could reach them that the King of France had pledged his word to aid America in her great struggle (§ 179). England was greatly alarmed at the action of France in taking our part. The next spring (1778) the British govern- ment offered peace, representation in Parliament — everything, in fact, but independence. But it was independence that w^e were 1 Franklin lent all his ready money — about fifteen thousand dollars — to the country, to fight the battles of the Revolution, and lent it when everything looked against us. His influence got us a gift from France of nearly two million dollars and a loan of over three million more. Thus he used his own purse and the purse of the French King to help us. l62 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1778 Valley Forge fighting for, and we rejected the offer. Fear of the approach- ing French fleet now compelled the British ^ to abandon Phila- ^ — : ^ delphia and start for New York. ^^^^ y^ 182. Battle of Monmouth; ^^ ^ ~ "* Lee's Disgrace ; Indian Massacres ; Clark's Victories in the West. About 15,000 of the English forces started to go across New Jersey. Now was Washington's opportu- nity. With about the same num- ber he followed them up sharply. A battle was fought at Monmouth (Map, p. 138) (June 28, 1778), which we barely won. It was the last battle of note fought on north- ern soil. It would have ended in a brilliant victory for our side, if General Charles Lee (§ 173), who unfortunately had come back to us, had done his duty. He acted like a lunatic or a traitor. Washington sternly rebuked him, and shortly after ordered him to withdraw from the battle and go to the rear. Lee was tried by court-martial for disobedience and misbehavior, and suspended from the army ; later, Congress dismissed him in disgrace, and in disgrace he died. The British forces now re- turned to New York and vi- cinity. Washington, with his army stretched out from Morristown, New Jersey, to West Point on the Hudson, watched them day and night. (Map, p. 138.) 1 General Howe resigned in the winter of 1777-1778. His brother, Lord Howe, resigned the next summer (1778). Sir Henry Clinton succeeded General Howe in command of the army (May, 1779), and Admiral Byron succeeded Lord Howe in command of the British fleet. ^"•ISCONSW ) Lake I M . C H . G A N J^ ^^-.^ X - VUiMyaJ Fort DetroU»0/V^« ^ J^ ^ \_/-— ! ^i^^^X^^ Clark's, Line of March from the Ohio River to Forts Kaskas- KIA AND ViNCENNES 1778] THE BRITISH ATTACK THE SOUTH 163 In the summer and autumn bands of ferocious Iroquois (§ 32) led by Tory (§§160, 165) captains committed horrible massacres at Wyoming, Pennsylvania, and Cherry Valley, New York. In the West, Captain George Rogers Clark of Virginia ac- complished wonders. He and his little band of stalwart back- woodsmen set out to capture the enemy's forts (i 778-1 779), They endured terrible hardships and sufferings in crossing the "Drowned Lands" where the Wabash River, in Indiana, had overflowed the country. Often they had to push forward for miles through ice-cold water waist-deep. But neither hunger, cold, nor exhaustion could force them to turn back. They literally waded to victory. Fi- nally, they drove the British out of Illinois and later from Indiana, thus securing that im- mense region to the United States. It be- gan to look as though - the King of England was losing his grip on America. 183. The British at- tack the South ; Savannah taken ; Wayne's Victory ; Paul Jones. The enemy now (1778) transferred the war to the South. Their plan was to begin at Georgia and conquer northward. Then, in case the English government was forced to make peace, it hoped to be able to keep the southern territory. King George was pru- dent : "Half a loaf," said he to himself, "is better than none." The last of the year (December 29, 1778) an expedition attacked Savannah. The British had three men to our one ; they took the city. The British had got possession of the fort at Stony Point (Map, p. 138) in the Highlands of the Hudson. So long as they held it, our men could not cross the river at King's Ferry then the principal crossing place between New England and Wading to Victory i64 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1779-1780 the southern states. " Mad Anthony Wayne," ' under Washing- ton's direction, stormed and took the fort (July 15, i779), at midnight at the point of the bayonet — never firing a shot dur- ing the battle. The capture of the fort stopped the British plans for ravaging Connecticut. They found that they must use all their forces to hold the Hudson. The next autumn brought glorious news. Captain Paul Jones, the first man to hoist the Stars and Stripes (§ 1/9) over an American war ship, had, with the help of Benjamin Franklin (S 135), fitted out three or four vessels in our defense. With three of these vessels, one of which was a half-rotten old hulk, he boldly attacked and captured two British men-of-war. The fight took place off Flamborough Head on the east coast of England. (Map, p. 67.) After that most humiliating defeat England still boasted that she was " mistress of the seas," but the boast was in a lower tone ; if Paul Jones had only had a few more ships, he would have made the tone a whisper. 184. The British take Charleston; Marion and Sumter's Mode of Fighting. In the spring (1780) the war in the South was renewed with vigor. The British took Charleston (May 12, 1780), and Lord Cornwallis (§171) held the city. But Marion (§115) and Sumter, with their bands of resolute men armed with a few guns and weapons made of old scythes and saw blades, did good service in the American cause. When the British forces went out to conquer the country, the Carolina patriots attacked them just as two kingbirds attack a hawk. The kingbirds are not nearly as big and strong as the hawk, but they are far quicker. They strike him from opposite sides. They easily dodge his blows, but he cannot avoid theirs. So they worry and torment the hawk until they tire him out, and he is glad to fly in any direction to get away from them. 1 General Anthony Wayne of Pennsylvania. He was called "Mad Anthony Wayne " on account of his daring. The British thought that the Americans could not use the bayonet , Wayne showed them their mistake. . . . ^„. «:<, 2 Paul Jones was by birth a Scotchman. He entered the American service in i7/> His name was originally John Paul. REVOLUTIONARY WAR IN THE SOUTH SCALE OF MILES 1780-1781] VICTORY OF KING'S MOUNTAIN 165 185. Loss of Camden; Brilliant Victory of King's Mountain. The British had a small force at Camden (Map, p. 164), South Carolina — a great center for roads, and hence of much impor- tance from a militaiy point of view. General Gates (§ 179) with General De Kalb (§ 176) resolved to attempt the capture of the place before Cornwallis could arrive there, but Cornwallis reached Camden first. A battle was fought (August 16, 1780) in which Gates was compelled to retreat, losing artillery and baggage, and narrowly escaping capture himself. But while Cornwallis was chuckling over his victory, the back- woodsmen of this part of the country, sharpshooters, every man, attacked a British force at King's Mountain (October 7, 1780), on the borders of North and South Carolina, and in a terrible battle completely defeated the enemy. (Map, p. 164.) 186. Arnold's Treason; the Dreadful Winter at Morristown. Meanwhile (September 22, 1780), the most startling and the saddest event of the Revolution occurred. Benedict Arnold (§§ 164, 179), Washington's trusted friend, commander at West Point, had turned traitor. The discovery was made through the arrest of Andre, a British spy by whom Arnold attempted to send a plan of the fort to the British commander at New York. Andre was tried and hanged, but Arnold escaped to the British army. Later, the traitor led an attack on Richmond, Virginia, and burnt it, and, last of all, one on New London in his native state of Connecticut. Arnold died in London twenty years later. It is said that the last request he made was that the epaulettes and sword knot which Washington had given him might be brought. " Let me die," said he, '" in my old American uniform, in which I fought my battles. God forgive me for ever having put on any other ! " The gloom of Arnold's awful act of treason was felt in the American camp at Morristown (§ 182) in the dreadful winter (i 780-1 781) which followed. In some respects it was worse than that at Valley Forge (§ 181) ; and the men, unpaid, half fed, freez- ing, were driven to desperation and partial revolt. i66 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1781 187. Greene's Campaign in the South (1781) ; the Incident at the Tavern; Cornwallis leaves the Carolinas. But it was the gloom that precedes the dawn. General Nathanael Greene of Rhode Island had been placed in command at the South. Next to Washington he was by far the ablest soldier in the Revolution. With a little force that seemed, as he said, but " the shadow of an army," he accomplished wonders. Early in the year (January 17, 1781) a part of Greene's men, led by Morgan (§ 179), gained the battle of Cowpens, South Caro- lina. (Map, p. 164.) Then Greene, who was master of the game he was now playing, retreated to- ' * -' ; ward Virginia, thus drawing Corn- wallis, who followed him, further and further away from his supplies at Charleston. But the American general had many anxious days during this retreat, and often the chances of success seemed wholly against him. On one such occasion he reached Steele's tavern at Salisbury after midnight, wet to the skin with the heavy rain that had fallen all day. Steele looked at him in astonishment and asked if he was alone. "Yes," answered the general, "tired, hungry, alone, and pen- niless." Mrs. Steele heard his reply ; she made haste and set a smoking hot breakfast before the weary, despondent soldier. Then she carefully shut the door, and drawing two bags of silver from under her apron, she held them out to her guest. " Take these," said she ; " you need them and I can do with- out them." It was such noble-hearted women as Mrs. Elizabeth Steele who helped our men to keep up heart to the end. The honor shall be theirs so long as history lasts. Mrs. Steele and General Greene 1781] GREENE'S CAMPAIGN IN SOUTH CAROLINA 167 At Guilford Court House (now Greensborough), North Caro- lina, Cornwallis defeated the Americans (March 15, 1781), but he himself lost so heavily that he could not hold his ground and had to retreat to Wilmington, North Carolina. He arrived there (April 7, 1 781) in miserable plight, having lost about half of his small army by battle, sickness, or desertion. On reaching Wilmington, Cornwallis heard that Greene had turned back to attack the English force under Lord Rawdon left at Camden, South Carolina. Cornwallis was in no condition to wheel about and follow Greene. He finally decided to march northward to Petersburg, Virginia. (Map, p. 164.) There he hoped to get more troops from New York ; then, having conquered Virginia, he would go back and reconquer the Carolinas. 188. Greene's Campaign in South Carolina. Cornwallis started on his long march of 200 miles. Meanwhile, Greene, aided by Marion, Sumter (§ 184), and Pickens, had driven the British from Camden (May 10, 1781). Through the summer he struck the enemy blow after blow, and ended by gaining what was prac- tically a victory, at Eutaw Springs, South Carolina (September 8, 1 781). After that the British — what there was left of them — fled to Charleston, shut themselves up there, and did not venture out. Greene had in fact won back the Carolinas ; and he had won them, thanks to the help given by Marion, Sumter, and Pickens, with an army which did not number more than about 2000 men. To accomplish much with small means is a sure sign of greatness. Greene had done this, and Washington was the man who taught him. 189. The Crowning Victory of the War, 1781. Cornwallis reached Virginia, and after vainly pursuing Lafayette (§§ 176, 179) and destroying millions of dollars' worth of property he entered Yorktown, on a narrow peninsula at the mouth of the York River. He went there not because he wanted to, but because he must. Cornwallis had been chasing Lafayette ; he boastingly said, "The boy cannot escape me." But "the boy," Lafayette, with a larger army, had turned round and begun chas- ing him. Cornwallis moved to Yorktown (July 30, 1781) to get [68 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1781 help by sea from New York. There the British general fortified himself. He did not know it, but he was building his own prison — one that he would never get out of except by surrender. While he was waiting for soldiers to arrive from New York a French fleet of war ships (§ 179) was coming to block him in. Now was Washington's chance to strike a tremendous blow. His plan was to march rapidly south from the Hudson to York- town, and, with the help of the French fleet and French troops and of Lafayette and his army, to capture Cornwallis with his whole force. Such a move required a large amount of money to pay the men and buy provisions. Robert Morris (§ 175) again came to the rescue and is said to have furnished nearly a million and a half of dollars for the good work. Clinton (§ 171), at the head of the British force in New York, thought Wash- ington was getting ready to attack him. Washington encouraged him to think so. Even Washington's own army supposed that was his intention. When he was ready, Washington suddenly broke camp and marched his entire force with all possible speed across the country to the head of Chesapeake Bay and thence (by vessels) to York- town. (Map, p. 164.) Cornwallis looked over the walls of his fortified town. He saw the French fleet on one side, and the American army 9000 strong, with the French army 7000 strong, massed together against him on the other side. He held out manfully for more ■^.y;^^^'- Washington firing the First Gun at Yorktown 1781] SUMMARY OF THE REVOLUTION 169 than a week against solid shot, shell, and red-hot balls. Then, seeing that it was useless to struggle against fate, he surren- dered. His army marched out October 19, 1781, to the tune of "The World's Upside Down." It was true; the British world in America was "upside down," and the fall of York- town practically ended the War of the Revolution. After more than six weary years of fighting Washington had conquered. It was " the victory of a great and good man in a great and good cause." When the news reached London and was announced to Lord North, then the Prime Minister and the King's chief adviser, he threw up his arms as though a cannon ball had struck him, cried out wildly, " It is all over ! " and then resigned his office. 190. Summary of the Revolution. The King of England in- sisted on taxing the American colonies without their consent. The Americans re- fused to pay, and took up arms in defense of their rights as loyal English subjects. King and his party endeavored to put down the rebellion on July 4, 1776, the colonists declared themselves independent of Great Britain. The War for Independence then began. At Saratoga, in 1777, the Americans gained a great victory over Burgoyne. In con- sequence of that victory the King of France acknowledged the independence of the United States, and sent money, ships, and men to fight in our behalf.. In 1 78 1 Washington, with the help of French troops and of French ships of war, defeated Cornwallis at Yorktown, and took K Down The and I/O LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1782-1783 him prisoner with all his army. That decisive victory prac- tically ended the Revolution, and forced England to give up the contest. 191. George Ill's speech on the United States; England makes a Treaty of Peace with us, 1783; the King's Meeting with John Adams. At the opening of Parliament (i 782), the King, in a voice choked with emotion, announced that he was ready to acknowledge the independence of the United States. He closed his speech by saying that it was his earnest prayer that " religion, language, interest, and affection might prove a bond of permanent union between the two countries." A final treaty of peace between Great Britain and this coun- try was signed at Paris in 1783. It secured to us the thirteen states, with Maine, and the territory west of them to the Mis- sissippi. (Map, p. 170.) Our first minister to England was John Adams of Massachusetts. The King said to him : " Sir, I will be very free with you. I was the last to consent to the separation, but the separation having been made ... I have always said, as I say now, that I would be the first to meet the friendship of the United States as an independent power." 192. The American States Independent but not really United; Congress destitute of Power; the Articles of Confederation. But though America had won her independence, she had not secured harmony and union. While the war lasted the states fought like brothers, side by side ; now that the danger was over they threatened to fall apart. We were like a barrel made of thirteen stout staves, but without a single strong hoop to hold us to- gether. When Congress made the Declaration of Independence (§ 167), it also framed the first national constitution called the Articles of Confederation (§ 162). But the states did not adopt that constitution until five years later (1781). Under the Articles of Confederation the government accom- plished two great pieces of work : 1. It made peace with Great Britain .(1783) (§ 191). 2. It adopted the famous Ordinance for the government of the Northwest Territory (§ 195). 178:j-1787] jealousy OF THE STATES ijl But, generally speaking, the Articles proved to be very unsat- isfactory. Under them the nation could do but little because 1 . It had no President — no head. 2. It had a Congress, but that Congress was destitute of power. It might pass good and useful laws, but it could not compel the people to obey them. It might beg the people to give money, but it could not make them furnish it. It might ask for soldiers to defend the country, but it could not force them to serve. 193. Distressed Condition of the Country; Jealousy of the States ; Lack of Freedom of Trade. The truth is, that the people had come out of the war in a distressed condition. They were heavily in debt. Business was at a standstill. Gold and silver coin was scarce. The states had an abundance of paper stuff which pretended to be money, but nobody knew what it was worth, and what passed for a dollar in one state might not pass at all in another. The distress and discontent grew worse and worse. The states quarreled with each other about boundary lines, about commerce, about trade. Instead of being a united ^^nd friendly people, they were fast getting to be thirteen hostile nations ready to draw the sword against each other. This feeling was shown in the fact that a man could not buy and sell freely outside of his own state. If, for instance, a farmer in New Jersey took a load of potatoes to New York, he might have to pay a tax of five or ten cents a bushel to that state before he could offer them for sale. On the other hand, if a New York merchant sent a case of boots to New Jersey to sell to the farmers, that state might, if it chose, tax him ten cents a pair before he could get a permit to dispose of his goods. 194. "Shays' Rebellion" (1786-1787). The people of Massa- chusetts were perhaps more heavily loaded with debt than those of any other state. It is said that the heads of families owed about two hundred dollars apiece. They were willing to pay, but could get nothing to pay with. When great numbers of poor people were sued and thrown into prison, multitudes became desperate. In the western part of the state Daniel Shays raised an army of 1/2 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1786-1787 nearly two thousand excited farmers (1786). They surrounded the courthouses at Worcester and Springfield, and put a stop to all lawsuits for debt. It was not until a strong military force was sent out against them that the " rebellion " was finally quelled, and Shays compelled to fly to New Hampshire. C ^^^^ ^ rt-'j ^^^' How the Northwest Ter- T^*''?'^ ^ ^^i'-s ritory helped keep the Union ^* ^ P'i together. The most powerful influence which kept the na- tion from dropping to pieces was the fact that the states had an interest in the Northwest Territory. (Map, opposite.) Up to the middle of the Revolu- tion seven of the thirteen states claimed the country west of them as far as the Mississippi River. Four of these states — Vir- ginia, New York, Massachusetts, and Connecticut — claimed land northwest of the Ohio River to the Mississippi. They finally agreed (i 781-1786) to give it to the United States to be disposed of for the common good. In 1787 Congress made the celebrated Ordinance or body of laws for the government of this Northwest Territory. That Ordi- nance had four very important provisions : 1. It forbade the holding of slaves in the territory (though it made provision for returning fugitive slaves who should escape to that region). 2. It granted entire religious freedom to ever}- settler. 3. It encouraged " schools and the means of education." 4. It provided that the new territory should be cut up into states, equal in standing with the original thirteen. People believed that Congress would be able to sell farm- ing lands in that vast region, — now forming the great and 1787] A NEW CONSTITUTION ADOPTED 173 prosperous states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wiscon- sin, and eastern Minnesota, — and thus get money to pay off the war debt of the Revolution, That belief helped to hold the country together. 196. The Articles of Confederation are set aside and a New- Constitution adopted, 1787. Still, even with this hope to brighten the sky, the outlook was dark enough. Washington, Franklin, Madison, Hamilton, — in a word, the ablest men of that day, — thought the prospect anything but encouraging. It seemed to them that unless we secured a better form of government than that which the defective Articles of Confederation provided (§ 192) the newborn republic was likely to die in its cradle. At last (1787) a convention of fifty-five members was held in Philadelphia to make a new Constitution. Washington presided over this convention, and a majority of the state legislatures sent their chief men to take part in it. The convention held a secret session of nearly four months, and had many stormy debates before the articles of the new Constitution could be agreed upon. At one time Benjamin Franklin (§§ 135, 152, 157, 163, 183) and other eminent men nearly despaired of any successful result. But by three judicious compromises ^ the great work was finally 1 Thejirst important question of debate was between the delegates from the small states and those from the large ones in regard to representation in Congress. If the representation rested wholly on population, then the large states would, of course, have entire control. This question was settled by a compromise or mutual concession by which it was finally agreed that Congress should consist of two houses : (i) the House of Representatives chosen by the people of the different states and representing them ; (2) the Senate, or Upper House, consisting of two members from each state. (See the Constitution, in the Appendix, Article I, Sections 2 and 3.) In the Senate the small states stand equal to the large ones. The second great question was whether slaves should be counted in reckoning the number of the population with reference to representation in Congress. The North insisted that they should not ; the South (where slaves were very numerous), that they should. The con- test on this point was long and bitter. Finally, it was agreed that three fifths of the slaves should be counted with reference to both representation and taxation (though the slaves themselves were of course neither represented nor taxed). (See the Constitution, Article I, Section 2, Paragraph 3, "T/ircc /i/t/is of all other persons P These "other persons" were slaves.) The third and last question was in regard to commerce and to protection of slaveholders. It was agreed that Congress should have the entire control of commerce (the states had had it before). (See the Constitution, Article I, Section 8, Paragraph 3.) Furthermore, it was agreed that the importation of slaves might be prohibited after 1808. (See the Constitution, Article I, Section 9, Paragraph \ ; these slaves are called " such persons." The word " slave " 174 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1787 completed. The opening lines of the Constitution show first, who made it, and secondly, why they made it. It begins with these ever-memorable words : After the convention had accepted the new Constitution, it was sent to the different states to be voted upon by the people. Those who favored it called themselves Federalists, while those who opposed it, because they thought it gave the national gov- ernment too much power, called themselves Anti-Federalists. The "Ship of State" But in time all of the states decided to adopt it. The man who did the most to convince them of the wisdom of such a course does not occur in the Constitution. It was also agreed that runaway slaves should be returned to their owners. (See the Constitution, Article IV, Section 2, Paragraph 3, ^"^ No person [i.e. slave\ held to service," etc.) The first Fugitive-Slave Law was passed in 1793. If the compromises between the small states and the large, and the North and South, had not been made, the Constitution would have been rejected, and we should probably have split up into two or three hostile republics ; even after its adoption it took the better part of a year to get the states to ratify it. 1789] WHAT THE NEW CONSTITUTION DID 175 was Alexander Hamilton^ of New York. When the city of New York celebrated the adoption of the Constitution (1788) a ship on wheels representing the " Ship of State," or the Union,^ was drawn through the streets by ten milk-white horses. Hamilton's name was painted in large letters on the platform upholding the vessel. 197. What the New Constitution did for the Country. The Constitution went into effect in 1789. It accomplished six great objects, not one of which was provided for in the old Articles of Confederation (§ 192). 1. It gave the nation a head, the President of the United States, and made it his duty to see that the laws made by Con- gress should be faithfully enforced. 2. It gave Congress full power to raise money by taxation to carry on and defend the national government. 3. It gave every citizen of the United States equal rights in all the states, with liberty to buy and sell in all parts of the country. This secured freedom of trade throughout the Union. 4. It gave Congress the control of all foreign commerce, and the sole right to levy duties or taxes on imported goods. 5. It gave Congress the entire control of all the territory and public lands of the nation. 6. It established the Supreme Court of the United States with full authority to decide all questions and disputes in regard to the powers of the national government. 1 Alexander Hamilton was born in the West Indies, 1757. He went to New York in 1772 and entered Columbia College. He took part in the Revolution and gained the friendship and esteem of Washington. After the Revolution he earnestly advocated the forming and adoption of the Federal Constitution. As Secretary of the Treasury of the United States he put the nation on a permanent financial basis. Many good judges consider him the ablest man who ever occupied that office. He restored public confidence and helped to establish trade and industiy by his successful advocacy of the first tariff and the first United States Bank. Daniel ^^'ebster said of him : " He smote the rock of the national resources, and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth. He touched the dead corpse of Public Credit and it sprung upon its feet." Hamilton was killed by Aaron Burr (§ 219) in a duel in 1804. The whole country felt the irreparable loss of this great states- man and patriot. 2 See Longfellow's " Building of the Ship," last part, lines beginning "Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State ! Sail on, O Union, strong and great ! " 1/6 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1789 A few years later ten very important amendments were added to the Constitution. 1 They were called a " Bill of Rights." They secured still further protection to the rights and liberties of the people. For this reason many of the Anti- Federalists (§ 196) who had strongly opposed the original Constitution now gave it their hearty support. 198. Summary. The Revolution made us an independent people ; the Constitution completed the work by making us a united people, — a true American nation. Now, to use the words of John Adams, "the thirteen clocks all struck together." 1 See Appendix, Amendments to the Constitution. Two more amendments were adopted between 1798 and 1S04, the Eleventh and Twelfth, the first of which exempted a state from suit " by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state," and the second changed the method of electing the President of the United States. After the begin- ning of the Civil War the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth amendments were adopted relating to the emancipated slaves and to the reconstruction of the seceded states. V " This government, the offspring of your own choice, . . . adopted upon full investigation and mature deliberation, completely free in its principles, . . . and containing, within itself, a provision for its own amendment, has a just claim to your confidence and respect." — President Washington's Farewell Address to the People of the United States, September //, ijgO. THE UNION — NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT^ (1789-1861) THE FEDERALIST PARTY EN POWER George Washington (Federalist) 199. Washington elected President (Two Terms, 1789- 1797); his Inauguration. We have seen (§ 196) that the Federalists and Anti- Federalists held opposite views about the Constitu- tion. But both agreed that Washington should be placed at the head of the new government. They accordingly united and unan- imously elected him the first President of the United States (1 789-1 793), and when his term of office expired he was re- elected (1793-1797). In both cases John Adams was chosen Vice President. New York City was then the capital of the country, but Philadelphia was made so a little later (1790), and ten years afterward the city of Washington became so perma- nently (1800). Washington was to be inaugurated on March 4 (1789), the day the new Constitution went into operation; but the ceremony was delayed until April 30. The President took his 1 Reference Books (Washington to John Adams, inclusive). A. B. Hart's "Formation of the Union," eh. 7-8; W. C. Bryant and Gay's "United States" (revised edition), IV, eh. 5-6; J. S. Bassett's "The Federahst System"; A. B. Hart's "American History by Contemporaries," HI, ch. 12-15; ^- ^- Hart's " So.urce Book," ch. 1 1 ; J. Schouler's " United States," I, 74-500 ; J. B. McMaster's " United States," I, 540-604 ; II, 25-533 ; F. A. Walker's "Making of the Nation," ch. 5-8. See also the classified List of Books in the Appendix. 177 178 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1789 f\ stand on the balcony of the old Federal Hall in Wall Street where Congress met. The Chancellor of the state of New York then stepped for- ward and read to him the following oath of office required by the Constitution. ''I do solemnly szvear ( stating that we should take no part in European quarrels. This proclamation so maddened the excitable Genet that he en- deavored to stir up a mob in Philadelphia, to pull Washington from his seat of office, and overturn the government of the United States. The result was that, at Washington's protest, France re- called her minister, and nothing more was heard of him. 1797] EMIGRATION TO THE WEST 183 204. Emigration to the West ; Cincinnati. Meanwhile, a great movement of population had begun toward the country west of the Alleghenies, — that section in which Washington had so deep an interest (§ 138). Sevier, Robertson, and other pioneers from * the Carolinas had built cabins in the Tennessee country ; and Daniel Boone, the famous hunter from the same region, followed by his bold companions, had chopped a narrow path across the wilderness to Kentucky ; by the beginning of the Revolution the Americans had got a firm foot- hold in that fertile region. Emigrants crossed the moun- tains and formed setdements on the rich lands of the Ohio Valley. Marietta, on that river, was already established (1788). A cluster of log huts, which had been built further down the river in the same year, now (1790) received the name of Cincinnati. 1 There, not long after (1793), the first west- ern newspaper — the Sentinel of the NortJnvest — was pub- lished, and the corner stone laid of the state of Ohio, the first of all that magnificent group of states formed from the Northwest Territory (§ 195), which were one by one (i 803-1 848) to knock at the doors of Congress and gain admission to the Union. These settlements were made at heavy cost of life. The Indians rose, resolved to kill or drive out the invaders. After four years of fighting the savages were defeated in a final battle. General Wayne (§ 183) — " the chief that never slept " — forced them to sign a treaty of peace (1794) by which they gave up the greater part of the Ohio country to the whites. 1 The city was named in honor of the Society of the Cincinnati (a name derived from Cincinnatus, a noted Roman patriot). The society was organized by the officers of the Revolutionary army, headed by Washington. mi , Boone's Wilderness Road 1 84 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1797 205. The Manufacture of Cotton ; Whitney invents the Cotton Gin, 1793; Results. The year (1793) that the printing press in that enterprising log city of Cincinnati began sending out its weekly budget of news (§ 204) a great event occurred among the cotton planters at the South. Before Washington became President attempts had been made to establish the manufacture of cotton, by hand, in the United States. Moses Brown, a Providence Quaker, wrote to Samuel Slater in England, urging him to emigrate to this country and set up a cotton-spinning mill here. He said to him, " If thou canst do this thing, I invite thee to come to Rhode Island and have the credit of introducing cotton manufacture (by water power) in America." Mr. Slater was just the man who could " do this thing," and he did it at Pawtucket, Rhode Island (1790). Yet the manufacture of cotton did not grow rapidly because the southern states had not then found any quick method of freeing the common cotton fiber from the multitude of seeds it contains. By working a whole day a negro could only clean about a pound. This made raw cotton expensive. In 1793 Eli Whitney, a Massachusetts teacher, then living in Georgia, invented a machine which he called the " cotton gin." By using this new machine a negro could easily clean at least 300 pounds of cotton a day. This changed the whole question of cotton production and cot- ton manufacture in this country. The result was soon seen. In 1784 we had exported 8 bags, or about 3000 pounds, of cotton to Liverpool. It was seized by the English customhouse officers^ on the ground that the United States could not have, produced such a " prodigious quantity," and that the captain of the vessel The Cotton 1803-1814] WHITNEY INVENTS THE COTTON GIN 185 must have smuggled it from some other country. Ten years after Whitney had put his machine into operation (1803) we were ex- porting over 100,000 bags of cotton, or more than 40,000,000 pounds, and every year saw an enormous increase. The effect of Whitney's invention was equally marked here. Up to this time, and much later, the cotton yarn spun in our mills was all woven into cloth by hand in private houses. But Francis C. Lowell of Massachusetts determined to establish a cotton factory on a large scale, which could produce cloth like that made in England. He constructed the first loom operated by water power in America. He then built the first cotton mill in the world at Waltham, Massachusetts, in which the raw material, just as it came from Whitney's cotton gin, was spun into thread, woven into cloth, and printed in colors all under one roof (18 14). Later, the great cotton-manufacturing city of Lowell was named in his honor. Before this, many men in both sections of the country had deplored the holding of slaves. They had earnestly discussed how to rid the country of what was felt to be both an evil in itself and a danger to the nation. The invention of the cotton gin put a stop to this discussion in great measure ; for now the Southern planters and the Northern manufacturers of cotton both found it to their interest to keep the negro in bondage, since by his labor they were rapidly growing rich. To sum up : Whitney's great invention of 1793 did four things : 1. It stimulated the production of cotton and made it one of the leading industries of the country. 2. It increased our cotton exports enormously, 3. It caused the building of great numbers of cotton mills at the North. 4. It made a large class, both North and South, interested in maintaining slave labor.i 1 Whitney received $50,000 for his invention from South Carolina, besides something from several other southern states. Other notable American inventors of this period were : (i) Oliver Evans of Newport, Delaware, who, about 1780, invented the grain elevator, and made such improvements in milling that he " effected a revolution in the manufacture of flour." In 1803 he constructed the first steam dredge for deepening the channels of rivers. (2) Jacob Perkins of Newburyport, Massachusetts, invented (1790) the first practical nail machine ; it was capable of cutting out two hundred thousand nails a day. Formerly, all nails 1 86 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1814 206. The Whisky Rebellion ; Treaty with Spain. During Wash- ington's second term of office, the government, finding that it needed more money, imposed ( 1 794) a heavy duty or tax on the manufacture of whisky. The whisky producers in western Pennsylvania refused to pay the duty, tarred and feathered one officer sent to collect it, and flogged a second one with beech rods. Next, they took up arms to resist the law. Washington sent an army of 1 5,000 men, mostly Pennsylvanians, to teach them how to behave. When the whisky distillers and their friends caught sight of the muskets, they prudently dispersed. They saw that if any shooting was to be done, the President could do a good deal more than they could. The followingyear(i 795) the United States made a very important treaty with Spain. It secured the right to the southwestern states to send their corn and pork to the Spanish port of New Orleans and ship it abroad. The treaty also recognized the right of the United States to territory west of Georgia, which Spain had claimed as part of her possessions. (Map, p. 172.) 207. Jay's Treaty with England (1795). The treaty of peace with Great Britain, made in 1783 (^ 191), had not been satisfac- torily carried out by either party. We had promised to pay certain debts due to British subjects, and they complained that we did not keep our word. On the other hand, England persisted in holding were made by hand. Later, he invented a greatly improved machine for "calico printing." (3) Asa Whittemore of Cambridge, Massachusetts, invented (1797) a machine for making wire cards for carding wool, " which operated, and still continues to operate, as if it had a soul." On later American inventions see §§ 220, 252, 284. The Whisky Rebellion. Beech Rods 1814] JAY'S TREATY 1 87 forts at Detroit and elsewhere along our northern frontier, though she had agreed to give them up to us. The English also interfered with our trade with France. Chief Justice Jay (§ 200) went to Eng- land and obtained a new treaty ( 1 795). It did not satisfy the people, who thought that the English were getting the best of the bar- gain ; but the forts were given up to us. Washington signed the treaty because he believed that we could not then demand any- thing better. Certain newspapers attacked him and Jay in the most violent manner, and Washington, worn out with their abuse, declared that "he would rather be in his grave than in the presidency." The majority of the people, however, stood firmly by the man who had brought them through so many dangers, and Congress confirmed the treaty. When Washington retired from office he issued a fare- well address in which he besought his fellow-citizens to cherish affection for each other, to cherish their love for the Union, and to "observe good faith and justice towards all nations." He left the whole country in every way stronger and more prosperous than he had found it, and with the three new states of Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee (i 791- 1796) added to the Union. 208. Summary. Washington, the first President of the United States, held office for two terms (i 789-1 797). During that time he, with his cabinet, got the new government into practical opera- tion, and through the wise counsel of Hamilton our national credit was solidly established. Washington's efforts prevented the nation from getting entangled in European wars at a time when our great- est need was peace. He also succeeded in making a very important treaty with Spain and another with England. Three new states had been added ; Marietta and Cincinnati had taken firm root, and the vigorous life of the West had begun. Whitney's invention of the cotton gin had an immense effect on manufacturing and commerce, greatly increasing the wealth of both North and South, but unfortu- nately it also fastened slave labor on the country. 1 88 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1797-isoi John Adams (Federalist) 209. Adams' Administration (Second President, One Term, 1797-1801) ; the " X. Y. Z. Papers." Mr. Adams' ^ presidency began with strong prospects of war with France. The French were enraged because we did not take sides with them in their contest with Great Britain (§ 203). They captured our merchant vessels, sold them openly in French ports, and insulted the states- men sent by us to France to represent the United States. Finally, certain private agents of the French authorities made demands, threatening war unless we bribed them with money — "much money" — to keep peace. Pinckney, one of our representatives in France, indignant at such treatment, replied, " Millions for defense ; not one cent for tribute." President Adams substituted the letters X. Y. Z. for the names of the French agents, and sent a full report of the demands to Congress. The "X. Y. Z. Papers" roused the whole country, and Pinckney's defiant words were echoed throughout America, for sooner than spend a single copper in buying peace we were ready to fight at any cost. War soon broke out, and our sailors, with shouts of " Hail Columbia," the new song which every Amer- ican was then singing, fought and captured several French vessels. When Napoleon Bonaparte came into power in France (1799), he speedily made peace. 210. The Alien and the Sedition Laws; the Kentucky and Vir- ginia Resolutions (1798-1799); Death of Washington. Several of the American newspapers were edited by foreigners, or by men who sympathized with France and were anxious to force us into a war with England. To put a stop to their constant abuse of the 1 John Adams was born in Braintree, near Boston, in 1735 ; died 1826. Thomas Jefferson said of him that " he was the ablest advocate and champion of independence " in the Con- gress of 1776. He was one of the commissioners who negotiated the treaty of peace with Great Britain at the close of the Revolution ; and he was shortly after sent as minister from the United States to England. He was elected by the Federalists (§ 203) by only three electoral votes over Thomas Jefferson, the Republican (or Democratic) candidate (Adams had 71 votes, Jefferson 68). Mr. Adams used to call himself " the President of three votes." According to the law (since changed) (see the Constitution, Article II, Paragraph 3), the candidate for President getting the largest vote next to the one elected was made Vice President. This law gave that office to Jefferson. 1798-] DEATH OF WASHINGTON [89 government, Congress, with the approval of Mr. Adams, passed (1798) the Ahen and the Sedition Laws. The AHen Law gave the President the power to banish any alien or foreigner from the coun- try whose influence he thought dangerous to our welfare. The President never enforced the law. The Sedition Law undertook to punish persons who should speak, write, or publish anything false or malicious against the President or the government of the United States. Under it several persons were heavily fined, and at least one was imprisoned. The legislatures of Kentucky and Virginia passed resolutions ( 1 798- 1 799) which denounced the Alien and Sedition Laws as dan- gerous, and contrary to the Consti- tution. They furthermore declared that should the President persist in enforcing them, the states would have the right to refuse to obey his commands. Both laws soon passed out of existence ; but the idea that states might resist the national government, if they saw fit, was destined to make trouble many years later in South Caro- lina (§§ 267-269) and in the end it resulted in civil war (i 861-1865). During the excitement caused by these unpopular laws, Washington Ncw-VorK, Becejnber it. IT 13 with the deepeft grief (flit. we announce to the public the deatli of our mcj di/linguiJheJ kWov'Ciit' zen LiiJt. Genera/ George Wajhin^- loti. 'I'he grief which we faSer on this truly inouToful occaTion, would' be in feme degree aleviated, if -we pof cffed abilities to do julticc to ih( merits of this iUuJrious benefaaar m manh'md; but, confcioufi of our in "eriority, ve fhrink from the fubli.B rnity of the fubjeft. Our feelings, however, will not permit us to forbear obfcfvjng, that the very difinterefted and tm- portant fervices rendered by Ceorp '^Vafblngton to tbefe United btattt both in the Field and in the Cabinet have erc(2ed in the hearts of his countrymen, monuments of fincerc and unbounded grabtude, which the mouldering hand of Timtcan- fol deface ; and that in every quar- ter of the Gbbe, where i. tree Go- v«mnient is ranked amongft the cboiccflbfe/Iings of Providence, «uid virtue-t morality i religion^ and patric tifm are refpefted, THE NAME of WASHINGTON will be held in veneration. . I90 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1799 died at his home at Mt. Vernon (i 799). The whole country united to do honor to the memory of him who was " first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his fellow-citizens " ; Bonaparte ordered public mourning for him in France, and Lord Bridport, commander of a British fleet of nearly sixty men-of-war, lying off the coast of England, testified his respect by ordering his flags to be lowered to half-mast. 211. Summary. The four chief events of Adams' presidency were (i) the excitement caused by the "X. Y. Z. Papers," fol- lowed by war on the sea with France ; (2) the passage of the Alien and the Sedition Laws ; (3) the Kentucky and the Virginia Resolutions ; and (4) the death of Washington. VI " Whenever our affairs go obviously wrong, the good sense of the people will interpose and set them right." — Jefferson's Writings. the democratic party in power Thomas Jefferson (Democrat) ^ 212. Jefferson's Administration (Third President, Two Terms, 1801-1809); "Republican Simplicity"; the New National Capi- tal ; Jefferson's Appointments to Office. The new President ^ called himself a Democratic-Republican, or, as we should say to-day, a Democrat (§ 203). He prided himself on taking his stand with the people. In dress, manners, and ideas he was quite different from the Federalist Presidents, Washington and Adams. They both thought it proper for the head of the nation to stand a little apart from the people ; both were opposed to monarchy, yet they 1 Reference Books (Jefferson to J. Q. Adams, inclusive). A. B. Hart's " Forma- tion of the Union," ch. 9-12 ; W. C. Bryant and Gay's " United States " (revised edition), IV, 145-291; E. Channing's "The Jeffersonian System"; K. C. Bab- cock's " Rise of American Nationality " (War of 1812, etc.) ; F. J. Turner's " Rise of the New West " ; A. B. Hart's "American History by Contemporaries," ch. 16- 23; A. B. Hart's "Source Book," ch. 12-14; J- Schooler's "United States," II, III, ch. 10-12; J. B. McMaster's "United States," II, 526-635; III, IV, V, 1-523. See also the classified List of Books in the Appendix. 2 Thomas Jefferson was bom 1743, ^^ Shadwell, Virginia; died 1S26. He was a member of the Continental Congress and drafted the Declaration of Independence ; he also drew up the Act of Religious Freedom adopted by Virginia through Madison's influence in 1785. He proposed our present decimal system of coinage and secured its acceptance. In 1785 he was sent to France to succeed Franklin as minister of the United States. On his tombstone is the following epitaph written by himself: " Here was buried Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration of Independence, of the Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom, and the father of the University of Virginia." The presidential election of November, i8co, was a time of great excitement, and of bitter strife between the Federalists and the Republicans (or Democrats (§ 203)). Thomas Jefferson of Virginia and Aaron Burr of New Jersey were the Republican candidates. Each received -/t, electoral votes ; while John Adams, the Feder- alist candidate, got but 65. In such a case the House of Representatives — a majority of whom were Federalists — had to decide the election ; they finally voted in favor of Jefferson, and he was declared President, with Burr for Vice President. This period marks the down- fall of the Federalists ; for the next forty years the Democrats held control. 191 192 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [isoi kept up something of the dignity and ceremony of a king. Jef- ferson preferred, on the contrary, " repubUcan simphcity " in all things, and was ready to receive and shake hands with any one and every one that wanted to shake hands with him. Jefferson took the oath of office (§ 199) in the new capitol, which was ridiculed as a " palace in the woods," It stood on a hill in the "city of Washington" (§ 199), then nothing but a straggling village of a few hundred inhabitants. Washington, for whom it was named, had himself chosen the ground for the city. When Jefferson entered office he found only Federalists (§§ 196, 203) in the employ of the governm.ent. He naturally wished that men of his own party should hold such offices, and when oppor- tunities came he appointed Democrats to fill them. From this time on, for many years, each new President gave government employment to those who had voted for him. 213. What was thought of the Probable Extent of the Republic. Eminent men of that day thought it very doubtful whether the American republic could permanently extend into the wilderness beyond the Allegheny Mountains. Many agreed with them, and believed that in time the country would be divided into several nations. They thought it would be impossible for the President to enforce the laws over a territory reaching from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. When we consider that there were then no steam- boats, canals, or railways to bind the states together, and in fact very few good ordinary roads, it does not seem strange that men of sound judgment should have thought so. 214. What Our New Navy taught the Pirates of Tripoli. For many years Tripoli and other towns on the north coast of Africa had been nests of Mohammedan pirates. They sent out fast-sailing armed vessels to capture the ships of Christians coming to the Mediterranean to trade. European nations had made repeated efforts to break up this system of robbery, but had not succeeded. Even Great Britain was obliged to pay the governors of Algiers and Tripoli large sums of money every year in order to protect her commerce in that quarter of the globe. We, too, felt obliged to buy the good 1801-1803] NATIONAL EXPANSION 193 will of these pirates. At one time we paid the ruler of Tripoli ^20,000 a year to let our merchant vessels sail the Mediterranean in peace. Furthermore, we spent $1,000,000 in freeing Ameri- can sailors that were held as slaves in Tripoli. Part of this money was given by the government and part of it was collected in the churches on Sunday. The Governor of Tripoli, disappointed because we did not yield to his demands and give him a still larger tribute, declared war (1 801) against the United States. Jefferson was a man of peace, but he believed with Benjamin Franklin that "if you make your- self a sheep, the wolves will eat you." He thought we had been sheep long enough. The United States had recently completed (i 798-1 799) a small fleet of first-class war ships. They were com- manded by such men as Barry (§ 169), Bainbridge, Decatur, Preble, and Truxtun. The President sent them out to Tripoli, and they soon made the ruler of that place confess his sins and beg for mercy. The Pope declared that the Americans had done more toward punishing the insolent power of the Mohammedan pirates than all the nations of Europe put together. The Governor of Tripoli was glad to make a new treaty (1805) with the United States. He gave up asking tribute from us, and he agreed to let our merchant ships and sailors alone in future. 215. Our First Step in National Expansion, Purchase of Loui- siana Territory, 1803. While this war with Tripoli was going on, the greatest event of Jefferson's presidency occurred. France had recovered possession of the province of Louisiana (1800), includ- ing New Orleans (§ 143). Napoleon Bonaparte, who was then about to engage in a tremendous contest with England, was afraid that when war broke out the Engljsh would send over a fleet and take Louisiana out of his hands. For that reason he was willing to sell it to the United States — especially as the money would help him to fit out his armies against Great Britain. In 1803, the year that Ohio entered the Union, President Jefferson bought the whole terri- tory of Louisiana for $15,000,000. By so doing he got the very heart of the American continent, reaching from the Mississippi back to the Rocky Mountains. He thus, at one stroke, more than 194 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1803-1805 doubled the area of the United States, getting nearly 900,000 square miles, or over 560,000,000 acres, for less than three cents an acre. (Map, p. 194.) There were people who grumbled at the purchase. Some even denied that Jefferson had the right to make it, — but the majority heartily supported the President. He himself confessed that he had stretched his power '" till it cracked," in order to complete the bargain. In reality Jefferson showed his statesmanship in the act. The Purchase of Louisiana did these four things : 1 . It prevented disputes with P" ranee about the territory. 2 . It prevented England from getting control of it. 3. It gave us a large part of the Great West — that is, all of it beyond the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains. 4. It made us masters of the entire Mississippi River, with the city of New Orleans to boot. 216. Lewis and Clark's Ex- jEFFERbON SIGNING iHE Louisi vN V ploratloii of tlic Fat Wcst ; Our Purchase Papers _, . . _. ^,, Claim to Oregon. 1 he next year (1804) the President sent out an expedition under Lewis and Clark to explore the new territory. They started from St. Louis (May 14, 1804), then a little village of log cabins, and worked their way, in boats, up the Missouri. About the middle of July (1805) they reached the "Gates of the Rocky Mountains,"^ a long, deep, narrow gorge, through which the river forces its way. This point is over. twenty-six hundred miles from St. Louis, and it had taken the explorers more than a year to get to it. With an Indian girl 1 The " Gates of the Rocky Mountains " are near the point where Helena, the capital of Montana, is now situated. A short distance above, the Jefferson, Gallatin, and Madison rivers unite to form the Missouri. Lewis and Clark ascended the Jefferson to its source, crossed the Rocky Mountains, and embarked on a branch of the Snake, or Lewis, River, which flows into the Columbia. PACIFIC 1805-1806] LEWIS AND CLARK'S EXPLORATION 195 for their guide, they made their way across the mountains to the head waters of a stream flowing westward. Launching their canoes (October 7, 1805) on its swift current, they floated down till they entered a far larger river. Down this they drifted, sometimes through perilous rapids, until they came at last (November 7, 1805) to its mouth. A dense fog hid everything. When it lifted, they found themselves within sight of the Pacific Ocean. The river they had descended was that which Captain Robert Gray of Boston (who first carried the American flag round the globe) entered from the Pacific, and named the Columbia (1792); he thus gave us our first claim to Oregon. The explorers re- turned the next year (1806) to St. Louis. They had been ab- sent nearly two years and a half. They had traveled, in all, over eight thousand miles, in boats, on horseback, and on foot, through a wilderness peopled only by savages. Lewis and Clark's expedition gave the people of this country their first idea of the immense extent, un- limited natural wealth, and almost fabulous wonders of the Far West. But the most important result of the expedition was that it gave the United States a much stronger claim to the Oregon territory, which Captain Gray had entered, but which Lewis and Clark first crossed. Five years later (181 1) John Jacob Astor ^ of New York, then the richest man in America, built the fur-trading post of Astoria, at the mouth of the Columbia River. (Map, p. 194.) 1 Astor planned a line of fur-trading posts, extending from the Great Lakes to the Pacific, and thence to the Sandwich Islands and China. The War of 1812 put a stop to this immense undertaking. He died in 1848, leaving a property of twenty million dollars, which has since increased enormously. Lewis and Clark at the Gates of the Rocky Mountains 196 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [I807 217. Effect of the French and English War on the United States; the Leopard and the Chesapeake. During all this time France and England continued at war (§ 203). Each of these nations forbade the United States to trade with the other. This in itself was disastrous to our commerce ; but, as if this was not enough, England insisted on stopping our vessels on the ocean and searching them for British sailors. Unless a man could prove that he was an American by birth, the English seized him, espe- cially if he was an able-bodied seaman, and compelled him to enter their service. In this way they had helped themselves to several thousand men, whom they forced to fight for them on board their ships of war. Finally (1807), the British man-of-war Leopard stopped the Chesapeake, one of our war vessels, at a time when the latter could make no effectual resistance, and seized four of her men, one of whom they hanged as a deserter. 218. The Embargo and the Non-Intercourse Acts. Congress passed the Embargo Act (1807) to put an end to these outrages. The Embargo forbade the sailing of any American vessel from any of our ports, — even a fishing smack' found it difficult to leave Boston to get mackerel. Congress hoped that by stopping all trade with Europe we should be able to starve France and England into treating us with respect. But we did not starve them ; our exports fell off $40,000,000 in a single year, and the loss of trade caused great distress and discontent. At last New England grew desperate ; there seemed danger of rebellion, possibly of disunion, if the Embargo Act was not repealed. Congress did repeal it, and (1809) passed an act, called the Non-Intercourse Act, which forbade the people to trade with Great Britain and France, but gave them liberty to trade with other foreign countries. But though our exports rose, yet many men who had been engaged in commerce turned their attention now to manufacturing. This was one of the important results of the N on- Intercourse Act, since many of the manufactories of the country had their beginning at that time. 219. Burr tried for Treason. Meanwhile (1807), Aaron Burr, who had been Vice President during Jefferson's first term, was tried 1807] FULTON'S FOLLY 197 for treason.! Burr had shot Alexander Hamilton (§§ 196, 200), his political opponent, in a duel. That act, hardly different from downright murder, brought him into disgrace. Later, Burr planned an enterprise for conquering Texas, which was then part of Mexico, and belonged to Spain. He probably hoped to get some of the western states to join him, and to set up an independent nation in the southwest, with New Orleans for its capital ; he, of course, meant to be its chief ruler. Burr's guilt was not clearly proven, and he was permitted to go free. He died in obscurity and poverty in New York. 220. "Fulton's Folly," 1807. In | the summer of the same year, 1807, I Robert Fulton ^ launched his newly in- ! vented steamboat on the Hudson. He ■ gave notice that he should start from ; New York City for Albany. Up to that date all the trade and travel on the river had been either by sailing vessels or rowboats. Men called the steamboat " Fulton's Folly." Thousands (August 17, 1807) to laugh and jeer at the expected failure of the invention. The steamboat — the Clermont — was a rude affair, with un- covered paddle wheels and clumsy machinery. Men said that she was as " helpless as a log." Presently the paddles began to revolve. Then the " log " was no longer helpless. " She moves ! " " She moves ! " shouted the astonished crowd. Sure enough, she did Fulton's bTE\Mbo\T gathered at the wharf 1 Treason : an attempt to overthrow the government or break up the Union by force of arms. Burr was accused of having intended to seize New Orleans by force of arms. This charge of treason was set aside by the court on the ground that the Constitution did not uphold it. (See Appendix, the Constitution, Article III, Section 3.) 2 Robert Fulton was born in Fulton, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, 1765. He was of Irish descent. John Fitch of Windsor, Connecticut, had invented a steamboat many years before, and tried in vain to get Benjamin Franklin to help him make it a success. In 1798 he became discouraged, and committed suicide. In his journal he left these words: "The day will come when some more pcnvcrfid man will get fatne and riches from my invention." 198 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1807-1809 move ; and she kept on moving against both wind and current, until, in thirty-two hours, she reached Albany, In a few years Fulton's great invention made a complete change in modes of travel. Steamboats were put on the Ohio, the Missis- sippi, and the Great Lakes, and helped to open up and settle the western part of the United States. A number of years later (i 8 19), the ship Savannah was fitted up with paddle wheels that could be propelled by steam. She started from Savannah, Georgia, and crossed the Atlantic. But nothing further was done in that direc- tion for twenty years ; then Great Britain sent out {1840) the first regular line of ocean steamers to America (§ 280). From that time to this such vessels have made trips, backward and forward across the Atlantic, with the regularity of clockwork. 221. The Importation of Slaves forbidden. The year following Fulton's triumph Congress put a stop to the importation of slaves (§ 196, note I, paragraph 4) into the United States (1808). The law had the hearty support of President Jefferson. He, like Washington and most leading men of that day of the South, was a slaveholder. But, like Washington and many other influential Southerners, he hoped that the country would find some peaceful means of freeing the negroes. Jefferson, in particular, was beloved by his slaves, and would gladly have given them their liberty, if he could have clearly seen how to do it. He continued to hold them, as many other good men did, but he said, "' I tremble for my country, when I reflect that God is just." 222. Summary. Jefferson was our first Democratic President. He purchased the territory of Louisiana, thereby more than doub- ling the area of the United States, and sent Lewis and Clark to explore the country to the Pacific. During Jefferson's administra- tion Fulton invented the first successful steamboat and established steam navigation on the Hudson ; the pirates of Tripoli and Algiers were conquered ; the importation of slaves was stopped ; and on account of trouble with Great Britain and France, Congress passed the Embargo and the N on- Intercourse Acts restraining our foreign trade. MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 199 James Madison (Democrat) 223. Madison's Administration (Fourth President, Two Terms, 1809-1817); Reopening of Trade with Great Britain. When Madison ^ became President, Great Britain and France were ac- tively at war, and our ships were still forbidden by Act of Con- gress (§218) to trade with either country. The President was anxious to reopen commerce with one or both. Mr. Erskine, the British minister at Washington, gave Madison to understand that England would let our vessels sail the seas unmolested, if we would promise to send our wheat, rice, cotton, fish, and other exports to her and her friends, but refuse them to her enemy, PYance. The agreement was made. More than a thou- sand of our vessels, loaded with grain and other American products, were waiting impatiently for the President to grant them liberty to sail for Great Britain. He spoke the word, and they " spread their white wings like a flock of long-imprisoned birds, 1 James Madison of Virginia and Alexander Hamilton of New York were among the foremost of the distinguished statesmen who framed the Constitution and aided Washington in organizing the government. Madison not only drafted the main features of the Constitu- tion, but offered the first ten amendments, adopted 1791. Madison furthermore obtained the passage of the Religious Freedom Act of Virginia (originally drawn by Jefferson in 1778), 1785, by which entire religious liberty was granted, and all taxes for the support of public worship, and all religious tests for holding office in that state, were forbidden. In this great reform Virginia led every state, not excepting Rhode Island, in some respects, and set an example followed in the Constitution of the United States (see the Constitution, Article VI, Paragraph 3). Madison was born in King George County, Virginia, in 1751 ; died 1836. Madison (with George Clinton of New York, Vice President) was elected President by the Republican, or Democratic, party (§ 203). ' ThL SVILINO Ot OUK hHIP: 200 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1809-I812 and flew out to sea." A great shout of joy went up from the farmers, merchants, and shipowners, for they beUeved that the fleet of vessels would return to fill thousands of empty pockets with welcome dollars. But England denied having authorized Mr. Erskine to make such an agreement. The result was that our trade stopped as suddenly as it began, and New England was filled with angry disappointment. 224. How Napoleon deceived us. Next, Napoleon, Emperor of the French, had a word of promise for us. He had seized and sold hundreds of our ships because we would not aid him in his war against England. He now agreed to let our commerce alone, provided we would bind ourselves not to send any of our produce to Great Britain, but would let him and his friends have what they wanted to buy. Napoleon's offer was a trick to deceive us, and to get us into trouble with England. We agreed to his terms ; he did not keep his word, and the ill feeling between England and America was made still more bitter. 225. Tecumseh's Conspiracy; Battle of Tippecanoe. Meanwhile, it was discovered that Tecumseh, a famous Indian chief of Ohio, had succeeded in uniting the savage tribes of the West in a plot to drive out the white settlers. General William H. Harrison, who became President thirty years later (1841), met the Indians at Tippecanoe, in the territory of Indiana, and defeated them in a great battle (181 1). (Map, p. 203.) Tecumseh was not in that battle ; but he took a leading part in later ones, led by the Eng- lish. Many Americans believed that England had secretly encour- aged Tecumseh's plot. This belief helped to increase the desire of the majority for war with Great Britain. 226. The War of 1812; the Henry Letters; the Real Cause of the War; its Declaration. At this time a man named Henry declared that the English government in Canada had employed him to try to persuade the New England States to leave the Union and join Canada. He showed a bundle of letters in proof of the story. Madison paid Henry $50,000 for his bundle. The letters were a fraud and Henry was a rascal ; but, for a time, both the President and Congress were deceived by this swindler, and our hatred of Great Britain burned hotter than ever. 1812] HULL'S MARCH TO DETROIT The real, final cause of the war, however, lay in the fact that England persisted in exercising her assumed " right of search " (§ 217). Her war ships stopped our merchant vessels, took Ameri- can seamen out of them, and forced them, under the sting of the lash, to enter her service and fight her battles.^ Her excuse was that she seized men who were British subjects and who had de- serted and entered our service. This was true in some cases, but England made no discrimination, but took any able-bodied sailor she fancied. This was an outrage that we could no longer bear ; several thousand of our citizens had been kidnaped, but England refused to stop these acts of violence. For this reason Con- gress declared war in the sum- mer of 18 1 2. New England, knowing that such a war would ruin what commerce she had, was opposed to fighting ; but the rest of the country thought differently, and with a hurrah for " Free Trade and Sailors' Rights "2 the war began. 227. Hull's March to De- troit ; his Surrender. Our plan was to attack Canada, and, if all went well, to annex it. In expectation of the war. General William Hull had been ordered to march from Urbana, Ohio, to Detroit. Hull had served in the Revolution, and Washington spoke of him as "an officer of great merit." In order to reach Detroit he had to build two hundred miles of road through for- ests and swamps. It was a tremendous piece of work. Hull did 1 England denied that a British subject could become an American citizen. This was at a time when she was short of sailors in her navy, and used to send gangs of sailors ashore in England at night, with handcuffs and gags, to seize men and drag them off to fight against France. 2 By " Free Trade " we meant freedom to send our merchant ships to what ports we pleased ; by " Sailors' Rights " we meant the protection of American seamen against seizure by the British. AN bEAMEN 202 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1812 it, and reached Detroit. He did not get the news that we had declared war, until after the Canadians had got it, and had cut off most of the supplies of provisions and powder that he was expect- ing to receive. The forests back of Detroit were full of hostile savages ; in front was the English general l^rock, with a force of Canadians and Indians. Brock summoned Hull to surrender. Without waiting to be attacked, without firing a single gun at the enemy, Hull hoisted a white tablecloth as a signal to Brock, gave up the fort, and with it Detroit and Michigan. For this act he was tried by a court of American army officers, convicted of cowardice, and sentenced to be shot ; but President Madison pardoned him because of his services in the Revolution. ^ 228. The Constitution and the Guerriere.^ Although we had been beaten on land, we were wonderfully victorious at sea, England had been in the habit of treating America as though she owned the ocean from shore to shore. She had a magnificent navy of a thousand war ships. We had about a dozen ! One of our twelve (§ 214) was the Constitution {44 guns), commanded by Captain Isaac Hull, a nephew of General William Hull (§ 227). No braver officer ever trod a ship's deck. While cruising off the coast of Nova Scotia, Captain Hull fell in with the British man-of-war Gncrricrc (38 guns). The fight began (August 19, 18 12). The Constitution carried more guns and more men than the British ship, and in twenty minutes the Guerriere surrendered, a shattered, helpless, sinking wreck. The London Times, forgetting what Paul Jones had done in the Revolution (§ 183), said, "Never before 1 General Hull's defense was that he surrendered in order to save the women and chil- dren of Detroit from the scalping knives of Brock's Indians. - Giicnicrc : the British had captured this vessel from the French ; hence her French name, meaning " the warrior." r.AlTLK OK Tl THE ; CoNSTrruTioN GUERRltkE" Mai' ok War of 1812 203 204 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [I812-I813 in the history of the world did an English frigate haul down her colors to an American." But this was only the beginning of our successes at sea, for out of fifteen such battles we won twelve. Captain Hull brought his prisoners to Boston. The Constitution, almost unhurt, and henceforth known as Old Ironsides} was hailed with ringing cheers, Hull and his brave officers were feasted in Faneuil Hall ; Congress voted him a gold medal and gave his men $50,000 in prize money. 229. Progress of the War ; Commodore 0. H. Perry's Victory. Later that year (18 12), the Americans attacked Oueenstown, Canada, and General Harrison (§ 225), commander of the Army of the West, tried in vain to drive the British out of Detroit. In the autumn (18 13), Commodore O. H . Perry gained a grand victory on Lake Erie. Perry had built five vessels from green timber cut on the shore of the lake. He added four more vessels, and with that little fleet captured the British fleet carrying more guns and more men. Be- fore the fight began he hoisted a flag over his vessel — the Lazv- rcncc — bearing the words, "Don't give up the ship."^ During the battle the Lawrence was literally cut to pieces, and her decks covered with dead and dying men. Perry saw that if he persisted in staying where he was, he must be defeated. Taking his little brother, a boy of twelve, with him, he jumped into a boat, and ordered the crew to pull for the Niagara. It was a perilous under- taking. The British shot broke the oars to pieces, and young Perry's cap was torn with bullets ; but the boat reached the Niag- ara, and Perry gained the battle. Then, on the back of an old letter, he wrote this dispatch to General Harrison, "' We have met the enemy, and they arr ours!' 1 See Holmes' poem on Old Ironsides, written when it was proposed to break up the old ship. She has been repaired and lies near the Charlestown navy yard. 2 These were the last words of Captain James Lawrence (June i, 1813), when he fell mortally wounded in a battle between his ship, the Clicsapcakc, and the English ship-of-war Shannon. . Perry had given Lawrence's name to his ship. 1814] BURNING OF WASHINGTON 205 That victory gave us control of Lake Erie, and the British abandoned Detroit (§ 227). 230. Jackson's Victory at Tohopeka. The next spring (18 14) General Andrew Jackson, who was destined to be President of the United States, marched against the Creeks, a strong Indian tribe in the southwest territory, now forming the states of Alabama and Mississippi. The Creeks had recently massacred five hundred men, women, and children at Fort Mimms, near Mobile. Jackson met the Indians in battle at Tohopeka, on a branch of the Alabama River. (Map, p. 203.) He completely destroyed their power, and they sur- rendered the greater part of their territory to the United States. 231. Battles of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane ; Burning of Wash- ington. In the summer of the same year (18 14) General Brown, with General Winfield Scott and General Ripley, gained the battle of Chippewa, in Canada. Later, they drove the British from a hard- fought field at Lundy's Lane near Niagara Falls. (Map, p. 203.) Meanwhile, the British had blockaded all our ports along the Atlantic coast, and had plundered and burned a number of towns. Later in the summer (18 14) they entered Washington. (Map, p. 203.) President Madison fled in one direction ; Mrs. Madison, filling her workbag with silver spoons, fled in another. The Presi- dent's dinner, which had just been served, was captured and eaten by the enemy. After dinner. Admiral Cockburn, the English com- mander, and his officers, paid a visit to the House of Representa- tives. Springing into the Speaker's chair, he cried out, " Shall this harbor of Yankee democracy be burned ? " There was a general shout of " Aye ! " " Aye ! " The torch was applied, and soon the evening sky was red with the glare of the flames, which consumed the Capitol, the President's house, and other public buildings. A recent Eng- lish historian 1 says of that deed, " P^ew more shameful acts are recorded in our history ; and it was the more shameful in that it was done under strict orders from the government at home." "^ 1 J. R. Green's " History of the English People." '^ But we had burned (1813) the Canadian government buildings at York (now Toronto), then the capital of Canada. The truth is, that both sides perpetrated many acts which time should make both forgive and forget. 2o6 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1814 232. Macdonough's Victory on Lake Champlain; British At- tack on Fort McHenry. A few weeks after the burning of Wash- ington a British expedition 14,000 strong moved down from Canada by way of Lake Champlain to attack northern New York. Commodore Macdonough had command of a small American fleet on the lake. A British fleet carrying more guns and more men attacked him (18 14) in Plattsburg Bay. (Map, p. 203.) At the first broadside fired by the enemy, a young gamecock kept as a pet on board Macdonough's ship, the Saratoga, flew up upon a gun ; flapping his wings, he gave a crow of defiance that rang like the blast of a trumpet. Swing- ing their hats, Macdonough's men cheered the plucky bird again and again. He had fore- told victory. That was enough. They went into the fight with such ardor, and managed their vessels with such skill, that in less than three hours all of the British ships that had not hauled down their flags were scudding to a place of safety as rapidly as possible. The next British attack was Macdonough's Victory ^^ Baltimore, by the same force and fleet that had taken Washington (§ 231). That city was guarded by Fort McHenry. All day and all the following night (September 13, 18 14) the enemy's ships hammered away with shot and shell at the fort.^ As the anxious hours of darkness slowly passed, the people of Baltimore asked each other, "' Can we possibly hold the fort 1 " When the sun rose the next morning the question was answered — "our flag was still there"; the British 1 It was on this occasion that Francis S. Key, of Baltimore, wrote the " Star-Spangled Banner." Key was a prisoner at the time on board of one of the British men-of-war. All night long he watched the bombardment of the fort. By the flash of the guns he could see 1815] JACKSON'S VICTORY AT NEW ORLEANS 207 had given up the attack, and were saiUng down Chesapeake Bay. Baltimore was safe, and soon every one was joyously singing the new song, the " Star-Spangled Banner." 233. Jackson's Victory at New Orleans; the Hartford Conven- tion ; End of the War. Early the next year came the final battle of the war. The contest had now lasted over two years. The British determined to strike a tremendous blow at New Orleans. If successful it might give them a foothold on the Mississippi River. Sir Edward Pakenham with 10,000 picked men made the attack (January 8, 181 5). General Andrew Jackson defended the approach to the city with fortifications made of banks of earth and logs. He had only half as many men as the British commander, and they were men, too, who knew prac- tically nothing about war, but many of them were sharpshooters. In less than half an hour after the fight began Pakenham was killed, and the enemy had lost over 2000 men to our 71. Then the British gave up the battle. It was the end of the war. Great Britain had already made peace with our commissioners at Ghent, in Belgium (De- cember 24, 1 8 14); but the news did not reach us until several weeks after Jackson's victory. The treaty said nothing about the British claim of the right to search American vessels (§ 226) ; there was hardly need to mention it, for our ships were no longer molested. New Orleans our flag waving over it. In the morning, when the mist cleared away, he found it was " still there." His feelings of delight found expression in the song, which he hastily wrote in pencil on the back of an old letter. 2o8 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1815- While the news of the treaty of peace was on its way, delegates from most of the New England States met in Hartford, Connect- icut, in secret session. They were men who had bitterly opposed the war from the beginning. It was reported that the convention was plotting to dissolve the Union ; but the delegates declared that they met to secure defense for the New England States, and to propose certain amendments to the Constitution. 234. Results of the War. The war was rightfully called our " Second War of Independence." It had four chief results : 1 . The Revolution had made us independent on land, the War of 18 1 2 made us independent at sea. Henceforth Great Britain respected our rights on the ocean and no longer tried to " fence in the Atlantic." 2. The war showed foreign nations that any attempt to estab- lish themselves on the territory of the United States (§ 233) was likely to end in disastrous failure. 3. By cutting off our foreign commerce for a number of years the war caused us to build many cotton and woolen mills (§ 205). This made us in far greater degree than before a manufacturing people, — able to clothe ourselves, instead of having to depend on the looms of Great Britain for our "prints" and our broad- cloths. 4. Congress enacted a protective tariff, with high duties (18 16), to safeguard these mills and other American industries against foreign competition (§ 266). 235. Summary. Madison's administration was mainly taken up with the second war with Great Britain, which began in 18 12 and ended early in 1 8 1 5 . We declared war because England refused to stop taking our sailors out of our ships and forcing them into her service. The war put an end to this practice. That was nearly a hundred years ago. Since then England and America have always been at peace with each other. May that peace never again be broken ! 1817] MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION 209 James Monroe (Democrat) 236. Monroe's Administration (Fifth President; Two Terms, 1817-1825); Monroe a Soldier of the Revolution; his Inaugura- tion. Monroe,! like Washington, got the best part of his educa- tion on the battlefield. When the Revolution broke out he was a student in the College of William and Mary, Virginia. He threw down his books and went to do his part in the cause of liberty. Among the gallant officers who helped to gain the victory of Trenton (§ 174) James Monroe, then only eighteen, was one. Mr. Monroe stood near the ruins of the Capitol at Washing- ton wheii he deliv- ered his inaugural address. The Brit- ish had burned (§231) that edifice, but the foundations remained unhamied. Workmen were then rebuilding it. The President's address was full of encour- agement. It seemed to him that the solid foundations of the Capitol stood an image of the nation, and that, like them, the. government was sure to continue to exist. 237. The President's Journey through the North; the "Era of Good Feeling." Mr. Monroe spent the summer (18 17) in traveling through New England and the northern states. New England had been bitterly opposed to the War of 1812, because the stoppage of commerce had ruined many of her merchants 1 James Monroe of Westmoreland County, Virginia (bom 1758; died 1831), was elected President by the Republican, or Democratic, party (see § 203) by a very large majority over the Federalist candidate. Daniel D. Tompkins of New York was chosen Vice President. On Monroe's second election, see § 237. Monroe's Inaugural Address 2IO LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1817-1818 and shipbuilders. The President's journey in this part of the country did great good. He went as a peacemaker. All knew that he had fought under Washington ; all respected the man's unblemished character and honest purpose. When the people saw him dressed in the military costume of the Revolution, the sight recalled the old days that had " tried men's souls." In Boston and other cities the citizens brought out the shot- torn and smoke-stained battle flags of i TjG to decorate the streets. Gray-haired men, scarred with wounds received at Bunker Hill, at Trenton, at Saratoga, gathered to welcome the new President. He spoke of the inestimable worth of the Union, of the need that the North and the South had, and always must have, of each other. Men listened, and forgot their political differences. Every one declared that the "Era of Good Feeling" had begim. When Mr. Monroe was chosen President for the second time (1821) the people showed their respect for him and their confidence in him by their elect- oral vote, which lacked but a single one of being unanimous. ^ 238. The First Seminole War; Our Second Step in Expansion," the Purchase of Florida. Great Britain had ceded Florida back to Spain (§ 143), and Florida was now a constant source of trouble to the people of the South. Many Seminoles, or wandering Indians, had gone there from the country west of Georgia. These savages united with bands of runaway negroes. They frequently attacked the Georgia planters, burning houses, murdering families, and 1 Out of 232 electoral votes cast by the twenty-four states then constituting the Union, Monroe received 231. The elector who cast the remaining vote (for John Quincy Adams) did it simply because he had vowed " that no later mortal should stand in Washington's sihoes," — that is, receive, like Washington, every vote for the presidency. In the Florida Swam 1818-] THE WESTERN EXTENSION OF SLAVERY 211 carrying off property. It was no easy matter to fight the Indians and negroes in the swamps and thickets of Florida. Finally, General Jackson (§ 230) was sent (18 18) to see what he could do. In three months he conquered the country, though it still belonged to Spain. Many years later (1835) we had a second war with the Seminoles {§271), The Spanish government found that these troubles were likely to break out again, and wisely decided to sell Florida to us. We obtained the entire territory, about 60,000 square miles (18 19), for $5,000,000. This was our second step in national expansion (§ 215). (Map, p. 334.) At the same time we gave up to Spain all claim to the country later known as Texas, which we at one time considered to be included in our Louisiana Purchase (§ 215). Spain, on the other hand, gave up her claim to the "' Oregon country" (§ 216), and so strengthened our title to it. 239. The Question of the Western Extension of Slavery. The year in which we purchased Florida ( 1 8 1 9) the question came up, whether slavery should be permitted to establish itself west of the Mississippi, in the immense region then called Missouri Territory. (Map, p. 214.) By the Ordinance of 1787 (§ 195) Congress had shut out slavery from the Northwest Territory, which lay east of the Mississippi and northwest of the Ohio River (Map, p. 172) ; now Congress asked if it would not be best to shut it out also from the whole of Missouri Territory. Ex-President Jefferson (§221) was afraid that this discussion about the extension of slavery would lead to trouble between the North and the South. He said that it terrified him " like a fire bell in the night." 240. Change of Feeling in Regard to Slavery; Condition of Things at the North and at the South. The reason for his fear was that a great change had come over the country. Before the Revolution eveiy colony held negroes in bondage. But in the North the slaves were chiefly house servants, and their number was never very large. In the South, however, the planters raised all of their cotton, rice, and tobacco by slave labor, and the num- ber of negroes was constantly increasing. At first few persons 212 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1819- considered slavery an evil ; but after a time many able men in both sections of the country came to believe that it was a bad thing for both the whites and the blacks. In the North this feeling led to the passing of laws which gave the slaves their freedom. But at the South the planters did not see how they could free their negroes without ruining themselves. Later, the invention of the cotton gin (§ 205) made slave labor immensely profitable. For this reason the planters wished to keep up the system. At the same time a good many Northern men, who made money by manufacturing and dealing in cotton cloth, became interested in maintaining slavery (§ 205). 241. How Slavery divided the Country in Regard to Trade with Europe. On the whole, the effect of the slave system was now to divide the nation, instead of uniting it. Many of the people of the two sections not only thought differently about the right and the wrong of holding the negro in bondage, but they no longer agreed about the tariff (§§ 200, 234). The South devoted all its strength to raising cotton, rice, and tobacco. It had scarcely any manufactures ; it had to buy all its clothing, shoes, and other goods. Europe could then make these articles much cheaper than they could be made in the United States. The South, therefore, natu- rally wished for free trade, in order that it might import its supplies from the other side of the Atlantic. The North, on the other hand, however, had gradually come to devote much of its labor and its money to making cloth, shoes, and other articles ; for this reason it was opposed to free trade. It wished to keep up a protective tariff (§ 234), which would tax foreign goods and so make people buy our own instead. 242. Why the North opposed the Extension of Slavery West of the Mississippi; why the South demanded it. Now it happened that at that time (18 19) the number of free states and of slave states was equal, each section having eleven. A majority of the Northern people, believing slavery to be an evil, had therefore two chief reasons for opposing its establishment west of the Mississippi in Missouri Territory (§ 239). 1819-1820] THE GREAT MISSOURI COMPROMISE, 1820 213 1. They thought it would be a serious injury to that part of the country, and as great a mistake as for a farmer to take the thisdes and weeds which grew on his old land and deliberately plant them on a field of freshly cleared soil. 2. They objected to it because, if the new territory should be admitted as slave states, the South might thereby gain a majority of representatives in Congress. That section could then, by its votes, strengthen and extend slavery, and at the same time it might repeal the protective tariff (§ 241) and so permit the free importation of all kinds of manufactured goods. On the other hand, the South argued that its prosperity depended on the extension of slave labor, and on free trade with Europe ; their papers boldly declared : " Slavery must have room," The people there saw that the North was rapidly outstripping them in growth of population. If, then, a part of Missouri Territory should enter the Union as a free state, the North would probably get control of Congress and of our foreign trade. 243. The Great Missouri Compromise, 1820. Finally, a part of Missouri Territory was set apart under the name of the state of Mis- souri, and applied for admission as a slave state. (Map, p. 2 14.) The South urged the measure with all its might ; the North fought against it with equal determination. After nearly two years of angry debate Hemy Clay ^ of Kentucky succeeded in persuading Congress to make a compromise, — that is, a bargain in which each side agreed to give up something to the other in order to settle the dispute. The Compromise was this : 1. The North agreed that Missouri should enter the Union as a slave state. 2. The South agreed that in all future cases the states formed out of the remainder of Missouri Territory north of the parallel 1 Henry Clay was bom in Virginia in 1777 ; died at Washington, 1852. He studied law, and in 1797 removed to Lexington, Kentucky. In 1799, when the people of Kentucky were about adopting a state constitution. Clay urged them (but without success) to abolish slavery. He entered Congress in 1806, and continued in public life from that time until his death. He was a man of remarkable personal influence, a " peacemaker " by temperament, and the greatest orator the Southwest ever possessed. Although ardently attached to his adopted state of Kentucky, yet he declared in 1850 that he owed his first allegiance to the Union, and a subordinate allegiance to his state. See Carl Schurz's admirable " Life of Henry Clay." 214 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1820 of 36 degrees and 30 minutes on the map should come in free. (Map, below.) 3. Finally, the South agreed that it would no longer oppose the effort of the North for the admission of Maine, which would, of course, come in as a free state. This law was passed in 1820 under the name of the Mis- souri Compromise Act. Maine was admitted (1820) and Missouri Map illustrating the Missouri Compromise Act of 1820 The Act did not mention the territory south of 36° 30', but the understanding was that it was to be opened to slavery. followed (1821). This kept the political balance even, for the North now had twelve free states and the South twelve slave states. Many people believed that the passage of the Missouri Com- promise Act 1 had settled the debate about the extension of slavery "forever." But facts proved that in this case "forever" meant 1 John Randolph, a Virginia slaveholder, then in Congress, called the Northern men who voted for the Compromise " Doughfaces," because he thought they had no more character than a piece of dough. But John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, a thorough hater of slavery, who was then Secretary of State, and who had no more " dough " in his make-up than a block of New England granite, believed the Missouri Compromise was a wise measure and neces- sary to the preservation of the Union. 1820-1825] THE "NATIONAL ROAD 215 only about twenty-five years (§§285, 298, 299, 305) ; then,i as we shall see, the question came up again, and in a more danger- ous form than before. 244. Desire to reach the West; the "National Road." Next to the extension of slavery, one of the greatest questions of this period was how to reach the West. To-day we find it difficult to understand this. To go West, we simply step into an express train, and steam whirls us to our destination at the rate of forty or fifty miles an hour. If mountains block the way, the train either climbs over them or goes through them. In President Monroe's time the railway did not exist, and although the steamboat did (§ 220), that could only go where some navigable river or lake opened the way. Look on the map The Cumberland or National Road of the United States (Map, above), and you will see that the Allegheny Mountains shut out the East from the West. As the steamboat could not find a passage leading through those rough walls of rock. Congress resolved to build a wagon road over them. Such a road had already been begun ( 1 8 1 1 ) at the head of navi- gation on the Potomac, at Cumberland, Maryland. (Map, above.) This National Road was now (1825) gradually extended across the forest-covered mountains to Wheeling, on the Ohio River, where it connected with steamboats running to Cincinnati and to New Orleans. But that was not enough. There were millions of acres of fertile land in Ohio and the countiy beyond it, which emigrants 1 That is, until the question of the annexation of Texas came up in 1845, followed by that of the Wilmot Proviso (1846-1848), by the Compromise of 1850, and by the Kansas- Nebraska Act of 1S54. 2i6 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1825 wished to reach more directly than the steamboat could help them to do. Henry Clay, the " Father of the National Road " (§ 243), urged its extension from Wheeling across Ohio, Indiana, and Illi- nois through to the Mississippi. (Map, p. 215.) President Monroe earnestly favored this enterprise, but he did not think that he had lawful power under the Constitution to spend the people's money for such purposes. Indirectly, however, he used every effort to help it forward. The road was extended nearly to the Mississippi, but by that time people had begun to build railways (§§ 252-255), so the National Road never got any farther. It was the first great work of the kind un- dertaken by the United States, costing, in the end, over $6,000,000. It stretched across the country for hundreds of miles, — broad, solid, smooth, — a true na- tional highway. . 245. Traffic on the National Road; Emi- grant Wagons. The traffic over the road was immense. Gayly painted stagecoaches ran through the more thickly settled parts. Beyond, toward the west, there was a constant stream of huge canvas-covered emigrant wagons, often so close together that the leaders of the teams could touch the wagon ahead of them with their noses. To see that pro- cession of emigrant families going forward day after day showed how fast the people were settling that wild western country, which is now covered with cultivated farms, thriving towns, and busy cities. It was the beginning of that great march toward the setting sun which was to keep steadily advancing until the Pacific said " Halt! " — that is, until we had taken possession of the whole breadth of the continent. Emigrants gui.ng Wesi u National Road 1823] THE "MONROE DOCTRINE" 217 246. The "Monroe Doctrine"; "America for Americans." While the National Road (§ 244) was being pushed westward, Mexico and several South American countries had declared them- selves republics, independent of Spain. The Czar of Russia and most of the European kings looked with a jealous eye on republics. The Czar then held Russian America (now Alaska) and was en- deavoring to get possession of more territory, farther south, on the Pacific coast. He, with other European rulers, formed an alliance to force the new American nations to bow their heads again under the old despotic yoke of Spain from which they had just freed themselves. President Monroe cried, " Hands off ! " In his message to Congress (1823) he declared : 1. That the United States would deny the right of any Euro- pean power to plant any new colonies on the American continent. 2. That we were resolved not to meddle with the affairs of the nations of the Old World. 3. That we were equally determined that they should not in any way meddle with the affairs of the New World. That declaration is called the " Monroe Doctrine." ^ It means that we consider that "America is for Americans." We stand by the right of the different nations on both the American con- tinents. North and South, to manage their own affairs in their own way, without interference from Europe. 247. Visit of Lafayette. Near the close of Monroe's admin- istration Congress requested the President to invite Lafayette 1 The "Monroe Doctrine": in his message to Congress on December 2, 1823, President Monroe said, speaking of the project of Russia to plant one or more Russian colonies on the coast of what was then the Mexican state of California, " The occasion has been judged proper for asserting, as a principle in which the rights and interests of the United States axe involved, i/iat the Ama-ican continents, by the free and independent position tvhich they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European poxversP Again, President Monroe said, in the same message, in speaking of the proposed interfer- ence of European governments in America, " We shoidd consider any attempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dan^^crous to our peace and safety." Finally, the President said that we could not consider any interference by Europe with the independent republics which had been established on either of the American continents " in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition to7vard the United States." See W. Macdonald's "Select Documents of United States History, 1776-1861," p. 228. 21 8 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1825 (§ 176), then a venerable man verging on seventy, to revisit the United States after forty years' absence. He came (1824), and spent more than a year traveUng through the country as the guest of the nation. He visited every one of the twenty-four states, and all of the principal cities and towns. He had spent much of his fortune in our cause. Congress gratefully voted him two hundred thousand dollars, and made him a grant of twenty-four thousand acres of land in Florida. He was everywhere received with enthusiasm and affection. Some of the old soldiers of the Revolu- tion, who had fought under him, were completely over- come by their feelings on seeing their former com- mander, who had so gen- erously helped them in the dark days of the war. Lafay- ette took part in laying the corner stone of Bunker Hill Monument (June 17, 1825), just fifty years after the battle. 1 When he re- turned to France that au- tumn he was followed by the fervent prayers of the powerful nation he had done so much to establish. That happened more than eighty years ago, but there is good proof that the American people have not forgotten, and never will forget, the noble-hearted Frenchman. 1 In his oration at the laying of the corner stone of Bunker Hill Monument, June 17, 1S25, Daniel Webster pointed to the Revolutionary veterans who stood near him and addressed Lafayette as follows : " Those who survived that day, and whose lives have been prolonged to the present hour, are now around you. Some of them you have known in the trying scenes of the war. . . . Behold ! they raise their trembling voices to invoke the blessing of God on you and yours forever. . . . Illustrious as are your merits, yet far, O, very far distant be the day, when any inscription shall bear your name, or any tongue pronounce its eulogy." Webster and Lafayette at Bunker Hill, June 17, 1825 1825-1829] J. Q. ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION 219 In the vety center of Paris, in the grounds of the palace of the Louvre, one sees a commanding equestrian statue (1900). On the base of that statue we read this inscription : ERECTED BY THE SCHOOL CHILDREN OF THE UNITED STATES, IN GRATEFUL MEMORY OF LAFAYETTE, STATESMAN, SOLDIER, PATRIOT 248. Summary. Four chief events marked the period of the presidency of James Monroe, They were : (i) the debate on the extension of slavery west of the Mississippi River, ending in the Missouri Compromise ; (2) the pushing forward of the Na- tional Road into Ohio, which opened up a large section of the West to emigrants from the Atlantic states ; (3) our declaration of the Monroe Doctrine, that Europe must keep her hands off both American continents ; (4) the visit of Lafayette. John Ouincy Adams (Independent Democrat) 249. John Quincy Adams' Administration (Sixth President, One Term, 1825-1829);! Governor Clinton and the Erie Canal. The year that Mr. Adams became President (1825) the Erie Canal was completed by the state of New York. It was the most important public improvement yet made by any state in the Union. 1 John Quincy Adams, son of President John Adams, was born in Braintree (now Quincy), Massachusetts, in 1767; died, 1848. He was originally a FederaHst (§203); later, he acted for a time with the Democratic-Republican party (§203), though his sympathies were largely with those who eventually organized the Whig party (§273), who, like the extinct Federalists, desired to give a broad interpretation to the Constitution (§ 203). The Whigs, led by Henry Clay, favored a protective tariff (that is, a heavy tax imposed on im- ported goods for the purpose of '' protecting " our manufacturers against foreign competition ; a revenue tariff is a lighter tax imposed merely to obtain money or revenue for the govern- ment). They also favored public improvements — such as the building of roads, canals, and the like — at the expense of the nation, in opposition to the Democratic party, which insisted on a strict interpretation of the Constitution, favored free trade, or a simple revenue tariff, and believed that each state should make its own improvements at its own expense. John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson were the two leading candidates for the presi- dency in 1S24 ; both were nominally Democrats, for that was the only party then existing, but Adams, as an independent Democrat, still held certain Federalist principles, while Jackson, 220 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1825 It connected the Hudson River at Troy and Albany with Lake Erie, at Buffalo, Governor De Witt Clinton of New York carried the great work through. When he proposed it, many denounced and ridiculed the undertaking as a sheer waste of the people's hard-earned money. They nicknamed it " Clinton's Big Ditch." They said II. fi 111 NK\ L I \\ that it never would be completed, that it would swallow up millions in taxes, and in the end yield nothing but mud. 250. How the Canal was built ; its Opening. Governor Clinton had indeed put his hand to a stupendous task. Lake Erie is 363 miles west of the Hudson, and it is nearly 600 feet above the level of that river. The country between the Hudson and the lake is in some places rough and broken. There were people in New York who knew these difficulties, and who asked the Governor whether he could make water nm uphill. He replied that he as a man of the people, bitterly opposed them. Neither candidate got a majority of the electoral votes, and the House of Representatives finally chose Mr. Adams President (John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, Vice President). Mr. Adams had refused to make any exertion to secure his own election ; and when asked by his friend Edward Everett if he did not intend to do something to obtain it, he replied, " I shall do absolutely noth- ing." It was one of those rare cases in which the office sought the man, and not the man the office. 1825-] THE ERIE CANAL 221 could do better : he could build locks which would make the water lift the canal boats over the hills. When all was ready he set his army of laborers at work. They toiled eight years in the wilderness, cutting down forests, digging out the earth, blasting their way through ridges of rock, building aqueduct bridges to carry the canal across rivers, constructing locks of solid masonry to carry it up the hillsides. In the autumn (1825) the great undertaking was finished, and, when the water was let in, a row of cannon about five miles apart, extending from Buffalo to New York, flashed the news the whole length of the state. Governor Clinton traveled from Buffalo to Albany by the canal, and thence by the Hudson to New York City. He brought with him a keg of water from Lake Erie. When he reached the city he solemnly poured the water into the harbor to commemorate, as he said, " the navigable com- munication opened between our Mediterranean seas (meaning our Great Lakes) and the Atlantic Ocean." 251. What the Canal has done for New York and for the Country. The canal has since done far more than Governor Clinton expected. The expense of building it was easily paid by means of a small toll or tax levied by the state on boats and freight. Before the canal was built, the charge for hauling a barrel of flour from Albany to Buffalo was ten dollars, and it took three weeks to get it there. After the canal was opened, a barrel of flour could be sent through in a week, at a cost of thirty cents ! Since its completion to the present time over $6,000,000,000 worth of freight has been carried on its waters. The canal originally ran through a country in great part un- settled. It was the means of bringing in great numbers of emi- grants from the East. On its banks arose scores of flourishing towns and rapidly growing cities. New York City gained im- mensely by the trade with the West, which began as soon as this water way was opened. Later, the canal was made free of toll, and from spring to the end of autumn a constant procession of boats laden with grain used to be seen going eastward day and night ; while a similar procession, laden with merchandise, was 222 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1828 seen going westward. This movement was a means of growth and a source of wealth to both sections of the country. On the one hand it made food cheaper all through the East ; on the other, it made imported goods cheaper throughout the West. In order to make the Erie Canal a successful competitor against the railway, which runs parallel with it from Albany to Buffalo, the state of New York is spending over ^100,000,000 in im- proving it. When the work is completed fleets of steam barges, each carrying a thousand tons of freight, will navigate this great in- land water way. 252. Experiments with " Steam Wagons." A few years later a work was begun in Maryland which was destined to have greater results even than the Erie Canal, Fulton had shown the world that the steam en- gine could be successfully used to propel boats (§ 220) ; the next ques- tion was. Is there any reason why the steam engine cannot be put on wheels, and made to propel itself on land } After many experiments and many failures, George Stephenson invented a " steam wagon," or locomotive, in England, which would draw a train of loaded cars on a track at the rate of ten or fifteen miles an hour. Meanwhile, Oliver Evans and other ingenious American mechanics had been experimenting with " steam wagons " in this country. 253. Breaking Ground for the First Passenger Railway in America. A few years after the completion of the Erie Canal (§251) the venerable Charles Carroll of Carrollton, Maryland, performed the ceremony of breaking ground for the construc- tion of a railway from Baltimore westward (1828). The road now forms part of the Baltimore and Ohio railway system. Mr. Carroll, then over ninety years of age, was the only person Jiv- ing who ha9 signed the Declaration of American Independence Locks at Lockport on the Erie Canal 1830-1831] THE FIRST AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE 223 (1776). As he struck the spade into the ground with a firm hand, he said, " I consider this among the most important acts of my life, second only to that of signing the Declaration of Independence, if second even to that," 254. The First American Locomotive, 1830; the Railway- opened; the Race. The first locomotive which ran over the new railway in 1830 was built at Baltimore by Peter Cooper, since widely known for his noble gift of the Cooper Institute to New York City. His engine had little resemblance to our modern ones, but it drew a rudely constructed open car filled with passengers. The road at first extended only to Ellicott's Mills, about fourteen miles from Baltimore. The trip was made in somewhat less than an hour. On the return, the train had a race with a spirited Sl'EAM WINS THE RaCE gray horse hitched to a similar car. The gray did his best ; the puffing, wheezing little locomotive did its best likewise. Finally, steam conquered ; and a great shout of victory went up from the dozen passengers in the car drawn by Peter Cooper's diminu- tive engine. That shout meant that the days of stagecoaches were numbered. 255. Growth of Railways in the United States; Results. The same year six miles of the Charleston and Augusta Railway were opened; a year later (1831) the Mohawk and Hudson Railway began to carry passengers in New York. In ten years the fourteen miles of track in Maryland had multiplied to nearly 3000 miles in different states. These have since increased to over 220,000 miles, or more than seventy-fold. They form a network of trans- poitation which crosses the continent (§ 370). That network binds 224 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1825-1829 the nation together with bands of steel. It makes every part of our country quickly, cheaply, and easily accessible to every other part. The men of Jefferson's time who lived to see what the railway accomplished, no longer doubted whether the United States could safely extend beyond the Alleghenies (§213). Steam convinced First Steam Train (1831) on the Mohawk and Hudson Railway, New York them that the republic was destined not only to hold the East, but to get possession of the whole of the great West. 256. The Temperance Cause; Drinking Habits in Early Days. Side by side with this wonderful material advance, the country was now beginning to make progress in moral reforms, especially with respect to temperance. One of the great evils of the times was drunkenness. In the early days of our history the use of liquor was almost universal. A majority of the people drank it every day, and some of them drank it pretty nearly all day. No well-to-do farmer thought he could get in his hay without a good-sized jug of whisky to refresh himself and his men ; no house or church was built without plenty of spirits to help get the timbers into place ; no bargain was clinched without the aid of liquor ; and no gentleman called on another without being asked to take a social glass. 257. The First Successful Temperance Society; what has been done since. The "American Society for the Promotion of Tem- perance" was formed in Boston (1826), and a number of years later (1840) six men, who knew the evils of the vice of intemper- ance from their own sad personal experience, met in Baltimore, signed a total abstinence pledge, and founded the " Washingtonian Temperance Society." That movement did immense good, and 1825-1829] SUMMARY 225 restored many drunkards to the manhood they had lost through drink. 1 A Httle more than ten years later (185 i) Neal Dow per- suaded the state of Maine to enact the first prohibition law. It forbade the manufacture or sale of intoxicating liquors as bever- ages ; but the law has never met with more than partial success. Since that time several other states tried prohibition for longer or shorter periods. Recently North Dakota, Kansas, Georgia, Alabama, and Oklahoma enacted prohibitory measures. More- over, so many towns have of late refused to grant liquor licenses that more than half the area of the United States (though not* the most densely populated part) is under some kind of prohibition. The results of these efforts will show themselves in due time. " Strong drink " still slays its thousands in the United States as elsewhere ; but the young man beginning life now, finds that all the best influences are opposed to intemperance, — once (§ 256) a majority of influences seemed to encourage it. 258. Summary. The presidency of John Ouincy Adams was marked by three important events : ( i ) the completion of the Erie Canal ; (2) the building of the first passenger railway in the United States ; {3) the first successful attempt at temperance reform. 1 The first temperance societies did not insist on total abstinence from all alcoholic drinks, but only from the use of distilled spirits such as whisky, brandy, and the like. Later, they required — like the Washingtonians — a pledge of " total abstinence from all that can intoxicate " ; but they still retained the name of temperance societies, though strictly speaking they had now become total abstinence societies. VII "Our Federal Union: // Jtiust be presented.'''' — President Jackson's toast at his birthday banqtiet in Washington., April jo, i8jo. THE NEW DEMOCRACY Andrew Jackson (Democrat) ^ 259. Jackson's Administration (Seventh President, Two Terms, 1829-1837) ; Character of the New President. Up to this date all the Presidents had been chosen from Virginia or from Massachu- setts, and all were known to the country as statesmen of a high order. General Jackson,^ " the People's President," came from Tennessee. He had unbounded popularity in all western communities. His military services, and especially his victory over the British at New Orleans (§ 233), had made him famous throughout the United States. 1 Reference Books (Jackson to Buchanan, inclusive). W. Wilson's " Division and Reunion," ch. i-8; W. C. Bryant and Gay's "United States" (revised edi- tion), IV, 291-434; W. Macdonald's "Jacksonian Democracy"; A. B. Hart's " Slavery and Abolition " ; G. P. Garrison's " Westward Extension " ; T. C. Clarke's " Parties and Slavery"; F. E. Chadwick's " Causes of the Civil War," ch. 1-17 ; J. B. McMaster's " United States," V, 523-556, VI ; A. B. Hart's " American History by Contemporaries," III, ch. 24-29; IV, ch. 2-7 ; A. B. Hart's " Source Book, ch. 15-17 ; J. Schouler's " United States," III, ch. 13; IV, V. See also the classified List of Books in the Appendix. 2 Andrew Jackson was of Scotch-Irish descent (§ 92). He was born in 1767, in the Waxhaw Settlement, Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, close to the South Carolina boundar)' line. In his will and elsewhere he speaks of himself as a native of the latter state. He died in 1845. He got his early education rather from the hard, rough, dangerous life of the back- woods than from books and schools. No one could excel him in handling a rifle, or in break- ing and riding a wild or vicious horse. During the Revolution, Jackson, then a lad of fourteen, ^as taken prisoner by the British, and was nearly starved to death by them. Once the commanding officer ordered him to clean his boots. Young Jackson refused, saying that he was a prisoner of war, and therefore not obliged to perform such acts of drudgery for his captors. The officer, in a rage, struck him with his sword, cutting a gash on the boy's head and another on his hand. Jackson carried the scars of this brutal treatment to his grave. In 17S4 he began the study of law in .Salisbury, North Carolina. Four years later he emigrated to Nashville, Tennessee, where he opened a law office. In 1797 he was elected 226 1829] JACKSON'S "POLITICAL REVOLUTION" In character Jackson was headstrong, absolutely honest, and utterly fearless. When he was roused, there was a flash in his gray eyes that startled one like the gleam of a drawn sword. His blunt speech and decided action made many bitter enemies, but he had also many devoted friends. They knew him to be a warm- hearted, true-hearted, high-minded man. 260. President Jackson's " Political Revolution." The new President began his administration with what his Secretary of the Treasury called "a great political revolution." The Presi- dent's friends demanded government offices. In a short time he * turned out about 2000 men from their posi- tions, and gave their places and salaries to those who had voted for him. Jackson believed the change would be an advantage to the country ; but such removals by wholesale had never been made before. During the forty years which had passed since the adoption of the Constitution, the six Presidents who had governed the coun- try had dismissed, at the most, only about 1 40 persons holding office, and of this small number five were removed because they had stolen public money. 261. Jefferson's Removal of Government Officers; the "Spoils System." Jefferson had removed more persons than any previous President (§ 212). His object was to give each political party an equal share of offices. When he had made that division he said that he should ask only three questions respecting an applicant : "Is United States senator, but soon resigned the office, " partly," says Parton, " because he felt himself out of place in so slow and dignified a body, but chiefly for pecuniary reasons." He was again elected in 1S23. During the War of 1S12 Jackson was appointed a general in the regular army, and served the country with distinguished ability. Wtien he fought the British, they found, to their cost, that he had not forgotten how they used him in the Revolution. He also gained great popularity with his men in his battles with the Indians, and his wonderful endurance of hardships got for him the affectionate nickname of " Old Hickory." In 1828 General Jackson (with John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, for Vice President) was elected President of the United States by the Democratic party, by a large majority over John Quincy Adams, who had then become the National Republican or Whig candi- date. In 1832 he was again elected (Martin Van Buren of New York, Vice President) over Henry Clay, the Whig candidate. Andrew Jackson 228 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1829-I83i he honest? Is he capable? Is he faithful to the Constitution?" If the answer was " Yes," that was enough. When Jackson became President he began, as we have seen, by making sweeping dismissals of the men who did not agree with him in politics. He filled their places with those — and those only — who voted as he thought right. In doing this he intended, as he said, to effect a great " reform " ; but his action established the " spoils system," ^ which Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Benton, and other eminent statesmen denounced. 262. William Lloyd Garrison; Dr. Channing; the Anti-Slavery Movement. The question about filling government offices was pushed out of sight by the greater question about slavery. On New Year's Day, 1831, William Lloyd Garrison, then a "poor, unlearned young man," ^ published in Boston the first number of his paper called the Liberator. Mr. Garrison was its editor, owner, publisher, printer, and carrier. The Liberator demanded the " immediate and unconditional emancipation of every slave held in the United States." Mr. Garrison was resolved to free the negro, even if he had to destroy the Union to do it.^ The Southern planters believed the editor of the new paper had lost his reason ; most people at the North agreed with them."* Even many warm friends of the negro thought Mr. Garrison was_ wholly wrong in his methods. They felt as Dr. Channing did. 1 " Spoils System " : so called because, in 1832, Senator Marcy of New York declared that " to the victors belong the spoils " ; or, in other words, that the successful political party in an election has the right to make all it can out of it in the way of offices and salaries. 2 See James Russell Lowell's poem " To W. L. Garrison," beginning " In a small chamber, friendless and unseen, Toiled o'er his types one poor, unlearned young man." 3 After laboring many years in the cause of emancipation, Mr. Garrison finally Came to the conclusion that the Constitution of the United States upheld slavery, and that the dis- solution of the Union, by depriving the South of the support of the North, would hasten the liberation of the slaves. In consequence of this conviction, he violently denounced the Constitution (in words taken from Isaiah xxviii. 15) as "■ a covenant with death and an agree- ment with hell." These words were then regularly printed at the top of the Liberator until the outbreak of the Civil War, when they were dropped. * Mr. Garrison said that he found the prejudice and contempt of Northern men harder to deal with than that of the slaveholders. In an address to the public in the first number of the Liberator he used these words: " I am in earnest — I will not equivocate — I will not excuse — I will not retreat a single inch — and / will be heard." See Life of W. L. Garrison, by his children. 1831] INSURRECTION OF SLAVES 229 That eminent man wrote to Daniel Webster, declaring that we should say to the South, " We consider slavery as your calamity, not your crime ; and we will share with you the burden of putting an end to it." ^ 263. Insurrection of Slaves in Virginia; Mr. Garrison mobbed in Boston. It so happened that in the summer following the publication of the Liberato); a terrible negro insurrection broke out in Virginia. The slaves engaged in it massacred over sixty white men, women, and children. Many Southern people believed that Mr. Garrison's object was to stir up the negroes to rise and murder their masters. There was no truth in the belief, but it powerfully increased the excitement at the South. In the North, Mr. Garrison's appeals in behalf of the freedom of the blacks roused almost equal excitement. Gangs of "roughs" broke up meetings held to discuss emancipation, and on one occa- sion a howling mob dragged the editor of the Liberator through the streets of Boston with a rope round his body. These violent outbreaks were not made out of hatred to the negro, but out of fear that Mr. Garrison was putting the country in peril. Many thoughtful men who were opposed to slavery believed that, on the whole, it was better to save the Union with slavery than to deliberately destroy it for the sake of- liberating the negro. Daniel Webster held that idea, and so, as we shall see later, did Abraham Lincoln (§319 and note to the Proclama- tion of Emancipation, facing page 303). 264. Formation of Abolition Societies; Petitions to Congress about Slavery ; what John Quincy Adams did. Mr. Garrison be- lieved that he was right, and persisted in demanding the eman- cipation of the slaves, Union or no Union. His influence spread. In a few years nearly 2000 societies had been formed in the North for the abolition of slavery. Then many people began to petition Congress to set free all slaves held in the District of Columbia. i See Dr. W. E. Channing's letter to Daniel Webster (Webster's Works), May 14, 1828. Dr. Channing proposed that the United States should appropriate the money from the sale of the public lands, buy the slaves from their owners, and set them free. Could that have been done, it would have saved us four years of civil war. England bought her West India slaves, and freed them, in 1833, at a cost of one hundred million dollars. 230 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1832 Congress finally resolved not to receive such petitions. Ex- President John Quincy Adams (§ 249), then a member of the House of Representatives, denounced these resolutions as " gag rules," which forbade debate and were contrary to the Constitu- tion. ^ He insisted on presenting every petition that was sent to him, and sometimes offered 200 or more in a single day, amid cries of "Treason!" and yells of "Put him out!" From this period the discussion of slavery never ceased until the North and the South took up arms to settle it on the battlefield. 265. President Jackson puts an End to the Second United States Bank ; Removal of the Deposits. While the great question of emancipation was being hotly debated, Jackson was attacking the United States Bank (§ 202) which had been reestablished (18 16), He believed, as did Senator Benton of Missouri,^ that it was badly managed and unsafe. For these reasons he refused to sign a bill^ (1832) to renew the right of the bank to continue business. This refusal soon closed the bank. The year following this action the President removed nearly $10,000,000 of the public money which the government had kept in the bank. This amount, with about $30,000,000 more, was deposited later (1836) in a number of small banks (nicknamed "pet banks") in the different states. Speculators borrowed large sums of this government money and used it to buy land ; their course excited others, and soon people all over the country were crazy with wild schemes for getting suddenly rich. 266. South Carolina resists the Tariff taxing Imported Goods. The South was at this time strongly opposed to having heavy duties or taxes imposed on goods brought into the United States. We have seen (§241) that the reason for this opposition was 1 On the right of the people to petition the government, see Amendments to the Consti- tution, Article I ; but compare the right of Congress to make rules for its proceedings (Constitution, Article I, Section 5). 2 Colonel Thomas H. Benton was one of the most decided opponents of the bank. He thought paper money was unsafe, and urged Congress to adopt gold and silver currency instead of bank bills. His able speeches on this subject of " hard money " got for him the nickname of '• Old Bullion." 3 Bill : a law proposed by Congress ; except in certain cases, it requires the President's signature to make it complete. When he returns a bill unsigned he is said to veto it. See the Constitution, Article I, Section 7. 1832] PREPARATIONS FOR WAR 231 that the people of the South had never estabhshed manufactories in any number, and therefore had to buy their woolen and cotton cloth either from the northern states, where large quantities were made, or from Europe. As labor was cheaper in Europe than in this country, the wealthy mill owners in England could afford to make cloth, send it to the United States, and sell it at a much lower price than it could be made here. Henry Clay, a member of Con- gress from Kentucky (§ 243), was particularly anxious to make the American producers and manufacturers independent of Europe. He succeeded in establishing high protective tariffs (1824, 1828, 1832). These tariffs levied a heavy duty or tax on many im- ported goods and so protected the American manufacturer of cot- ton, woolen, iron, and other goods against all foreign competitors.^ Finally, South Carolina resolved to resist these duties. 267. John C. Calhoun; Nullification; Preparations for "War. John C. Calhoun'-^ of South Carolina, who was then Vice Presi- dent, protested against this " Tariff of Abominations," as he called it. He asserted that it compelled the South to pay such a price for cloth and other goods that the people were constantly growing poorer, while the Northern manufacturers, on the other hand, were getting rich at their expense. He therefore demanded free trade. To this the North answered that free trade would ruin the factory 1 From the outset a division of opinion existed in regard to the power of the government to levy duties. The Democrats generally contended that, strictly interpreted, the Constitu- tion did not give Congress authority to impose duties beyond what would be sufficient to defray the expenses of the government and furnish money for the payment of the national debt. This party demanded simply a Revenue Tariff. The Federalists and Whigs generally held that the Constitution gave Congress the right to levy duties not only for revenue but also to encourage the production of goods at home, as opposed to their purchase from foreign producers. These two parties (and later the Republican party) advocated a Pro- tective Tariff. Such a tariff was imposed in 1S16, 1S24, 1828, 1S32, and 1842. In 1846, and until the beginning of the Civil War, we maintained what was practically a Revenue Tariff. During the war heavy duties became the rule. Later, they were considerably reduced, but in 1890 and 1897 the Republicans enacted very high Protective Tariffs. 2 John C. Calhoun, born in Abbeville district, South Carolina, 1782; died 1S50. Like Jackson, he was of Scotch-Irish descent (§ 92). He entered Congress in 1810. He was elected Vice President in 1824 and in 1828. In 1S32 he resigned his office, and was chosen United States senator. He was at first a supporter of a protective tariff, but later became a strong advocate of free trade. He was one of the few leading men who taught that slavery is "a positive good," an advantage alike to the negro and to his owner. His nature was "as great as it was pure." Webster, his chief political opponent, said of him that nothing "low or meanly selfish came near the head or the heart of Mr. Calhoun." 232 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1830-1833 owners and compel them to close their factories. Congress refused to abolish the protective tariff. Calhoun told the people of South Carolina that the tariff law was contrary to the Constitution of the United States. He said that they ought to refuse to obey it (§ 210), They took his advice, and held a state convention at which they declared that (after Febmary i, 1833) they would not pay duties on goods imported into Charleston from Europe. This refusal was called nullification. In Charleston preparations were made to resist the collection of the duty. Governor Hayne, of South Carolina, threatened that if the government used force, his state would secede from the Union and declare itself independent. 268. Webster's Reply to Hayne and Calhoun; what we owe to Webster. When, in the Senate of the United States, Governor Hayne (1830) boldly upheld the right of nullification (§267), Daniel Webster ^ replied to him, closing with the well-known words : " Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and insep- arable." Later, when Calhoun in the United States Senate de- fended the right of secession, Webster made a powerful speech, in which he declared that " there can be no secession without revolution." He saw that if a state is resolved to leave the Union, the national government, sword in hand, must insist that it shall remain in its place and obey the laws. We owe an immense debt to Webster's commanding eloquence on this subject. In the remarkable series of speeches which he delivered at this period (i 830-1 833), he made Americans realize the inestimable value and sacredness of the Union as they had never felt it before. Thirty years later when the Civil War threat- ened to destroy the nation, the reverence for the Constitution and the Union with which that great statesman had inspired so many 1 Daniel Webster, bom at Salisbury, New Hampshire, 1782 (see note to § 92) ; died at his residence at Marshfield, near Boston, 1852. He graduated at Dartmouth College, and began the practice of law in 1805. In 1812 he was elected to Congress, and again in 1822. From this time forward he was constantly in public life, as representative, senator, or in the cabinet. He was unquestionably the greatest orator this country has produced, and as a statesman he stood second to none. His defense of the Union in his second reply to Hayne, January 26-27, 1830, has been called "the most remari a man who had worked be- yond his strength — it had to stop and take a rest. 313. Discovery of Silver in Nevada and Colorado, and of Petroleum and Natural ^ Ui' Gas in Pennsylvania. But jsfl less than two years after the -->-- -- - - " ' "' panic some of the richest silver mines ever discovered Drake's Oh, Well on the globe were found in the mountain region of western Nevada (1.859). The two chief of these, known as the '" Bonanza " mines, sent out many millions of dollars' worth of ore cast in the form of " silver bricks." When, in the course of time, the Bonanza mines were practically worked out, new mines were found (1877) in Leadville and other parts of Colorado and in Utah, which sent out a fresh supply of the precious metal. The same year (1859) E. L. Drake bored the first successful oil well on Oil Creek, near Titusville, in northwestern Pennsyl- vania. Since then petroleum has flowed from the wells that have 272 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1859- been opened in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Texas, southern New York, and the Far West. The average yield of these wells has often been more than a hundred thousand barrels of oil a day. Lines of iron pipes, laid underground, now carry the oil over hills, across rivers, through forests and farms, to Chicago, Buffalo, Philadelphia, New York, Baltimore, and other points on the Great Lakes, the seacoast, and elsewhere. The largest stream of oil has a total length (including main pipe Hues and "feeders") of not far from 75,000 miles ; it is about eighteen times the length of the Mississippi, the longest river in America or in the world. The Harpers Ferry in 1859 Standard Oil Company of Cleveland, Ohio, secured practical con- trol of the chief part of the business (1877). Petroleum is used not only for giving light, but for heating purposes and for driving motor cars and machinery. About fifteen years after the discovery of petroleum in Pennsyl- vania natural gas was found issuing from the rocks in the same region, and later in Ohio, Indiana, and other parts of the West. This gas, which is largely used, at one time took the place of oil and coal in Pittsburg, Indianapolis, and vicinity, for lighting streets and houses, for cooking, and for fuel in manufacturing. 1850-1860] THE ELECTION OE ABRAHAM LINCOLN 273 314. John Brown's Raid. Rut while the excitement over the discovery of petroleum was spreading, and men were getting rich by " striking oil," a strange event startled the whole country. " John Brown of Osawatomie " (§ 308) made a raid into Virginia, seized the government buildings at Harpers Ferry, and attempted to liberate the slaves in that vicinity (October 17, 1859). John Brown's whole band consisted of only about twenty men, partly whites and partly negroes. After hard fighting he was captured, with six of his companions, and hanged at Charlestown, Virginia (now West Virginia) (December 2, 1859). On the day of his execution he handed this paper to one of his guards: "I, John Brown, am now quite certain that the crimes of this guilty land will never be purged away but with blood. I had, as I now think, vainly flattered myself that without very much bloodshed it might be done." ^ Within a year and a half from the day of his death the North and the South were at war with each other, and a Northern regi- ment on its way to the contest was singing, "John Brown's body lies a-moldering in the grave, But his soul is marching on." 315. The Election of Abraham Lincoln; Secession of South Carolina, i860. In November, i860, Abraham Lincoln ^ of Illi- nois was elected by the Republican party President of the United 1 riovernor Wise of Virginia said of John Brown, " He inspired me with great trust in his integrity as a man of truth." The Governor also said : " They are mistaken who take Brown for a madman. He is a bundle of the best nerves I ever saw . . . cool, collected, indomitable." In his last speech at his trial, John Brown declared that his only object had been to liberate the slaves, and that he did not intend to commit murder or treason or to destroy property. " I feel," said he, " no consciousness of guilt." - Abraham Lincoln was born in Hardin County, Kentucky, 'in iSog. His early life was spent in toil, hardship, and poverty; but it was the independent poverty of the Western wilderness, and it made men of those who fought their way out of it. When the boy was only eight years old he had learned to swing an ax. From that time until he came of age he literally chopped and hewed his way forward and upward; He learned to read from two books — the spelling book and the Bible ; then he borrowed "Pil- grim's Progress" and yEsop's Fables, and would sit up half the night reading them "by the blaze of the logs his own ax had split." In 1S16 the Lincoln family moved to Spencer County, Indiana; and in 1830, to Decatur, Illinois. On this last occasion young Lincoln walked the entire distance, nearly two hundred miles, through mud and water, driving a four-ox team. The journey took fifteen days, for even two yoke of oxen do not move quite as fast as steam. When they reached their 274 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [i860 States, then a nation of over 30,000,000. That party, though it denounced John Brown's attempt (§ 314) as " lawless and unjustifi- able," pledged itself to shut out slavery from the territories. The people of South Carolina believed that the election of Mr. Lincoln meant that the great majority of the North was determined to bring about the liberation of the negroes. That was a great mis- take ; but the Carolinians could not then be convinced to the con- trary. They furthermore saw that they could no longer hope to maintain the power they once possessed in Congress, for the free states now had six more senators and fifty-seven more representa- tives than the slave states had.^ On December 20, i860, a convention met in " Secession Hall," in Charleston, and unanimously voted "that the union now sub- sisting between South Carolina and other states, under the name of the United States of America, is hereby dissolved." Those who thus voted said that it was no hasty resolution on their part, but destination, in what was then an almost unsettled country, the father and son set to work to build the log cabin which was to be their home ; and when that was finished, young Lincoln split the rails to fence in their farm of ten acres. Such work was play to him. He was now twenty-one ; he stood six feet three and a half inches, barefooted ; he was in perfect health ; could outrun, outjump, outwrestle, and, if necessary, outfight any one of his age in that part of the country, and " his grip was like the grip of Hercules." Without this rugged strength he could never have endured the strain that the nation later put upon him. In 1834 he resolved to begin the study of law. A friend in Springfield offered to lend him some books ; Lincoln walked there, twenty-two miles from New Salem (where he then lived), and, it is said, brought back with him four heavy volumes of Blackstone, at the end of the same day. A few years later he opened a law office in Springfield. In 1S46 "Honest Abe," as his neighbors and friends called him, was elected to Congress ; and in i860, to the presidency of the United States, by the Republican party (Hannibal Hamlin of Maine, Vice President). The Democratic party had split into a Northern and a Southern party. The former had nominated Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, and the latter John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky. The former American (or " Know Nothing ") party, which now called itself the '' Constitu- tional Union Party," had nominated John Bell of Tennessee. Lincoln received nearly half a million more votes than Douglas, and more than a million in excess of those cast for either of the other candidates. 1 In 1 790, just after the foundation of the government, the free states (that is, the northern states ; they had comparatively few slaves) had 14 senators and 35 representatives in Con- gress ; the slave states, 12 senators and 30 representatives. From 1796 to 1812, inclusive, the free states and the slave states had an equal number in the Senate, but the free states had a majority in the House. After 1848 the free states had a majority in both Senate and House, and in the latter thiS' majority was constantly increasing. That fact meant that the South had lost its political power, partly because slavery had failed to get a foothold in the Far West, but mainly because the North had outgrown the South in population. ^X7!o2^^^e<:^t^^^^ 275 76 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [iSGO-isoi that it had been under consideration for many years. The declara- tion of secession was welcomed in the streets of Charleston with the firing of cannon and the ringing of bells. The citizens believed that they had broken up the Union, and that South Carolina had now, as its governor said, become a " free and independent state." 316. Secession of Six Other Southern States; Formation of the ' ' Confederate States of Amer- ica." By the first of February (1861) the states of Georgia, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas — mak- ing seven in all — had likewise withdrawn from the Union, A seceding senator rashly declared that they had left the national government "a corpse lying in state in Washington." Dele- gates from these states met at Montgomery, Alabama. They framed a government (1861) and took the name of the "Confed- erate States of America," with Montgomery as the capital ; then they elected Jefferson Davis ^ of Mississippi, President of the Con- federacy, and Alexander H. Stephens^ of Georgia, Vice President. Boyhood of Lincoln 1 Jefferson Davis was bom in Kentucky in iSoS; died, iSSg. He graduated at West Point Military Academy in 1828. In 1845 he was elected to Congress by the Democrats in Mississippi, of which state he had become a resident. He served with distinction in the Mexican War. In 1S47 he entered the United States Senate, where, like Calhoun, he advo- cated " State Sovereignty " (§ 269) and the extension of slavery. President Pierce made him Secretary of War. He was United States senator under Buchanan. His state (Missis- sippi) seceded on January 9, i85i. Mr. Davis kept his seat in the Senate until January 21, and then, with a speech asserting the right of secession, he withdrew to join the Southern Confederacy. 2 Alexander H. Stephens was bom in Georgia in 1812 ; died, 1883. He was in Congress as a representative of the Whigs from 1843 to 1859. He afterwards joined the Democrats. He at first opposed secession, and said that it was " the height of madness, folly, and wicked- ness " ; but when Georgia seceded, he decided that it was his duty to stand by his state. After the Civil War he again entered Congress, and in 1882 he was elected governor of Georgia. He was a man who had the entire respect of those who knew him. 1S60-18G1] WHY THE SOUTH SECEDED 277 The Confederate States now cast aside the Stars and Stripes, and hoisted a new flag, the Stars and Bars, in its place. 317. Why the South seceded; Seizure of National Property; the Star of the West fired on. What took these seven states — soon to be followed by four more — out of the Union ? The answer is, It was first their conviction that slavery would thrive better by being separated from the influence of the North ; and, secondly, it was their belief in " State Rights," or, better, " State Sovereignty " (§ 269), upheld by South Carolina as far back as Jackson's presidency. According to that idea, any state was justi- fied in separating itself from the United States whenever it became convinced that it was for its interest to withdraw. In this act of secession many of the people of the South took no direct part, — a large number being, in fact, utterly opposed to it, — but the political leaders were fully determined on separa- tion. Their aim was to establish a great slaveholding republic of which they should be head.^ President Buchanan made no attempt to prevent the states from seceding; part of his cabinet were Southern men, who were in full sympathy with the Southern leaders, and the President did not see how to act. The seceded states seized the forts, arsenals, and other national property within their limits, so far as they could do so. Fort Sumter, commanded by Major Anderson of the United States army, in Charleston harbor, was one of the few where the Stars and Stripes remained flying. President Buchanan had made an effort to send men and supplies to Major Anderson by the merchant steamer Star of the West (January 9, 1861) ; but the people of Charleston fired upon the steamer, and compelled her to go back. 1 Alexander H. Stephens, Vice President of the Confederacy, said, in a speech at Savannah, March 21, 1S61 : "The prevaihng idea entertained by him [Jefferson] and most of the lead- ing statesmen at the time of the formation of the old Constitution [the Constitution of the United States] was that the enslavement of the African was in violation of the laws of nature ; that it was wrong in principle — socially, morally, and politically. . . . Our new government [the Southern Confederacy] is founded upon exactly the opposite idea ; its foundations are laid, its corner stone rests, upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man ; that slavery — subordination to the superior race — is his natural and normal condition." — McPherson's Political History of the Rebellion^ p. 103. 2/8 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1861 All eyes were now turned toward Abraham Lincoln. The great question was, What will he do when he becomes President ? 318. General Summary from Washington to Buchanan (1789- 1861); Growth of the West; Secession. Looking back to the be- ginning of the presidency of Washington (1789), we see that over seventy years had elapsed since the formation of the Union. We then had a population of less than 4,000,000 ; at the outbreak of secession ( 1 860) we had eight times that number, and much more than eight times the wealth possessed by us in 1789. Thus, from a small and poor nation we had grown to be great and prosperous. In 1789 our western boundary was the Mississippi, and there seemed no prospect that we should extend beyond it. Long be- fore 1 86 1 we had reached the Pacific. Our original 800,000 square miles had increased to over 3,000,000 ; and the origi- nal thirteen states had added to themselves twenty-one more, be- sides immense territories. (Map, p. 286.) OS I HK Way to Colorado j^ ^ ^g^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^-^^^ — New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Charleston, — and they were so small that they were hardly worthy of the name. By 1 86 1 five of these places had grown enormously in popula- tion and wealth ; furthermore, Brooklyn, Detroit, Cincinnati, and St. Louis had become large and flourishing cities, and we had added to them Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis,^ Indianapolis, Mil- waukee, New Orleans, Galveston, Kansas City, and Salt Lake City, besides Portland, Seattle, and San Francisco in the P"ar West ; all but the last six were connected with one another by railways and lines of telegraph. In fact, the western and northwestern parts of the country had advanced "by leaps and bounds," so that every year beheld it 1 The eastern part of what is now Minneapolis was incorporated as a city, under the name of St. Anthony, in iS6o. The west side, named Minneapolis, was incorporated as a city in 1867 ; in 1S72 the two were united under that name. 1801] SECESSION 279 coming more and more to the front. Emigrants, miners, and other pioneers of civihzation were constantly pushing forward into the vast region beyond the Mississippi. There they were building the first rude shanties of settlements which were to become known as Omaha (1854) and Denver (1858), and they were laying the foundations of the twelve great states ^ which, with West Virginia, have since joined the Union. But between 1789 and 1861 there was this sad difference: Washington had found and left us a united people ; Buchanan, a divided people. Seven of our states had seceded ; four more would go. For many years we 'had been brothers; now we were fast becoming enemies. Only let the word be spoken, and our swords would leap from their scabbards, and we would fly at each other's throats. What had brought about this deplorable change ? Time. Time had strengthened slavery at the South and freedom at the North. It was no longer possible for both to dwell together in peace under the same flag. Either the Union must be dissolved, or those who loved the Union must fight to save it ; and, before the war should end, must fight to make it wholly free. If freedom should triumph, then lasting peace would be restored ; for then the North and the South — no longer separated by slavery — would again become one great, prosperous, and united people. 1 The twelve states are Kansas, Nevada, Nebraska, Colorado, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Idaho, Wyoming, Utah, and Oklahoma. They entered the Union between January, iS6i, and November, 1907. VIII " Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth upon this con- tinent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. . . . We here highly resolve . . . that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom ; and that government of the people, by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth." — President Lincoln's Address at Gettysburg, November ig, i86j. THE CIVIL WAR^ (April, iS6i— April, 1S65) the republican party in power Abraham Lincoln (Republican) and Andrew Johnson (War Democrat) 319. Lincoln's and Johnson's Administrations (Sixteenth and Seventeenth Presidents, Two Terms,'^ 1861-1869) ; the President's Arrival at Washington; his Inaugural Address; his Intentions toward the Seceded States. President Lincoln's friends believed that it would not be safe for him to make the last part of his journey to Washington publicly ; and he therefore reached the national capital secretly by a special night train. 1 Reference Books (the Civil War). W. Wilson's " Division and Reunion," eh. 8-10 ; T. A. Dodge's "A Bird's-Eye View of Our Civil War " (revised edition) ; W. C. Bryant and Gay's " United States" (revised edition), IV, eh. 17-19; V, ch. 7-18; J. Schouler's "Civil War"; A. B. Hart's "American History by Contemporaries," IV, ch. 18-22 ; A. B. Hart's " Source Book," pp. 296-335 ; F. E. Chadwick's " Causes of the Civil War " ; J. K. Hosmer's " The Appeal to Arms " ; J. K. Hosmer's " Out- come of the Civil War." See also the classified List of Books in the Appendix.. 2 Abraham Lincoln (§315, note 2) was elected President by the Republican party (Hannibal Hamlin of Maine, Vice President), in 1S60, over Douglas and Breckenridge, the two candidates of the Northern and the .Southern Democrats, and Bell, the candidate of the " Constitutional Union" party. He was again elected by the RepubHcans in 1864 (Andrew Johnson of Tennessee, Vice President) over General George B. McClellan, the Democratic candidate. President Lincoln was assassinated April 14, 1865, one month and ten days after entering upon his second administration. Vice President Johnson then became President 280 18G1-] THE FIRST GUN OF THE WAR 281 At his inauguration (March 4, 1861) he said: "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the states where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so ; and I have no inclination to do so." But the President also declared in the same speech that he held the Union to be perpetual, and that he should do his utmost to keep the oath he had just taken "to preserve, protect, and defend it " (§ 199). He furthermore declared that the government had no intention of begin- ning war against the se- ceded states, but would Charleston Harbor Showing Fort Sumter and the battery which fired on the Siar of the West only use its power to retake the forts and other national property which had been seized by the Confederacy. At this time the general feeling throughout the northern states was a strong desire for peace and a willingness to assure the southern states that their constitutional right ^ to hold slaves should not be interfered with. First Year of tpie War (April, i 861— April, 1862) 320. Major Anderson's Condition at Fort Sumter; the First Gun of the War; Surrender of the Fort. Major Anderson now sent a message to the President, stating that he could not long for the remainder of the term. President Lincoln, on first entering oflfice, chose William H. Seward, Secretary of State; Salmon P. Chase, Secretary of the Treasury; Gideon Welles, Secretary of the Navy ; and Simon Cameron, Secretary of \\'ar (succeeded, January 15, 1S62, by Edwin M. Stanton). During the Civil War they rendered services of inestimable value to the President and to the nation. 1 See the Constitution (as it then stood), Article IV, Section 2, Paragraph 3, ^^ No person held to soi'ice,^'' etc. 282 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1861 continue to hold Fort Sumter unless provisions were sent to him. His entire garrison, aside from some laborers, consisted of eighty-five officers and men ; the Confederate force in Charles- ton was about 7000. The government immediately made arrange- ments to send the needed supplies. As soon as Jefferson Davis heard of it, he ordered General Beauregard, in command of the FuKT SUMTEK Confederate army at Charleston, to demand the surrender of the fort. Major Anderson declined to surrender, and at daybreak, April 12, 1 86 1, the Confederates fired the first gun at the fort. It was answered by one from Sumter. War had begun. For thirty-four hours nineteen batteries rained shot and shell against the fort, which continued to fire back. Notwithstanding this tremendous cannonade, no one was killed on either side. But Major Ander- son, finding that his ammunition was nearly exhausted, and having nothing but pork to eat, decided to give up the fort. On Sunday (April 14) he, with his garrison, left the fort and embarked for New York ; he carried with him the shot-torn flag under which he and his men had fought (§ 358). 1861] THE RISING OF THE NORTH 283 The Confederate Flag The Stars and Bars 321. President Lincoln's Call for Volunteers; the Rising of the North. The next day (April 15, 1861) President Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers for three months' service, for few then supposed that the war, if there was really to be a war, would last longer than that. In response to the Pres- ident's call the whole North seemed to rise. Men of all parties forgot their politi- cal quarrels, and hastened to the defense of the capital. The heart of the people stood by the Union, and by the old flag. Within thirty-six hours several companies from Pennsylvania had reached Washing- ton. They were speedily followed by the Sixth Massachusetts Regiment — the first full regiment to march. They had to fight their way through a mob at Baltimore. There, on April 19, 1861, the day on which the Revo- lutionary battles of Lexington and Concord were fought, the first Union soldiers gave their lives for the preservation of the nation. Many of the volunteers were lads under twenty, and some of them had never left home before. There were many affecting scenes when the "' boys in blue " ^ started for Washington. Anxious mothers took tearful leave of sons, whom they feared they should never see again. The peril of the republic touched men in all conditions of life as nothing ever had before. Farmers left their plows, me- chanics dropped their tools, clerks said farewell to their employers, college stu- dents threw down their books — all hur- to take their places in the ranks, and even lads of fifteen begged to go as drummer boys. On the Southern side there were the same anxious leave-takings ; for it should be borne in mind that while the people of the North were eager to offer their lives for the defense of the Union, the 1 The Union soldiers wore blue uniforms ; the Confederates, gray. The Shot-Torn Flag which Anderson carried away FROM Fort Sumter ried 284 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [iSGl people of the South were just as eager to give theirs to repel what they considered invasion. 322. Secession of Four More States; General Butler's "Contra- bands." President Lincoln's call for troops made it necessary for the remaining slave states to decide at once whether they would remain in the Union or go out. Virginia ^ joined the Confederacy ; but the western part of the state had voted against secession, and later it became a separate state (1863) under the name of West Virginia. The Confederate capital was soon removed from Montgomery to Richmond (§ 316). Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina followed the example of Virginia ; but Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri did not secede. By the middle of June the Confederacy consisted of eleven states ; no more were added. General Butler of Massachusetts held command of Fort Mon- roe ^ in eastern Virginia. It was the only Union stronghold in the state, and was of the very highest importance. A number of slaves came to the general and begged him to set them free. He had no authority to give them their liberty. On the other hand, he was certain that if he returned these slaves to their masters they would use them in carrying on the war against the Union. Finally, General Butler got out of the difficulty by saying, These negroes are contraband of zuaj'^ ; then putting spades in the hands of the "contrabands," as they were henceforth called, he set them to work to strengthen the fort. General Butler's action was the first de- cided blow struck at the existence of slavery after the commence- ment of the war. 323. Condition of the North and of the South with Respect to the War. In regard to the terrible struggle now about to begin between the North and the South, each of the combatants had certain advantages over the other. 1 The secession of eastern Virginia immensely increased the mihtary difficulties with which the North had to contend. Had Virginia remained in the Union (as she seemed at one time likely to do), the war would probably have been of short duration. ^ Commonly called Fortress Monroe, but officially designated Fort Monroe. 3 Contraband of war : here meaning, forfeited by the customs or laws of war. General Butler's idea was that the laws of war forbade his returning any property to the Confederates which they could use in carrying on the contest. 18G1] THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH IN THE WAR 285 1. At the North the national government had more than twice as many men to draw on as the South, ^ 2. The North, although unprepared for war, had iron mills, shipyards, foundries, machine shops, and factories of all kinds. For this reason it could make everything its soldiers would need, from a blanket to a battery. 3. The North had the command of the sea, and so with its war vessels — most of which, however, it had to buy or build — it could shut up the Southern ports and cut them off from help from abroad. The South had the following advantages : 1. It had prepared for the war by getting possession of large quantities of arms and ammunition (though it had small means of getting any more). 2. With the exception of General Scott and a few others who stood by the Union, it had a majority of the best known officers in the regular army, — such men as Robert E. Lee of Virginia '■^ and General Beauregard. 3. It could send all of its fighting men to the front, while it kept several millions of slaves at work raising food to support them. 4. It was able to fight on the defensive, on its own soil, and so required fewer soldiers. General Grant thought that the two armies, all things considered, were about equally matched. 324. How Money was raised to carry on the War; National Banks. The national government needed immense sums of money to pay the Union soldiers, and to obtain arms and military supplies. The South, on the other hand, was soon practically cut off from 1 The total population of the United States in i860 was, in round numbers, 32,000,000. The Union states, including the border states, had about 23,000,000 ; the eleven seceded states about 9,000,000, of which nearly 3,500,000 were slaves. Both sides drew men from the border states. 2 General Lee was born in Virginia, 1807 ; died, 1S70. He was a graduate of \\'est Point and served with distinction in the Mexican War (§ 292). When Virginia seceded, Lee, who was then a lieutenant colonel in the United States army, said, " I recognize no necessity for this state of things," yet he felt it his duty to go with his state. He said, "With all my devotion to the LTnion ... I have not been able to make up my mind to raise my hand against my relatives, my children, my home." He was made commander in chief of the Virginia state forces. In 1S62 he received — subject to the orders of Jefferson Davis — the entire com- mand of " the armies of the Confederacy." His management of the war showed that he was a man of great military ability, and of entire devotion to what he understood to be his duty. 286 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [186I selling its cotton or from raising money in any way. The national government obtained it in four ways : 1. By calling on the people of the North for many kinds of new taxes. 2. By a war tariff which increased the duties collected on im- ported goods, and compelled payment of such duties in gold. 3. By issuing enormous quantities of paper money, commonly called "greenbacks." 4. Finally, and chiefly, by borrowing hundreds of millions of dollars both at home and abroad. In return for these loans the national government gave bonds which promised to repay the bor- rowed money in a certain number of years, and to pay interest on it at from six to over seven per cent per year. In order to obtain these loans more readily, the government created (1863) a great system of new banks called National Banks. The state and city banks then in existence (§ 265) had this disad- vantage : their paper money often would not pass in another state except at a loss to the holder. On this account people frequently could not tell, when away from home, what a dollar bill was really worth. But the national-bank bills have always been good all over the United States, because the banks which issue them are obliged by law to deposit government bonds with the treasurer at Wash- ington as security.! j^^ ^jj^g ^]\ g^-^^g ^^^ (^[^y banks became National Banks. 325. The Number and Position of the Two Armies. President Lincoln's first call for troops was quickly followed by others, and the South likewise strengthened its side. By the summer of 1861 the Union forces probably numbered about 180,000, and those of the Confederates 1 50,000. The former were under the direction of the veteran General Scott (§ 292), and the latter under General Beauregard.2 The Union army was mainly in eastern Virginia and 1 By the act of I S63 (materially changed in 1900), National Banks were compelled to borrow money from the national government, to the amount of 90 per cent of the bills they issued, and to deposit the bonds they received from the government with the treasurer at Washington. 2 General Joseph E. Johnston ranked above General Beauregard, and after the battle of Bull Run (July 21, 1S61), in which he took a leading part, he held command of the Confed- erate army of Virginia until he was wounded at the battle of Seven Pines, May 31, 1862, when General Lee took command. Approximate limit occupied by U. S. Troops, July 1, 1S61 =^= Sherman's March Railways I I Union States ■i^i, Blockade I I Early Secession + Forts I I Later Secession 112 107° Longitude 102° 1861] THE BATTLE OF BULL RUN 287 Maryland. It extended along the banks of the Potomac from Har- pers Ferry to the mouth of the river, and thence southward to Fort Monroe. The Confederate army held the country south of the Potomac, with Richmond as its fortified center. (Map, p. 286.) In Missouri the national troops, under General Lyon, Fremont,^ and Halleck, got control of that state, while General McClellan drove the Confederates from West Virginia. In the southwest the Confederates had got possession of the Mississippi from New Orleans to Columbus, Kentucky, by building forts on the banks of the river. They were preparing to do the same on the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers, and they hoped to get the entire control of Kentucky besides. 326. The Battle of Bull Run. The cry at the South was, " On to Washington ! " It was answered by the cry of the North, " On to Richmond ! " Beauregard had taken up his position at Manassas Junction on a small stream called Bull Run. There he could both protect the Confederate capital and threaten Washington. He had an army of about 30,000. General McDowell, in command, in the field, of the Union forces, had about the same number.^ One army, as President Lincoln said, was as "green" as the other. McDowell advanced, not because he was ready, but for the simple reason that the North was tired of waiting and was impatient to strike a decisive blow. The battle began on a sweltering hot Sunday in July (July 21, 1 861). At first the Union troops drove the Confederates from their position. General Bee, one of the Southern leaders, rushing 1 General Fremont was born at Savannah in 1813. Under the authority of the govern- ment he began the exploration of the Rocky Mountains and of an overland route to the Pacific in 1842-1844. In 1845 he set out on another exploring expedition to the Pacific coast. After the outbreak of the Mexican War he, with the assistance of American settlers in California, freed that territory from the authority of Mexico, and in the summer of 1846 he was appointed governor of the territory. By treaty with Mexico in 1847 Fremont secured California to the United States. In 1856 he was nominated to the presidency (as the Anti- slavery candidate) by the Republican party. From 1878101881 he was governor of Arizona. In the summer of 1S61 Frdmont issued a proclamation emancipating the slaves of all persons in Missouri who were in arms against the Union ; but President Lincoln refused to approve it. 2 In the Civil ^^'ar the Confederates counted in battle only those of their men who were present and able to fight ; but the Union officers, on the contrary, counted all as present whose names were on their army rolls. See General Grant's " Personal Memoirs," II, 290, and "The Centurj' Company's War Book," I, 485. 288 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1861 up to General Jackson, cried out, " General, they are beating us back ! " " We will give them the bayonet," said Jackson, quietly. Rallying his men, Bee shouted, " Look ! there is Jackson standing like a stone wall ! " It was true ; and " Stonewall " Jackson,^ as the Confederate general was ever after called, used "the bayonet" to check the Union advance. Then the Southerners held their ground until heavy reenforcements came up, by rail, from the Shenandoah \-alley, and drove the Union troops from the hard-fought field. As the Confederate Gen- eral J .E.Johnston says : " The Northern army fought under the great disadvantage of hav- ing to make the attack. They fled back to Wash- ington in confusion." 327. Results of the Defeat at Bull Run. Some failures are step- ping-stones to success. The defeat at Bull Run was such a case. In- stead of discouraging the people of the North, it roused them to new and greater effort. At the very time the defeated and disheartened Union soldiers were pouring over the Long Bridge across the Potomac into Washington, Congress voted to raise 500,000 men and $500,000,000 to carry on the war. 1 General T. J. Jackson of Virginia, bom 1S24; died 1S63. He was one of the most remarkable men who fought on the side of the South. His motto was, " Do your duty, and leave the rest to Providence." His death was the heaviest personal loss, except perhaps that of General A. S. Johnston (§ 332), which the South sustained during the war. Lee called " Stonewall " Jackson his " right arm " ; in his department he ranked as one of the ablest generals in the Confederacy, and was respected alike by those who fought under him and those who fought against him. 18(51] UNION PLAN OF THE WAR 289 The ciy of the North was now, " Drill and organize ! " General McClellan came from West Virginia (i^ 325) to take command of the army. He taught the men the great lesson, that enthusiasm without military organization is of no more use than steam without an engine. For the next six months and more " all was quiet on the Potomac ";i that quiet, however, meant that both sides were getting ready to fight in terrible earnest. 328. Union Plan of the War. Gradually a plan for the war in defense of the Union took shape ; it was this : 1 . To station vessels of war in front of all Southern ports (Map, p. 286), and thus cut off the South from getting supplies from abroad for carrying on the contest. This blockade by the Union navy was of immense help, and without it the contest might have dragged on for many years longer than it did. 2. To attack and take Richmond. 3. To open the lower Mississippi, with the Tennessee and the Cumberland, which the Confederate forts had closed to navigation. 4. To break through the Confederate line in the West, march an army to the Atlantic, and thence northward to Virginia. 329. Blockade Runners; Confederate War Vessels; Seizure of Mason and Slidell. While the Union forces were getting pos- session of Fort Hatteras, Port Royal, and other points on the coast of North and South Carolina, fast Southern vessels ran the gantlet of the blockade to obtain arms and ammunition ; further- more, British steamers, specially built for the work, often succeeded in evading the Union cruisers and in bringing supplies for the Confederates. Jefferson Davis had no navy, but he succeeded in buying or building a number of war vessels in Great Britain, which in time destroyed so many merchant ships owned in the North that unarmed vessels no longer dared to carry the Stars and Stripes. Later, the Alabama, built in England, was added to the Confed- erate fleet and inflicted immense damage on Union commerce, for which at the end of the war England had to pay roundly (§ 374). 1 On October 21, 1S61, a body of Union troops, 2000 strong, was beaten by a large force of Confederates at Ball's Bluff on the Potomac, and on August 10 of the same year General Lyon was defeated and killed at the battle of Wilson's Creek, Missouri. 290 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [18G1 Early in November (1861) the Confederacy undertook to send two commissioners or agents — Mason and Slidell — to Europe to get aid for the Southern cause and also to endeavor to per- suade England and France to acknowledge the independence of the Confederate States. Captain Wilkes of the United States navy stopped the British mail steamer Trent, on which Mason and Slidell had embarked for England, and took them both prisoners. England at once demanded that the national government should give them up. The North protested, but President Lincoln said : " We fought Great Britain in 18 12 for doing just what Captain Wilkes has done. We must give up the prisoners to England." It was done, but Mason and Slidell never succeeded in accomplishing anything of importance for the Confederacy. 330. The Merrimac destroys the Cumberland and the Congress; the Monitor. At the beginning of the great struggle the Con- federates seized the navy yard at Norfolk, Virginia, and got I8(i2] THE "MONITOR" AND THE " MERRIMAC '^ 291 possession of the United States ship of war ]\Ic7'riniac. They plated the vessel with railway iron and sent her out to destroy the Union war vessels at the mouth of the James River off Fort Monroe. (Map, p. 288.) The Union ships were of wood, and the balls from their guns could no more penetrate the iron shell of the monster which now attacked them than a sparrow's bill could penetrate the back of an alligator. The Mcrrimac sunk the Ciunbcrland, which carried down with her many sick and wounded men ; ^ she then destroyed the Congress. The next day (Sunday, March 9, 1862) the Merrimac returned to complete the destruction of the fleet ; suddenly a strange little craft ap- peared, looking like a " cheese box on a raft." This was the Monitor^-' a new Union war vessel built of iron and commanded by Lieutenant Worden. The Merrimac now found that she had got her match. After a terrific batde the Con- federate vessel hur- ried back to Norfolk. Lieutenant Worden's " Little Giant " had won the day. If the Mcrrimac had gained the victory, she might next have gone up the Potomac and destroyed the national capital. In that case European nations might have acknowledged the independence of the South, and demanded that the blockade be raised and the ports of the Confederacy thrown open to the commerce of the world. The United States now built more monitors, and by the end of the year had a fleet of several hundred effective war vessels of different kinds, both on the ocean and on the western rivers. 1 See Longfellow's poem on the loss of the Cumberland. '- The Monitor was built by Captain Ericsson, the inventor of the screw propeller for steamships, and of the hot-air engine. She was an iron vessel of small size, sitting so low in the water that scarcely anything of her hull was visible. In the center of her deck stood a revolving iron turret, which carried two cannon, sending solid shot weighing one hundred and sixty-six pounds. The invention of the Monitor revolutionized the construction of war vessels throughout the world. Few wooden ships of war have since been built. The "Monitor" \nd thp Mlkkim \( 292 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1862 331. The War in the West; Capture of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson. At the West the line of the Confederate army, under General A. S. Johnston, stretched from Mill Spring and Bowling Green, in Kentucky, through Fort Donelson on the Cumberland and Fort Henry on the Tennessee, to Columbus on the Missis- sippi. (Map, below.) General Halleck,^ in command of the greater part of the Union forces of the West, resolved to break that line, to enter the cotton states, and also to open the Mississippi. In January (1862), General Thomas gained a victory at Mill Spring and drove the Confederates out of eastern Kentucky. Then General Halleck ordered General U. S. Grant ^ to start from Cairo, Illinois, 1 General Halleck was born near Utica, New York, 1815; died, 1S72. He graduated at West Point and served in the Mexican A\'ar. ITe was appointed a major general of the United States army in August, 1861. He received command of the department of Missouri (with other states) in November, and of the department of the Mississippi in March, 1862. From July 11, 1862, to March, 1864, he was general in chief of the armies of the United States, and had his headquarters at Washington. 2 General U. S. Grant was born in Ohio, 1S22 ; died in New York, 1885. He was a graduate of West Point, and served in the Mexican War (§ 293), where he was promoted for meri- torious conduct in battle. In 1S59 he entered the leather and saddlery business with his father at Galena, Illinois. On the breaking out of the Civil War he raised a company of Union volunteers, and in August, 1861, he was made a brigadier general, and took command of the department of Cairo. His subsequent career will be traced in the pages of this history. h A ^ % ^ V ^ r A '^ .- t: i ^ 293 294 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [i862 and attack Fort Henry ; but Commodore Foote got there first with his gunboats and took it (February 6, 1862). Grant then moved on Fort Donelson. The battle raged for three days in succession ; then the Confederate General Buckner asked Grant what terms he would grant him if he gave up the fort. Grant wrote back, ''No terms except an iineotiditioiial and immediate surrender can be accepted!'^ The Confederates were forced to agree to Grant's conditions, and the first great Union victory of the war was won (February 16, 1862). Grant captured 15,000 prisoners —" the greatest number ever taken in any battle (up to that time) on this continent" — and also large quantities of arms. Columbus was now of no use to the Confederates and they abandoned it. The surrender of Nashville followed, and Kentucky and Tennessee were in the hands of the Union forces. 332. Battles of Pittsburg Landing and Island Number Ten. Grant, with his victorious army, then moved up the Tennessee River to Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, Here (April 6, 1862) he was attacked by General A. S. Johnston and driven back. The night after the battle General Buell brought a large force of Union troops. (Map, p. 292.) The Union men now outnumbered the Confederates by 17,000, and the next day Grant gained his second great victory. In his ofiicial report he said, " I am indebted to General Sherman for the success of that battle." On that hotly con- tested field 2 5 ,000 men had fallen dead or wounded ; ^ among them was General A. S. Johnston, one of the South's noblest men.^ On the following day (April 8, 1862) the Confederates on Island Number Ten, in the Mississippi (Map, p. 292), surrendered to Commodore Foote, after nearly a month's obstinate fighting. That victory was of immense importance, for it opened the river to the Union vessels down to Vicksburg, a distance of about three hundred miles. 333. General Summary of the First Year of the "War (April, 1861-April, 1862). The Civil War began (April 12, 1861) with the 1 Hence the name sometimes given General Grant of " Unconditional Surrender Grant." See copy of General Grant's letter to General Buckner on page 293. 2 Union force, 57,000; Confederate, 40,000. Union loss, 14,000; Confederate, 11,000. 3 After he was wounded. General Johnston sent his surgeon to attend to some wounded Union prisoners ; while he was gone Johnston bled to death. ISBL'] EXPEDITION AGAINST NEW ORLEANS 295 Confederate attack on Fort Sumter, After the surrender of that fort, the first great battle was fought in the summer at Bull Run, and resulted in the defeat of the Union army. The next spring (1862) the battle between the Merrimac and Monitor oczwxx^^, and the Merrimac was forced to retreat. During the year the Union forces in the West gained the important victories of Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, Pittsburg Landing, and Island Number Ten. The general result of the year's war was decidedly favorable to the cause of the Union, especially in the West. Second Year of the War (April, 1862 — April, 1863) 334. Expedition against New Orleans; how the City was de- fended. Very early in the spring (1862) an expedition under Captain Farragut^ and General Butler sailed from Fort Monroe to attack New Orleans, the most important city and port in the possession of the Confederate government. The approach to New Orleans v/as defended by two strong forts on the Mississippi, about seventy-five miles below the city.^ These forts were nearly opposite each other, so that any vessels trying to pass between them would be exposed to a tremendous cross fire from their guns. Just below the forts the Confederates had stretched two heavy chain cables, on hulks, across the river to check any Union war ships that might attempt to come up, while above the forts they had stationed fifteen armed vessels — two of them ironclads like the Merrimac (§ 330). With these defenses the city defied attack. Captain Farragut had a fleet of nearly fifty wooden vessels. It was considered to be the most powerful " that had ever sailed under 1 Admiral David G. Farragut, bom in Tennessee in iSoi ; died, 1870. He entered the navy in 1S12. In 1S41 he was made commander, and later captain. In 1862, after his famous victory at New Orleans, he was promoted to the rank of rear admiral, then (1864) to that of vice admiral, and in 1S66 to that of admiral, the highest position in the United States navy; the last two grades were created for him. From 1823 to the outbreak of the Civil War, Farragut's home, when on shore, was at Norfolk, Virginia. He insisted that Virginia had been forced to secede against the will of the majority of the people of the state. From 1861 to the close of his life his home was at Hastings-on-the-Hudson. 2 New Orleans is about one hundred and five miles from the sea. In the War of 1812 a single fort, at one of the points where those two Confederate forts stood, checked the advance of the British fleet for nine days. 296 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1862 the American flag." General Butler followed him to take com- mand of a force of 1 5,000 men, to hold the city after its surrender. Farragut's work, with the aid of Commander Porter's mortar boats, ^ was to silence the forts, break through the chains, conquer the Con- federate fleet, and take the city. One of the men who took part in that work was Lieutenant George Dewey, now Admiral Dewey, — the "Hero of Manila" (§415). 335. Bombardment of the Forts; Farragut passes them and destroys the Opposing Fleet ; Capture of New Orleans. For six days and nights Commander Porter hammered away at the forts, and the forts hammered back. The discharge of artillery was deafening, and the shock so severe that it killed birds and fishes. It even broke glass in windows at Balize, thirty miles away.^ Porter's men were completely exhausted by their labors at the guns, and the moment they were off duty they would drop down on the deck and fall fast asleep, amid the continuous roar of the battle. Finally, Captain Farragut determined to make an attempt to cut through the chains and run past the forts. He succeeded in doing this, and, after a terrific combat, destroyed the Confederate fleet and reached New Orleans. The river front of the city, for a distance of five miles, was all ablaze with burning ships, steamboats, and bales of cotton. The Confederates had set them on fire to prevent the Union forces from seizing them. A party of Farragut's men landed, speedily hauled down the Stars and Bars from the public buildings, and hoisted the Stars and Stripes in their place (April 25, 1862). Not long after this, Farragut was honored with the title of Rear Admiral. Port Hudson and Vicksburg were now the only important forti- fied points on the Mississippi still held by the Confederates. If the Union forces could take them, the great river of the West 1 Mortar boats : vessels for carrj'ing mortars, — short and very wide-mouthed cannon for firing shells. The shells used here were hollow cast-iron balls of great size, weighing nearly three hundred pounds. They were filled with powder, and so constructed that when they fell they would explode with tremendous violence. The shells made a peculiar screaming^ hissing noise as they flew through the air, accompanied by a train of smoke by day and of fire by night. When one buried itself in the earth inside of one of the forts and then ex- ploded, the result was like that of a small earthquake. 2 See Draper's "The American Civil War," II, 331. 1862] THE WAR IN VIRGINIA 297 would once more be open from its source to the sea. But both Port Hudson and Vicksburg stood on immensely high bluffs, out of the reach of the guns of the war vessels, so that it would be exceedingly difficult to capture them by an attack from the river. For this reason it was decided to let them alone until a land force could be sent to join in the attack. Meanwhile, the Union navy had captured several important points on the coast of North and South Carolina. 336. The War in Virginia; McClellan's Advance on Richmond; the Peninsular Campaign; the Weather. Before Farragut had taken New Orleans, General McClellan with 1 00,000 men began an advance on Rich- mond from Fort Monroe. His plan was to move up the Peninsula — as the Vir- ginians call the long and rather narrow strip of land between the James and York rivers. {Map, p. 288.) The Confederates did everything in their power to check his advance at Yorktown and Williamsburg, and later at Seven Pines or Fair Oaks. Meanwhile, heavy rains compelled McClellan's army to wade, rather than march forward, through mud and water. To increase his difficulties the Chicka- hominy River overflowed its banks. (Map, above.) Part of his army was on one side of it and part on the other. For weeks they struggled in a swamp, building roads and bridges, and fighting the weather rather than the enemy. In this way McClellan lost an immense number of his men by sickness. 337- " Stonewall" Jackson's Raid; Stuart's Raid; Results of the Peninsular Campaign. Early in June (1862) General Lee (§323) took command of the Confederate forces shortly after 298 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [i,s(i2 " Stonewall" Jackson (§ 326) had started to drive General Banks' Union army out of the Shenandoah valley,^ in West Virginia, and make the authorities in Washington think that the capital was in danger of immediate attack. With his 17,000 men Jackson made Banks' 9000 beat a hasty retreat to the Potomac ; and he effectually prevented McClellan from getting any help from the 40,000 Union troops at Fredericksburg. Then Lee sent General Stuart with a dashing body of cavalry to see what mischief he could do. Stuart rode clear round McClellan's army, tore up the railways, burned car loads of provisions, and made matters very uncomfortable for the Union general. From June 25 to July i (1862), Lee and McClellan were en- gaged in a number of desperate fights around Richmond, known as the "Seven Days' Battles";^ Lee captured many guns and prisoners ; the Union forces retreated to the James River, and the government at Washington recalled McClellan and his army to the neighborhood of the national capital. In these last battles over 15,000 men had been lost on each side. The Union army had accomplished nothing decisive, though it had been within sight of the spires of the Confederate capital, and of the wooden or " Quaker guns " which helped to guard it.^ Once the alarm there was so great that a niece of Jefferson Davis wrote to a friend, " Uncle Jeff thinks we had better go to a safer place than Rich- mond." On the other hand, President Lincoln called for addi- tional volunteers ; and new forces, shouting, " We are coming, Father Abraham, three hundred thousand more," began to go forward to the aid of the government. 338. The Second Battle of Bull Run ; Lee's Advance across the Potomac; Battle of Antietam. Near the last of August (1862), 1 General Joseph E. Johnston had been in command since the battle of Bull Run, July, i86 1 . He was wounded at the battle of Seven Pines, May 31, 1862, and Lee then took command. 2 In the last of these battles, that at Malvern Hill, Lee's forces were driven back with heavy loss. During the Peninsular campaign the armies of Fremont, Banks, and McDowell were united under the name of the Army of Virginia, and the command of this force was given to General Pope, who had been successful in the West. 3 One of the humorous features of the war was the use of wooden cannon by the Con- federates in their fortifications at Manassas, Richmond, and elsewhere. It was some time before the Union army found out this clever trick of the " Quaker guns," which, as a " con- traband " said, were " just as good to scare with as any others." ii«iiiipiP|»|iiiilifiiiiiiriiiiii (Jeneral Lee 299 300 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1862 Lee advanced his forces against General Pope, who had been given command of the Army of Virginia, and met him in the second battle of Bull Run. " Stonewall " Jackson did the heaviest of the fighting. Pope was defeated, but fell back in good order to Washington and resigned his command. Not long after, Lee crossed the Potomac above Washington, his men singing exultingly, " Maryland, my Maryland." Lee believed that thousands of the Maiyland people would welcome him as their deliverer, and would join him in a march against Philadelphia. In this he was sorely mistaken. In the middle of September " Stonewall " Jackson captured Harpers Ferry, and thus obtained a quantity of arms and some provisions. McClellan now advanced to meet Lee. At Antietam Creek (or Sharpsburg) (Map, p. 288) one of the bloodiest battles of the war was fought (September 17, 1862) ; and the bodies of the " boys in blue " and of the " boys in gray " lay in ranks like swaths of grass cut by the scythe. ^ After the terrible contest Lee retreated across the Potomac. McClellan followed, but he moved so slowly that the government took the command of the army from him and gave it to General Burnside. 339. Battles of Fredericksburg and Murfreesboro. General Burnside set out to march on Richmond, but found the Confeder- ates strongly fortified ^ on the hills around Fredericksburg, on the Rappahannock. (Map, p. 288.) In the battle which ensued (Decem- ber 13, J 862) he was defeated and forced to fall back toward Washington. General Hooker, or " Fighting Joe Hooker" as his men called him, then took command of Burnside's army. This was the last battle of the year in the East. In the West the Union forces had beaten the enemy at Pea Ridge, Arkansas, and had taken Corinth, Mississippi ; the Confederates attempted to retake it, but were driven back with frightful loss. Bragg in- vaded Kentucky ; Buell fought him at Perryville, and Bragg fled 1 Union forces actually engaged at Antietam were estimated at about 60,000. McClellan's available strength was probably double that of Lee's. Confederate forces, 40,000. See " The Century Company's War Book," II, 603. Loss nearly 12,000 on each side. Authorities differ about the strength of the two armies. " Loss " in all cases is understood to include umindcd as well as killed. 2 Burnside had about 1 16,000 men ; Lee had nearly 80,000 strongly entrenched on and near the hills. Burnside lost 12,000 men, and Lee not quite half that number. 1863] PROCLAMATION OF EMANCIPATION 301 with his plunder and took shelter behind the Cumberland Moun- tains, tyrant and Sherman then moved against Vicksburg, but the Confederate cavalry cut off Grant's supplies and Sherman was repulsed. Next, General Rosecrans moved against Bragg. He met the Confederate general at Murfreesboro, Tennessee (December 31, 1862). (Map, p. 292.) Each had about 40,000 men. The contest raged for three days. Rosecrans said, " The battle must be won." The Union forces held their ground,^ and Bragg retreated in the night. 340. President Lincoln's Proclamation of Emancipation, 1863; its Results ; the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution. Presi- dent Lincoln had entered office resolved, as he then said, not to interfere with slavery (§319). But the progress of the contest convinced him that slavery was the real cause and the main strength of the war against the Union. He saw that he must strike slavery a decided blow. On New Year's Day, 1863, the President issued a proclamation, freeing all the black men in those states of the South which were still at war against the Union. Thus by a single stroke of the pen the government gave over three millions of human beings that most precious yet most perilous of all rights — the ownership of themselves. No greater event is recorded in the pages of American history. After the expiration of nearly a hundred years the nation at last included the negro in that Declaration of Independence, which declares that "all men are created equal," — that is, with equal natural rights to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness," Many thousands of these " f reedmen " enlisted in the Union army ; but the greater part remained quietly at work on the South- ern plantations. The freedom of the whole body of slaves in the country was not secured until after the close of the war. Then the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution (1865) declared that slaver}^ should no longer exist in the United States. ^ From an industrial point of view, that final act of emancipation has 1 Union loss, 14,000 ; Confederate, 11,000. 2 See the Constitution — Amendments, Article XIII. 302 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1863 proved to be as much an advantage to the white race as to the negroes themselves. Free labor has brought a greater degree of prosperity than slave labor ever did. Now that the South is no longer hampered by having to hold the negroes in bondage, it has found its real strength and its true and lasting prosperity. 341. Summary of the Second Year of the War (April, 1862- April, 1863). The one great military success of the year on the part of the Union forces was the taking of New Orleans. In the East, if McClellan and his successors failed to reach Richmond, Lee, on the other hand, failed just as completely and far more disastrously in his attempted invasion of the North. The Procla- mation of Emancipation gave the war a new character. Up to this time the North had been fighting simply to restore the Union as it was before the South seceded ; but now it fought to restore the Union without slavery, — to make the nation wholly /;r^. Third Year of the War (April, 1863— April, 1864) 342. The War in the East ; Battle of Chancellor sville. In the spring (1863) General Hooker crossed the Rapidan, intending to advance on Richmond. But he had no sooner started than General Lee, with " Stonewall " Jackson (§ 326), met him at Chancellorsville.i (Map, p. 288.) Here a two days' battle was fought (May 2-3,1863). At a critical moment General Hooker was stunned by a cannon ball and lay senseless for many hours. During all that time his army was ''without a head." Lee, with "Stonewall" Jackson's help, Stonewall Jackson , , i 1 i 1 not only won the battle, but drove the Union forces back across the river. Still it was a dearly bought triumph for the Confederates, for " Stonewall " fell. If we except 1 Union forces in the battle, 130,000 ; Confederate, 60,000. But see note 2 on page 287, on estimates of combatants. Union loss, 17,000; Confederate, about 12,000. General Lee gave Jackson all the credit of the victory. REDUCED COPY OF A PART OF THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION: January i, 1863 ^/V^K-X/ ^ /lrVvt*Zj iM^^PjSo /vo /(o £~*j ---driAU^uU'i 1 President Lincoln issued a preliminary proclamation of emancipation on September 22, 1862, giving one hundred days warning to the South. In case any state chose to return to the Union within that time its slaves were not to be set at liberty by the final proclamation. The President said : '■ My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it ; and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it ; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that." — Letter to Horace Greeley, August 22, 1S62. 303 304 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1863 the loss of General A. S. Johnston (§ 332), the death of Jackson was the heaviest blow, of the kind, which the South suffered during the war. Chancellorsville was the last victory gained by the Confederates in Virginia in the "open country." The com- mand of the Union army was now given to General Meade. 343. Battle of Gettysburg. A month after the battle of Chancellorsville, Lee made a second (§ 338) attempt to enter the free states and conquer a peace. He moved down the Shenandoah valley with about 70,000 men, crossed the Potomac in June (1863), and moved into Pennsylvania, intending to strike Harrisburg, the capital of the state, and then, if successful, to march on Philadelphia. General Meade, with a Union force of 1^ \ /^ Senxijiai|;v r l^^"^ jj^ """^M^ 2ttysburgU\ >%^\ Ws'. w yK^l V CsiU''"'^'^''2 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [isofi-isw office,^ When these conditions should be accepted, but not before, the southern states might send representatives to Congress. Tennessee, President Johnson's state, having fulfilled all the conditions required, had been readmitted (1866). 365. Six States readmitted; Negro Legislators and " Carpet- baggers. "^ Six states accepted these conditions;^ four refused but accepted them later (1870). In some of the restored states, especially in South Carolina, there were more negroes than white men. The negroes got control of these states. They had been slaves all their lives, and were so ignorant that they did not even know the letters of the alphabet. Yet they now sat in the state legislatures and made the laws. After the war many industrious Northern men settled in the South, but, besides these, certain greedy adventurers, nicknamed " Carpetbaggers," went there eager to get political office and political spoils. These " Carpetbaggers " used the ignorant "' freedmen " as tools to carry out their own selfish purposes. Working with the negro legislators, they plundered the states that had the misfortune to be subject to their rulc.^ After a time the white population throughout the South resolved that they would no longer endure this state of things. Partly by peaceable and partly by violent means they succeeded in getting the political power into their own hands, and the reign of the "Carpetbagger" and the negro came to an end. 366. Congress impeaches the President; Proclamation of Full and Unconditional Pardon ; the Fifteenth Amendment. Meanwhile, the quarrel between Congress and the President (§ 363) was growing 1 See the Constitution — Amendments, Article XIV. The Fourteenth Amendment further- more required the South to repudiate its war debt and to agree to the payment of the Union war debt. 2 " Carpetbaggers " : a nickname given by Southerners to Northern adventurers who went South after the war (with no baggage or property except a carpetbag) for the purpose of getting office and phmder. Those Southerners who joined the "Carpetbaggers" in their schemes were nicknamed " Scalawags." 3 The six states which accepted (and were readmitted June, iS68) were Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, North Carolina, and South Carolina. Georgia, Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia remained out until 1S70. 4 In 1 868 the total debt of South Carolina was about $5,000,000. Under four years of " Carpetbag '' government, or rather misgovernment, the debt was increased to no less than J';3o,ooo, 000. Much of the debt represented simply what was stolen from the people of the state. 1867-1869] CONGRESS IMPEACHES THE PRESIDENT 333 more and more serious. The President was not only determined to have his own way, but also to remove from ofifice those who did not agree with him. Congress now passed the Tenure of Office Act (1867).^ It forbade his dismissing even the members of his own cabinet or private council without the consent of the Senate. The President denied the power of Congress to make such a law, and he removed Edwin M. Stanton, Secretary of War, who had been appointed by President Lincoln. For this refusal to obey the Tenure of Office Act Congress proceeded (1868) to impeach^ the President. On his trial thirty-five senators voted "guilty" and nineteen "not guilty"; as this was one less than the two-thirds' vote required to convict him. President Johnson was acquitted, A single vote more against him would have removed him from the presidency. On the Christmas following (1868) the President issued a proclamation of full and unconditional pardon to all persons who had taken part in the war against the Union. Early in the year following (1869) Congress passed the Fif- teenth Amendment to the Constitution. It was ratified by the states in 1870.^ The Thirteenth Amendment (passed 1865) made the negro free (§ 340), the Fourteenth Amendment (passed- 1866) made him a citizen (§ 364), the Fifteenth finished the work and made him a voter. All these great changes had taken place within the short space of four years ! But since then (1890- 1908) the greater part of the southern states have passed laws which practically take away the negro's power to vote in those states. For this reason the Fifteenth Amendment has at present no real force at the South (§ 409). 1 See W. Macdonald's "Select Statutes" (1861-1898), p. 160. The principal features of the act were repealed in 1869, and the remainder of it in 18S7. 2 Impeach the President: to bring him to trial. The House of Representatives makes the charges and the Senate tries the case — the Chief Justice presiding. See the Constitu- tion, Article I, Section 2, Paragraph 5 ; and Section 3, Paragraph 6. As only part of the south- ern states had been readmitted, the number of senators was then but 54. 3 See the Constitution — Amendments, Article XV. The Thirteenth Amendment was passed by Congress under Lincoln in 1865. It was ratified by the required number of three fourths of the states in December of that year, after Johnson had become President. The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments were passed by Congress during Johnson's presidency, but the last was not ratified until 1S70, after Grant had become President. 334 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [18(5(J 367. The Atlantic Telegraph Cable. These political events were not the only ones in which the country was interested. Professor Morse, the inventor of the telegraph, had predicted (§ 284) that the time would come when messages would be sent across the sea by electricity. Cyrus W. Field of New York formed a company to accomplish this work by laying a wire cable on the bottom of the Adantic, between Great Britain and the United States. The company lost several millions of dollare in attempting to do this, though they succeeded in laying a cable (1858) by which messages were sent for a few weeks. Not to be discouraged, Mr. Field formed a new company, and raised more money for the work. This time ( 1 866) he was entirely success- ful, and established a perma- nent telegraphic line beneath the sea, between the Old World and the New. A number of additional elec- tric cables have since been laid across the Atlantic. The re- sult is that every important event which occurs in Europe or in the United States is printed in the papers of both countries on the same day and often at the same hour. We shall see (§ 428) that many years later (1902) an American company laid a telegraphic cable across the Pacific. 368. Our Sixth Step in Expansion,— Purchase of Alaska ; Pay- ment of the National Debt. The next year (1867), just after Ne- braska entered the Union, we purchased from Russia the territory of Alaska, embracing more than 590,000 square miles. We paid a little over ^7,000,000 for it, or less than what four days of war had sometimes cost us. This addition to our territory was the sixth step in our progress of national expansion (§ 294). It raised the total area of the United States then to about 3,600,000 square miles, thus making it nearly equal to that of all the countries of Plurope united. Landing One End of Cable 102° Longitude I8(i7-i,si;9 Ulysses S. Grant (Republican) ^ 370. Grant's Administration (Eighteenth President, Two Terms, 1 869- 1 877); Completion of the Pacific Railway; what Railways and Telegraphs have done for the Union. Before the great Civil War broke out the people of California resolved to have a direct overland mail to the East. They established a pony express (i860) to carry letters between Sacramento and St. Joseph, Missouri, by way of Denver and Salt Lake City. This was soon followed by a telegraph line (1861). Next, they put on a daily line of stage- coaches for both passengers and letters by the same route (1862). When Indians attacked these coaches there was wild work. It was a race for life and a fight for life. But this means of communi- cation was too slow, and a number of enterprising Eastern and Western men resolved to build a railway across the continent to the Pacific. A little more than two months after General Grant became President, the last spike of the last rail of the new road was driven at Ogden, Utah (1869). The blows of the sledge hammer which drove that spike — completing the greatest work of the kind then in the world — were telegraphed, as they fell, through- out the Union. 2 Congress granted a tract of land in alternate sections, twenty miles wide, extending from Omaha to San Francisco in aid of this national enterprise. During the previous thirty-five years the gov- ernment gave to road, canal, and railway corporations public lands 1 General Ulysses S. Grant of Illinois (Schuyler Colfax of Indiana, Vice President) was elected President by the Republicans in 1868, over Governor Horatio Seymour of New York and Francis P. Blair of Missouri, the Democratic candidates. He was reelected in 1872 (Henry Wilson of Massachusetts, Vice President), over Horace Greeley of New York and B. Gratz Brown of Missouri, the candidates of the Liberal Republicans and the greater part of the Democrats united. 2 The Union Pacific Railway, begun during the Civil War, was built westward from Omaha on the Missouri to Ogden, Utah, a distance of 1029 miles; there it met and con- nected with the Central Pacific Railway, which was pushed through at the same time from San Francisco, a distance of 878 miles. The total distance from New York to San Fran- cisco is 3322 miles. The Northern and the Southern Pacific, the Great Northern, and the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railways have since been built (and in Canada, the Cana- dian Pacific), making five transcontinental lines in the United States, though several of these lines have since been consolidated into one system. COMPLETION OF THE PACIFIC RAILWAY 37 nearly equal in area to that of the thirteen original states as they now stand. Between Omaha and San Francisco the railway crosses nine mountain ranges, including the Rockies and the Sierras, climbing, and then descending, over 8000 feet. In point of time, it is now no farther from New York to San Francisco than it was in the days of the Revolution from New York to Boston. Then it took our fore- fathers between five and six days to go by wagon somewhat less than 250 miles ; now, in that time we can cross the entire continent. The First Pacific Railway The result of this rapid means of travel is of the greatest im- portance to the republic. Once members of Congress laughed at the idea that California and Oregon would be added to the United States. They said that it would be practically impossible for such states, if added, to send representatives to the national capital, because it would take them the greater part of the year to get to Washington and back. For that reason they believed that the people who setded the Pacific coast would form a separate and independent republic. The railway and the telegraph have changed all that. They have connected the farthest extremities of the country so closely that they have made it possible for us to extend and maintain the Union from ocean to ocean. 338 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [18G9- 371. Effect of the Pacific Railway on Commerce with Asia, and on the Growth of the Far West ; the Homestead Act. But this is not all. The building of the Pacific Railway entirely changed our relations with Asia. Teas, spices, and silks formerly reached us from China and from the East Indies by ships sailing round Cape Horn. Goods might be five or six months coming that immense distance. Now many of these goods come direct, by steamer, to San Francisco and Seattle, and are then sent, by rail, to the east. In a little over a month from the time a cargo of tea leaves China, it can be delivered in New York. The old navigators spent their lives in try- ing to find a direct, western route to Asia (§ 16) ; we have found it, though in a totally different way from what they expected. Last of all, and most important as well as last, the Pacific Railway, and the lines since built, have opened not only the Central West, but the Far West, — as the region west of the Rocky Mountains is called. Steam has enabled a peaceful army of thrifty emigrants to reach that section easily, quickly, and cheaply. The unexplored re- gion that a little more than a generation ago was given up to wild beasts and savages is now rapidly filling with population. The liberal land laws of the United States greatly encouraged this movement. P'rom 1830 to 1862 actual settlers on the public lands had the first right to buy 160 acres at the very low price of $1.25 per acre. This power of preemption, as it was called, made the farmer independent in large measure of speculators and other would-be purchasers. Next (1862) Congress passed the Homestead Act. That meas- ure made a present of 160 acres to every settler on government Where Sume of our Western Railways GO — Animas Can- yon, Colorado 1809-] WESTERN FARMS AND RANCHES A Western Ranch or Cattle Farm mr¥i\i^ land on condition that he built himself a home and proceeded to cultivate and improve the soil. The Western emigrant's song declaring that " Uncle Sam is rich enough to give us all a farm," then became a fact, though it cannot remain a fact much longer. ^ It induced scores of thousands to cross the Mississippi. Their labor has transformed the country where they settled. Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, and the newer states west and north of them, that were once treeless deserts or vast stretches of uncleared and uncultivated wilderness, are to-day covered with grain fields and fruit orchards. Denver and many other prosperous cities and towns in neigh- boring states have sprung up in places where, when Grant became President, there were often, at the most, only a few rude cabins made of sods or logs, or a few '" dugouts," excavated in the sides of the hills. Thus within the short period of about thirty years the railways of the West have entirely changed that part of the republic. They have converted what was once a broad extent of unoccupied territory — sometimes seemingly barren and worthless — into groups of rapidly growing commonwealths, rich in mines of precious metals, rich in farms, in ranches, and industries of every kind. Some of these farms, in the Far West, exhibit stock raising and agriculture on a scale never seen before, for they embrace 1 The area of farming land which the government now holds for disposition under the Homestead Act is diminishing rapidly, and in a very short time " Uncle Sam " will have no more to give away. On the other hand, the National Irrigation Act of 1902 has enabled the government to fertilize millions of acres of desert land by irrigation. The expense of the improvement is met by the sale of public lands, and settlers can obtain irrigated farms on condition that they pay for the water used. Recently more than 10,000 families have taken such farms in the Far West and are raising highly profitable crops on soil that a little while ago was simply " dust and ashes." 340 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1870-1871 from 5000 to 40,000 acres each, and have 50,000 head of cattle or sheep. There are single wheat fields of 13,000 acres, and single farms which extend for many miles, — covered as far as the eye can see, with one mass of grain rolling in golden waves. These are the kind of farms on which thirty-three horse har- vesters and steam harvesters are in use (§ 303). 372. Completion of Reconstruction ; the Weather Bureau ; Great Fires; the "Boss" Tweed "Ring." The reconstruction of the southern states was completed in 1870; and in January of the Copyright, Underwood & Underwood A Thirty-Three Horse Harvester following year (1871) all the states "were represented in Con- gress for the first time since December, i860." The disastrous effects of negro voting in South Carolina and some other states where the "freedmen" were in the majority (§365) caused violent resistance on the part of the white inhabitants. A secret society known as the Ku Khix Klan was organized in various parts of the South to prevent the negroes from voting. Congress passed the " Force Bill" (1871) to give military protection to the black 1871-1873] "RINGS" AND THEIR WORK 34 1 man ^ (repealed, 1 894). Experience has since proved that the negro can protect himself best by advancing in education and in habits of industry. It has already been mentioned (§ 366) that a number of southern states have practically abolished the African American's right to vote, but the fact remains that the negro, like the white man, still has the liberty to make himself what he chooses. That noted colored educator, Booker T, Washington, recently said that he would rather be an " American negro " than a white man.^ Another important work accomplished by Congress (1870) was the establishment of the Weather Bureau. This department has its headquarters at Washington, with branches in all the principal cities. Its object is to give information of approaching storms and changes of weather. It has been the means of saving the coun- try from heavy losses both by land and sea. The next autumn (1871) a great fire broke out in Chicago, which destroyed about 18,000 buildings valued at $200,000,000, During the same season terrible forest fires caused great destruc- tion in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. The year following (1872) a conflagration consumed business property in Boston worth about $80,000,000. These losses greatly aggravated the panic which followed soon afterward (1873) (§ 373). Our losses by fire now average more than $500,000 a day for every day in the year. In New York City it was discovered that " Boss " Tweed, one of the commissioners of public works, had been guilty, in connec- tion with other city officers, of a series of stupendous frauds. In the course of years this "ring," as it was called, robbed the city of many millions, — so many, in fact, that it would have been cheaper to have had a great fire like that of Chicago or Boston than to have kept these men in power. Eventually the "ring" was broken up, and Tweed died in Ludlow Street Jail. 373. The New Coinage Act; the Business Panic of 1873; the Centennial Exhibition; the Electric Light; the Telephone. Dur- ing the Civil War, and for many years afterward, paper money 1 See W. Macdonald's " Select Statutes " (1861-1S98), p. 249. 2 See Booker T. Washington's " The American Negro of To-Day," in Putnam's Monthly, October, 1907, p. 70. 342 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1873-18';6 was the only kind generally in use throughout the countiy (§ 324). Silver dollars had practically disappeared largely because people found dollar bills more convenient to carry than the heavier money, and although smaller silver coins were common, they, of course, could only be used for making trifling purchases and for " change." For these reasons Congress passed a new Coinage Act (1873) which dropped "' the silver dollar of our fathers " (§ 202) and ordered the United States mints not to issue any money for use at home ^ but gold pieces, small silver, and coppers. The Coinage Act attracted hardly any attention at the time, but a few years later a great outcry was raised against the measure and Congress was forced to restore the silver dollar (§379). The year 1873 was also memorable as the date of the begin- ning of a great business panic which ruined a multitude of people. One reason for the outbreak of the trouble was that the success of the first Pacific Railway (§371) led to the building of more western railways than the country then needed. Thousands of men believed that by speculation they could get rich at locomotive speed, but their plans ended (as in 1837 and 1857) (§§275, 312) in a terrible crash. Even the United States government felt so pinched for money that it stopped making payments on the war debt for a time, and all work on public buildings came to a standstill. The country did not fully recover from the " hard times " for five or six years. A leading feature of the celebration of the anniversary of the One Hundredth Year of the Independence of the United States was the opening of the Centennial Exhibition in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia (1876). The principal buildings covered a total space of about seventy-five acres. All the nations of the world sent products of their industry or their art to be exhibited ; but, as in the World's Fair of 1853 (§ 303), our own country again took the lead in the display of useful inventions. The Exhibition showed what a great change had taken place in the mode of doing most kinds of work. In Washington's day, and for many 1 The new Coinage Act provided, however, for the coinage of " trade dollars " to be employed in our commerce with China where silver was the only currency generally m use. 187(!-] THE ELECTRIC LIGHT AND TELEPHONE 343 years later, nearly everything was done by hand ; but by the time we had reached our hundredth birthday an industrial revolution had taken place. Arms of iron and fingers of steel now per- formed the labor. The duty of the workman since that period has been mainly to guide and superintend a machine which is his willing, tireless servant. One such machine, for instance, a steam printing press (§ 303), can often do more in a single hour than a man, working with his hands alone, could do in a week — or in a number of weeks. Since the Exhibition, machines have multiplied with greater rapidity than ever. Three of the most remarkable novelties then exhibited were the electric light, the first practical typewriter, and an instru- ment invented by Professor A. G. Bell of Boston, which we know to-day as the telephone. Professor Morse enabled men to send written messages to each other b}- electricity (§ 284) ; Professor Bell, going a step farther, enabled them to talk to- gether in the same way, so that cities as far apart as New York or Boston and Omaha ,^ are now actually v/ithin speaking distance of each other. More wonderful still, men sev- eral hundred miles apart have re- cently (1908) telephoned to each other without using any conduct- ing wires. They simply speak through the air. It is believed that in time this new method will become a practical success like wireless telegraphy (§428). Of late years the application of electricity to the service of man has made rapid progress in many ways. It rings fire-alarms, signals the approach of trains, shows us moving pictures, speaks and sings to us through the phonograph, drives various kinds of machinery, A Race between an Automobile AND AN Airship 344 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1876 propels cars over thousands of miles of street and country railways, is used on some automobiles, and, in certain cases, takes the place of the locomotive on steam railways. These things give us good reason for calling the twentieth century the " Electric Age." Now, not satisfied with rushing over the astonished earth in automobiles, men are experimenting with flying machines in which they hope to navigate the air. If they succeed in doing that, we shall have to go a step farther and name our century the '' Aerial, Electric Age." ^ 374. The Treaty of Washington (1871) ; the Geneva Arbitration Tribunal; Indian Wars; Colorado. Meanwhile (187 1), a very im- portant treaty,^ the Treaty of Washington, was made with Great Britain. Under that treaty an Arbitration Tribunal, which met at Geneva, Switzerland (1871), decreed that England should pay the United States $15,500,000 for damages done by the Alabama and other Confederate war vessels built in Great Britain (§ 329). Once such a claim on our part would probably have led to war between the two countries. The fact that it was peaceably settled showed what a great change for the better had taken place in the relations between England and America. It was unfortunate for us that we either could not or would not settle our disputes with the Western Indians in the same peaceable way. The Modocs of southern Oregon refused to be removed from their hunting grounds, and war ensued (1872). Later, the Sioux tribes, who had been driven from the Black Hills by gold seekers, made up their minds that they would not go to Indian Territory. General Custer, one of the bravest officers of the army, attacked them in their stronghold in Montana. The Indians numbered nearly ten to his one. In a desperate fight Custer and his entire command of several hundred men were killed on the spot (1876). But in time both the Modocs and the Sioux had to yield to superior force. A little later in the same year (1876) Colorado entered the Union as the " Centennial State." 1 Edison invented the electrical apparatus which shows moving pictures in action, and his electrical phonograph reproduces the sound of the human voice and of musical instruments. 2 The Treaty of Washington referred all matters in dispute between the two countries to one or more boards of arbitrators. The Geneva Tribunal consisted of five arbitrators. 1877] HAYES' ADMINISTRATION 345 375. The Disputed Presidential Election (1876). In the Pres- idential election (1876) Mr. Hayes, the Republican candidate, received a majority of one of the electoral votes ^ over his oppo- nent, Samuel J, Tilden, the Democratic candidate. The Demo- crats maintained that the election had not been fairly conducted and that Mr. Tilden had really received a majority of the votes for President. No such dispute had ever arisen before, and it filled the whole country with alarm. In order to settle this dangerous con- troversy Congress appointed an Electoral Commission to decide the matter. It was composed of ten members of Congress and five justices of the United States Supreme Court. The Commis- sion finally decided in favor of Mr. Hayes by a vote of 8 to 7, 376. Summary. President Grant's administration was marked ( 1 ) by the completion of the first railway across the continent ; (2) by the admission to Congress of representatives of all the seceded states ; (3) by a veiy important treaty with England ; (4) by terrible fires West and East, which destroyed property worth many millions of dollars ; (5) by a new coinage act which dropped the silver dollar from our coins ; (6) by a severe business panic ; (7) by the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia, and by the disputed presidential election of 1876. Rutherford B. Hayes (Republican) 377. Hayes' Administration (Nineteenth President, Ope Term, 1877-1881); Withdrawal of Troops from the South; the First Great Labor Strike. President Hayes ^ believed that there would never be permanent peace at the South until the people of that section were allowed to manage their own affairs without the inter- ' ference of the national government. He therefore withdrew the 1 See the Constitution, Article II, Section i, Paragraphs 1-4. 2 Rutherford B. Hayes was born in Ohio in 1822. He studied law, and settled in Cin- cinnati. During the Civil War he became a brigadier general in the Union army. After the war he was twice elected governor of Ohio. In 1876 he was elected President by the Repub- licans (William A. Wheeler of New York, Vice President) over Samuel J. Tilden of New York and Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana, the Democratic candidates. Mr. Hayes had but one more of the electoral votes than his opponent. On the dispute which followed see § 375. 346 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1877 United States troops from that part of the country, trusting that the whites and the blacks would come to an understanding between themselves. From that time forward the " solid South " — that is, the solid white vote of the South — got the control, and the negro ceased to govern {§ 365). The whole country was glad that the strife was over, and although many Republicans condemned the President's action, the majority of the people heartily approved it. In the summer (1877), the first great historic labor strike in America occurred. The employees of the Baltimore and Ohio Railway refused to work on account of a threatened reduction of wages. The strike spread to several states and more than 100,000 railway men went out. At Pittsburg serious riots occurred. A mob set fire to railway freight houses, machine shops, and other buildings, thereby destroying property worth many millions. Order was not finally restored until the President sent troops to Pittsburg to prevent further destruction. ^ 378. Deepening the Chief Mouth of the Mississippi. During Pres- ident Hayes' administration the attention of Congress was partic- ularly called to the condition of the Mississippi below New Orleans. That great river is constandy bringing down vast quantities of sand and mud, which gradually fill up the mouths of the stream. These sand bars finally blocked the passage to such an extent that large and heavily loaded ships could pass over them only with the greatest difficulty. On one occasion more than fifty vessels were seen waiting for an opportunity to get to sea. Sometimes they were delayed there for days, or weeks, even, and had at last to hire tugboats, at great expense, to tow them through. Finally (1875), Captain Eads of St, Louis, the builder of the great steel arch bridge across the Mississippi at that point, under- took to open the " South Pass," which is one of the five mouths of the great river. His plan, though not new, was most ingenious. He had noticed that where the river was narrow the current was strong, and so deposited but little mud to fill up the channel. He said to himself, By building new banks on each side, near the 1 See Carroll D. Wright on Historic Strikes, in the North American Review, June, 1902 ; and E. B. Andrews' " The United States in Our Time." 1878-1S7'.>] "DOLLAR OF OUR FATHERS" RESTORED 347 mouth of the river, I can narrow the channel and increase the force of the current to such a degree that it will carry all the sand and mud out to sea. Then when the bar is dredged through it will never form again. Congress gave him permission to try the experiment. He set to work, and in four years proved the truth of his idea (1879). Since then, the Mississippi, like a well-behaved river, has swept out its own channel, and large ocean steamers can pass up to New Orleans, or out to sea, without difficulty or expense. Cap- tain Eads' great work has been of immense benefit, for the export commerce of New Orleans is the largest of any city in America except New York.^ 379. The Government restores the "Dollar of our Fathers"; "Greenbacks" become as Good as Gold. We have seen (§ 373) that Congress dropped the silver dollar from our coins (1873), Many people, especially Western and Southern farmers who were pressed for money, demanded that the government should restore " the dollar of our fathers." The Western silver-mine owners joined in the cry for " the free and unlimited coinage of silver," Congress would not grant that, but passed a bill restoring the silver dollar (1878).^ President Hayes promptly vetoed it. He said that the market value, by weight, of a standard silver dollar was then only about ninety-two cents. On this account he held that it would be a dishonest act for the government to issue such a coin. But a majority in Congress believed that silver would rise in value and they passed the bill over his veto.^ The Treasury Department then began buying silver by the car load, and the mint began turning out silver dollars by the ton. The paper money called " greenbacks," ^ which the government first issued during the Civil War, and with which it paid part 1 For an interesting account of Captain Eads' work, see Scribner's Alagazine, Vol. XIX, "The Mississippi Jetties" (illustrated). In 1908 the Southwest Pass was deepened. 2 This was the Bland-Allison Silver Purchase and Coinage Act. It required the Secretarj' of the Treasury to purchase from $2,000,000 to $^4,000,000 worth of silver every month and coin it into standard dollars. This act continued in force for twelve years, during which time nearly ^^400,000,000 in silver dollars were coined and stored in the Treasury vaults at Washington. 3 See the Constitution, Article I, Section 7, Paragraph 2. 4 A name derived from the color of the backs of the bills (§ 324). 348 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1879-1881 of its enormous expenses, was worth less than gold. At one time (summer of 1864) it took nearly three dollars in "greenbacks" to purchase as much as a single dollar in gold would buy. That meant that the people then had so little confidence in the power of the government to do as it agreed that its paper promise of pay- ment stamped "one dollar" was worth only about thirty-five cents. But after the war, when the government began to pay off its debt, the feeling changed. Then this paper money rose in value, until at last a " greenback " dollar would buy quite as much as a gold dollar. Finally, on New Year's Day (1879), the Treasurer of the United States stood ready to give gold coin in exchange for "greenbacks." This strengthened the credit of the government and enabled it to borrow all the money it wanted (to meet the debt as it fell due) at very low rates of interest. 380. Summary. The four most important events of Mr. Hayes' presidency were ( i ) his withdrawal of troops from the South ; (2) the great railway and coal strikes ; (3) the deepening of the mouth of the Mississippi ; (4) the purchase of large quantities of silver which was coined into dollars ; (5) the redemption of " green- backs " in gold and the reduction of the expenses of the govern- ment in paying interest on its debt. James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur (Republican) 381. Garfield's and Arthur's Administrations (Twentieth and Twenty-first Presidents, One Term, 1881-1885); Assassination of the President; Civil Service Reform. In the summer follow- ing his inauguration President Garfield ^ was shot by a disap- pointed office seeker named Guiteau.^ He died in the autumn 1 James A. Garfield was bom in Ohio, 1831 ; died, iSSi. His early life was passed in hardship and poverty. By dint of hard work he fitted himself for college, and graduated at Williams College, Massachusetts. He entered the Union army, and was promoted to the rank of major general. In 1863 he was elected to Congress, and later was chosen United States senator. In 18S0 he was elected President (Chester A. Arthur of New York, Vice President) over General W. S. Hancock of Pennsylvania and William H. English of Indiana, the Democratic candidates. 2 Guiteau was convicted of the murder and hanged. 1881-1883] THE EAST RIVER SUSPENSION BRIDGE 349 from the effects of the wound, and Vice President Arthur be- came President.! The murder of Garfield led to an attempt on the part of Con- gress to relieve the President from the necessity of appointing thousands 2 of persons to government offices merely as a reward for their having worked, or spent money, to get him elected. A law called the Civil Service Reform Act was passed in 1883. It gave the President power to appoint commissioners to examine persons applying for certain grades of government offices known as the civil service, that is, all outside of the military or naval service. These commissioners recommend those who show them- selves best fitted to do the work. Out of the list they furnish, the President can then make his selection. This method takes off the President's hands a vast amount of very laborious work. It also saves his time, and spares him the vexation of having to listen to that class — found even among office seekers — who cry night and day, like professional beggars, "Give ! " " Give ! " Since then the operation of this act has been greatly extended. To-day about two thirds of the whole number of civil offices and positions under the government are subject to its rules. Once the applicants for such places sought them as a personal favor, but now under the " merit system " all have an equal oppor- tunity to attain government employment. Those who get places have the right to keep them so long as they show themselves faithful and capable. 382. The East River Suspension Bridge; Cheap Postage; the Alien Contract Labor Act. An illustration of our steadily growing prosperity and enterprise was given in the completion of the great East River Suspension Bridge ^ connecting New York City with 1 See the Constitution, Article II, Section i. Paragraph 6. 2 At present there are nearly 300,000 persons employed in the civil service of the gov- ernment. This number includes all who are employed in the post-office service, but not those in the diplomatic and consular departments. The total number of clerks and others employed by the government in the District of Columbia is over 25,000. 3 The bridge was begun by John A. Roebling of Trenton, New Jersey, the inventor of wire suspension bridges. Mr. Roebling only lived to complete the plan of the great struc- ture. He was succeeded by his son, W. A. Roebling, who finished the work. 350 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1883 Brooklyn (1883), This bridge was the first one of the kind begun by the leading city of America. Up to that time the only means of communication across the river was by lines of ferryboats. The cost of the work was $1 5,000,000, — an amount double that of the entire annual expense of carrying on the government of the United States in the first years of Washington's presidency. It took four- teen years to finish the structure, which has a total length of over a mile. Since then three more great bridges have been built across the East River, connecting New York with Long Island (§ 408). The East River Suspension Bridge In addition to these colossal structures, fourteen tunnels have recently been completed, at a cost of about $70,000,000, under the East and North or Hudson rivers. They connect the city with Long Island and New Jersey. Through them fast electric trains loaded with passengers are constantly passing in both directions. New York is now practically about as accessible as though it was on the mainland instead of on the island of Manhattan. Still another evidence of the prosperity of the country was the reduction of postage (1883) on letters, weighing not more than 1884-1885] THE "NEW SOUTH" 35 1 half an ounce, from three cents to two. Two years afterward (1885), the weight of a letter which might be sent at this low rate was increased to a full ounce. For two cents we can now send a thick letter to any part of the United States or our island possessions, thus covering a distance, from New York to Manila, of over 11,000 miles. The same year (1885) Congress passed the Alien Contract Labor Act, Its object was to protect American workmen against the importation of foreign workmen {§ 280). The act prohibited any company or other persons from bringing foreigners into the United States under contract to perform labor here. The only exceptions made by this law were in the case of those who were brought over to do housework or other domestic service, and skilled workmen who should be needed here to help establish some new trade or industry. 383. The New Orleans Cotton Centennial Exhibition ; the " New- South." Shortly after the close of the American Revolution (1784) eight bags of cotton were exported from Charleston, South Caro- lina, to England (§ 205). It was the first shipment of the kind ever made from the United States. In time this country came to supply nearly all the cotton used in Great Britain and Europe, and the value of the crop grew to be so great that it was a com- mon saying at the South, "Cotton is king." An exhibition was opened (1884) at New Orleans, — the largest cotton market in America, — to mark the hundredth anniversary of the first export of that product. The real importance of that Centennial Exhibition lay in the fact that it showed that the South had so entirely changed that it could rightfully be called a " New South." 384. The Progress made by New Orleans an Illustration of what the " New South " is doing. Take New Orleans itself as an illustration. Before the war it had but a single important line of railway entering the city ; now it has six great lines. Before the war it was almost wholly a commercial city, and its manufactures practically counted for nothing. To-day, thanks in large measure to Captain Eads' great work (§ 378), its commerce 352 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1885 has gained enormously. Its manufactures too are rapidly increasing ; it now makes great quantities of goods which it formerly bought. 385. The South no longer a purely Agricultural Country; its Manufactures; its Prosperity ; the " Freedmen " ; Education. The change that has taken place in New Orleans shows us what has been going on throughout the South. When the war broke out it was almost purely an agricultural country ; since then many thousand new manufacturing and mining enterprises have been started, including the production of cotton-seed oil/ and many thousands of miles of railway have been built. Such cities as the great cotton port of Galveston, with such manufacturing cen- ters as Chattanooga, Augusta, Atlanta, and Birmingham, are " hives of industry." Their commerce, their cotton mills, iron mills, and other im- portant works have become rivals of those in the North or West. They possess the great advantage of having their supplies of raw material — their cotton, iron, lumber — at the very doors of their factories and mills, with unlimited quantities of coal for fuel, and, in some cases, immense water power ^ besides. But this is not all. A new spirit shows itself in the South. Free labor is accomplishing double what slave labor did. In i860 the South produced less than 5,000,000 bales of cotton ; now it 1 Before the war the seed was thrown away or burned as useless. Now many millions of dollars are invested in its production. The oil is used for salad oil, for making soap, and for many other purposes. 2 Augusta, Spartanburg, and Columbus have great water power. The New South 1885] CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION 353 sometimes produces over 13,000,000; the white man does a part of the work ; the negro does the rest. The " freedmen " share in this prosperity ; when the war broke out they could not call even themselves their own ; to-day they are taxed for several hun- dred million dollars' worth of property, which they have fairly made and just as fairly enjoy. In education the progress has been equally great. ^ Common schools have multiplied all through the South, — they are free to black and white alike, though the schools are separate, — and the negro has not only many thousand teachers of his own race, but great numbers of white teachers besides. If he cannot get on now, the fault will be mainly his own. 386. Summary. The principal events of the Garfield and Arthur administrations were ( i ) the assassination of President Gar- field, followed by Vice President Arthur's succession ; (2) the Civil Service Reform Act ; (3) the Alien Contract Labor Act, intended to protect American workmen against the importation of foreign workmen. During Arthur's presidency the general prosperity of the country was shown by the completion of the East River Suspension Bridge (followed many years later by three other great bridges and by four- teen tunnels). His administration was also marked by the reduc- tion in the rate of letter postage, and by the immense growth and prosperity of the "New South." Grover Cleveland (Democrat) 387. Cleveland's Administration (Twenty-second President, One Term, 1885- 1889). The Republican party had held control of the government ever since the election of Abraham Lincoln ; Grover 1 In 1882 Paul Tulane, of Princeton, New Jersey, but for more than half a century a resident of New Orleans, left over #1,000,000 to found a university for the education of white youth in that city. Vanderbilt University of Nashville, Tennessee, is another example of the same kind. In 1S66 George Peabody of Danvers, Massachusetts (the London banker), gave a sum of money, which he later increased to ^^3, 500,000, for the promotion of education at the South. In 18S2 John F. Slater of Norwich, Connecticut, gave #1,000,000 for the educa- tion of the " freedmen " at the South. To-day the southern states are spending very large sums on common- and high-school education. 354 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1885 Cleveland ^ was the first Democratic President that had been in- augurated since Buchanan — more than a quarter of a century before (§310). 388. The "Knights of Labor"; the "Black List" and the "Boycott"; the "American Federation of Labor"; the Depart- ments of Labor and of Agriculture. For a number of years a large part of the laboring men of the country had been members of a society or union known as the " Knights of Labor" (1869). The purpose of the society was to secure for its members the power of united action in all matters that concerned their interest. In this, as in every country, there had been at times serious disputes be- tween employers and workmen ; one object of the " Knights of Labor " was to get such disputes settled in a way satisfactory to both parties. Where this could not be done, the labor union might order its members to quit work until they either got the terms they asked, or were compelled to accept those offered by the employers. In some instances, when the union men struck, they refused to allow men who were not " Knights of Labor" to take their places, and used force to prevent them. The employers, on the other hand, formed combinations to protect their own interests. In some cases they kept a "black list " on which they recorded the names of those laboring men who were thought to be unreasonable in their demands for higher pay or shorter hours, or whose influence over the other men was believed to be injurious. Such men often found it impossible to get work. 1 Grover Cleveland was bom in Caldwell, New Jersey, in 1837; died, 1908. His father soon after moved to New York state, and Grover began the study of law in Buffalo, at the age of eighteen. In 1S81 he was elected mayor of that city, and the year following he became governor of New York. In 1S84 Mr. Cleveland was elected President (Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana, Vice President) by the Democrats, over James G. Blaine of Maine and John A. Logan of Illinois, the Republican candidates. Many " Independent Republicans," or " Mug- wumps," as they were called, voted for Mr. Cleveland. Grover Cleveland 188G] THE YEAR OF STRIKES 355 The '" Knights," however, were not without their weapon. They could refuse to have any deaUngs with an employer who used the "black list" ; and furthermore, they could, and did, use their in- fluence to prevent others from having any dealings with him. This was called " boycotting." ^ It is difficult to say whether the "black list" or the "boycott" came first; but in President Cleveland's administration both were extensively used, and both caused im- mense loss without apparently gaining any very decided advantage for either side. More recently the "American Federation of Labor" was or- ganized (1886). It is a combination of many different labor unions. Its object is to promote the welfare of the great body of workingmen in the United States. It is one of the largest and strongest organizations of the kind in the world. The growing influence of organized labor induced Congress to create the National Labor Bureau (1884), now included in the new Department of Commerce and Labor ^ (1903). The Bureau collects and publishes important facts respecting the condition, rate of wages, and general progress of the laboring classes of the country. The Department is ably managed, and makes frequent reports which are of great value not only to those who sell or hire labor, but to the whole community besides. A few years later (1889) Congress made the Department of Agriculture one of the leading offices of the government. This Department has charge of all matters which are of interest to the farming population. It has proved itself very helpful to that great army of workers who till the soil and who furnish the people of this country with their " daily bread." 389. The Year of Strikes; the Chicago Anarchists. The year (1886) in which the "American Federation of Labor" was organ- ized (§ 388) may be called the year of labor strikes. They began very 1 The word "boycott" came from Captain Boycott, the name of an Enghsh farmer and land agent in Ireland. In 18S0 he became so much disliked that the people of the dis- trict where he lived refused to work for, buy from, sell to, or have any dealings whatever with him. 2 The Department of Commerce and Labor was established to promote foreign and domestic commerce, mining, manufacturing and shipping industries, and the labor and transportation interests of the United States. 356 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [I88G early in the spring, with the horse-car drivers and conductors in New York ; and they gradually extended, in one form or another, to points as far west as Nebraska and as far south as New Orleans (§ 377). In many cases the strikers demanded that the working day be shortened to eight hours ; in other cases, they asked an increase of wages. In Chicago 40,000 men left their employments, and the greater part of the factories and workshops of the city were closed. Soon the men engaged in handling freight at the different railway freight houses in the city joined their fellow- workmen, and all movement or delivery of goods came to a stop. An excited meeting was held in Haymarket Square. The police, fearing a riot, ordered the crowd to disperse. At that moment some one threw a dynamite bomb at the police, which killed or wounded a large number of them. The officers then charged on the crowd with their revolvers and arrested the ringleaders of the mob. All but one were of foreign birth. They belonged to a small but dan- gerous class calling themselves anarchists. The object of the anarchist is to overthrow all forms of gov- ernment, either by peaceable means, or — as in the case of the men arrested at Chicago — by murder and the destruction of prop- erty. The workingmen of Chicago, and throughout the country, expressed their horror of such methods, and denounced the anar- chists as enemies of the interests of labor and of society. Four of the rioters were tried, convicted of murder, and hanged. 390. Growth of Great Corporations and " Trusts." From the time of which we are speaking men engaged in every kind of work or enterprise have been more and more inclined to form associations. We have seen in a previous section (§ 388) how laboi: organized for self-protection and to obtain shorter hours or higher wages. In the same way capitalists have united in forming companies for carrying on business on a scale never before attempted. The object sought by these gigantic corporations and "trusts " ^ is generally to obtain more effective results, with less competition, at smaller cost, and at larger profit to the stockholders, 1 " Trusts " : a " trust " is a combination of several independent or rival companies formed in order to work together for the interest of all concerned. 1886-] THE STATUE OF LIBERTY 357 For instance, there were once many individual men or small companies engaged in producing coal oil. Now the Standard Oil Company (organized in 1881) controls most of the output of petro- leum in the United States, and directly or indirectly influences the trade of the world in this important product. So, too, "trusts" have been formed, having in the aggregate many hundreds of millions of capital, for the manufacture and sale of iron, steel, sugar, cotton-seed oil, tobacco, India rubber, and other staple products. In like manner (since 1881) the Western Union Telegraph Company has absorbed, by purchase or by lease, the great majority of the telegraph lines in the United States, while the Bell Telephone Company " practically conducts the chief part of the telephone business " of the country. Again, many independ- ent or competing railway lines have consolidated into through systems often extending across the continent. The same movement is seen operating in a different way in the establishment of the "depart- ment stores " of our large cities. Formerly the business they con- duct was in the hands of a number of small dealers, but now a cus- tomer can buy, under one roof, almost anything he wants, from a paper of pins to a barrel of flour, or a set of parlor furniture. These changes have revolutionized business in great degree and are of deep interest to every one. Within a few years the government has taken action for the purpose of supervising and regulating the methods by which the great railways and " trusts " carry on their work. 391. The Statue of Liberty. The year after President Cleve- land entered office, the colossal statue of " Liberty enlightening the World " was unveiled and lighted in the harbor of New .^^m The Statue of Liberty 358 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [188(>-1887 York (1886). The statue — the largest of the kind ever made — was presented to the United States by citizens of the RepubHc of France, as a memorial of their friendly feeling toward the people of this country, and as an expression of their confidence in the stability of the American government. The statue is of bronze, and represents the goddess of Liberty holding a lighted torch, to show the way to those who are seeking the shores of the New World. 392. Three Important Laws (the Presidential Succession; Presidential Elections; Interstate Railways). During President Cleveland's administration three very important laws were passed by Congress. The first law, the Presidential Succession Act (1886), provided, in case of the death, removal, or disability of both the President and the Vice President, that the Secretary of State (followed, if necessary, by the other six members who then constituted the Cabinet) ^ should succeed to the office of President. The second law, the Electoral Count Act (1.887), laid down cer- tain rules for counting the electoral votes, in order to prevent all uncertainty and dispute in regard to the election of the President, such as had occurred in the case of President Hayes (§ 375). The third law (1887), the Interstate Commerce Act, was en- acted for the purpose of regulating the charges made by all rail- ways which pass from one state to another, the object being to secure fair and uniform rates both for passengers and freight. Nearly twenty years later this law was supplemented and strength- ened by the Railway Rate Act (1906) (§431). 393. Summary. The principal events of President Cleveland's administration were (i) the widely extended labor strikes; (2) the anarchist riot in Chicago ; (3) the growth of labor unions and of great corporations ; (4) the passage of three important laws relat- ing to the succession and the election of the President and to interstate commerce. 1 The Cabinet now consists of nine officers: (i) the Secretary of State; (2) the Secre- tary of the Treasury; (3) the Secretary of War; (4) the Attorney-General; (5) the Post- master-General; (6) the Secretary of the Navy; (7) the Secretary of the Interior; (8) the Secretary of Agriculture (1889) ; (9) the Secretary of Commerce and Labor (1903). 1889] HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION 359 Benjamin Harrison (Republican) ^ 394. Harrison's Administration (Twenty-third President, 1889- 1893) ; Opening of Oklahoma ; how Cities spring up in the Far West. In the center of Indian Territory there was a large district called, in the Indian language, Oklahoma, or the " Beautiful Land." This tract was finally purchased from the Indians by the United States (1889). On the 2 2d of April of that year some fifty thousand persons were waiting impatiently on the borders of Oklahoma for President Harrison's signal giving them permission to enter and take up lands in the coveted region. At precisely twelve o'clock, noon, of that day, the blast of a bugle announced that Oklahoma was open to setdement. Instantly an avalanche of " boomers " rushed wildly across the line, each one eager to get the first chance. Towns made of rough board shanties and of tents sprang up in all direc- tions. The chief of these were Oklahoma City and Guthrie. At the end of four months the latter had a population of about 5000, with four daily papers and six banks ; and arrangements were made to start a line of street cars and light the city with electricity. 395. Admission of Six New States; Our New Ships of War; Woman Suffrage. In November (^889) the President declared the four new states of Montana, Washington, North Dakota, and South Dakota admitted to the Union. The next summer (1890) Idaho and Wyoming were added, making a total at that date of forty-four. The power of the American nation manifests itself not only on the continent but on the ocean. The old, worn-out wooden 1 Benjamin Harrison was bom at North Bend, Ohio, in 1833; died, igor. He was a grand- son of President W. H. Harrison (§282), and his great-grandfather, Benjamin Harrison, was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. Mr. Harrison studied law, and opened an office at Indianapolis. In 1S62 he entered the Union army as a second lieutenant of Indi- ana volunteers. Later, he was commissioned colonel of the Seventieth Indiana Regiment. Near the close of the war he received the title of brigadier general of volunteers. In 1880 he was elected United States senator. In 1888 he was elected President by the Republi- cans (Levi P. Morton of New York, Vice President) over Grover Cleveland of New York and Allen G. Thurman of Ohio, the Democratic candidates. The chief political issue in the election was the question whether the United States should adopt the Democratic policy of a reduction of tariff, or that of protection advocated by the Republicans. 36o LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1890 vessels which made up a large part of our navy have been grad- ually replaced (since 1884) by a fleet of magnificent steel war steamers, named generally after states and cities.^ Our new navy first showed its effective fighting power (1898) in the war with Spain (§§ 41 5, 417). Nine years later a great fleet of these vessels started on their famous cruise round the world (§431). The state of Wyoming was the first admitted to the Union, since the adoption of the Constitution, in which women may vote^ and hold office the same as men. Colorado (1893) fol- lowed the example of Wyoming, and (1894) elected three women to the legislature, Utah and Idaho, making four states in all, like- wise granted (1896) equal suffrage to men and women. To-day American women have educational opportunities fully equal to those of men, and they can enter any field of work which they are likely to choose, 396. The New Pension Act; the Sherman Silver Purchase and Coinage Act; the McKinley Protective Tariff. Early in Harri- son's administration Congress passed (1890) three very important laws relating directly or indirectly to getting, coining, or spending money. The first was the new Pension Act. This added nearly 480,000 names to the list of " invalid soldiers" or their widows, to whom the government pays a sum of money each year. The whole number of pensioners, including a considerable number added by our war with Spain, was (1909) nearly a million. They draw more than $150,000,000 a year, or over $400,000 a day. Many people still thought that we were not buying silver enough (§ 379)- For this reason Congi'ess repealed the law of 1877, and passed the Sherman Silver Purchase and Coinage Act (1890). It directed the Secretary of the Treasury to buy 4,500,000 ounces of silver, or more than 150 tons, every month. Provision was 1 The total number of vessels of war in the United States navy January t, 190S (includ- ing 27 first-class battleships, besides several vessels which are nearing completion), was 177. We have now the largest navy in the world next to Great Britain. 2 Women voted in New Jersey from iSoo to 1807. Since 1S69 they have voted at all elec- tions in W'yoming. A law granting them similar power in Washington (then a territory) was declared unconstitutional by the territorial Supreme Court. Partial woman suffrage (espe- cially the power to vote on questions relating to schools) now exists in nearly all the states. le 95° West 1890-1891] THE PATENT OFFICE CENTENNIAL 361 made for coining a part of this into dollars. ^ These enormous purchases had the effect of raising the value of silver for a brief period. But the price of the "white metal" soon began to fall again. The government then found itself in a very unpleasant pre- dicament, for the more silver it piled up in the Treasury vaults the more that silver shrank in value. A dollar that was worth 81 cents, by weight, in 1890, soon dropped to 61 cents. • In the autumn Congress enacted the McKinley Protective Tariff .2 Its main object was to protect American products, such as wool, for example, and American manufactures against foreign competition. 397. The Census of 1890; the Patent Office Centennial; the Homestead Strike. The Centennial census of the United States (1890) reported the total population at over 62,000,000. Since the first national census was taken in 1790 we had gained more than 58,000,000 of people, and had taken possession of the entire breadth of the continent, from ocean to ocean. The next spring (1891) the Patent Office at Washington cele- brated its hundredth birthday. It issued its first patent (for mak- ing potash for the manufacture of soap) in 1 790 ; by 1 89 1 it had issued more than 450,000. These patents show that American inventive genius has entered every field which thought and skill can occupy. Our labor-saving machines are the most wonderful in the world. They are driven by hand, by horse power, by wind, water, steam, gas, and electricity, and they do so many kinds 1 The Director of the Mint stated that between 1S73 and 18S9 the value of the silver dollar fell gradually from a fraction over 100 cents in 1873, to about 72 cents in i88g. In 1S90 it rose to Si cents ; in 1891 it averaged 76 cents ; in 1892, 67 cents ; and in 1893, 61 cents. He attributed the fall in value first to the fact that a number of European countries, includ- ing Germany and Austria, had long since ceased coining silver except for use as " change " ; but secondly and chiefly, because of the enormous increase in the amount mined. In 1873 the world's production of the "white metal" was ^81,800,000; by 1892 it had risen to ;?i96,6o5,ooo, an increase of 140 per cent. See " Report of the Director of the Mint" for 1893, pp. 21-26. 2 The McKinley Tariff contained certain provisions (called Reciprocity or " Fair Trade " Measures) which permitted some foreign articles to be admitted free of duty, provided the country from which we imported them admitted American products free. When the McKinley Tariff was repealed in 1894 the Reciprocity Measures were repealed with it, but were later reenacted. Just before his assassination in 190 1, President McKinley made a speech at Buffalo (§ 427) in which he strongly advocated the policy of reciprocity. 362 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1802 of work that it is getting to be difficult to think of any that they cannot do.^ The following year (1892) a second great strike in our history occurred (§ 377). The workmen in the Carnegie Steel Works at Homestead, near Pittsburg, asked for higher wages and stopped work when this demand was refused. The company hired a force of detectives to protect their buildings, and fierce battles were fought between them and the strikers. Both sides used firearms, and on both sides a number were killed. Eventually the governor of Pennsylvania was obliged to send a military force to occupy the town and restore order. 398. Summary. Aside from the opening of Oklahoma and the admission of six new states (in two of which women may vote and hold office the same as men), the principal events of Harrison's administration were (i) the building of many new ships of war; (2) the passage of the new Pension Act, the Sherman Silver Pur- chase and Coinage Act, and the McKinley Protective Tariff ; (3) the Census Report, the Patent Office Celebration, and the Homestead Strike. 1 Among the inventions of the nineteenth century, not previously mentioned, attention may be called to the following : the machine gun, smokeless powder, fixed ammunition, breech-loading cannon ; the Westinghouse air brake for cars, automatic electric signals, the interlocking safety switch, the automatic car coupler, vestibule trains, the Pullman and the Wagner palace cars ; the compressed-air drill, the sand blast for cutting designs on glass ; the electric search light, electric welding and heating ; cold storage ; noiseless firearms ; color photography; the submarine signaling apparatus ; aluminum ware ; enameled kitchen ware ; dyes made from coal tar ; wood paper ; wire nails, gimlet-pointed screws, plain and barbed- wire fence ; the cash carrier for stores, the passenger elevator ; ocean steamers built of steel with water-tight bulkheads and twin screws ; the hydraulic dredge ; the gas engine, the Cor- liss engine ; the voting machine ; the tin-can-making machine ; water gas ; Yale, combination, and time locks ; the bicycle. Among the most noteworthy scientific discoveries of the last centurj- (not previously mentioned) are spectrum analysis, dynamite, the use of cocaine as a local anaesthetic in producing insensibility to pain, the X or RiSntgen Ray used in surgery (and, to some extent, in the arts) for seeing and photographing objects otherwise invisible to the eye, the use of antiseptics in surgical operations, and finally the discovery and treatment of disease germs, the production of liquid air, and the discovery of the properties of radium. 1893] CLEVELAND'S (SECOND) ADMINISTRATION 363 Grover Cleveland ^ (Democrat) 399. Cleveland's (Second) Administration (Twenty-fourth Pres- ident, 1893-1897) ; the Introduction of the Australian or Secret Ballot. Soon after Harrison became President (1889) a new kind of ballot or voting paper was used by the people of Massachusetts for the first time in the United States. It was called the Aus- tralian ballot, because it was introduced here from that country. One great fault in the old system of election was that the by- standers could see how each one voted. This often prevented a man from voting independentiy, and so did great harm. The Australian method is this : 1. An officer hands the voter a printed ballot having on it the names of all the candidates of the different political parties. 2. The voter, passing behind a railing, enters a narrow booth, or stall, where no one can overlook him, and makes a cross opposite the names of such candidates as he chooses. 3. Finally, he folds his ballot so that no one can see what names he has marked, and, in the presence of an officer, deposits it in the ballot box. When Mr. Cleveland was elected to his second term of office (1892) many states had adopted the Aus- tralian ballot or one resembling it. No less than forty-three states now use it, 400. The World's Columbian Exposition; Panic and "Hard Times" (1893); Repeal of an Important Act; the Bering Sea Case. In October (1892) the public schools throughout the Union celebrated the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus. At the same time the magnificent buildings 1 Grover Cleveland (§ 387, note i) was elected a second .time by the Democrats (Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois, Vice President) over Benjamin Harrison (§ 394, note i), the Repub- lican candidate for reelection. The political question was practically the same as in the previous presidential election (§ 394, note i). At this election a new party, calling itself the " People's Party," or " Populists," voted for James B. Weaver of Iowa for President. Out of a total of 444 " electoral votes " cast for all presidential candidates, he received 22, but none east of Kansas, which gave him 10. The " Populists " in their platform declared them- selves in favor of the union of the labor forces of the United States to secure (i) the ownership of all railway, telegraph, and telephone lines by the national government ; (2) free coinage of silver in its present ratio of 16 ounces of silver to one of gold ; (3) the establishment of postal savings banks ; (4) the prohibition of all alien ownership of land. 364 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1893- of the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago were dedicated. The next spring {1893) President Cleveland opened the great Fair to the public. It proved to be a brilliant success in every respect. But the summer brought "hard times" to multitudes. There had been a business panic (§§ 275, 312, 373) in the spring, which was followed by many disastrous failures. Property of all kinds fell in value, and immense numbers of people who depended on the work of their hands for their daily bread were thrown out of employment. Great strikes in the coal mines and on one of the leading coal railways increased the distress. Before the presidential election the Republicans and the Demo- crats had both declared themselves on the side of "honest money," and had resolved that they would make every dollar, whether silver or paper, as good as gold. President Cleveland believed that the Sherman Silver Pur- chase and Coinage Act (1890) was doing harm to the country (§ 396). He called a special meeting of Congress (1893), which repealed the purchase clause in the act. This stopped the buying of silver and checked the making of silver dollars. Meanwhile (1893), a serious dispute in regard to Bering Sea was settled. We claimed that when we bought Alaska (§ 368) we bought the right to control Bering Sea and could close it against English and other foreign seal hunters. The foreign seal hunters denied our right to shut the sea. Finally, the question was left to a commission ^ to decide. They reported that Bering Sea must remain open, but that the seals should be properly protected, and not killed by everybody at all times. This protection was what we most wished to secure. We got it, as we did the damages for the destruction done by the Alabama (§ 374), by peaceful means. That bloodless victory was an advantage to us and to the world. The more such bloodless victories any nation can win, the better. 401. The Coxey ''Industrial Army"; the Pullman Strike; more "Hard Times." The next spring (1894) a man named Coxey started from Ohio to lead an " army " of the unemployed 1 Bering Sea Commission : this commission consisted of seven eminent men chosen by the United States, the British Empire, France, Italy, and Norway and Sweden. 1894-1896] THE WILSON TARIFF 365 to Washington to demand relief from the government. Some of those who joined him were honest men seeking work, but many were simply "tramps" and criminals. Coxey, with a part of his "army," reached the national capital, but accomplished nothing, and his disgusted followers soon disbanded and disappeared. Shortly after this a third historic strike occurred (§ 397). Several thousand workmen employed in building Pullman cars at Pullman, near Chicago, struck for higher wages. Next, the men on a number of western railways struck in order to stop the use of these cars until the Pullman Company should raise the rate of wages. For a time trains ceased running between Chicago and San P"rancisco and other points. Much railway property was destroyed, and the President felt compelled to send United States troops to Chicago and to certain points in Cali- fornia to protect the carrying of the mails and to maintain order. Meanwhile (1894), a new money panic (§§275, 312, 373, 400) did enormous damage to all kinds of business and for a time made it harder than ever for men to get work. 402. The Wilson Tariff. After a long and bitter contest Congress enacted (1894) a modified form of what was originally called the Wilson Tariff (§§ 200, 234, 266, 267, 269, 324). It reduced pro- tective duties about one fourth, and admitted wool, salt, and lumber free. It furthermore condemned " trusts " (§ 390) and all combina- tions in restraint of lawful trade which affected imports in any way. 403. The Admission of Utah; the "New West." Two years later (1896) Utah — the forty-fifth state — was admitted to the Union. The admission of Utah naturally called attention to the marvelous growth of the " New West" in population, wealth, and industrial enterprise. Thousands of miles of railways had been constructed in that section within ten years, cities and towns had multiplied, mines of precious metals had been opened, and cattle ranches, sheep ranches, and grain farms were yielding food products on a gigantic scale. 404. The Venezuela Question. In his third annual message (1895) President Cleveland expressed the hope that the long-standing dispute between England and Venezuela respecting the boundary 366 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1896-1897 line of British Guiana might be settled by a joint committee of arbitration (§§ 374, 400). England, however, failed to act, and the President, with the consent of Congress, appointed a commission to determine "the true divisional line between the Republic of Venezuela and British Guiana." Soon after, Eng- land and the United States settled the dispute in a friendly way (1896). 405. Summary. The chief events of Cleveland's second ad- ministration were (i) the introduction at presidential elections of the Australian or secret ballot ; (2) the opening of the World's Columbian Exposition ; (3) the financial panics of 1 893-1 894, the repeal of the Sherman Silver Act ; (4) the settlement of the Bering Sea controversy and of the Venezuela boundary dispute ; (5) the Coxey "Industrial Army" movement; (6) the Pullman strike; (7) the passage of the Wilson Tariff ; (8) the admission of Utah. William McKinley ^ and Theodore Roosevelt (Republican) 406. McKinley's and Roosevelt's Administrations (Twenty- fifth and Twenty-sixth Presidents, Two Terms, 1897-1905); the Dingley Tariff. When the new President entered office the gov- ernment was in great need of money to meet its expenses ; Con- gress passed the Dingley high Protective Tariff ^ (§§200, 234, 266, 267, 269, 324, 402) " to provide revenue for the support of the government, and to encourage the industries of the United States." 1 William McKinley was bom in 1S43 in Niles, Ohio ; died, 1901. He enlisted in the Civil War, and was promoted for gallant ser\-ice to the rank of major. After the war he began the practice of law in Canton, Ohio. In 1S76 the Republicans elected him to Congress. In 1890 he introduced the McKinley tariff. In 1S96 the Republican vote, supplemented by the votes of many '' Gold Democrats,'" elected him President of the United States (Garrett A. Hobart of New Jersey, Vice President) over William J. Bryan, the Democratic and Populist candi- date. The great question at the election was whether the United States should adopt the free and unlimited coinage of silver advocated by the regular Democratic party and by the Populists, but opposed by the Republicans and the " Gold Democrats." Mr. McKinley was reelected President by the Republicans in 1900 (Theodore Roosevelt of New York, Vice President) over William J. Bryan. The Democrats demanded "Free Silver" and the ulti- mate independence of the Philippines ; the Republican platform upheld the gold standard, and pledged self-government, as far as practicable, to the Philippines. 2 The tariff got its name from Nelson Dingley, who originated the measure. 1H97] INCREASE IN EXPORTS 1(^1 The Dingley Tariff made many changes : 1. It levied duties on wool and certain other raw materials, which the Wilson Tariff (§ 402) had admitted free. 2. It generally imposed higher rates on silks, woolens, and other woven fabrics. 3. It kept in force the sections of the Wilson Tariff which forbade all persons forming combinations to restrain trade in any articles imported into the United States, or to raise their market price. 407. Enormous Increase in Our Exports ; Architectural Progress. One of the marked features of the period, which still continues, was the great gain in our exports. Every year we ship to Europe and to other countries breadstuffs, provisions, and cattle valued at hundreds Of millions of dollars. ^ Great Britain depends on us for the greater part of her food sup- ply. American beef has crowded " the roast beef of Old Eng- land " off the table ; and when the traveler calls for bread, the waiter is pretty sure to bring him a loaf made of Minnesota fiour. We also export immense quantities of cotton, petroleum, leather, and tobacco. Within the memory of men now living we did not send any manufactured iron or steel abroad ; on the contrary, we once imported most of our tools and even the locomotives and the rails for our railways. To-day we can underbid the world in the manufacture of iron, steel, and copper. We are sending Ameri- can locomotives and American rails to Russia, China, Japan, and, in some cases, to Great Britain ; and we have constructed steel bridges in Egypt, and electric street-car lines through Cairo to 1 In igoS they exceeded ^^400,000,000 in value. William McKinley 368 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1898 -I '5 il# the Pyramids. In ten years (i 898-1908) our exports of all kinds have increased enormously.^ We are now sending abroad our manufactured copper, our tools, hardware, and machinery in con- stantly greater quantities. American sewing machines, watches, typewriters, bicycles, and revolvers can be found in every large city in Europe, unless they are shut out by tariff.^ The architectural progress of our country was marked (in 1897) by two noteworthy events. In the spring General Grant's tomb was dedicated. It is a superb white granite «L^ k^^/ edifice standing on the banks of the Hudson Wt f^\f^ in Riverside Park, New York. Over the en- trance are cut the significant words of the great commander : " Let us have peace." Other recent buildings, in New York, of commanding excellence are the Museum of Art, the Museum of Natural History, the Public Library, the Library of Columbia Uni- ^ versity, the new Customhouse, the College .__J^^ =:r of the City of New York, and the Soldiers' W Sl" ^^^ Sailors' Arch. ^^^^ In the autumn the magnificent Congres- W^ ^ sional Library Building in Washington was opened. It is an imposing granite structure facing the Capitol ; it has room for nearly six million volumes, and is considered to be the finest building of the kind in the world. 408. " Greater New York " ; Growth and Government of American cities. On New Year's Day (1898) the charter of " Greater New York " went into operation. The metrop- olis now includes Brooklyn and a number of suburban towns. It covers an area of nearly 327 square miles, — or a territory more than one fourth that of the state of Rhode Island, — and its popu- lation is estimated at about 4,500,000. This makes New York the largest city in the world except London. Steel Manufacture 1 Our domestic exports for 1S9S amounted to over $1,2 10,000,000 ; in 190S they amounted to nearly ^1,854,000,000. 2 fhe value of our manufactured exports in 1908 was $750,000,000. 1898-] "GREATER NEW YORK" 369 The lack of space in lower New York has seemed to compel the erection of enormously high steel-framed business buildings. Wall Street, Broad Street, and parts of lower Broadway now resem- ble canyons in the Rocky Moun- tains. Recently two large office buildings have been constructed, which rise to a height of be- tween 500 and 600 feet, and con- tain more than forty stories. The great bridges and tunnels of the city have already been mentioned U^3 82). The city is now engaged m constructmg an immense aque- duct, which, when completed, will bring an abundant supply of pure water from the Catskills. The rapid growth of our cities is one of the most remarkable features in our history. When our first national census was taken (1790) {§ 202) we had only six cities Grant's Tomb, Riverside Park, New York City CoNGKESSiUNAL LIBRARY BUILUING, WASHINGTON 370 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1898- Wall Street The money center of America. which had 8000 or more inhab- itants. Philadelphia came first with 42,000 and New York next with 33,000. By the census of 1900 the total number of cities in the United States having 8000 or more inhabitants was 546, In 1 790 only about three persons in a hundred lived in cities, while in 1890 nearly thirty in a hun- dred lived in them ; by the cen- sus of 1900 this proportion had increased to thirty-three in a hun- dred, so that now the cities em- brace pretty nearly an entire third of our whole population. This great change makes the good government of the United States depend very largely on the good government of our cities. If they are intelligently, honestly, and efficiently managed, all will probably go well ; but if they are badly managed, all is likely to go wrong. The decision of this momentous question rests with those who are now voters, but it will soon rest with those who are to-day pupils in the public schools. In a few years you who are studying the history of your country will be called upon to take a hand in making its his- tory. Your votes will then turn the scale, and America will be whatever you choose it shall be. 1898-] SPANISH POSSESSIONS 371 409. Revised State Constitutions in the South and West ; the Negro Vote shut out. Since 1 890 seven southern states — namely, Mississippi, Louisiana, North Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama, Virginia, and Georgia — have adopted new or amended constitu- tions. These states require every voter to be able to read a section of the state constitution, or to pay a certain amount of taxes, or both. This change in the conditions of suffrage practically excludes, and is intended to exclude, the great majority of the negroes from voting, and it gives the white race the entire control. In this way the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution (§ 366) has practi- cally been set aside and no longer has any real effect. ^ In the Far West, South Dakota amended its constitution (1898) for the purpose of giving the people of the state a more direct voice in making its laws. The amendment provided that when- ever five per cent of the voters — or fifty in a thousand — should ask for the enactment of a law, the question should be decided at a special election. If, on the other hand, the same number should object to any law which the legislature had enacted, the question of retaining it must be decided in the same way.^ This method has been in operation in the republic of Switzerland for many years, but South Dakota was the first state here to make trial of it. Later (1902), Oregon adopted the provision which gives the people the right of deciding whether a law shall stand or not^ and recently (1907) the state of Oklahoma adopted it. 410. Spanish Possessions in the Sixteenth Century. It will be remembered that at the close of the sixteenth century Spaniards were the only white men who had planted permanent colonies in North America (§§ 29, 42), They, too, held the West Indies, the greater part of South America, the Philippines, and other groups of islands in the East. The King of Spain could then boast with truth " that the sun never set on his dominions." As late almost as the beginning of the nineteenth century Spain still held the greater part of the West Indies, Mexico, Plorida, 1 See the Constitution — Amendments, Article XV. 2 This power is called the right of initiative and of referendum ; because the people initiate or originate legislation in the one case, while in the other they approve or reject the law which has been referred to them. 172 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [ms- and the whole vast territory between the Mississippi River and the Pacific, which is now part of the United States. In less than twenty-five years from that time Spain had been forced to sell or had lost ^ all of her immense possessions on the mainland of North America, The only important islands she had left in the West Indies were Cuba and Porto Rico. 411. The Revolution in Cuba; War for Independence. Spain's oppressive treatment of Cuba caused great discontent, and for many years there was danger of open revolt. The southern slave states coveted the island, which is as large as Pennsylvania and is almost in sight from Key West, Florida. The United States (1845) offered Spain $100,000,000 for Cuba, but met with a flat refusal. Later, several armed expeditions tried to seize the island on behalf of the South. The American ministers to Great Britain, France, and Spain met at Ostend, in Belgium (1854), to discuss the Cuban question. They declared in the Ostend Manifesto that so long as Cuba should belong to Spain it would be dangerous to our peace, and that if Spain should continue to refuse to sell us the island we should be justified in taking it by force. Later (1868), a rebellion broke out in Cuba^ which lasted ten years. Then (1895) a new uprising occurred, and the Revolu- tionists declared themselves for '" independence or death." ^ This revolt in Cuba excited the people of the Spanish colony of the Philippines to declare their independence. President Cleveland said that if the war in Cuba should go on, it must end in " the utter ruin of the island." He took the ground that rather than see that, it would be our duty to put a 1 Napoleon forced Spain to give up the great province of Louisiana to him; in 1S03 he sold it to us (§ 215) ; Spain felt obliged to sell us Florida, and at the same time (1S19) to give up all claims to Oregon (§ 238) ; and Mexico freed herself from Spain by revolution. 2 The population of Cuba consisted of (i) a small number of native Spaniards, who held nearly every position of power and trust ; (2) the white Creoles, who constituted the great bulk of the people ; (3) mulattoes, free negroes, and Chinamen. 3 The progress of the rebellion developed four parties: (i) the Revolutionists, who de- manded absolute separation from Spain ; (2) the Autonomists, who asked for " home rule " — that is, the management of all local affairs — without separation from Spain ; (3) the Spanish party in power, who opposed any change whatever ; (4) a very large number of Cuban farmers who wished to remain neutral ; all they asked was to be let alone and allowed to cultivate their farms in peace ; but neither the Revolutionists nor the Spanish military authorities would permit this. 1898-] THE PRESIDENT'S MESSAGE 373 stop to the conflict. When President McKinley entered office the Cuban war was still raging, and an enormous amount of American property on the island had been destroyed. On the one hand, the Revolutionists hanged those farmers who would not take up arms and join them ; on the other, the com- mander of the Spanish army drove scores of thousands of the people into the towns and shut them up there to die of pestilence or starvation, 412. The Destruction of the Maine; Report of the Court of In- quiry. While this horrible state of things was going on, an event occurred which suddenly changed everything. The United States had sent Captain Sigsbee in command of the battle ship Maine to pay a friendly visit to Havana. While lying in the harbor of that port the Maine was destroyed by an explosion" (1898). Two of her officers and the greater part of her crew were killed. The terrible news acted like an electric shock on the people of our country. The United States appointed a naval Court of Inquiry to make an investigation. The court reported that, in their opinion, "the Maine was destroyed by the explosion of a submarine mine." The court found no evidence showing whether the explosion was caused by accident or design, and they accused no one of having been guilty of the act. The Spanish government expressed their regret at the " lamen- table incident." They believed that the explosion resulted from causes within the ship itself, and urged that the whole question should be referred to an arbitration committee chosen by differ- ent nations (§ 374). This proposal the United States declined to accept. 413. The President's Message; the Resolutions adopted by Con- gress. In April (1898) President McKinley sent a special mes- sage to Congress. He declared that in the " name of humanity," in the " name of civilization," and " in behalf of endangered American interests," the "' zvar in Cuba must stop^ Shortly afterward both Houses of Congress resolved (April 19, 1898) "that the people of Cuba are, and of right ought to be, free and independent." Furthermore, Congress demanded that Spain 374 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1898 should give up all sovereignty over Cuba ; in case Spain refused, the President was authorized to use the land and naval forces of the United States to compel the Spaniards to leave the island. Finally, Congress resolved that when peace should be made in Cuba, we would " leave the government and control of the island to its people." Later, however. Congress resolved (1902) that, in case of necessity, the Cubans must admit our right to act as guardians of their liberty (§419). 414. We prepare for War with Spain (1898); the Call for Volunteers ; the Call for Money ; the Navy ; War declared. Spain refused to grant our demands and we determined to fight. The President called for 200,000 volunteers. A million men stepped foi-ward, saying, " Here am I ; take me." But in war, money is as necessary as men, for those who fight must be fed, clothed, armed, and paid. Congress had already placed $50,000,000 in the President's hands to buy ships and complete coast defenses. Later, the government asked the people to lend them $200,000,000 to pay the men in the army and navy. Only three per cent interest was offered, but the people came forward, ready to lend the government not simply $200,000,000 but seven times more than was called for. Congress next proceeded to pass a war revenue act which levied taxes of different kinds. These taxes brought into the United States Treasury from $175,000,000 to $200,000,000 annually. The entire act, with a few exceptions, was repealed four years later (1902). In a contest with Spain the navy would naturally take the most prominent part. The President sent Captain William T. Sampson ^ with a fleet of war ships to blockade Havana and other ports of Cuba. He also ordered Commodore W. S. Schley ^ to organize a " flying squadron " of fast, armed steamers to be used as occasion might require. Congress then declared war (April 25, 1898). 415. The Battle of Manila. Commodore George Dewey, who had been with Farragut at the battle of New Orleans (§ 334), 1- Captain Sampson had the rank of Acting Real Admiral. 2 Schley (sly or schla). Naval Commanders 375 3/6 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1898 was then in command of our Asiatic squadron at Hongkong, China. The President ordered him to go to Manila, the capital of the Philippines (Map, p. 382), and " capture or destroy " the Spanish squadron which guarded that important port. Our plan was to attack Spain through her colonies of Cuba and the Philip- pines, and so strike her two heavy blows at the same time, — one on one side of the world, the other on the other. Commodore Dewey had only six ships of war. The Spaniards at Manila held a fortified port ; they had twice as many vessels as Dewey had, but our squadron was superior in size and arma- ment ; last of all, the enemy, though brave men and good fighters, had never learned how to fire straight. On May i, 1898, Commodore Dewey reported that he had just fought a battle in which he had destroyed every vessel of the Spanish squadron without losing a man. A French officer, who witnessed the fight, said that the American fire was " something awful " for its " accuracy and rapidity." The "Hero of Manila " was promoted to the rank of rear admiral; after the war he was made admiral (1899), and Captain Sampson and Commodore Schley were made rear admirals. 416. Commodore Schley discovers Cervera's Squadron. Shortly before the battle of Manila Admiral Cervera left the Cape Verde Islands with a Spanish squadron of seven war ships. Nobody in America knew whether Cervera was headed for Cuba or whether he meant to shell the cities on our eastern coast. Commodore Schley set out with his "flying squadron " (§ 414) to find the enemy. The Commodore discovered that the Spanish ships had entered the harbor of Santiago on the southeast coast of Cuba. (Map, p. 377.) He said with a grim smile, " They will never get home." They never did. A few days later Captain Sampson sailed for Santiago. One of his squadron was the battle ship Oregon. It had come from San Francisco, through the Straits of Magellan, — an exciting voyage of over 13,000 miles, — in order to take part in the fight. The entrance to the harbor of Santiago is long, narrow, and crooked ; furthermore, it was protected by land batteries and 18118] THE "ROUGH RIDERS 377 submarine mines. This made it practically impossible for our ships to attempt to enter to attack the enemy, 417, Fighting near Santiago; the "Rough Riders"; Destruc- tion of Cervera's Squadron. Not long afterward General Shafter landed a strong force near Santiago to cooperate with Captain Sampson in the capture of that city. A week later (July 1-2, 1898) our " regulars " and Roosevelt's "' Rough Riders," ^ who here fought on foot, stormed up the steep heights of El Caney and San Juan, overlooking the city of V -^ *.-^. ..^s^^^^^> ^>- •*^i) 7"^ Santiago «^'"''''»"'*^'*«\_ V^> ^-^ -c^^^f^^ ^. •£=?'■ Map of Cuba and Neighboring Islands Santiago. In spite of defenses made of barbed wire, they drove the Spanish, with heavy loss, pellmell into the city. Captain Sampson then went down the coast to confer with General Shafter. Meanwhile, Commodore Schley, of the flagship Brooklyn, and the commanders of the other vessels of the fleet, were keeping a sharp lookout for Cervera (§416). Not long after Captain Sampson left, a great shout went up from the Brooklyn : " The Spaniards are coming out of the harbor ! " Both sides opened fire at the same moment (July 3, 1898). But the 1 At the beginning of the war Theodore Roosevelt raised a force of volunteer cavalry. Colonel Leonard Wood took command of this regiment, in which Roosevelt held the posi- tion of lieutenant colonel. The regiment was popularly known as " Roosevelt's Rough Riders." It included "cowboys" from the West and college graduates and the sons of wealthy families from the East. The " Rough Riders " always showed themselves the equal of any men in the field for desperate fighting. S/S LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [1S98 Colonel Roosevelt Spanish Admiral's squadron of six vessels proved to be no match for our fleet of six vessels, comprising four powerful battle ships.^ In a few hours nothing was left of the enemy's squadron but helpless, blazing wrecks ; and Cervera himself was taken prisoner. Spain needed the few ships she had left to protect her own coast. Her sea power was de- stroyed, and the war on the ocean was over. It is a noteworthy fact that in our war with Spain, as in that with Mexico (§ 293), the American army and navy won every battle which they fought. 418. The End of the War. This decisive defeat compelled the Spaniards to surrender Santiago. Shortly afterward the first draft for a treaty of peace was signed. The President then ordered all fighting to stop, and the Spanish governor of Porto Rico surrendered that island to General Miles. Before the President's dispatch could reach the Philippines, Rear Admiral Dewey and General Merritt, who had gone out with reenforcements, attacked and took Manila (August 13, 1898). 419. Our Seventh Step in National Expansion, — Annexation of Hawaii'^ and of the Islands ceded by Spain; the Treaty of Peace; Our Total Territorial Additions, 1803-1898. After Dewey's splendid victoiy at Manila (§415) Captain Mahan and other emi- nent men in our navy urged the annexation of Hawaii. They believed that we needed the islands as a military base of defense and of naval operations in the Pacific. When the question came up in the United States Senate a number of senators declared that the people of the republic of Hawaii had not been fully and fairly consulted, and that the great 1 Our fleet, then off Santiago (July 3, 1S9S), consisted of six war ships, among which were the battle ships Iowa, Ittdimia, Oregon, and Texas. The battle ship Massachusetts, with other war ships, and Captain Sampson's flag ship, the New York, were east of Santiago. Cervera had four first-class cruisers, but no battle ships. 2 The Hawaiian group consists of twelve islands having a total area of less than 7000 square miles. The total population in igoo was a little over 153,000. Of this number over 61,000 are Japanese and 25,000 are Chinese. There are over 28,000 white inhabitants and about 30,000 Hawaiians. Only a part of the population can speak English. Army Commanders 379 38o LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY [18 c^- s c? ^f o" g; 5^ M ^ ^ t ^i " ^ M~ n-'^'"5' M- I? '*" "2- H: "2- ^ a^rOM in-d-f^ t^O CO rOTJ > m i^ m Owpur^ .y->Ow^ GO w-> O OO O- N u-> l^ 0^ "J-CO MO 0^ N ON M m t4l t f '1 §11 1 1 1 1 1 f t S S fa l|. : :^- : : 1 : : . : : m 1 illl i 1 III 1 S Q s 1 ^ :S|:S :S 1 1 :S ^ 1 1 "S "m " 'bi'ti'M "m "So "bi "So ii "Sd "bi ^C3 CCCi CC C C 3c C oqWQ www WW W W PW W 5'^lir^«^^^"l"-':s^ «^:^-"i"^-^ o < ... . ^ y . . ^ i t K sal 2 ^ = i 1 = i n S si? i g t I it I Q Oh 2 Ou§ § c« ^ > ^; ^ X ■ 1 m N ro ^ ii-.O r^ 00 CT\ O MM i-o TABLE OF STATES AND TERRITORIES 343,641 2,147,174 2,020,616 4,157,545 1,381,625 2,516,462 1,551,270 4,821,550 1,828,697 694,466 3,106,665 1,311,564 < z i" 8 ,?. ^ 8 ff.2 s. s. ^:r 5. g § f 1 1 1! 1 1 II 1 3 IS m 1 1 Bill 1 hm 3 a S3 WW w <: w WW w w WW w im M ri 'O '"O (S vo x^ CO C\ "-H vn £ K S^ CO M ^r « ^S" SjN >> o 2 2 H P ■^ ^ l-l Ull III c?! ^, |£ oiS g^.S^gSogoW gg^iiow JJ^o. §^^ WW www WW W W :; W W i- o s < i 1 i 1 i J > 'X H C c 1 1 1 1 1 J 1 i 1 - =2 I J^O « r :? r J? LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY t -^ o. 1 II II i ? IP '|.s-s ^3 coo'cio'!^ ^O^ 2"" ,n ,° o .^ o o o o o o o <3 c^ .r,M CO O OM- ro -:; qj vo, q, -^M ^. q; a 3 - t^ ro o~ i^o c^ -f- i^ -1- o II .?^ t-, -1- ^oco o-co '^ ill ^ ^. ^. s " s X^ O CN M K-i M t^:^ c^ II *:; '^ H S .--.O Tl-O o ^ ^ P S CO ^ CO coco coco coco Q u S 00 ^ ; Sz g 1 > E IS II II fs l^Q Si tn u) :n «1 S Q c c c c c c c e gs s s ■s ■nl .a &H C E a; oj >• w S g c E E E £ E S E fQ[/3 < <; W << ■<< << ■< pig j^ ^ c^ a^tjs oo OvC t^ CO coco CO N <:^o^ i a. .2 CO t^ CO coco ooa OD CO " " " > 1) ^ 1^1 .11 1^ ^ESmE o rt c.S-o V < 1- K. Tli 1« E 2 • ^ 2; ^. ' c" ^2 o ,^| 1 ■ 1 1- -^ c 1 .s 1 ^s^ m' - 1 c c z 2 <: i||l 'S -2 c .3 o C^ C "^c^: c c ^~, (U"^ 3 ^-1 nj El E8 ^ E E ie| 2 ° 2== O O:, ^ ^22 ^ 2- fe fc fc fcfc Ph >:t-" -1 vr> ^ r^ ro ro r- Ti-T O -M •-— ^; xxviii LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY a m < ! o >• < lis ill III mil Is II 31 ■ ca -> en IS ■H E ^.2 III i 3 ^ J ^ ^-^ "^^^ ^ V ^ — ^- H Z g « _; : : : :j : " c c - 1 il ^1 a 1 il s:° 5 1 1 u ^ V ' ^-v— ^ > •^ h ^g 8 £i "■ g 2 S ^ « . « ■ ;^ M « > Is lit s ll 1°^ 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 H S; : §^ ^ ^ ^ - s ^ : J^ ^ J° eg- s: 5 ? t i, pT i!^ -1- m" i!n J- - - 1 " CO _ - - CD 00 a: H £ M 1 1 g" E S 1 fc g E E e s a a a a 2 s 2 u 2 t CO 2 2 c c >% H OH H HO H O O o O O s ■ ■ ■ S li ^ •o .2 .2 .2 -6 t; .3 ^ •s : .2 U 1 "5^ ■a i2 -a M -a s g 5 .2 he c '3 5 ffi g s > > > ^ H ll O > H J^ Z ^ 5 z 1 Z X < i i ^ ^1 1 1 ii >=, ■< o 5 1 z^ ■=■ 3 (2 K O S >• Z H £ 1 i 1 1! = S S M O r^ « < < ° & 2 < > H z I Ui z S O < < ^^ cS A • „ ^ „ -■ c Tf i/. ^ - TABLE OF THE PRESIDENTS < O 1- 1 William H. Seward William H. Seward rElihu B. Washbume I Hamilton Fish William M. Evarts Tames G Riaine F. T. Frelinghuysen Thomas F. Bayard /James G. Blaine Ijohn W. Foster /Walter Q. Gresham t Richard Olney r John Sherman J. William R. Day Ljohn Hay John Hay rjohn Hay lElihu Root Philander C. Knox H Q > 1 § ^ O II r Schuyler Colfax .... \ Henry Wilson William A. Wheeler . Chester A. Arthur . . Thomas A. Hendricks Levi P. Morton .... Adlai E. Stevenson . . r Garret A. Hobart. . . t Theodore Roosevelt . II a S 1 £ S S § £ ats ... cans . . . ats ... 1 i Republ Republ Republ Republ Republ Republ Democ Republ Democ Republ Republ Republ Republ O o I tei-m and 6 weeks, 1S61-1S65 3 yr. loi mo., 1865-1869 .... Two terms, 1S69-1877 One term, 1877-18S1 3 yr. 5 mo. 15 da., 1881-1885 . . One term, 1885-1889 One term, 1889-1893 One term, 1893-1897 I term and 6 mo. 10 da. , '97-'oi 3 yr. 5 mo. 20 da., 1901-1905 . . One term, 1905-1909 Illinois Tennessee . . . Illinois Ohio New York . . . New York . . . Indiana. . . . . New York . . . Ohio New York . . . New York . . . i i Abraham Lincoln . . . Andrew Johnson .... Ulysses S. Grant .... Rutherford B. Hayes . James A. Garfield . . . Chester A. Arthur . . Grover Cleveland . . . Benjamin Harrison . . Grover Cleveland . . . William McKinley . . Theodore Roosevelt . Theodore Roosevelt . William H. Taft. . . . 6 - ^ ? 5 s s ^ ^ ^ ^ ?r °? 1 A SHORT LIST OF BOOKS ON AMERICAN HISTORY Bibliography Channing and Hart's Guide to the Study of American History (1492-1865) Adams' Manual of Historical Literature References in Winsor's Narrative and Criti- cal History of America, 8 vols. Foster's References to United States His- tory Larned's Literature of American History Historical Geography, Tectorial Expan- sion, Physiography, and Maps Hart's Epoch Maps of the United States (no text) Scribner's Statistical Atlas of the United States (1880) MacCoun's Historical Geography of the United States (revised edition) Gannett's Boundaries of the States (no maps) Shaler's United States, 2 vols. Semple's American History and its Geo- graphic Conditions Hitchcock's Louisiana Purchase Austin's Steps in the Expansion of our Territory Hulbert's Historic Highways (Roads and Waterways), 16 vols. Works of Reference Macdonald's Select Charters of American History (1606-1775) Macdonald's Select Documents of United States History (1776-1S61) Macdonald's Select .Statutes of United States History (1861-1S9S) Macdonald's Documentary Source Book of American History (1606-1898) 1 Lalor's Cyclopaedia of United States History, 3 vols. Larned's History for Ready Reference, 6 vols. Harper's Encyclopaedia of United States History, 10 vols. Mace's Method in History Richardson's Messages, etc., of the Presi- dents (1789-1901), 10 vols. Hart's Source Book of American History Hart's American History told by Contem- poraries, 4 vols. Stevenson's Poems of American History Lane and Hill's American History in Liter- ature Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia (1S76-1902) Poole's Index to Reviews Index to Congressional Documents The American Historical Review The Magazine of American History The Magazine of Western History Harper's First Century of the Republic The North American Review for 1876 (First Century of the Republic) Appleton's Cyclopaedia of American Biog- raphy, 6 vols. The National Cyclopaedia of American Bi- ography, 12 vols. Sparks' American Biography, 25 vols. *Morse's American Statesmen, 25 vols. *Scudder's American Commonwealths, 13 vols. *Howe's The Beacon Biographies of Emi- nent Americans, 15 vols. *Oberholtzer's American Crisis Biographies, 25 vols. McMaster's With the Fathers Bishop's American Manufactures, 2 vols. Boone's Education in the United States Dexter's Education in the United States Richardson's American Literature, 2 vols. Wright's Industrial Evolution of the United States Coman's Industrial History of the United States This is a selection of Documents from Macdonald's first three volumes. Books so marked are in progress. XXX A LIST OF BOOKS ON AMERICAN HISTORY xxxi Bryce's American Commonwealth, 2 vols. (revised edition) Niles' Register (1811-1849), 76 vols. *The Statesman's Year-Book for 1909 Cojistitntioiial and Political Histoiy and Diplomacy Thorpe's Short Constitutional History of the United States Thorpe's Constitutional History of the American People, 2 vols. Von Hoist's Constitutional History of the United States (to 1861), 9 vols. Curtis' Constitutional History of the United States, 2 vols. Macy's Our Government Boynton's Civics Carson's Hundredth Anniversary of the Con- stitution, 2 vols. Bryce's American Commonwealth, 2 vols. (revised edition) Elliot's Debates in the Constitutional Con- vention, 3 vols. Foster's Commentaries on the Constitution, 2 vols. Landon's Constitutional History Poore's State Charters and Constitutions, 2 vols. Benton's Abridgment of Congressional Debates (1789-1S50), 16 vols. Wheeler's History of Congress, 2 vols. Moore's History of Congress Hazard's State Papers (1492-1767), 2 vols. Force's American Archives (1774-1783), 9 vols. The Federalist Williams' Statesman's Manual (17S9-1S47), 2 vols. ' Carson's History of the United States Supreme Court Boutwell's The Constitution at the End of the Century (U. S. Supreme Court decisions) *United States Statutes (and Treaties) at Large, 34 vols. Taussig's Tariff History Mason's History of the Veto Power *Mead's Old South Leaflets, 75 nos. *Hart and Channing's American History Leaflets, 24 nos. Cooper's Am.erican Politics Wilson's The State Scott's Constitutional Liberty Wilson's Rise and Fall of the Slave Power, 3 vols. Smith's Political History of Slavery, 2 vols. Curtis' History of the Republican Party, 2 vols. Smith's Liberty and Free-Soil Parties in the Northwest Macdonald's Charters of American History (1605-1775) Macdonald's Select Documents of United States History (1776-1861) Macdonald's Select Statutes of LTnited States History (1861-1898) Macy's Political Parties (1S46-1861) McMaster's Acquisition of Rights Stanwood's The Presidency McKee's National Conventions and Plat- forms Johnston's American Politics Woodburn's Political Parties Merriam's American Political Theories Ford's Political History of the United States Gordy's Political History of the United States (17S7-1828), 2 vols. McPherson's Political History of the Re- bellion McPherson's Political History of Recon- struction McPherson's Handbook of Politics (from 1870), 13 double vols. The Collected Words of Franklin, Washing- ton, Jefferson, Hamilton, Jay, Rufus King, John Adams, Madison, Morris, Clay, Calhoun, Webster, Lincoln, Seward, and Sumner Memoirsof J.Q.Adams (1795-1848), 12 vols. Ingersoll's Recollections (1792-1S03), 2 vols. Benton's Thirty Years in the Senate (1820- 1850), 2 vols. Wise's Seven Decades (i 790-1 S62) Blaine's Twenty Years of Congress (1861- iSSi), 2 vols. Sargent's Public Men and Events (1817- 1895), 2 vols. Julian's Political Recollections (1S40-1872) McCulloch's Men and Measures of Half a Century (1S33-1S83) Cox's Three Decades (1855-1885) Chittenden's Personal Reminiscences (1840- 1890) * Books so marked are in progress. LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Sherman's Recollections (1855-1895), 2 vols. Thompson's Recollections of Sixteen Presi- dents (1789-1865), 2 vols. McClure's Recollections Hoar's Autobiography, 2 vols. Snow's American Diplomacy (1783-1893) Schuyler's American Diplomacy Foster's Century of American Diplomacy (1776-1876) Hart's Foreign Policy of the United States Financial Nistcvy Dewey's Financial History of the United States White's Money and Banking Sumner's American Currency Bolles' Financial History of the United States, 2 vols. Histories of the United States in General Hart's History of the American Nation (1492-1907), 27 vols. *Chancellorand Hewes' United States (1607- 1909), 10 vols. Garner and Lodge's United States (1492- 1905), 4 vols. Sparks' United States (1492-1904), 2 vols. Elson's United States (1492-1905), 5 vols. *Avery's United States (1492- ), 16 vols. Andrews' United States (1492-1902), 5 vols. Wilson's History of the American People (1492-1900), 5 vols. Scribner's United States (Bryant and Gay, revised) (1492-1896), 5 vols. Hart's Epochs of American History (1492- 1889), 3 vols. Scribner's American History Series (1492- 1889), 7 vols. Higginson's Larger History of the United States (1492-1837) Goldwin Smith's United States (1492-1871) Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of America (1000-1850), 8 vols. Schouler's United States (1783-1865), 6 vols. Bancroft's United States (1492-1789), 6 vols. H. H. Bancroft's Pacific States, 34 vols. Hildreth's United States (1492-1821), 6 vols. Johnston's United States (reprinted with additions from the Encyclopaedia Britan- nica) (1492-18S9) * Books so marked are in progress. Tucker's United States (1607-1S41), 3 vols. *McMaster's United States (1784-1S61), 6 vols. Adams' United States (1801-1S17), 9 vols. Rhodes' United States (1850-1877), 6 vols. Hart's American History told by Contem- poraries (1492- 1 900), 4 vols. *Channing's United States (1492-' ),8 vols. I. Period of Discovery (1492-1521) § Major's Select Letters of Columbus §Hakluyt's Divers Voyages §Hart's American History told by Contem- poraries, Vol. I Winsor's Columbus Markham's Columbus Harrisse's Discovery of America Fiske's Discovery of North America, 2 vols. Winsor's America, Vols. I-III Channing's United States, Vol. I IL Period of Exploration and Spanish Colonization of America (1509-1587) Irving's Companions of Columbus, 2 vols. H. H. Bancroft's Pacific States, 34 vols. §De Soto's Conquest of Florida (Hakluyt) *Channing's United States, Vol. I Parkman's France in the New World Cooke's Virginia §Hakluyt's Voyages (Goldsmid), Vol. XIII, pp. 169-276 (reasons for colonization) §Hart's American History told by Contem- poraries, Vol. I Winsor's America, Vols. II-III Edward's Sir Walter Raleigh Ellis' The Red Man and the White Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, 6 vols. Morgan's League of the Iroquois Colden's Five Nations Parkman's Conspiracy of Pontiac (ch. i) III. Period of Permanent Eng- lish and French Settlements (1607-1763) §Hart's American History told by Contem- poraries, Vols. I-II Scribner's United States, 5 vols. Winsor's America, 8 vols. Doyle's The English in America, 3 vols. Channing's United States, Vols. I-II § Contemporaneous or Early History. A LIST OF BOOKS ON AMERICAN HISTORY xxxiii Osgood's American Colonies, 2 vols. Parkman's Pioneers of France in the New \^'orld Eggleston's The Beginners of a Nation Eggleston's The Transit of Civilization Eggleston's Articles in the Century, Vols. III-VIII Earle's Home Life in Colonial Days Thwaite's Colonies Fisher's Colonial Period Lodge's English Colonies Parkman's Frontenac Parkman's Old Regime in Canada Parkman's Jesuits in North America Parkman's Half Century of Conflict, 2 vols. Parkman's Montcalm and Wolfe, 2 vols. Wood's Fight for Canada Winsor's Mississippi Basin § Force's North American Colonies, 4 vols. Seeley's Expansion of England Lecky's England, iSth Century, S vols. Chalmer's Annals of the Colonies Chalmer's Revolt of the Colonies, 2 vols. Goldwin Smith's American Colonies §Captain John Smith's Works (Arber's edition) § Brown's Genesis of the United States (1607-1616), 2 vols. §Beverly's Virginia (1584-1720) §Stith's Virginia (1607-1747) §Jefferson's Notes on Virginia §Neill's Virginia Company §Neill's Virginia Vetusta §Neill's Virginia Carolorum §Hening's Statutes of Virginia (1619-1792), 13 vols. Brace's Economic History of Virginia, 2 vols. Cooke's Virginia *The Virginia Magazine of History, etc. §Brodhead's New York (1664-1691), 2 vols. Roberts' New York, 2 vols. Wilson's City of New York, 4 vols. Lamb's City of New York, 2 vols. Palfrey's New England, 5 vols. §Winthrop's New England, 2 vols. Fiske's Beginnings of New England Weeden's Economic History of New Eng- land, 2 vols. § Bradford's History of Plymouth § Arber's Story of the Pilgrims §Young's Chronicle of the Pilgrims Goodwin's Pilgrim Republic § Contemporaneous on Early History Barry's Massachusetts, 3 vols. § Lowell Lectures (1S69) on Early Massa- chusetts §Young's Chronicles of Massachusetts Bay Ellis' Puritan Age in Massachusetts § Hutchinson's Massachusetts, 3 vols. Oliver's Puritan Commonwealth Thornton's Reply to Oliver Adams' Emancipation of Massachusetts Adams' Three Episodes in the History of Massachusetts, 2 vols. §Mather's Magnalia §Sewall's Diary (1674-1729), 3 vols. Winsor's Memorial History of Boston, 4 vols. Arnold's Rhode Island, 2 vols. Greene's Rhode Island Trumbull's Connecticut, 2 vols. Johnston's Connecticut Sanborn's New Hampshire Belknap's New Hampshire, 2 vols. Browne's Maryland Scharf's Maryland, 3 vols. §Proud's Pennsylvania (1681-1742), 2 vols. Fisher's Making of Pennsylvania Fisher's Colony and Commonwealth of Penn- sylvania Scharf and Westcott's Philadelphia *The Pennsylvania Magazine Scharf's Delaware, 2 vols. Roper's North Carolina Williamson's North Carolina Moore's North Carolina, 2 vols. McCrady's South Carolina, 2 vols. Simm's South Carolina Raum's New Jersey, 2 vols. Jones' Georgia, 2 vols. Baird's Huguenot Emigration to America Roosevelt's Winning of the West, 3 vols. Hinsdale's Old Northwest Tyler's Colonial Literature Biography. See Sparks' American Biogra- phy for Lives of Nathaniel Bacon, Daniel Boone, Lord Baltimore (Calvert), Jona- than Edwards, John Eliot, Patrick Henry, Anne Hutchinson, John Ledyard, Cotton Mather, Governor Oglethorpe, James Otis, Sir W. Phips, ^^■illiam Penn, Count Rum- ford ( Benjamin Thompson) , Captain John Smith, Roger Williams, Governor Win- throp ; Bigelow's Benjamin Franklin, 3 vols., Montgomery's Franklin (Ginn and Company) Books so marked progress. LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY IV. The Revolution and the Constitution (1763-1789) Winsor's America, Vol. VI Scribner's United States, Vols. III-TV Frothingham's Rise of the Republic Reid's The Greatest Fact in Modern His- tory (th& rise of the United States) Lecky's England (iSth century), 8 vols. Bancroft's United States, 6 vols. Hildreth's United States, Vols. I-III Hart's Formation of the Union (1750-1829) Sloane's French War and Revolution § Hart's American History told by Contem- poraries, Vol. 1 1 Greene's American Revolution Ludlow's War of Independence Winsor's Handbook of the Revolution Trevelyan's American Revolution, 4 vols. Fisher's True History of the American Revo- lution Fisher's Struggle for American Independ- ence, 2 vols. Smith's Arnold's March to Quebec Smith's Our Struggle for the 14th Colony (Canada), 2 vols. Rand's Economic History since 1763 (re- vised edition) §Stedman's American War (British account) §Almon's "Prior Documents" (1764-1775) §Almon's Remembrancer (1775-1784), 17 vols. Hosmer's Life of Governor Hutchinson §Moore's Diary of the Revolution, 2 vols. §Thacher's Military Journal § Baroness Riedesel's Memoirs § Galloway's Rise of the Rebellion (Tory) Sabine's Loyalists Carrington's Battles of the Revolution Abbott's Revolutionary Times Scudder's America 100 Years Ago Jefferson's Anas (in his Works), Vol. IX Gouverneur Morris' Diary (1775-1815), 2 vols. Tyler's Literature of the Revolution, 2 vols. Lossing's Field Book of the Revolution, 2 vols. Von Hoist's Constitutional History, Vol. I McMaster's United States, Vol. I Landon's Constitutional History of the United States 1 In Morse's American Statesmen .'Series. § Contemporaneous or Early History. Kasson's Evolution of the Constitution of the United States §The Federalist §Elliot's Debates on the Constitution, 3 vols. Wilson's The State Foster's Commentaries on the Constitution, 2 vols. Curtis' History of the Constitution, 2 vols. Fiske's Critical Period in United States History Biography. Parker's Historic Americans, Bigelow's Franklin, 3 vols., Hosmer's Samuel Adams,i Morse's John Adams, 1 Greene's General Greene, 2 vols., Lodge's Washington, 2 vols.,l Fiske's Irving's Washington and his Country (Ginn and Company), Sparks' American Biography, Lodge's Hamilton,! Gay's Madison,! Roose- velt's Gouverneur Morris l V. The Union — National De- velopment (1789-1861) Schouler's United States, 5 vols. Scribner's United States, 5 vols. Hildreth's United States, Vols. IV-VI Wilson's Division and Reunion (1829-18S9) Bryce's American Commonwealth, 2 vols. §Hart's American History told by Contem- poraries, Vols. III-IV Walker's The Making of the Nation W'insor's America, Vol. VII *McMaster's United States (1784-1861), 6 vols. Tucker's United States (1607-1841), 4 vols. Adams' United States (i 801-18 17), 9 vols. H. H. Bancroft's Pacific States, 34 vols. Rhodes' United States (1850-1877), 7 vols. Roosevelt's Naval War of 18 12 Lossing's Field Book of the War of 1812 Cooper's Naval History Maclay's History of the Navy, 2 vols. Wilson's Slave Power, 3 vols. Page's The Old South Ingle's Southern Side Lights Ripley's War with Mexico Jay's Mexican War Richardson's American Literature, 2 vols. Stedman and Hutchinson's American Liter- ature, 10 vols. Books so marked are in progress. A LIST OF BOOKS ON AMERICAN HISTORY xxxv Buckingham's Newspaper Literature, 2 vols. Thomas' History of Printing, 2 vols. Bishop's American Manufactures, 2 vols. Johnston's American Politics Stanwood's Presidential Elections §Dwight's Travels (1796-1821), 4 vols. §Lewis and Clark's Expedition (1S04-1S06), 2 vols. (Coues' edition) § Martineau's Society in America ( 1 834-1 836) , 4 vols. Johnston's American Orations, 4 vols. Tuckerman's American Art Webster's Great Orations (Whipple) Hubert's Lives of Inventors §Nile's Register (1811-1S49), 76 vols. *Scudder's American Commonwealth Series, 13 vols. Breck's Recollections (1771-1S62) Fred. Douglass' Autobiography Lyman Beecher's Autobiography (1775- 1857), 2 vols. Curtis' Buchanan, 2 vols. Greeley's Recollections (1811-1860) Dolly Madison's Memoirs Quincy's Figures of the Past Goodrich's Recollections (1797-1854), 2 vols. S. J. May's Autobiography S. J. May's Antislavery Days J. F. Clarke's Antislavery Days Biography. See in Morse's American States- men Series (Houghton, Mifflin & Co.), the Lives of John Adams, J. Q. Adams, Benton, Calhoun, Clay, Jackson, Jeffer- son, Madison, Monroe, Morris, Randolph, Washington, and Webster; in Sparks' American Biography, the Lives of Fulton and Rumford ; Sanborn's John Brown, Johnson's Garrison, Garrison's Life by his Children, 4 vols., Prime's Morse, Rice's Morton, Abbott's Kit Carson, Upham's Fremont, Parton's Famous Americans, Mrs. Stowe's Men of Our Times, Hunt's American Merchants VI. The Period of the Civil War (1861-1865) Rhodes' United States, Vols. II-V Scribner's United States, Vols. IV-V Wilson's Division and Reunion (1829-18S9) Burgess' Civil War, 2 vols. Curtis' Life of Buchanan, 2 vols. § Contemporaneous or Early History. Greeley's American Conflict, 2 vols. Draper's Civil War, 3 vols. The Comte de Paris' Civil War, 4 vols. Scribner's Campaigns of the War, 13 vols. Schouler's Civil War Johnson's Short History of the War Dodge's Bird's-Eye View of the Civil War §Hart's American History told by Contem- poraries, Vol. IV Ropes' Civil War The Battles and Leaders of the Civil War (Century Company), 4 vols. Nichols' Story of the Great March Conyngham's Sherman's March McPherson's Political History of the Re- bellion Blaine's Twenty Years of Congress, 2 vols. Swinton's Decisive Battles of the War Haskell's Battle of Gettysburg Abbot's Battle-Fields of '61 Abbot's Blue-Jackets of '61 Coffin's Four Years of Fighting Coffin's Drum-Beat of the Nation Coffin's Marching to Victory Coffin's Redeeming the Republic Coffin's Freedom Triumphant Thayer's Youth's History of the Civil W'ar Gilmore's Lincoln and the Civil War Livermore's Numbers and Losses in the Civil War Billings' Hard Tack and Coffee Wilkeson's Recollectionsof a Private (Union) Soldier Pinkerton's The Spy of the Rebellion The Century Company's Famous Adventures and Prison Escapes of the Civil \\'ar Mrs. Livermore's My Story of the War (Hospital Life) Abbott's Prison Life in the South Watson's Life in the Confederate Army Watson's The Adventures of a Blockade Runner Pollard's Lost Cause (Confederate) Davis' Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government (Confederate), 2 vols. Cooke's Wearing of the Gray (Confederate) Johnston's Narrative of the ^Var (Confed- erate) Gordon's Reminiscences of the Civil War (Confederate) Stephens' War between the States (Con- federate), 2 vols. * Books so marked are in progress. xxxvi LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Longstreet's From Manassas to Appomat- tox (Confederate) *Official Records of the War of the RebeUion (with atlas), i6o vols. Harper's Pictorial History of the Rebellion Biography. Nicolay and Hay's Abraham Lincoln, Holland's Lincoln, Herndon's Lincoln, 3 vols.. Carpenter's Six Months in the White House, Lodge's Lincoln, 2 vols., McClure's Lincoln, McClellan's Own Story, Ronian's Beauregard, 2 vols., Badeau's U.S. Grant, 3 vols.. Grant's Personal Memoirs, 2 vols., Sherman's Memoirs, 2 vols., Sheridan's Memoirs, 2 vols., Farragut's Life of Farragut, Schuckers' Life of S. P. Chase, Cooke's Robert E. Lee, Cooke's " Stonewall " Jackson, Johnston and Browne's Life of Alexander H. Stephens, Sherman's Let- ters; the Lives of Generals Scott, Han- cock, Thomas, J. E. Johnston, Lee, and Admirals Farragut and Porter, in the Great Commander Series VIL Reconstruction, — The New Nation (1865 to the Present TlME)l Rhodes' United States (1S65-1877), Vols. V-VII Hart's American Nation (1S65-1907), Vols. XXI-XXVI §Hart"s American History told by Contem- poraries, Vol. IV Garner and Lodge's United States, Vol. IV Scribner's United States, Vol. V Wilson's Division and Reunion Brown's The United States since the Civil War, 2 vols. Burgess' Reconstruction McPherson's Political History of Recon- struction Barnes' History of the 39th Congress Chadsey's Struggle between President Johnson and Congress (Columbia Uni- versity Studies, 1896) Scott's Reconstruction Bryce's American Commonwealth, 2 vols, (revised edition) Life and Works of Henry W. Grady Blaine's Twenty Years of Congress, 2 vols. Hoar's Autobiography Johnston's American Politics Pike's Prostrate State (South Carolina) McPherson's Political Handbooks (1S70- 1S94) Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia (1S76-1902) Bancroft's Pacific States, 34 vols. Thayer's New West McClure's The South Washington's Up from Slavery \\"illiams' Negro Race in America, 2 vols. Whitney's United States Shaler's United States, 2 vols. King's The New South Curry's The South Badeau's Grant in Peace Stoddard's Life of Garfield Wilson's Presidents (i 789-1 S93) Andrews' The United States in Our Time Whittle's Life of Cleveland Morris' War with Spain Harper's War with Spain, 3 vols. McKinley's Messages to Congress Roosevelt's Messages to Congress Latane's America as a World Power Coolidge's United States as a World Power * Books so marked are in progress.' § Contemporaneous or Early History. 1 Many valuable articles relating to this period may be found in The Coiiiiry, The Atlantic, Scribner's Magazine, McCbire's Magazine, Harper's Magazine,' The Outlook. The American Review of Reviexvs, The World's Work, and The Nation. For a general index to these articles consult Poole's Index. TABLE OF BOUNDARIES OF THE UNITED STATES ( TIic student of American history shotdd bear in mind that the political boundaries of the United States have been determined to a very large degree by the natural boundaries of (/) coast lines ; (2) rivers and lakes ; (j) tvatersheds : {4) 7nountain ranges.) I. (1783) By the final treaty of peace of 1783 the boundary of the American Republic (see "Map of U. S. in 1783") was fixed, in general terms, as follows : The line separating the United States from the British possessions began at the Bay of Fundy and ran to " the northwest angle of Nova Scotia," thence "to the Highlands," and thence "along the said Highlands which divide those rivers that empty themselves into the river St. Lawrence, from those which fall into the Atlantic Ocean." Thence the line ran westerly along the 45th parallel, the middle of the St. Lawrence, and the middle of the Great Lakes to the Lake of the Woods. On the west the line separat- ing the United States from the Spanish province of Louisiana was drawn from the Lake of the Woods to the head waters of the Mississippi and thence down the middle of that river to the 31st parallel, or the frontier of the Spanish province of West Florida. On the south the line extended due east from the Mississippi along the 31st parallel to the Chattahoochee River in Georgia, and thence to the sea, as shown on the map. (See " U. S. Statutes at Large," VII, 80 ; Macdonald's " Select Documents of U. S. His- tory " ; Winsor's " America," VII ; Gannett's " Boundaries of the U. S." ; Hinsdale's " Bounding the Original U. S." in Mag. of IVestern History, II, 401 ; Hart's " Epoch Maps of American History.") Much of the region through which the northern boundary ran was an unexplored wilderness and the line was largely pure guesswork. This was the case west of Lake Superior, and notably so in the northeast, between what is now the state of Maine and the British possessions. The result was that for nearly sixty years this northeast line was a subject of angry dispute, and the controversy was not finally settled until the negotiation of the Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842. (See Winsor's "America," VII, 493; and Benton's "Thirty Years in the U. S. Senate," II, 421.) II. (1795) Spain refused to recognize the southern boundary of the United States as determiined by the treaty of peace of 1783. (See above. No. I.) She claimed that her province of West Florida extended no miles north of the 31st parallel, and that the true boundary line, separating her possessions in that quarter from the United States, extended due east from the Mississippi from the mouth of the Yazoo to the Chattahoochee River in Georgia. In 1795 Spain relinquished her claim to the disputed territory, and, furthermore, granted to the United States the free navigation of the lower xxxvii xxxviii LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Mississippi, besides conceding the temporary right of deposit (or storage for merchandise) at the port of New Orleans. (See " U. S. Statutes at Large," VIII, and Winsor and Hinsdale, as above.) III. (1803) In 1803 the United States purchased the province of Louisiana, which Spain had re-ceded to France. That immense territory extended from the mouth of the Mississippi northward to its source, and had the Rocky Mountains as its natural boundary on the west. We bought the country without receiving any definite limits, and hence further negotia- tions became necessary with respect to boundary lines. (See below.) IV. (1S18) In consequence of the above purchase of Louisiana a treaty made by us with Great Britain in 1818 extended the northern line of the United States from the Lake of the Woods (see above, No. I) westward along the 49th parallel to the Rocky Mountains. The same treaty provided that the country west of the Rocky Mountains, north of the 42d parallel (or the recognized Spanish frontier), and known as the Oregon country, should be held jointly by the United States and Great Britain. V. (1819-1825) In 1819 Spain sold Florida to us, and in the treaty defined the unsettled western boundary of Louisiana (see above, Nos. Ill and IV) by an irregular line which began at the Gulf of Mexico and approximately followed the watershed south and west of the tributaries of the Mississippi to the 42d parallel. At the same time Spain agreed to renounce all claims to the Oregon country. This was to us a most important concession. Six years later (1825) a treaty made with Russia fixed the northern limit of the Oregon country (before unsettled) at 54° 40', or what is now the southern boundary of Alaska. VI. (1842) In 1842 the Webster-Ashburton Treaty (see Index under " Treaty ") settled the long dispute over the northeastern boundary (see above. No. I) and reaffirmed the line of 1818 to the Rocky Mountains. (See above, No. IV.) VII. (1845) Iri 1845 '^^ annexed Texas; the boundary question was settled by the Mexican War. VIII. (1846) In 1846 a treaty made by us with Great Britain divided the Oregon country between the two nations by extending the boundary line of the 49th parallel (see above, No. IV) from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific. (See, in general, the " Map of Acquisitions of Territory.") IX. (1848-1867) All subsequent United States boundary lines on the continent (see map cited above) were determined by Mexican cessions in 1848, the Gadsden Purchase in 1853, and the Alaska Purchase in 1867. X. (1898-1899) The islands recently acquired by the United States present no difficulties respecting boundaries. POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES xxxix POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES AT EACH CENSUS Year Population Population Living IN Cities Inhabitants of Cities '■ in each 100 OF the Total Population 1790 3,929,214 131,472 3-35 1800 5,308,483 210,873 3-97 1810 7,239,881 356,920 4-93 1820 9,633,822 475,135 4-93 1830 12,866,020 1,864,509 6.72 1840 17,069,453 1,453,994 8.52 1850 23,191,876 2,897,586 12.49 i860 31,443,321 5.072,256 16.13 1870 38,558,371 8,071,875 20.93 1S80 50,155,783 11,318,547 22.57 1890 62,622,250 18,284,385 ■ 29.20 1900 76,304,799 24,992,199 33-IO ' Places having a population of 8000 and over have usually been classed as cities, but the census of 1900 includes places of 2500 inhabitants and upwards as cities. POPULATION OF THE FREE AND THE SLAVE STATES, 1790-1860 Year Free .States Slave States (including Negroes) 1790 1,968,455 1,961,372 1800 2,684,616 2,621.316 1810 3.758,910 3,480,902 1820 5,152,372 4,485,819 1830 7,006,399 5,848,312 1840 9,733,922 7,334,433 1850 13,599,488 9,663,997 i860 19,128,418 12,315-372 xl LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY REPRESENTATION IN CONGRESS FROM 1790 TO 1903 Year Senate House of Representatives Ratio of Represen- tation 1 Free States Slave States Free States Slave States 1790 14 12 35 30 30,000 1793 16 14 57 48 33,000 1796 16 16 S7 49 33,000 1803 18 16 76 65 33,000 1813 18 18 103 78 35,000 1816 20 18 103 78 35,000 182I 24 24 105 81 35,000 1823 24 24 123 90 40,000 1833 24 24 141 99 47,700 1837 26 26 142 100 47,700 1843 26 26 •35 88 70,680 1848 30 30 140 91 70,680 1853 32 30 144 90 93,423 i860 36 30 147 90 93423 1863 72 243 127,381 1873 76 293 131,425 1883 76 325 151,911 1893 88 356 173,901 1903 90 386 193,175 1 The number of representatives is fixed by Congress every ten years (Constitution, Art. I, sect. 2). By the last act (1902) it was provided that there should be one representa- tive for every 193,175 persons; this will hold good until 1913. To find the electoral vote, add together the number of senators and representatives; e.g. the electoral vote in 1790 was 9 1 . QUESTIONS \It is believed that in tnany cases the headings to the sectiofts throughout the book {e.g. §§ 1-5, etc.) wi/l ans^cver the purpose 0/ questions, but where greater detail is desired the qtiestions liere given are i/ite?ided to supply the want.} I. The Discovery and Naming of America (1492-1522) Pages 1-4. When and where was CoUimbus born ? What was then thought about the earth ? What countries were then shown on the maps ? What was the Atlantic called ? Why ? What countries were known as the Indies ? Who were the Northmen ? What did they dis- cover in the year S50 ? What land did Leif Ericson discover about the year 1000? Is it known where Vineland was ? Did the discovery of America by Leif Ericson have any prac- tical result? Why not? Is it probable that Columbus ever learned anything about America from the Northmen ? What land did Columbus wish to reach ? \\'hat can you say about Marco Polo ? What was the first reason Columbus had for desiring to go to the Indies ? What was his second reason? How was trade with the Indies then carried on? How was that trade broken up ? Pages 4-10. What did the Portuguese attempt to do ? What did Diaz accomplish ? What plan had Columbus for reaching the Indies? What were his four reasons for his under- taking ? Did he make any mistakes in his geography ? Was it fortunate that he made these mistakes ? Why ? From whom did Columbus seek help ? What did people generally think of him ? What help did he finally receive ? When did he sail ? From what port ? How many vessels did he have ? What route did he take ? Where did he stop on the way ? How did the sailors feel about leaving the Canaries ? How was Columbus equipped for the great voyage ? What did he believe about it ? What is said of the voyage ? variation of the compass ? feeling of the crew? When and why did Columbus change his course? Pages 10-15. When and where did Columbus' land? What land did he believe it was? What did he call the natives ? Why ? Did Columbus ever find out his mistake about Amer- ica ? Did he ever see any part of the mainland of what is now the United States ? When Columbus returned to Spain, how was he received ? Of what countries did he speak in his letter to the King and Queen ? How did the Pope divide the world ? Why did he divide it ? Was Spain satisfied with the discoveries of Columbus ? ^^■hy not ? What nickname did the rabble give him? What did they say about him? What did the governor of Haiti do to Columbus in 1500? How many voyages did Columbus make to America? (See note 2, page 10.) Where and how did he die ? Where was he buried ? (See note i, page 14.) Where are his re- mains now? (See note i, page 14.) Did Columbus fail in anything ? What did he accomplish ? Pages 15-16. Who discovered the contiuciit of North America? Where? When? Did England gain anything by that discovery ? What did Burke say about it ? Pages 16-18. Who was Amerigo Vespucci and what did he do ? What did he write ? How did America get its name? What year was that? When did the name America first appear on a map? (See note i, page 19.) Pages i8-ig. What did people mean when they spoke of the " New World " ? What did most people think it was ? Who first discovered America to be a new and distinct continent, — a real AV7f' World? How and when did he make that discovery ? What motto was on the coat of arms given to Magellan? Was Europe pleased with that discovery? What was Europe still bent on doing ? What did most explorers continue to do for more than a hun- dred years? What voyages are mentioned in the Summary on page 19? II. Attempts at Exploring and Colonizing America (1509-1600) Pages 20-21. Who was Ponce de Peon ? What did he discover ? What name did he give the country ? Why did he so name it ? Pages 21-22. What great body of water did Balboa discover in 1513 ? \\hat did he call it ? What did Magellan name it afterward? What country did Cortez conquer? What did he want the King of Spain to do about the Isthmus of Panama? What did the King of France do about America ? What great river did Carticr discover ? xli xlii LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Pages 23-25. Give an account of De Soto's exploring expedition. What great river did he discover in 1541? \\'here was he buried? Give an account of Coronado's expedition. What canyon did he discover? How far east did he get? What animals did he see and hunt ? Pages 25-27. Who were the Huguenots ? Where did they attempt to plant colonies ? What did the King of Spain resolve to do? What did Menendez do in Florida? What city did he begin to build in 1565 ? Who was De Gourgues ? What did he do in Florida? Pages 27-28. What is said about the English exploration of America? What did Sir Martin Frobisher try to do? What country did Sir Humphrey Gilbert take possession of? Who was Sir Francis Drake? What great voyage did he make in 15-7-15S0? Where did he land in .\merica? What did he hope to discover? How far north did he go? What country did he take possession of for England ? Pages 28-30. What did Queen Elizabeth do for Sir Walter Raleigh? What did Raleigh think about America ? What expedition did he send out to America ? What island did the explorers reach ? What name did Queen Elizabeth give to the " Good Land " ? What did Raleigh do the next year ? How long did the emigrants stay in Virginia ? What " root " did they carry back to England? What weed did they carry back? What did Queen Elizabeth say about it ? Give an account of Raleigh's second colony. Was the colony a success ? What did Raleigh say? How is Sir Walter Raleigh regarded? Pages 30-32. What white settlers were there in America in 1600? In 1600 what flag seemed destined to wave over the whole American continent ? What did the explorers of America find it to be ? In what two ways is .\merica superior to Europe ? What is said about the natural wealth of our country? What did Gladstone say about America? (See also pages 42-43 on the physical geography of America in relation to history.) What did America offer to those who were disappointed with the Old World ? The American Indians Pages 32-38. What is said about the number of Indians east of the Mississippi? Did they have any roads? any farms? any cities or towns? How did America seem to them? \\'hat is said of the Algonquins and the Iroquois? Describe the appearance of the Indians. \\'hat was the " scalp lock " ? How did the Indians live ? What did the men do ? \\'hat did the women do? What three things did the Indians invent? What is said of Indian govern- ment ? What was a " wampum " belt made of ? What was it sometimes used for ? What did the treaty belt given to William Penn represent ? When the Indians held a council, why was a '■ wampum " belt made ? The beads of " wampum " strings had another use ; what was it ? Did the Indian have as much liberty as the white man? Mention some things the Indian could not do. What was a "totem"? Mention some of its uses. What was the Indian's religious belief? What did the Indian think about stealing and lying? What would Indian boys do to show that they despised pain ? Why did the Indians torture captives ? What did they always respect? Tell the story of General Stark's running the gantlet. NN'hat can you say about the Indian and the white man? What was the Indian's school? What did the Indian teach the white man? Mention an instance in which the Indians and the white men agreed to help each other fight. What good effect did wars with the Indians have on the English colonists ? Effects of the Discovery of America on Europe Pages 38-40. What effect did the discovery of America have on geographical knowledge ? What change had to be made in the map of the world ? What effect did the discovery of America have on European enterprise? on gold and silver? on trade and navigation? What new products were obtained from America? What luxuries? What effect did the discovery of America have on sugar, cotton, rice, and coffee? What effect did it have on men's minds ? What did it make everybody feel about America ? What effect did that feeling have ? What is said in the Summary about the three classes of discoveries and explorations of this period ? What white men held America in 1600 ? On the physical geography of the United States in its relation to history, see pages 42-43- QUESTIONS xliii III. Permanent English and French Settlements made in America (1607) 1. \'IRGIXIA, 1607 Pages 41-48. Why did many English wish to go to Virginia? How large was Virginia? What power did the charter granted by the King give to the London Company ? What to the Plymouth Company ? What was a charter ? (See note 2, page 20.) What did the com- panies hope to find ? How were the colonies to be governed ? What was the most important article in the Virginia charter ? What four instructions did the King give ? When the London Company's emigrants sailed, who went with them ? Where did the colonists settle in 1607 ? What did they name the place ? Could they vote or make laws in their new home ? Did they come into possession of any land ? Did they own what they produced ? How did they live? What happened to many of them that summer? What ocean did they set out to find ? What happened to Captain Smith ? What is said about Pocahontas ? What kind of " gold " did they find ? What is said about Champlain ? Why did Captain Smith go back to England ? What happened after he left ? What did the colonists resolve to do ? Did they go ? Why not ? How did Governor Dale preserve order ? ^^■hat did he do if a man refused to go to church ? What did Governor Dale give to every settler? \\'hat effect did that gift have ? Pages 48-52. \\'hat is said about raising tobacco ? What four effects did the cultivation of tobacco have ? Did the Virginia colonists have many towns or schools or printing presses ? What great event occurred in 1619 ? What did the choosing of this Assembly give to every colonist? What is said about women's coming to Virginia? Pages 52-58. When did negro slavery begin in \'irginia? How did people then feel about slavery ? What is said about white " apprentices " ? What class of people did the King and the English judges send to Virginia? What did the King do about the charter? What is said of Sir \MlIiam Berkeley ? What is said of the Puritans and of the Cavaliers ? What about the civil war in England ? To what country did many Cavaliers emigrate ? Why ? Why did Governor Berkeley retire from office? Mention two eminent Virginians who de- scended from Cavalier emigrants. When Governor Berkeley became governor again, what did he do ? Why did England pass Navigation Laws ? What effect did these laws have in America? What action did King Charles II take about Virginia? When the Indians began killing the colonists, what did Nathaniel Bacon do ? What about the '' White Apron Brigade " ? What did Bacon do to Jamestown ? How did Governor Berkeley punish some of the " rebels"? What happened at Williamsburg,Virginia, just a century after the" Bacon Laws" were passed? 2. New Netherland, or New York Pages 58-64. Describe Henry Hudson's expedition. Who took possession of the country on the Hudson River? What did they name it? Why were the English and the French jealous of New Netherland? What island did Peter Minuit buy from the Indians in 1626? What did he pay for it? What is that land worth to-day? \\hat did the Dutch call their settlement on that island ? Who were the Patroons ? What is said of the estate of a patroon named Van Rensselaer? What can you say about Peter Stuyvesant ? How did he defend the " city " of New Amsterdam ? What did that palisade mark ? What did the Dutch predict about that " city " ? Why did the English claim New Netherland ? What happened in 1664 ? What names were changed ? \\'hy ? 3. New Jersey Pages 64-66. Who first claimed the country between the Hudson and the Delaware ? What did the English declare ? What did the Duke of York do with the country ? How did it get the name of New Jersey ? Who finally bought New Jersey ? ^^'ith what people did the Friends, or Quakers, make a treaty ? When the Indians found an Englishman asleep, what would they say? What kind of government did the Friends grant to the colonists? How was New Jersey ruled from 1738 to the Revolution ? 4. Massachusetts (Plymouth Colony) Pages 66-71. What is said about the lack of religious liberty in England in 1607 ? What three classes of Englishmen objected to paying taxes to support the Church of England ? Why did the Separatists, or Pilgrims, go to Holland ? Why did they resolve to leave Holland and go to America ? To what part of America did they wish to go ? Who helped them to xliv LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY go, and on what hard conditions? In what vessel did they sail from England ? What is said of Captain Myles Standish ? Why did they stop at Cape Cod? What compact or agree- ment did they make in Pfovincetown harbor ? Whom did they elect for their first governor ? Where did the Pilgrims finally land on December 21, 1620? What is said of their first winter at Plymouth? What governor succeeded Governor Carver? How did the Pilgrims decide all important questions and make their laws? With what chief did they make a treaty? What is said about Canonicus and Governor Bradford ? What is said of Myles Standish and the Indians? How did the Pilgrims free themselves from the English merchants or speculators ? What did the Pilgrims do for a living ? To what larger colony was Plymouth finally joined ? What was it that made the Pilgrims great ? What is better than success ? 4. Massachusetts (Massachusetts Bay Colony) Pages 72-73. What is said of Governor Endicott? Why did he cut the cross out of the English flag? When did the great Puritan emigration take place? Who was appointed governor of the colony ? What did the colonists name the place where they settled in 1630 ? Why? What is said of the colonists who came over? How was Massachusetts governed? What did the people do in town meeting? What did Thomas Jefferson say about the New England town meetings? Who could vote in Massachusetts? How did the people live? What commerce was carried on with the West Indies? Pages 74-75. Who was Roger Williams? Why did he leave Massachusetts? With what chief did he take refuge ? What city did he begin to build in the following spring ? What is said about Mrs. Anne Hutchinson ? What about the Baptists ? What did the colonists do in regard to schools? How did Harvard University originate? What work did the Rev. John Eliot undertake? What was the New England Confederation? What were its two chief objects ? How did the remembrance of the Confederation help the colonists ? Pages 77-81. Describe the coming of the Friends, or Quakers. What did the Quakers believe ? What did they refuse to do ? What effect did the treatment the Quakers had re- ceived in England have on them ? What did the Puritans of Massachusetts do to the Quak- ers? Give an account of King Philip's War. What is said about the Salem witchcraft? \\'hy did King Charles II take away the charter of Massachusetts? Who was the first royal governor of the colony ? What did the people do to him ? What is said about the new charter which the colony received from King William III ? 5. New Hampshire Pages 81-83. What was the territory called which was granted to Gorges and Mason? Where was the first permanent settlement made in it? How did Gorges and Mason divide the territory? What name did Mason give to his part? What was the region west of the Connecticut called ? What settlements were made in Maine ? What colony and state held control of Maine from 1652 to 1S20? What is said about Londonderry, New Hampshire? What very noted man was born in a New Hampshire log cabin ? Why did New Hampshire join Massachusetts ? What kind of province did it finally become ? 6. Connecticut Pages 84-88. What people first tried to get possession of the Connecticut valley? What two towns were built by emigrants from the vicinity of Boston ? Who built a fort at Say- brook, at the mouth of the Connecticut ? What effect did it have ? Describe the emigration of the Rev. Thomas Hooker of Cambridge, Massachusetts, to Hartford. What is said about the war with the Pequots ? Give an account of the Connecticut constitution. What was there remarkable about it ? Did it impose any restriction on voting ? Of what was it the parent ? Give some account of the colony of New Haven. What kind of government did it establish ? Who were the " regicides " ? What is said about Whalley and Goffe ? What did Charles IPs charter do for Connecticut ? Describe how Governor Andros tried to take away that famous charter. 7. Maryland Pages 89-93. Who were the Catholic Pilgrims, and why did they come to .America? To whom did the King make a grant of land ? What name did it receive ? Where in Maryland did the Catholic Pilgrims settle ? \\' hat is said about the first English Catholic Church in QUESTIONS xlv America ? What did Lord Baltimore do for the colonists ? What is said about their freedom of worship ? What about the Toleration Act of 1649 ? What people sought refuge in Mary- land ? What is said about the Clayborne and Ingle rebellion? What was done later about the Toleration Act ? What did the Assembly declare concerning Lord Baltimore ? Were those rights restored ? Was freedom of worship restored ? What happened when William and Mary came to the throne ? What city was founded in 1729 ? What is said about Mason and Dixon's Line ? Why did it become famous ? 8. Rhode Island Pages 93-96. Where did Roger Williams go when he fled from Massachusetts ? Where did he and his companions finally build homes for themselves ? What name did he give to the place? What church did he, with others, found there? How does Providence rank to-day? What liberty did the colony of Providence grant to every one ? What great American prin- ciple did he first put in practice ? What does the Constitution of the United States say about religion ? What is said of the charter which Williams obtained in England ? Did Rhode Island remain true to the principle of " soul liberty " ? Was there any restriction put on the power to vote ? Did the colony ever restrict full freedom of worship to any one ? How about fighting for independence ? 9. New Sweden, or Delaware Pages 96-97, Where did the Swedes begin a New Sweden ? What did the Dutch claim ? What did Governor Stuyvesant of New Amsterdam do ? What did the English Duke of York do about ten years later ? To whom did he sell the country ? What name did William Penn give to it ? What action did " The Territories," or Delaware, take in 1776 ? What did Delaware do in 1787 ? What state first entered the American Union? 10-11. North and South Carolina Pages 97-101. What grant did Charles II make to Lord Clarendon and his associates? What name was given to the territory? How large was the territory? What were the first settlements made in it ? What city was founded in 16S0 ? Who were the Huguenots ? Why did they go to Carolina ? What is said about them ? Name two distinguished men who de- scended from the Huguenots. What was the " Grand Model " ? What did this constitution establish ? What was the condition of the common people under this constitution ? What did the people resolve to do ? Did they succeed ? How was the colony of Carolina divided in 1712? How were North and South Carolina governed? What did North Carolina pro- duce ? What is said about the introduction of rice into South Carolina ? Who first began to raise indigo in South Carolina ? What was the result ? After the Revolution what did the people find was more profitable ? What did Josiah Quincy say about Charleston in 1773 ? 12. Pennsylvania Pages 101-105. Charles II owed William Penn a large sum of money ; how did he pay the debt ? What name did the King give to the territory ? What people desired to emigrate to Pennsylvania ? What was the basis on which Penn resolved to establish a " free colony " ? What did the King think about Penn's plan ? Did Penn agree with him ? Where did Penn and his Quakers land ? Describe the ceremony of his taking possession of his vast estate. What city did he found in 1682 ? What Bible name did he give to it? What is said about Philadelphia ? What did Penn and the people enact at Chester ? What twofold foundation did that " Great Law " have ? What did Penn say about liberty ? What did he say about obe- dience ? What did the '' Great Law " say about the worship of God ? What about the right to vote ? What about children learning a trade or occupation ? What about the death pen- alty ? What about prisons? Give an account of Penn's treaty with the Indians. Was that treaty ever broken ? What is said about the wampum belt ? What is said about Philadelphia at the beginning of the Revolution ? What body of men met there in 1774? What was de- clared there in 1776 ? What was framed there in 1787 ? Where was the capital of the United States from 1790-1800? xlvi LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 13. Georgia Pages 106-108. What did General James Oglethorpe, with others, obtain from the King.' What was the new colony called.? Why.? How far did the territory extend.? What three things did the founders of Georgia wish to do ? What town did the first emigrants build ? What did they hope to produce.? In the end what was found more profitable.? What did the founders of Georgia forbid the people to buy ? What effect did the prohibition have .? Why were the colonists discontented .? What kind of government did the founders of Georgia establish? In what condition did this keep the great body of the people.? W'hat is said about liberty of worship ? \\'hat about the ownership of land .? What is said of John and Charles Wesley.? What of the Rev. Cleorge Whitefield .? How did John Wesley feel about negro slavery? How did Whitefield feel about it.? What was finally done about the pur- chase of slaves, the importation of rum, and the land laws ? What was the result ? What did the colony do with regard to attacks by the Spaniards ? What did Georgia become in 1752 ? What is said about the natural wealth of Georgia .? The FRE^'CH ExrLOR.-\TioN of the West Pages 109-114. Who were the first explorers of the West.? Where did the Catholic mis- sionaries plant missions among the Indians .? Who was Joliet ? Who was Father Marquette .? Describe their journey to the Mississippi. How far did they descend on that river.? De- scribe their coming back. Who was La Salle .? Describe his great journey. What did he do when he reached the Gulf of Mexico in 16S2 .? What name did he give to the vast territory ? What did John Law try to do in Louisiana ? What colony did Iberville establish ? What city did Bienville found in 171S.? What part of America did the English hold? What did the French hold .? Where did La Salle build forts ? Why .? The French and Indian Wars (16S9-1763) Pages H4-117. Why did war break out in 16S9 between the English and the French colonists? How long did the war really last? In the first or " King William's War" what village did the French and Canadian Indians destroy? What happened to the Indians who carried off Mrs. Dustin of Haverhill? What fort did Sir William Phips capture? In the second or ''Queen Anne's War" what town did the French and Indians burn? What country did the New Englanders conquer? In the third or " King George's War" what remarkable victory did the New Englanders gain ? Describe how they gained it. What two results did the taking of Louisburg have ? What was the fourth or " French and Indian War " fought to decide ? What forts had the French built ? Pages 117-120. Why did Virginian colonists form the Ohio Company ? What new forts did the French begin to build ? Why ? Where was the '' Gateway of the West " ? What young man did the Governor of Virginia send as a messenger to the French ? Why ? What results did that expeditioti have ? Who built Fort Duquesne ? Where ? What fort did Washington begin to build? Did he hold it? Describe the Albany Convention of 1754. What was Franklin's snake ? Why was not his plan of union adopted ? \\'hy were the authorities in England opposed to any union of the American colonies ? Pages 120-124. Give an account of Braddock's expedition against Fort Duquesne. What was said in Virginia about the defeat ? What did a clergyman say about Washington ? Why did the English drive the Acadians into exile? What is said of William Pitt? What is said about Fort Duquesne ? What is it called to-day ? Describe the great victory which General Wolfe gained in 1759. What did Wolfe say when he was dying? What did Montcalm say? What did Pontiac, the Indian chief, undertake to do ? What result did Wolfe's great victory have on France ? What did the treaty of peace of 1762 give to England ? Over how much of America did the English flag float in 1763 ? Why was England willing that Spain should hold the great province of Louisiana ? What river now became the western boundary of the American colonies ? What four results did the four English and French wars have on the American colonies ? General State of the Country in 1763 Pages 124-129. How large was the population of the American colonies in 1763? AMiat proportion was slaves? How were these slaves distributed? Of what race was the majority of the colonists ? What were the four chief cities ? What is said about foreign trade ? How QUESTIONS xlvii did England feel about American manufactures? What is said of the Navigation Laws? What bounties did England pay ? What did England buy from the colonists ? What is said about smuggling ? How were tlie colonies governed ? What is said of the colonial legislative assemblies? What about trial by jury and protection by the common law? What motto was on a flag adopted in 1775 ? Give some account of life among the farmers. Give some account of life in the cities. Pages 129-132. What is said about travel — the "Flying Machine"? What about post- age ? What about the hospitality of rich planters to travelers ? What about the stocks, the pillory, and other punishments ? What is said about education ? What is said about the Rev. Jonathan Edwards ? What was Benjamin Franklin's best known work ? Can you repeat any of " Poor Richard's " sayings ? Describe Franklin's electrical experiments. What did Frankhn say about electricity ? Was he right or wrong? IV. The Revolution ; the Constitution (1763-1789) Pages 134-141. What is said about American commerce in 1763 ? What did King George III resolve to do? What is said about the King? How did he interfere with American com- merce ? What were " Writs of Assistance " ? How were they used in Boston ? Why did the King propose to tax the colonists ? Why did they object ? Give some account of the Stamp Act of 1765. What did the " Stamp Act Congress " declare ? When was the Stamp Act repealed ? What was the Declaratory Act ? What was the " Boston Massacre " ? Give an account of the Townshend Acts of 1767. What did Samuel Adams, with others, resolve to do ? What change in the Townshend taxes did Parliament make ? Give an account of what the colonists did with the taxed tea. Describe the " Boston Tea Party." What action did Parliament take with regard to Massachusetts? What did Patrick Henry say about it? What did the " Com- mittees of Correspondence " do ? When and where did the First Continental Congress meet ? Did they ask for representation in Parliament ? Why not ? What three things did they do ? What action did Massachusetts take ? What did a South Carolina paper say about the spirit of liberty ? Who were the Tories ? What was done to them ? 1. From the Beginning of the Revolution in 1775 to the Declaration OF Independence, 1776 Pages 142-152. Describe the British expedition to Lexington and Concord. What hap- pened the morning after the retreat of the British to Boston ? When and where did the Second Continental Congress meet? What three things did it do? From this time until 1 78 1 what body governed the colonies ? Give an account of Ethan Allen at Ticonderoga. Describe the battle of Bunker Hill. Who now took command of the American army at Cambridge ? How large was that army ? Give an account of the expedition against Quebec. Describe Arnold's progress through the forests of Maine. How did Washington drive the British out of Boston ? What is said of Fort Sullivan or Moultrie ? For what had the Ameri- cans been fighting up to 1776? What did Washington say about independence? What did Paine declare in his " Common Sense " ? Did the English people want to fight the Americans ? What troops did the King hire to fight for him ? Had the Americans sought separation from Great Britain ? Give an account of the Declaration of Independence. 2. The War of Independence, from July 4, 1776, to the Victory of Saratoga, 1777 Pages 153-161. What did the British hope to do at New York ? ^^"hat is said of our navy ? How did Washington prepare to meet the British ? How did the British army and the Amer- ican compare in numbers? Describe the battle of Long Island and Washington's retreat. What about Nathan Hale ? What forts did Washington lose ? What is said about General Charles Lee ? Describe Washington's retreat across the Delaware. What did Washington do on Christmas night, 1776? What did Robert Morris do for him on New Year's morning, 1777 ? How did Washington outwit Cornwallis ? What noted foreigners joined the American army? Describe Burgoyne's expedition, with the battles of Oriskany and Bennington. Describe Howe's expedition to Philadelphia. Where did Washington go with his army after he was repulsed at Germantown ? What great victory, known as " the turning point in the Revolution," did the Americans gain near Saratoga in 1777? What officers really won xlviii LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY that battle ? What about the Stars and Stripes ? What two important results did the victory at Saratoga have? What treaty did Benjamin Franklin make with France in 1778? What is said of Franklin and Washington in the Revolution ? 3. From the Treaty with FRA^XE to the End of the W'ar for Independence (1778-1783) Pages 161-170. What is said of Washington at Valley Forge ? What did England offer us in 1778? Why? What made the British abandon Philadelphia? Describe the battle of Monmouth, and speak of General Lee's disgrace. What did the Indians do at Wyoming and Cherry Valley? What did George Rogers Clark do in the West? What was the British plan in the South? What victory did '' Mad Anthony Wayne" win on the Hudson? What news did we get from Captain Paul Jones ? After the British had taken Charleston, South Carolina, how did Marion and Sumter help the American cause ? What was the result of the battle of Camden? What of that of King's Mountain? Give an account of Arnold's treason. What is said of the winter at Morristown? Describe General Greene's campaign in the South. What occurred at Steele's tavern ? What did General Greene succeed in doing ? \\'here had Cornwallis gone ? Why did he finally go to Yorktown ? Describe Washington's siege of Yorktown and the result. W' hat is said of Washington's crowning victory ? What did Lord North exclaim when he heard of it ? Can you give a short summary of the Revo- lution ? What did George III say in his speech on the United States? What did he say to John Adams ? What did the treaty of peace secure to us in 1783 ? The Articles of Confederation. The Constitution Pages 170-175. What were the Articles of Confederation? When were they adopted? I'nder these Articles what two great things did the government accomplish ? For what two reasons were the Articles unsatisfactory ? What was the condition of the country ? Could a man buy or sell freely outside of his own state ? Why not ? Give an account of " Shays' Re- bellion." How did the Northwest Territory help keep the Union together? Mention four provisions of the Ordinance for the government of the Northwest Territory'. What did Washington, Franklin, and others think must be done about the Articles of Confederation ? Give an account of the convention called to make a new constitution in 1787. What three compromises were agreed to? What do the opening lines of the Constitution show? With what words does the Constitution begin? What party favored adopting the Constitution? What party opposed it ? Why ? What did all the states finally decide ? What part did Alex- ander Hamilton take in this ? When was the new Constitution adopted ? When did it go into effect ? Can you name one or more of the six great objects which it accomplished ? What were the ten amendments to the Constitution called? How many other amendments were made later? ^^'hat did the " Bill of Rights" do? What effect did it have on many Anti- Federalists? What did John Adams say about the United States? V. The Union — National Development (1789-1861) The Federalist Party in Power George Washington, President, Federalist (17S9-1797) Pages 177-182. What two parties united to elect Washington President? What city was then the national capital ? Describe his inauguration. What four men did he choose for his cabinet? To what office did he appoint John Jay? What did Congress do in 1789 to obtain money to carrj' on the government? What three debts did Hamilton persuade the government to pay? What influence did that policy have on cur credit? When was the first census taken ? What is meant by the " F"ederal Ratio '' ? \Miat is said of the first United States bank ? of the first mint ? \\'hat two regularly organized political parties had their origin in the discussion over the bank ? What did the members of the Republican party afterward call themselves ? What did the Federalists believe ? What did the Republi- cans (or Democrats) believe ? Give some account of " Citizen " Genet. What proclamation did \\'ashington issue ? Pages 183-187. Describe the emigration to the West. What is said of Cincinnati ? What did General Wayne make the Indians do ? Give some account of the manufacture of cotton in Rhode Island. What machine did Eli Whitney invent in 1793? What effect did it have QUESTIONS xlix on the production of cotton ? on the export of cotton ? on the building of cotton mills at the North? on slave labor ? What caused the Whisky Rebellion ? What action did Washington take ? What did the treaty with Spain do for us ? What is said about Jay's treaty with Eng- land (1795) ? What did certain abusive newspapers make Washington say? What advice did Washington give the people in his farewell address ? When he left ofhce in what condition did he leave the country ? John Adams, President, Federalist (1797-1801) Pages 188-190. When President Adams entered office how did France feel and act toward us ? What were the " X. Y. Z. Papers " ? When war with France broke out what new song was sung ? What did our sailors do ? Why did Congress pass the Alien and the Sedition Laws ? What is said of the first of these laws ? What of the second ? What resolutions did Kentucky and Virginia pass in regard to these laws? What great man died in 1799? What marks of respect were shown to his memory in France and in England ? VI. The Democratic Party in Power Thomas Jefferson, President, Democrat (1S01-1S09) Pages 191-195. What did Jefferson call himself? On what did he pride himself? What is said about the city of Washington ? What appointments to office did Jefferson make ? How far west was it thought the United States might permanently extend ? Was it strange men should have thought so then ? Give an account of our new navy and of what it taught the pirates of Tripoli. What did the Pope say about it ? Describe the purchase of Louisiana territory in 1S03. How much land did we get? What did we pay an acre for it? What four advantages came from the purchase ? Give an account of Lewis and Clark's expedition. What effect did it have on the Oregon territory ? Pages 196-199. What effect did the French and English war have on us ? What did the British man-of-war Leopard Aol Why did Congress pass the Embargo Act? ^^'hat did it do ? Why did Congress repeal the act ? What new act was passed, and what effect did it have ? Why was Aaron Burr tried for treason ? What was the result ? Give an account of " Fulton's Folly" in 1807. What result came from his great invention? What is said about the Savannah, and about lines of ocean steamers ? When was the importation of slaves for- bidden ? What did Jefferson say about slavery ? James Madison, President, Democrat (1S09-1S17) Pages 199-200. Describe the reopening of trade with Great Britain. What was the result ? I low did Napoleon deceive us ? What about Tecumseh ? What of the battle of Tippecanoe ? The War of 1812 Pages 200-208. What were the Henry letters ? What effect did they have ? What was the real cause of the War of 1S12 ? What was the so-called " right of search " ? How did New England feel about the war? What is said of General Hull? How many war ships did Eng- land have ? How many had we ? What about the Constitidion and the Guerricrc ? Describe Commodore Perry's victory. What did General Jackson do at Tohopeka ? What is said of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane ? Describe the taking and burning of Washington. Give an account of Macdonough's victory. What about the British attack on Fort McHenry? What song was written on that occasion ? Describe Jackson's great battle at New Orleans. What about the treaty of peace ? What was the Hartford Convention ? What was the War of 1812 called ? What result did 't have on the ocean ? What did it show foreign countries ? What effect did it have on the manufacture of cotton and woolen ? How did Congress safeguard these mills ? James Monroe, President, Democrat (1817-1825) Pages 209-219. W^hat is .said of Monroe's inauguration ? What about his journey through the North ? What showed that the " Era of Good Feeling " had begun ? Speak of the first. Seminole War. What territory did we buy in 1819 ? Whatgrsat question about slavery came up then ? What is said about the change of feeling about slavery ? Why did the South want 1 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY free trade with Europe ? Why did the North want a protective tariff ? Why did the North oppose the extension of slavery west of the Mississippi? \\'hy did the South demand it? What was the great Missouri Compromise of 1820? Speak of the desire to reach the West, and of the National Road. Describe the traffic over that road. How did the Monroe Doc- trine originate in 1823 ? What does it mean ? Describe the visit of Lafayette in 1825. What inscription is on his monument in Paris ? John Quincy Adams, President, Independent Democrat (1S25-1829) Pages 219-225. What is said of the building of the Erie Canal ? Describe its opening in 1825. \\"hat has that canal done for New York and for the country? What is the state of New York now doing for that canal ? What is said about " steam wagons " ? Speak of the first passenger railway in America. What about the first American locomotive and the race (1830) ? Describe the growth of railways in the United States. How do they strengthen the Union ? What is said about drinking habits in early days ? What about the movement to overcome intemperance ? What does the young man beginning life now, find ? VII. The New Democracy Andrew Jackson, President, Democrat (1829-1S37) Pages 226-230. W' hat is said of Jackson'scharacter ? What was the " political revolution " ? What was the ".Spoils System"? W"ho published the Liberalor in 1831 ? What had Mr. Garrison made up his mind to do ? What did Dr. Channing write to Daniel Webster? What about the slave insurrection in Virginia ? What happened to Mr. Garrison ? What did Daniel Webster and Abraham Lincoln think about slavery and the Union ? Speak of the Abolition societies, of petitions to Congress, of John Quincy Adams in Congress. Why did President Jackson put an end to the second United States Bank ? What did he do with the public money ? Pages 230-234. What stand did South Carolina take in regard to protective tariffs? Why? What did Calhoun call the tariff of 1S2S? \\'hat did he demand? What did South Carolina refuse to do ? What was that refusal called ? What senator upheld ludiifica/ion ? Who replied to him ? When Calhoun defended secession what did Webster say ? What did Webster make Americans realize? What did President Jackson say he must do? What did he do? What action did Heniy Clay take? What effect did his action have? Pages 234-239. Speak of the growth of the country ; of the extension of canals and rail- ways ; of the use of coal ; and of the express system. What Indian war broke out at the West ? What was the second Seminole War ? \\'hat can you say about Chicago ? What painters had America produced ? What three noted writers ? What well-known book was published in 1828 ? What other noted writers can you name ? What is said about the first cheap newspaper ? What new political party appeared about this time ? What eminent statesman was leader of the new party ? Martin Van Buren, President, Democrat (1837-1841) Pages 239-244. What great business panic began in 1837? Can you describe it? What effect did it have on factories, mills, and workmen? How did it affect a number of states? What were the three chief causes of the panic ? What good result did it have ? When was the independent treasury of the United States permanently established ? Give an account of the rise of the Mormons. To what part of the West did they finally emigrate ? What great and successful work did they do there? Speak of emigration to the United States. Is the door wide open to all now ? When do we say, " Come in " ? When do we say, '■ Keep out " ? What is said of American " clipper ships " ? What of ocean steamers ? W. H. Harrison and John Tyler, Presidents, Whigs (1S41-1845) Pages 244-249. Describe the election of "the Log-Cabin candidate." How long did he live? What is said about Tyler? What about the Dorr Rebellion ? the Webster-Ashburton Treaty ? What did Webster say our flag would protect ? Who were the anti-renters ? What is said about the telegraph in 1844 ? What was the first message sent by it ? What oceans has the telegraph crossed ? What about the telephone ? What about the " wireless telegraph " ? Who publicly proved in i846*that ether would control pain? What republic did we annex in 1845 ? Why did the South want Te.xas ? QUESTIONS li James K. Polk, President, Democrat (1845-1S49) Pages 250-252. What is said of Oregon? What of Dr. Whitman's journey to Oregon? What of his journey to the East, and of his return ? How did we get Oregon territory in 1S46 ? The Mexican War (1S46-1S4S) Pages 252-258. What dispute did Texas have with Mexico ? What caused our war with Mexico ? What victories did General Taylor win ? Who took the city of Mexico and so ended the war? What two officers in Scott's army became leading generals, on opposite sides, in the Civil War? What territory did Mexico give up to us at the close of the war, in 184S? What was the " Gadsden Purchase " of 1853 ? Describe the discovery of gold in California in 1S4S. What about emigration to California? \^'hat about digging gold? What of the " Vigilance Committee " ? What results did the discovery of gold have ? Why is California a land of gold forever growing ? Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore, Presidents, Whigs (1849-1853) Pages 258-262. What question in regard to slavery was Congress now called upon to deter- mine ? How did the question of slavery extension act on the North and the South ? How did the North feel about slavery? How did the South feel? What is said about the " Wilmot Proviso " ? What did the extreme southern men say about opening the new territory to slavery ? What did the advocates of the " Wilmot Proviso " reply ? What did a third class say? What three compromise measures did Clay propose in 1S50? Did these measures pass ? What results did the new Fugitive-Slave Law have ? What was the " Underground Railroad " ? What is said about " Uncle Tom's Cabin " ? What were the forces for slavery and those against it doing ? What is said of Charles Sumner and of Jefferson Davis ? Franklin Pierce, President, Democrat (1853-1S57) Pages 262-265. What did the "Crystal Palace" Exhibition of 1853 prove? What four remarkable machines were exhibited ? What is said about the reapers, mowers, and har- vesters in the West ? What did Commodore M. C. Perry do in Japan ? Pages 265-268. What is said about the famous Missouri Compromise of 1S20 ? Who pro- posed the Kansas-Nebraska Bill in 1S54? What did that bill do? Did it pass? What new political party was formed in 1856 ? Describe the desperate struggle between the North and the South for the possession of Kansas. What is said of " Old John Brown " ? In the end which party won, the " Slave-state men " or the " Free-statemen " ? What happened to Senator Charles Sumner ? James Buchanan, President, Democrat (1857-1861) Pages 268-272. What was the Dred Scott case (1857) ? What did the court decide ? What effect did this decision have on the North ? What can you say of the panic of 1857 ? What caused it ? What was discovered in Nevada and Colorado ? What did E. L. Drake do in northwestern Pennsylvania in 1S59 ? Compare the total length of the pipe lines with the Mississippi ? What is said of natural gas ? Pages 273-279. Describe John Brown's raid, 1859. What happened not long after his exe- cution ? Whom did the Republicans elect President in i860 ? What did the people of South Carolina think of the election ? What did they do ? By February i, 1861, what had six other southern states done ? What name did the seceded states take, what President did they elect, and what flag did they hoist ? Why did these states secede ? What kind of a republic did they aim to establish ? What did the Confederacy seize ? What is said of Fort Sumter ? ^^■hat did President Buchanan try to do ? ^Vhat happened ? What is said about the growth of the United States between 1789 and 1861 ? Speak of the rapid growth of the West. What sad difference was there between 1789 and 1861 ? What had caused this sad difference? What had time strengthened ? What must happen with regard to the Union ? In such a war what would happen if freedom should triumph ? Why ? lii LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY VIII. The Civil War (April, i86i-April, 1865) Abraham Lincoln, President, Republican (1S61-1S65) Pages 280-281. At his inauguration what did President Lincoln say about slavery? What about the Union ? What about beginning war ? What was then the general feeling in the northern states ? First Year of the War (April, i86i-April, 1862) Pages 281-286. What is said about Major Anderson ? Describe the attack on Fort Sumter. What was the result ? What did President Lincoln do the next day ? What is said of the risingof the North? How about the South ? How many more states seceded ? How many did this make in all ? Name them. To what city in Virginia was the capital of the Confederacy removed ? What is meant by General Butler's " contrabands " ? What three advantages did the North have with respect to the war ? What four advantages did the South have ? What did General Grant think about the two armies? In what four ways did the national govern- ment raise money for the war ? W'hat is said about national banks ? Pages 286-291. Speak of the number and position of the Union and the Confederate armies in 1S61. Describe the battle of Bull Run. How did "Stonewall" Jackson get his name? What results did the Union defeat have? What great work did General McClellan do ? What were the four points of the Union plan of the war ? What is said of the blockade by the Union navy ? Speak of blockade runners and Confederate vessels of war. What is said about the seizure of Mason and Slidell ? What can you say of the Mcirimac ? What of the Monitor? Pages 292-295. What is said of the war in the West? What Confederate fort did Com- modore Foote take ? What important victory did " Unconditional Surrender " Grant win ? Why did he get this name ? What is said of the battle of Pittsburg Landing ? What about Island Number Ten ? What was the general result of the first year of the war ? Second Year of the War (April, 1S62-APRIL, 1S63) Pages 295-301. Describe the expedition against New Orleans. After Farragut's victory what were the only important fortified points on the Mississippi which were still held by the Con- federates ? Describe McClellan's advance on Richmond. What is said about the weather? Speak of '' Stonewall " Jackson's raid, and of Stuart's raid. What were the results of McClel- lan's "Seven Days' Battles" around Richmond? Describe the second battle of Bull Run. What move did General Lee make ? What happened at Antietam ? Speak of the battles of Fredericksburg and Murfreesboro? Pages 301-302. What did President Lincoln do on New Year's Day, 1863? W^hy did he issue the Proclamation of Emancipation ? What did the Thirteenth Amendment to the Con- stitution of 1S65 declare? What has free labor done for the South? What was the North fighting for before the Proclamation of Emancipation ? What did it fight for afterwards ? Third Ye.ar of the War (April, 1863-ApRiL, 1864) Pages 302-309. What is said of the battle of Chancellorsville ? What noted Confederate officer was killed ? Describe the great battle of Gettysburg in 1863. What is said of Pickett's charge ? Describe the High- Water-Mark Monument. What was the result of the great battle ? What can you say about the siege of Vicksburg in 1S63 ? On what day did Vicksburg sur- render? What place surrendered five days later? What is said of the Mississippi River? What about the draft riots ? What about Morgan's raid ? What is said about the battle of Chickamauga? What did the Union soldiers call General Thomas? Speak of the battles of Lookout Mountain and of Missionary Ridge. What did Sherman do at Meridian ? Who was now (1864) made general in chief of the Union armies ? Fourth and Last Year of the War (April, 1S64-APRIL, 1S65) Pages 310-315. What did Grant and Sherman now decide to do? What was this famous campaign called ? What was the " Wilderness " ? What order did Grant telegraph to Sherman from the Wilderness? Speak of the battles of the " Wilderness." What had Grant vowed? QUESTIONS liii Did he turn back ? What did he do ? What is said of Captain W^inslow of the Kcarsaro;c ? What two raids did (ieneral Early make ? Describe Sheridan's raid in the Shenandoah Valley. What is said about the Petersburg mine? What of Sheridan's ride from Winchester? Pages 315-324. What advance did Sherman make in the West ? Describe his movement on Atlanta. What is said about the weather? Did he take Atlanta? What did he do to the city ? What victory did Admiral Farragut win ? Describe Sherman's march from Atlanta to the sea. What is said about Hood? What did Thomas do? What message did Sherman send to President Lincoln from Savannah ? Describe Sherman's march northward. What announce- ment did he make to his army on April 12, 1S65 ? What effect did this have on both Union and Confederate soldiers? What did a southern woman say to her children ? Who surrendered to Sherman near Raleigh ? Pages 324-327. Speak of Sheridan's two raids around Richmond. What place did Grant capture on April 2, 1865? What city did he take on April 3? What is said of Jefferson Davis? Give an account of Lee's surrender on April g, 1865. What did General Anderson do at Fort Sumter on April 14 ? How many years was it since the Confederates had won their first victory in the Civil War? What had the war cost? What terrible crime was com- mitted at Washington on the evening of April 14, 1865 ? What is said of President Lincoln ? What is said about the North during the war ? What about the Sanitary and the Christian Commissions ? What is said of the people of the South in the war ? What did General Grant say about them ? \\'hat effect did the final triumph of the national forces have on the Union ? IX. Reconstruction — The New Nation (1865 to the Present Time) Andrew Johnson, President, Republican (April, 1S65-1869) Pages 328-332. What event made Vice President Johnson President? What very difficult work was President Johnson called to undertake? Give an account of the military review in Washington. What is said of the return of the soldiers to their homes ? What effect did the war have on secession ? What effect on the negro ? What is said of General Grant ? What of General Lee ? What did Lee say to his men ? What proclamation did President Johnson issue in May, 1S65 ? What action did most of the southern states take? On what question did the President and Congress disagree? What did Congress do? What did President Johnson do? What effect did the First Reconstruction Act have? What is said of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution ? What was the first southern state that was readmitted ? How many other states came back ? How many refused to come back and remained out until 1S70 ? What is said about the negro legislators and the " Carpetbaggers " ? What brought their reign to an end ? Pages 332-335. What was the Tenure of Office Act? Why did Congress impeach Presi- dent Johnson ? \\'hat was the result ? What proclamation did the President issue on Christ- mas, 1S6S ? When was the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution ratified ? \\'hat did the three amendments do for the negro ? Has the Fifteenth Amendment any real force at the South ? Why not ? Describe the laying of the first Atlantic telegraph cable. What great territory did we purchase in 1S67? What results has that purchase had? What was the amount of the great Civil War debt ? How long would it take to count it ? How much of it have we paid ? How was our national debt increased in 1S9S ? How did it stand at the close of 1907 ? Ulysses S. Grant, President, Republican (1869-1877) Pages 336-341 . How was communication overland kept up with California from 1S60 to 1869? What great work was completed in 1869? Can you describe it ? What very important result has that railway, with the telegraph, had on the Union ? What effect has that railway, with others, had on commerce with Asia ? What effect have they had on the growth of the Far West ? What can you say about the national land laws ? What about the Homestead Act of 1862 ? What about the National Irrigation Act of 1902 ? What of emigration to the West, and growth of cities like Denver? Give an account of some of the great farms and ranches of the Far West. When was the reconstruction of the southern states completed ? Speak of the A'n K/it.x Klan and the " Force Bill." What is said about the negro ? What is said of the Weather Bureau ? What about the great fires of 1871-1872 ? What do our losses by fire now average ? What is said of " Boss " Tweed ? Pages 341-345- What did the new Coinage Act of 1873 '^o ? Speak of the panic of 1873. Describe the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876. What three remarkable novelties liv LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY were exhibited there ? Give an account of the telephone. What about experiments with the wireless telephone ? What is said of progress in the use of electricity ? What of auto- mobiles and flying machines ? What may the twentieth century be called ? What important treaty did we make in 1S71 ? What was one of its results? What is said about Indian wars at the West? Give an account of the disputed Presidential election of 1S76. How was that dangerous dispute settled ? Rutherford B. Hayes, President, Republican (1877-18S1) Pages 345-348. Why did President Hayes withdraw the United States troops from the South? What was the result? Describe the first great historic labor strike in 1S77. What important work did Captain Eads complete in 1879? What can you say about the restoration of " the dollar of our fathers " in 1S7S ? What about " greenbacks " in 1S79 ? James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur, Presidents, Republicans (1S81-18S5) Pages 348-353. What happened to President Garfield in the autumn of 1881 ? Who then became President? What law did Congress pass in 1883 ? Why? What about the extension of this law ? What advantage does the " merit system " secure ? Speak of the East River Suspension Bridge. What other great works of this kind have been completed since ? \\'hat about cheap postage ? Why did Congress pass the Alien Contract Labor Act ? What does that act prohibit? Speak of the exportation of cotton and of the Cotton Centennial Exhibi- tion. Describe the growth of New Orleans since the Civil War. What is said about the '■ New South " ? Mention some of its '' hives of industry." What is said about the- supplies of cotton, iron, lumber, and coal of the South? W^hat is free labor accomplishing? How much cotton did the South produce just before the Civil War? How much now? What is said about the prosperity of the negroes ? A\'hat about education ? Grover Cleveland, President, Democrat (First Term, 1SS5-18S9) Pages 353-358. How long had the Republicans been in power when Mr. Cleveland became President ? What is said of the " Knights of Labor " ? What was one of their objects ? Speak of the " black list " and of the " boycott." What about the '' American Federation of Labor " ? What about the National Labor Bureau ? What of the Department of Agriculture ? What was the year 1886 called? What occurred in Chicago? What is the object of the an- archist ? Give some account of great corporations and " trusts." What is a " trust " ? Mention some objects for which '■ trusts " have been formed. What is said about the consolidation of railway lines ? What of '' department stores " ? What action has the national govern- ment recently taken in regard to great railways and " trusts " ? Describe the Statue of Liberty. What three important laws did Congress pass in 1S86-1S87 ? What was the object of the Railway Rate Act of 1906? How many members has the Cabinet now? Can you name them ? Benjamin Harrison, President, Republican (1889-1893) Pages 359-362. What does the name Oklahoma mean? Describe the opening of that territory in 1S89. When was Oklahoma admitted to the Union? (See page 397.) What is said about the new American navy ? What does suffrage mean ? What four western states have granted women equal suffrage with men? What is said about the Pension Act of 1890? What was the Sherman Silver Purchase and Coinage Act? Did silver rise in value? How much was a silver dollar worth by weight in 1890? What was it worth a little later? What was the main object of the McKinley Protective Tariff? What is said of the census of 1890 ? Speak of the Patent Office Centenni'al celebration. What is said about our labor-saving machines ? Where did the second great strike in our history occur ? Grover Cleveland, President, Democrat (Second Term, 1S93-1S97) Pages 363-366. Give an account of the Australian or secret ballot. How many states now use it ? What anniversary was celebrated by the public schools in October, 1892 ? What ex- position was opened the next spring ? What is said about the panic of 1S93 ? What did Con- gress do about the Sherman Silver Purchase and Coinage Act ? What is said about the Bering QUESTIONS Iv Sea dispute ? What was the Coxey '' Industrial Army " ? Give an account of the third historic strike. What is said of the panic of 1S94 ? What was the Wilson Tariff ? What is said about the growth of the " New West " ? What about the Venezuela question ? How was it settled ? William McKinley, President, Republican (1S97-1901) Pages 366-371. Give some account of the Dingley Protective Tariff. What is said about the increase in our exports ? For what does Great Britain depend upon us ? What is said about our manufactures of iron, steel, and copper ? What about our exports of these manu- factures ? Speak of some noted buildings erected in New York and Washington. What is said about " Greater New York " ? What about its high buildings ? its bridges and tunnels .? its new aqueduct.? What is said of the rapid growth of our cities ? How many people of the United tc -ttis now live in cities ? What is said about the government of our cities .? What seven southern states have adopted new or amended constitutions ? How do these constitu- tions affect the negro vote.? What about the Fifteenth Amendment to the national Con- stitution ? What is said about the constitution of .Soutlt Dakota ? of Oregon ? of Oklahoma ? What is this new power granted to the people called ? Pages 371-374- What is said about the former extent of the possessions of Spain in Amer- ica and in the East ? What did Spain hold in America almost as late as the beginning of the last century ? What had happened in less than twenty-five years afterward ? What were the only important islands Spain had left in the West Indies ? Give an account of the revolution in Cuba. What happened to the battle ship Maine in 1898 ? What did President McKinley say in his message to Congress .? What did Congress resolve ? What did Congress demand of Spain ? What did Congress say about the government of Cuba? What about our right to act as guardians of the liberty of the Cuban people ? The War with Spain, 189S Pages 374-382. How many volunteers did the President call for? How much money did the national government borrow from the people ? Plow much money was raised by taxation ? What is said about our navy? Having made all these preparations, what did Congress do next ? Describe the battle of Manila. What is said about Cervera's seven battle ships ? Where did Commodore Schley discover them ? What did he say ? Describe the land battles near Santiago. Give an account of what happened to Cervera's battle ships. What effect did Cervera's defeat have on the war? Meanwhile what occurred at Manila? How did we come into possession of Hawaii? In what year did we obtain the Samoan Islands? What is said of a number of other small islands in the Pacific ? When was the final treaty of peace with Spain signed ? What were the three terms of that treaty? What discussion took place in the Senate in regard to ratifying the treaty and taking possession of the Philippines ? What action did the Senate finally take ? What were the seven great steps of our national territorial expansion from 1S03 to 1S9S? How many square miles of territory have we added to the United .'States in less than a century ? Pages 382-385. What is said about the insurrection in the Philippines? What is said about the condition of the islands ? What is said about Cuba ? When we recognized the new republic of Cuba, what condition did we insist upon ? What did we do when an insurrection broke out in Cuba in 1906? What is said of the cost of the war with Spain in money and life ? What is said of the effect of the war on the Union and the Confederate veterans ? What about the " Red Cross Society" and the women of America? Speak of the "Trans-Missis- sippi Exposition." What can you say about the " Great American Desert " ? What is that region called now ? Speak of the Homestead Act and its effects. What about agricultural colleges ? What is said about the prosperity of American farmers and planters ? What could they have paid out of a single year's profits ? Pages 385-390. Speak of the destruction of our forests. What is the total forest area of the United States? What demands are being made upon our forests? At our present rate of use, how long will they probably hold out ? What are the nation and the states doing to preserve them and the streams which rise in them ? What is said about the savings banks of the United States ? What about the total wealth of the nation ? What about gifts for the public good ? What is meant by the " open door " in China ? What about the Hague Peace Conference Treaty or Agreement? What very important act did Congress pass in 1900? Speak of the Panama Canal. Why do we need the canal ? What is said of the census of 1900 ? What of our foreign trade ? \\hat was the Pan-American Exposition ? What terrible murder was committed there in the autumn of 1901 ? Who then became President? Ivi LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Theodore Roosevelt, President, Republican (1901-1905) Pages 390-392. Give an account of the great coal strike of 1902. How was it finally settled ? What is said about the Pacific telegraph cable ? What message did President Roosevelt send to King Edward of England in 1903 ? What is said about that message ? What exposi- tion was opened at St. Louis in 1904 ? What did it commemorate ? What did the exposition at Portland, Oregon, in 1905, celebrate? Theodore Roosevelt, President, Republican (1905-1909) Pages 393-396. What did President Roosevelt say in his inaugural address about two things we should all resolve to do? What did Franklin say about time? Hoiv ..-re Amer- icans working to save it? How are we trying to save health? Speak of our ctcj^-^^aiks and of our national parks. What are we trying to do about our land, our forests, our coal and iron mines, our oil fields, our natural gas, and the streams of our country? What is the national government doing to help farmers ? What meeting of great importance was held in Washington in 190S? How are we trying to save men from some of the wear and tear of human life ? What are we tr>'ing to do about foolish and hasty wars ? On what side has the influence of America generally been ? What is said about the arbitration of national disputes ? What is said about the children in our public schools ? Pages 395-400. What is said about the way in which Americans meet great disasters ? Mention some of these disasters. What is said about the California earthquake and fire ? What about the panic of 1907 ? What state was admitted in iqo; ? What is the total number of states now? What three important bills did Congress pass? Describe the cruise of our war ships around the world in 1907. What was the result of the Presidential election in November, 1908? What agreement did the Secretary of State make with the Japanese minister in 1908 ? What is said about the growth of the American nation ? What about the population of the republic ? What about its extent ? What is said about our advantages ? What do these facts prove? What question should every American ask himself? What depends on the way in which we answer this question ? TOPICAL ANALYSIS FOR THE BLACKBOARD \The Jigitrcs refer to the tiumbcrcd sections^ Note. The most important dates are uninclosed ; those given in parentheses are inserted simply to enable the pupil to follow the general chronological order of events. The Discovery and Naming of America (1000-1522) The Northmen (1000) . Who were they ? . Iceland. . Greenland. . " Leif the Lucky." . Vinland (1000). L 3. Results of the discovery of America by the Northmen. Geographical f knowledge 1^ Ideas about the earth when Columbus was bom. The " Sea of Darkness." I. Birth of Columbus. 3. He probably never heard of Vinland. 4. What he wished to do. 4. Marco Polo's book. 4. First reason why Columbus wished to go to the Indies. 5. His second reason for wishing to go there. 5. Trade with the Indies. (Genoa; Venice.) 6. Portuguese voyages ; Results. Columbus, 1492 \ 7. Plan of Columbus. (How far right, how far wrong.) 8. He seeks assistance. 9. He sails, 1492. Vessels ; Canary Islands ; equipment for the voyage. 10. Incidents of the voyage. (Compass; crew; birds.) 11. Land! 1492. (The West Indies; the Indians.) 12. Return. Letter of Columbus ; division of the world. 13. Disappointment of Spain. (Columbus in chains.) 13. Death of Columbus. What he had accomplished. The Cabots, 1497 14, 14. 1 14. L14. John and 1 , , ,. Sebastian / ^^^^ ^^^^ discovered in 1497. Henry VII's notebook. England's claim to America. Origin of the C 15. Amerigo Vespucci. name "Amer- -j 15. What happened in 1507. ica," 1507 L 15- Did Amerigo Vespucci deserve the honor he received; Ivii Iviii LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Discoveries concerning America i6. What people thought of America. 16. What Magellan discovered about America (15 19- 16. How Europe felt about his discovery. 17. Summary of the section. [522). Ponce de Leon Balboa ■ Attempts at Exploring and Colonizing America ( 1 509-1 600) iS. Discovers and names Florida (15 13). 19, French explorations Discovers the "South Sea" (15 13). (Cortez proposes a canal across the Isthmus of Panama (15 19).) 20. The King of France; Cartier on the St. Lawrence (1535). New attempts of J 21. De Soto's expedition (1539). the Spaniards 1^ 22. Coronado's expedition (1540). The French (Huguenots) and the Spaniards English explo- rations and attempts at settlement, 1585 America and the Indians 23. The Huguenots (1562). 23. Menendez; St. Augustine (1565). 24. De Gourgues. (Results of the struggle between the French and the Spaniards.) 25. Frobisher; Davis. 25. Sir Humphrey Gilbert; Drake (1577-1580). 26. Sir Walter Raleigh's expedition (1584). 27. Raleigh's first colony, 1585. (The new " root " ; the new weed.) 28. Raleigh's second colony (15S7). 29. Results of the Spanish, French, and English attempts up to 1600. 30. What America was found to be ; physical geography. (Climate, soil, crops ; healthfulness : superiority to Europe ; natural wealth ; what Gladstone said.) 31. The Indian population. 32. Personal appearance of the Indians. (The scalp lock.) 33. How they lived. 34. Their work. (The moccasin ; the snowshoe ; the birch-bark canoe.) 35. Government of tribes ; '"wampum." 36. Social condition ; customs ; " totems." 37. Religion ; character. 38. Self-control ; torture ; respect for courage. (General Stark.) 39. The Indian and the white man ; what the Indian taught the white man. 40. Influence of the Indians on the early historj' of the country. (The Iroquois; the Indian wars.) 41. (i) Geographical knowledge. 41. (2) Spain, Portugal, France, and England. 41. (3) The precious metals. 41. (4) Trade and navigation. 41. (5) New products. 41. (6) Sugar, cotton, rice, coffee. 41. (7) Effects on men's minds. Opportunity. 42. Summary of the section. Spaniards, French, English ; America *- in 1600. Effects of the geography of America on its history. See text and map, pages 42, 43. Effects of the discovery of America on Europe TOPICAL ANALYSIS lix The English and the French establish permanent colonies. I. Virginia, 1607 II. New Netherland, or New York (1614). Settled by Dutch III. New Jersey (161 7) IV. Massachu- setts (Plym- outh Colony, 1620) Permanent English and French Settlements (1607-1763) 43. Opening of the 17th century ; the desire of the English to go to Virginia. 43. England's need of America ; the King grants a charter to settle Virginia. 43. The London Company ; the Plymouth Company. 44. Articles of the charter ; instructions. 45. The London Company's colony sails; Captain John Smith. 46. Jamestown, 1607 ; condition of the colonists. 47. Sufferings of the colonists; their search for the Pacific; Pocahontas. 48. Gold? The French in Canada; Smith becomes governor; the colonists resolve to abandon Jamestown. 49. Lord Delaware; Governor Dale; the great land reform. ("T/iis is m!»i\") 50. Cultivation of tobacco (1612). Four effects. 51. Virginia becomes practically self-governing, 1619. The House of Burgesses ; wives. 52. Negro slaves, i6jg ; white "apprentices." 52. \Miat settlements were made at the North. 53. Virginia loses her charter; Governor Berkeley; Puritans and Cavaliers. 54. Berkeley restored to power ; the Navigation Laws ; the King gives away Virginia. Other English colonies. 55. Condition of the Virginia colonists ; the Indian war; the Bacon rebellion, 1676 ; Results. 56. Summary of the Virginia colony. 57. Henry Hudson (1609). 58. The Indians. 59. The Dutch take possession of New Netherland (1614) ; the English and the French. 60. The Dutch purchase Manhattan Island, 1626. 61. The Patroons ; Van Rensselaer. 62. Peter Stuyvesant ; New Amsterdam. The English claim the country; they seize it (1664). I. 63. Summary of New Netherland, or New York. r64. 64. Dutch claim ; English claim. English get possession. Name New Jersey. The Friends, or Quakers. Treaty with the Indians ; government of the colony. Summary of New Jersey. Lack of religious liberty in England. Catholics, Puritans, Sepa- ratists. Emigration; the Separatists, or Pilgrims, go to Holland (1607). Why the Separatists, or Pilgrims, resolved to leave Holland for America. Where they intended to settle ; how they got assistance. The Pilgrims sail in the Mayflower; Myles Standish. Cape Cod ; the Compact. Exploring the coast ; Plymouth Rock, 1620. The first winter. Governor Bradford ; Town meeting ; treaty with the Indians. The Pilgrims buy out the English Company. Growth of the colony; what made the Pilgrims great. Ix LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY IV. Massachu- setts (Massa- chusetts Bay Colony, 1630) V. New Hamp- shire (1623) VI. Connecticut (1634) VII. Maryland (1634) VIII. Rhode Island (1636) 76. Salem ; Governor Endicott ; religious toleration, cutting the cross out of the English flag. 77. Governor Winthrop ; Boston, 1630. Great Puritan emigration to New England. 78. Government of Massachusetts ; town meetings ; who could vote ; occupations of the people. 79. Banishment of Roger Williams ; of Mrs. Hutchinson ; Williams and Massasoit. So. The Boston Free Latin School (1635) ; Harvard University, 1636; Rev. John Eliot; first Printing Press, 1639. Common- school system founded, 1647. Si. The New England Confederation, 1643; object; Results. 52. The coming of the Friends, or Quakers. 53. Why it excited alarm ; what the Friends believed, what they refused to do. 84. Effect of persecution on the Friends. 85. What the Puritans of Massachusetts did to the Quakers. 86. King Philip's War, 1675. Eliot's Indians ; Result of the war. 87. The Salem witchcraft. 88. Massachusetts loses her charter ; Andros ; the new charter. 89. Summary of Plymouth and of Massachusetts Bay colonies. 90. Grant to Gorges and Mason ; first settlements. 91. Division of the territory; New Hampshire, Vermont, Maine; Exeter. 92. Londonderry ; union of New Hampshire with Massachusetts. Voting ; New Hampshire a royal province. 93. Summary of New Hampshire. 94. Emigration to the valley of the Connecticut ; Hooker's colony. 95. The Pequot War. 96. The Connecticut constitution, 1639. Of what it was the parent. 97. The New Haven colony ; Scripture laws. 98. The Regicides ; Davenport's sermon ; Andros and the Connect- icut charter. 99. Summary of Connecticut. 100. The Catholic Pilgrims ; Lord Baltimore ; Maryland, loi. St. Marys; the wigwam church (1634). 102. Government of the colony ; religious freedom ; the Toleration Act, 1649. 103. Clayborne and Ingle; what the English commissioners did; how the Assembly or Legislature treated Lord Baltimore. 104. Lord Baltimore restored to his rights ; Maryland loses her charter. 105. Establishment of the Church of England; Maryland restored to Lord Baltimore; Mason and Dixon's line (1763-1767). 106. Summary of Maryland. 107. Roger Williams ; Providence ; the first Baptist church in America (1639). 108. Liberty of conscience, 1636. The Constitution of the United States. 109. Settlement of the island of Rhode Island; the charter; Rhode Island and the Revolution, no. Summary of Rhode Island. TOPICAL ANALYSIS Ixi IX. New Sweden, or Del- aware (1638) X, XI. Caro- lina (1663) 111. The Swedes plant a colony ; the Dutch seize it. 112. The English take the country. William Penn ; the "Terri- tories " ; Delaware the first state to ratify the national Consti- tution (1787). 1^ 113. Summary of Delaware. 4. Grant of Carolina : first settlements. 5. Charleston; the Huguenots. 6. The " Grand Model " ; division of the territory into North and South Carolina (1712). 7. Growth of the two colonies ; rice ; indigo ; Charleston shortly before the Revolution. ,118. Summary of Carolina. XII. Pennsyl- vania (1 68 1) r 119. William Penn; Pennsylvania; the "Holy Experiment." J 120. The first emigrants; Penn at Newcastle; Philadelphia (16S2). 121. The "Great Law" (1682). I 122. The treaty with the Indians (1682) ; importance of Philadelphia. t^ 123. Summary of Pennsylvania. XIII. Georgia (1733) The French in the West and the South (1 669-1 7 1 8) 124 L 128 Oglethorpe. His three objects in establishing the colony of Georgia. Savannah ; silk culture. Four restrictions on the colony. Results. The Wesleys ; Whitefield ; removal of most of the restrictions ; the Spaniards ; Georgia (1752) ; natural resources of Georgia. Summary of Georgia. 129. French exploration of the West (1669) ; the Catholic mission- aries. 130. Joliet and Marquette on the Mississippi (1673). 131. La Salle's expedition (1679-16S2). The forts; Louisiana (1682). 132. Mobile; New Orleans (171S). , 133. What the English held in America; what the French held. The wars of the English with the French and their Indian allies (1689-1763) 134. War with the French and Indians; (i) " King W'illiam's War" (1689). Schenectady; Haverhill; Acadia. 134. (2) " Queen Anne's War" (1702). Deerfield ; Annapolis; Nova Scotia. 135- (3) "King George's War" (1744); capture of Louisburg. Results. 136. (4) The " French and Indian War" (1754) ; the French forts. 137. The Ohio Company; action of the French; Governor Din- widdle's messenger ; the name cut on Natural Bridge. 1 38. Results of Washington's journey. 139. The Albany Convention (1754) ; Franklin's snake. 140. Braddock's defeat (1755) ; Washington. 141. Acadian exiles; Pitt and victory; Louisburg; Fort Duquesne ; the French driven back to Canada. 142. Fall of Quebec (1759) ; Pontiac's conspiracy. 143. What the war settled. France and the West (1759) ; Treaty of 1763 ; what America was to become ; Spain ; the English flag at the end of 1763. 144. Four Results of the four great wars between the English and the French with their Indian allies (16S9-1763). Ixii LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY General state of the country in 1763 145. The thirteen colonies in 1763. '' Making roots." The popula- tion ; the country west of the Alleghenies. 146. Language, religion, social rank ; cities ; newspapers ; trade ; manufactures ; Navigation Laws ; bounties. 147. Government of the colonies; law. "Don't tread on me." ^ Unity of the people. 148. Farm life. (The houses ; the fires ; food ; the store ; recreation.) 149. City life ; the Southern Plantations. Dress ; life then and life now. 150. Travel ; the " Flying Machine " ; letters ; hospitality ; severe laws. 151. Education; books; Edwards; Franklin. 152. Franklin's " key to the clouds " ; what he said about electricity. L 153. General summary of the colonial period. The Revolution; the Constitution (1763-17S9) The Revolution. (I. The colonists resist taxation without repre- sentation, 1764-1775) 154. American commerce; the new King. What he was and what he did. " Writs of Assistance " ; James Otis. [55. The King proposes to levy a direct tax on the colonies; object of tax ; protest of the Americans. Pitt and Burke. [56. The Stamp Act proposed. 157. The Act passed, 1765; Patrick Henry; the Virginia Assembly; the Stamp Act Congress ; destruction of the stamps. 158. Repeal of the Stamp Act; the Declaratory Act; the Boston Massacre ; the Gaspec. [59. The new taxes (1767) ; their object: the colonists refuse taxed tea ; the " Boston Tea Party," 1773. 160. Parliament closes the port of Boston. General Gage ; Patrick Henry, — "We rwyst figlit." "Committees of Correspond- ence " ; the First Continental Congress, 1774. The three things that Congress did; Massachusetts; John Hancock; volun- teers ; " minutemen " ; the spirit of liberty ; the Tories. The Revolution. (2. From the be- ginning of the war, 1775, to the Declaration of Independence, 1776) The Revolution. (3. The War of Independence, from 1776 to 1777) 161. Paul Revere; Lexington; Concord, 1775. "Yankee Doodle"; the siege of Boston. 162. The Second Continental Congress, 1775 : the three things it did. Ethan Allen. Ticonderoga, Crown Point. 163. Bunker Hill, 1775. Franklin's letter. 164. Washington takes command of the American army (1775) ; the attack on Canada. 165. Washington enters Boston ; Fort Sullivan, or Fort Moultrie. 166. The idea of Independence; "Common Sense." The Hessians. 167. The Declaration of Independence, 1776. The Liberty Bell ; the King's statue. The new nation. ^ 16S. Summary. 169. What the British hoped to do in New York ; the American navy ; privateers. 170. Washington at New York; Fort Washington; Fort Lee. 171. The two armies ; the battle of Long Island. 172. Washington retreats northward; Nathan Hale; Fort Washing- ton ; the false-hearted Lee. 173. Fort Lee taken; Washington retreats southward, and crosses the Delaware. General Lee captured. 174. How Washington spent Christmas night (1776) at Trenton. TOPICAL ANALYSIS The Revolution. (j. The War of IndcpC7idcncc, from 1776 to 1777) — Continued 175. How Robert Morris spent New Year's morning {,1777) at Philadelphia. 176. Cornwallis outwitted; Princeton; Morristown. Lafayette; De Kalb ; Steuben. 177. Burgoyne's expedition; Herkimer at Oriskany ; Stark at Bennington. 17S. Howe's expedition to Pennsylvania; Brandywine ; the British enter Philadelphia ; Germantown ; Valley Forge. 179. The Turning Point in the Revolution, at Saratoga, 1777 ; " Stars and Stripes " ; Results of victory ; Franklin and Washington. iSo. Summary. The Revolution. (4. The War of Independence, from 1777 to 1781) iSi. The winter at Valley Forge ; England's offer (1778). 1S2. Monmouth; Lee; Indian massacres; Clark's victories in the West. 183. The war in the South ; Savannah ; Wayne's victory; Paul Jones. 154. Charleston; Marion and Sumter. 185. Our defeat at Camden. 155. Our victory at King's Mountain. 186. Arnold's treason (1780). 186. The terrible winter at Morristown. 187. General Greene (1781) ; Cowpens ; Greene's retreat; Mrs. Steele ; Guilford Court House ; Cornwallis. iSS. Greene's victories in South Carolina; Washington and Greene. 1S9. The Crowning Victory of the War, 1781. Lafayette; Wash- ington's plan ; Robert Morris again ; the siege of Yorktown ; " The World 's Upside Down " ; Lord North. ^ 190. Summary of the Revolution. After the Revolution (17S3-17S7) 191. George Ill's speech ; the Treaty of Peace, 1783. John Adams. 192. Condition of the United States; the Articles of Confederation of 1781 ; what they accomplished. 193. Distress of the country. (Debt ; paper money ; quarrels of the states ; no freedom of trade.) 194. " Shays' Rebellion." 195. The Northwest Territory. The Ordinance of 1787; how the Northwest Territory helped to keep the Union together. The formation and adoption of the Constitution, 1787-1789 ( 196. The Convention of 1787; the Articles of Confederation are set aside ; the Constitution ; the three Compromises, 1787. 196. " We the people " ; Alexander Hamilton ; the " Ship of State." 197. Six things accomplished by the Constitution ; the " Bill of Rights " ; later Amendments. , i, 19S. Summary. (What John Adams said.) The Union; National Development (1789-1S61) The Federalist party in power (17S9-1S0X) ( [ I 'ashi/tgfoii. See f age 118 {and note) , a/so sections on the Kevolntion.) 199. Federalists and Anti-Federalists; election of the first President (17SS) ; the national capital ; inauguration of Washington, 1789. 200. Washington's cabinet ; how the government raised money, 1789. 201. Payment of three great debts. Hamilton. Ixiv LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY The Fcderalalist party in pcnver \178q-1801). — Continued Washington's administration. (Two terms, 1789-1797) II John Adams' administration. (One term, 1797-1801) III The Demo- cratic-Repub- lican or Demo- cratic party in power (1801- 1841) Jefferson's administration. (Two terms, 1801-1809) 202. The first census, 1790 ; the " Federal Ratio " ; the first United States Bank, 1791 ; the Mint; Decimal Coinage. 203. Rise of regular Political Parties, 1792 ; " Citizen" Genet; Wash- ington's Proclamation of Neutrality, 1793. 204. Emigration to the \\'est. Boone; Marietta; Cincinnati (1790). The first western newspaper (1793). War with the Indians and results. 205. The manufacture of cotton; the Cotton Gin, 1793, and its four Results. 206. The Whisky Rebellion ; treaty with Spain. 207. Jay's Treaty, 1795 ; newspapers attack \\'ashington ; three new states. . 208. Summary of Washington's presidency. {Sketch of John Adams. Sec note i,p. 188.) 209. Trouble with France ; the " X. Y. Z. Papers." Pinckney's de- fiant words ; war; " Hail Columbia." 210. The Alien and the Sedition Laws; the Kentucky and the Vir- ginia Resolutions (179S-1799) ; Death of Washington. ,211. Summary of John Adams' presidency. r {Jefferson. See note 2, p. rqi.) 212. Republican simplicity; the new national capitol; Jefferson's appointments to oflfice. 213. Probable extent of the republic. Means of travel. 214. The pirates of Tripoli; "If you make yourself a sheep, the wolves will eat you " ; war, the Navy ; Results. 215. Purchase of Louisiana, 1803; four Results. 216. Lewis and Clark. Oregon ; John Jacob Astor. 217. War between France and England; the Leopard and the Chesapeake (1807). 21S. The Embargo (1S07) ; the Non-Intercourse Act (1809). 219. Aaron Burr. 220. " Fulton's Folly," 1807. \\'estern steamboats ; the Savannah, 1819; first regular line of ocean steamers (1840). 221. Importation of slaves forbidden, 1808. Jefferson and slavery. . 222. Summary of Jefferson's presidency. IV Madison's administration. (Two terms, 1809-1817) {Madison. See note i,p. iqg.) 223. Trade reopened with Great Britain. 224. How Napoleon deceived us. 225. Tecumseh's conspiracy ; Tippecanoe (iSii). 226. The Henry Letters ; the real, final cause of the War of 1812. 227. General Hull; Detroit. ac8. The English navy compared with the American ; the Constitu- tion and the Guerricre. 229. Perry's victory. His dispatch to General Harrison. 230. General Jackson and the Indians ; Tohopeka. Result. 231. Chippewa; Lundy's Lane; burning of Washington. 232. Macdonough's victory; Fort McHenry. The "Star-Spangled Banner." 233. Jackson at New Orleans (1815) ; end of the war; the Hartford Convention ; the treaty of peace. 234. Four Chief Results of the War of 1812. ^ 235. Summary of Madison's presidency. TOPICAL ANALYSIS Ixv {Monroe. Sec f. zoq and note /.) 236. The President's inauguration. 237. His journey ; the '' Era of Good Feeling." 238. First Seminole War ; purchase of Florida, 1819. 239- Question of the western extension of slavery ; what Jefferson said. 240. Change of feeling about Slavery ; the North and the South ; effect of the Cotton Gin. 241. How Slavery divided the country in regard to trade with Europe ; slavery and the tariff. 242. Why the North opposed the e.xtension of Slavery west of the Mississippi ; why the South demanded it. 243. The great Missouri Compromise, 1820. 244,245. Desire to reach the West; the "National Road" (iSii- 1S30). Henry Clay; traffic over the Road. Emigrants going west. 246. The Monroe Doctrine. " America for Americans," 1823. 247. Visit of Lafayette ; what Congress did ; his statue in Paris. 24S. Summary of Monroe's presidency. (John Qnincy Adams. See 7iote /, /. 2/9.) 249-251. The Erie Canal, 1825 ; Results ; enlargement of the canal. , 252-255. " Steam Wagons "; the first American locomotive, 1830 ; the I race ; Railways and their Results. 256,257. The Temperance cause ; prohibition; results. L 258. Summary of John Quincy Adams' presidency. {Jacksott. See p. 22b and note 2.) 259,260,261. "The People's President"; Jackson's character; re- moval of government officers. Jefferson's rule ; the " Spoils System." 262-264. Garrison; C banning ; the Anti-Slavery movement ; John Quincy Adams. 265. Jackson and the second United States Bank, 1832. 266. South Carolina resists the duty on imported goods. 267-269. Calhoun ; nullification, 1832. Webster ; Jackson's course of action ; Henry Clay's compromise tariff (1833). 270. Growth of the country; railways; steamboats; canals; coal; the Express system (1839). 271. Indian wars; the West; Chicago (1833). 272. American art, books, and newspapers. 273. Henry Clay and the Whigs. . 274. Summary of Jackson's presidency. (I'an Buren. See note /, /. 2^9.) 275, 276. Business failure and panic, 1837. Three chief causes. 277. The Independent Treasury and the subtreaauries. 278,279. The Mormons; Nauvoo ; Utah; Irrigation. I 2S0. Emigration to the United States ; restrictions on immigration ; " Come in ! " " Keep out ! " Ocean steamships and American I "clipper ships" (1840). L 2S1. Summary of Van Buren's presidency. Ixvi LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY IX, X A new party, the Whigs, in power (1841-1845) Harrison and Tyler's admin- istrations. (One term, 1841-1845) XI The Democrats again in power (1845-1849) Polk's administration. (One term, 1845-1849) {Harrison and Tyler. See note i,f<. 244., and notes i, s, and s, p. 243.) 252. Election of Harrison ; " Tippecanoe and Tyler too " ; Harrison's death ; Tyler and the Whig Congress. 253. The Dorr Rebellion; The Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1S42) ; Anti-renters. 254. The Electric Telegraph, 1844 ; Wireless Telegraphy. Dr. Mor- ton's Discovery, 1846. 255. Annexation of Texas, 1845. 286. Summary of Harrison and Tyler's presidencies. {Polk. See note i, /. 230.) 2S7-289. The Oregon question ; Dr. Whitman ; " Fifty-four-forty, or fight!" Treaty with England (1846). 290-294. The Mexican War ; Palo Alto ; Resaca de la Palma ; Declara- tion of W'ar, 1846. Monterey; Buena Vista; California; New Mexico; General Scott; Vera Cruz; Cerro Gordo; the City of Mexico; Results of the war; the " Gadsden Purchase." 295,296. Discovery of Gold in California, 1848. Emigration; Vigi- lance Committee ; Results of the discovery of gold. 297. Summary of Polk's presidency. XII, XIII The Whigs again in power {1849-1853) Taylor and Fillmore's ad- ministrations. (One term, (1849-1853) XIV The Democrats again in power (1S53-1861) Pierce's administration. (One term, 1853-1857) XV Buchanan's administration. (One term, 1857-1861) ( Taylor and Fillmore. See note i, /. 238.) 29S. The question of the extension of Slavery. The North and the South. 299. The Wilmot Proviso. Three methods of settlement of the Slavery-extension question proposed ; danger of disunion ; Clay's Compromise Measures of 1850 ; a new Fugitive-Slave Law proposed. 300. Passage of the Fugitive-Slave Law ; Results ; Seward's " Higher Law " ; the " Underground Railroad." 301. " Uncle Tom's Cabin " ; Charles Sumner and Jefferson Davis. 302. Summary of Taylor and Fillmore's presidencies. {Pierce. See note /, /. 262.) 303. The World's Fair (1853) ; four American labor-saving machines. 304. Commodore Perry and Japan. 305. The Kansas-Nebraska Act, 1854. Stephen A. Douglas. Rise of the modern Republican party (1856). 306-308. The struggle for the possession of Kansas ; rival govern- ments ; civil war in Kansas ; attack on Lawrence ; John Brown ; assault on Sumner. L 309. Summary of Pierce's presidency. {Buchanan. See note /, /. 265.) 310,311. The Dred Scott Case; decision of the Supreme Court, 1857 ; Results. 312. Business panic (1857). Causes. 313. Discovery of Silver and Petroleum (1859); pipe lines; Standard Oil Company; natural gas. 314. John Brown's raid into Virginia (1859). TOPICAL ANALYSIS Buchanmrs adtninisinillon — Coniiniicd 315. Abraham Lincoln elected President; secession of South Caro- lina, i860. 316. Secession of six other states; formation of the ''Confederate States of America." 317. Why the South seceded; seizure of national property; the Star of the West. 31S. General summary from Washington to Buchanan: i. Popula- tion ; 2. Wealth ; 3. Territorial growth ; 4. Cities, railways, and telegraph ; growth of the West. 5. Disunion : its cause ; what must be done ; Slavery vs. Freedom ; what the triumph of Freedom would mean. {First year of the zcar, 1861-1S62) (Second year of the war^ 1S62-1S63) XVI A new party, the Republicans, in power (1861-1885) Lincoln's administration. (One term and part of second, -1865) i86i {Third year of the ivar, 1863-1S64) The Civil War (April, 1861, to April, 1865) {Lincoln. See note 2,/. 2T3, and note 2, p. 280.) 319. Lincoln's arrival at Washington ; Inaugural address: Slavery; the Union. Feeling at the North. 320. Major Anderson ; Fort Sumter; the Civil War begins, 1861. 321. President Lincoln's call for volunteers; Results: North z's. South. 322. Secession of four more states ; General Butler's " Contrabands." 323. Condition of the North and the South. The three advantages of the North ; the four of the South ; what General Grant thought. 324. Four ways of raising money to carry on the War for the Union ; National Banks. 325. Number and position of the two armies. 326-327. Battle of Bull Run; Results. 328. Union plan of the War. 329. Blockade runners; Confederate war vessels; Mason and Slidell. 330. The Merrimac ; the Monitor. 331. The war in the West; Fort Henry; Grant and Fort Donelson. 332. Pittsburg Landing ; Island Number Ten. T,:>,T,. Summary of the first year of the war (April, 1861, to April, 1862). 334. Second year of the war ; Expedition against New Orleans. 335. Bombardment of the forts ; Farragut captures New Orleans. 336. The war in Virginia; McClellan's advance on Richmond; the Peninsular Campaign ; the weather. 337. " Stonewall " Jackson's raid ; Stuart ; Results of the Peninsular Campaign. 338. Second battle of Bull Run ; Lee's advance across the Potomac ; Antietam. 339. Battles of Fredericksburg and Murfreesboro. 340. Proclamation of Emancipation, 1863 ; Results. The Thirteenth I Amendment. 341. Summary of the second year of the war (April, 1S62, to April, 1S63). 342. Third year of the war; Chancellorsville. 343. Gettysburg (Pickett's charge), 1863. 344. Vicksburg ("Rally round the flag, boys"), Port Hudson, 1863. 345. Draft riots; Morgan's raid ; Chickamauga; Siege of Chattanooga. 346. Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge; Meridian; Grant made General in Chief. 3.17. Summary of the third year of the war (April, iS63,to April, 1S64). Ixviii LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY LincoMs administration — Continued {Fourth year of the war, 1864-1865) 34S. Fourth and last year of the war ; Grant and Sherman plan the " Hammering Campaign" (Spring of 1864). 349. The battles of the Wilderness ; Petersburg. 350. Captain Winslow sinks the Alabama; Early's raid. 351. Sheridan's raid in the Shenandoah valley. 352. The Petersburg mine ; Sheridan's ride. 353. The war in the West ; Sherman's advance to Atlanta. 354. Sherman takes Atlanta; Farragut enters Mobile bay. 355. Sherman's March from Atlanta to the Sea. 356. Thomas destroys Hood's army. 357. Sherman takes Savannah; his Christmas gift to the President; his advance northward. 358. The End of the War ; Anderson hoists the old flag over Sumter; what the W'ar cost; the President assassinated. 359. The North and the South in the War; the Sanitary and the Christian Commissions ; what Grant said of the Southern people. 360. Summary of the fourth and last year of the war (April, 1864, to April, 1S65). RECON.STRUCTION ; THE NeW NaTION (1865 TO THE PRESENT TiME) XVII Johnson's administration. (Part of one term, 1865-1869) {^Johnson. See note 2, /. 328^ 361. Task of Reconstruction; the Grand Review; disbanding the armies. 362. The Three Things the War settled. 363. The President's proclamation of pardon ; Contest between the President and Congress. 364. Congress begins the Reconstruction of the Southern States, 1867. The Fourteenth Amendment. 365. Six states readmitted ; negro legislators and "carpetbaggers." 366. Congress impeaches the President ; the President's proclamation of full and unconditional pardon ; the Fifteenth Amendment; summary of the last three amendments to the Constitution. 367. The Atlantic Telegraph Cable (1866). 368. Purchase of Alaska, 1867; Reduction of the National Debt. ^ 369. Summary of Johnson's presidency. XVIII Grant's administration. (Two terms, 1869-1877) {Grant. See note 2, /. 2Q2, section on the Civil War, and note i, /. SSb.) 370-371. The Pacific Railway; what Railways and Telegraphs have done for the Union ; effect of the Pacific Railway on com- merce with Asia and on the growth of the Far West ; liberal land laws ; the Homestead Act and effects ; Western cities and farms. 372. Completion of Reconstruction (1870); the "Force Bill"; the negro ; the W'eather Bureau ; great fires ; " Boss " Tweed. 373. The new Coinage Act (1873) '< the Business Panic (1873) ; the Centennial Exhibition (1876) ; the Electric Light; the Tele- phone ; Automobiles and Flying Machines. 374. Treaty with Great Britain (1871) ; the Alabama; Indian wars. 375. The Disputed Presidential Election (1876). _ 376. Summary of Grant's presidency. TOPICAL ANALYSIS Ixix XIX Hayes' administration. (One term, 1877-1881) {Hayes. Sec note 2, /. S43-) 377. Withdrawal of troops from the South; first Historic Labor Strike (1877). 378. Deepening the chief mouth of the Mississippi. Results. 379. The Bland Silver Bill ; the President's veto ; the " Dollar of our Fathers" restored (1878); "Greenbacks" and Gold; the National Debt. ^ 380. Summary of Hayes' presidency. XX, XXI Garfield and Arthur's ad- ministrations. (One term, 1881-1885) {Garfield and Arthur. Sec note /,/. 34S.) 3S1. Assassination of the President; Civil Service Reform, 1883; the " Merit System." 382. The East River Suspension Bridge ; other bridges and tunnels ; Cheap Postage ; the Alien Contract Labor Act. 383. The New Orleans Exhibition ; the " New South." 384,385. Progress in the South; manufactures; the cotton crop; the freedmen ; education. (_ 386. Summary of Garfield and Arthur's presidencies. XXII The Democrats again in power (1885-18S9) Cleveland's first administration. (One term, 1885-1889) {Cleveland. See note /, /. S34-) 387. Return of the Democrats to power. 388. The " Knights of Labor " ; the " Black List " ; the " Boycott " ; the American Federation of Labor ; the Department of Com- merce and Labor ; the Department of Agriculture. 389. The year of strikes ; the Chicago anarchists. 390. Great Corporations and "Trusts"; department stores; action taken by the government. 391. The Statue of Liberty. 392. Three important laws : i. Succession to the Presidency ; 2. Count- ing the Electoral Votes ; 3. Interstate Commerce and the Rail- way Rate Act. 393. Summary of Cleveland's presidency. XXIII The Republicans again in power (18S9--1S93) Harrison's administration. (One term, 1889-1893) XXIV The Democrats again in power (1893-1S97) Cleveland's (second) administration. (One term, 1893-1897) {Harrison. See note /,/. jjp.) 304. Oklahoma Territory opened (1S89). Oklahoma City and Guthrie. 395. Six new States ; the New War Ships ; woman suffrage (or right I to vote) in Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and Idaho. 396. The new Pension Act (1890) ; the Sherman Silver Act; the fall in silver; the McKinley Protective Tariff. 397. The census (1890); the Patent Office Centennial; the Home- stead steel strike. 398. Summary of Harrison's presidency. f {Cleveland, second f residency. See note i, /. SJ4, ^'"^ ""te i, /. J6j.) 399. The Australian ballot. 400. The Columbian Exposition; panic and "hard times"; Repeal of an Important Act ; the Bering Sea case, a bloodless victory. 401. The Coxey "Industrial Army"; the Pullman strike; more " hard times." 402. The Wilson Tariff. 403. The admission of Utah ; the " New West." 404. The Venezuela question. ^ 405. Summary of Cleveland's second presidency. ]xx LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY XXV The Republicans again in power (1S97-1909) McKinley's administration. (One term and part of second, 1897-1901) XXVI Roosevelt's administration. (Part of one term, 1901-1904) XXVII Roosevelt's administration. (One term, 1905-1909) {McKinlcy. See note /, /. j66.) 406. The Dingley Tariff. 407. Enormous increase in our Exports ; architectural progress in New York and Washington. 408. " Greater New York " ; high buildings ; the new aqueduct ; Growth and Government of American cities. 409. Revised state constitutions in the South and West ; Effect on negro suffrage and on the Fifteenth Amendment. The initia- tive and referendum in the West. 410. Spanish possessions in the sixteenth century. 411. Thejevolution in Cuba; war for independence. 412. The destruction of the Maine ; report of the Court of Inquiry. 413. The President's message ; Resolutions adopted by Congress. 414. Preparation for War with Spain ; call for volunteers and money ; the Navy ; War declared, 1898. 415. The Battle of Manila. 416. Cervera's squadron "bottled up." 417. Fighting near Santiago; destruction of Cervera's squadron. 418. The End of the War. 419. Annexation of Hawaii; Treaty of Peace; Territory ceded to us by Spain. Seven great steps of National Expansion (1803- 1898). Cuba. 420. The cost of the war in money and life ; work of the " Red Cross" and of the women of America; the Union veterans and the Confederate veterans. 421. The Trans-Mississippi Exposition; the "Great American Desert " ; cheap lands and free lands ; agricultural colleges ; Agricultural Prosperity. 422. Preservation of our Forests ; Irrigation of arid Lands. 423. Savings Banks ; National Wealth ; Gifts for the Public Good. 424. The "open door" in China; The Hague Peace Treaty, igoo. 425. The Gold Standard Act, 1900; the Panama Canal. 426. The census (1900) ; our Commerce. 427. The Pan-American Exposition ; the assassination of President McKinley. r I 42S. The great coal strike (1902) ; the American Pacific Cable ; Wire- \ less Telegraphy ; Expositions in the West. 429. Summaiy of McKinley and Roosevelt's presidencies. I {Roosevelt, see note /, /. 30S-) 430. President Roosevelt's inaugural address. What Americans are trj'ing to do: i. Saving time, — the Panama Canal, the Erie Canal, railways. 2. Saving health, — national parks. 3. Con- servation of our Natural Resources. 4. Saving wear and tear of life, and needless destruction of life, — arbitration. How Americans meet disaster. 431. Admission of Oklahoma, — total number of states. The Railway Rate Act; the Pure Food and Drug Act; the Meat Inspec- tion Act; great cruise of our battle ships (1907) ; the presi- dential election (1908) ; important agreement with Japan. 432. General Summary of the History: i. Growth of the republic; extent, population. 2. Advantages open to all. 3. \\hat America means. 4. The Great Question ; what depends on the answer. INDEX INDEX \Thc Index includes numerous dates, and the pronunciation of difficult words. Attention is called to the fact that the greater part of Spanish, French, and other foreign names occurring in A merican history are Jioiv generally pronounced as iti English.} Abolition societies, 229. See also Anti-slavery, Emancipation; Garrison, Slavery, and " Under- ground Railroad" Abolitionists, 228, 229. See also Slavery Acadia (ah-ka'de-ah), or Nova Scotia, 115 Acadians (ah-ka'de-ans) expelled, 120 Acts of Congress. See Laws Acts of Parliament. See Laws Adams, John, life of, 188 (note) our first minister to England, 170 what George III said to him, 170 presidency of, 188 Adams, J. Q., life of, 219 (note) mentioned, 230, 239 maintains right of petition, 230 presidency of, 219 Adams, Samuel, in the Revolution, 137, 139, 140, 142 _ ^ Admiral, title of, given, 295 (note), 376 Adobe (a-do'ba), 25 "Aerial (a-e'ri-al) Electric Age," 344 .iEsop (e'sop), 273 (note) Agricultural colleges, 384 machinery and implements, 263, 264, 340 Agriculture, colonial, 127 at the South, 212, 352, 353 at the West, 113, 264, 339, 340, 365, 383-385, 395 See also Exports, Farms, Irrigation, Land, Resources, Wealth Agriculture, Department of, 355, 395 Aguinaldo (a-ge-nal'do) captured, 382 Air ships, 343, 344 Alabama, Confederate war ship, 289 destroyed, 312 claim.s settled (1871), 289, 344 Alaska purchased (1867), 334 products of, 335 Albany Convention (1754), iig Albany, or Fort Orange, settled (1623), 59 Algonquins (al-gon'quins), 32 Alien and Sedition Acts (1798), 189 Alien Contract Labor Act (1885), 351. See also Laws Allen, Ethan, takes Ticonderoga (1775), 144 Almanac, Franklin's, 131 Amendments to the Constitution, 176 the first ten (1789-1791), 176 the Eleventh (179S), 176 (note) the Twelfth (1804), 176 (note) the Thirteenth (i86s), 301, 330 the Fourteenth (186S), 331 (and note) the Fifteenth (1870), 333, 371 Amendments to the Constitution, what the last three accomplished, 333 the, and the negro, 301, 330, 333, 371 the Fifteenth has now no force, 333, 371 See also the Constitution in the Appendix America discovered by the Northmen (1000), 2 discovered by Columbus (1492), 10 co7itine)tt discovered by Cabot (1497), 15 voyages of Vespucci to (1499-1503), 16 origin of the name (1507), 17 earliest map of (1507), 19 (note) how found to be a continent, iS white men in, in 1600, 30 what it was found to be, 31 physical geography of, 31, 42, 43 wherein superior to Europe, 31, 32 new products obtained from, 39 what Gladstone said about, 32 effect of discovery of, on Europe, 38, 39 geography of, in relation to history, 42, 43 England's great need of, 41, 72 (note) why English emigrated to, 41, 72 (note) first permanent English colony in (1607), 45 first permanent French colony in (1608), 47 thought to be less than 200 miles wide, 46 first law-making assembly in (1619), 50, 52 first negro slaves brought to (1619), 52, 53 Dutch settlements in, 59, 60, 64 English settlements in, 45, 63, 65, 69, 72, 81, 84. 89, 93, 97, loi, 106 French settlements in, 47 Spanish settlements in, 12, 22, 26, 371 Swedish settlements in, 96 English explorations in, 15, 27, 28, 46 French explorations in, 22 Spanish explorations in, 10-15, 20-26 struggle of the English, French, and Spanish for, 25-27 the English colonies declare independence (1776), 150 movement to save natural resources of, 393- 3*^5 „^ . „ means "Opportunity,' 39, 400 See also Battles, Colonies, Constitution, Po- litical Parties, Treaties, Union, United States, Wars "America for Americans," 217 American Association (Revolution), 141 Federation of Labor, 355 Americans, what they are doing, 393-396 what they are trying to save, 394-396 young, what they can do, 370, 400 Americas, the three, 389 Note. In the words pronounced in parentheses, e.g. Aguinaldo (a-ge-nalMo), g is always hard, as \ngo-, whenever soft g occurs it is represented either by j or by zh, e.g. Magellan (ma-jel'lan), Genet (zhen-ay'). It should be clearly understood that the pronunciation of a considerable number of foreign names can only be given approximately. Ixxiii LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Amerigo Vespucci (a-ma-rce'go ves-poot'che), i6 Anarchists (an'ar-kists), 356 Anderson, General (Civil War), 277, 2S1, 325 Andersonville, Union prisoners in, 325 (note) Andre (an'dray), British spy (Revolution), 165 Andros(an'dros),Governor(colonialperiod), 80, 87 Annexation of territory, 381. See also Territory and Texas Antietam (an-tee'tam), battle of, 300. See also Battles Anti- Federalists, 174, 176, 177 Anti-renters, 246 Anti-slavery movement, 107, 198, 228-230, 249 (and note), 266, 273. See also Abolitionists, Emancipation, Garrison, and Slavery Appomattox (ap-po-mat'tox) Courthouse, 325 Apprentices, white, in Virginia (colonial period). Aqueduct, Greater New York, 369 Arbitration settlements and treaties, 344, 364, 388, 3g6. See also Peace and Treaties "Arbor Day," 386. See also Forests Architecture, American, 368-369 Arizona, Grand Canyon of, 25 Army, of the Revolution, 141, 143, 144, 146, 153, 'S'^i i57> '60, i6i, 164, 165, 166, 16S of War of 1812, 201, 205, 207 of Mexican War, 252-255 the Union (Civil War), 283, 2S5, 286, 289, 298, 308, 325 Confederate (Civil War), 283,285,308,325,327 number and position of both armies, 286, 2S7 strength of both armies, 285, 287 (note) review of the Union, at end of the war, 329 (and note) disbanding the Union, 328, 329 disbanding the Confederate, 329 of war with Spain, 374, 377 (and note), 378, 381,383 the, at present, 400 (and note) See also Battles and Wars Arnold, march of, to Quebec (Revolution), 148 at Saratoga, 160 treasori of, 165 Art, American, 237 Arthur, C. A., presidency of, 349 Articles of Confederation (1781), 170. See also Confederation Ashburton Treaty (1842), 246. See also Treaties Assassination of Lincoln, 325 of Garfield, 348 of McKinley, 390 Assistance, Writs of (colonial period), 135, 137 "Association, the American" (Revolution), 141 Astor, John J., and the fur trade (181 1), 195 (and note) Astoria, 195 Atlanta (at-lan'ta) burned (Civil War), 318 a great industrial center, 316, 352 See also Battles and the New South Atlantic, the " Sea of Darkness," 2 Atlantic telegraph, 247, 334. See also Telegraph Audubon (awe'du-bon), naturalist, 23S Austin, Stephen F., 249 Australian, or secret, ballot, 363. See also Suffrage Authors, American, 131, 237. See also Books and Literature Automobile (aw-to-mo'beel), ormotorcar, 343, 344 Bacon's rebellion (colonial period), 57, 58 laws (colonial period), 57 Bainbridge, naval commander, 193 Balboa (bal-bo'ah) discovers the Pacific (1513), 21 Balize (bal-eeze'), 296 Ballot, AustraUan, 363. See also Suffrage Baltimore, Lord, 89 Baltimore, founded (1729), 92 in War of 1S12, 206 Bancroft, historian, 238 Bank, the first United States (1791), 180 the second United States (1816), 230 Jackson vetoes bill to recharter, 230 Jackson removes deposits from, 230 the " pet banks," 230, 240 worthless banks, 240 savings banks established (1816), 3S6 deposits in, 3S6 (and note) national banks established (1863), 286 See also Money and Panics Banks, General (Union), 298 Baptists, forbidden to preach (colonial period), 75 first church of, in America (1639), 94 Barry, Captain John, 153, 193 Battles, Antietam (an-tee'tam) (Civil War), 300 Atlanta (at-lan'ta) (Civil War), 316, 318 Ball's Bluff (Civil War), 289 (note) Baltimore (War of 1812), 206 " Battle above the clouds " (Civil War), 309 Bennington (Revolution), 158 Black Hawk's, in the West (Indian wars, 1832), 236 Boston, siege of (Revolution), 143 Braddock's defeat (colonial wars), 120 Brandjrwine (Revolution), 159 Buena Vista (bwa-na-vees'ta) (Mexican War), Bilu Run, ist (Civil War), 287 Bull Run, 2d (Civil War), 300 Bunker Hill (Revolution), 144 Camden, ist (Revolution), 165 Camden, 2d (Revolution), 167 Cedar Creek (Civil War), 315 Cerro Gordo (Mexican War), 254 Chancellorsville (Civil War), 302 Chapultepec(chap-ul'te-pek) (Mexican War), 255 Charleston (Revolution), 164 Charleston (Civil War), 28 1, 324 Chattanooga (Civil War), 308 Cherry Valley (Revolution), 163 Chesapeake and Leopard (War of 1S12), 196 Chickamauga (chick-a-maw'ga) (Civil War), 308 Chippewa (War of 181 2), 205 Churubusco (chur-u-bus'ko) (Mexican War), 254 (note) Clark's, in the West (Revolution), 163 Cold Harbor (Civil War), 310 Concord (kon'kurd) (Revolution), 143 Constitution and Gnerriire (gair-re-air') (Warof iSi2), 202 Contreras (con-tra-ras') (Mexican War), 254 (note) Corinth (Civil War), 300 Cowpens (Revolution), 166 Crown Point (Revolution), 144 Dallas (Civil War), 316 Detroit (War of 18 12), 202 El Caney (war with Spain), 377 Eutaw Springs (Revolution), 167 Fair Oaks or Seven Pines (Civil War), 297 Flamborough Head (Revolution), 164 Fort Brown (Mexican War), 252 Fort Donelson (Civil War), 292 Fort Duquesne (du-kane') (colonial wars), INDEX Ixxv Battles, Fort Henry (Civil War), 292 Fort Lee (Revolution)-, 154 Fort INIcAllister (Civil War), 321 Fort McHenry (War of 1812), 206 Fort Moultrie (mole'tre) (Revolution), 149 Fort Necessity (colonial wars), iig Fort San Juan de Ulua (san wan da oo-loo'ah) (Mexican War), 254 Fort Sullivan (Revolution), 149 Fort Sumter (Civil War), 281 Fort Washington (Revolution), 154 Franklin (Civil War), 321 Fredericksburg (Civil War), 300 Germantown (Revolution), 159 Gettysburg (Civil War), 304 Goldsboro (Civil War), 324 Greensborough (Revolution), 167 Guilford Court House (Revolution), 167 Horseshoe Bend or Tohopeka (Indian wars), 205 Island Number Ten (Civil War), 294 Kiiarsarge (keer'sarj) and Alabama (Civil War), 312 Kenesaw (ken'e-saw) Mountain (Civil War) 316 King's Mountain (Revolution), 165 Lake Champlain (War of 1S12), 206 Lake Erie (War of 1812), 204 Leopard dinA Chesapeake (1807), 196 Lexington (Revolution), 142 Long Island (Revolution), 153 Lookout Mountain (Civil War), 309 Louisburg (colonial wars), 115 Lundy's Lane (War of 181 2), 205 Macdonough's victory (War of 1812), 206 Malvern Hill (Civil War), 298 (note) Manila (war with Spain), 374, 37S, 381 Merrimac and Monitor (Civil War), 290 Mexico City (Mexican War), 255 Mill Spring (Civil War), 292 Missionary Ridge (Civil War), 309 Mobile Bay (Civil War), 318 Molino del Rey (mo-lee'no del ray) (Mexican War), 255 Monitor and Merrimac (Civil War), 290 Monmouth (Revolution), 162 Monterey (Mexican War), 253 Montreal (Revolution), 146 Murfreesboro (Civil War), 300 Nashville (Civil War), 321 New Orleans (or'le-anz) (War of 1812), 207 New Orleans (Civil War), 295 Oriskany (o-ris'ka-ny) (Revolution), 158 Palo Alto (pah'lo ahl'to) (Mexican War), 252 Pea Ridge (Civil War), 300 Peninsular Campaign (Civil War), 297 Perry's Victory (War of 1812), 204 Perryville (Civil War), 300 Petersburg mine (Civil War), 315 Petersburg, siege of (Civil War), 315 Pittsburg Landing (Civil War), 294 Port Hudson (Civil War), 297, 308 Princeton (Revolution), 157 Quebec (colonial wars), 121-122 Quebec (Revolution), 148 Resaca (re-sah'ka) (Civil War), 316 Resaca de la Palma (ray-sah'ka da la pal'ma) (Mexican War), 252 Richmond, advance on (Civil War), 297 Richmond, Seven Days' Battles around (Civil War), 298 San Antonio (an-to'ne-o) (Mexican War), 254 (note) Battles, San Juan (san wan') (war with Spain), 377 Santiago (san-te-ah'go) (war with Spain), 377 Saratoga (Revolution), 159 Savannah (Revolution), 163 Savannah (Civil War), 321 Seminoles (Indian wars, 1818 and 1835), 210, 236 Seven Days, around Richmond (Civil War), 298 Seven Pines (Civil War), 297 Shenandoah (shen-an-do'ah) Valley (Civil War), 298 Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing (Civil War), 294 Spottsylvania Courthouse (Civil War), 310 Stony Point (Revolution), 164 Sumter (Civil War), 281 Ticonderoga (Revolution), 144, 157 Tippecanoe (Indian wars), 200 Tohopeka (to-ho-pe'kah) (Indian wars), 205 Trenton (Revolution), 155 Tripoli (war with Tripoli), 193 Vera Cruz (Mexican War), 254 Vicksburg (Civil War), 297, 306 Virginia (or Merrimac) and Monitor (Civil War), 290 Washington taken (War of 181 2), 205 Wilderness (Civil War), 310 Williamsburg (Civil War), 297 Wilson's Creek (Civil War), 289 (note) Winchester (Civil War), 315 Wyoming (Revolution), 163 Yorktown (Revolution), 167-169 Yorktown (Civil War), 297 See also Army, Navy, Sieges, and Wars Battle ships, cruise of our (1907), 398 Beauregard (bo're-gard), General (Confederate), 282, 286, 287 Bell, A. G., 343 Benton, Thomas H., 228, 230 Bergen (ber'ghen), 64 Bering (bee'ring) Sea dispute settled (1893), 364. See also Arbitration and Treaties Berkeley, Sir W., 54, 55, 57 Bible, Eliot's Indian, 76 Bienville (be-en'vil), at New Orleans (171S), 113 Bill, a legislative, defined, 230 (note) " Bill of Rights " of the Constitution, 176 Black Hawk, Indian chief, 236 " Black List," 354 " Black Republicans," 267 Bland Silver Bill (1878), 347. See also Silver Blockade in the Civil War, 289, 318 (and note) Blockade runners (Civil War), 289, 318 (and note) Boise (boi'ze), 251 "Bonanza" (bo-nan'za) silver mines, 271 Books, American, 131, 237, 238, 261 Books, Paine's "Common Sense" (Revolution), 150 Boone, Daniel, 1S3 " Border Ruffians," 267 Boston settled (1630), 72 "Tea Party " (Revolution), 139 port closed, 140 siege of, by Continental Army, 143 evacuated by the British (1776), 148, 149 Boundaries of the United States. See Table in Appendix Boundary disputes, 92, 93, 246, 252. See also Mason and Dixon's^Line Bounties to encourage production, 126 Boycott, use of, 139, 141, 354, 355 (and note) Braddock's defeat (colonial wars), 120 Bradford, governor of Plymouth, 70, 71 Ixxvi LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Bragg, General (Confederate), 300, 301, 308 " Bread Basket of the World," 384 Breadstuffs, export of, 367, 393 Bridge, St. Louis, 346 Brooklyn Suspension, 350 Bridges, new, at New York, 350 Brooklyn, 278 Brown, John, life of, 267 (note) in Kansas, 267 raid in Virginia (1859), 273 (and note) execution of, 273 denounced by the Republicans, 274 song, the, 273. See also Songs Bryan, William J., 366 (note) Bryant, W. C, 237 Buchanan (buk-an'an), James, life of, 268 (note) presidency of, 268 his attitude toward secession, 277 Buckner, General (Confederate), 294 Buell, General (Union), 294 Buffalo, hunted by Spaniards, 25 Buildings, notable, in New York City, 368, 369 notable, in Washington, 368 Bull Run, battle of, 287. See also Battles Bunker Hill, battle of, 145. See also Battles monument, 218 (and note) Burgesses, house of, in Virginia, 52 Burgoyne (bur-goin'). General (British^, 144 his expedition (1777), 157-159 surrender of, 159 Burke, Edmund, 136 Bumside, General (Union), 300 Burr, Aaron, killed Hamilton in a duel (1S04), 197 tried for treason (1807), ig6 Business corporations and " trusts," 356 Business panics, 239. See also Panics Butler, General (Union), 284 and the "contrabands," 284 at New Orleans, 295 Cabinet, first presidential (1789), 178 Lincoln's, 281 (note) number of members now, 3 58 (note) and Presidential Succession Act, 358 Cables, telegraph, 247, 334, 391. See also Tele- graph Cabot discovers the continent of America (1497), 1S-16 Calhoun (kal-hoon'), life of, 231 (note) denounces high protective tariff, 231 demands free trade, 231 declares slavery a " positive good," 231 (note), 259 advocates nullification, 232 defends secession, 232 Webster's tribute to, 231 (note) death of, 262 California, conquest of (Mexican War), 254 annexed to United States, 255 gold found in (1848), 256-258 emigration to, 256-257 Vigilance Committee of, 257 and question of slavery, 25S-261 pony express to, 336 stagecoach to, 336 railway to, 336-338 agricultural products of, 258 great earthquake in (1906), 397 Calvert, Lord Baltimore, 89, 91 Canada settled (1608), 47 Canal, the Erie, finished (1S25), 219-221 effects of the, 221-222 made transportation cheap, 221 Canal, enlargement of the, 222, 393 the Panama, 22, 388, 389, 393 See also the West Canals, other, 234 Canonicus (kan-on'i-cus), Indian chief, 70 Canyon (kan'yun), Grand, of Arizona discovered, 25. 31 Cape Breton (bret'on) Island, 15 Capital, corporations, "trusts," 356, 357 Capital, the national (1789-1800), 177 Carnegie (kar-neg'i), Andrew, 387 (note) Institute, Pittsburg, 387 Carolina, settled, 97, 98 constitution of, 99 divided into North and South, 99 rice, indigo, and cotton in, 99-100 the Huguenots in, 98 Carolina, nullification in South, 231, 232 secession of South, 274, 276 negro rule in South, 332 Carpenters' Hall, the, Philadelphia, 141 " Carpetbaggers," 332 Carteret (kar'te-ret), 65 Cartier's (karty-a') explorations (1535), 22 Carver, Governor, 69, 70 Catholics, had no religious liberty in England, 66, $9 (note) early missions in the West, 109 early Catholic explorers in the West, 109-1 13 emigrate to Maryland (1634), 89 first Catholic church in the United States (1634). Sg grant religious liberty to all Christians, 90 are deprived of their rights, gi regain their rights, 91 not tolerated in Massachusetts, 72, 73, 81 enjoy freedom of worship in Rhode Island, 95 not allowed to vote in Rhode Island, 95 not tolerated in Georgia, 107 not many in the colonies in 1763, 125 (and note) Cattle and sheep ranches, 339, 340 Cavaliers (kav-a-leerz') in Virginia, 55 Census, the first (1790), 179 and ratio of representation, 180 movement of population westward (1790- 1900), 180 of i860, 285 (note) the Centennial (1890), 361 reports (1790-1900). See Appendix See also Cities and Population Cervera (cer-ve'ra), Admiral, 376, 377, 378 Chambersburg burned (Civil War), 314 Champlain, French explorer, 47, 59 Channing, Dr., and slavery, 228-229 Charitable and educational gifts, 353 (note), 3S7 Charleston settled (1670), 98, 100 in the Civil War, 28 1, 324, 325 Charter defined, 20 (note) "Charter Oak," Connecticut, 88 Charters, colonial, 44, 50, 54, 72, 80, 81, 87, 89,95, 103, 132 Chase, S. P. (Civil War), 326 Chatham (chat'ham). Lord (William Pitt), 121, 136. 138 Cherry Valley massacre (Revolution), 163 Chicago in very early times, 1 1 7 growth of, 237, 278 China, our policy in, 387, 388 Chinese immigration, 243 Christian Commission (Civil Warl, 326 Church of England, in Virginia, 44, 48 of England in Maryland, 92 INDEX Church of the Dutch in New Netherland, 62 the Puritan, in Massachusetts, 73 the Puritan, in Connecticut, 86 first Baptist, in United States, 94 first Catholic, in the United States, 89 attendance at, compelled, 48, 74 freedom of worship granted, 95 See also Religious Liberty Cincinnati, founded (1790), 183 _ in 1861,278 Cities, colonial, 125 rapid growth of modem, 237, 27S, 279, 3:59, 369 . population of, 368, 369, 370 government of, 341, 370 "rings" in, 341 notable buildings in, 368, 369 improvement of, 394, 397 See also Boston, New York, Philadelphia City, the oldest, in the United States (1565), 26 Civil Rights Act ( 1 866), 33 1 (note). See also Laws Civil service, what it is, 349 number employed in the, 349 (note) service reform, 349 Civil War, the. See Battles and Wars Clark, G. R., in the West (Revolution), 163 Clay, Henr>', life of, 213 (note) the " great compromiser," 234 his compromises, 213, 234, 259, 260 and the National Road, 216 leader of the Whigs, 238 advocates protective tariff, 23 1 his compromise tariff, 234 Clayborne and Ingle rebellion (colonial period), 90 Cleveland, Grover, life of, 354 (note) first presidency of, 353 second presidency of, 363 Clinton, Governor De Witt, 220, 221 Clinton, British general, 144, 153, 162 (note), 168 Clipper ships, American, 243 Coal, discovery and use of hard (1790), 236 (and note) Coal oil, 271, 272, 357. See also Petroleum Coal strike (1902), 390 Cod fishery, 47, 71, 73, 82, 125 Coinage of money, 180. See also Dollar, Gold, Money, and Silver College, Harvard, founded (1636), 75-76 Colleges, the three oldest, 75 agricultural, 3S4 See also Education, Gifts, and Universities Colonies, Dutch, 59, 84, 97 English, 28-30, 41, 64, 65, 69, 72, 81, 84, 89, 93, 97, loi, 106 French, 25, 26, 47, 113 Spanish, 22, 26 Swedish, 96 Colonies, agriculture in, 48, 127 books, 76, 131 bounties to encourage production, 126 charters of, 20 (note), 44, 50, 72, 80, 81, 87, 8g, 95> 103. '32 cities ot the, 125 commerce of the, 73, 125, 126, 135 commerce, restrictions on, 56, 80, 125, 134, 135 compact, Pilgrim, 69 constitution, first American (1639), 85 constitution of the Carolinas, 99 constitution of Pennsylvania, 103-104 constitution of Georgia, 107 dress, styles of, 128 education in the, 75, 104, 130 electricity, Franklin's '\ ; experiments, 131 Colonies, England taxes the, 135-139 England's liberal political policy toward her, 44, 50, 52, 63, 126 England's treatment of the, 44, 50, 52, 55, 56, 125, 126, 135, 161 fisheries, 71, 73, 82, 125 flag of the, 72, 126, 159 (note) Franklin's plan of union (1754), 119 fur trade of, 59, 71, 82, 125 government of, 44, 47, 50, 52, 54, 55, 57, 58, 62, 66, 69, 73, 85, 90, 91, 95, 99, 103, 126 hospitality, 129 independent character of the people, 126, 127 independent, people declare themselves (1776), 150 Indians and the, 37-38 jury, trial by, 126 language of the, 125 law, 44, 50, 52, 86, 126, 130 law, the common, in the, 126 laws, severe, in the, 47, 48, 70, 78, 86, 130 legislative assembly, first (1619), 50 life in the, 73, 127-130 literature, 131 mails and postage, 129 manufactures, 125 manufactures, restrictions on, 125 New England Confederation (1643), 76 occupations of the people, 48, 73, 128 population, 124 printing, 76 punishment of crime, 47, 48, 70, 86 (note), 104, 130 religion of the, 44, 74, 90, 95, 104, 125. See also Catholics, Baptists, Huguenots, Pil- grims, Puritans, Quakers religious liberty in, 72, 74, 75. See also Re- ligious Liberty revolution, 135-141. See also Revolution shipbuilding in the, 73, 125 slavery in the, 52, 124 smuggling in the, 126 suffrage in the, 50, 54, 62, 70, 73, 81, 86, 91, 95i 97' 99' '03' '04' 'o?) >-& taxation of, resisted, 136, 137 trade, 73, 125. See also Commerce travel, very limited, 129 union of the, 76, 119 union of the, dreaded by England, 120 unity of the people generally, 126 vote, right to, 50, 54, 62, 70, 73, 81, 86, 91, 95, 97' 99- I03' 104. 107, 126 wars of the, with the French, Indians, and Spaniards, 38, 56, 57, 79, 85, 108, 114-124 See also the Names of the Colonies Columbia River discovered (1792), 195 Columbus, birth, voyages, and death, 1-15 discovers America (1492), 10, 12 wherein his work was great, 14-15 celebration of his discovery (1S92-1893), 363 Commerce, colonial, 73, 125, 126, 134, 135 restrictions on, 55, 56, 125, 134, 135 of United States, 338, 367, 387, 38S, 3S9 effect of the embargo on (1807), 196 effect of Non- Intercourse Act on (1S09), 196 reopened temporarily (1809), 199 effect of War of 1812 on, 208 Department of Commerce, 355 (and note) Interstate Commerce Act, 358", 398 recent, 367 See also Exports, Smuggling, and Trade Committees of Correspondence (Revolution), 140 "Common Sense," Paine's (Revolution), 150 Ixxviii LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Compact, the Pilgrim (1620), 69 Compromise (kom'pro-mize) defined, 213 the Missouri (1820), 213 Clay's tariff (1833), 234 measures (1850), 259-260 Compromises of the Constitution, 173 Confederacy, the Southern (1861), 276 had slavery for its corner stone, 277 (note) Confederate army, 283, 285, 286, 2S9, 298, 30S, 325, 327 navy or war ships, 2S9 capital, 276, 2S4 Confederation, the New England (1643), 76 of the United States (1781), 170 what it accomplished, 170, 172 proved inadequate, 171, 173 superseded by the present Constitution, 173 why inferior to the Constitution, 175 Congress, the Albany (1754), 119 the Stamp Act (i7(>5), 137 first Continental (1774), 141 second Continental (1775), 144 of the Confederation (1781), 170, 171 first under the Constitution (1789), 179 acts of. See Laws Congressional Library, 368 Connecticut settled (1635), 84 Pequot war in, 85 constitution 0^(1639), 85 extent of, under its charter, 87 Andros and the charter, 87 Constitution, necessity of a, 85 (note) of Connecticut (first American, 1639), 85 the " Grand Model " of Carolinas, 99 of Pennsylvania, 103-104 of Georgia, 107 Constitution of the United States, first (17S1), 170. See also Confederation 59 (note) first, of the United States (1777), 1 59 (and note) first United States, on a war ship (1777), 159 (and note) the "Star-Spangled Banner," 206-207 (and note) protects American vessels against search, 246 the North rallies for the (Civil War), 283 in the war for the Union, 282, 296 " Rally round the flag, boys," 308 hoisted in triumph over Sumter (1865), 325 the Confederate (Civil War), 277 veterans of North and South unite under the national, 383 Florida, discovered (1513), 20 meaning of name, 21 De Soto in, 23 struggle of French and Spaniards for, 26-27 Spain cedes to England (17(13), 123 England cedes back to Spain (1783), 123 Jackson in, 211 United States purchases (1819), 211 Seminole wars in, 211, 236 " Flying machine " (colonial period), 129 the, to-day, 344 Food Act, Pure, 398. See also Laws Food stuffs found in America, 39 great crops of, 384, 385 exports of, 368. See also Exports Foote, Commodore (Union), 294 Force Act, 340. See also Laws Forests, extent of, 385, 3S6 (note) destruction of, 341, 386 (and note) preservation of, 385, 386 (and note), 395 Fort Cumberland, 215 Dearborn (Chicago), 237 Donelson, 292 Duquesne (du-kane'), 119, 120, 121 Erie, 117 Frontenac (fron-te-nak'). "i. 121 Henry, 292 Lee, 153, 154 Louisburg, 1 1 5 McAllister, 321 McHenry. 206 Monroe, 2S4 Moultrie, 149 Necessity, 1 19 Orange (.Albany), 59 Pitt (Pittsburg), 121 Quebec, 121 Schuyler (sky 'ler), 15S Stanwix, 158 Stony Point, 163 Sullivan, 149 INDEX Ixxxi Fort Sumter, 2S1, 325 Ticonderoga, 144, 148, 157 Venango (ve-nan'go), 117 ^Vashington, 153, 154 Forts, line of French (i7th-i8th centuries), no, ii3> "7 " Fountain of youth," 20 France, sends expedition to America (1524), 22 makes explorations in America (1535), 22 plants colony at Quebec (1608), 47 in the West (1669-16S2), 109-112 takes possession of Louisiana (16S2), 112 builds forts in America, iio, 113, 117 struggle of, with England for America (1689- 1703), 114-124 loses American possessions (1763), 123 aids us in our war for independence, 160, 161, 168 makes treaty with us (1778), 160 our dispute with, after the Revolution, 1S2 war with(i79S), 188 sells us Louisiana (1803), 193, 194 citizens of, give us Statue of Liberty ( 1 886), 357 See also Catholic Missionaries, French, Ge- net, Huguenots, Lafayette, and Wars Franklin, Benjamin, life of, 115 (note) his writings, 131 his almanac, 131 his electrical experiments, 131 his "key to the clouds," 132 his picture of a snake, iig plan of union of the colonies (1754), 1 19 and the Stamp Act, 136 his letter to Strahan, 146, 147 and Declaration of Independence, 152 negotiates treaty with France, 160 compared with Washington, 161 obtains money for the Revolution, 161 (and note) fits out war ships, 164 helps frame the Constitution (1787), 173 " Free silver," demand for, 347 (and note), 363 (note), 366 (note). See also Coinage, Dollar, and Silver Free Soilers, 259 Free trade demanded by the South, 212,231. See also Tariff " Free Trade and Sailors' Rights" (War of 1S12), 201 Freedmen, "contrabands" (Civil War), 2S4 or negroes (Civil War), 301 and reconstruction, 331, 333 and "Carpetbaggers," 332 work mischief at the South, 332 and " Ku Klux Klan," 340 their power restricted, 332, 333 progress made by the, 302, 352, 353 See also Amendments to Constitution, Eman- cipation, Negroes, Reconstruction, and Suffrage Freedom of worship, 90,95, 104, 191 (note), 199 (note). See also Religious Liberty Freight, cheap rates by canal, 221 Fremont, General, life of, 287 (note) in California (war with ISIexico), 254 his proclamation of emancipation (Civil War), 2S7 (note) French, the, name Montreal (1535), 22 try to plant colonies in the South (1562, 1564), 25-26 found Quebec (1608), 47 explore the West (1669-1682), 109-1 12 take possession of Louisiana (1682), 112 French, build forts in West, im, 113, 117 found Mobile and New Orleans (1701, 1718), "3 at St. Louis, 1 17 are conquered in Canada, 1 15, 1 16 are driven out of Acadia, 120 are conquered in the West, 121, 123 See also Catholics, France, Huguenots, La- fayette, and Wars Friends, or Quakers, belief of the, 77-78 in Massachusetts, 77-79 peculiarities of the, 77-78. See also Penn and Quakers Frobisher's (fro'bish-er) voyages, 27 Frontenac (fron-te-nak'), m, 121 Fugitive slaves, laws respecting (1643), 76 (note) and Northwest Territory (1787), 172 and the Constitution, 174 (note) law respecting (1793), 174 (note) law respecting (1850), 260-261 resistance to the law, 261 and " Underground Railroad," 261 "contrabands" (Civil War), 284 See also Abolitionists, Negroes, and Slavery Fulton's steamboat (1807), 197 Fur trade, 37, 59, 82, 90, 195 Gadsden purchase (1S53), 255 "Gag rules" in Congress (slavery), 230 Gage, British general (Revolution), 138, 140, 141, 142, 144, 145, 146 (note) Galveston, 278 • hurricane (1900), 396 Garfield, J. A., life of, 34S (note) presidency of, 348 assassinated, 348, 349 Garrison, W. Lloyd (loyd), publishes Liberator (1831), 228 denounces the Constitution, 228 (note) mobbed, 229 See also Abolitionists and Slavery Gas, natural, 272 Gasfee destroyed (Revolution), 138 Gates, General (Revolution), 160, 165 "Gates of the Rocky Mountains,'' 194 "Gateway of the West," 117, 119 Genet (zheh-nay'), "Citizen," 182 Geneva Tribunal (1871), 344 Geography, influence of, on our history, 31, 42 George III, character and policy, 135 resolves to tax the colonies, 135 and Stamp Act, 136 and tea tax, 139 proclaims America in rebellion, 149 hires Hessians to fight, 150 statue pulled down (Revolution), 152 acknowledges our independence, 170 interview with John Adams, 170 See also the Revolution Germans in the American Revolution, 157. See also Hessians Gifts for the public good, 353 (note), 387 (and note) Government, of the colonies, 44, 47, 50, 62, 70, 73, 80, 81, 85, 86, 88, 95, 99, 103, 104, 107, 126 of cities, 341, 370 of states, 330. 371 of Northwest Territory, 172 of the United States, 170-179, 330-333, 371 See also Colonies, Confederation, Congress, Constitutions, Reconstruction, Secession, State Rights, State Sovereignty, Union, and United States Ixxxii LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Government offices, 349 (and note) See also Civil Service, Civil Service Reform, and '■ .Spoils System " "Grand Model," the (colonial period), 99 Grant, General U.S., life of, 292 (note) in Mexican War, 255 what he said of the RIexican War, 255 (note) in the Civil War, 292, 294, 306, 309-315, 324, takes Forts Donelson and Henry (1862), 294 victory at Pittsburg Landing, 294 moves against Vicksburg, 306 takes Vicksburg (1863), 306-307 in Tennessee, 309 made general in chief (1864), 309 and Sherman's "hammering campaign," (.864), 3'o advances on Richmond, 312 in battles of the Wilderness, 3 ro sends Sheridan to the Shenandoah valley, 314 siege of Petersburg, 312 takes Petersburg, 324 receives Lee's surrender (1865), 325 his tribute to the Confederates, 327 presidency of, 336 tomb of, 368 Gray, Captain Robert, in Oregon (1792), 195 " Great American Desert," 3S4 " Great Law," the (colonial period), 103-104 Greeley, Horace, 260, 303 (note) Lincoln's letter to, 303 (note) "Green Mountain Boys" (Revolution), 144 ■'Greenbacks" in the Civil War, 286, 347 (and note), 348 why so called, 347 (note) become equal to gold, 348 redeemed in gold (1879), 348 See also Money Greene, General (Revolution), 166 in the South, 166-167 helped by Mrs. Steele, 166 campaign in the Carolinas 166-167 Guam (gwam) annexed, 38 1 Gnerricre (gair-re-air') taken by the Consiituiion, 202. See also Battles Guiteau (ge-toe'), assassin, 34S Hague (hag) Peace Conference Treaty ( 1900), 388 "Hail Columbia," song, 188 Haiti (hay'te), island of, 12 Hale, Captain Nathan (Revolution), 154 Halleck, General (Union), life of, 292 (note) in Civil War, 287, 292 Hamilton, Alexander, life of, 175 (note) and th^ Constitution, 175 first Secretary of the Treasury, 178 financial policy of, 179, 180 plan for paying national debt, 179 established the credit of the nation, 179 and the United States Bank, 180 leader of the Federalist party, 182 shot by Aaron Burr, 197 " Hammering campaign " (Civil War), 310 Hancock, General (Ihiion), 305 John (Revolution), 141, 142, 150, 152 Hamden, W. F., founder of express system (1S39), 236 (and note) Harrison, Benjamin, life of, 359 (note) presidency of, 359 Harrison, General W. H., life of, 244 (note) at Tippecanoe (iSii), 200 in War of 1812, 204 Harrison, General W. H., his presidential cam- paign (1840), 245 presidency of, 244 Hartford Convention, the (1814), 20S Hartford founded (1636), 85 Harvard, Rev. John (colonial period), 75 Harvard University founded (1636), 75, 76 Harvesters on great farms, 264, 340 Haverhill attacked by Indians (colonial period), Hawaii (hah-wy'ee) annexed (1898), 378 (and note) Hay, Secretary John, and China, 3S8, 399 Hayes, R. B., life of, 345 (note) his election disputed, 345 presidency of, 345 withdraws troops from .South, 345 vetoes silver coinage bill, 347 the silver coinage bill is passed over his veto, 347 Hayne, senator from South Carolina, 232 debate with Daniel Webster (1830), 232 Health saving, 394, 39S " Heaven helps those who help themselves," 131 Hennepin, Father, explorer, 112 Henry, Patrick (Revolution), 137, 140 Henry letters, the (War of 1812). 200 Herkimer (her'ke-mer), General (Revolution), 15S Hesse (hes'see), Germany, 150 Hessians (hes'shuns) (Revolution), 150, 155. See also Germans " Higher Law," the, and slavery, 261 Historians, some American, 238 Holmes, O. W., poet, 23S '■ Holy Experiment," William Penn's, lor Homestead Act (1862), 338, 384. See also Land and Laws Hood, General (Confederate), 316, 321 Hooker, General (Union), 300, 302, 309 Hooker, Rev. Thomas (colonial period), 84 "Hot Stuff," song (colonial period), 121 (and note) Houston (hoos'tun), General Sam, 249 Howe, British general, 144, 145, 146 (and note), ■53' i57> 158' 155)' ''^■' '^^2 (note) Howe, Lord, British admiral, 153, 162 (note) Hudson, Henry, explorer (1609), 58, 59 Hudson River named, 58 Huguenots (hue'ge-nots), come to America, 25-27 encounter with the .Spaniards, 26-27 settle in Charleston, 98 illustrious descendants of the, 98 Hull, Captain Isaac (War of 1812), 202 Hull, General William (War of 1812), 201, 202 Hurricane at Galveston (1900), 396 Hussey reaper, the, 264 (note) Hutchinson, lilrs. Anne (colonial period), 74, 75. 82 Iberville, founder of Mobile (1701), 113 Idaho, 252, 359, 360 Illinois, 163, 173, 237 Immigrants, two classes of, 243 Immigration, 242-244 restrictions on, 243 (and note) See also Chinese and Emigration Impeachment of President Johnson, 332 Impressment of American sailors, 196, 201 given up, 207 Improvements, internal, 234, 245 (note). See also Canals, Roads, Railways, Telegraph Independence, not at first desired by Washington, 149 Declaration of (1776), 150, 152 INDEX Ixxxiii Independence, war for. See Wars See also the Ueclaration, with Introduction and Notes, in Appendix Independence Hall, Philadelphia, 150, 152 Independence of America, secured (1783), 170 secured on the sea (1814), 208 Independent character of the colonists, 126, 161, 162 treasury system (1846), 240, 241 (and note) Indiana, 163, 173 Indianapolis, 27S Indians, why so called, 12 small number of, 32 the Algonquins (al-gon'quins), 32 the Iroquois (ir-o-kwoi'), or Six Nations, 32, 38, 117 (note), 119, 122, 132, 157, 163 the, described, 32 mode of life, 33 moccasins, snowshoes, canoes, 33 their wampum, or money, 34 tobacco, 2Q, 39 mode of government, 34, 35 religion, 35 character, 35 totems, 35 self-control and endurance of pain, 36 torture of captives, 30 respect for courage, 36 John Stark's adventure among, 36 kept their treaties, 37, 70, 79, 104 (and note) effect of strong drink on, 59 what they taught the colonists, 37 influence of, on our history, 37, 38 Catholic missionaries work among, 109 Canadian, help the French, 114 Iroquois, help colonists against French, 38, 119, 132 in the Revolution, 157, 158, 163 land cessions by the, 59, 60, 117 (note), 183, 205 treaties with the, 37, 65, 70, 79, 104, 183 wars with the, 56, 71, 79, 85, 87 (note), 114- 116, 120, 122, 123, 157, 183, 200, 205, 210, 236, 237. 344- See also Wars Captain John Smith and the, 46 Carver and Massasoit (mas-sa-soit'), 70 Bradford and Canonicus, 70, 71 Eliot's work among the, 76, 79 King Philip, noted chief, 79 massacres by the, 114, 163, 205 Mrs. Dustin and the, 115 Myles Standish and the, 71 Penn and the, loi, 104 Quakers of New Jersey and the, 65, 66 Roger Williams and the, 74, 93, 94 See also Batdes, Coronado, De Soto, Osceola, Pequots, Pocahontas, Pontiac, Powhatan, Seminoles, Tecumseh, Wars I ndies, trade of Europe with ( 1 5th- 1 7th centuries), 4, 15, 28, 39, 44 attempts to reach by sea, 4-5, 15, 18, 27, 28, 44, 58 America supposed to be part of, 12 Indies, the West, why so named, 12 commerce with the, 73, 107, loS, 134, 135 Indigo culture in South Carolina (colonial pe- riod), 100 " Industrial Army," Coxey's (1894), 364 Ingle, Captain (colonial period), go Initiative in legislation, 371 (note) Insurrection of slaves (1831), 229 Intemperance in early times, 224. See also Pro- hibition and Temperance " Internal improvements," 234, 245 (note). See also Canals, Railways, Roads, Telegraph Interstate Commerce Act (1887), 358. See also Laws " Intolerable Acts," the (1774), 140. See also Laws of Parliament Inventions, 184, 185 (note), 197, 222, 223, 247, 248 (and note), 249 (note), 263, 264 (and note), 291 (note), 342, 361, 362 (note), 393. See also Cotton Gin, Electricity, Exhibitions, Harvesters, Mow- ers, Patents, Printing Press, Reapers, Steam- boats, Steam Shovels, Telegraph, Telephone Irish, Scotch-, in the colonies, 82, 124 Iron and steel manufacture, 121, 185 (note), 352, 357. 367 Iroquois (ir-o-kwoi') Indians, 32. See also In- dians Irrigation of desert lands, 242, 339 (note), 384 (note), 385, 395 Irving, Washington, 237 Islands owned by the United States, 381 Isthmian Canal, 22, 388, 389, 393. See also Canals Jackson, General Andrew, life of, 226 victory at Tohopeka, 205 victory at New Orleans (1815), 207 victory over the Seminoles, 2 1 1 presidency of, 226 his removals from office, 227 and the " spoils system," 227-228 and the United States Bank, 230 and nullification, 234 and the preservation of the Union, 234 Jackson, "Stonewall" (Confederate), 255, 288, 298, 302 Jamestown, Virginia, settled (1607), 45 colony of, 45-58 burned by Bacon (1676), 57 Japan, M. C. Perry's treaty with (1854), 264- 265 emigration from, to America, 243 treaty with Russia (1905), 396 agreement made with (igoS), 399 Jasper, Sefgeant (Revolution), 149 Jay, John, first chief justice, 178 treaty with England (1795), 1S7 Jefferson, Thomas, life of, igi (note) drafts the Declaration of Independence, 152 first Secretary of State, 17S presidency of, igi his removals from office, 192 purchases province of Louisiana (1803), 193 greatly loved by his slaves, ig8 what he said about slavery, 19S leader of the Democrats, igi (note) his epitaph by himself, igi (note) Jerry, fugitive slave, rescued, 261 Jesuit missionaries in the West, log Jews forbidden to vote (colonial period), 95 "John Brown's body," song, 273 Johnson, Andrew, life of, 328 (note) becomes President, 328 quarrels with Congress, 330, 332 impeached but acquitted, 333 Johnston, General A. S. (Confederate), 304 Johnston, General J. E. (Confederate), 286(note), 306, 310, 316, 324, 327 Joliet (jo'le-et) and Marquette's (mar-kef) expe- dition (1673), 109 Jones, Captain Paul (Revolution), 153, 159 (note), 164 Jury, trial by (colonial period), 126 Ixxxiv LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Kalb, Baron de (Revolution), 157 Kansas and Nebraska Act (1S54), 265. See also Laws Kansas, struggle for, 266 song of the " Kansas emigrant," 266 John Brown in, 267 civil war in, 267 enters as a free state, 268 Kansas City, 278 Kearney (kar'ne). General (Mexican War), 254 Kearsarge (keer-sarj') sinks the Alabama, 312. See also Battles Kenesaw (ken'e-saw) Mountain, 316. See also Battles Kentucky, Daniel Boone in, 183 Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions (1798, 1799), 189 Kerosene, 271. See also Petroleum King Philip's war (1675), 79, S7 (note). See also Wars Knights of Labor, origin of (1869), 354 Know Nothing party, 262 (note). See also Polit- ical Parties Knox, General (Revolution), 148 Kosciusko (kos-se-us'ko). General (Revolution), " Ku Klux Klan " (period of reconstruction), 340 Kurihama (kur-e-ham'a), Japan, 265 Labor, Knights of, origin of (1869), 354 Bureau of (1SS4), 355 Alien Contract Act (1885), 351. See also Laws American Federation of, origin of (1886), 355 protection of American, 351 Department of Commerce and Labor, 355 (and note) efforts to secure industrial peace, 390 (and note), 395 advantage of free negro, 302, 330 employments of women, 360 Coxey " Industrial Army," 364 disputes and strikes, 346 See also Strikes Labor-saving machines, 263, 342, 343, 361, 368. See also Inventions and Patents Lafayette Oah-fay-et') in the Revolution, 157, 160, 167, 16S revisits the United States (1824), 217 Congress gives land to, 218 Daniel Webster's tribute to, 218 (note) school children erect monument to, 219 Land, in the colonies, 44, 45, 48. See also Charters gift of, in Virginia, to settlers, 48 cessions of, by the Indians, 59, 60, 117 (note), 183, 205 Roger Williams denies right of king to grant, 74 foreign cessions of, to the LTnited States, 193 cessions of, to the nation by states, 172 claims to, by states, 87, 98, 106, 172 cheap public, 338, 3S4, 400 free public, 338, 384 grants of, under Homestead Act (1862), 338, 384, . . speculation m, 230, 240 government grants of, to railways, 336 the chief source of wealth, 385, 395 irrigation of desert, 242, 385, 395 drainage of swamps, 395 efforts to save and improve, 395 3ee also Agriculture, Farms, Forests La Salle (lah sal'), French explorer (1(179), 110-113 explores the Mississippi (1682), 112 takes possession of Louisiana (1682), 112 " Latter Day Saints," 241. .See also Mormons Laurens (law'renz), Henry, g8 Law, colonists protected by the common, 126 the " Higher," 261 Laws of colonial period, how made, 52, 55, 66, 70. 73. 85, 86, 90, 95, 99, 103, 126 the " Bacon Laws" in Virginia, 57 " Scripture laws " in New England, 86 New England Confederation (1643), 76 Toleration Act in Maryland (1649), 9o> 9' toleration in Rhode Island, 95 Connecticut laws, 86 New Haven laws, 86 "Great Law" of Pennsylvania (1682), 103 restrictive laws of Georgia, 107 military rule in Virginia, 47, 48 severe laws in colonies, 47, 48, 86, 130 the " Grand Model " in Carolinas, 99 See also Constitutions Laws of Parliament, 55 Navigation Acts (1660), 55, 126, 134, 135 Writs of Assistance (1763), 135 Stamp Act (1765), 137 Declaratory Act (1766), 138 Townshend Acts (1767), 138 Duty on tea (1773), 139 the " Intolerable Acts" (1774), 140 act closing port of Boston (1774), 140 act depriving Massachusetts of self-govern- ment (1774), 140 the Transportation Act (1774), 140 (note) the Quebec Act (1774), 140 (notes) Laws, United States and state, 191 (note) Religious Freedom Act (Virginia, 17S5), 191 (note), 199 (note) Ordinance for Northwest Territory (1787), 170, 172, 211 firsttariff (1780), 179. See also Tariff Tonnage Act (1789), 179 first census (1790), 180 first United States Bank (1791), iSo first mint (1792), 180 first Fugitive Slave Act (1793), 174 (note) Alien and Sedition Acts (1798), 189 Embargo Act (1807), 196 importation of slaves prohibited (1808), igS Non-Intercourse Act (1809), ig6 Missouri Compromise Act (1820), 213 National Road Act (1825), 215 annexation of Texas (1845), 249 second Fugitive Slave Act (1850), 260, 261 compromise measures (1S50), 260, 261 Maine Prohibition Act (1851), 225 Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854), 265 Homestead Act (1862), 338, 384 National Bank Acts (1863), 286 Proclamation of Emancipation (1863), 301 Freedmen's Bureau Act (1865), 331 (note) Civil Rights Acts (1866), 331 (note) District of Columbia Franchise Act (1867), 33 1 (note) Reconstruction Acts (1867- 1868), 331 Tenure of Office Act (1867), 333 "Force Act" (1870,340 New Coinage Act (1873), 342 Bland Silver Coinage Act ( 1 878), 347 (and note) Chinese Immigration Acts (1882, 1888), 243 Civil Service Reform Act (1883), 349 Cheap Postage Acts (1883, 1885), 350, 351 Alien Contract Labor Act (18S5), 351 INDEX Ixxxv Laws, Presidential Succession Act (1886), 358 Interstate Commerce Act (1887), 358 Electoral Count Act (1S87), 358 Australian or Secret Ballot Act (1889), 363 New Pension Act (iSgo), 360 Sherman Silver Purchase Act (i8go), 360 restriction of negro suffrage (1890- ), 333, 371 Immigration Act (iSg'i), 243 repeal of Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1S93), 364 Initiative and Referendum Act (i8g8), 371 Spanish War Revenue Act (1S98), 374 annexation of Hawaii (1898), 380 Gold Standard Act (1900), 388 National Irrigation Act (1902), 339 (note) Railway Rate Act (1906), 358, 397 Pure Food and Drug Act (1906), 39S Meat Inspection Act (1906), 398 Lee, General Charles (Revolution), 154, 155, 162 Lee, Richard H. (Revolution), 150 Lee, Robert E. (Confederate), life of, 285 (note) in Mexican War, 254 takes command of Confederate forces, 297 in second battle of Bull Run, 300 in battle of Antietam, 300 in battle of Chancellorsville, 302 in battle of Gettysburg, 304 guards Richmond, 310, 312 surrenders to Grant, 322, 323, 325 applies for pardon, 330 his advice to the South after the war, 330 Legislative assembly, first in America (i6ig), 52 Leif (life) Ericson discovers America (1000), 2-3 called " Leif the Lucky," 3 Leo/>ard and Chesapeake, 196. See also Battles Letter, Franklin's to Strahan, 146 Lincoln's to Greeley, 303 (note) Letters, the Heniy (War of 1812^, 200 Lewis and Clark's expedition (1804-1806), 194, 392 Lexington, battle of (Revolution), 142. See also Battles Liberator, Garrison publishes the (1S31), 228 Liberty, political, in the colonies, 45, 50, 52, 54, 55, 57, 58, 62, 66, 69, 70, 73, 80, S., 83, 85, 86, 88, 90, 95, 97, 99, 103, 107, 126 religious, in the colonies, 62, 63, 72, 81, go, gt, 95, 191 (note) in England, 66, 67 See also Suffrage and Roger Williams Liberty, statue of, 357 "Liberty Bell" (Revolution), 152 " Liberty and union," 330 Library of Congress, 368 Lincoln, Abraham, early life of, 273 (note) in Congress, 252 (note) his "Spot Resolutions" (1847), 252 (note) elected President (i860), 273 presidency of, 280 inaugural address, 281 his cabinet, 281 (note) first call for volunteers, 283 second call for volunteers, 29S his letter to Horace Greeley, 303 (note) emancipates the slaves (1863), 301 assassinated (1865), 325 Linen, colonial manufacture of, 82 Liquor, use of, 59, 73, 107, 108, 224. Sec also Prohibition and Temperance Literature, colonial, 131, 150 rise of modem American,. 23 7, 23S (and note) influence of " Uncle Tom's Cabin," 261 Literature, poems and songs relating to Ameri- can history, 10 (note), 143, 188, 204 (note), 207, 238 (and note), 245, 249 (note), 255 (note) Loans, government (Civil War), 285 Locomotive, the, invented in England, 222 first American (1830), 223 " Log-cabin candidate, the" (1840), 245 London Company (colonial period), 44, 45 Londonderry, New Hampshire (colonial period), 82 Longfellow, H. W., 238 Louisburg taken (1745), 115. See also Battles Louisiana, origin of name, 112 claimed by the French (1682), 112 purchased by the United States (1803), ig3, 211, 381 Louisiana Purchase Exhibition, 392. See also Exhibitions Louvre (loo'vr), Paris, 219 Lowell, city of, 185 Lowell, Francis C, manufacturer, 185 Lowell, James R., poet, 238 Loyalists or Tories (Revolution), 141, 149, 157, 163 Lyon, General (Union), 287 McClellan, General (Union), 287, 289, 297, 298, 300 what he taught his army, 28g McCormick reaper, the (1834), 264 (note) McDowell, General (Union), 287 Macdonough's victory (War of 181 2), 206. See also Battles Machines, American labor-saving, 263, 361 changes effected by, 342, 343 exports of, 368 See also Inventions and Patents McKinley, William, life of, 366 (note) presidency of, 366 assassinated, 3go Madison, James, life of, igg (note) his work on the Constitution, igg (note) presidency of, igg Magellan (ma-jel'lan). Strait of, 18 voyage round the world (1519), 18 Mahan (ma-han'). Captain, 378 Maine, Popham colony in (1607), 82 permanently settled (1625), 82 united with Massachusetts, 82 and the Missouri Compromise, 214 enters the Union (1820), 214 boundary dispute with England, 246 passed first prohibitory liquor law (185 1), 225 Mai?!e, the, destroyed (i8gS), 373 Manhattan Island purchased (1626), 59 Manifesto (man-e-fes'to), the Ostend (1S54), 372 Manufactures (colonial period), 82, 106, 125 English restrictions on, 125 of cotton in Rhode Island (1790), 184 effect of cotton gin on (1793), 184, 185, 212 of nails (1790), 185 (note) effect of the embargo on (1807), 196 effect of War of 181 2 on, 208 first complete cotton mill (18 14), 185 woolen mills, 208 of iron and steel, 121 protection of American, 208, 23 1 enormous growth of American, 1S5, 352 exports of American, 367, 368 See also Tariff and Trusts Map of America, the first (1507), ig (note) March to the sea, Sherman's, 320 " Marching through Georgia," song, 320 (note) Marco Polo (po'lo), 4 lx> LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Marietta, Ohio, settled (.7SS), 1S3 Marion (mar'e-on), General (Revolution), 99, 164, 167 Marquette (mar-ket'), French explorer, 109 Maryland, settled by Catholics (1634), Sg political and religious liberty in, 90 Toleration Act (1649), 90, 91 Catholics of, deprived of their rights, 91 and destruction of tea (Revolution), 139 and Mason and Dixon's Line, 92, 93 " Maryland, my Maryland," song, 300 Mason and Dixon's Line (1763-1767), 92, 93 Mason and Slidell (sly-del') captured (Civil War), INIassachusetts Bay Company, the, 72 first charter of (1629), 72 Massachusetts Colony, Boston settled (1630), 72 Puritan rule in, 73, 76, 78, 80 education in, 75-76 war with Indians, 79, 87 (note) becomes a royal province (1684), So second charter of (i6gi), 81 See also Colonies, Pilgrims, Plymouth, and Puritans Massacre, the Boston (Revolution), 138 at Cherr>' Valley (Revolution), 163 at Wyoming, 163 See also I ndian Wars Massasoit (mas-sa-soif), Indian chief, 70, 79, 93 Matches come into use (1836), 249 (note) Mayjiower, the, sails (1620), 69 at Cape Cod, 6g at Plymouth, 69, 70 Meade, General (Union), 304 Meat Inspection Act (1906), 398. See also Laws Meeting, town (colonial period), 70, 73, 126 Menendez (men-en'dez) in Florida, 26 Meridian destroyed (Civil War), 309 " Merit system," the, 349 Merrimac or I'irgmia destroys United States war ships, 290 battle with the Monitor. 290 Merritt, General (war with Spain), 378 Mexican land cessions, 255 what we paid for, 255 (note) Mexican War, the (1846), 252 results of the, 255 See also Battles and Wars Mexico conquered by Cortez (1519), 22 declares itself independent of Spain (1824), 372 (note) Texas breaks away from (1836), 249 See also Texas Michigan, 173. See also Detroit Miles, General (war with Spain), 378 Milwaukee, 278 Mines, 31, 395. See also Coal, Copper, Gold, Iron, Silver Minneapolis, 278 Minnesota, 173 Mint, United States, established (1792), 180 decimal system of coinage adopted, 180 Minuit (min'u-it). Governor, 59 " Minutemen" (Revolution), 141 Miquelon (me-ke-lon'), island of, 123 Missionaries, Catholic, in the West, 109 Mississippi River discovered (1541), 23-24 explored by the French (1673-1682), 109-113 fortified by the French, 113, 117 Law's " Mississippi scheme " (1717), 113 in the Civil War, 295, 296, 308 chief mouth of, deepened (1879), 346 productive power of valley of the, 113 Missouri Compromise, the (1820), 213 set aside (1854), 266, 268, 260 Missouri enters as a slave state (182 1), 213 Mobile founded (1701), 113 Fartagut enters harbor of (Civil War), 318 Modocs (mo'docs), Indian tribe, 344 Money, Indian, 35 tobacco used for (colonial period), 48 some coined by Massachusetts colony. So Spanish dollars (colonial period), 135 paper, of the Revolution, 156, 171 paper, in 1783, 171 Morris raises, for Washington (Revolution), 156, 168 first United States Bank established (1791). 180 first mint established (1792), iSo decimal system of coinage adopted, 180 first tariff to raise (1789), 179 how raised, for war for the Union, 285, 286 "greenbacks" issued (Civil War), 2S6, 341, 342. 348 specie payrnent resumed (1879), 34^ silver question, the, 342, 347, 360, 361, 364 gold standard adopted (igoo), 388 Wall Street, the money center of America, 370 See also Banks, Coinage, Dollar, Free Silver, Gifts, Gold, " Greenbacks," Mint, Panics, Savings Banks, Silver, Specie, Wealth ]\fon!tor and Merrhnac (Civil War), 290. See also Battles Monroe, James, life of, 209 (note) presidency of, 209 inaugural address, 209 " Era of Good Feeling," 210 Monroe Doctrine, the (1823), 217 Montcalm (mont-kahm'). General, at Quebec, 121 Montgomery, General (Revolution), 146, 148 Montreal named, 22 Morgan, General (Revolution), 160 (and note) Morgan's raid (Confederate), 30S Mormons, rise of the (1830), 241 build Nauvoo (1840), 241 emigrate to Utah (1847), 242 build Salt Lake City (1847), 242 what they accomplished there, 242 renounce polygamy (iSgo), 242 IMorris, Robert (Revolution), 156, 168 Morristown, Washington at (Revolution), 157, 165 Morse, Professor, life of, 247 (note) invents the telegraph, 247 See also Telegraph Mortar boats (Civil War), 296 Morton, Dr., demonstrates use of ether (1S46), 248 Motley, historian, 238 Motor car, or automobile, 344 Moultrie, Colonel (Revolution), 149 Moultrie, Fort, 149. See also Forts Mowing machines invented t,i834)> 263-264 (and note) " Mugwumps," 354 (note) Murder of Presidents, 325, 348, 390 Nail machine (1790), 1S5 (note) Napoleon and the United States, 193, 200 National banks, 286. See also Banks National parks, 394 National Road, 215, 216. See also Roads Natural gas, 272 Nauvoo (naw-voo'), Mormon city, 241 Navigation laws (colonial period), 56, 80, 134, 135. See also Laws INDEX Ixxxvii Navy, of the Revolution, 153, 164 in 1 798- 1 799, 1 88, 193 in 1801, r93 in War of 1812, 202, 204, 206 what the London Times said about it, 202 in the Civil War, 289, 290, 291, 294, 295, 296, 3'2, 3iS Confederate war vessels, 289 our new navy ( i SS4 to present time), 360 (and note) in the war with Spain, 374, 376, 377, 37S, 3S3 cruise of our, 'round the world (1907), 360, 3q8 total number of vessels in our, 360 (note) See also Battles, Blockade, Wars Negro slavery introduced (i6ig), 52. and Dred Scott decision (1857), 269 See also Slaveiy Negroes, emancipated (1863), 301 and the last three constitutional amendments, 333 become voters and lawmakers, 332 effects of their action in the South, 332, 340 power to vote restricted, 331^ 333 privileges of to-day, 341 what Booker T. Washington says about, 341 the " Solid South " and the, 346 progress made by the, 353 property owned by the, 353 their progress in education, 353 See also Anti-Slavery, Emancipation, Freed- men, and Slavery Neutrality, Washington's proclamation of (1793), J 82 expressed in the Monroe Doctrine, 217 New Amsterdam (New York), 60 New England Confederation (1643), 76 commerce of (colonial period), 134, 135 in the Revolution, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148, 150, 152 discontent of, in 1S07, 196 opposes War of 1S12, 201, 209 in Hartford Convention (1814), 208 New England Aid Society and Kansas (1854), 266 New Hampshire settled (1627), 82 suffrage in the colony, S3 temporarily united with Massachusetts, 83 manufacture of linen at Londonderry, 82 New Haven founded (1638), 86 New Jersey claimed by the Dutch (1617), 64 settled by the English (1664), 65 Quaker policy in, 65 great prosperity of, 66 becomes a royal colony, 66 New Mexico, conquest of, 254 New Netherland claimed by the Dutch (1614), 59 Manhattan Island purchased (1626), 59 Patroons in, 60-62 seized by the English (1664), 63-64 name changed to New York (1664), 64 privileges granted to, by the English, 63 See also New Amsterdam, New York, Pa- troons, and Peter Stuyvesant New Orleans (or'le-anz), founded (1718), 113 fortified by the French, 117 battle of 1815, 207. See also Battles taken by Farragut (Civil War), 295-296 commerce of, 347, 351 cotton exhibition at, 351 Captain Eads' great work for, 346, 347 (and note) progress of the city, 27S, 351, 352 New Sweden or Delaware settled (1638), 96 seized by the Dutch, 97 seized by the English, 97 See also Delaware " New West," 365, 383-385. See also the West New York settled (16 14), 59-64. See also New Netherland New York City, purchase of Manhattan Island (1626), 59-60 historic streets of, 63, 64 first school in (1633), 75 named (1664), 64 in 1763, 125 in the Revolution, 137, 139, 152, 153, 154, 165, 168 adoption of the Constitution by, 174, 175 capital of the United States, 177 Washington inaugurated in (1789), 177 first Congress under the Constitution in, and the Erie Canal (1825), 219-222 assessed value of land of, 60 commerce of, 63 business and money center of America, 63, Statue of Liberty in harbor of, 357 bridges and tunnels of, 349, 350 wealth of, 60 notable buildings in, 36S, 369 great aqueduct of, 369 Central Park, 394 " Greater New York," 36S population of, 36S Newspaper, the first in America (1704), 125 (note) the first daily (1784), 125 (note) the first in the West (1793), 183 attacks on President Washington, 187 first cheap daily (1833), 238 how printed to-day, 263, 264 Nicaragua (ne-ka-rah'gwa) Lake, 388 Non-Intercourse Act (1809), 196. See also Laws North Carolina, 99. See also Carolinas North, Lord (Revolution), 169 North, uprising of the (Civil War), 283 Confederates invade the (Civil War), 304, 3 14, 326 Northmen discover America (1000), 2-3 Northwest Territory, 172 Ordinance for government of (1787), 170, 172, 211 Nova Scotia named (colonial period), 115 Novelists, early American, 237, 238 Nueces (nway'seez) River, 252 Nullification (Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 1798, 1799), 189 m South Carolma (1S32), 231, 232, 234 Oath, Quakers refuse to take, 78 the President's, 178 what Lincoln said about his, 281 of allegiance after the Civil War, 330 Office, removals from, by Presidents, 227, 228. See also Civil Service Reform and "SpoUs System " Oglethorpe, governor of Georgia (1733), 106 Ohio, part of the Northwest Territory, 183 first settlement in (1788), 183 Cincinnati founded (1790), 183 Indian wars in, 183 Ohio Company, the first (1748), 117 Oil, cotton-seed, 352 (and note) Oil well first bored in Pennsylvania (1S59), 271. See also Petroleum Ixxxviii LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Oklahoma, opened to settlement, 359 rapid growth of, 359 "Old Bullion," 230 (note) "Old Hickor>'," 227 (note) Old North Church (Revolution), 142 Old South Meeting House (Revolution), 139 Omaha, 279 exhibition at, 383 " Open Door " in China, 38S "Opportunity," America means, 39, 400 Ordinance for government of Northwest Terri- tory (1787), 170, 172, 211 Oregon, discovered by Drake (1579), 27 Captain Gray in (^1792), 195 our claim to, 195, 211, 250 was held jointly by us and England, 250 Dr. Whitman and, 250, 251 treaty with England concerning (1S46), 250, 252 Oregon, the, in war with Spain, 376 Oriskany (o-ris'ka-ny) in Revolution, 158 Osawatomie (os-a-wat'o-me), Kansas, 267 Osceola (os-e-o'lah), Indian chief, 236 Ostend Manifesto (1S54), 372 Otis, General (war with Spain), 38 1 Otis, James (colonial period), 135, 137 Pacific, discovered by Balboa (15 13), 21 named by Magellan (1520), 18 explorers and colonists search for the, 19, 44, 46 extension of the United States to the (184S), 255 pony express to the (i860), 336 stagecoach line to the (1862), 336 railway completed to the (1S69), 336 telegraph line to the (1869), 336 telegraph cable across the (1902), 334, 391 our possessions in the, 378, 380 the, and the Panama Canal, 388, 389 agreement to maintain peace in the, 399 Paine's "Common Sense" (Revolution), 150 Pakenham (pak'en-ham), General, British (War of 1S12), 207 Palo Alto (pah'lo ahl'to), 252 Panama Canal, 22, 388, 389, 393. See also Canals Pan-American Exhibition (1901), sSg^^ee also Exhibitions Panics, business and financial, 239 of 1837, 239-240 of 1857, 269 of 1873, 342 of 1893, 364 of 1894, 365 of 1907, 397 Paper money, 156, 171, iSo, 286, 341, 342, 348. See also Banks and Aloney " Papers, the X. Y. Z." (1797), 1S8 Pardon, solicited by General Robert E. Lee, 330 proclamations of (reconstruction period), 330, 333 Parkman, historian, 238 Parks in cities, 394 national, 394 Parties, rise of political, iSo, 182, 23S, 266. See also Political Parties Pascua (pass'koo-ah) Florida, 2 1 Patent Office Centennial (1891), 361 Patents, number of, 361. See also Inventions Patroons (pa-troonz') in New Netherland, 60-62 Peabody, George, 353 (note) Peace, the victories of, 246, 252, 364, 365, 366, 388 the colonists wanted, 141 Peace, justice essential to, 141 Franklin on, 146, 193 Jefferson on, 193 " Let us have peace," 368 the Hague Peace Conference Treaty (1900), 388 America on the side of, 396 efforts to diminish wars, 396 agreement to maintain, in the Pacific, 399 See also Arbitration, Disputes, Treaties, and Wars Peace, efforts to secure industrial, 390, 393 (note), 395. See also Labor and Strikes P^ggy Stewart, tea ship, burned (1774), 139 Pemaquid (pem'a-quid), Maine, 82 Pemberton, General (Confederate), 306 Peninsular Campaign (Civil War), 297. See also Battles and Wars Penn, William, and New Jersey, 65 and Delaware, 97 and Pennsylvania, loi his faith in the " Golden Rule," loi See also Pennsylvania Pennsylvania, granted to Penn, lor colony settled (1681), 101-105 Philadelphia founded (1682), 103 "Great Law" of (1682), 103, 104 treaty with the Indians (16S2), 34, 104 (and note) freedom of worship in, 104 education in, 104 right to vote in, 104 reformatory prisons in, 104 death penalty in, 104 and Mason and Dixon's Line, 92, 93 importance of Philadelphia, 105, 177 See also Constitution, Congress, Coal, Gettys- burg, Iron, Petroleum, Philadelphia, Pitts- burg, Revolution Pension Act of 1890, 360. See also Laws Pepperrell (pep'er-el). Colonel (colonial period), 115, 116 Pequots (pe'quots), war with the (colonial period), 85 Perry, M. C, opens ports of Japan (1854), 264 Perry, O. H., victory on Lake Erie (War of 1812), 204 Petersburg, siege of (Civil War), 315 mine exploded at (Civil War), 315 See also Battles Petition, to the king (1774), 141 right of, defended by J. Q. Adams, 230 Petitions to King George III (Revolution), 141, 149 to abolish slavery, 229, 230. See also Slavery Petroleum discovered (1859), 271 pipe lines for carrying, 272 Standard Oil Company, 272, 357 Philadelphia founded (1682), 103 historical importance of, 105 captured by the British (Revolution), 159 capital of the United States (1790), 177 Philippines annexed (1908), 380 present condition of, 382 Philip's, King, war (1675), 79 Phips (fips). Sir William, 115, 116 (note) Phonograph, the, 344 (note) Pickett's charge at Gettysburg (Confederate), 305. See also Battles Pictures, moving, 344 (note) Pierce (purse), Franklin, life of, 262 (note) presidency of, 262 Pike's Peak, 278 INDEX Ixxxix Pilgrims, or Separatists, in England and Holland, 67 how they differed from the Puritans, 67 why they resolved to go to America, 6S voyage in the Mnyjioivcr., 6g make a " law-and-order " compact, 69 land at Cape Cod, 6g settle at Plymouth (1620), 69 their form of government, 70 unite with Massachusetts Colony (1691), 71 what made them great, 7 1 See also Plymouth and Myles Standish Pilgrims, Catholic, in Maryland (1634), 89. See also Maryland Pillory and stocks (colonial period), 130 Pinckney, C. C, minister to France (1797), 18S Pipe lines for carrying oil, 272 Pitt, William, Lord Chatham (Revolution), 121, .136. '38 Pittsburg, formerly Fort Duquesne, 119, 121 the " Gateway of the West," 117, i ig, 121 named in honor of Pitt (175S), 121 great manufacturing center, 121 Plymouth Company, the (colonial period), 44, 72 (note) Plymouth named by John Smith, 69 settled by the Pilgrims (1620), 69 See also Pilgrims Plymouth Rock, 70 Pocahontas (po-ka-hon'tas), 46 Poe (poh), E. A., poet, 23S Poems and songs of American history, 10 (note), 143, 18S, 204 (note), 207, 23S (note), 245, 249 (note), 255 (note), 291 (note), 298, 300, 30S, 314, 315 Poets, Amencan, 237, 238 Poles in the Revolution, 157 Political parties, rise of (1791). 180-182 American or " Know Nothing," 262 (note) Anti- Federalist, 174, 176, 177, 182 Democratic-Republican, 182, 191 Democratic, 182, 191, 245 (note), 274 (note), 366 (note) Federalist, 174, 177, 1S2 Free Soil, 259, 262 (note) "Gold Democrats," 366 (note) " Know Nothing " 262 (note) "Mugwumps," 354 (note) Populist, 363 (note) Republican (the original party, 1792), 182, 274 (the modem party, 1856- ), 266 Whig, 2ig (note), 238, 245 (and note), 258, 262 (note) Polk (poke), James K., life of, 250 (note) presidency of, 250 Polygamy, 241, 242. See also Mormons Ponce de Leon and Florida, 20. See also De Leon Pontiac's (pon'te-ak) conspiracy (1763), 122 Pope, General (Union), 300 Pope, the, divides the world (1494), 13 praises American naval commanders, 193 Popham, colony of, Maine (1607), S2 Population, of the colonies in 1763, 124 of the United States in 1775, 141 in 1790, 180 in i860 and i86r, 285 (and note) in 1890, 361 in 1900, 389, 399 centers of, from 1790-1900, 180 westward movement of, 180 growth of, in cities, 36g, 370 See also Census "Populists," 363 (note) Porter, Commodore (Union), 2g6 Port Hudson (Civil War), 297, 308. See also Battles Portland, Maine, 82 Portland, Oregon, 278 Porto Rico annexed (1S98), 380 Portsmouth, New Hampshire, 82 Postage (colonial period), 129 cheap, modem, 350 Potato, discovery of the (1585), 28, 39 introduced into England, 28 Pottawatomie (pot-a-wat'o-me), 267 Powhatan (pow-hah-tan'), Indian chief, 46 Preble (preb'el). Commodore (war with Tripoli), •93 Prescott, Colonel (Revolution), 145 Presidential election, the disputed (1S76), 345, 358 Presidents assassinated, 325, 349, 390 Press, printing, the first in the colonies (1639), 76 a modern, 263, 264 Printing, colonial, 76 modem, 263, 264 Prisoners of war (Civil War), 325 (note) Prisons in Pennsylvania (colonial period), 104 Privateers in the Revolution, 153 Proclamation of rebeUion, George Ill's (1775), 149 of neutrality (1793), 182 of emancipation (1863), 301 of pardon (reconstmction period), 330, 332 Prohibition in Georgia (colonial period), 107, 108 in Maine (1851), 225 elsewhere, 225 See also Temperance Property held in common (colonial period), 45, 48, 68 "This is mine," 48 See also Land, Money, and Wealth Protection, tariff for, 179. See also Tariff Providence founded (1636), 94 Proviso (pro-vi'zo), Wilmot (1846), 259 Pulaski (pu-las'ki). Count (Revolution), 157 Pullman strike, 365. See also Strikes Punishments, severe (colonial period), 47, 62, 70, 78, 86 (note), 130 Pure Food and Drug Act (1906), 398. See also Laws Puritans, origin of the, 54, 67 religion of the, 54, 67, 72 why they came to Massachusetts, 72 (note) did not believe in toleration, 72 in Salem (1628), 72 founded Boston (1630), 72 colony and mode of govemment, 72, 73, 76, 78, 80 and New England Confederation (1643), 76 action respecting Roger VV'illiams, 74 banish Mrs. Hutchinson, 74 forbade Baptists to preach, 75 dealt severely with the Quakers, 77-79 established public schools (1647), 75 the, in Maryland, go differed from the Pilgrims, 67 See also Colonies, Religious Liberty, Suffrage Putnam, General (Revolution), 154 "Quaker guns" (Civil War), 298 (and note) Quakers, or Friends, belief of the, 77-78 in ISIassachusetts (colonial period), 77-79 peculiarities of the, 77-78 severely dealt with by the Puritans, 77-79 in New Netherland, 62 buy New Jersey, 65 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Quakers, or Friends, make treaties with the In- dians, 65, 104 in Delaware, 97 in Maryland, qo found Pennsylvania, loi their laws, 66, 103 See also William Penn Quebec founded (1608), 47 expedition against (colonial period), 115 the English take (1759), 121-122 expedition against (Revolution), 146 Quebec Act (1774), 140 (note). See also Laws Raids, Confederate (Civil War), 297, 298, 30S, 314 Union (Civil War), 309, 314, 324 Railways, the steam wagon or locomotive (1S30), 222 first American locomotive (1830), 223 first American railway (1830), 222-224 first transcontinental railway (1869), 336 first electric railway (18S4), 344, 350 Interstate Commerce Act (18S7), 358 Railway Rate Act (1906), 358, 397 growth of, 223, 234, 365, 393 general effects of, 223, 224, 337, 394 effects of, on the Union, 337 improvements in, 393 consolidation of, 357 overbuilding of (1869-1873), 342 strikes on, 346, 365. See also Strikes regulation of traffic on, 3 58, 398 total length of, 223, 394 (note) Rainier (ray'neer), Mt., 394 Raleigh (raw'le) sends expedition to Virginia (1584), 28 plants a colony in Virginia (1585), 28 plants second colony (1587), 30 was one of the founders of America, 30 " Rally round the flag," song, 308 Ranches (ran'chez), or cattle farms, 339 Randolph, John, 214 (note) Rapidan (rap-e-dan') River, 302 Reaper, invention of the horse (1834), 263, 264 (and note) modem harvesters, 264, 340 Rebellion, Claybome and Ingle's (1645), go F.acon's (1676), 57 George III proclaims colonies in (1775), 149 Shays' (17S6), 171, 172 Whisky (1794), 186 Dorr (1842), 246 "high-water mark" of the (1863), 304 Reciprocity (res-e-pros'e-ty) measures, 361 (note) Reconstruction after the Civil War, 330 methods of, 330, 331 laws relating to, 331 the President quarrels with Congress, 330, 332. 333 President grants pardons, 330, 332 effects of negro suffrage in, 332 completed (1870), 340 troops withdrawn from South, 345 See also Amendments, Freedmen, Negroes, Representation, and Suffrage " Red Cross Society " (war with Spain), 383 (and note) Referendum (ref-er-en'dum) in state legislation, 371 (note) Regicides in New England (colonial period), 87 ReHgion in the colonies, 74, 90, 95, 104, 125 Religious Freedom Act ( 1 785) , 1 9 1 (note), 199 (note) Religious liberty, 66, 67 none formerly in Europe, 66, 67, 89 (note) Religious liberty, Pilgrims and Puritans seek it for themselves, 67, 68 Puritans did not grant to others. 72, 74, 75 Puritans required attendance at church, 48, 74 Puritans permitted only church members to vote, 73 denied to Baptists, 75 denied to Quakers, 77, 78 denied to Catholics, 72, 81 later condition of, in I\Iassachusetts, Si in Connecticut colony, 86 noneoriginallyinVirginia, 44, 48,54, 191 (note) condition in New Netherland, 62, 63 condition in New Hampshire, 82, 83 enjoyed in New Jersey, 66 in Pennsylvania and Delaware, 104 in Maryland for a time, 90 in the Carolinas, 98 partial in Georgia, 107 complete in Rhode Island, 95 condition in the colonies generally (1763), 125 granted in the Northwest Territory ( 1 787), 172 provisions of the Constitution regarding, 95 See also Catholics, Pilgrims, Puritans, Quak- ers, Toleration, Roger Williams Removals from office, Jefferson's, 227 Jackson's, 227, 228 See also Civil Service Reform and " Spoils System " Representation (colonial period), 50, 54, 55, 57, 58, 62, 66, 73, 86, 90, 99, 103, 107, 126 and taxation (Revolution), 136, 137 in Parliament, demanded, 136, 137 denied by England, 136 found impracticable, 141 offered by England (1778), i6r refused by the United States (1778), ifii, 162 in Congress (1783-1787), 171 question of, in framing the Constitution (17S7). 173 (note) effect of the census on (1790), 179 and the " Federal Ratio," 179 of North and South, 274 (and note) in Congress (1790-1900). See Table in Ap- pendix in period of reconstruction, 330, 331, 332, 340 See also Slavery Republicans, first party of that name (1792), 182 or" Democratic-Republicans" or Democrats, 182 See also Democrats Republicans, origin of the modem party (i 856), 266 oppose the extension of slavery, 266, 274 condemn the John Brown raid, 274 uphold protective tariff, 231 (note), 361, 366 elect Abraham Lincoln (i860), 273 elect all Presidents (1860-1908) except Cleve- land (1884, 1S92), 353, 363 " Mugwumps" act with the, 354 (note) and silver question, 347, 366 (note) Resaca (re-sah'ka), Georgia, 316 Resaca de la Palma (ray-sah'ka da la pal'ma), 252 Resolutions, Virginia and Kentucky (179S, 1799), 189 Lincoln's "Spot Resolutions" (1S47), 252 (note) Resources, natural, of United States, 31, 395 meeting to conserve the (igo8), 395 Resumption of specie payment (1S79), 348 Retreat of Washington across the Delaware, 155 Greene's in the Carolinas (Revolution), 166, 167 Revenue of United States, 396 (note) INDEX xci Revsre (re-veer'), Paul (Revolution), 142 Review, grand, close of Civil War (1S65), 329 Revolution, the American, causes of, 135 -141 protest against Writs of Assistance, 135 resistance to Stamp Act, 136, 137 refusal to import taxed goods, 139 destruction of tea, 139 "minutemen" raised, 141 action of Continental Congress, 141, 144 Continental army raised, 144 Revolution becomes a war for independence, 150, 152 England's action toward the, 153 money of the, 156 unity of the colonies in the, 141, 150, 152 Tories of the, 141, 149 battles of the. See Battles foreign help in the, 157, 160, 161, 168 treaty made with France (177S), iCo navy in the, 153, 164 women in the, 166 England offers representation in Parliament (177S), 161 United States refuses the offer (177S), 161, 162 end of the war (1781), 169 general summary of the, 169 See also John Adams, Samuel Adams, Bat- tles, Franklin, General Greene, Wars, Gen- eral Washington Revolver, invention of (1835), 249 (note) Rhode Island settled (1636), 94 entire religious liberty in, 95 suffrage restricted in, 95 See also Roger Williams Rice introduced into South Carolina (1693), gg Rich men's gifts for public good, 353 (note), 3S7 (and note) Riches of the United States, 386, 3g5. See also Wealth Richmond, the Confederate capital, 284 battles around, 298. See also Battles occupied by the Union army, 324 " Right of search " claimed by England, ig6, 201 given up by England, 207, 246 American flag protects against, 246 Rights, Declaration of (1765, 1774), 137, 141 "state," i8g, 232, 234, 274, 277 " Ring," the " Boss " Tweed, 341 Riots, the Whisky rebellion (1794), 186 the draft (Civil War), 308 anarchist at Chicago, 356 See also Strikes Roads (colonial period), 129 Boone's " Wilderness Road," 183 . Cumberland or National (1811-1836), 215 progress westward, 215 National never completely finished, 216 Robertson, Western pioneer (colonial period), 1S3 " Rock of Chickamauga," General Thomas, 30S Rockefeller (rock-e-fel'ler), John D., 387 (note) Roebling (ro'bling), bridge builder, 349 (note) Rolfe (roll), John, in Virginia, 46 Roosevelt (roze'velt), Theodore, life of, 377 (note), 393 (note) _ in war with Spain, 377 elected Vice President, 366 (note) becomes President, 390 is elected President, 393 presidency of, 393 Rosecrans(ro'ze-kranz), General (Union), 301, 308 " Rough Riders" (war with Spain), 377 Rubber, invention of hard (1S44), 249 (note) Rum (colonial period), 73, 107, loS St. Augustine (aw'gus-teen) founded (1565), 26 St. Die (san dee-ay'), 17 St. Lawrence, the, discovered (1535), 22 St. Louis, 117, 278, 392 St. Paul, 278 St. Pierre (san pee-er'), 123 Salem settled (1628), 72 witchcraft (1692), 80 Salt Lake City founded (1847), 242 growth of, 242, 278 Samoan (sam-o'an) Islands annexed (iSgg), 3S0 Sampson, Admiral (war with Spain), 374, 376 377 San Francisco, growth of, 256, 257, 278 earthquake at (igo6), 3g7 Sanitary and Christian Commission (Civil War), 326 San Juan (san wan'), Cuba, 377 San Juan de Ulua (oo-loo'ah), Mexico, 254 San Salvador (sal'va-dor), island, 12 Santa Anna, Mexican general, 253 Santa Fe (san'ta fa') founded, 254 Santiago (san-te-ah'go), 377 Sault Ste. Marie (soo sent ma'ree), 109 Savannah founded (1733), 106 taken by the British (Revolution), 163 taken by General Sherman (Civil War), 321 Savatmah, first ocean steamship (1819), 198 Savings banks established (1816), 386 "Scalawags" (skal'a-wags), 332 (note) Schenectady (ske-nek'tah-de) (colonial period), 114 Schley (sly), Admiral (war with Spain), 374, 376, Schools, in the colonies, 75, 130 public, established in New Netherland (1633), public, established in Massachusetts(i635), 75 common, established (1647), 75 Governor Berkeley opposed to, 54 (note) at the South, 353 (and note) at the West, 172, 384 gifts to, 353 (note), 3S7 (note) number of pupils in common, 396 See also Education and Colleges Schuyler (sky'ler), General (Revolution), 158 Scientific discoveries, modem, 362 (note) Scotch-Irish (colonial period), 82 Scott, General (War of 1812), 205 sent to Charleston (1832), 234 in war with Mexico, 254-255 in Civil War, 285-286 "Sea of Darkness," the, 2 Seals, protection of, 364 "Search, right of," 196, 201, 207, 246 Seattle (se-at'el), 278 Secession, threats of (1830), 232 upheld as right, 232 denounced by Webster (1830), 232 what Jackson said about, 234 South Carolina secedes (i860), 274 ten other states secede, 276, 284 why the South seceded, 277 slavery the real cause of, 277 (and note), 279, 301 effect of the Civil War on, 330 See also Reconstruction and Slavery Sedition Act (179S), 1S9. .See also Laws Seminoles (sem'i-noles) of Florida, 210, 236. See also Indians and Wars Semmes (sems). Captain (Confederate), 312 Separatists, or Pilgrims, 67 Sevier (sev-eer'), Western pioneer, 183 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Seward (sue'ard), W. H., 261, 264 (note), 266 (note), 281 (note), 335 Sewing machines (1S46, 1853), 249 (note), 263 Shadrach (shad'rak) rescued, 261 Shafter, General (war with Spain), 377 Sharpshooters, in the Revolution, 160 (note) in War of 1812, 207 Shays' Rebellion (1786), 171-172 Sheep and cattle ranches, 339, 340. See also Ranches Shenandoah (shen-an-do'ah) Valley, 28S, 298, 314, 324 "Stonewall" Jackson in the (Civil War), 288, 298, 3 '5 Early's raid in, 312, 314 Sheridan's raid in, 314 Sheridan, General (Union), life of, 314 (note) raid in Shenandoah Valley, 314 ride to Winchester, 315 in battle of Winchester, 3 1 5 raids around Richmond, 324 Sherman, General W. T., life of, 306 (note) and Mexican War, 255 in California, 256 at Pittsburg Landing (Civil War), 294 at Vicksburg, 306 in Tennessee, 309 raid on Meridian, 309 in " Hammering Campaign," 310 advances on Atlanta, 315 his march to the sea, 320 takes Savannah, 321 letter to President Lincoln, 321 announcement of Lee's surrender, 322 compels Johnston to surrender, 324 in grand review of Union army, 329 Sherman, James S., Vice President, 399 Sherman, Roger, 152 Shiloh (shi'loh), 294 Ships and shipbuilding (colonial period), 125 "clipper ships," 243 See also Navy and Steamships Shovels, steam, 393 Siege of Boston (Revolution), 143 of Yorktown (Revolution), 167-169 of Chattanooga (Civil War), 308-309 of Petersburg (Civil War), 312, 315, 324 of Vicksburg (Civil War), 306 of Nashville (Civil War), 321 Sigsbee (sigz'be), 373 Silk production attempted in Georgia, 106 Silver coinage begun in United States (1792), 180 mines found in West (1S59), 271 paper dollars take the place of silver dollars, 342 the silver dollar dropped (1873), 342 the " dollar of our fathers " demanded, 347 Bland Purchase and Coinage Act (1878), 347 (and note) the silver dollar restored (1878), 347 (and note) demand for free coinage of, 316 (note), 347 great fall in value of, 347, 361 (and note) Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890), 360 Sherman Silver Purchase Act repealed (1893), 364 silver question in politics, 347 (and note), 360, 363 (note), 364, 366 (note) See also Coinage, Dollar, Gold, Laws, Mint Sioux (soo) Indians, 344 Slater, J. F., philanthropist, 353 (note) Slater, Samuel, cotton manufacturer (colonial period), 184 Slave trade in early times, 53 foreign, prohibited (1808), 173 (note), 198 Slavery, beginning of, in Virginia (16 ig), 52 not then thought wrong, 53 spreads through all the colonies, 53 in New Netherland, 62 temporarily excluded from Georgia, 107 introduced into Georgia, 108 condemned by John Wesley, 107 upheld by Whitefield, 107, 108 excluded from Northwest Territory (1787), and the Constitution, 173 (notes) and representation in Congress, 173 (note) and foreign slave trade, 173 (note) provision for recovering fugitive slaves, 174 (note) the word " slave " not in the Constitution, 173 (note) Jefferson opposed the extension of, 198 Washington opposed the extension of, ig8 what Jefferson said about, 19S, 21 1 importation of slaves forbidden (1808), 173 (note), 198 fugitive-slave law of 1643, 76 (note) fugitive-slave law of 1787, 172 fugitive-slave law of 1793, 174 (note) fugitive-slave law of 1850, 260, 261 resistance to Fugitive-Slave Act of 1850, 261 effect of cotton gin on (1793- ), 185, 212 discussion of western extension of, 211 how it divided the country, 212 and the tariff, 212 why the South demanded extension of, 213, 259 why the North opposed extension, 212, 259 "slavery must have room," 213 Missouri Compromise Act (1820) and, 213 extension of, west of the Mississippi, 213 the dispute said to be settled "forever," 214, 215 "Doughfaces" and, 214 (note) Garrison attacks (1S31), 228, 229 insurrection of slaves (183 1), 229 Dr. Channing's proposition concerning, 229 (and note) J. Q. Adams offers emancipation petitions, 229, 230 " gag laws " to prevent discussion of, in Con- gress, 230 Webster and Lincoln on, 229 endangered the Union, 229, 231, 232 formation of abolition societies, 229 Calhoun declares it a "positive good," 231 (note), 259 annexation of Texas and (1845), 249 Wilmot Proviso and (1848), 259 question of opening California and New Mexico to, 258-260 compromise measures and (1S50), 259 the " Underground Railroad" and, 261 " Uncle Tom's Cabin " and, 261 contest between freedom and, 262 Kansas-Nebraska Act and (1854), 265 struggle over, in Kansas, 266-268 Seward's " Higher Law " and, 261 Republican party opposes extension of, 266, 274 Dred Scott decision and (1857), 26S, 269 assault on Charles Sumner and, 268 John Brown's raid and (1859), 273 general question of extension of, 213, 230, 249, 259, 265, 269, 274 INDEX Slavery, declining political power of (1848-1860), 274 (and note), 279 Republican party pledged to shut, out of ter- ritories, 266, 274 election of Lincoln and, 274 the enemy of the Union, 277, 279 leads to secession (i86o), 277 the " comer stone " of the Southern Confed- eracy, 277 (note) brings on Civil War (1S61), 277, 301 North would not interfere with, at the South, 281 General Butler and the "contrabands" (1861), Fremont's proclamation of emancipation, 287 (note) Lincoln's letter to Greeley about, 303 (note) proclamation of emancipation (1863), 301 three constitutional amendments and (1865- 1870), 301, 333 emancipation an advantage to the South, 302, 352-353 See also Abohtion, Anti-slavery, Free Soil, Fugitive Slaves, Reconstruction , and Slaves Slaves, first brought to Virginia (i6iy), 52 number of, in 1763, 124 how counted in representation, 173 (note) importation forbidden (1808), 173 (note), 198 insurrection of (183 1), 229 emancipated (1863), 301 See also Slavery Slaves, American sailors held as, in Tripoli, 193 Slideil (sly-del') and Mason, 290 Smith, Captain John (1607), 45, 46, 47 Smith, Joseph, founder of the Mormons (1830), 241. See also Mormons Smuggling by the colonists, 126, 139 Snake, Franklin's, 119 Soil, Free, party, 259, 262 (note). See also Polit- ical parties Soil, conservation of the, 395. See also Agricul- ture, Crops, Drainage, Farms, Irrigation, and Land Songs, political and national, 121, 143, 188, 207, 245, 266, 273, 339 Confederate, in the Civil War, 300, 314 (note) Union, in the Civil War, 273, 298, 308, 320 (note) See also Poems of American History "Sons of Liberty" (Revolution), 139 South, in the colonial period, 41-58, 89-93, 97- loi, 106-108, (28, 130. See also Colonies the, in the Revolution, 137, 139, 140, 141, 144, 146, 163, 164, 165, 166-169 and slavery, 52. See also Slavery cotton raising in the, 351. See also Cotton why the, wanted new slave states, 259 dreaded emancipation of negroes, 259, 274 loss of political power by the (1848-1860), 274 (note) nullification in the, 189, 231, 232, 234 South Carolina secedes (i860), 276 ten other states secede, 276, 284. See also Secession .Southern Confederacy formed (1861), 276 Civil War begins, 277, 2S1. See also Wars reconstruction of the seceded states (1866- 1870), 332, 340. See also Reconstruction withdrawal of Union troops from the, 345 the "solid South," 346 progress of, since the war, 351, 352 the " New South," 351 .South, negro suffrage in the, 331, 333. See also Suffrage restriction of negro suffrage in the, 333, 341, .371 in the war with Spain, 383 Sovereignty, Popular, 260 Specie payment, resumption of, 34S " Spoils system " established (1829), 227 denounced by eminent men, 228 abolished (18S3- ), 349 See also Civil Service Reform "Spot Resolutions," Lincoln's (1847), 252 (note) Stagecoach to California (1S62), 336 Stamp Act (Revolution, 1765), 136, 137 protest against the, 137 repealed (1766), 137 Stamp Act Congress (1765), 137 Standard Oil Company, 272, 357 Standish, Captain Myles (colonial period), 6g Stanton, .Secretary, and President Johnson, 333 Stark, General, and the Indians, 36 in the Revolution, 158 Star of the West fired on (Civil War), 277 " Star-Spangled Banner," song, 207 "Stars and Bars" (Confederate flag), 277 "Stars and Stripes," 159 (and note). See also Flag State constitutions revised (1890-1898), 371 State, the, "indestructible," 330 State legislation, " initiative " and " referendum," 371 (note) "State Rights," 234, 277 .State Sovereignty, 234, 277 States, admitted to the Union. See Table of States in Appendix secession of, 274. See also Secession reconstruction of, 330. See also Reconstruc- tion declared " indestructible " (1868), 330 total number now, 397 See also Constitutions, Laws, Union, United States Statue of George 1 1 1 pulled down (Revolution), 152 Statue of Liberty, 357 Statutes or laws. See Laws Steam shovels, 393 Steam wagons or locomotives (1830), 222, 223 Steamboat, Fitch's (1787), 197 (note) Fulton's (1807), 197 in the West (1811-1818), 198, 234 first ocean steamer (1819), 198 Steamships, first one to cross Atlantic (1819), 19S first regular line of steamships (1840), 243 modem steamships, 244 Steel manufacture, 357, 367 Steele, Mrs., in the Revolution, 166 Stephens, Alexander H., 276 (note), 277 (note) Steuben (stoo'ben). Baron (Revolution), 157 Stewart, the Peggy, burned (1774), 139 Stocks, punishment by the, 130 "Stonewall "Jackson, General (Confederate), 255. See also Jackson Stores, great department, 357 Stowe, Kirs. H. B., authoress, 261 Strahan, Franklin's letter to, 146, 147 Strikes, some great, 346 Baltimore and Ohio Railway (1877), 346 the Chicago (1886), 356 the Homestead (1892), 362 the Pullman (1894), 365 the hard coal (1902), 390 in general, 355. 3 56 efforts to do away with, 395 See also Labor LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Stuart, General (Confederate), 298 Stuyvesant (sti've-sant). Governor (colonial pe- riod^, 62-64 Subtreasuries of the United States, 241 (note) Suffrage, right of (colonial period), 81, S3, 104 restricted (colonial period), 50, 62, 73, 95 granted to negroes, 331, 333 negro, restricted in South, 333, 341, 371 white, restricted in South, 331 and the "Solid South," 346 and " initiative" and " referendum," 371 (note) and the " Dorr rebellion," 246 and the Australian or secret ballot, 363 woman, 360 (and note) what Americans can do by their vote, 370, 400 See also Ballot and Vote Sumner, Charles, 262, 268 assaulted in the Senate, 268 Sumter, Fort (Civil War), 281. See also Battles Sumter, General (Revolution), 164, 167 Suspension Bridge, the Brooklyn, 349 Sutter (soo'ter), Captain, 256 Swedes settle Delaware (1638), 96 at the West, 2 (note) See also Northmen Taft, William H., life of, 399 (note) elected President, 399 Tanev (taw'ne), Chief Justice, 269 Tariff, the first (1789), 179 tariff legislation in general, 231 (note) first high protective (1S16), 208 North and South disagree about, 212, 213 Clay's high protective (1824, 1828, 1832), 231 the, of "Abominations" (1828), 231 and nullification (1832), 232 Clay's "compromise tariff" (1S33), 234 revenue or free-trade (1846-1860), 231 (note) the McKinley protective (1890), 361 (and note) the Wilson (1894), 365 the Dingley (1897), 366 Taxation, of the colonies by England, i35-'39 what Burke said about, 136 like shearing a wolf, 136 the colonies resist, 136, 137, 139 "without representation is tyranny," 137 colonies claim right of self-taxation, 141 the English Stamp Act (1765), 136-138 resistance to the Stamp Act, 137-138 repeal of Stamp Act (1766), 138 English Declaratory Act (1766), 138 the Townshend (toun'zend) Acts (1767), 13S on tea sent to colonies (1773), 139 colonists refuse the tea (1773-1774), 139 England offers representation with (i 77S), i6i Taxation by the United States (1789), 179. See also Tariff on foreign vessels (1789), 179 on whisky (1794), 186 in the Civil War (1861-1865), 2S6 in war with Spain (190S), 374 Taylor, General Z., in Indian wars, 237 in Mexican War, 252, 253 life of, 258 (note) presidency of, 258 "Tea Party," the Boston (1773), 139 Tea ship Peggy Stewart burned (1774), 139 Tea, taxed, the colonists refuse (Revolution), 139 Tecumseh's (te-cum'seh) conspiracy, 200 Telegraph, invented (1844), 247 first public message by (1844), 247 Adantic cable laid (1858), 247 Atlantic cable relaid (1866), 247, 334 Telegraph, the wireless, invented (1S96), 248 Pacific cable laid (1902), 334, 391 message sent by wireless to Europe (1903), 391 consolidation of lines, 357 See also Samuel Morse Telephone invented (1876), 247, 343 the long-distance, 343 the wireless, experiments with (1908), 343 Temperance cause, the, 224, 225 (and note) prohibition in Georgia (colonial period), 107, loS first temperance society (1826), 224 prohibition in Maine (1S51), 225 recent restrictions on liquor traffic, 225 See also Drinking Habits and Prohibition Tennessee settled (1769), 183 Tenure of Office Act (1^67), 333. See also Laws Territory acquired by United States (1803-189S), 3S1-382 Louisiana (1803), 193 Florida (1819), 211 Texas (1845), 249, 255 (note, Oregon (1846), 252 Mexican cessions, California, etc. (1848), 255 (and note) Gadsden Purchase (1S53), 255 Alaska (1867), 334 Hawaii (hah-wy'ee) (1898), 378-380 Porto Rico, Philippines, etc. (1898), 380 Territory acquired 1803-1861, 278, 279 summary of territory acquired 1803 -1898, 380-382 Territory, ordinance for government of North- west (1787), 170, 172, 211 controversy over extension of slavery to free, 212, 213, 259, 266 See also Emancipation, Fugitive Slaves, Kansas-Nebraska Act, Missouri Compro- mise, Popular Sovereignty, Slavery, and Wilmot Proviso Texas clairned by LTnited States (1S03), 211 claim given up (1819), 211 annexed (1845), 249 and the Mexican War (1846), 252, 255 money paid for, 255 (note) Thomas, General (Union), 292, 308, 309, 32 r Ticonderoga taken by Ethan Allen (Revolution), guns obtained from (Revolution), 148 retaken by the British, 157 Tilden-H ayes' disputed election (1876), 345 " Tippecanoe and Tyler too," song, 245 Tobacco discovered in Virginia (15S5), 29, 39 Queen Elizabeth tries a little, 29 cultivation of, begins in Virginia (1612), 48-50 used as money in Virginia, 48 exportation of, from Virginia, 48, 56, 126 what it did for Virginia, 48 value of the crop now, 48 (note) Tohopeka (to-ho-pee'kah), 205 Toleration Act (1649), 90-91. See also Laws repealed, 91 Toleration, religious, none formerly, 72, 75 extended, 81 See also Laws and Religious Liberty Tonnage Act (1789), 179. See also Laws Topeka (to-pe'kah), 267 Tories of the Revolution, 141, 149, 157, 158, 163 Town meeting in the colonies, 70, 73, 126 local government by, 70, 73, 126 what Jefferson said about, 73 Townshend (toun'zend) Acts (1767), 138. See also Laws of Parliament INDEX Trade, Europe's, with the Indies, 4 Columbus seeks, with the Indies, 4 enlarged by discovery of America, 39 Cabot seelis trade route to Indies, 15 Dralie seelis trade route to the Indies, 28 colonists seek trade route to the Indies, 44 foreign, of the colonies, 44, 48, 56, 59, 71, 73, 82, 100, 108, 125 restrictions on, 55 Trade, foreign slave, in early times, 53 prohibited in 1808, 173 (note), 19S See also Cotton, Fish, Furs, Lumber, Naval Stores, Rice, Tobacco, Turpentine Trade of United States, restnctions on (1783- 17S7), 171 embargo on (1S07), ig6 temporarily reopened with England(i8og), 199 great increase in our foreign, 367, 389 See also Bounties, Commerce, Exports, Inter- state Commerce, Manufactures, Naviga- tion Acts, Railway Rate Act, and Tariffs Transportation cheapened by canals, 221. See also Canals, Commerce, Interstate Commerce, Exports, Express, Railway Rate Act, Railways, Roads, Steamboats, Steamships Transportation Ac[ (1774), 140 (note). See also Laws of Parliament Travel (colonial period), 129 modem, 215, 243, 244, 343, 344, 394 Treason, Benedict Arnold guilty of, 165 Burr tried for, 196 Treasury, independent United States (1846), 240, 241 (and note). See also Subtreasuries, United States Treaties, Pilgrims with Indians (162 1), 70, 79 Quakers with Indians (1674), 65 Penn with Indians (1682), 104 (and note) what Voltaire said about, 104 (note) England with France (1763), 123 United States with France (177S), 160 United States with England (1783), 170 United States with Indians (1794), 183 Jay's, with England (1795), 186 United States with Spain (1795), 186 United States with France for Louisiana (1803), 193 United States with TripoU (1805), 193 L^nited States with England (1814), 207 United States with Spain for Florida (1819) 211 United States with England (1842), 246 United States with England (1846), 252 United States with Mexico (1848), 255 United States with Mexico (1853). 25s United States with Japan (1854), 264, 265 United States with Russia for Alaska (1867), United Stateswith England(/l/(?&;«« claims) (J871), 344 United States with Hawaii (1898), 378-3S0 United States with Spain (1898), 378, 380 Hague Peace Conference (1901), 388 recent arbitration (1907-1908), 396 various boundary, 246, 252, 255. See also Table of Boundaries in Appendix Tree planting encouraged, 386. See also Forests Trent Affair, the (Civil War), 290 Tribute paid to Tripoli, 193 Tripoli gives up demand for, 193 Tripoli (trip'o-le), war with (1801), 193 "Trusts," defined, 356 (note) organized, 356, 357 condemned by Wilson tariff, 365 "Trusts," laws concerning, 357 government regulation of, 357 Truxtun, Commodore, 193 Tulane (too-lane'), Paul, 353 (note) Tunnels, New York City, 350 Tweed, " Boss," 341 Tyler, John, becomes President, 245 quarrels with Congress, 246 See also Vetoes " Uncle Billy," etc. (Civil War), 324 " Uncle Sam is rich enough," song, 339 " Uncle Tom's Cabin " (1852), 261 " Unconditional Surrender" Grant, 294 (note) " Underground Railroad"' and slavery, 261 Union of American colonies, 38 effect of Indian wars on, 38 the New England Confederation (1643), 76 attempts at forming, in 1754, 119 dread of, by England, 120 Union of the American states (1776^ 150, 152 Articles of Confederation (1781), 170 critical period of the (1781-1787), 171-173 under the Constitution (1788), 173, 175 doubt whether it could embrace the Far West, 192 nullification and the (1798-1799), 189 nullification in South Carolina and the (1832), 232. 234 threats of secession from the (1833), 232 Webster's speech in behalf of the, 232 " Liberty and Union," 330 Jackson determines to save the, 234 the, vs. State Sovereignty, 234, 277 endangered by slavery, 259 denounced by Garrison, 228 the war to save the, inevitable, 279 Lincoln on the, 281 Lincoln's letter on saving the, 303 (note) what the Civil War settled concerning the, 330 "an indestructible Union composed of in- destructible states," 330 the, and reconstruction, 330-332, 340 effect of railways on the, 337 what the Union offers, 400 See also America, Constiturions, Flag, Nullifi- cation, Reconstruction, Secession, Slavery, United States, and Wars " Unite or die," 119 United States, independence declared (1776), 150 in the Revolution. See Revolution independence secured (1783), 170 Articles of Confederation (1781), 170 critical period of (17S1-1787), 171-173 Constitution of the (1788), 173-175 government organized (1789), 178-179 growth of (1776-1900), 380-382, 399 growth of cities of, 27S, 279 " trusts '' and corporations of, 356 revenue of, 396 expenditures of, 396 (note) debt of, 335 (note) area of, 382 (and note), 399 (and note) population of, 389, 399 natural resources of, 31, 113, 395 deposits in savings banks in, 386 civil service of, 349 (note) annual fire losses in, 341 great disasters in, 341, 396, 397 present condition of, 399, 400 is a " world power," 38 1 what people of, are trying to do, 393-396 advantages offered by the, 399-400 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY United States means "Opportunity," 39, 400 See also Agriculture, America, Army, Banks, Battles, Canals, Census, Cities, Civil Serv- ice, Commerce, Congress, Constitutions, Debt, Education, Exports, Forests, Geog- raphy, Gifts, Immigration, Inventions, Labor, Land, Laws, Literature, Manufac- tures, Money, Navy, Negroes, Nullifica- tion, Pensions, Political Parties, Population, Presidents, Railways, Reconstruction, Re- ligion, Representation, Resources, Reve- nue, Secession, Slavery, States, Suffrage, Tariff,Territory,Treaties,"Trusts," Union, Wars, Wealth University, Harvard, founded (1636), 75-76. See also Colleges, Education, Gifts, Schools Utah, setded by Mormons (1S47), 242 prosperity of, 242 woman suffrage in, 360 See also Mormons and Salt Lake City Valley Forge, Washington at (Revolution), 159 sufferings at (Revolution), 161 Van Buren, Martin, life of, 239 (note) presidency of, 239 Van Rensselaer (van ren'se-lar) estates. New York, 61 Van Rensselaer and the anti-renters, 246 Venango (ve-nango), 117 Venezuela (yen-e-zwe'lah) boundary question (1S95, 1896), 365 Vera Cruz (ver'ah krooz), 254 Vermont, 82 "Green Mountain Boys " of ( Re volution) , 1 44 , 158 See also Ethan Allen and General Stark Verrazano's (ver-atz-ah'no) expedition (1524), 22 (note) , , ^ Vespucci's, Amerigo (a-ma-ree'go ves-poot'che), voyages (1499-1503), 16 America named from him (1507), 16 Veto, the President's, 331 (note) Vetoes, presidential, 230 (and note), 331 (and note), 347 Vicksburg, siege of (Civil War), 307. See also Batdes Vigilance Committee in California, 257 Vinland discovered (1000), 3 Virginia, Raleigh sends expedition to (1584), 28 named by Queen Elizabeth, 28 Raleigh attempts to colonize (1585), 28 his second attempt (1587), 30 first white child bom in, 30 desire of the English to go to, 41 charter of Virginia Company (1606), 44-45 extent of, 44 form of government of, 44 permanent settlement of (1607), 45 settlers lived out of common stock, 45 grants of lands in, 48 cultivation of tobacco begins (1612), 48 representative assembly established (1619), 50 slavery begins in (1619), 52 women sent out to, 52 white apprentices in, 53 convicts sent to, 54 Cavaliers in, 55 Navigation Laws in (1660), 55 given to Arlington and Culpepper (1673), 56 Indian war in (1676), 57 Bacon's Rebellion (1676), 57 Jamestown burned (1676), 57 Patrick Henry's speech (1765), 137 Virginia, Washington in Continental Congress (1774), 141 declares itself independent (1776), 58, 150 Comwallis surrenders at Yorktown (1781), 167 secedes from the Union (1861), 2S4 western Virginia refuses to secede, 284 state of West Virginia formed (1863), 284 Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (1798-1799), 189 Virgmia Dare, birth of, 30 Voltaire on Penn's treaty, 104 (note) Volunteers in war for the Union (1861), 2S3, 298 in war with Spain (igoS), 374 See also Army and Wars Vote, your, 370, 400. See also Suffrage Voyages, early, to America (see map), 29 Leif Ericson's (1000), 2-3 Columbus' (1492), ID, 12 Cabot's (1497), 15, 16 Vespucci's (1499-1503), 16 Magellan's, around the globe (15 19-1522), 18 Drake's, around the globe (1577-1580), 28 the Mayjlmver (1620), 69-70 first steamer to Europe (1819), 198 United States battle ships around the worid (1907), 360, 398 Waldseemiiller's (valt'za-mul-ler) map (1507), 19 (note) Wall Street, money center of America, 63, 369, 370 Wampum, Indian (colonial period), 34, 35 belt given to Penn, 34 Wars (colonial period), French and Spanish, Florida (1565), 26 colonists with Indians (1626), 71 colonists with Pequots (1637), 85 Dutch with Swedes (1654), 97 English with Dutch (1664), 64 colonists with " King Philip " (1675), 79, 87 (note) colonists with Indians (1676), 56, 57 colonists with French and Indians (1689- 1763), 114-124 " King William's War (1680), 114 "Queen Anne's War" (1702), 115 "King George's War" (1744). "5 Georgia with Spaniards (1750), 108 " French and Indian War" (1754), 116 results of wars with French and Indians (1689-1763), 123 Pontiac's conspiracy (1763), 122 Wars (Revolution) (1775-17S3)) M^- See also Battles and Revolution Wars (since the Revolution to 1S65), with Indians (1793-1795), 183 with France (1798), 188 with Tripoli (iSoi), 103 with Tecumseh (181 1), 200 with England (1812-1814), 201, 20S, 209 causes of War of 1812, 201 results of War of 1S12, 208 with Creek Indians (1814), 205 first Seminole War (1818), 210 " Black Hawk War" (1S32), 236 second Seminole War (1835), 236 Mexican War (1846-1848), 252 cause of the Mexican War, 252 (and note) results of Mexican War, 255 Civil War (1861-1S65), 281 cause of the Civil War, 277, 279, 301 first gun in the war, 282 rising of the North, 283 INDEX Wars (since the Revolution to 1S65), first blood shed in the Civil War, 283 North and South in the, 284, 326 Union plan for, 289 McClellan organizes Union army, 2S9 how money was raised for, 285, 288,. 326 navy in the, 289, 290, 291, 294, 295, 296, 312, 3>S blockade in the, 289, 318 number of men engaged in, 325 (note) loss of life in, 325 cost of the war, 325, 326, 335 end of the war, 324, 325 what the war settled, 330 grand review at close of war, 329 disbanding the army of the, 328, 329 See also Army, Battles, Blockade, Farragut, Grant, Johnston, Lee, McClellan, Navy, Sherman, Thomas Wars (from 1865 to present time), with IModoc Indians (1S72), 344 with Sioux (soo) Indians (1876), 344 with Spain (1898), 374 cause of war with Spain, 373-374 money raised for, 374 cost of, 383 loss of life in, 383 navy in, 374, 376, 377, 378 " Red Cross " work in, 383 ever>' battle an American victory, 255, 378 lesults of the war, 378, 3S0, 381, 383 Union and Confederate veterans in, 383 new territory acquired by the war, 380 See, in general, Wars, Army, Battles, Navy, Peace, Territory, Treaties Wars, enormous cost of, 396 (and note) General Grant's condemnation of the Mexi- can War, 255 (note) sometimes unavoidable, 140, 141, 193, 279 efforts to diminish number of, 396 See also Arbitration, Disputes, and Peace Washington, Booker T., 341 Washington, George, early lift of, 118 (note) descent of, 55 cuts his name on Natural Bridge, iiS sent with message to the French (1753), 118 his interest in the West, 118, 119 accompanies Braddock's expedition (1755), 120 builds Fort Necessity, 119 is driven out by the French, 119 helps take Fort Duquesne (1758), 121 member of First Continental Congress (1774), commander of the Continental army (1775), 144, 146 ■ raises flag at Cambridge (1775), 159 (note) what he said of independence, 149 drives the British out of Boston (1776), 148 at New York City, 153, 154 saves Putnam's army, 154 retreats northward, 154 and the false-hearted Lee, 154, 155 retreats across New Jersey, 155 crosses the Delaware, 155 recrosses the Delaware, 155 gains the battle of Trenton (1776), 155 RIorris raises money for (1777), 156 gains the victory of Princeton (1777), worries General Howe, 159 at Brandy ivine Creek, 159 at German town, 159 retreats to Valley Forge, 159 '57 Washington, George, and Benjamin Franklin, 161 sufferings of army at Valley Forge, 161 and Lafayette, 157 wins battle of Monmouth (1778), 162 rebukes the traitorous Lee, 162 and Arnold's treason (1780), 165 terrible winter at Morristown, 165 Morris helps again with money, 168 wins the great victory of Yorktown (1781), 169 "The World's Upside Down," 169 end of the Revolutionary War (1781), 169 in the Constitutional Convention (1787), 173 elected President (1788), 177 inaugurated in New York (1789), 178 forms his cabinet, 178 Proclamation of Neutrality (1793), 182 signs Jay's Treaty with F^ngland (1795), 187 abused by certain newspapers, 187 his farewell address (1797), 187 his death (1799), 189, igo Washington, D. C., made national capital (1800), 177, 192 captured by British (1814), 205 partly burned by British (1S14), 205, 209 review of Union armies in (1865), 329 Library of Congress in, 368 Wayne, General (Revolution), 164 in Ohio, war with Indians (1793-1795), 183 Wealth of the United States, 386 natural riches of the United States, 31, 395 efforts to conserve the natural, 31, 395 use of, for the public good, 3S7 See also Gifts "We are coming. Father Abraham," song, 298 " We cross the prairies," song, 266 Weather, effect of, in war, 297, 316 Weather Bureau established (1870), 341 services rendered by the, 341 Webster, Daniel, life of, 83 (note), 232 (note) denounces the "spoils system," 228 address at Bunker Hill (1S25), 218 (and note) replies to Calhoun, 232 replies to Hayne (1830-1833), 232, 330 denounces talk about secession, 232 upholds the Union, 232, 330 our debt to, 232, 234 Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1842), 246 supports compromise measures (1850), 260 supports Fugitive-Slave Law (1850), 260 (and note) denounced by John Quincy Adams, 260 defended by Horace Greeley, 260 his death, 262 Webster's, Noah, dictionary, 238 (and note) Wells, Dr. Horace, 248 (note) Wesley, John, in Georgia (colonial period), 107 West, Spanish explorations in, 23-25 Coronado's expedition (1540), 24-25 De Soto discovers the Mississippi (1541), 24 French Catholic missionaries in the (1615- 1669), log Joliet and Marquette on the Mississippi (1673), 109 Father Hennepin in the (1680), 112 La Salle's expedition (1680-1682), 112 La Salle claims Louisiana (1682), 112 French build forts in the, 110, 113, 117 Pittsburg the "Gateway of the West," 117, 119 French fight to hold the, 119, 120, 121 Ohio Company and the, 117 Washington's interest in the, 118 LEADING FACTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 195- VVest, condition of the, in 1763, 124 the wilderness of the, 124, 183, 192, 279> 339 the Wilderness Road in the, 183 in the Revolution, 162 George Rogers Clark's victories in, 163 early emigration to the, 183 Daniel Boone in the, 183 Ordinance for Northwest Territory (1787), 170, 172, 21 1 Indian wars in Ohio, 183 settlements made in Ohio, 1S3 purchase of Louisiana Territory (1803), 193 desire to reach the, 215 the steamboat and the, igS, 234 the National Road and the, 215, 216 the Erie Canal and the, 221, 222 rapid growth of the, 216, 234, 236, 237, 264 immigration and the, 243, 244, 33S Oregon added to the (1846), 251, 252 Mormons emigrate to Utah (1847), 242 Mexican land cessions in the (1848), 255 westward movement of population (1790- 1900), 180 emigration to California (1849), 256, 257 effect of agricultural machinery on the, 264, 340 general growth of the, 278, 279, 33S, 339, 365, 383-3S5, 392 ;ffect of railways on the, 338 effect of liberal land laws on the, 338 the " New West," 365 great farms in the, 264, 339, 383, 385 irrigation in the, 242, 384 (note), 385, 395 western lands, 400 exhibitions in the, 363, 383, 392 See also Agriculture, Cities, Crops, Emigra- tion, Farms, Indian Wars, Kansas, Land, Mines, Railways, Slavery, Territories West Indies, why so named, 12 commerce with the, 135 See also Cuba and Porto Rico West Virginia, 284, 287 Western Union Telegraph, 357 Wheat crops, great, 385 Wheelwright, Rev. John, 82 Whigs, origin of the (1834), 238 advocate United States Bank, 238, 245 (note) Henry Clay, leader of the, 238 "Tippecanoe and Tyler too" (1840), 245 elect Harrison and Tyler (1840), 245 their political principles, 245 (note) compared with the Democrats, 245 (note) elect Taylor President (1848), 258 (note) and Fugitive-Slave Law of 1850, 262 (note) death of the party (1852), 262 (note) Whisky Rebellion (1794), 186 White apprentices (colonial period), 53 " White Apron Brigade " (colonial period), 57 Whitefield (whiffield), Rev. George, 107 upholds slavery, 108 Whitman, Dr., and Oregon, 250, 251 Whitney, Eli, invents cotton gin (1793), 184 Whittier, the poet, 238 Wilderness of the West, 124, 183, 192, 195, 242, 279. 339 Wilderness, battles of the, 310. See also Battles "Wilderness Road," 183. See also Roads Wilkes (wilks) (Union navy), 290 Will, Jonathan Edwards on the, 131 William and Mary College (1693), 75 Williams, Roger, driven from Massachusetts (1635). 74 belief in " soul liberty," 74 why driven out, 74 founds Providence (1636), 94 establishes etttire religious liberty, 95 secures a charter for Rhode Island, 95 Wilmot Proviso (pro-vi'zo) and slavery (1848), 259 Winslow, Captain (Union navy). 312 Winter quarters of General Washington, 157, 161, 165 Winthrop, Governor (colonial period), 72 (and note) Wireless telegraph, 248, 391. See also Telegraph Wireless telephone, 343. See also Telephone Wirz (virtz), 325 (note) Witchcraft, the Salem (1692), 80 Wolfe (wolf). General, takes Quebec (1759), 121 Woman suffrage, 360 Women sent to Virginia (colonial period), 52 and the Revolution, 166 and the Civil War, 326 and war with Spain, 383 (and note) and " Red Cross" work, 383 occupations open to, 360 education of, 360 woman suffrage, 360 (and note) in Wyoming, 360 Woods or forests, preservation of, 385, 386 (and note), 395. See also Forests and Tree Planting Woolen mills, 208 Worcester (woos'ter), 172 "World power," the United States a, 3S1 World's fairs or exhibitions, 263, 342, 363, 392. See also Exhibitions "World's Upside Down" (British tune), 169 Worship, freedom of, 95. See also Religious Lib- erty Writs of Assistance (colonial period), 135, 137 Wyoming, massacre of (Revolution), 163 Wyoming and woman suffrage, 360 and women in legislature, 360 "X. y. Z. Papers," the (1797), 1S8 Yale LTniversity founded (1701), 75 "Yankee Doodle" (Revolution), 143 Yeardley (yeerd'ley), Governor, 50 " Yes, we '11 rally round the flag," song, 308 York, the Dukeof, seizes New Netheriand(i664), 63 seizes New Amsterdam (1664), 63 names New York, 64 seizes Delaware, 97 Yorktown taken (17S1), i6q. See also Battles Yosemite (yo-sem'i-tee), 394 Young, Brigham, and the Mormons, 242. See also Mormons fc *..• O^ -^r' XV ,c^' .^ :r