Copyright )J"- COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. iht morg of the Jjations THE STORY OF NORWAY HJALMAR H. BOYESEN GEBHARD PROFESSOR OF GERMAN IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE, AUTHOR OF "gOETHE & SCHILLER," " GUNNAR," " IDYLS OF NORWAY," ETC. NEW YORK & LONDON G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS ®;ijc fvtticktrbothcr ^wss 1886 COPYRIGHT BY G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 1886 Press of G. P. Putnam's Sons New York THE STORY OF THE NATIONS OCTAVO, ILLUSTRATED. PER VOL., $1.50 THE EARLIER VOLUMES WILL BE THE STORY OF GREECE. By Prof. Jas. A. Harrison THE STORY OF ROME. By Arthur Oilman THE STORY OF THE JEWS. By Prof. Jas. K. Hosmer THE STORY OF CHALDEA. By Z. Ragozin THE STORY OF SPAIN. By E. E. and Susan Hale THE STORY OF NORWAY. By Prof. H. H. Boyesen THE STORY OF GERMANY. By S. Baring Gould THE STORY OF THE GOTHS, By Henry Bradley THE STORY OF THE NORMANS. By Sarah O. Jewett For prospectus of the series see end of this volume G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS NEW YORK AND LONDON TO CHRISTIAN BORS KNIGHT OF ST. OLAF, WASA, AND THE NORTH STAR, CONSUL OF NORWAY AND SWEDEN IN NEW YORK, THIS HISTORY OF HIS NATIVE LAND IS DEDICATED BY HIS FRIEND THE AUTHOR PREFACE. It has been my ambition for many years to write a history of Norway, chiefly because no such book, worthy of the name, exists in the EngHsli language. When the pubHshers of the present series of ''The Stories of the Nations" proposed to me to write the "story" of my native land, I therefore eagerly ac- cepted their offer. The " story," however, according to their plan, was to differ in some important re- spects from a regular history. It was to dwell par- ticularly upon the dramatic phases of historical events, and concern itself but slightly with the growth of institutions and sociological phenomena. It therefore necessarily takes small account of pro- portion. In the present volume more space is given to the national hero, Olaf Tryggvesson, whose brief reign was crowded with dramatic events, than to kings who reigned ten times as long. For the same reason the four centuries of the Union with Denmark are treated with comparative brevity. Many thing happened, no doubt, during those cen- turies, but "there were few deeds." Moreover, the separate history of Norway, in the time of her degra- dation, has never proved an attractive theme to VI THE STORY OF NORWAY. Norse historians, for which reason the period has been generally neglected. The principal sources of which I have availed my- self in the preparation of the present volume, are Snorre Sturlasson : Norges Kongesagaer (Christiania, 1859, 2 vols.) ; P. A. Munch : Dot Norske Folks His- toric {C\\rht\dimd.j 1852, 6 vols.); R. Keysef: Eftcr- ladte Skrifter (Christiania, 1866, 2 vols.); Sainlcde Afhandlinger (1868); J. E. Sars : Udsigt over den Norske Historic (Christiania, 1877, 2 vols.); K. Maurer: Die BekeJiriing des NorwegiscJien Stammes sum Christ ent/mme (Miinchen, 1856, 2 vols.), and Die Eiitstehung des Isldndischen Staates (Miinchen, 1852) ; G. Vigfusson : Sturlunga vS<^^<^ (Oxford, 1878, 2 vols.); and Um timatal i Islcndinga soguin i fornold (con- tained in Safn til sogic Islands^ 1855); G. Storm: Snorre Stnrlasson s Historieskrivning (Kjobenhavn, 1 878) ; C. F. Allen : Haandbog i Fcedrelandets Historic (Kjobenhavn, 1863) ; besides a large number of scat- tered articles in German and Scandinavian historical magazines. A question which has presented many difficulties is the spelling of proper names. To adopt in every instance the ancient Icelandic form would scarcely be practicable, because the names in their modernized forms are usually familiar and easy to pronounce, while, in their Icelandic disguises, they are to English readers nearly unpronouncable, and present a needlessly forbidding appearance. Where a name has no well-recognized English equivalent, I have therefore adopted the modern Norwegian form, which usually differs from the ancient, in having dropped a final letter. Thus Sigurdr (which with an PREFACE, Vll English genitive would be Sigurdr's) becomes in modern Norwegian Sigurd, Eirikr, Erik, etc. Those surnames, which are descriptive epithets, I have translated where they are easily translatable, thus writing Harold the Fairhaired, Haakon the Good, Olaf the Saint, etc. Absolute consistency would, however, give to some names a too cumbrous look, as, for instance, Einar the Twanger of Thamb (Thamb being the name of his bow), and I have in such instances kept the Norse name (Thambars- kelver). It is a pleasant duty to acknowledge my indebted- ness for valuable criticism to my friends, E. Munroe Smith, J.U.D., Adjunct Professor of History in Columbia College, and Hon. Rasmus B. Andersen, United States Minister to Denmark, without whose kindly aid in procuring books, maps, etc., the diffi- culties in the preparation of the present volume would have been much increased. I am also under obligation to Dr. W. H. Carpenter, of Columbia College, and to the Norwegian artist, Mr. H. N. Gausta, of La Crosse, Wis., who has kindly sent me two spirited original compositions, illustrative of peasant-life in Norway. HjALMAR H. BOYESEN. Columbia College, New York, April 15, 1886. CONTENTS. PAGE Who Were the Norsemen ? . . . . 1-12 The Aryan migrations, 1-3 — The physical characteristics of Norway, 4, 5 — Early tribal organization and means of live- lihood, 6-10 — Sense of independence and aptitude for self- government, 10-12. II. The Religion of the Norsemen . . . 13-24 Theories regarding the origin of the Scandinavian gods, 13— 16 — The Eddaic account of the creation of the world and of man, 16-18 — The world-tree Ygdrasil, 18 — The Aesir, their functions and their dwellings, 19-23 — Loke the Evil-Doer and his terrible children, 23, 24. III. e of the Vikings. — Origin of the Vi- king Cruises 25-44 The Norsemen launch forth upon the arena of history, 25 — The origin of the viking cruises, 25-27 — Kingship among the Scandinavian tribes, 27, 28 — The three periods of the viking age, 28-30 — The contribution of the vikings to the political life of Europe, 30, 31 — Sigfrid of Nortmannia, 31 — Godfrey the Hunter, 31, 32 — Charlemagne's prophecy in regard to the vikings, 32-34 — Hasting's stratagem, 34-36 — Ragnar, Asgeir, and Rorek, 36, 37 — Thorgisl in Ireland, 38, 39 — Olaf the White, 40, 41 — The vikings in England, 41 — Simeon of Durham's account of the vikings, 42 — The, character of the vikings at home and abroad, 43, 44. ix X CONTENTS. IV. Halfdan the Swarthy .... 45-51 The descent of the Yngling race, 45 — The sacrifices of Aun the Old, 45 — Olaf the Wood-cutter, Halfdan Whiteleg, and Godfrey the Hunter, 46 — Birth of Halfdan the Swarthy, 46 Sigurd Hjort and the Berserk Hake, 47, 48 — Halfdan the Swarthy weds Ragnhild, 48 — Ragnhild's dream, 48 — King Halfdan's dream, 49 — Birth of Harold the Fairhaired, 49 — The Finn's trick, 50 — King Halfdan's death, 51. V. Harold the Fairhaired .... 52-73 Harold the Fairhaired woos Gyda, 52, 53 — Harold's vow, 53 — Herlaug and Rollaug, 54 — Harold's policy toward the conquered kings, 54, 55 — The feudal state, 55 — Taxation and the peasants' loss of allodial rights, 55, 56 — Haakon Grjotgardsson and Ragnvald, Earl of More, 56 — Kveld-Ulf and his sons, 56, 57 — Erik Eimundsson's invasion of Nor- ■^^.y, 57 — His meeting with King Harold, 58 — The battle of Hafrs-Fjord, 59 — Earl Ragnvald cuts King Harold's hair, 59 — Harold marries Gyda, 59, 60 — Harold's treachery to Thorolf Kveld-Ulf's son, 60-62 — Kveld-Ulf's vengeance and migration to Iceland, 62, 63 — Duke Rollo in Norway and France, 64, 65 — Emigration of discontented magnates, 65, 66— Snefrid, 67— Queen Ragnhild, 68— Erik Blood- Axe's feuds with his brothers, 69-71 — Guttorm Sindre, 71, 72 — Birth of Haakon the Good, 72 — Haakon is sent to Ethelstan, 72, 73 — Death of Harold, 73. VI. Erik Blood-Axe 74-86 Erik's meeting with Gunhild, 74-76 — Erik kills his brothers, Sigfrid and Olaf, 76 — Thorolf, Bald Grim's son, 77 — Egil, Bald Grim's son, kills Baard, 78 — Egil kills Berg-Anund, 79, 80 — Egil's pole of dishonor, 80 — Egil ransoms his head by a song, 81-85 — Erik is exiled, 86. VII. Haakon the Good 87-101 Character of Haakon, 87 — Proclaimed king of Norway, 88 — • CONTENTS. XI Legislative reforms and restoration of allodium, 89 — Signal fires, 90 — First attempt to introduce Christianity, 90-92 — Speech of Asbjorn of Medalhus, 92 — The king eats horse- flesh, 92-94 — The sons of Erik Blood-Axe make war upon Norway, 94, 95 — Battles of Sotoness and Agvaldsness, 95, 96 — Egil Woolsark, 96, 97 — Battle of Fraedo, 96-98 — Failure of attempt to Christianize the country, 98 — Battle of Fitje (Eyvind Scald-Spoiler), 98-101 — Death of Haakon the Good, lOi. VIII. Harold Greyfell and his Brothers . . 102-114 Unpopularity of the sons of Erik, 102-104 — Their charac- ters, 104 — Harold Greyfell and Eyvind Scald-Spoiler, 105 — Treachery of Harold toward Earl Sigurd, 105, 106 — Inde- pendence of Earl Haakon, 106, 107 — Murder of Tryggve Olafsson, 107, 108 — Birth of Olaf Tryggvesson, 108 — Ad- ventures of Aastrid and Thoralf Lousy-Beard, 108-110 — Sigurd Sleva insults Aaluf, in — Earl Haakon's intrigues in Denmark, in, 112 — Gold-Harold slays Harold Greyfell, 112 — Expulsion of the sons of Erik, 113, T14. IX. Earl Haakon ii5~i33 Earl Haakon defends Dannevirke, 115, 116 — Harold Blue- tooth, 117 — Haakon's devastations in Sweden and in Viken, 118 — Earl Erik and Tiding-Skofte, 119 — The funeral feast of the Jomsvikings, 120, 121 — Battle in HjSrungavaag, 121-125 — The Jomsvikings on the log, 125, 126 — Haavard the Hewer, 127 — The power and popularity of Earl Haakon, 127, 128 — Gudrun Lundarsol, 129 — Revolt of the peasants, 130 — The earl hides under a pigsty, 130, 131 — " Why art thou so pale, Kark ? " 131 — Kark murders the earl, 132 — Haakon's character, 132, 133. X. The Youth of Olaf Tryggvesson . . 134-142 Aastrid's flight to Russia, 134, 135 — Olaf is sold for a ram, 135 — He is taken to Vladimir's court, 135, 136 — King XI t coy TENTS. Burislav and Geira, 136, 137 — The wooers' market in Eng- land, 137 — Marriage with Gyda, 137, 138 — Olaf's warfare in England, 138, 139 — There Klakka tries to entrap Olaf, 139, 140 — Return to Norway and proclamation as king, 140-142. XI. Olaf Tryggvesson 143-172 Olaf Christianizes Viken, 143, 144 — Character of old Ger- manic Christianity, 144-146 — Thangbrand the pugnacious priest, 147 — The chiefs of Haalogaland, 148 — Ironbeard and the peasants of Trondelag, 149, 150 — The Yule-tide feast at More, 150-152 — Olaf woos Sigrid the Haughty, 152-154— He marries Thyra, 154 — Thore Hjort, Eyvind Kinriva, and Haarek of Thjotta, 154-158 — Thangbrand in Iceland, 158, 159 — Olaf's character, 160 — Thyra's tears for her lost possessions, 161 — "The Long-Serpent," 161 — King Olaf sails to Wendland, 162, 163 — Earl Sigvalde's treachery, 163 — Battle of Svolder, 164-172 — King Olaf's death, 171, 172. XII. The Earls Erik and Sweyn. — The Discovery OF ViNLAND 173-181 Division of Norway between the victors at Svolder, 173 — Erling Skjalgsson of Sole, 174-176 — Earl Erik's character, 176 — And attitude toward Christianity, 176, 177 — Revival of the viking spirit, 177 — Earl Erik abdicates in favor of his brother and son, 178, 179 — Bjarne Herjulfsson's glimpse of America, 179 — Leif Eriksson's expedition to Vinland, 180, 181 — Thorfinn Karlsevne and Gudrid, 181. XIII. Olaf the Saint 182-224 Birth and childhood of Olaf the Saint, 182, 183— Viking cruises, 183 — Return to Norway, 184 — He captures Earl Haakon, 185 — His reception by Aastrid and Sigurd Syr, 186, 187 — Family council, 187, 188 — Support of the shire- kings, 188 — The Tronders recognize Olaf as king, 189 — Surprised by Earl Sweyn in Nidaros, igo — Battle of Nessje, CONTENTS. Xlll igo, ig2 — Earl Sweyn's flight and death, 192 — Quarrel with King Olaf the Swede, 193, 194 — Bjorn Stallare's mission, 194-196 — Speech of Thorgny the Lawman, 196, 197 — Olaf marries Aastrid, 198 — Conspiracy of the shire-kings and their punishments, 199 — The play of the sons of Sigurd Syr, 199, 200 — Rorek's hard fate, 201 — His attempt to murder Olaf, 202 — The attitude of the tribal aristocracy toward Olaf, 202, 203 — Paganism versus Christianity, 204, 205 — "Where are my ancestors ?" 205 — Olaf's character and ap- pearance, 205-207 — Dale-Guldbrand, 207-210 — Slaying of Aasbjorn Sigurdsson, 211 — Knut the Mighty bribes the Norse chieftains, 212, 213 — Anund Jacob refuses the bribe, 213, 214 — Battle of Helge-aa, 214, 215 — Death of Erling Skjalgsson, 216 — Olaf goes to Russia, 217 — Bjorn Stallare's confession, 218 — Olaf returns to Norway, 218 — His vision, 220, 221 — Battle of Sticklestad, 221, 222 — Thormod Kol- bruna-Scald, 222-224 — Burial of St. Olaf, 224. XIV. SWEYN AlFIFASSON 225-229 Alfifa and the Norse chiefs, 225 — Unpopular and oppres- sive laws, 226 — King Olaf canonized, 227 — Tryggve Olafs- son's defeat, 228 — Einar Thambarskelver rebukes Alfifa, 228 — Magnus Olafsson returns from Russia, 229 — Expulsion of Sweyn, 229. XV. Magnus THE Good 230-250 Circumstances of Magnus' birth, 230 — Magnus and Hartha- knut, 231 — Jealousies of the chieftains, 232 — Magnus and Kalf Arnesson at Stiklestad, 233 — Sighvat Scald's Lay of Candor, 234 — Sweyn Estridsson rebels, 236, 237 — Battle of Lyrskog's Heath, 237 — Thorstein Side-Hall's son, 238 — Einar Thambarskelver's disagreement and reconciliation with Magnus, 238, 239 — Arrival of Harold Sigurdsson, 240 — His adventures abroad, 240—242 — Magnus' reception of Harold, 243 — Harold's alliance with Sweyn Estridsson, 244 — Agreement to share the government, 245 — The peasant XIV CONTENTS. Toke's speech, 246, 247 — Expeditions of Magnus against Sweyn Estridsson, 247, 247 — Death of Magnus the Good, 249, 250. XVI. Harold Hard-Ruler 251-272 The tribal chieftains and the hereditability of the crown, 251, 252 — Harold decides to conquer Denmark, 252 — De- termination to break the power of the aristocracy, 253 — Einar Thambarskelver's hostility, 254, 255 — Harold marries Thora, 255 — St. Hallvard and the founding of Oslo, 256 — Burning of Heidaby, 257 — Sweyn's pursuits and Harold's stratagems, 257-259 — Battle of Nis-aa, 259 — Peace of Gotha Ely, 260 — Feuds with Einar Thambarskelver, 260, 261 — Harold tests the loyalty of the chieftains, 261, 262 — Hogne Langbjornsson, 262, 263 — Murder of Einar and his son, 264 — Harold's treachery to Kalf Arnesson and Haakon Ivarsson, 265-267 — Arrival of Earl Tostig in Norway, 268 — Battles of Fulford and Stamford Bridge, 268-270 — Styr- kaar and the yeoman, 270-272 — Position of the Norwegian Church, 272. XVII. Olaf the Quiet and Magnus Haroldsson, 273-284 Olaf and Magnus divide the country, 273 — War with Sweyn Estridsson, 273, 274 — Death of Magnus, 274 — Character of Olaf the Quiet, 275, 276 — Gradual cessation of viking cruises, 276, 277 — Gradual abolition of serfdom, 278 — Vikings and merchants, 278, 279 — Appearance and appoint- ments of dwellings, 280, 281 — Increased splendor of the court, 281, 282 — Establishment of guilds, 282, 283 — Skule Tostigsson, 283 — Death of Olaf the Quiet, 284. XVIII. Magnus Barefoot and Haakon Magnusson, 285-290 The Tronders proclaim Haakon king, 285 — Magnus' ex- pedition to Scotland and Ireland, 285, 286 — Death of Plaakon, 286 — Punishment of his partisans, 286, 287 — War- like spirit of Magnus, 287 — War with Sweden, 288 — War with Ireland, 289 — Death of Magnus in Ulster, 290. CONTENTS. XV XIX. Eystein Sigurd the Crusader and Olaf Magnusson 291-305 Division of the land, 291 — Sigurd's crusade, 292, 293 — Eystein's meritorious activity at home, 294 — Hostility of the brothers, 295 — The case of Sigurd Ranesson, 295, 296 — Borghild of Dal, 297 — The "man-measuring," 297-301 — Death of Eystein, 301 — Ottar Birting, 301-303 — Arrival of Harold Gille, 303 — Cecilia, 303 — Death of Sigurd, 304, 305. XX. Magnus the Blind and Harold Gille . 306-310 Character of Magnus and of Harold, 306 — Battle of Fyri- leiv, 307 — Magnus captured and maimed, 307, 308 — Sigurd Slembedegn, 308 — Harold Gille murdered, 309 — Burning of Konghelle by the Wends, 310. XXI. The Sons of Harold Gille .... 31 1-32 1 The sons of Harold Gille proclaimed kings, 311 — Sigurd Slembedegn allies himself with Magnus the Blind, 311, 312 — Inge Crookback's first experience of v^^ar, 312 — Battles of Krokaskogen, 312, and Holmengraa, 313 — Sigurd Slembe- degn's fortitude, 313 — Arrival of Eystein Haroldsson, 314 — Feuds between the brothers, 314-316 — Character and ap- pearance of Sigurd Mouth, 314-316 — Death of Sigurd, 316 — Death of Eystein, 317 — Erling Skakke and Gregorius Dagsson, 318-320 — Fall of Inge at Oslo, 320 — The cardi- nal's visit, 320, 321. XXII. Haakon the Broad-Shouldered . . 322-325 Christina bribes the priest, 322 — Erling Skakke's intrigues, 323 — Seeks aid in Denmark, 323, 324 — Battle of Sekken, 324. XXIII. Magnus Erlingsson 326-349 Rebellion of the "Sigurd party," 326, 327 — Battle of Ree, 327 — Erling's alliance with Archbishop Eystein, 327 — Mag- XVI CONTENTS. nus takes the land in fief from St. Olaf, 327, 328 — Magnus crowned, 328 — King Valdemar's expedition to Norway, 328, 329 — The rebellion of the Hood-Swains, 329 — Battle of Djursaa, 330 — Erling accepts an earldom from Valdemar, 330 — Kills his stepson Harold, 332 — Eystein Meyla and the Birchlegs, 333, 334 — Childhood and youth of Sverre Sig- urdsson, 334-337 — Sverre becomes the chief of the Birch- legs, 337 — Vicissitudes and adventures of the Birchlegs, 337-341 — Battle of Kalvskindet, 341-343 — Death of Erling Skakke, 343 — Social revolution inaugurated by Sverre, 343— 345 — Battle at Nordness, 346 — Warfare between Birchlegs and Heklungs, 346-348 — Battle of Norefjord and death of Magnus, 348, 349. XXIV. Sverre Sigurdsson 350-37S A dangerous precedent, 350 — Erik Kingsson, 351 — The lawmen and prefects, 351, 352 — The new democracy, 352, 353 — Rebellion of the Kuvlungs, 353, 354 ; the Varbelgs, 354 ; and the Oyeskeggs, 354-357 — Sverre's controversy with the Church, 357, 358 — Nicholas Arnesson, 358 — Sverre is put in the ban, 359 — Origin of the Bagler party, 360, 361 — Nicholas shows the white feather, 361 — Treason of Thorstein Kugad, 362 — The Baglers besiege the block- house in Bergen, 362-365 — Burning of Bergen, 365 — The traitor's return, 366 — The Papal bull and Sverre's defence, 366-368 — The Bagler's defeated at Strindso, 369 — The great peasant rebellion, 370-373 — Sverre's magnanimity, 374 — Aristocracy versus Democracy, 374, 375 — Siege and surrender of Tunsberg, 375, 376 — Death of Sverre, 376, 377 — His character, 377, 378. XXV. Haakon Sverresson . . . , . 379-384 Peace with the Church, 379 — Popularity of Haakon, 380 — Discontent of the queen-dowager, 381 — Abduction of Prin- cess Christina, 381, 382 — The fatal Yule-tide feast, 382, 383 — Death of. Haakon by poison, 383 — Flight of Queen Margaret, 384. CONTENTS. XVll XXVI. GUTTORM SiGURDSSON AND InGE BaARDSSON, 385-399 The Bagler troop reorganized under Erling Stonewall, 385 — Successful ordeal, 386 — Death of Guttorm Sigurdsson by poison, 387 — Inge Baardsson proclaimed king, 388 — Society disorganized by the civil wars, 388, 389 — Unbidden guests at the bridal feast, 389, 390 — Philip Simonsson made king of the Baglers, 390 — Birth and childhood of Haakon Haakonsson, 391, 392 — Compromise of Hvitingso, 393 — The intrigues of Haakon Galen, 394, 395 — Helge Ilvasse and the boy Haakon, 396, 397 — Discontent of the Birchlegs, 398 — Death of King Inge, 399. XXVII. Haakon Haakonsson the Old . . . 400-432 Haakon proclaimed king, 400 — Rebellion of the Slittungs, 401 — Effects of the civil war, 401, 402— The intrigues of Earl Skule, 402-404 — Inga of Varteig carries glowing irons, 404-406 — Rebellion of the Ribbungs, 407, 40S — Skule's double-dealing, 408-410 — Assembly of notables in Bergen, 410 — Bishop Nicholas' hypocrisy, 411 — Sigurd Ribbung re- news the rebellion, 412 — Haakon's campaign in Vermeland, 412, 413 — Duke Skule's leaky ships, 413 — Death of Bishop Nicholas and Sigurd Ribbung, 414 — Squire Knut as the chief of the Ribbungs, 416 — Skule's "Crusade," 416, 417 — Skule allies himself with Valdemar the Victorious, 417, 418 — Skule called to account, 418-420 — Intrigues at the Roman Curia, 420, 421 — The plot revealed, 421, 422 — Skule pro- claims himself king, 423 — Battle of Laaka, 424 — Skule de- feated at Oslo, 425 — Death of Skule, 426, 427 — Coronation of Haakon, 427-429 — His power and fame at home and abroad, 429—431 — Expedition to Scotland, and death, 431, 432. XXVIII. The Sturlungs in Iceland .... 433-441 Snorre Sturlasson's Heimskringla, 433, 434 — Snorre's paren- tage and youth, 434 — Character of Snorre, 434 — Reykjaholt, 436 — Brother feuds, 436 — Snorre's visit to Norway, 437 — XVin CONTENTS. Plots and counterplots, 437-440 — Snorre's death, 440 — Sturla Thordsson, 440, 441. XXIX. Magnus Law-Mender 442-450 Cession of Man and the Shetland Isles to Scotland, 442 — Reasons for and against the cession, 443 — Condition of Ice- landic society and submission of the island to Norway, 444 — Magnus as a law-giver, 445-447 — The tribal aristocracy and the court nobility, 447, 448 — Concessions to the Church, 448, 449 — Degeneracy of the old royal house, 450 — Death of Magnus, 450. XXX. Erik Priest-Hater 451-456 The barons increase their power, 451 — Quarrels with the clergy, 452— The false " Maid of Norway," 453 — Depreda- tions of " Little Sir Alf," 453, 454 — War with Denmark and the Hansa, 454, 455— Capture and death of Little Sir Alf, 456 — Death of King Erik, 456. XXXI. Haakon Longlegs 457-460 Sir Audun's treason, 457 — The dukes Erik and Valdemar 458 — Complications with Sweden, 459 — War with Denmark, 460 — Death of Haakon, 460. XXXII. Magnus Smek, Haakon Magnusson, and Olaf THE Young 461-466 Magnus Smek becomes king of Norway and Sweden, 461 — Duchess Ingeborg's unpopularity, 461, 462— Discontent with Magnus, 462 — Alliance with Valdemar Atterdag, 462, 463 — Magnus deposed in Sweden, 463 — Haakon's war with Al- brecht of Mecklenberg, 464 — The power of the Hansa in Norway, 464 — Death of Magnus, 465 — The Black Death, 465, 466 — Olaf the Young, 466. CONTENTS. XIX XXXIII. Norway during the Kalmar Union . . 467-474 Margaret unites the three kingdoms, 467-469 — The Kalmar Union, 469, 470 — Reasons for its disastrovxs consequences, 470-472 — Death of Margaret, 472 — Erik of Pomerania's misrule and extortions, 472, 473 — Christopher of Bg,varia, 473, 474. XXXIV. The Union with Denmark .... 475-488 The condition of Norway and Denmark during the union compared, 475, 476 — Charles Knuttson elected king of Swe- den, 478 — Christian I.'s war with Charles Knutsson, 479, 480 — Misrule in Norway, 480 — The Scottish Isles pawned, 480, 481 — King Hans, 481, 482 — Christian II. 's accession, 482 — His attempt to humble the nobility, 483 — The carnage of Stockholm, 483, 484 — His vain appeal to the bourgeoisie, 484, 4S5 — Chiistian's flight, 485 — Frederick I., 485, 486 — Struggle about the succession, 486, 487 — Christian III., 487, 488 — Norway becomes a province of Denmark, 488. XXXV. Norway as a Province of Denmark . . 489-515 The Reformation introduced, 489, 490 — The power of the Hansa broken. 490-492 — Frederick II., 492-494 — Christian IV. 's interest in Norway, 494 — The Kalmar War, 495 — . Participation in the Thirty Years' War, 495, 496 — The Hannibal's feud, 496 — Frederick III.'s disastrous war with Sweden, 498 — Absolutism introduced, 499, 500 — Christian v., 500, 501 — Frederick IV. 's accession, 501 — The Great Northern War, 502-504 — Tordenskjold, 503, 504 — Christian VI., 506-508— Frederick V., 5o8~Christian VII., 508-512 — The armed neutrality, 509, 510 — Frederick VI. mounts the throne, 512 — War with Sweden, 512, 513 — Christian August as viceroy, 512-514 — The Treaty of Paris, 513 — Pro- test of the Norsemen, 514 — Separation from Denmark, 515. XXXVI. Norway Recovers Her Independence . 516-538 Christian Frederick as viceroy. 516-518— Constitutional con- XX CONTENTS. vention at Eidsvold, 518-520 — War with Sweden, 520, 521 — Armistice at Moss, 521 — Charles XIII. accepts the consti- tution, 522 — Charles XIV. John becomes king of Nor- way, 522 — His controversies with the Storthing, 522-526 — Henrik Wergeland, 526, 527 — Count Wedel-Jarlsberg as viceroy, 527 — Oscar I., 528-530 — The character of the Norse 'peasantry, 528-530 — Charles XV., 530, 531 — Oscar II., and the constitutional struggle, 531-534 — Impeachment of the ministry Selmer, 534 — "The Pure Flag," 535 — Pres- ent condition of Norway and her place among the nations, 536 — Literature and science, 536-538. I LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. STONE AXES FROM THE LATER STONE AGE STONE USED FOR SHAPING INSTRUMENTS STONE HAMMER STONE KNIFE ADZE OF ELK-HORN .... STONE WEDGE . . ROCK PICTURE OF A SHIP AT LOKEBERG . ROCK PICTURE AT BORGEN BRONZE SWORD .... LOOR OR WAR HORN OF BRONZE BRONZE SWORD BUCKLES FROM THE EARLY IRON AGE . THE VIKING SHIP RECENTLY UNEARTHED SANDEFJORD THE VIKING SHIP, VARIOUS VIEWS OF . ST. ANSGARIUS THE APOSTLE OF THE NORTH IRON IMPLEMENT USE UNKNOWN . TWO-EDGED SWORD .... BUCKLE FROM THE IRON AGE . RUIN OF NORSE TOWER AT MOSO BUCKLE WITH BYZANTINE ORNAMENTATION GILT BUCKLE FOUND AT SKEDSMO . CYLINDRICAL MOUNTING IN BRONZE IRON POINT OF SPEAR, IRON CHISEL FRYING-PAN OF BRONZE .... xxi AT 5 7 7 8 9 9 lO II 14 15 17 19 26 29 33 35 37 39 43 51 72 76 84 89 xxu LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. BREASTPIN OF BRONZE .... OVAL BRONZE BUCKLE .... EGIL WOOLSARK's MONUMENT ORNAMENTAL BRONZE MOUNTING . CHURCH AT EGILO SCISSORS AND ARROW-HEAD OF IRON HAROLD BLUETOOTH .... RUNESTONE FROM STRAND IN RYFYLKE . OBLONG BUCKLE OLAF TRYGGVESSON's ARRIVAL IN NORWAY OLD NORSE LOOM RUNIC STONE FROM GRAN IN HADELAND INSTRUMENT OF UNKNOWN USE OLD LOOM FROM THE FAEROE ISLANDS . CHURCH AT MOSTER ISLAND . SHUTTLES OF IRON AND WHALEBONE KNIVES OF IRON FOUND IN HEDEMARK AND HADE LAND ST. OLAF FROM DRONTHEIM CATHEDRAL ST. OLAF AND THE TROLDS . • _^ MAGNUS THE GOOD AND KALF ARNESSON STIKLESTAD MARBLE LION FROM THE PIR^US POMMEL OF GILT BRONZE FROM THE VIKING A THE OLD MAN OF HOY .... INTERIOR OF ORKHAUGEN HITTERDAL CHURCH . . . VILLAGE DURING FISHING SEASON . THE RAFT SUND IN VESTFJORD HORNELEN THORGHATTEN HONEFOSS HAAKON HAAKONSSON AND HELGE HVASSE WEST FRONT OF DRONTHEIM CATHEDRAL AT GE PAGE. 93 96 97 103 107 117 121 141 145 153 155 159 167 175 26% 219 223 235 241 250 271 279 299 315 339 363 371 397 403 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xxiii PAGE. OLD NORSE CAPITALS 409 ON THE SOGNE FJORD 415 A STORM ON THE FJORD 419 NORWEGIAN STABBUR OR STORE-HOUSE . . -431 HORGADAL IN THE NORTH OF ICELAND . . . 435 ALMANNAGJAA WITH THE HILL OF LAWS . . 439 QUEEN MARGARET . . . . . . . 471 CHRISTIAN I . . 479 BELT WRESTLING . . . . . . . 491 THE NORTH CAPE . . ... . . 493 FREDERICK III., KING OF DENMARK AND NORWAY . 497 THE CAPERCAILZIE IN NORWAY .... 505 CARVED LINTEL, STABBUR, AND BEER-MUGS . . 507 PEASANTS DANCING 51I PRINCE CHRISTIAN FREDERICK, VICEROY OF NORWAY 517 CHARLES XIV. JOHN (bERNADOTTe) . . . 521 skee-running . . . . . . . 525 bride and groom . . . . . . . 529 portrait of oscar ii. ..... . 533 bjornstjerne bjornson . ... 537 THE STORY OF NORWAY. CHAPTER I. WHO WERE THE NORSEMEN ? The Norsemen are a Germanic race, and belong, accordingly, to the great Aryan family. Their next of kin are the Swedes and Danes. Their original home was Asia, and probably that part of Asia which the ancients called Bactria, near the sources of the rivers Oxus and Jaxartes. Not only the Norsemen are supposed to have come from this region, but the ancestors of all the Aryan nations which now inhabit the greater portion of the civ- ilized world. Among the first to leave this cradle of nations were the tribes which settled upon the eastern islands and peninsulas of the Mediterranean, and, under'the name of Hellenes, developed, long before the Christian era, an art and a literature which are, in some respects, yet unrivalled. The early Italic tribes, from which sprung in time the world- empire of Rome, trace their descent from the same ancestry ; as do also the Kelts, who in ancient times inhabited England, Ireland, and France ; the Slavs who settled in the present Russia, Bohemia, and the 2 THE STORY OF NORWAY, northern Turkish provinces ; and the Germans, who occupied the great central regions of the European continent. Among Asiatic nations, the Iranians inhabiting Persia, and the Hindoos in India, have Aryan blood. It seems almost incredible that persons differing so widely in appearance, habits, and disposition, as, for instance, a Hindoo and an Englishman, should, if you go sufficiently far back, have the same ances- try. And yet there cannot be the slightest doubt that such is the case. The question, then, naturally arises : ** If they were once alike, what can have made them so different } " And the answer is : " The climate, the soil, and the general character of the countries in which they settled." The country from which the first Aryans emi- grated was mountainous, with fertile valleys, and an even, temperate climate. There was no excessive heat to make men drowsy and indolent, nor exces- sive cold to stunt them in their growth and paralyze their energies. The earth did not, as in the tropics, produce a luxurious vegetation which would support the inhabitants without labor, but it offered sus- tenance to herds of cattle which, with the proper care, would supply the simple needs of primitive men. The race, thus situated, progressed physically as well as mentally, until it became superior to all the tribes inhabiting the neighboring regions. War followed, in which the weaker succumbed. The Aryans, increasing rapidly in numbers, took pos- session of the conquered territories, enslaved the indigenous population, or drove it back into locali- WHO WERE THE NORSEMEN? 3 ties where the conditions of Hfe were less favorable. It is not positively known when the first migration on a large scale took place ; but some scholars have supposed that the Hindoos separated from the parent race as early as 1500 B.C. The dates of the Greek, Italic, Keltic, and Slavic migrations are likewise un- certain, and the period which has been fixed upon for the Aryan occupation of Germany is also con- jectural. The same uncertainty prevails regarding thee arliest history of the Scandinavian tribes ; al- though there is a strong probability that their in- vasion of the countries which they now inhabit must have taken place during the second century preceding the Christian era. It is not unlikely that they left their Asiatic home simultaneously with the Germans, with whom they were then almost, if not entirely, identical, and that their conquering hordes spread northward, subduing the Finns and Lapps, whom they found in possession of the land, partly extermi- nating them, partly forcing them up into the barren mountains of the extreme North. Among the tribes whose path of conquest was turned in this direction, the Goths (Gauter), the Swedes {Svear), and the Danes {Daner) were the most prominent, though several other names are mentioned, both by native and foreign authors. The name Norseman, or Northman, is not found among these, because i't refers not to any of the Aryan tribes, but is solely derived from the country in which they settled. Their country soon became known as Norway (Nor- egr or Norvegr), i. e,, the Northern Way. It is the long strip of territory extending north and south 4 THE ST OR V OF NOR WA Y. between the mountain chain Kjolen, which separates it from Sweden and the Arctic and Atlantic oceans. It looks on the map like a big bag slung across the shoulders of Sweden. It is a wonderful country — this land of the Norse- men. The ocean roars along its rock-bound coast, and during the long, dark winter the storms howl and rage, and hurl the waves in white showers of spray against the sky. Great swarms of sea-birds drift like snow over the waters, and circle screaming around the lonely cliffs. The aurora borealis flashes like a huge shining fan over the northern heavens, and the stars glitter with a keen frosty splendor. But in the summer all this is changed, suddenly, as by a miracle. Then the sun shines warmly, even within the polar circle ; innumerable wild flowers sprout forth, the swelling rivers dance singing to the sea, and the birches mingle their light-green foliage with the darker needles of the pines. In the north- ern districts it is light throughout the night, even during the few hours while the sun dips beneath the horizon ; the ocean spreads like a great burnished mirror under the cloudless sky, the fishes leap, and the gulls and eider-ducks rock tranquilly upon the shining waters. All along the coast there are excel- lent harbors, which are free of ice both winter and summer. A multitude of islands, some rocky and barren, others covered with a scant growth of grass and trees, afford hiding-places for ships and pastur- age for cattle. Moreover, long arms of the ocean — the so-called- fiords — penetrate far into the country, and being filled with water from the gulf-stream WHO WERE THE NORSEMEN ? 5 which strikes the western coast of Norway, tend greatly to moderate the cHmate. About the shores of these fiords narrow strips of arable land stretch themselves, with many interruptions, along the edge of the water, and here the early Germanic settlers built their houses and began their fight for existence. Behind them and before them the great snow-hooded STONE AXES FROM THE LATER STONE AGE. mountains rose threateningly, sending down upon them avalanches, floods, and sudden whirlwinds. But, nothing daunted, they clung to the soil, ex- plored the land and the sea, and selected the most favorable sites for their permanent dwellings. It is tolerably certain that the Aryan settlers in Norway knew at that time very little of agriculture, O THE STORY OF NORWAY. but made their living by hunting, fishing, and cattle- raising. The huts which they built of logs were rude contrivances which could be easily torn down and moved. But, as at a very early period, they began to devote themselves more to the culture of the ground, their dwellings were made larger, and were built with greater care. When a horde of war- riors invaded a valley their first task was to clear away the forests which grew dense and dark up over the mountain sides. Their chieftain then built a Jiov or temple for the gods, where sacrifices were made at certain stated times. Whether it was the chief- tain's task to allot to each his share of land, or whether each one chose according to his own prefer- ence, is not known, but the former is the more probable ; for the Norsemen, proud and pugnacious as they were, subordinated themselves, in historic times, readily to their local chiefs, and accorded them great honor. This sense of kinship within the tribe and willing recognition of authority was the more important in Norway, because the character of the ground there compelled the people to live far apart on scattered gaards or farms, between which communication was often difficult. It would there- fore have been easy for the bonder or peasants to forget all public concerns and gradually to lapse into isolation and savagery. But here their Germanic nature, which had in it the germs of social progress, asserted itself. As the centuries passed the people were bound more strongly together by common pur- suits and common interests. First of all, their reli- gious observances brought them together, then the WHO WERE THE NORSEMEN? 7 necessity of defence against external enemies. Life and property were in those days insecure possessions, and it was only by acting in concert, under the lead- ership of a valiant chief, that the scattered peasants could hope to preserve either. Men had then fiercer and more inflammable passions than they have now, and only fear of retaliation could teach them self- restraint. STONE HAMMER. STONE USED FOR SHAPING IMPLEMENTS. It happened in this way that almost every separate valley in Norway became a little kingdom by itself. Such a diminutive kingdom was called ^.fylki. There was not always a king, but a chief there was always, and sometimes more than one. To the king be- longed the leadership in war. He was in some district called dijarl ov earl, though this name came 8 THE SrOR V OF NOR WA Y. in later times to mean not an independent ruler, but rather a land-grave, a royal governor. The king could not tax the peasants for his support, nor impose any burden upon them which they did not of their own free choice accept. As a rule, his dignity was inherited by his son, though the people were at liberty, in case they disapproved of the heir, to select another. This right was repeatedly exercised in historic times, both in Sweden and Norway. Sometimes, when the crops failed or bad weather destroyed their herds, the peasants sacrificed their king to their gods. All public misfortunes they STONE KNIFE, interpreted as a sign that the gods were angry, and craved bloody atonement. If the crops were good it was evident that their king was in favor with the gods. It thus appears that the royal dignity among the early Norsemen was burdened with unpleasant re- sponsibilities. It involved more duties than privileges, for, besides commanding in war, the king had also to conduct the public sacrifices at the great pagan festivals. He was thus priest as well as king. In fact, as before stated, he built the Jiov or temple himself, and it was chiefly his ownership of this, which raised him to a dignity superior to that of WHO WERE THE NORSEMEN? other chieftains. It was by dint of this same au- thority that he acted as judge at th.Q fylkis thing, or popular assembly, where all freeman met to consult concerning public and private affairs. The fylkis thing was neither a parliament nor a court of law, but both combined. Private quarrels were settled, blood-wites or fines agreed upon for homicides and ADZE OF ELK-HORN. STONE WEDGE. other injuries, and resolutions taken concerning peace and war. It was not a representative assembly, the members of which were elected by vote, but rather a county meeting [shireinotc) where every man who could bear arms had a right to make himself heard. You would scarcely wonder that where so many fierce and turbulent warriors were gathered, breaches of the lO THE STORY OF NORWAY. peace were frequent. But when swords were drawn, it was impossible to judge and deliberate. Therefore the fylkis thing was hallowed, and to break the peace of the thing was regard- ed as the greatest of crimes. If a man killed another, and publicly proclaimed himself his slayer, the crime could be atoned for by money (blood-wite) paid to the nearest surviving rela- tive of the dead man. If the relatives accept- ed the blood-wite, they were not at liberty to seek revenge. But in ancient times it was re- garded as more honora- ble to refuse the money and resort to the sword. If a man slew another secretly and denied the crime he was held to be a murderer, and could not offer blood- wite. He was then f ^ , if oulawed, and every man who saw him was at liberty to slay ROCK PICTURE OF A SHIP AT LOKEBERG IN BOHUSLEN. him. Such were the Norsemen during the first centuries 12 THE STORY OF NORWAY. after their settlement in their present home. In spite of their violence and proneness to bloodshed, you will yet admit that they had many traits which were admirable. They could recognize authority, and yet preserve their sturdy sense of independence. Simple and imperfect as their fylkis things were, they suffice to show an aptitude for self-government, and a recognition of the people itself, as the source of authority. These tall blonde men with their defiant blue eyes, who obeyed their kings while they had confidence in them, and killed them when they had forfeited their respect, were the ancestors of the Normans who under William the Conqueror in- vaded England, and founded the only European state which has since reached the highest civilization and the highest liberty, through slow and even stages of orderly development. CHAPTER II. THE RELIGION OF THE NORSEMEN. The Icelander Snorre Sturlasson wrote in the thirteenth century a very remarkable book, called the Heimskringia, or the Sagas of the Kings of Nor- way. In this book he says that Odin, the highest god of the Norsemen, was the chief who first led the Germanic tribes into Europe. He was a great war- rior and was always victorious. Therefore, when he was dead, the people made sacrifices to him and prayed to him for victory. They did not believe, however, that he was actually dead, but that he had returned to his old home in Asia, whence he still watched their fortunes and occasionally visited them in person. Many tales are told in the sagas of peo- ple who had seen Odin, particularly when a great battle was to be fought. He was represented as a tall, bearded man with one eye, and clad as a war- rior. He had two brothers. Vile and Ve, and many sons and daughters who were worshipped like him and became gods and godesses. Odin and his chil- dren were called Aesir, which Snorre says means Asia-men ; and their home Asgard, or Asaheiui, like- wise indicates their Asiatic origin. During their mi- grations the Aesir came in contact with another peo- 13 14 THE STORY OF NORWAY. pie, called the Vanir^ with whom, after an indecisive battle, they formed an alliance. The Vanir then made common cause with the Aesir and were worshipped like them. Whether there is any basis of truth in this tradi- tion, is difficult to determine. We know that primi- tive nations usually make gods of their early kings and chieftains, and worship them after death. Every year that passes makes them look greater and more mysterious. In storms and earthquakes, in thunder and lightning, they hear their voices and see the manifestations of their power. More and more they become identified with the elements which they are BRONZE SWORD. (Vestergotknd in Sweden.) supposed to rule ; the mighty attributes of the sun, the sky, and the sea are given to them, and to each is allotted his particular sphere of action. The chief- tain who has been a valiant warrior in his life-time is supposed to give victory to those who call upon him. He who has excelled in the arts of peace con- tinues to rule over the seasons, and to give good crops and prosperity to those who, by sacrifices, secure his good-will. This may have been the origin of the Scandinavian gods ; although many scholars maintain that they were from the beginning personi- fications of the elements, and have never had an actual existence on earth. But whether they were originally men or sun-myths, interesting legends LOOK OR WAR HORN OF BRONZE. (Skaane ) l6 THE STORY OF NORWAY. have been told about them which may be worth recounting. In the beginning of time there were two worlds, Muspelheim, the world of fire, whose king was Surtur, and Niflheim, the world of frost and dark- ness. In Niflheim was the spring Hvergelmer, where dwelt the terrible dragon Nidhogger. Between these two worlds was the yawning chasm Ginnunga- gap. The spring Hvergelmer sent forth twelve icy rivers, which were called the Elivagar. These gradually filled up the chasm Ginnungagap. As the wild waters rushed into the abyss, they froze and were again thawed by the sparks that were blown from the fiery Muspelheim. The frozen vapors fell as hoar-frost, and the heat imparted life to them. They took shape and fashioned themselves into the Yotun or giant Ymer, from whom descends the evil race of frost-giants. Simultaneously with Ymer the cow Audhumbla came into being. She licked the briny hoar-frost, and a mighty being appeared with the shape of a man. He was large and beautiful, and was named Bure. His son was Bor, who married the daughter of a Yotun, and got three sons, Odin, Vile, and Ve. These three brothers slew the Yotun Ymer, and in his blood all the race of Yotuns was drowned except one couple, from whom a new race of giants descended. Then Odin and his brothers dragged the huge body of Ymer into the middle of Ginnungagap, and fashioned from it the world. Out of the flesh they made the earth, the bones became stones and lofty mountains, and his blood the sea. From his hair they made the trees, and from his THE RELIGION- OF THE NORSEMEN. 17 skull the great vault of the sky. His brain scattered in the air, where its fragments yet float about in queer, fantastic shapes, and are called clouds. The flying sparks from Muspelheim they gathered up and fashioned them into sun, moon, and stars, which they flung up against the blue vault of the sky. Then they arranged land and water so that the ocean flowed round about the entire earth, and beyond the watery waste they fixed the abode of the Yotuns, This cold and barren realm beyond the sea is therefore called Utgard or Yotunheim. From the earth to the sky they suspended a bridge of many colors, which they named Bifrost or the rainbow. The Yotun woman Night married Del.ling (the Dawn) and became the mother of Day, who rode in his shining chariot across the sky, always followed by his dark mother. The latter drove a huge black horse named Hrim- faxe, from whose foamy bit dropped the dew that refreshed the grass during the hours of darkness, while Day's horse, Skinfaxe, spread from his radiant mane the glorious light over the earth. It is further told that the heat bred in Ymer's body a multitude of maggots, which assumed the shapes of tiny men and were called gnomes or dwarves. They live in caves and mountains, and know of all the treasures of gold and silver and precious stones in the they iB THE STORY OF NOR WAY. secret chambers of the rocks. They also have great skill in the working of metals, but they cannot endure the light of the sun. Last of all man was created. One day when the three gods, Odin, Honer, and Lodur were walking on the shores of the sea they found two trees, and from these they made a man and a woman, named Ask and Embla (ash and elm). Odin gave them the breath of life, Honer, speech and reason, Lodur, blood and fair complexions. The old Norsemen conceived of the world as an enormous ash tree, named Ygdrasil, the three roots of which extend, one to the gods in Asgard, another to Yotunheim, the third to Niflheim. On the third gnaws continually the dragon Nidhogger. In the top of the tree sits an eagle ; among the branches four stags are running ; and up and down on the trunk frisks a squirrel who carries slander and en- deavors to make mischief between the eagle and the dragon. Under the root which stretches to Yotun- heim is the fountain of the wise Yotun Mimer, to whom Odin gave one of his eyes in return for a draught from his fountain. For whoever drank from its water became instantly wise. Under the sec- ond root of the ash, which draws its nourishment from heaven, is the sacred fountain of Urd, whither the gods ride daily over the bridge Bifrost. Here they meet the three Norns — Urd, Verdande, and Skuld (Past, Present, and Future), the august god- desses of Fate, whose decrees not even the gods are able to change. The Norns pour the water of the fountain over Ygdrasil's root, and thereby keep the world-tree alive. They govern the fates of gods THE RELIGION OF THE NORSEMEN. 19 and men, giving life or death to whomever they please. Odin dwells with all the other gods in Asgard, where he receives in his shining hall Valhalla all those who have died by the sword. He is therefore BUCKLE FROM THE EARLY IRON AGE. FOUND AT HETLAND IN STAVANGER AMT. called Valfather, and those fallen warriors whom he chooses to be his guests, are known as einheriar, i. e.y great champions. Valhalla is splendidly dec- orated with burnished weapons. The ceiling is made of spears, the roof is covered with shining shields. 20 THE STOR V OF NOR WA V. and the walls are adorned with armor and coats of mail. Hence the champions issue forth every day and fight great battles, killing and maim- ing each other. But every night they wake up whole and unscathed and return to Odin's hall, where they spend the night in merry carousing. The maidens of Odin — the Valkyries, who, before every battle, select those who are to be slain, wait upon the warriors, fill their great horns with mead, and give them the flesh of swine to eat. The great gathering-place of the gods in Asgard is the plains of Ida. Here is Odin's throne, where he sits looking out over the whole world. At his side sit the two wolves — Gere and Freke, and on his shoulders the ravens, Hugin and Munin, who daily fly forth and bear him tidings from the re- motest regions of the earth. If he wishes to travel, he mounts his eight-footed horse Sleipner, which car- ries him far and wide with wonderful speed. When the father of gods and men rides to battle he wears a helmet of gold and a suit of mail, which shines daz- zlingly from afar. He carries also his spear Gung- ner, which he sends forth whenever he wishes to arouse men to warfare and strife. But, besides be- ing the god of war, Odin also delights in poetry and sage counsel. He is the god of the scalds or poets; for he had drunk of Suttung's mead, which imparted the gift of song. He is well skilled in sorcery, and has taught men the art of writing runes. Thor, the son of Odin, lives in Thrudvang. He is the strongest of all the gods, and has an enormous hammer, Mjolner, with which he carries on a cease- The religion of the Norsemen. ±\ less warfare against the Yotuns, or mist-giants. He rides in a cart drawn by two rams across the Gjallar bridge (the resounding bridge), which leads to Yo- tunheim, and the rattling of the cart and the noise of his hammer, as he hurls it at the heads of the fleeing giants, make the vault of the sky tremble. This is what men call thunder. When Thor is hun- gry, he kills his rams and eats their flesh, but he is always careful to gather up the bones and to throw them back into the skins. Then, the next morn- ing, the rams are as frisky as ever and ready for ser- vice. Thor has a wife named Sif, whose hair is of gold. Balder, the good and the beautiful, is also the son of Odin. He is wise and gentle, and kindness beams from his countenance. His wife is Nanna, and his dwelling Breidablik. Njord is ruler of the sea, and can raise storms and calm the waves at his pleasure. He is of the race of the Vanir, but is yet worshipped as a god. He is the owner of great wealth, and can give prosperity to those who obtain his favor. Njord was married to the Yotun woman, Skade, but was again separated from her. His abode is at Noatun, from which he has wide view of the sea. Frey, the son of Njord, rules over the seasons, and gives peace and good crops. Fields and pastures grow, and the cattle thrive in the sunshine of his favor. He lives with his wife Gerd in Alfheim. Tyr is the god of courage, whom men call upon as they are about to go into battle. He has but one hand, having thrust the other into the mouth of the Fenris- 22 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Wolf, who bit it off. Brage is the god of song, and of vows and pledges. He has a long beard, and is possessed of wisdom and eloquence. When men drained the horn in his honor, they made vows of daring deeds which they would perform, and called the god to witness that they would keep them. Many were those who, while drunk, pledged them- selves to foolhardy undertakings, and perished in the attempt to carry them out. Brage's wife is the ever-young Idun. She has in her keeping the won- derful apples, which the gods eat to preserve the beauty and vigor of an eternal youth. The watchman of the gods is named Heimdal. His senses are so keen that nothing can escape him. He can see hundreds of miles, and he can hear the grass grow. When he blows his Gjallar horn (the resounding horn), its rousing call is heard throughout the world. Heimdal's dwelling is Himinbjarg at the Bifrost Bridge. Among gods of less consequence may be men- tioned Uller, the step-son of Thor, who is a master in running on snow-shoes; Forsete, the son of Balder, who makes peace between those who have quarrelled ; Hoder, the blind god, who shot Balder; and the silent Vidar. Foremost among the goddesses is Frigg, the wife of Odin, who dwells in Fensal. She shields from danger those who call upon her. Freya, the Northern Venus, is the goddess of beauty. She is the daughter of Njord, and was forsaken by her husband Odd, and is ever hoping for his return. She travelled far and wide in search of him, and wept because she could THE RELIGION OF THE NORSEMEN. 23 not find him. Her tears turned into gold, and gold is therefore by the poets called the tears of Freya. Her chariot, in which she drives over the sky, is drawn by cats, though at times she flies in the guise of a swan and visits distant lands. Her necklace, Brising, made by wonder-working gnomes, is of daz- zling splendor. The dwelling of Freya is Folkvang, and thither ascend the prayers of lovelorn swains and maidens. Freya's daughter, Hnos, is of marvellous beauty and a sweet disposition. Her name is still used in the nursery as a pet-name for babes. The dominion of the sea does not belong entirely to Njord. The Yotun Aeger rules over the tower- ing waves, and lashes them into fury, until Njord again curbs them and bids them be still. Yet Aeger is the friend of the gods, and is at times visited by them in his magnificent submarine hall, where ale and mead flow abundantly. He is himself peace- ably disposed toward men, but is overruled by his terrible wife Ran, who with her nine daughters (the waves,) causes shipwrecks and draws the drowned men down to her watery abode. One dweller in Asgard is still to be mentioned, and that is the evil Loke, who disturbs the peace of the gods, and will work their final ruin. He was born among the Yotuns, but gained the confidence of Odin by his agreeable presence and his fair speech. He delighted in mischief and loved evil-doing. He had three terrible children— the wolf Fenris, the world-serpent, and Hel. As these monsters grew up, the gods foresaw that their presence in Asgard would cause trouble. The wolf Fenris was, therefore, 24 THE STORY OF NORWAY. after having broken the strongest chains, tied with a magical cord, made of the noise of cats'-paws, wo- men's beard, roots of mountains, and other equally in- tangible things. This cord he could not break. The world-serpent was thrown into the ocean, where it continued to grow until it encircled all the earth and at last bit its own tail. Hel was banished to Helheim, where she became the ruler of the dead, and the goddess of the under-world. CHAPTER III. THE AGE OF THE VIKINGS. THE ORIGIN OF THE VIKING CRUISES. The Norsemen had up to the middle of the eighth century played no part in the world's history. Their very existence had been unknown or but vaguely known to the rest of Europe. But towards the close of the eighth century they broke like a destructive tempest over the civilized lands, spreading desolation in their path. When their fast-sailing ships with two square sails were sighted at the river-mouths, people fled in terror, and the priests prayed in vain : " De- liver us, O Lord, from the rage of the Norsemen." There were several reasons for this sudden warlike activity on the part of the Norsemen. They had waged war from immemorial times ; because war was with them the most honorable occupation. As Taci- tus says of their kinsmen, the Germans : " They deemed it a disgrace to acquire by sweat what they might obtain by blood." But previous to the viking period they had fought each other. One earl or king made foraging expeditions into the land of his neighbors, and carried away with him whatever booty he could lay hands on. But in this perpetual warfare one or the other must at length become ex- 25 26 THE STORY OF NORWAY, hausted, and the stronger would be likely to oust or vanquish the weaker. This was what happened in the north. Large tracts of land, made up of small conquered kingdoms, were united under one success- ful chief, who, of course, made haste to prevent depredations within his own boundaries. With the growing power of these local kings, it became more THE VIKING SHIP RECENTLY UNEARTHED AT GOGSTAD, NEAR SANDEFJORD. and more risky to attack them, and the field for do- mestic warfare thus became constantly narrower. But war was the very condition of the chieftain's existence among the early Norsemen. His honor was dependent upon the number of his followers and the splendor of their equipments, and to gain the means to entertain and to equip them he was obliged to wage war. When he could no longer do THE VIKINGS. 2^ it at home, he naturally went abroad. It was neither ferocity nor excessive avarice which impelled him to draw the sword ; but the desire to preserve his honor among men, which, in a warlike state, is merely an- other form of the instinct of self-preservation. The high-born chieftain had to make himself formidable in order to protect his life and property. He had to live in accordance with his rank, if he wished to live at all. His men-at-arms were his body-guard as well as his army. He had to behave royally toward them in order to preserve their good-will ; and next to per- sonal valor, liberality in giving was the first duty of a king. The king is therefore called the breaker of rings (large solid arm-rings of gold being used for purposes of payment) and the hater of gold.* There is in the earliest Germanic times no sharp distinction between the titles '' earl " and '' king." The viking cruises, however, helped to establish a distinction. The earl who, having gathered a large number of warriors about him, went ab^-oad for pur- poses of conquest, was hailed by his men as king. A number of vikings, of high birth, assumed the name of kings, when starting on warlike expeditions ; but were known as sea-kings, in contra-distinction to those who ruled at home over a fixed domain. The number of these sea-kings increased (for the reasons cited above) enormously toward the close of the eighth century. They harried not only the coasts * Munch (Det Norske Folk's Historic, 1-124) derives the word king( old Norse, konungr ; Anglo-Saxon, cyning ; O. H. German, chuninc and chunig) from Kun or Kon, meaning race, descent ; and interprets the word as meaning (like Lat., generosus) of high birth or descent. 28 THE STORY OF NORWAY. of the neighboring lands, but they crossed the North Sea and the Baltic, carrying away or slaughtering the inhabitants and destroying the cities. Churches and monasteries they plundered, scattering the bones of the saints to the four winds ; all that Christian men held sacred they trod under foot. And yet we must bear in mind that all we know about these early vikings is derived from the writings of their enemies, who were smarting under the injury they had done them. That they were fierce and brutal is credible enough. The warlike state is in itself brutalizing. It arouses all the slumbering savagery in man, and smothers his gentler impulses. But certain moral qualities even their hostile chroniclers concede to them. They admit that the Norse barbarians were, as a rule, faithful to their oaths and kept their promises. Three periods* are recognizable in the viking age, though there are, in point of time, no sharp divisions between them. It would, perhaps, be more correct to say that there were three kinds of vikings. The first cruises were more or less tentative and irregular. Chieftains gather about them crews for a few ships and sail over to England, Denmark, or Flanders, where they attack a city or a monastery, and return home with their booty. The second period shows an advance in the art of war and in military experi- ence. Several vikings attack in company some ex- posed point, take possession of it, erect fortifications, and make forays into the surrounding country. During the third period the Norsemen abandon * Sai-s : " Udsigt over den Norske Historic," 1-90. ■^^-^ I. SIDE VIEW OF THE GOGSTAD VIKING SHIP. 2. — VIKING SHIP RESTORED. 3. — DETAILS OF VIKING SHIP. 30 THE STORY OF NORWAY, their character of pirates and assume the role of conquerors. With large fleets, counting from one to five hundred ships, they storm and sack cities, assume the government of the conquered territories, treat, as regular belligerents, with kings and em- perors, and establish themselves permanently in the conquered land. Of the two first classes of vikings we have only scattered and unreliable accounts. To go on viking cruises is a recognized occupation in the Norse sagas, and it was regarded as a kind of liberal education for a young man of good birth to spend some years of his youth on such expeditions. His honor was thereby greatly increased at home, and his position in society assured. Royal j^ouths of twelve or fifteen years often went abroad as com- manders of viking fleets, in order to test their man- hood and accumulate experience and knowledge of men. The third class of vikings, the conquerors, have found their historians both at home and abroad; and the different, narratives, though not strictly accurate, supplement and correct each other. It is these con- quering vikings who have demonstrated the historic mission of Norway, and doubly indemnified the world for the misery they brought upon it. The ability to endure discipline without loss of self-respect, voluntary subordination for mutual benefit, and the power of orderly organization, based upon these qualities, these were the contributions of the Norse vikings to the political life of Europe. The feudal state, which, with all its defects, is yet the indispen- sable basis of a higher civilization, has its root in the THE VIKINGS. 31 Germanic instinct of loyalty — of mutual allegiance between master and vassal ; and the noble spirit of independence which restrains and limits the power of the ruler, and at a later stage leads to constitutional government, is even a more distinctly Norse than Germanic characteristic. While Norway, up under the pole, has developed a democracy, Germany, coming at too early a period into contact with Rome, has developed a military despotism under constitutional forms. The breath of new life which the vikings infused into history lives to-day in Nor- way, in England, and in America. Among the earliest conquests of the Norse vik- ings was a portion of the present Sleswick which after them was called Nortmannia. It is possible that they recognized the sovereignty of the kings of Denmark, though there is no direct evidence that they regarded themselves as vassals. The first in- telligence we obtain concerning them is that their king Sigfrid, in the year "JJJy received hospitably the Saxon chieftain Widukind, who, when summoned to meet Charlemagne in Paderborn, fled northward and sought refuge with his Norse co-religionists. This Sigfrid belonged to the renowned race of the Yng- lings, from whom descended Harold the Fairhaired, and through him a long line of Norwegian kings. A later king of Nortmannia, who also had great pos- sessions in Norway, was Gudrod or Godfrey the Hunter. He came, through the friendship of the Saxons, repeatedly into collision with Charlemagne, and even threatened to attack the emperor in Aachen. It is told that he was killed by his own men in the 32 THE STORY OF NORWAY. year 809. He had about a year before attacked and slain the king of Agder, whose daughter Aasa he mar- ried. She bore him a son named Halfdan the Swarthy, but avenged her father's death by inducing her servant to kill her husband while he was drunk. One of Godfrey's sons, Erik, carried on an intermit- tent warfare with Charlemagne's son, Louis the Pious, sent embassies to Aachen, and in 845, during the reign of Louis the German, sacked and burned the city of Hamburg. St. Ansgarius, the apostle of the North, who had been established by the emperor as archbishop of Hamburg, fled with all his priests ; and the church and the monastery which he had founded were utterly destroyed. It was not only in his remote northern domains that Charlemagne came in contact with the vikings. The chronicles of the Monks of St. Gall relate that he also encountered them in his Mediterranean provinces. Once, as he was visiting a city in Gallia Narbonensis, some fast-sailing Norse ships with square sails were seen out in the harbor. Soon a message was brought to the emperor that the crews had landed and were plundering the shore. Nobody then knew to what nationality these ships belonged, some conjecturing that they were Jewish, others African, and again others that they were British merchant vessels. '' No," said Charlemagne, '* these ships are not filled with merchandise, but with the most pugna- cious foes." Hearing this everybody seized his weapons and hastened to the harbor ; but the vikings had in the meanwhile learned that the emperor was in the city. THE VIKINGS. 33 and as they were not strong enough to fight with him, they fled to sea. It is related that Charlemagne, as he stood at his ST. ANSGARIUS, THE APOSTLE OF THE NORTH. window and watched their flight, wept. Remarking the wonder of his men, he said : ^' I do not weep because I fear that these mis- creants can do me any harm ; but I am grieved that, while I am alive, they have dared to show themselves 34 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Upon this coast ; and I foresee with dread all the evil they will do to my descendants." "^ This story, endowing the emperor with prophetic vision, has a certain legendary flavor, and may be a monkish invention. Similar prophecies, dating af- ter the event, are found in other ecclesiastical au- thors, and show sufficiently the feeling with which the Norsemen were regarded. It is especially one typical viking, the renowned Hasting, who figures both in sacred and profane chronicles. He sailed up the Loire in 841, with a large fleet, burned the city of Amboise, and besieged Tours. The in- habitants, however, carried the bones of their patron saint up on the walls ; and, according to the story, by the intervention of the saint, the vikings were put to flight. In 845, Hasting is reported to have at- tacked Paris, in company with Bjorn Ironside, the son of Ragnar Lodbrok. To the Baltic and even to the s'hore of the Mediterranean this fearless marau- der extended his ravages, and as success attended his banner, he grew more daring and determined to lay siege to Rome. He even aspired to put the imperial crown upon his brow. With as large a fleet as he could muster he sailed through the Pillars of Hercules, but before he reached the mouth of the Tiber, a storm drove his ships to the city of Luna, near Carrara. Being poorly versed in geography, Hasting mistook this city for Rome, and resolved to capture it by strate- * Munch (Det. Norske Folks Historic 1-414) questions the credibil- ity of this story, because the Norsemen did not show themselves in the Mediterranean as early as the chronicle here indicates ; in fact not before 800 A.D. THE VIKINGS, 35 gem. He sent word to the bishop that he was very ill and desired to be baptized, so that he might die a Christian. The bishop, as well as the commander of the town, fell into the trap. DeHghted at the prospect of gaining so valuable a convert, they opened the gates and invited the Norsemen to enter. These, in the mean- while, declared, that since sending his message. Hasting had died ; and with great pomp they bore his coffin, followed by a funeral procession of enormous length, into the cathedral where the bishop stood ready to read the mass for the repose of the viking's soul. Suddenly, however, as the coffin was deposited before the altar and IRON IMPLEMENT OF FREQUENT OCCURRENCE ; USE UNKNOWN. the mass commenced, Hasting sprang up, flung away his shroud, and stood in flashing armor before the astonished populace. His men, at this signal, also flung off their mourning cloaks and drew their 36 THE STORY OF NORWAY, swords. . The bishop and his priests were killed, and blood flowed in torrents through the sacred aisles. A terrible carnage ensued, and the city was captured. Having accomplished this enterprise, Hasting dis- covered that, while deceiving, he had himself been deceived. It was not Rome he had taken after all. Whether he accepted this as an omen or not, he lost his desire to make his entry into the eternal city. Content with the booty he had accumulated, he turned his prows toward France where he became the vassal of Charles the Bald, from whom he received valuable fiefs.* Many other vikings are mentioned in chronicles of feter date, who by their incessant attacks upon the coasts, taxed the energy of the weak Carolingian kings to the utmost. One of them, named Ragnar, is said to have plundered Paris in 845, and another, named Asgeir, had four years earlier sacked and burned Rouen and the monastery Jumieges. He spent eleven years ravaging the coasts of France, and finally, in 851, sailed up the Seine, destroyed the monastery Fontenelle and burned Beauvois. On his return to the sea he was defeated by the French, and had to hide with his men in the woods, but suc- ceeded in recapturing his ships and making good his escape. Of a third one, Rorek, it is told that about the year 862 he accepted Christianity, without, as it appears, experiencing any perceptible change of heart. After having ravaged Dorestad and Nim- *The Norse Sagas make no mention of Hasting, and Munch (1-429) gives several reasons for questioning whether he M^as an historical character. THE VIKINGS. 37 wegen, two flourishing cities on the Rhine, and having defended himself heroically against King Lo- TWO-EDGED SWORD. HILT OF SILVER AND BRONZE. thair, the younger, he made peace (873) with Louis the German, and refrained from further depredations. 38 THE STOR Y OF NOR WA Y. There is a certain uniformity in the deeds of the vikings, whether they be Norsemen or Danes, which makes further description superfluous. Only a few of their more daring enterprises may be briefly alluded to. To Ireland the Norsemen had been attracted at a comparatively early period. In the last decade of the eighth century they destroyed the monastery of lona or Icolmkill, and between the years 8io and 830 they spread terror and devastation along the entire coast. In the year 838 they sailed with one hundred and twenty ships up to Dublin and con- quered the city, under the leadership of Thorgisl, who still lives in Irish song and story under the names of Turges and Turgesius. ''After many sharp fights," says an old author,* '' he conquered in a short time all Ireland, and erected, wherever he went, high fortifications of masonry with deep moats, of which many ruins are yet to be seen in the country." At last he fell in love with the daughter of Maelsechnail, king in Meath, and demanded of him that he should send her to him, attended by fifteen young maidens. Thorgisl promised to meet her with the same num- ber of high-born Norsemen on an island in Loch Erne. But instead of maidens Maelsechnail sent fifteen beardless young men, disguised as women and armed with daggers. When Thorgisl arrived he was attacked by these and slain. On a previous occasion Maelsechnail had asked Thorgisl what he should do * Giraldus Cambrensis, De Topog7\ Hibernicc, cap. 37. Quoted from Munch, 1-438. THE VIKINGS. 39 to get rid of some strange and injurious birds that had got into the country. '' Destroy their nests," BUCKLE FROM THE IRON AGE. said Thorgisl. Accordingly Maelsechnail began at once to destroy the Norse castles, while the Irish slew or chased away the Norsemen. 40 THE STORY OF NORWAY, It appears probable that Thorgisl's reign in Ire- land lasted from 838 to 846, although a much longer period is given by the above-quoted chronicler. A more enduring sway over the country was gained by the Norse sea-king Olaf the White, who belonged to the great Yngling race. In 852 a company of Danish vikings had possession of Dublin ; but Olaf defeated them and compelled them to send him hos- tages. He then established himself in the city, built castles, and taxed the surrounding country. Two other Norsemen, the brothers Sigtrygg and Ivar, founded about the same time kingdoms — the former in Waterford, the latter in Limerick, — with- out, however, being able to compete with Olaf in splendor and power. The dominion of the Norsemen in Dublin is said to have lasted for three hundred and fifty years. From Irish sources a somewhat different account is derived of these remarkable events. It is told that the Norsemen often sailed up the rivers, not as warriors, but as peaceful mer- chants, and that the Irish found it advantageous to trade with them. They thus gained considerable possessions in the cities, and when the vikings came there was already a party in the larger cities who favored them and made their conquests easy. From Dublin Olaf the White made two cruises to Scotland, laid siege to Dumbarton, sailed southward to England, plundering and ravaging, and returned to Dublin with two hundred ships laden with pre- cious booty. The Orkneys, the Hebrides, and the Faroe Isles were also, during this period, repeatedly visited by the vikings, and even to Iceland expedi- THE VIKINGS. \l tions were made, which did not, however, result in permanent settlement. The Irish hermits and pious monks, who had retired from the world into the Arctic solitude, were disturbed in their devotions by the unwelcome visitors, and the majority re- turned to Ireland, while some are said to have remained until the island was regularly settled by the Norsemen. To England the Norsemen went for the first time with hostile intent in 787. During the reign of King Beorthric in Wessex a small flock of vikings landed in the neighborhood of Dorchester, killed some people, and were driven away again. The Anglo- Saxon chronicle '^ relates the incident in these words: '' In this year (787) King Beorthric married Ead- burg, daughter of King Offa. In those days came for the first time Northmen and ships from Heredh- aland. The gcrcfa (commander) rode down to them and wished to drive them to the king's dwel- ling. For he knew not who they were ; but they slew him there. These were the first ships belong- ing to Danish men which visited England." It is noticeable that the ships are said in the same breath to have belonged to Northmen and to Danes, and it is obvious that the chronicler supposes the terms to be synonymous. The Heredhaland from which the men came was in all probability Harde- land in Jutland, where the Norsemen had at that time a colony. The next attack of which we have an account was directed against the coast of Northumberland, and * Monum. Hist. Brit., pp. 336, 337. Quoted from Munch, i., 416, 42 THE ST OR Y OF NOR IV A V. took place In the year 794. The monk Simeon of Durham,* who Hved in the beginning of the twelfth century, writes as follows : *' The heathen came from the northern countries to Britain like stinging wasps, roamed about like savage wolves, robbing, biting, killing not only horses, sheep, and cattle, but also priests, acolytes, monks, and nuns. They went to Lindisfarena church, destroying everything in the most miserable manner, and trod the sanctuary with their profane feet, threw down the altars, robbed the treasures of the church, killed some of the brothers, carried others away in captivity, mocked many and flung them away naked, and threw some into the ocean. In 794 they harried King Ecgfridh's harbor, and plundered the monastery of Donmouth. But St. Cuth- bert did not permit them to escape unpunished ; for their chieftain was visited with a cruel death by the English and, a short time after, their ships were destroyed by a storm, and many of them perished ; a few who swam ashore were killed without pity." It is an odd circumstance that while an incessant stream of Norse vikings, during the first half of the ninth century, poured southward, devastating the shores of the Baltic and the Mediterra- nean, only a comparatively small number found their way to England. We hear in the Sagas of many individual warriors who visited the Saxon kings in England and took service under them, and of several who sailed up the Thames and put an em- bargo on the trade of the river, capturing every ship * Simeon of Durham, Monum. Hist. Brit., p. 668. Quoted from Munch, i., 417. THE VIKINGS. 43 that ventured into their clutches. But as a field for conquest they left England (probably not from any fraternal consideration) to their kinsmen, the Danes, while they themselves turned their attention to RUIN OF NORSE TOWER AT MOSO, SHETLAND ISLANDS. France, Ireland, and the isles north of Scotland. In the Hebrides, the Orkneys, the Shetland Islands, and the Faeroe Isles, their descendants are still living, and Norse names are yet frequent. Another notable circumstance in connection with 44 THE STORY OF NORWAY, the vikings is, that the very men whom foreign chroniclers describe as stinging wasps and savage wolves, and of whom the greatest atrocities are re- lated during their sojourn abroad, became, as a rule, after their return home, men of weight and influence, with respect for tradition and law — men who, accord- ing to the standard of the time, were moral and hon- orable. There were exceptions, of course, but they go to prove the rule. The explanation is not far to seek. Religion in those days was tribal, and morality had no application outside the tribe. Every people is the chosen people of its own god or gods. As the Jews divided humanity into Jews and Gentiles, and the Greeks into Greeks and barbarians, so the Norse- men retaliated towards Jews and Greeks, by including them with all other nations in the Norse equivalent for barbarians. English, Irish, and Germans, often men of high birth, were constantly brought to Nor- way by the vikings as thralls, bartered and sold and forced to menial tasks. No law extended its pro- tection to them ; and yet maltreatment of thralls was, both in Iceland and Norway, regarded as un- worthy of a freeman. For all that, the vikings were children of their age, and practised only the rude morality which their religion prescribed. The humanitarian sentiment which regards all men as brethren and creatures of the same God is a com- paratively modern growth, and it would be unfair to judge the old Norsemen by any such advanced standard. It is therefore quite credible that the vikings may have been guilty of deeds abroad which they would not have committed at home. CHAPTER IV. HALFDAN THE SWARTHY. The Yngling race traced its ancestry from the god Frey. Snorre Sturlasson, in his famous work, " The Sagas of the Kings of Norway," * mentions a long line of kings who were descended from Fjolne, a son of Frey, and reigned in Sweden having their residence in Upsala. Yngve was one of the god's surnames, and Yngling means a descendant of Yngve. One of the Ynglings, named Aun the Old, sacrificed every ten years one of his sons to Odin, having been prom- ised that for every son he sacrificed, ten years should be added to his life. When he had thus slain seven sons, and was so old that he had to be fed like an infant, his people grew weary of him and saved the eighth son, whom he was about to sacrifice. Ingjald Ill-Ruler, when he took the kingdom on the death of his father Anund, sixth in descent from Aun the Old, made a great funeral feast, to which he invited all the neighboring kings. When he rose to drink the Brage goblet, f he vowed that he would in- * " The Heimskringla, or the Sagas of the Kings of Norway," by the Icelander Snorre Sturlasson, was written in the twelfth century, and continued by his nephew Sturla Thordsson, is the principal source of the history of Norway up to the middle of the thirteenth century. f The toast to the god Brage. 45 4^ THE STORY OF NORWAY. crease his kingdom by one half toward all the four corners of the heavens, or die in the attempt. As a preliminary step he set fire to the hall, burned his guests, and took possession of their lands. When he died, about the middle of the seventh century, he was so detested by his people that they would not accept his son, nor any of his race, as his successor. The son, whose name was Olaf, therefore gathered about him as many as would follow him, and emi- grated to the great northern forests, where he felled the trees, gained much arable lands, and thereby acquired the nickname The Wood-cutter.'^ He and his people became prosperous, and a great influx of the discontented from the neighboring lands followed. In fact, so great was the number of immigrants that the country could not feed them, and they were threatened with famine. This they attributed, how- ever, to the fact that Olaf was not in the favor of the gods, and they sacrificed him to Odin. His son, Half dan Whiteleg,f was a great warrior. He conquered Raumarike in Norway and the great and fertile district called Vestfold, west of the fjord called Folden (now the Christiania Fjord). Here he founded a famous temple in Skiringssal, which soon became a flourishing trading station and a favorite residence of the Norwegian kings. The third in descent from him was the great viking Godfrey the Hunter, who waged war against Charle- magne, and Godfrey's son was Halfdan the Swarthy. Halfdan was but a year old in 8io when his father * Tretelgja. f Hvitbein. HALFDAN THE SWARTHY. 4/ was killed. At the age of eighteen, he assumed the government of Agder, which he inherited from his maternal grandfather. By warfare and by marriage he also increased the great possessions he had re- ceived from his father, and, was, beyond dispute, the mightiest king in all Norway. It is told of him that he was a man of great intelligence, who loved justice and truth. He gave laws which he himself kept and compelled every one else to keep. In or- der that no one should with impunity tread the law under foot, he fixed a scale of fines which offenders should pay in accordance with their birth and dig- nity. This code was the so-called Eidsiva-Law, which had great influence in politically uniting the southern districts of Norway which Halfdan had gathered under his sway. About King Halfdan's second marriage a story is told, which, whether originally true or not, has ob- viously been the subject of legendary adornment. It runs as follows : There was a king in Ringerike whose name was Sigurd Hjort. He was a large and strong man. He had a daughter named Ragnhild, who was very beautiful, and a son named Guttorm. While Sigurd Hjort was out hunting he was attacked by the berserk'^ Hake and thirty men. He fought desper- ately, and slew twelve of his assailants, and cut off Hake's hand, but in the end he had to bite the dust. The berserk then rode to his house and carried away * Berserks or berserkir were champions of extraordinary strength, who in battle were possessed with a sanguinary fury which made them irresistible. Many of them were reputed to be were -wolves, and to be invulnerable. 48 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Ragnhild and Guttorm, besides much valuable property. He determined to marry Ragnhild and would have done so at once, if his wound had not grown constantly more painful. At Yule-tide, when King Halfdan came to feast in Hedemark, he heard of the outrage and resolved to punish it. He sent one of his trusted warriors, named HaarekGand, with a hundred armed men to Hake's house ; they ar- rived in the early morning before any one was awake. They set sentinels at all the doors, then broke into the sleeping-rooms and carried off Sigurd Hjort's children and the stolen goods. Then they set fire to the house and burned it up. Hake escaped, but seeing Ragnhild drive gayly away over the ice with King Halfdan's men, he threw himself upon his sword and perished. Halfdan the Swarthy became enamored of Ragnhild, as soon as he saw her, and made her his wife. While Queen Ragnhild was with child she dreamed marvellous dreams. Once she seemed to be standing in the garden, trying to take a thorn out of her chem- ise, but the thorn grew in her hand until it was like a long spindle — the one end of which struck root in the earth, while the other shot up into the air. Pres- ently it looked like a big tree, and it grew bigger and bigger and taller and taller, until she stood in its shade and her eye could scarcely reach to the top of it. The lower part of the tree was red as blood ; further up the trunk was green and fair, and the branches were radiantly white like snow. They were, however, of very unequal size, and it seemed to her that they spread out over the whole kingdom of Norway. HA LED AN THE SWARTHY. 49 King Halfdan was much puzzled at hearing this dream, and perhaps a Httle jealous too. Why was it that his wife had such remarkable dreams, while he had none? He consulted a wise man as to the cause of this, and was by him advised to sleep in a pig-sty ; then he would be sure to have remarkable dreams. The king did as he had been told, and dreamed that his hair was growing very long and beautiful. It fell in bright locks about his head and shoulders, but the locks were of unequal length and color ; some seemed like little curly knots just sprouting from his scalp, while others hung down over his back, even unto the waist. But one lock there was that was brighter and more baautiful than all the rest. The king related this dream to his sage friend, who interpreted it to mean that a mighty race of kings should spring from him, and that his descendants, though some of them should attain to great glory, should be unequal in fame. But one of them should be greater and more glorious than all the rest. The longest and brightest lock, says Snorre, was sup- posed to indicate Olaf the Saint. When her time came, the queen bore a son who was named Harold. He grew rapidly in stature as in intelligence, and was much liked by all men. He was fond of manly sports and won ad- miration by his strength and his beauty. His mother loved him much, while his father often looked upon him with disfavor. Of his childhood many tales are told which cannot lay claim to credi- bility. Thus, it is said, that once, while King Half- 50 THE STORY OF NORWAY, dan was celebrating Yule-tide on Hadeland, all the dishes and the ale suddenly disappeared from the table. The guests went home, and the king, full of wrath, remained sitting. In order to find out who had dared thus to trifle with his dignity, he seized a BUCKLE WITH BYZANTINE ORNAMENTATION, FOUND AT HOEN IN EKER. Finn, who was a sorcerer, and tormented him. The Finn appealed to Harold, who, contrary to his father's command, rescued him and followed him to the mountains. After a while, they came to a place where a chieftain was having a grand feast with his HALFDAN THE SWARTHY. $1 men. There they remained until spring, and when Harold was about to take his leave, his host said to him : '' Your father took it much to heart that I took some meat and beer away from him last winter ; but for what you did to me I will reward you with glad tidings. Your father is now dead, and you will go home and inherit his kingdom. But some day you will be king of all Norway." When Harold returned home, he found that the chieftain had spoken the truth. His father had been drowned while driving across the ice on the Rands- fjord (860). He was mourned by all his people ; for there had been good crops during his reign, and he had been a wise ruler and much beloved. When it was rumored that he was to be buried in Ringerike, the men of Hadeland and of Raumarike came and demanded that the corpse be given to them for burial. For they believed that the favor of the gods would rest upon the district where the king's barrow was. At last they agreed to divide the body into four parts. The men of Ringerike kept the trunk; the head was buried at Skiringssal in Vestfold ; and the rest was divided between Hadeland and Hedemark. For a long time, sacrifices were made upon these barrows, and King Halfdan was wor- shipped as a god. CHAPTER y. HAROLD THE FAIRHAIRED (860-930). Harold was only ten years old when his father died, and the kings whom Halfdan had conquered thought that the chance was now favorable for re- covering what they had lost. But Harold's guardian Guttorm, his mother's brother, conducted the gov- ernment with power and ability, and assisted his nephew in his efforts to put down his enemies. A long series of battles was fought in which Harold was usually victorious. It was but natural that the young king, flushed with success, should resolve to extend his domain. He knew that there was no king in Norway whose power and resources were equal to his own, and the determination to conquer the whole country may therefore have naturally ripened in his mind. Snorre, however, tells a different story, and as it is a very pretty one, it may be worth repeating. There was a maid named Gyda, the daughter of King Erik of Hordaland ; she was being fostered by a rich yeoman in Valders. When Harold heard of her beauty, he sent his men to her and asked her to become his mistress. The maid's eyes flashed with anger while she listened to this message, and throwing 52 HAROLD THE FAIRHATRED. 53 her head back proudly she answered : '' Tell your master that I will not sacrifice my maidenly honor for a king who has only a few counties to rule over. Strange it seems to me that there is no king here who can conquer all Norway, as King Erik has con- quered Sweden and KingGorm Denmark," '^ The messengers, amazed at her insolence, warned her to give a more conciliatory answer. King Harold was surely good enough for her, they thought ; but she would not listen to them. When, at last, they took their leave, she followed them out and said : '' Give this message from me to King Harold. I will promise to become his wedded wife, on this condition, that he shall for my sake conquer all Nor- way, and rule over it as freely as King Erik rules over Sweden and King Gorm over Denmark. For only then can he be called the king of a people." f When the messengers returned, they advised the king to break the girl's pride by sending them to take her by force. But the king answered : " This maid has not spoken ill and does not deserve to be punished. On the contrary, she deserves much thanks for her words. She has put something into my mind, of which I wonder that it has not occurred to me before. But this I now solemnly vow, and call God to witness who made me and rules over all, that I will not cut or comb my hair until the day when I shall have conquered all Norway ; or if I do not, I shall die in the attempt." Guttorm praised Harold for these words, saying, that he had spoken like a king. * King Gorm had not at that time conquered Denmark. \ Tjodkonungr. 54 THE STORY OF NORWAY. In accordance with his promise, the young king now set about the task which he had undertaken. He went northward with an army and conquered Orkdale and Trondelag, the district about the Dront- heim Fjord. In Naumdale, north of Drontheim, there were two kings named Herlaug and Rollaug. The former, when he heard of Harold's march of conquest, built a great barrow, into which he entered with eleven of his men and had it closed behind him. Rollaug, his brother, ordered his royal high-seat to be carried to the top of a hill, and an earl's seat to be placed below, at the foot of the hill. He seated himself in the royal seat, but when he saw Harold approaching, he rolled from the king's seat into the earl's seat, thereby declaring himself to be King Harold's vassal. Harold tied a sword about his waist, hung a shield about his neck, and made him Earl of Naumdale. Wherever he went, Harold pursued the same policy. The old kings who acknowledged his over- lordship he reinstated as his earls in their former dominions. Those who opposed him be killed or maimed. The earls were really governors or repre- sentatives of the king's authority. They adminis- tered justice in the king's name, and collected taxes, of which they were entitled to keep one third on con- dition of entertaining sixty warriors, subject to the king's command. Each earl had under him four or more hersir (sub-vassals), who held in fief a royal estate, of an income of twenty marks, on condition of keeping twenty warriors ready to serve the king. It will be seen that the feudal principle was the HAROLD THE FAIRHAIRED. 55 basis of Harold's state. He deprived the peasants of their allodium, and declared all land to be the prop- erty of the king. The cultivators of the soil, from having been free proprietors, became the tenants of the king, and in so far as they were permitted to retain their inherited estates, derived this privilege no more from allodial but from feudal right. It followed that the king could levy a tax on all land, and that every man who refused to pay the tax forfeited his title. Also a personal tax, which the peasants derisively called the nose-tax (because it was levied in every household according to the num- ber of noses), is said to have been exacted by Harold, and to have caused much dissatisfaction. It is added that many of the former kings who accepted earl- doms from him, found themselves in a better pos- sition, both financially and as to authority, than they had been before. And this is scarcely to be won- dered at. Their royal title had conferred upon them no rights except such as their people voluntarily conceded to them, and their chief privilege amount- ed to a usage rather than a right to assume command in war, and conduct the public sacrifices. Still it was only in rare cases that they were willing to exchange this shadowy authority for the real power which Harold, by right of conquest, conferred upon them. A still greater antagonism did the introduction of the feudal land tenure arouse among the free yeo- manry, who in their fierce independence could not endure any relation of enforced obedience and subordination. Therefore rebellions against the royal authority, on a smaller or greater scale, were of con- 56 THE STORY OF NORWAY. stant occurrence during the first half of Harold's reign, and there are even indications that they continued much longer. Many of his provinces he had to con- quer twice, and it was only the enormous odds in his favor, and the promptness and severity of his punish- ments, which at length forced the disloyal to accept his sway. It required an energy and resolution such as his to make a nation of all these scattered, preda- tory, and often mutually hostile tribes ; and his uniform and systematic policy, as well as his uncompro- mising sternness, in dealing with resistance, show that he was fully conscious of the magnitude of his task. It would be tedious to enumerate the battles he fought and the victories he won. With every year that passed he approached nearer to his goal — to be the ruler of all Norway. Many of the mightiest men in the land who had hitherto held aloof now offered him their services, and were glad to accept honors at his hands. Among these were the earl Haakon Grjot- gardsson of Haalogaland, and Ragnvald, late earl of More, who was the father of Duke Rollo of Nor- mandy, and through William the Conqueror the ancestor of the kings of England. Ragnvald was a brave and sagacious man, who assisted the king with counsel and with deeds, and became his most inti- mate friend and adviser. Less readily did the men of the great Rafnista family accept Harold's overtures. Kveld-Ulf (Night- Wolf) pleaded old age, when the king sent messen- gers to him, requesting him to enter his service. This was the more disappointing to Harold, because he had counted on Kveld-Ulf's using the great influ- HAROLD THE FAIRHAIRED. 57 ence which he wielded, in his favor. He sent mes- sengers once more and offered Kveld-Ulf's son, Bald Grim, high dignities if he would become his vassal. But Bald Grim replied that he would accept no dignity which would raise him in rank above his father. Then the king's patience was exhausted, and he would have resorted to other arguments than verbal ones, if Kveld-Ulf's brother-in-law, Oelve Nuva, had not interceded in his behalf. Oelve finally obtained the old chieftain's consent to have his second son Thorolf enter the king's service if he saw fit. Thorolf was then out on a viking cruise with Oelve's brother, Eyvind Lambe, but he was expected home in the autumn. On their return, both ac- cepted Harold's offer and became his men. Thorolf particularly rose rapidly in the king's favor, on ac- count of his intelligence, beauty, and courtly man- ners. The old Kveld-Ulf, however, looked with suspicion upon their friendship, and hinted that he expected that nothing good would come of it. The kings of Sweden had from of old had claims on that part of Norway which is called Viken."^ Also Vermeland, which since the the days of Olaf the Woodcutter had belonged to the Ynglings, was declared to be an integral part of Sweden, and the Swedish king, Erik Eimundsson, seized the opportunity, while Harold was occupied with his conquests in the north, to invade the latter prov- ince, besides Ranrike and portions of Vingulmark. *Viken was the country about the present Christiania Fjord, and was divided into Vestfold, Vingulmark, and Ranrike' (the present Bo- huslen in Sweden). $8 THE STORY OF NORWAY. When these tidings reached Harold, he hastened southward, fined and punished those of the peas- ants who had promised allegiance to his enemy, and finally went northward to Vermeland where, by a singular coincidence, he met the Swedish king at a great feast given by the mighty yeoman Aake. Probably to avoid bloodshed, the two kings and their warriors were entertained in separate buildings; but while Harold and his men were lodged in the new mansion and made to eat and drink out of new horns and precious dishes, Erik's party were made to enjoy their cheer in an old building, and their horns and dishes, though artfully wrought, were not new. When the time came for leaving, Aake brought his son to Harold and begged him to take him into his service. At this Erik grew very wroth and rode away. Aake hastened to accompany him ; and when asked why he had made such a difference in the entertainment, he replied that it was because Erik was old, while Harold was young. *' Thou must indeed remember that thou art my man," said King Erik. '' When thou sayest that I am thy man," answered the yeoman, " then I may say with equal right that thou art my man." This answer so angered the king that he drew his sword and killed Aake. Harold, when he heard of his death, pursued his slayer but did not succeed in overtaking him. The princes and chieftains who had opposed Harold had, so far, accomplished nothing but their own ruin. Those who still retained their lands con- HAROLD THE FAIRHAIRED, 59 eluded that separately they could never hope to pre- vail against him, and they therefore united and met the conqueror in 872 with a great fleet in the Hafrs- Fjord.* The war-horns were blown, and King Har- old's ship was foremost, wherever the fight was hottest. In its prow stood Thorolf, the son of Kveld- Ulf, who fought with splendid bravery, and the brothers Oelve Nuva and Eyvind Lambe. The issue seemed long doubtful, and many of the king's best men were slain ; spears and stones rained down in showers, and the arrows flew hissing through the air. At last, Harold's berserks, seized with a wild fury, stormed forward, and boarded the enemies' ships. The carnage was terrible, and one by one the chieftains fell or fled. King Harold here won (as the sagas relate) one of the greatest battles that was ever fought in Norway; and there was from this day no longer any formidable opposition to him. Among the many who were wounded at Hafrs-Fjord was Thorolf, and in fact all who had stood before the mast in the king's ship, except the berserks. The scald Thorbjorn Hornklove made a song about the victory, fragments of which are still extant. At a feast which shortly after the battle was given in his honor, Harold's hair was cut by Ragnvald, the earl of More, and all marvelled at its beauty. While he had formerly been called Harold Lufa, i. e,, the Frowsy-headed, he was now named Harold the Fair-' haired. Having now accomplished what he had set out to do, he married Gyda. The romance is, how- * Hafrs-Fjord is a little fjord in Jaederen, west of the present city of Stavanger 6o THE STORY OF NORWAY, ever, spoiled by the fact that he had some years be- fore married Aasa, the daughter of the earl, Haakon * Grjotgardsson, and had by her three sons — Halfdan the White, Halfdan the Swarthy, and Sigfrid. The sons Gyda bore him were named Guttorm, Haarek, and Gudrod. In his relations with men Harold was no more faithful than in his relations with women. He was a man of indomitable will and courage, sagacious and far-seeing; shunning no means for the accom- plishment of his ends. He could not, however, en- dure the characteristics in others which he valued in himself. When his jealousy was once aroused, it was not easily again allayed. As is the manner of tyrants, he was apt to humiliate those the most whom he had most exalted, and his suspicion often fell upon those who least deserved it. The first victim of his jealousy was Thorolf, the son of Kveld-Ulf, who, after the battle of Hafrs-Fjord, had stood es- pecially high in his favor. Thorolf had by a wealthy marriage and by inheri- tance accumulated a large fortune and lived in princely style. His liberality and winning exterior made him hosts of friends, and his thrift and ability procured him the means to practise a magnificent hospitality. The king had made him his syssclmand, or bailiff, in Haalogaland, and Thorolf particularly distinguished himself by the energy and shrewdness * The letter aa in Norwegian (Icelandic a) is pronounced like the English aw in hawk. Haakon is therefore pronounced Hawkon ; Aasa, Awsa, etc. The modern Icelanders pronounce the sound like ou in out^ rout. They say Houkon, Hourek, etc. HAROLD THE FAIRHAIRED. 6 1 which he displayed in collecting the tax from the Finns, who, as a rule, were not anxious to make con- tributions to the royal treasury. During a journey which Harold made through Haalogaland, Thorolf made a feast for him, the splendor of which had never been equalled in those parts of the country. There were in all eight hundred guests — five hun- dred of whom Thorolf had invited, while three hun- dred were the attendants of the king. To the aston- ishment of his host, Harold sat, dark and silent, in the high-seat, and seemed ill-pleased with the efforts that were made to entertain him. Toward the end of the feast he repressed his ill-humor, however, and when his host at parting presented him with a large dragon-ship with complete equipment, he seemed much pleased. Nevertheless, it was not long be- fore he deprived him of his office as royal bailiff, then espoused the cause of his enemies, and used all sorts of contemptible slanders as a pretext for attack- ing him on his estate, Sandness, g.nd burning his house. When Thorolf broke out through the burn- ing wall, he was received with a hail-storm of spears. Seeing the king he rushed toward him, with drawn sword, and cut down his banner-bearer ; then, when his foe was almost within reach of his sword, fell, crying: " By three steps only I failed." It was said that Harold himself gave him his death-wound, and he later avowed himself as his slayer to the old Kveld-Ulf. When he saw his former friend lying dead at his feet, he looked sadly at him ; and when a man passed him who was busy bandaging a slight wound, he said: ''That wound Thorolf did not give 62 THE STOR V OF NOR WA V. thee ; for differently did weapons bite in his hands. It is a great pity that such men must perish." When Kveld-Ulf heard of his son's death, his grief was so great that he had to go to bed. But when he heard that it was the king who had slain him, and that he had fallen prone at his slayer's feet, he got up and was well content. For when a dying man fell on his face, it was a sign that he would be avenged. In the meanwhile, being far from powerful enough to attack Harold openly, the old man gathered all his family and his goods and set out for Iceland ; but lingered long along the coast of Norway, in the hope of finding some one of Harold's race upon whom he could wreak vengeance. In this he was successful. The two sons of Guttorm, Harold's uncle and for- mer guardian, were sailing northward with two of the king's men. These Bald Grim and Kveld-Ulf attacked, killed the king's cousins, and captured the ship. Then, wild with exultation. Bald Grim mounted the prow and sang : Now is the Hersir's vengeance On the king fulfilled. Wolf and eagle tread on Yngling's children. Seaward swept flew Halvard's Lacerated corpse, And the eagle's beak Tears Snarfare's wounds. From that time forth, there was a blood-feud be- tween the Yngling race and Kveld-Ulf's descendants, and the famous saga of Egil, Bald Grim's son, tells of a long chain of bloody deeds which all had their origin in the king's treachery to Thorolf. HAROLD THE FAIRHAIRED. 63 Kveld-Ulf and Bald Grim were not the only chief- tains who sought refuge abroad from Harold's op- pression. After the battle of Hafrs-Fjord, when the king proceeded with uncompromising rigor to en- force the feudal system, several thousand men, many of whom belonged to the noblest families of the land, crossed the sea, and found new homes in the Orkneys and the Hebrides, whence again many found their way to Iceland. A great number also sailed direct for the latter country, and the so-called Landnama book (the Domesday Book of Iceland) has preserved the names, and, at times, bits of the history of the most important original settlers. Much as we may sympathize with the indomitable spirit which made these men sacrifice home and country for a principle, there is also another view of the case which has to be considered. Harold the Fairhaired was founding a state, which would sup- port a higher civilization than could possibly be developed among a loose agglomeration of semi- hostile tribes. The idea of a national unity, which was the inspiration of his work, required the enforce- ment of an organic system which to the indepen- dent chieftains must have appeared extremely op- pressive. The payment of taxes, which to the citizen of the modern state is not apt to appear humiliating, seemed to the Norse chieftains un- worthy of a freeman. When Harold commanded them to refrain from robbing and plundering expe- ditions within the confines of his kingdom, they felt outraged, and could see no reason why they should submit to such unwarrantable curtailment of time- 64 THE STORY OF NORWAY, honored privileges. One of them, Rolf, or RoUo, son of the king's friend, Ragnvald, Earl of More, de- fied the order, made strand-hug^ in Viken, and was declared an outlaw. Neither his father's influence, nor his mother's prayers, could save him. Just on account of his high birth, Harold was determined to make an example of him. !.„ Rollo is known in the Norse sagas as Rolf the Walker, because he was so tall and heavy that no horse could carry him. With a large number of fol- lowers he sailed southward to France, and after having harried the country for several years, made in 912 a compromise with King Charles the Simple, by which he was to accept Christianity and receive a large province in fief for himself and his descendants. This province was named Normandy ; and has played a large role in the history of the world. It is told of Rollo that when he was requested to kiss the king's foot in token of fealty, he answered : '' I will never bend my knee before any man ; nor will I kiss any one's foot." After much persuasion, however, he permitted one of his men to perform the act of homage for him. His proxy stalked sullenly forward, and pausing before the king, who was on horse-back, seized his foot and lifted it to his lips. By this manoeuvre, the king came to make a somersault, at which there was great laughter among the Norsemen. Rollo did literally, like the poor boy in the fairy tale, marry the princess and get half the kingdom. For, it * Strand-hug was an enforced provisioning of the viking fleet from the nearest inhabited country. It was the common practice of vikings to make strand-hug, wherever they might happen to be. HAROLD THE FAIRHAIRED. 65 is told, that Charles gave him for a bride his daugh- ter Gisla, who, however, died childless. He ruled his duchy with a rod of iron ; and he must have learned a useful lesson from King Harold, for it is said that he restrained robbery with a firm hand, and hanged the robbers. So great was the public security in his day, that the peasants could leave their ploughs and tools in the field over night without fear of losing them. Rollo's son was William Longsword, who was the father of Richard the Fearless, who again had a son of his own name. This latter Richard, surnamed the Good, had a son named Rollo, or Robert *^ the Magnificent, who was the father of William the Con- queror. The emigration of the discontented yeomen and chieftains removed the last obstacle to the organiza- tion of Harold's feudal state. According to an ap- proximately accurate calculation, about eight hundred heads of families went with their households to Ice- land, to the Scottish isles, and to Jemteland, leaving behind them estates which were promptly confiscated by the king. Those who endeavored to sell their lands met with small success ; for to buy the property of em- igrants was considered as an act hostile to the king. Great wealth was thus accumulated in Harold's hands, and the means of rewarding his friends at the expense of his enemies were at his disposal. The emigrants were, therefore, doubly instrumental in cementing the state which they had endeavored to destroy. A large number of ofHcials were needed to superintend * The first Duke Rollo had, when he was baptized, assumed the name Robert. 66 THE STORY OF NORWAY. the great landed estates, and Harold chose these from his immediate dependents. The so-called Aarmaend were merely superintendents or stewards, who took charge of the crown lands, and forwarded to the king his share of the income. They were often thralls or freedmen, and were looked down upon by the yeomanry as their inferiors. The earls, on the other hand, who belonged to the old tribal aristocracy, held their land in fief, and were, in a limited sense, proprietors, though their sons could not, by any absolute right, claim to inherit them. It was, however, the custom to continue such estates from father to son. The third class of property was the land which the yeomanry had formerly held by allodial right, and which they now held with as much security and right of inheritance, as the king's nomi- nal tenants. As long as they paid their taxes, it was of course in the king's interest to leave them unmo- lested. It was natural that with his great wealth Harold should keep a court of exceptional splendor. He was fond of song and story and always kept scalds about him who sang his praise and glorified his deeds. He could be generous when the occasion demanded, and would then scatter his gold with royal liberality. But in little things he was reputed to be mean ; and it was a common complaint among his courtiers that they did not get enough to eat. Some legends recounted by Snorre show that with all his stern inflexibility toward men, he was easily deceived by women. Thus, it is related that once, while he was at a Yule-tide feast, in Guldbrandsdale, HAROLD THE FAIRHAIRED. 6/ a Finn came to him and persuaded him to accom- pany him to his tent. There he showed the king a girl named Snefrid, whose beauty made a great im- pression upon him. He chatted with her for a while ; then drank a goblet of mead which the Finn brought him. No sooner had he swallowed the liquid than he became so enamoured of Snefrid that he refused to leave her, and demanded that she should that very day become his wife. He loved her with such abandonment and passion that he neglected the government and lived only for her. She bore him five sons in rapid succession, and then died. Harold's grief knew no bounds. He refused to have her buried, but sat staring at her beautiful corpse, night and day. For, oddly enough, it is told that Snefrid's beauty remained unchanged after death, and there was no sign of decay. All the king's men feared that he had lost his reason, and one of them finally persuaded him, on some pretext, to have the corpse moved. But the very instant it was touched, the most hideous change occurred. The flesh turned blue, and a terrible stench filled the room. The king then recovered his reason, and ordered the body to be burned. But when it was placed on the pyre, snakes, adders, toads, and horri- ble creeping things teemed in and about it, so that no one could endure the sight of it. Then Harold comprehended that he had been the victim of sor- cery ; and he grew so angry that he chased away from him the children Snefrid had borne him. And yet, strangely enough, it was this branch which en- dured the longest, and from which a long line of 68 THE STOR Y OF NOR WA Y. kings descended. The names of Snefrid's sons were Sigurd Rise (Giant), Gudrod Ljome, Halfdan Haalegg (Longlegs), and Ragnvald Rettilbeine. The only one of King Harold's wives who was of royal birth was Ragnhild, the daughter of King Erik the Younger in South Jutland. She replied, when he first sent messengers to woo her, that she would not marry the mightiest king in all the world, if she had to put up with one thirtieth part of his affection. To a second message she replied that she would marry King Harold if he would put away all his other wives. This he consented to do, and made Ragnhild his queen. She lived, however, only three years after her marriage ; and Harold then took back several of his former wives and mistresses. Ragnhild had left him one son, Erik, whom he loved the most of all his children. Marriage was entirely a civil contract during the days of Germanic paganism and was in no wise associated with religion or religious ceremonies. It was an easy thing for a husband to obtain a divorce from his wife, but it was customary to go through with this formality before marrying a second. Open polygamy, as practised by Harold, was contrary to custom and must have been regarded with reproba- tion by the people. For all that, Harold was, during the latter part of his reign, a popular ruler and well beloved both by yeomanry and chieftains. As his children grew up, Harold began to reap some of the disadvantages of his scattered family re- lations. His sons, having different mothers, and having been fostered by yeomen in different parts of HAROLD THE FAIRHAIRED. 69 the country, could scarcely be strongly conscious of their kinship. They were jealous of each other, and particularly jealous of the mighty earls who sat like little kings upon their estates ruling over land and people. It was to give vent to this feeling that Halfdan Longlegs and Gudrod Ljome, without any warning, attacked Ragnvald, the Earl of More, and burned him up with sixty of his men. When Harold heard of this dastardly deed, he gathered an army and resolved to punish his sons. Gudrod, who had taken possession of the earldom after Ragnvald, sur- rendered without fighting, while Halfdan Longlegs sailed with three ships for the Orkneys, where he chased away Turf-Einar, the son of the Earl of More, and made himself king of the islands. Turf- Einar returned, however, surprised Halfdan, and put him to death in a barbarous manner. Although Halfdan had been a rebel against the king's author- ity, and Turf-Einar in slaying him had avenged his own father, Harold had no choice but to wreak vengeance upon the slayer of his son. He accord- ingly sailed with a fleet for the Orkneys, opened negotiations with Turf-Einar, and accepted as '' blood- atonement " sixty marks in gold. Whether it was on the same occasion that he made a cruise to Scotland, harrying the coast, is perhaps, doubtful. His chief purpose, as on a previous cruise in the same waters, was to break up the various nests of vikings, who from this convenient retreat made fre- quent attacks upon the coast of Norway during the summer months. A fertile cause of disagreement among Harold's 70 THE STORY OF NORWAY. sons was their jealousy of Erik, whom their father conspicuously favored. When he was twelve years old, Erik was given five ships to command, and with a choice crew went on viking cruises. Much did the old king delight in hearing the tales of his prowess, and the daring enterprises in which he had played a part. The ominous surname '' Blod-Oexe " (Blood-Axe) which the lad acquired by his deeds in battle only endeared him the more to his father. It was his lOve of this favorite son which induced him in his fiftieth year (900) to commit an act, whereby he virtually undid the great work of his life and brought misery upon unborn generations. He called a tiling or general assembly of the people, probably at Eids- vold, and made all his sons kings, on condition that they should, after his death, acknowledge Erik as their overlord. To each he gave a province to govern, permitting him to keep one third of the revenues for himself, leaving one third for the earls, and send- ing one third to the sovereign. The royal title should be inherited by all his direct descendants in the male line, legitimate or illegitimate birth making no difference. To the sons of his daughters he gave earldoms. In this disastrous act of Harold, making no distinction between legitimate and illegitimate children, lies the germ of the civil wars and terrible internecine conflicts which ravaged the kingdom he had established and exhausted its powers, until for four hundred years it sank out of sight, and its name seemed to have been blotted out from among the nations. It seems incredible that the wisdom and energy which had built up a great state could be HAROLD THE FAIRHATRED. 7 1 coupled with the unwisdom and the weakness which in the end broke it down again. Harold evidently looked upon the royal office as a piece of personal property which he had by his sword acquired, and which all his male descendants had an equal right to inherit. At the same time he must, after the ex- perience he had had with his sons, have known them too well to suppose that they would peacefully acquiesce in his decision, living together in fraternal unity. If he cherished any illusion, Erik lost no time in dispelling it. He first killed Ragnvald Ret- tilbeine, the son of Snefrid, because he was said to be a sorcerer. Next he attacked his brother Bjorn the Merchant (Farmand) because he declined to pay him tribute, killed him and plundered his house. Half- dan the Swarthy (Svarte) in Drontheim resolved to avenge this outrage, concluding that none of Harold's sons were safe, as long as Erik was permitted, with impunity, to take the law into his own hands. While Erik was feasting at the farm, Selven, Halfdan surrounded the house and set fire to it. Erik suc- ceeded in escaping with four men, and he hastened southward to complain to his father. King Harold, it is told, was greatly incensed, collected his fleet and sailed to Drontheim, where Halfdan, though with an inferior force, stood ready to meet him. The battle was about to begin, when the scald, Guttorm Sindre, reminded the two kings of a promise they had made him. Once he had sung a song in their honor, and as he refused all the gifts they offered him, they both swore that whatever he should ask of them, they would fulfil. '' Now," he said, ^' I have come to claim the guerdon of my song." 72 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Hard as it was, they could not break their royal promise. Peace was made, and father and son sepa- rated. Halfdan was permitted to keep his province, but had to' vow solemnly that he would henceforth make no hostile demonstration against Erik. For all that the hatred between the two lasted, though curbed for a while by the fear of the king. When Harold was near- ly seventy years old, he took for his mistress Thora of Moster, who on account of her great height was surnamed Moster- stang (Moster-pole). She bore him a son who was named Haakon. Much dissatisfaction was there among the king's other sons when this late-comer m.ade his appearance, and he would probably not have grown to manhood, if an incident had not oc- curred which removed him beyond their reach. The story told by Snorrein this connection is full of inter- est, but sounds incredible. Once, it is told, messengers arrived from King Ethelstan in England, bringing a precious sword to King Harold, who accepted it and returned thanks. '' Now,'' said the messengers, '' thou hast taken the sword, as our king wished, and thou art therefore his sword-taker or vassal." GILT BUCKLE FOUND AT SKE- DEMO IN NEDENES AMT. HAROLD THE FAIRHAIKED. 73 Harold was angry at having been thus tricked, but did not molest the messengers. The next year, how- ever, he sent his young son Haakon with an embassy to Ethelstan. They found the king in London, and were well received by him. The spokesman of the embassy then placed the boy, Haakon, on Ethel- stan's knee, saying, '^ King Harold begs thee to foster this child of his servant-maid." Ethelstan angrily drew his sword, as if he would kill the child ; but the spokesman said : " Now that thou hast once put him upon thy knee, thou mayst murder him, if it please thee ; but thereby hast thou not slain all King Harold's sons. To foster another man's child was in Norway re- garded as an acknowledgment of inferiority ; and Harold had thus repaid Ethelstan in his own coin. There are, however, several circumstances which make the story suspicious. In the first place Ethel- stan and his ancestors had had too severe an ex- perience of Norsemen and Danes to wish to challenge the mightiest of them by a wanton insult ; and again, it is more credible that Harold sent his youngest son out of the country for his own safety, ■^- than in order to play an undignified trick upon a foreign king. At all events, Haakon was treated with the greatest kindness by the English king, and won his affection. When Harold the Fairhaired was eighty years old, he felt no longer able to bear the burden of the government. He therefore led Erik to his royal high-seat, and abdicated in his favor. Three years later he died (933), after having ruled over Norway for seventy-three years. * See Munch, i., 591. CHAPTER VI. ERIK BLOOD-AXE (930-935). While Harold's despotism had been civilizing and, on the whole, beneficent, that of Erik Blood- Axe was disorganizing and destructive. With him the old turbulent viking spirit ascended the throne. Power meant with him the means of gratifying every savage impulse. Brave he was, delighting in battle ; cruel and pitiless ; and yet not without a certain sense of fairness and occasional impulses of gen- erosity. In person he was handsome, of stately presence, but haughty and taciturn. Unhappily he married a woman who weakened all that was good in him and strengthened all that was bad. Queen Gunhild possessed a baneful influence over him during his entire life. She was cruel, avaricious, and treacherous, and was popularly credited with all the ill deeds which her husband committed. There are strange legends about her, attributing to witchcraft the power she had over every one who came in con- tact with her. According to Snorre, Erik met her in Finmark, whither she had been sent by her parents to learn sorcery. For the Finns were in those days credited with a deep knowledge of the black art. The two sorcerers with whom she was staying were 74 ERIK BLOOD-AXE. 75 both determined to marry her, and like the princess in the fairy-tale, she concealed Prince Erik in her CYLINDRICAL MOUNTING OF BRONZE PROBABLY FOR THE SHAFT OF A SPEAR. FOUND NEAR STAVANGER. tent, and begged him to rid her of her troublesome suitors. This, in spite of many difficulties, Erik did, carried Gunhild away to his ships, and made her his 76 THE STOR V OF NOR WA V. wife. She was, it is said, small of stature, insinuat- ing, and of extraordinary beauty; but she was the evil genius of her husband, egging him on to deeds of treachery and violence which made him detested by his people. It was in great part the disfavor with which she was regarded which raised rebels against Erik's authority in various parts of the country and brought popular support to his brothers in their endeavor to cast off his yoke. In spite of his father's efforts, Erik's sovereignty had not been universally recog- nized, and no sooner was King Harold dead than Halfdan the Swarthy declared himself to be sover- eign in Trondelag and Olaf* in Viken. A few years after that, however, Halfdan died suddenly, and the rumor said that he had been poisoned by Queen Gunhild. The men of Trondelag then chose his brother Sigfrid for their king, and Erik found his kingdom gradually shrinking both from the north and the south. Being prepared for an attack from Erik, Sigfrid and Olaf determined to join their forces, and to complete all arrangements, the former went to visit the latter in Tunsberg. When Erik heard of this, he went in haste to the town with a large number of men, and surprised and killed both his brothers. Olaf's son Tryggve escaped, however, and was kept in concealment, as long as Erik was master in the land. Erik •had now killed four of his brothers, if not five, and it was the common opinion that Gunhild would not rest until she had exterminated all the * Olaf was the son of King Harold and Svanhild, a daughter of Earl Eystein of Hedemark and Vestfold. ERIK BLOOD-AXE. 7/ race of Harold the Fairhaired outside of her hus- band's Hne. V While Erik was a youth, he had made the acquaint- ance of an Icelander named Thorolf, the son of Skallagrim (Bald Grim) and nephew of Thorolf Kveld- Ulfs son, whom King Harold had treacherously slain. This Thorolf, like his uncle and namesake, was a tall and handsome man, of fine presence and winning manners. He had made Erik a present of a ship, very beautifully built and decorated, and had thereby gained his friendship. In return Erik had obtained from his father permission for Thorolf to remain unmolested in the country. The handsome Icelander made many friends in Norway, among whom two mighty men named Thore Herse and Bjorn the Yeoman. When he returned to Iceland he brought with him, as a gift from the king to his father, an axe with a handle of precious workmanship. But Bald Grim, though he received his son well, treated King Erik's gift with contempt, and finally, when Thorolf again made a cruise to Norway, he sang an insulting verse and begged to have it reported to Erik. The axe he also wished to have returned. Thorolf, who was determined not to revive the ancient feud, threw the axe into the ocean, and conveyed his father's thanks and greeting to the king. If he had had his way, the blood-feud would have been at an end. But he had a younger brother named Egil,* who insisted upon bearing him com- pany, and he soon fanned the dying embers into flame. * Pronounced Agil, " g " hard, as in gimlet, gilt, etc. 78 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Egil was the very incarnation of the old untamable Nc^rse spirit, the turbulent and indomitable individu- alism, which is incapable of considering any but per- sonal aims, and of submitting to any kind of disci- pline. Like his father, Bald Grim, he was large of stature, swarthy, and ill-favored, and displayed in his childhood a fierce and revengeful spirit, but also a rare gift of song, which, no less than his foolhardy deeds, brought him fame during his long and adven- turous career. The two brothers arrived safely in Norway and became the guests of Thore Herse, between whose son Arinbjorn and Egil a warm friendship sprung up. While Thorolf went to be married to Aasgerd, the daughter of Bjorn the Yeoman, Egil was forced by a severe illness to remain at home. When he be- came convalescent, he accompanied one of Thore's overseers to a royal steward named Baard, and met there King Erik and Queen Gunhild. Baard, in his zeal to please the king, neglected the Icelander, and when the latter became unruly, at a hint from the queen, mixed soporific herbs in his beer. Egil's suspicion was aroused, however, and he poured out the beer and killed Baard. Then he ran for his life, swam out to an island in the fjord, and when the island was searched, killed some of those who had been sent to find him ; whereupon he made his es- cape in their boat. Although King Erik was very angry, he accepted the atonement in money which Thore Herse offered for Baard's death, and was per suaded to allow Egil to remain in the land. Queen Gunhild was much incensed at his forgiving spirit, ERIK BLOOD-AXE, 79 and asked if he counted the slaying of Baard as naught ; to which the king repHed : '' For ever thou art egging me on to violence ; but my word, once given, I cannot break/' As no persuasions availed, Gunhild made up her mind to use some one else as the instrument of her retaliation. It is told that she had been fond of Baard, whom Egil had slain ; but as he was a man of low birth, it was scarcely this personal fondness, but rather a sense of outraged dignity which impelled her to persevere in her plans of vengeance. At a great sacrificial feast, at the temple of Gaule, she made her brother, Eyvind Skreyja, promise to kill one of Bald Grim's sons ; but as no chance pre- sented itself, he slew instead one of Thorolf's men ; in return for which he was outlawed by Erik, as a vargi' Iveuvi — i. e., wolf in the sanctuary. The two brothers now went on viking cruises, took service under Ethelstan, in England, and fought under his standard a great battle, in which Thorolf fell. Egil now married his widow, Aasgerd, and returned with her to Iceland. He had then been abroad for twelve years. Hardly had he settled down, however, when he learned that his father-in-law, Bjorn the Yeoman, was dead, and that one of Gunhild's favorites named Berg-Anund, had taken possession of his property. He therefore lost no time in returning to Norway, and with his friend Arinbjorn's aid pleaded his case at the Gulathing, in the presence of the king and queen. But the tJiing broke up in disorder, and Egil had to sail back to Iceland without having ac- complished his purpose. Considerations of pru- 8o THE STORY OF NORWAY. dence had, however, no weight with him, and before long he started for the third time for Norway, sur- prised Berg-Anund, and killed not only him, but the king's son Ragnvald, who was his guest. In order to add insult to injury, he mounted a cliff, and raised what was called a shame-pole, or pole of dishonor, to Gunhild and the king. On the top of the pole he put the head of a dead horse, while he called out in a loud voice : '' This dishonor do I turn against all the land-spirits ^ that inhabit this land, so that they may all stray on wildering ways, and none of them may chance or hit upon his home, until they shall have chased King Erik and Gunhild from the land." Thereupon he cut these words, in runes, into the pole, and sailed back to Iceland. It seemed, too, as if the curse took effect. For when Erik had been four years upon the throne, his youngest brother, Haakon, landed in Trondelag, and the following year was made king. The news ran like wildfire through the country, and was everywhere received Avith jubi- lation. Erik made a desperate effort to raise an army, but the people turned away from him, and he was obliged to flee with his wife and children, and a few followers. Among those who remained faithful to him was Egil's friend, Arinbjorn. He now sailed about as a viking, harrying the coasts of Scotland and England, and finally accepted a portion of Northum- berland in fief from King Ethelstan, on condition of defending the country against Norse and Danish vikings. It was also stipulated that he should be * The land-spirits were ^^«z7 loci; the alliterative formula which Egil pronounced was supposed to have magic power, ERIK BLOOD-AXE. 8 1 baptized and accept Christianity. Although the dif- ferent sagas which deal with Erik's later life give somewhat conflicting accounts, it is obvious that he was no more popular in England than he had been in Norway. It appears that he was once, or proba- bly twice, expelled from Northumberland, but again returned. By a most singular chance, a tempest here drove his mortal enemy right into his clutches. Egil, it is told, was restless and discontented at home ; and the common belief was that Gunhild by sorcery had stolen his peace of mind. He wan- dered uneasily along the strand and looked out for sails, and took no pleasure in his wife and children. Finally, when he could stay at home no longer, he equipped a ship and sailed southward to England. He was shipwrecked at the mouth of the Humber, lost his ship, but saved himself and his thirty war- riors. From people whom he met, he learned that Erik Blood-Axe ruled over the country ; and know- ing that there was slight chance of escape, he rode boldly into York and sought his friend Arinbjorn. Together they went to Erik, who inquired of Egil how he could be so foolish, as to expect any thing but death at his hands. Gunhild, when she saw him demanded impatiently, that he should be killed on the spot. She had thirsted so long for his blood ; she could not endure a moment's delay in her hotly- desired vengeance. Erik, however, granted the Ice- lander a respite until the next morning; Arinbjorn begged him, as a last bid for life, to spend the night in composing a song in honor of Erik. This Egil promised ; and Arinbjorn had food and drink 82 THE ST OR V OF NOR WA Y. brought to him and bade him do his best. Being naturally anxious, he went to his friend in the night and asked him how the song was progressing. Egil replied that he had not been able to compose a line, because there was a swallow sitting in the window whose incessant screaming disturbed him, and he could not chase it away. Arinbjorn darted out into the hall, and caught a glimpse of a woman, who ran at the sight of him. At that very instant, too, the swallow disappeared. To prevent her from re- turning, Arinbjorn seated himself outside of Egil's door and kept watch through the night. For he knew that the swallow was none other than the queen, who by sorcery had assumed the guise of the bird. The next morning Egil had finished his song and committed it to memory. Arinbjorn now armed all his men, and v/ent with Egil and his warriors to the king's house. He reminded Erik of his fidelity to him, when others had forsaken him, and asked, as a reward for his services, that his friend's life be spared. Gunhild begged him to be silent ; and the king made no response. Then Arinbjorn stepped forward and declared that Egil should not die, until he and his last man were dead. " At that price," answered the king, " I would not willingly buy Egil's death, although, he has amply deserved whatever I may do to him." Suddenly, when the king had spoken, Egil began to recite with a clear, strong voice, and instantly there was silence in the hall. This is a portion of his song : IRON POINT OF A SPEAR WITH INLAID WORK OF SILVER, FOUND AT NESNE, IN NORDLAND. 84 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Westward I sailed o'er the sea. Vidrar* himself gave me The ichor of his breast, f And with joy I roamed. As the ice-floes broke, \ Forth I launched the oak; || For my mind's hull § Of thy praise was full. For thy fame, O king. Made me fain to sing ; And to England's shore, Odin's mead ^ I bore. Lo, in Erik's praise, Loud my voice I raise. May my song resound The wide earth around. List to me, my king. Well remembering What I sing to thee Now, unquailingly. For the world knows well How men round thee fell ; Glad has Odin seen The field where thou hast been. Burst the shield and bayed Deep the battle-blade. At its ruddy draught The Valkyrias laughed.** Lo, the sword-stream swayed Like a wild cascade. O 'er the fields away Rang the steel's strong lay. *Odin. fThe gift of song. \ In the spring. || The ship. § Literally : In my mind's ship {i. e., in my breast) bore I this draught of praise. ^ Odin's mead is the gift of poetry. ** The maids of Odin, the choosers of the slain, the Valkyrias, had to keep watch of Erik, to receive the souls of the many whom he slew, and conduct them to Valhalla. ERIK BLOOD- AXE. 85 Men with eager feet Sprang their foe to meet ; ' None thy band knew save Heroes true and brave. For in heart and frame Bright burned valor's flame ; 'Neath their thund'ring tread Shook the earth with dread. 'Mid the weapons' clank Men in death-throes sank : From the heaps of slain Rose thy fame amain. Erik sat immovable while Egil sang, watching his face narrowly. When the song was at an end, the king said : " The song is excellent, and I have now considered what I will do for Arinbjorn's sake. Thou, Egil, shalt depart hence unharmed ; because I will not do the dastardly deed to kill a man who gave himself voluntarily into my power. But from the moment thou leavest this hall, thou shalt never come before my eyes again, nor before the eyes of my sons. Nor is this to be regarded as a reconcilia- tion betw^een thee and me or my sons and kins- men." Thus Egil bought his head by his song, and the song is therefore called '^ Hofudlausn," or " The Ransom of the Head." Egil then took his leave, visited Ethelstan once more ; went to Norway and had many adventures, before he returned to Iceland, where he died between 990 and 995. He was then over ninety years old."^ Another of his poems, called Sonartorek, " The Loss of the Son," is the most beautiful poem in the Icelandic language. * His life is minutely related in Saga Egils Skallagrims-sonar. 86 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Erik Blood-Axe remained in England and suffered many vicissitudes of fate, until he fell in battle in 950 or 954, He is repeatedly mentioned by the English chroniclers under the name of Erik Haroldson. After his death Gunhild had a draapa composed in his honor, an interesting fragment of which is still extant. She then went to Denmark with her $ons, and was well received by the Danish king, Harold Bluetooth (Blaatand), the son of Gorm the Old. n PP muffijmjm pv^m? ',"'imi«y mm 1 1 « £ ^M CHAPTER VII. HAAKON THE GOOD (93 5-96 1 ). Haakon, though he was outwardly his father's image, did not resemble him in spirit. He was of a conciliatory nature, amiable, and endowed with a charm of manner which won him all hearts. It is said that his foster-father had given him the counsel at parting never to sit glum at the festal board, and it is obvious that he took the lesson to heart. When he landed in Trondelag, people flocked about him, and he won the chieftains for his cause by friendli- ness and promises which he afterwards conscien- tiously kept. He took part in the games of the young, and in the serious discussions of the old, excelled in all manly sports, and won admiration no less by his beauty than by his intelligence and generous disposition. The rumor of his arrival spread like fire in withered grass, and people said that old King Harold had come back once more to his people, gentler and more generous than before, but no less mighty and beautiful. The first chieftain whose influence Haakon sought to enlist in his behalf was the powerful Sigurd, Earl of Hlade, who had been the friend and protector of his mother, and the guardian of his infancy. The 87 88 THE STOR Y OF NOR WA V. earl received him well, and promised to support his claims to the kingdom. With this view he called, in Haakon's name, a great meeting of the peasants in Trondelag, and made a speech in which he de- nounced the cruelty of Erik Blood-Axe and declared his allegiance to Haakon. When the earl had finished, Haakon arose and offered, in case the peasants would make him their king, to restore to them their allodium, of which his father had de- prived them. This announcement was received with great rejoicing ; and from all parts of the plain came cries of homage and approval. Amid joyful tumult Haakon was made king, and immediately started southward with a large train of warriors. Wherever he went, the people flocked about him and offered him allegiance. The Oplands * followed the example of Trondelag, and in Viken both chieftains and peasants eagerly espoused his cause. As already related, Erik made a desperate attempt to gather an army, and, failing in this, fled with his family and a few faithful followers to the Orkneys, and thence to England. It was consistent with Haakon's conciliatory dis- position that he did not molest or depose his nephews, Gudrod Bjornsson and Tryggve Olafsson, but confirmed them as kings in Viken. It appears, however, that, nominally at least, they recognized his overlordship. Other sons and grandsons of Harold the Fairhaired he met with the same friend- liness, giving to each what he considered to be his due. As soon as peace was thus established, and * See map. HAAKON THE GOOD. 89 there was no one left to dispute his power, Haakon devoted himself energeti- cally to the improvement of the internal administra- tion of his kingdom. He divided the country into Tiling-Unions, or judicial districts, and by the aid of wise and experienced men greatly improved the laws. One famous code, called the Gulathings- law, has particularly shed lustre upon his name, and the enlargement and improvement of the Frostathings-law is also, by some of the sagas, attrib- uted to him. The only radical change which he introduced was the break- ing up of his father's feudal state, by the restoration of the allodium to the peasants. But this one change neces- sitated many others. When the king relinquished his right to tax the land, he thereby deprived himself of the ability to keep an army, and had to consign, in part, to the peasants themselves the defence of their re- spective districts. It was naturally the sea-coast which was most exposed to attack; and in the ab- sence of all but the most frying pan of bronze with primitive means of com- i^on handle, from the viking go THE STORY OF NORWAY. munication it became possible for an enemy to ravage long stretches of land, before the intelli- gence of his presence reached the king. In order to remedy this, Haakon ordered varder or signal-fires to be lighted, at fixed intervals, all along the coast at the approach of an enemy ; but he partly counter- acted the good effect of the reform by the severe punishment with which he threatened those who, without adequate cause, lighted the varder. In order to obtain the means to defend the coast, he divided it into marine districts, each of which was bound, on demand, to place a fully manned and equipped ship of war at the disposal of the king. This was, of course, but another form of taxation, but was less distasteful to the peasants, because its purpose and necessity were obvious, and no degrad- ing dependence was implied, since the people had again become the free possessors of the soil. Never- theless there are indications that the personal tax, derisively called the nose-tax, which had been intro- duced by Harold, was continued, at least for a while, by Haakon ; as it is expressly stated that his first ships of war were built by the income of the nose-tax. Having arranged the military and judicial affairs of his kingdom, Haakon turned his attention to a matter which he had long had at heart. He had been christened in his childhood in England, and was an earnest votary of the Christian religion. But, coming, as he did, to the kingdom of his father, not as a conqueror, but as a candidate for the people's favor, he did not venture at once to attack the national faith. His friend, Earl Sigurd of Hlade, HAAKON THE GOOD. was a fanatical adherent of the Asa-faith, and Haakon might have counted on his enmity rather than his support, if he had exhibited an ill-considered zeal for the displacement of the old by a new religion. Haakon, there- fore, temporized, and it was not until the fifteenth or six- teenth year of his reign (950- 95 1), when his unbonded popu- larity seemed to warrant any venture, that he took a deci- sive step in behalf of Christianity. He sent to England for a bishop and a number of priests, and published a decree, forbidding the people to sac- rifice to the old gods, and demanding of them that they should accept the faith in Christ. He called upon the peasants to meet him at Drontheim, where he repeated his demand. But the peasants refused to declare them- selves; and begged the king to have the matter legally settled at the Frosta-tJmig. Here there was a great concourse of people ; and when the assembly had been called to order, Haakon rose and in an earnest and dignified speech begged the peasants to forsake the old heathen gods who were but wood and stone, and to believe in the one living God and be baptized in His name. An ominous murmur BREAST - PIN OF BRONZE. FOUND AT BY IN LOITEN. 92 THE STORY OF NORWAY. ran through the crowd at these words, and the peas- ant Aasbjorn of Medalhus arose and answered in these words : " When thou, King Haakon, didst call thy first assembly here in Drontheim, and we took thee for our king, we believed that heaven itself had de- scended upon us ; but now we do not know whether it was liberty we gained, or whether thou wishest to make us thralls once more, by thy strange demand that we shall forsake the faith which our fathers and all their forefathers have had before us. * * * They were sturdier men than we are ; and yet their faith has done well enough for us. We have learned to love thee well, and we have allowed thee to share with us the administration of law and justice. Now, we peasants have firmly determined and unanimously agreed to keep the laws which thou didst propose here at the Frosta-thing, and to which we gave our assent. We all wish to follow thee, and to have thee for our king, as long as a single one of us peasants is alive — if only thou, king, wilt show moderation, and not demand of us things in which we cannot follow thee, and which it would be unseemly for us to do. But if thou hast this matter so deeply at heart that thou wilt try thy might and strength against ours, then we have resolved to part from thee and take another chieftain who will aid us in freely exercising the religion which pleases us. Choose now, O king, between these two conditions, before the assembly has dispersed." Loud shouts of approval greeted this speech ; and it was, for a while, impossible for any one to make HAAKON THE GOOD. 93 himself heard. At last, when the tempest had sub- sided, Earl Sigurd of Hlade, probably after consulta- OVAL BRONZE BUCKLE. tion with Haakon, rose and said that the king would yield to the wishes of the peasants and would not part with their friendship. Encouraged by this first 94 THE STORY OF NORWAY. concession, the peasants now demanded that the king should participate in their sacrifices and preside at the sacrificial feast. Much against his will, Haakon was again induced to yield, but tried to pacify his conscience by making the sign of the cross over the horn consecrated to Odin. During the following year he was also compelled to eat horse-flesh at the Yule-tide sacrifice, and to omit the sign of the cross when drinking the toasts of the heathen gods. Full of wrath be departed, intimating that he would soon come back with an army large enough to punish the Tronders for the humiliation they had put upon him. There is little doubt that he would have car- ried out this threat, if external enemies had not directed his energies in another direction. The sons of Erik Blood-Axe had, after their father's death, sought refuge with King Harold Bluetooth in Denmark. The two elder, Gamle and Guttorm, had roamed about as vikings, ravaged the coasts of Norway and the lands about the Baltic, while the third son, Harold, was adopted by his namesake, the Danish king, and received his education at his court. They were all valiant warriors, but were much gov- erned by their shrewd and cruel mother, Gunhild. They naturally cherished no good-will toward their uncle Haakon, who had dispossessed them of their kingdom ; and wbile they were not yet strong enough to wage regular war, they seized every op- portunity to annoy and harass him. They fought many battles with Tryggve Olafsson, who, as king in Viken, was charged with the defence of the southern coast, and were sometimes victorious and sometimes HAAKON THE GOOD. 95 vanquished. In the year 952, when Tryggve was absent, Haakon took occasion to dehver an effective blow at the Danish vikings who were infesting this part of the country (though the sons of Erik were not this time among them), pursued them south- ward, and harassed the coasts of Jutland and the Danish isles. It appears, however, that this mode of retaliation did not permanently discourage the vikings, and as long as Harold Bluetooth showed open hostility against Norway, by espousing the cause of Gunhild and her sons, it is quite natural that the warlike zeal and rapacity of the Danes should be directed against the neighboring kingdom. It is obvious, too, that Haakon, by his attack upon Danish soil, gave a more personal character to the animosity which the Danish king entertained toward him, and Gunhild lost no time in profiting by this change of feeling. From this time forth her sons ap- pear no longer as warlike adventurers, bent upon private vengeance, but as commanders of fleets and armies, and formidable pretenders to the Norwegian throne. In 953 they defeated Tryggve Olafsson at Sotoness, and compelled him to abandon his ships and save himself by flight. When the news of this disaster reached Haakon, he hastily made peace with the Tronders who had forced him to sacrifice, and called upon Earl Sigurd to aid him with all the ships and men at his command. Earl Sigurd prompt- ly obeyed and sailed southward to meet the king. At Agvaldsness they overtook the sons of Gunhild and vanquished them in a hotly contested battle. Haakon slew with his own hand his nephew Guttorm 96 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Eriksson, and cut down his stan- dard. The surviving brothers fled with the remnants of their army to Denmark, and kept the peace for two years. But in 955 they returned once more with a largely increased force and sur- prised King Haakon at Fraedo in Nordmore. The signal fires had not been lighted, and no intelligence of the presence of the enemy had reached the king until it was too late. He asked his men whether they preferred to stay and fight or avoid battle, until they had gathered a suf^- cient force. To this an old peasant named Egil Uldsaerk (Woolsark) made answer : '' I have been in many battles with thy father, King Harold. Some- times he fought with a stronger and sometimes with a weaker foe. But he was always victori- ous. Never have I heard him ask counsel of his friends as to whether he should run ; nor will we give thee such counsel. For we think that we have in thee a brave chieftain, and trusty aid shalt thou receive from us." When the king praised these words and declared himself EGIL WOOLSARK'S MONUMENT OR BAUTA- STONE AT FREINESS. HAAKON THE GOOD. 97 ready to fight, Egil cried out joyously : *' In this long season of peace I have been afraid that I should die of old age on the straw of my bed — I who never asked any thing better than to follow my chief- tain and die in battle ! Now, at last, I shall have my wish fulfilled." As soon as the sons of Erik had landed, the battle commenced. They had six men for every one of King Haakon's. Seeing that the odds were so heavily against his lord, Egil Woolsark took ten standard-bearers aside and stole up a slope of land in the rear of Gamle Eriksson's battle-array. He made them march with long intervals, so that only the tops of their standards could be seen above the slope, and not the men themselves. The Danes, spy- ing the waving banners, sup- posed that a fresh force was coming to cut them off from their ships, and they raised a great cry and fled. It was in vain that Gamle, who had discovered the stratagem, shouted with a loud voice commanding them to stay. Panic had seized them, and their commander himself was swept away with the hurrying mass, until he reached the beach, where he made a final stand. Here Egil Woolsark attacked him and received his death-wound after a desperate conflict. Haakon too rushed in upon Gamle, who ORNAMENTAL BRONZE MOUNTING. 98 THE STORY OF NORWAY. defended himself bravely, but having received terri- ble wounds, threw himself into the ocean and was drowned. The other brothers swam to their ships and returned to Denmark. This victory secured peace to Norway for six years. Haakon had thus an opportunity to resume his efforts to Christianize the country. But his ex- perience of the peasants' temper had apparently discouraged him. Personally he remained a Chris- tian, and induced many of his friends to forsake the heathen faith. He lacked, however, the uncompro- mising vigor and the burning zeal of a martyr and propagandist. He preferred gentle to harsh meas- ures, and shrank from antagonizing those who had been faithful to him in time of need. It is probable, too, that the counsel of his friend. Earl Sigurd, tended to cool his ardor, by emphasizing the politi- cal phase of the religious question. The result of this conciliatory policy, in connection with the good crops which prevailed during his reign, was to make King Haakon universally beloved. It is doubtful if a king has ever sat upon the throne of Norway who has been closer to the hearts of the people. There- fore, as an expression of their affection for him, they named him Haakon the Good. In the twenty-sixth year of his reign (961) Haakon was summering with his men-at-arms on his estate Fitje in Hordaland. A large number of guests were with him, among whom the scald Eyvind Skalde- spilder (Scald-Spoiler),* who was on his mother's side * Skaldespilder means waster or spoiler of scalds, because no other scald could bear comparison with him. HAAKON THE GOOD. 99 a great-grandson of Harold the Fairhaired. The king was seated at the breakfast-table, when the sentinels saw a large fleet of ships sailing in through the fjord. They called the scald Eyvind aside, and begged him to decide whether those were not hostile ships. Eyvind sprang into the hall where the king was sitting, and sang a verse, an- nouncing the approach of the sons of Erik. Haakon arose and looked at the ships. Then he turned to his men and said : '' Here many ships are coming against us, and our force is but small. It is plainly to be seen that we shall have to fight against heavier odds than ever before ; for the sons of Gunhild come with a larger force to-day than on previous occasions. Loath I am to bring my best men into too great a danger ; and loath I am, too, to flee, unless wise men decide that it would be foolhardy to await the foe." Eyvind Scald-Spoiler replied in verse that it would ill befit a man like King Haakon to flee from the sons of Gunhild. '' Manly speech is that, and in accordance with my mind," answered the king ; and when the other warriors with one accord clamored for battle, he put on his armor, buckled his sword about his loins, and seized spear and shield. On his head he wore a golden helmet which flashed in the sun. Beautiful he was to behold, with his mild and noble countenance, and his bright hair streaming down over his shoulders. Upon the fields without he arranged his men in battle array, and raised his standards. The sons of Erik disembarked with a large army, commanded by the third of lOO THE STORY OF NORWAY. the brothers, Harold, and his two uncles, Eyvind Skreyja and Alf Askman. The battle which now commenced was wild and bloody. The army of the sons of Gunhild was six times as numerous as that of King Haakon. But Haakon, knowing his Norse- men well, did not lose heart. Wherever the fight was hottest, there flashed his golden helmet. He joked with Eyvind, the scald, when he passed him, and improvised a verse in reply to the one with which he was greeted. The fiercer the conflict grew, the higher rose the king's spirits. At last, when the heat oppressed him, he flung away his armor and stormed forward at the head of his men. The sup- ply of spears and arrows soon ran short, and the hostile ranks clashed together and fought, hand to hand, with their swords. The shining helmet made the king very conspicuous, and Eyvind Scald-Spoiler noticed that it served as a target for the Danish spears. He therefore took a hood and pulled it over the helmet. Eyvind Skreyja, who was just rushing forward to meet the king, thereby lost sight of him, and he cried out : " What has become of the king of the Norsemen ? Does he hide himself, or is he afraid ? No more do I see the golden helmet ? " '' Keep on as thou art steering, if thou wishest to find the king of the Norsemen," shouted Haakon, and throwing away his shield, seized his sword with both hands, and sprang forward where all could see him. Eyvind Skreyja bounded forward with uplifted sword, but one of the king's men caught the blow upon his shield, and in the same instant Haakon cleft Eyvind's head and neck down to the shoul- HAAKON THE GOOD. lOI ders. The example of their king fired the Norse- men's courage, while the fall of their greatest champion brought confusion to the Danes. The former charged with renewed fury, while the latter were pressed down to the beach, and leaped into the ocean ; many were killed or drowned, but a few, in- cluding Harold Eriksson, saved themselves by swimming, and were picked up by the ships. While pursuing the fleeing foe, Haakon was hit in his right arm by a peculiarly shaped arrow, and all efforts to staunch the blood proved in vain. It was said that Gunhild had bewitched this arrow and given it to her chamberlain, with the charge that he should shoot it off against King Haakon. As night ap- proached, the king grew weaker and weaker, and fainted repeatedly. One of his friends offered to take his body over to England, when he was dead, so that he might be buried in Christian soil. But Haakon replied : '' I am not worthy of it. I have lived like a heathen, and therefore it is meet that I should be buried like a heathen." Thus died Haakon the Good and, as the saga says, was mourned alike by friends and foes. His last act before dying was to send a ship after the sons of Gunhild, and beg them to come back and take the kingdom ; for he had himself no sons, and his only daughter, Thora, could not, according to the law, succeed to the throne. Eyvind Scald-Spoiler made a song in King Haa- kon's honor, called Haakonarmaal, in which he praised his virtues and described his reception in Valhalla. CHAPTER VIII. HAROLD GRAYFELL AND HIS BROTHERS (961-970). The sons of Gunhild lost no time in taking pos- session of the kingdom of their fathers. It was not, however, the entire Norway to which they succeeded, but only the middle districts. In Viken, Tryggve Olafsson and Gudrod Bjornsson, both grandsons of Harold the Fairhaired, ruled as independent kings, and in Trondelag Earl Sigurd, of Hlade, refused to acknowledge the supremacy of the race of Erik Blood-Axe. Undoubtedly the brothers were only biding their time until they should be strong enough to punish these contemptuous rebels; but so bitter was the feeling against them, even in the provinces which they nominally ruled, that they had all they could do in maintaining their authority within the narrow limits which had from the beginning been as- signed to them. One of the chief causes of their unpopularity was their dependence upon the Danish king, by whose aid they had gained the kingdom, and to whom they apparently stood in a relation of vassalage. As a consequence of this, they took no pains to gain the favor of the Norwegian people, but surrounded themselves with a great throng of Danish warriors who constituted their court and the 102 iiii \'t. I!|||§ i' iiiiii m W ^ 104 THE STORY OF NORWAY. main-stay of their strength. Very unfortunate, too, was the influence which their mother Gunhild exer- cised over them. Scarcely. had she returned to Nor- way, when she resumed her baneful activity, egging her sons on to cruel and treacherous deeds, by which they forfeited the people's respect and undermined their own power. Misfortune had not taught her caution, nor had age softened the fierce malignity of her temper. The oldest surviving brother, Harold, surnamed Graafeld (Grayfell) resembled, in appearance his father, Erik Blood-Axe. He was haughty, avaricious, and revengeful ; tall of stature, finely built, and of lordly presence, but for all that a weak and vacillat- ing character. He lacked entirely that kindliness and bonhommie which had made his uncle Haakon the Good beloved of all the people. Of the other brothers we have no definite knowledge; they seem, however, all to have inherited their share of the traits which made their parents odious. Two of them, Gudrod and Sigurd Sleva, proved them- selves worthy sons of the malicious Gunhild. The others are usually spoken of collectively, and their names are variously given. It may have been the sense of his unpopularity which induced Harold Grayfell to make overtures to the former courtiers of King Haakon. Several of them, it appears, entered his service, but felt them- selves ill at ease among the foreign warriors who enjoyed his favor and confidence. Jealousies and petty bickerings were the order of the day ; every allusion to King Haakon's virtues gave offence, and HAROLD GRAYFELL AND HIS BROTHERS. IO5 when the song of Eyvind Scald-Spoiler, praising his former lord, reached the king's ears, he exclaimed angrily: ''You love King Haakon yet, and it is best that you follow him and become his men." The men then departed, not suddenly, but one by one, and made the names of the sons of Gunhild still more detested throughout the land. Eyvind Scald-Spoiler in a noble verse refused to. be King Harold's court poet, and after his departure made a song in which he compared Haakon with Harold, much to the latter's disadvantage. There was in that year (962) a great dearth of food in the land ; crops and fisheries failed, and the cattle had to be fed with leaf-buds instead of grass. In some dis- tricts snow fell in the middle of summer. The people who believed that the gods had sent these evil times because of their anger at the kings, gave vent to their discontent in loud murmuring. Harold Grayfell and his brothers, it appears, had been bap- tized in their youth in England and were nominally Christians. They refrained from sacrificing, and broke down and destroyed many heathen temples. But they made no effort to enlighten the people re- garding the new religion ; and probably considered questions of faith as being of small moment. Sur- rounded, as they were, by enemies on all sides, their first ambition was naturally to re-conquer the king- dom which Harold the Fairhaired had bequeathed to their father. It became, therefore, a political necessity to break the power of Earl Sigurd of Hlade, as well as of Tryggve Olafsson and Gudrod Bjorns- son in Viken. To do this in open warfare was out I06 THE STORY OF NORWAY. of the question ; and Gunhild, therefore, persuaded her sons to resort to treachery. By flattery and promises, Harold bribed Grjotgard Haakonsson, a younger brother of Earl Sigurd, to send him word when a favorable opportunity should present itself for killing the earl. At the same time the king sent messengers with gifts and friendly assurances to the intended victim, but failed for awhile to lead him into any trap. At last, when these repeated protesta- tions of friendship had, perhaps, made him relax his vigilance, Harold Grayfell and his brother Erling, having received notice from Grjotgard, surprised the earl in the night, while he was away from home, and burned him and all his retinue. By this deed, however, they raised up against themselves an enemy who proved more dangerous to them than the one they had slain. Earl Sigurd's son, Haakon, was twenty- five years old, when his father died, and a man splen- didly equipped in body and mind. He was a great warrior, handsome in person, sagacious, resolute, and friendly and affable in his demeanor. His family was, in some respect, as good as any king's ; for he be- longed to the old tribal aristocracy which had main- tained its authority in Trondelag from the earliest Germanic times. When he was born, King Haakon the Good, who happened just then to be his father's guest, had poured water upon his head and given him his own name. When the intelligence of Earl Sigurd's death reached him, Haakon called the Tronders together, and a great multitude responded to his summons. They clamored for vengeance upon, the treacherous HAROLD GRAYFELL AND HIS BROTHERS. lO/ sons of Gunhild, confirmed Haakon in the dignity which his father had possessed, and declared them- selves ready to follow him. With a great fleet he sailed out of the Drontheim fiord ; but the sons of Gunhild fled southward and did not venture to give battle. The Tronders, having given their allegiance to Earl Haakon, refused to pay taxes to Harold Grayfell, who, after some indecisive fights, was com- pelled virtually to recognize his rival's independence. Haakon, however, was well aware what such a con- cession must have cost the haughty king, and he knew, too, that his independence would last only so long as he was able to defend it. With a view to strengthening his position, he therefore formed an alliance with the two kings in Viken, which only had the effect of speedily bringing down upon the latter the vengeance of Gunhild's sons. Harold Grayfell and his brother Gudrod made a pretence of quarrel- ling, and feigned a furious hostility to each other. A viking cruise which they were about to undertake together was accordingly deferred, and Gudrod, complaining of his brother's conduct, sent a friendly message to Tryggve Olafsson, begging him to accom- pany him on his cruise. Tryggve accepted the in- vitation, and on arriving at the appointed place of meeting was foully murdered with all his men. King Gudrod Bjornsson (the son of Bjorn the Merchant) was about the same time surprised at a banquet by Harold Grayfell, and slain after a desperate resistance. After these exploits, Harold and Gudrod re-united and took possession of Viken. They hastened to King Tryggve's dwelling in the io8 THE STORY OF NORWAY. hope of exterminating his whole race. But Tryg- gve's widow, Aastrid, anticipating their intention, had fled with her foster-father, Thorolf Luse-skjegg, (Lousy- Beard), and a few attendants. She was then with child, and on a little islet 1n the Rand's fiord, where she was hiding, she bore her son Olaf Tryggvesson. Wherever she went Gunhild's spies pursued her. Hearing that she had borne a son, the wily queen spared no effort to get her in her power. During the entire summer Aastrid was com- pelled to remain on the solitary islet, venturing out only in the night, and hiding among the underbrush in the daytime. When toward autumn the nights began to grow darker, she went ashore with her attendants, trav- elling only when the darkness protected them. After many hardships she reached her father Erik Ofrestad's estate in the Oplands ; but even here the wily Gunhild left her no peace. A man named Haakon was des- ARRow-HEADs OF IRON, patchcd wlth thirty armed at- tendants to search for her and her child ; but Erik of Ofrestad got news of their mission in time to send SCISSORS AND HAROLD GRAY FELL AND ILLS BROTHERS. IO9 his daughter and grandson away. Disguised as beg- gars, Aastrid and Thoralf Lousy-Beard travelled on foot from farm to farm, and came toward evening to the house of a man named Bjorn. They asked for food and shelter, but were rudely driven away by the inhospitable peasant. At a neighboring farm, how- ever, they were kindly received by a peasant named Thorstein. Gunhild's emissaries, having searched in vain at Ofrestad, got on the track of the fugitives, and learned at the house of Bjorn that a handsome woman in poor attire, bearing a babe in her, arms, had applied for shelter early in the evening. This conversation one of Thorstein's servants happened to overhear, and on arriving home, related it to his master. Thorstein immediately, with loud chiding and pretended wrath, roused the supposed beggars from their sleep, and drove them out into the night. This he did in order to deceive the servants and other listeners. But when Aastrid and Thoralf were well under way, he told them that Gunhild's hired assassins had arrived at the neighboring farm, and that his only desire was to save them. He also gave them a trusted attendant who could show them the best hiding-places in the forest. At the shores of a lake they concealed themselves among the tall bul- rushes. Thorstein, in the meanwhile, sent their pursuers in the opposite direction, and led them a dance through forest and field in a vain search for the fu- gitives. The next night, when Haakon and his men had given up the search, he sent food and clothes to Aastrid, and furnished her with an escort to Sweden, no THE STORY OF NORWAY. where she found a place of refuge with a friend of her father's named Haakon the Old. Gunhild, how- ever, was not to be discouraged. She sent two em- bassies to King Erik of Sweden, demanding the surrender of Olaf Tryggvesson, and received each time permission to capture the child, without inter- ference on the part of the king. But Haakon the Old was a mighty man, and determined to defend his guests. The threats of Gunhild's embassador did not frighten him. While the latter was speaking, a half-witted thrall, named Buste, seized a dung-fork, and rushed at him, threatening to strike. The em- bassador, fearing to be soiled, took to his heels, and was pursued by the thrall. How the queen received him on his return is not recorded. Of the internal enemies of Gunhild's sons. Earl Haakon of Hlade now alone remained ; and it was not an unnatural desire on their part to reduce him to subjection. Anticipating, as usual, their action, the earl was on the look-out for them ; but having ascer- tained the size of their fleets, he saw the hopeless- ness of his cause, and forthwith sailed to Denmark, where he was well received by King Harold Blue- tooth (964). It will thus be seen that the friendship between Harold Grayfell and the Danish king had not endured the strain of diverging interests. The former, as soon as he felt secure in his power, refused to recognize the latter's claim to Viken, and paid him no taxes. Harold Bluetooth, therefore, allied himself with Earl Haakon, the bitterest enemy of the sons of Gunhild, hoping, by his aid, to regain his lost dominion. What particularly encouraged him HAROLD GRAYFELL AND HIS BROTHERS. Ill in this expectation was the continued dearth which prevailed in Norway, and the resulting unpopularity of the kings which, with every year, grew more pro- nounced. It was of no avail that Harold Grayfell almost every summer went on viking cruises, gain- ing a great fame as a warrior and bringing home rich treasures. The people hated him only less than they hated his mother Gunhild. An exploit of his brother Sigurd Sleva aroused a demonstration of wrath which came near culminating in open rebellion. Sigurd Sleva had paid a visit to a mighty yeoman named Klypp Thorsson, and had, in the absence of the master of the house, been hospitably received by his beautiful wife Aaluf. He had become enam- oured of his hostess, and had grievously insulted her. Klypp, on his return, learned what had oc- curred ; and swore to avenge the shame which had been brought upon him by Gunhild's son. When Harold Grayfell and Sigurd, in the autumn of 964, held a tiling at Vors, they were attacked by the en- raged peasants, and had to save themselves by flight. Klypp, with a number of his friends, pursued Sigurd, slew him with his own hand, and was himself slain by one of Sigurd's men. Earl Haakon, who, from his Danish retreat, watched the events in Norway, heard these tidings with satisfaction. The sudden check which his am- bition had received had made him ill, and for some time he appeared listless, refusing to eat and drink, or to communicate with anybody. But when his plans of vengeance were matured, he rose from his bed, strode forth with his old vigor, and proceeded 1 12 THE STORY OF NORWA V. to weave a complicated net of intrigues. Harold Bluetooth had at that time a difficulty with his nephew Gold-Harold, who demanded a share in the government ; and, having confidence in the sagacity of the earl, he asked his advice. The earl saw here his opportunity, and had no scruple in availing him- self of it. He dissuaded the king from killing his nephew, because such a deed would arouse indigna- tion and alienate the great party in Denmark, who desired to see Gold-Harold on the throne. Far better would it be if he employed Gold-Harold to punish Harold Grayfell and his brothers, and in the end reward him with the throne of Norway. There- by the king would increase his own power, and con- vert a dangerous rival into a friend and ally. This advice seemed good to Harold Bluetooth, and after some persuasion he found courage to act upon it. He sent a friendly message to his foster-son, Harold Grayfell, inviting him to come and take possession of his old fief in Denmark, the income of which he might, indeed, need during the hard times that pre- vailed in Norway. Harold Grayfell, after some vacillation, accepted this invitation, and sailed to Denmark with three ships and two hundred and forty men ; but no sooner had he set foot upon Danish soil than he was attacked by Gold-Harold, who slew him and nearly all his men. This was the first act in the drama which Earl Haakon had planned. The second contained a sur- prise. The earl went to Harold Bluetooth, and represented to him that his nephew, as king of Nor- way, would become a more dangerous rival than he HAROLD GRAY FELL AND HLS BROTHERS. II3 had been before ; and frankly ofTered to kill him, if the king would promise not to avenge his death. Furthermore, he demanded, as his reward, the king- dom of Norway in fief, under the overlordship of the king. All this seemed very tempting to Harold Bluetooth ; and like all weak and vicious men, he made objections only for the purpose of having them overcome. In the end he gave his consent ; and Gold-Harold was immediately attacked and killed by Earl Haakon. With a large army the tvvo con- spirators now sailed for Norway, and won the whole country without striking a blow. So great was the hatred of Gunhild and her sons, that not a man drew his sword in their defence. The two surviving brothers, Gudrod and Ragnfred, made a pretence of resistance, rallying a few followers about them ; but did not venture to give battle. Seeing the hopeless- ness of their cause, they fled with their mother to the Orkneys (965). Ragnfred, however, returned the fol- lowing year with a considerable fleet, largely made up of vikings who had gathered about him, and fought an indicisive battle with Earl Haakon. He even succeeded in reconquering four of the north- western shires. For nearly a year Haakon made no effort to expel him. It was not until the spring of 967, that he felt himself strong enough to appeal to arms once more ; and this time Ragnfred and his brother Gudrod, who in the meantime had joined him, were defeated at Dingeness, and driven into exile. According to the most reliable accounts, they went to Scotland, but continued for several years to harass the coast of Norway by sudden attacks. 114 THE ST OR V OF NOR WA V. They were, however, no longer sufficiently formid- able to cause the earl any serious inconvenience, al- though he was not slow to seize upon their attacks as a pretext for discontinuing the payment of the tax which he had pledged to the Danish king. Gunhild died, in all probability, either in Scotland or the Orkneys, although one of the sagas relates, that she was enticed to Denmark by Harold Blue- tooth, under promise of marriage, and at his com- mand drowned in a swamp. CHAPTER IX. EARL HAAKON (970-995). By his daring intrigue Earl Haakon had attained the goal of his desires. He had avenged his father's death, humiliated his enemies, and gained a power far beyond that of any of his ancestors. With a nature like his, however, no goal is final. The ease with which he had managed Harold Bluetooth and his nephew — using them as tools for his own ends — had, no doubt, inspired him with a supreme confi- dence in his ability, and a corresponding contempt of those whose shrewdness was inferior to his own. The purpose therefore soon matured in his mind to repudiate his obligations to the Danish king, and make himself the independent ruler of Norway. The opportunity for carrying this purpose into effect soon presented itself. The Emperor Otto I. of Ger- many, who claimed sovereignty over Denmark, died in 973, and was succeeded by his young son. Otto n. Harold Bluetooth, who had always resented the emperor's claim, even though he was forced to recognize it, made extensive preparations for a cam- paign against Otto H., and sent messengers to his vassal. Earl Haakon, commanding him to come to his aid with all the forces at his disposal. Earl 115 Il6 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Haakon, whatever his incHnations may have been, did not deem it advisable to disobey, and in the spring of the year 975 sailed southward with a large fleet and army. He did duty for a while in defend- ing the wall of Dannevirke, and actually beat the emperor in a great battle. Then, feeling that his task had been accomplished, he boarded his ships and prepared to sail homeward. The emperor, how- ever, hearing that Dannevirke was deserted by its defenders, returned for a second attack, and forced his way into Jutland. Whether Harold Bluetooth fought with him does not appear. We only know that he accepted a humiliating peace, reaffirming his vassal- age, and, according to a creditable source, promising to introduce the Christian religion, both in his own kingdom and in Norway. It is probable that both Harold and his son, Sweyn Forkbeard, had been bap- tized before, but continued in their hearts to be de- voted to the Asa faith. It was scarcely zeal for Christianity, but fear of the emperor, which induced Harold to send for Earl Haakon and force him to accept baptism and to promise to convert his coun- trymen to the new religion. It is strange that a man as shrewd as Haakon, after his recent desertion of Dannevirke, should have obeyed this summons. In all likelihood the victorious battle which he had fought gave him confidence in his power to justify himself ; and there may also have been circumstances connected with the affair which changed its aspect to contemporaries. It is not inconceivable, however, that he really wished for a plausible pretext for rebelHon, and deliberately took his chances. jUfi^ i*tt^f* Pfi/*p^aJ'ue^/^0 , C<'04/irt^/z^ affirm f^Pf^' "O^nitum/ , HAROLD BLUETOOTH. 1 1 « THE STOR Y OF NOR WA Y. With a ship-load of priests Haakon departed from this fateful meeting with the Danish king. But no sooner was he out of Harold's sight, than he put his priests ashore, and began to harry on both sides of the Sound. On the rocky cliffs of Gautland he made a grand sacrificial feast, to counteract the effect of his recent baptism, and stood watching for a re- sponse from the old gods, that they looked upon him with favor, and would give him success in the war he was about to undertake. Then two ravens came and followed his ships, " clucking " loudly. The ravens were the birds of Odin, and Haakon saw in their flight a happy augury. A warlike fury seems now to have possessed him. With a recklessness which in so prudent a man is inconceivable (except under high religious excitement), he burned his ships, landed with his army on the coast of Sweden, and marched northward, ravaging the land with fire and sword. A broad track of blood and desolation fol- lowed his destructive progress. Even in the Nor- wegian province Viken, which Harold Bluetooth had given to Sweyn Forkbeard, he continued his devas- tations in pure wantonness, as if to advertise his de- fiance of the Danish king and all that belonged to him. From Viken he took his way overland to Drontheim, where he henceforth lived as an independent sover- eign ; though for some reason he refrained from as- suming the royal title. It was probably some time before Harold Blue- tooth could raise an army strong enough to pursue the earl and defeat him in his own stronghold. There is some doubt, however, whether his campaign EARL HAAKON. II9 to Norway, for the purpose of punishing his rebelHous vassal, took place in 976 or two or three years later. Following Haakon's example, he laid the land waste, killing and burning every thing in his path. In Laerdal in Sogn, he left only five houses unburned. When, however. Earl Haakon sailed southward to meet him with a numerous fleet, the king suddenly lost his courage, set sail, and made for home. It is said that Harold Bluetooth had on that occasion no less than twelve hundred ships. Earl Haakon had now peace for some years. He had, as soon as he had conquered the sons of Gun- hild, married the beautiful Thora, daughter of the powerful chieftain Skage Skoftesson : and had by her two sons, Sweyn and Heming, and a daughter, Bergljot. Considerably older than these children, was the earl's illegitimate son, Erik, who, according to one account, was born when his father was but fifteen years old. There is, however, good reason for questioning this statement. Erik was a stubborn and turbulent youth, who could not be induced to respect the authority of his father. When he was ten or eleven years old, he got into a dispute with Haakon's brother-in-law Tiding-Skofte, about the right to anchor his ship next to the earl's. Tiding- Skofte, who was a great favorite of the earl's, had been especially granted this privilege and was in- clined to insist upon it. To avenge this insult Erik watched his chance and slew him a year later. He thereby incurred the hostility of his father, and fled to Viken, where Sweyn Forkbeard gave him a cordial reception, I20 THE STORY OF NORWAY. It was scarcely to be expected that Harold Blue- tooth should quietly accept the humiliation which Earl Haakon had put upon him. He was, indeed, getting too old himself to measure strength again with his powerful antagonist ; and he therefore dele- gated the task of punishing him to his friends and allies. Among the latter were the celebrated Joms- vikings, who lived at Jomsborg, on the island of Wollin, at the mouth of the river Oder. These vikings were a well-disciplined company of pirates, who made war their exclusive business, living by rapine and plunder. They were bound by very strict laws to obey their chief, to spurn death and danger, to aid each other, and to endure pain uncomplain- ingly. Like the Italian condottieri, they were will- ing to serve any master with whom their chief could make satisfactory arrangements. For women they professed contempt, and no woman was permitted to enter their burgh. These formidable marauders Harold Bluetooth endeavored to stir up against his rebellious vassal. At a funeral feast which their chief, Earl Sigvalde, made in honor of his father, a great throng of warriors were present ; the ale and mead flowed abundantly, and there was much good cheer in the hall. When Earl Sigvalde rose to drink the toast to Brage, he vowed that before three winters were past he Avould kill Earl Elaakon or ex- pel him from his realm, or himself die in the attempt. The other vikings, not wishing to be outdone by their chief, made vows scarcely less daring ; and the enthusiasm rose to such a pitch that no achievement seemed beyond their strength. When they woke up EARL HAAKON. 121 the next niornrng, the affair wore a slightly different aspect ; but having once promised, they could not retreat. So they made a virtue of ne- cessity, and prepared in haste for the attack. The rumor of their vows had, however, preceded them, and reached Erik, the son of Earl Haa- kon. Disregarding his fa- ther's hostility, he hurried northward to Drontheim with all the men he could gather, and placed them at the dis- posal of the earl. The Joms- vikings, in the meanwhile, occupied themselves in plun- dering the coasts of Norway, sailing slowly northward with a well-manned fleet of sixty ships. The number of their warriors was between seven and eight thousand. They met Earl Haakon and his sons Erik, Sweyn, Sigurd, and Erling at Hjorungavaag RUNESTONE FROM STRAND IN RYFYLKE. THE IN- SCRIPTION WHICH IS IN THE OLDEST NORSE RUNES READS AS FOL- LOWS: I, HAGUSTALD, BURIED IN THIS HILL MY SON, HADULAIK. 122 THE STORY OF NORWAY. in Sondmore. The earl had one hundred and eighty ships, the majority of which were inferior in size and equipment to those of his enemies ; and according to a probable calculation, his force amounted to ten or eleven thousand men. So many men and ships had scarcely ever before been seen together in the North, and the sagas relate that the fight in Hjorungavaag (986) was the greatest battle that has ever been fought in Norway. As Earl Haakon saw the first of the Jomsvikings sailing up the sound, he disposed his own ships in battle-array. He gave his oldest son Erik command of the right wing, placed Sweyn on the left, and himself commanded the centre. Opposite to Sweyn were the ships of the famous Jomsviking Vagn Aakesson, whose impetuosity and daring had made him dreaded far and wide. The young Earl Sweyn was no match for such an antagonist, and after a gal- lant resistance he began to retreat. His brother Erik, seeing the imminent danger, rowed around to his wing, drove Vagn back, and forced his brother to resume his position. Then he hastened back to his own wing, and came just in time to check the progress of Bue the Big (Digre), who commanded the corresponding wing of the Jomsvikings. The battle now grew furious, and the carnage on both sides was tremendous. The spears and arrows fell in rattling showers about Earl Haakon, as he stood in the prow of his ship, and so many hit him that his shirt of mail was torn into strips, and he was forced to throw it away. The ships of the vikings were higher than those of the Norsemen, and the advantage EARL HAAKON. 1 23 which this afforded the former told at first heavily against the latter. Then, it is told, Earl Haakon suddenly disappeared, and the legend relates that he took his youngest son Erling, went ashore with him, and sacrificed him to the gods for victory. Instantly the skies grew black, and a violent hail-storm beat down, pelting the faces of the Jomsvikings and al- most blinding them. Every grain of hail, says the saga, weighed two ounces. Some even declared that they saw the maidens of Odin, the Valkyrias, Thorgerd and Irp, standing in the prow of Earl Haakon's ship, sending forth a deadlier hail of un- erring arrows. The Jomsvikings fought half blindly, fell on the slippery decks in a slush of blood and melting hail, but in spite of the twilight and con- fusion yet held their own. Then suddenly their chief. Earl Sigvalde, turned and fled. Vagn Aakesson, who saw him, cried out in a frenzy of rage : " Why dost thou' flee, thou evil hound, and leave thy men in the lurch ? That shame shall cling to thee all thy days." Earl Sigvalde made no reply ; and it was well for him that he did not ; for in the same instant a spear was hurled forth from Vagn's hand, transfixing the man at the helm. A moment before Vagn had seen his chieftain there, and it was for him the spear was intended. Confusion now became general ; and all Earl Sigvalde's men, seeing that his standard was gone, fell out of line and fled. At last only Vagn Aakesson and Bue the Big were left. Earl Haakon pulled up alongside the ship of the latter and a com- bat ensued, which, in wildness and fury, has scarcely a parallel in the records of the sagas. Two great 124 THE STORY OF NORWAY. champions of the Jomsvikings, Haavard the Hewer (Huggende) and Aslak Rock-skull (Holmskalle), vaulted over the gunwale of the earl's ship and made tremendous havoc, until an Icelander seized an anvil which was used for sharpening the weapons and dashed it against Aslak's head, splitting his skull. Haavard had both his feet cut off, but fought on furiously, standing on his knees. The spears whizzed about the earl's ears and the arrows flew past him with their angry twang. His men fell and the Jomsvikings were pressing forward. Then, in the nick of time, came his son Erik, and, with a throng of his men, boarded the galley of Bue the Big. In their first onset Bue received a terrible cut across the nose. '^ Now," he cried, '' I fear the Danish maidens will no more kiss me." Then, seeing that resistance was vain, he seized two chests full of gold and shouted : '' Overboard all Bue's men," and leaped into the sea. Vagn Aakesson's galley was likewise boarded, and there was a repeti- tion of former scenes of carnage. When all but thirty of his men were dead he at last surrendered. The captives were brought ashore and ordered to sit down in a row upon a long log. Their feet were tied together with a rope, while their hands remained free. One of Earl Erik's men, Thorkell Leira, whom Vagn at that memorable funeral feast had promised to kill, was granted the privilege to reciprocate the intended favor toward Vagn. With his axe uplifted he rushed at the captives, and, beginning at one end of the log, struck off one head after another. He meant to keep Vagn until the last, in order to in- EARL HAAKON. 1 25 crease his agony. But Vagn sat chatting merrily with his men ; and there was much joking and laughter. " We have often disputed," said one, " as to whether a man knows of any thing when his head is off. That we can now test, for if I am conscious, after having lost my head, I will stick my knife into the earth." When his turn came all sat watching with interest. But his knife fell from his nerveless grasp, and there was no trace of consciousness. One of the vikings on the log seemed particularly in excellent spirits. He laughed and sang, as he saw the bloody heads of his comrades rolling about his feet. Just at that moment Earl Erik approached and asked him if he would like to live. ''That depends," answered the viking, ''upon who it is who offers me life." " He offers who has the power to do it," said the earl ; " Earl Erik himself." " Then I gladly accept," the viking replied. The next in order, as the executioner walked up to him, made an equivocal pun, which, however, pleased Earl Erik so well that he set him free. Eighteen had now been beheaded and two pardoned. The twenty-first was a very young man with long, beautiful hair and a handsome countenance. As Thorkell Leira paused before him he twisted his hair into a coil and begged him not to soil it with his blood. In order to humor him, Thorkell told one of the bystanders to take hold of the coil while he struck off the head. The man consented ; but just 126 THE STORY OF NORWAY. as the axe was descending, the Jomsviking pulled his head violently back, and the obliging assistant had both his hands cut off. " Some of the Jomsvikings are alive yet," he cried, as he raised his head laughing. Earl Erik, who had witnessed this scene, asked him his name. " I am said to be a son of Bue," he answered. "Very likely is that," said the earl ; "do you wish to live ? " "What other choice have I?" asked the young viking. When Thorkell Leira observed that Earl Erik was in a forgiving mood, he grew very wroth. Fearing that he might be thwarted in his vengeance on Vagn Aakesson, he sprang past the remaining men and, with his axe raised above his head, rushed toward his enemy. One of the men on the log, however, seeing his chief's danger, flung himself forward so that Thorkell stumbled over his body and dropped his axe. Instantly Vagn was on his feet, seized the axe and dealt Thorkell such a blow that the axe went through the neck, and the blade was buried in the earth. Thus Vagn Aakesson was the only one of the Jomsvikings who accomplished what he had vowed to do. Earl Erik, full of admiration of his feat, now had his bonds removed and gave him his liberty. The other prisoners who were yet alive were also set free at the earl's command. Not far from the spot where this occurred sat Earl Haakon wdth many of his chieftains. Suddenly the loud twang of a bow-string was heard, and in the EARL HAAKON. 12/ same instant Gissur the White, from Valders, who sat next to the earl and was more magnificently dressed than he, fell dead, pierced by an arrow. Many men hastened down to the ship whence the arrow had come, and found Haavard the Hewer, who, half dazed with loss of blood, stood on his knees with his bow in his hands. *' Tell me, lads," he said, '' did any one fall over there at the tree ? " He was told that Gissur the White had fallen. " Then I was not so much in luck as T had hoped," he remarked ; '' for that arrow was meant for the earl." It was plain that the favorable result of this great battle was due chiefly to the intrepidity and circum- spection of Earl Erik. His father would perhaps have recognized this fact, if the son had not appar- ently superseded his authority in sparing the life of so important a man as Vagn Aakesson without con- sultation with the commander-in-chief. He did not, however, venture to disregard Earl Erik's pardon, but loudly expressed his discontent, and parted from his son in anger. Vagn followed his rescuer south- ward, and became his familiar friend and companion. Earl Haakon's power was now so well confirmed that no one ventured to dispute his supremacy. Crops and fisheries were good. The people enjoyed many years of peace and contentment. The earls of the Orkneys paid Haakon tribute, as if he had been a king, and a king he was in every thing except the name. His family had always been associated with the ancient temple and earldom of Hlade ; and it was a matter of pride with him to retain his ancestral dig- 128 THE STORY OF NORWAY. nity. This is significant when we consider how he was in all things a man of the old dispensation. At a time when heathenism was slowly crumbling away, and the faith in the old gods was losing its hold upon the upper classes, Haakon was a devout and sincere heathen. The continual intercourse of Norway with England and the lands of the South had half imper- ceptibly weakened the old superstitions and made the legends of Odin and Thor appear to many like nursery tales which grown-up men could scarcely be expect- ed to believe. Repudiation of all supernaturalism and a proud reliance upon his own good sword was at this time characteristic of the Norse viking, who prided himself upon his knowledge of the world and his deeds in distant lands. For all that the Asa faith as later events will prove, had yet a sufificient num- ber of sincere believers to make the progress of the new faith slow and sanguinary. Nevertheless so atrocious an act as the sacrifice of one's own child could not have failed to arouse indignation even among the worshippers of Odin and Thor. Such horrors were tolerated far back in the gloom of pri- meval antiquity, but must have been felt in the tenth century as a hideous anachronism. How much Earl Haakon's heathen fanaticism contribu- ted to his downfall is difficult to determine. The sacrifice of Erling during the battle with the Jomsvikings, though it was generally regarded as a fact, was not the original cause of the rebellion which cost the earl his throne and his life. The vices by which he forfeited his early popularity were of a kind which assert their sway over men, irre- spective of religions. EARL HAAKON, 1 29 In the year 995 Earl Haakon was travelling in Gauldale, collecting taxes. His son Erlend, of whom he was very fond, lay with some ships out in the fiord, waiting to receive the treasure. One evening the earl sent a company of thralls to the house of the powerful peasant Brynjulf, commanding him to send him his wife, who was renowned for her beauty. Brynjulf refused, and the earl in great anger sent the thralls back with this message to the indignant husband, that he had the choice between death and the surrender of his wife. The peasant was obliged to yield, and with a heavy heart let his wife depart with the thralls. But no sooner was she gone than he recovered his manhood and swore ven- geance. He summoned the inhabitants of the valley from far and near, and told them of the shame the earl had put upon him. All promised him their help, and resolved to hold themselves in readiness, awaiting the first opportunity for attacking the daring profligate. The earl, in the meanwhile, being quite ignorant of their designs, played into their hands. V'ery soon after his adventure with Brynjulf's wife, he sent a message of similar- purport to Orm Lyrgja, whose wife Gudrun, on account of her beauty, was surnamed " Lundarsol " (the Sun of Lunde).'^ Orm, who was a man of great authority in his valley, sent word to all his neighbors, and after having feasted the earl's thralls, in order to detain them, refused to comply with their demand. Gudrun, who saw them depart, cried jeeringly after them : ^' Give the * Lund means a grove, and her name might thus be rendered : " The Sun of the Grove." I30 THE STORY OF NORWAY. earl my greeting, and tell him that I will not go to him unless he sends Thora of Rimul to fetch me." Thora of Rimul was one of the earl's mistresses, whom his favor had made rich and powerful. War-summons was now sent from farm to farm and a great band of armed peasants came together, and marched toward Medalhus where Haakon was stay- ing. He sent in haste a message to his son Erlend, to meet him at More, whither he intended to go, as soon as the army of the peasants had dispersed. Then his time for vengeance would be at hand. In the meanwhile he would be obliged to dismiss his men and hide, until the excitement should have sub- sided. With a single thrall named Kark, whom he had received as tooth-gift "^ and who had been his playmate in his boyhood, he fled across the Gaul river, rode his horse into a hole, and left his cloak upon the ice, in order that his pursuers might believe that he had been drowned. Then he hastened to his mistress, Thora of Rimul, who hid him and the thrall in a deep ditch under her pigsty. Food, candles, and bedclothes, were given them, whereupon the ditch was covered with boards and earth, and the pigs were driven out over it. As it happened, Olaf Tryggvesson, whose young life Queen Gunhild had vainly endeavored to destroy, had just then landed in Trondelag and had slain the earl's son Erlend. The peasants, hearing that he was of the race of Harold the Fairhaired, received him with delight and ac- * It was customary to give to infants of high birth a thrall or some other valuable gift when it got its first tooth. This gift was called a tooth-gift. EARL HAAKON. I3I companied him to Rimul, where they thought it likely that the earl must be hidden. After a vain search Olaf called them together, and mounting a big stone, close to the pigsty, de- clared in a loud voice that he would give a. great reward to him who would find the earl and slay him. In his damp and malodorous hiding-place the earl sat, gazing anxiously at his thrall. Every word of Olaf's speech he could plainly hear, and by the light of the candle which stood on the earth between them, he saw that Kark, too, was eagerly listening. ''Why art thou now so pale?" asked the earl, "and now again as black as earth. Is it not because thou wilt betray mcf^ " " No," replied Kark. ''We were both born in the same night," said the earl, after a pause; "and our deaths will not be far apart." They sat for a long time in shuddering silence, each distrusting the other. From the stillness above they concluded that night was approaching; but neither dared to sleep. At last Kark's weariness overpowered him ; but he tossed and mumbled ex- citedly in his sleep. The earl waked him and asked him what he had been dreaming. " I dreamed," answered Kark, " that we were both on board the same ship and that I stood at the helm." " That must mean that thou rulest over thine own life as well as mine. Be therefore faithful to me, Kark, as behooves thee, and I will reward thee when better days come." 132 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Once more the thrall fell asleep and labored heav- ily, as in a nightmare. The earl woke him again and asked him to relate his dream. *' I thought I was at Hlade," said Kark, ^' and Olaf Tryggvesson put a golden ring about my neck." ''The meaning of that," cried the earl, "is that Olaf Tryggvesson will put a red ring'^ about thy neck, if thou goest to seek him. Therefore, beware of him, Kark, and be faithful to me. Then thou wilt enjoy good things from me, as thou hast done before." The night dragged slowly along and each sat star- ing- at the other, with rigid, sleepy eyes, which yet dared not close. Toward morning, however, the earl fell backward and sleep overwhelmed him. But the terrors of his vigil pursued him sleeping. His soul seemed to be tossed on a sea of anguish. He screamed in wild distress, rolled about, rose upon his knees and elbows, and his face was terrible to behold. Then Kark sprang up, seized his knife and thrust it into his master's throat. Soon after he presented himself before Olaf Tryggvesson with the earl's head, claiming the reward. But Olaf verified the murdered man's prophecy. He put not a ring of goldj but one of blood about the traitor's neck (995). Earl Haakon was the last champion of paganism upon the throne of Norway. He was a man of great natural endowment, fearless yet prudent, formidable in battle, and in his earlier years justly popular for * The red ring means, of course, a ring of blood ; i. «• ^ although thou wast a year older than I ? " " I remember also," Eystein replied, " that thou wast my inferior in agility," Step by step they now advanced through child- hood and youth, comparing each other's proficiency in swimming, skating, shooting, skee-running, and in personal appearance. Finally, Sigurd touched the main point at issue, when he said : " It has been generally acknowledged that the campaign, which I made in foreign lands, was in sooth worthy of a chieftain, while thou sattest at home in thy country like thy father's daughter." 4<^ * 'X- J think I also remember," Eystein re- joined, "that it was I who fitted thee out from home for that campaign, as I would have done a daughter." " But I went to the Holy Land and to Africa, but there I saw thee not. I won eight battles. Thou wast not in one of them. I went to the sepulchre of Christ ; there I saw thee not. I went to the River EYSTEIN, SIGURD, AND OLAF MAGNUSSON. 299 Jordan, by the same road that our Lord had gone, and I swam across ; but I saw thee not there. I tied a knot for thee in the underbrush on the river- bank, and it is yet waiting for thee to untie it. I HITTERDAL CHURCH. ILLUSTRATING OLD NORSE ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE. conquered the city of Sidon with the king of Jerusalem, without thy aid or counsel." Eystein listened imperturbably to this long list of his brother's deeds, and finally answered : " I have indeed heard, that thou didst fight some battles 300 THE STORY OF NORWAY. abroad, and what I have to match against such deeds is but trifles. North in Vaagen I put up booths for the fishermen, so that poor people may find shelter and earn their living. I had a church erected, appointed a priest, and gave land for the support of the church. * * * Those who enjoy the benefit of this will remember that Eystein was king in Norway. * * * Across the Dovre Mountain there was much travel. There people lay out on the rocks and suffered hardships. I built an inn and endowed it. The travellers, who now reap the benefit of this, will remember King Eystein. At Agdeness there was a dangerous coast and no harbor, so that ships were often wrecked. There I constructed a harbor, where there is excellent anchor- age for all ships. -^^ -^^ * I likewise built a church there and put up sea-marks on the high mountains. * * * All these things are now of service to fishermen and merchants who carry the products of the land from place to place, and they, while bene- fiting by them, will remember me. -^ ^ * The inhabitants of Jemteland I made subject to this realm, not by violence, but by gentle words and rational negotiations. -^ •5«- * AH these things are perhaps of small moment, but I do not believe that they are of less benefit to my country and people, and will profit my soul less, than it will profit thine to have sent Moors to the devil, and expedited them head over heels to hell. ^ * -^ Now, as regards the knot thou didst tie for me, then, me- thinks, I might have tied such a knot for thee that thou wouldst never have been king in Norway, when EY STEIN, SIGURD, AND OLAF MAGNUSSON. 30I thou returnedst from thy campaign, and didst sail hither with but a single ship. Let, now, intelligent men judge, what advantage thou hast over me, and know ye, ye purse-proud braggarts, that there are yet men in Norway, who dare hold themselves your equals." This was the end of the '' man-measuring " ; and both kings were very wroth. Several other incidents are recorded, which show that Sigurd's jealousy of his brother would, at length, have brought about a breach of the peace, if death had not suddenly made an end of their intercouse. Eystein died at the age of thirty-three, August 29, 1 122. The youngest brother, Olaf, had died (11 15) before he reached manhood, and Sigurd was accord- ingly the sole ruler in the land. He was now free from the restraint, which Eystein's pacific disposition had imposed upon him, and he presently availed himself of his liberty to make a crusade into the Swedish province Smaaland, where paganism yet lingered (11 23). He attacked the town of Kalmar, from which incident the war has been called the Kalmar War. Whether he succeeded in converting the pagans is not known ; nor are any other results of the crusade recorded. After his return from this campaign, a great calamity befell him. Once, it is told, when he was in his bath, he called out, that there was a fish in the bath-tub, and ran about trying to catch it. It was the first symptom of the insanity which darkened the remaining years of his life. He was often sane for long periods ; but, at times, he would sit and brood with wildly rolling eyes, or 302 THE STORY OF NORWAY. break out into paroxysms of wrath. Once, on the day of Pentecost, when his madness came upon him, he took a precious book,''^ which he had brought with him from Constantinople, and, gazing gloomily at Queen Malmfrid, who was sitting at his side, said : " How many things can change in a man's lifetime ! When I returned to my country, I owned two things which seemed to me most precious, — this book and the queen. Now the one seems only more worthless than the other. The queen does not know how hideous she is ; for a goat's horn is sticking out of her head. ^ -J^ ^ And this book here is good for nothing." Then he rose, gave the queen a slap, and flung the book into the fire. But in the same instant, a young taper-bearer, named Ottar Birting, jumped forward, snatched the book from the flames, and stepped fear- lessly before the king. '' Different it is now, my lord," he said, " from the time, when thou didst sail with pomp and splendor to Norway, and all thy friends hastened with joy to meet thee. -^ * * Now the days of sorrow have come upon us ; for to this glorious feast many of thy friends have come, but they cannot be glad because of thy sad condition. Be now so kind, good my lord, to accept this advice. Rejoice by thy gentleness first the queen, whom thou hast so sorely offended, and then all thy chieftains, thy men-at-arms, thy friends, and thy servants." *' How darest thou, ugly, low-born tenant's son, give me counsel ? " cried the king, springing up and drawing his sword. * A codex written in letters of gold, containing probably a portion of the Bible. EY STEIN, SIGURD, AND OLAF MAGNUSSON. 303 All the guests expected, in the next moment, to see Ottar's head roll on the floor. But Ottar stood, gazing calmly into the king's face, and did not stir from the spot. Then Sigurd suddenly stayed his hand and let the sword fall gently upon his shoulder. He rebuked his liegemen, for not having protested against his insane acts, and thanked the youth for his courage. " Go, therefore, Ottar," he finished ; " and take thy seat among the liegemen. Thou shalt no more wait upon any one." Ottar Birting became in later years a man of great fame and authority. It may have been due to the unsoundness of his mind that Sigurd, in the last years of his, life com- mitted an act, which, however generous it may seem, was scarcely politically defensible. In the year 11 29, a young Irishman named Harold Gil- christ arrived in Norway and declared that he was a son of Magnus Barefoot. It was known that King Magnus had had a mistress in Ireland, and during his last battle he is said to have recited averse about an Irish girl, whom he loved above all others. It is therefore probable that Harold Gilchrist was, or at least believed himself to be, heir to the throne of Nor- way. He went to King Sigurd,who listened to his story^ and allowed him to prove the truth of his statement by submitting to the ordeal by fire. He walked over the red-hot ploughshares and endured the test suc- cessfully. It was the priests who had charge of such ordeals, and it was believed that they had the result in their power. Harold Gilchrist, or Gille, as the 304 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Norsemen called him, was now acknowledged by the king as his brother, on condition that he should make no claim to the government, as long as Sigurd or his son Magnus was alive. It was, however, no easy task for the king to secure for the long- necked, thin-legged, and lanky Irishman the respect which was due to a member of the royal family. In the first place Harold's appearance was against him, and in the second place, he stammered and could scarcely make himself understood in Norwegian. The king's son, Magnus, hated and ridiculed him, and among the liegemen there were many who be- lieved him to be an unscrupulous adventurer. A few years before his death, Sigurd put away Queen Malmfrid, disregarding the warning of Bishop Magne, and married a beautiful and high-born woman, named Cecilia. He did not long survive this marriage. Many of his friends urged him, for the good of his soul, to dissolve it. But the fascina- tion, which Cecilia exercised over him, was so great, that he could not bear the thought of losing her. At last, when he was taken ill, she herself sug- gested a separation. " I did not know that thou, too, didst despise me like the rest," he answered sadly. His face flushed purple, and he turned away from her. His illness now took a turn for the worse, and on March 26, 1 1 30, he died, forty years old. Dissipations had undermined his health, and his insanity had long- unfitted him for the cares of government. For all that, there seems to be a halo about his name, partly on account of his early fame, and EY STEIN, SIGURD, AND OLA F MAGNUSSON. 305 partly because of the good crops and commercial prosperity which prevailed during his reign. He seemed to the people a grand figure, and, in spite of his great faults, every inch a king. What may have contributed more than any thing else to en- dear his memory to later generations was the evil times that broke over the land at his death. He seemed himself to have a foreboding of this, when he said: "Ye are badly off, ye Norsemen, for you have a mad king ; and yet methinks that, in a short while, you will be willing to give the red gold to have me as your king, rather than Harold or Magnus; for the former is cruel ; the latter is devoid of sense." CHAPTER XX. MAGNUS THE BLIND (l 130-1 135) AND HAROLD GILLE (11 30-1 136). When the tidings of his father's death reached him, Magnus hastened to summon a thmg in Oslo and have himself proclaimed king of the whole country. Harold, who had been waiting for this opportunity to break his oath, did the same at Tunsberg; only he contented himself preliminarily with half the kingdom. Magnus naturally refused to recognize his claim, and the people were soon divided into two parties, one of which sided with Magnus, while the other supported Harold. In point of character they were both equally un- fitted for the leadership of a nation. Magnus was a coarse, avaricious, and arrogant roisterer, addicted to drink, and incapable of any noble impulse. Harold was a weak and vacillating man, jolly, liberal, and easy-going, in whom the Irish characteristics pre- dominated. He was pliable as wax in the hands of the liegemen, to whom he left all the cares of state, while he himself conceived of the royal dignity as a mere privilege to live high, wear good clothes, and enjoy certain honors in daily intercourse. The tribal magnates, who had long been excluded from 306 MAGNUS THE BLIJVD AND HAROLD GILLE. 307 the power which they believed to be their due, were therefore attracted to him, while Magnus repelled them by his haughtiness and avarice. For three years the two rivals kept the peace ; but the fourth winter after their accession, Magnus began to collect troops, and attacked Harold at Fyrileiv (1134) in Viken, winning a great victory. He was so elated at his success that, contrary to the advice of the liegemen, he dismissed his army and betook himself to Bergen, where he lived riotously, paying no heed to Harold's movements. The latter, in the meanwhile, had found a refuge in Denmark, and had received the province of Halland in fief. He soon gathered a suflficient force to invade Norway, and as he sailed northward to Bergen, he gained many ad- herents in the coast-shires. Magnus, when he heard of his approach, lost his head completely, rejected the counsel of his friend, Sigurd Sigurdsson, and contented himself with scattering about the city a kind of sharp, iron '' foot-hooks," which in the end only injured his own men, and locking the harbor with iron chains, whereby he prevented his own es- cape, when shortly afterward the town fell into his enemy's hands. Most of his men then abandoned him, while he himself, with his faithful friend, Ivar Assersson, remained on his ship, until it was boarded by Harold's men. It is scarcely an excuse for Harold Gille to say, that his friends induced him to commit the atrocity, of which he was now guilty. He did not content himself with putting Magnus' eyes out, but he cut off one of his legs and subjected him to another still 308 THE STORY OF NORWAY. more revolting mutilation. Ivar Assersson, who strik- ingly resembled King Magnus, was asked whether he would now care to resemble him ; and the brave man answered unflinchingly that he would, whereupon he too was blinded. The miserable Magnus was now dressed in a monk's garb and shut up in the monas- tery of Nidarholm. Bishop Reinald, who was sus- pected of having the royal treasures in his keeping, was hanged because he would not reveal their hiding- place. These misdeeds did not long remain unavenged. In the summer of 1136 came a man, named Sigurd, to Norway, who also claimed to be a son of Magnus Barefoot. Sigurd was a man of great intelligence, courage, and ambition ; and in those respects, at least, a much worthier pretender than the weak, vicious Harold Gille. He had led a very adven- turous life, played an important role in the feuds between the Earls of the Orkneys, visited Rome and the Holy Land, and bathed in the Jordan. The ability of Harold Hard-Ruler and the restless and enterprising spirit of Magnus Barefoot seemed to be united in him. His mother, Thora Saxe's-Daughter, is said to have kept the secret of his paternity from him until he was grown, because Magnus Barefoot had had a child by her sister, and a sense of shame had therefore kept her silent. As a boy, Sigurd had an ungovernable disposition, and in order to tame his wildness, his foster-father had him educated and consecrated to the church. When he finally kicked through the traces, he was therefore called Sigurd Slembedegn, i. c, the Bad Priest. MAGNUS THE BLIND AND HAROLD GILLE. 309 On his return to Norway in 11 36 Sigurd went to Harold Gille, after having procured a safe-conduct, and announced his origin. There was now a chance for Harold to return the generosity, which Sigurd the Crusader had shown to him when he came, as a poor and unknown youth from Ireland, and proclaimed himself heir to the throne of Norway. But, although Sigurd Slembedegn could bring apparently satisfac- tory proof of the truth of his assertion, Harold was perhaps, on this account, only the more afraid of him. His advisers among the liegemen who were now gov- erning without restraint, in the king's name, had cause to fear a man like Sigurd who would make short work of their pretensions. They therefore advised the king to rid himself of the new aspirant to the throne, by fair means or foul. On the pretence of punishing him for his alleged participation in a slaying, Harold made an attempt to capture him ; but Sigurd escaped by swimming, and returned the king's breach of faith by killing him in the house of his mistress, Thora Guttorm's-Daughter. He then called the citizens of Bergen together, and, standing upon his ship, avowed the murder and asked them to make him their king. Contrary to his expectation, however, a great indignation was aroused against him, and the liegemen artfully fanned the excite- ment, until it was no longer safe for him to remain in the city. '' If thou art the son of King Magnus," the citizens said, '* then it is thy brother whom thou hast assassinated." And they forthwith outlawed the regicide and all his adherents. Sigurd fled in haste northward on his ships and arrived^ in Nordhordland. 3IO THE STORY OF NORWAY. Harold Gille was thirty-two years old, when he was slain. He was one of the most unworthy kings that ever disgraced the throne of Norway. It was a short while before his death (1136) that the Wends, under their prince, Ratibor, sacked and burned the flourish- ing town of Konghelle, which Sigurd the Crusader had enlarged and beautified. CHAPTER XXI. THE SONS OF HAROLD GILLE (1137-I161). Queen Ingerid, the widow of Harold Gille, availed herself of the general indignation against Sigurd Slembedegn, to have her own two-year-old son, Inge, proclaimed king. She also sent a swift ship to Nidaros, with the request to the Tronders that they give their allegiance to King Harold's son, Sigurd, who had reached the age of five. The pow- erful liegemen, to whom this arrangement was highly agreeable, made haste to secure the recognition of the two boys throughout the land. Sigurd Slembedegn's chances of becoming king were thus very slight. But, hoping to revive the indignation against Harold Gille and thereby miti- gate his own offence, he took the blind and maimed Magnus, Sigurd the Crusader's son, out of the mon- astery, and tried to rally his old friends and followers about him. In this he had some success, but less than he had expected. He therefore sailed to the Hebrides for the purpose of increasing his force, leaving Magnus in charge of Bjorn Egilsson and Gunnar of Gimse. Before Sigurd had returned, however, Magnus had been attacked at Minne, in the Oplands, by King Inge's guardian, Thjos- 311 312 THE STORY OF NORWAY. tulf Aalesson, and defeated in a bloody battle (1137). Thjostulf, either to encourage his men, or because he was afraid to trust him to anybody else, carried the two-year-old king in his girdle during the battle, while he himself fought with a sword and spear, and the deadly missiles fell in showers about him. The poor boy, who was unequal to such hard- ships, soon began to show the effects of his prema- ture experience of war. A hump grew on his back and one of his legs withered away. He therefore re- ceived the surname '' Crook-Back." Magnus the Blind fled after the battle into Swe- den, where he persuaded the earl, Charles Sunesson, of Vestergotland, to come to his assistance ; but was again overwhelmingly beaten at Krokaskogen by Thostulf Aalesson (1137). The little king, Inge, was again carried under his guardian's cloak, and heard, though scarcely without fear, the clash of arms and the fierce tumult of battle. This time Magnus fled to Denmark and succeeded in inducing King Erik Emunc to sail to Norway with a fleet of 240 ships. The Norsemen, however, defended their coast so well that the Danish king for a long while did not venture to land. At last he burned the city of Oslo, but was immediately afterward attacked by King Inge and his liegeman, Aamunde Gyrdsson, at Hornboresund, and all his great fleet routed. Sigurd Slembedegn, in the meanwhile, had returned from the Hebrides and was cruising about in the Baltic, fighting in viking fashion with Wendic pirates, and occasionally harrying on the coasts of Norway, and injuring the friends of the young kings. He was THE SONS OF HAROLD GILLE. 313 soon joined by Magnus, and the two were met by the fleet of the kings, Sigurd and Inge, at Holmen- graa (11 39). The battle was fought with great vehemence on both sides, until suddenly all the Danes fled, and left their allies in the lurch. Hop- ing to save the blind Magnus, Reidar Grjotgardsson lifted him from the bed upon which he was lying, and tried to carry him on board another ship. But a spear pierced both from behind and they fell down, dying. Magnus exclaimed as he felt the steel in his vitals : ''That comes seven years too late." Sigurd Slembedegn leaped overboard and would have escaped, if he had not been betrayed by one of his own men. He was put to death by the liegemen with the most horrible tortures. He was scourged until his skin hung in tatters about him ; then his bones were crushed with stones ; and at last he was hanged. His marvellous fortitude during his agony filled even his executioners with admiration. He talked in a perfectly natural voice, and not a muscle of his face betrayed what he suffered. Several times he sank into a swoon ; but when he revived, he was calm and unmoved. Never did a man meet a more horrible death with more heroic equanimity. Sigurd Slembedegn had the stuff in him for a great king, and if Sigurd the Crusader had sat upon the throne, when he advanced his claim, instead of the Irishman, Harold Gilchrist, the history of Norway would have taken a different turn, and his might have been one of the great names in its pages. It was true what many, both friends and foes, said after his death, that '' there was no man more capable in all things 314 THE STORY OF NORWAY, than Sigurd -^^ * * but he was born under an unlucky star." The country now had peace for some years; chief- ly because the kings were too small to have serious quarrels. In 1 142, however, came Eystein, a third son of Harold Gille, from Scotland, and claimed his share of the kingdom. He was considerably older than the others, and must have been often men- tioned by his father during his lifetime ; for no one thought of disputing his claim, nor was any proof required as to his origin. He was a dark- haired, corpulent, and somewhat indolent youth, avaricious in the extreme, and devoid of all per- sonal attractions. Some time elapsed before he exerted any influence upon the affairs of the coun- try, and we shall therefore leave him, until his quar- rels with his brothers demand our attention. The first cause of discord in the royal family was the marriage of the queen dowager, Ingerid, to the above - mentioned liegeman, Ottar Birting. King Inge thereby came under the guardian- ship of his step-father, whereby the jealousy of other liegemen was aroused. Especially was King Sigurd indignant, because Ottar had hitherto been one of his most powerful adherents ; while now he became attached to the fortunes of Inge. Amid this agitation, Ottar Birting was suddenly assassi- nated, and it became clear to every one that King Sigurd had caused his death. Many other circum- stances conspired to make Sigurd unpopular, and his personal qualities were, indeed, such as to repel all who came in contact with him. It was particu- 6 THE STORY OF NORWAY. larly his immorality which ahenated his friends. When he was but fifteen years old, he had a son, named Haakon, whose mother was a pretty ser- vant-girl. Many pretenders appeared later, who claimed him as their father. In appearance he was more of a Norseman than his brothers — light- haired, blue-eyed, tall of stature, and of great vigor. His beauty was, however, marred by a pair of ugly thick lips, from which he derived the surname Mouth (Mund). He hated his brother Inge, whose popularity caused him uneasiness ; and, as Eystein shared this sentiment, he approached the latter and opened negotiations with him, with a view to thrusting Inge from the throne. They were soon agreed, and would perhaps have carried out their plan, if Inge's faithful friend, Gregorius Dagsson, who had taken Ottar Birting's place as his guardian and ad- viser, had not got wind of their purpose. When, therefore, King Sigurd arrived in Bergen, he found Inge prepared to receive him ; and he contented himself with killing one of his men-at-arms and threatening " to roll the golden helmet of Grego- rius in the dust," but denied that any agreement existed between him and Eystein to Inge's detri- ment. Neither Inge nor Gregorius put any trust, however, in his assurances ; and, after many bicker- ings and hostile acts on both sides, Gregorius re- ceived Inge's permission to attack his brother. Si- gurd was then surprised in his house and slain (115 5), after having vainly begged for mercy. It is told that the men, whose wives he had insulted, rushed at THE SONS OF HAROLD GILLE. 317 him, eager for vengeance, and ran him through with their swords. He was then but twenty-one years old. Eystein, who knew that his turn would come next, gathered in haste as many men as he could in- duce to join him, in order to take vengeance on Gre- gorius. But Gregorius learned of his approach in time to escape with all his men. His family estate, Bratsberg, was, however, burned by Eystein and his cattle hewn down. Next, Inge's excellent dock- yards, which had been built by Eystein I., were given over to the flames, and war seemed unavoid- able between the two kings, when Eystein, seeing his brother's superior strength, proposed to make peace. He agreed to pay Inge 360 marks in silver, one third of which was to be given to Gregorius as compensation for the destruction of Bratsberg. This fine, however, he failed to pay ; and, repenting of his placability, sent Inge hostile messages, accusing him of breach of faith. At last, when they had been ex- changing this kind of civilities for about a year, they met with hostile fleets near Fors in Ranafylke (iiS7) and prepared for battle. The greater part of Ey- stein's force, however, abandoned him, leaving him no choice but flight. He was captured by his brother-in-law, Simon Skaalp, who, after having allowed him to hear mass, coolly murdered him. There is a legend that a spring with healing powers burst forth on the spot where he was slain, and there were some who believed him to have been a saint. Inge was now lord of all the kingdom, although the noble and capable Gregorius Dagsson conducted the government and was the virtual ruler. A warm 3 1 8 THE STOR V OF NOR WA V. friendship bound the two together, based not only upon community of interests but upon real attach- ment. Inge's bad health, which unfitted him for ac- tion in the many serious crises of his life, made him dependent upon his sagacious and resolute adviser, and Gregorius, who was equal to his responsibility, kept a vigilant watch upon the king's enemies, and at the same time exercised, with a wise moderation, the power which had been put into his hands. It was natural that a man occupying such a position had many ill-wishers. There were those, of course, who envied him the place he held in the confidence of the king. Thus the great chieftain, Erling Skakke (the Lop-Sided), who had married Sigurd the Crusader's daughter, Christina, thought that he was entitled to the first place among the liegemen of the land. Er- ling traced his descent from the mighty Horda-Kaare (who lived in the reigns of Halfdan the Swarthy and Harold the Fairhaired), and was thus in kinship with Erling Skjalgsson of Sole, who played so great a part in the times of Olaf Tryggvesson and Olaf the Saint. He had made a crusade and fought the Sara- cens in the Mediterranean, and had received a wound in the neck, which compelled him to carry his head on one side. His wealth and fame made him now a conspicuous figure in the land, and it was obvious that whichever party he should join might thereby gain a preponderance. Erling was, indeed, himself aware of that fact, and refrained, for this reason, for a while, from committing himself. He was understood to be favorably disposed to King Inge and paid him the customary civilities, but there are indications that THE SONS OF HAROLD GILLE. 319 Inge did not trust him. At all events, he had no in- tention of buying Erling's unequivocal adherence at the only price at which it could be bought, viz., the dismissal of Gregorius. This was the situation of affairs when, after King Eystein's death, the remnants of his and Sigurd Mouth's party rallied around the latter's ten-year- old son, Haakon, and demanded for him a third part of the kingdom. Inge answered by outlawing his nephew and all his adherents. Gregorius was at that time in Konghelle, occupied with defending the fron- tier against the rebellious partisans of Haakon who had found a refuge in Sweden, and Erling Skakke availed himself of his absence to approach the king. Although the relation between the two liegemen was constantly growing more strained, the common danger, to which they were exposed from Haakon's party, made them postpone hostilities. A decisive battle was at last fought between the latter and King Inge at Konghelle (1159), and Haakon was defeated. Both Erling and Gregorius were present and to their valor the victory was largely due. A very slight provocation was now needed to bring them into collision, and this was supplied by a quarrel be- tween their men, which soon became a general fight, and would have become a battle, if King Inge had not personally interfered. In the mean- while Haakon, who had gathered under his banner robbers, outlaws, and all sorts of adventurers, began to ravage the frontier shires in Viken, and the pres- ence of Gregorius was again needed to keep him in order. He made an attack upon the estate of 320 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Haldor Brynjulfsson, Gregorius' brother-in-law, and the latter's sister, Sigrid, was compelled to flee in her night clothes from the burning house, carrying her five-year-old son in her arms. This wanton destruc- tion Gregorius resolved to avenge, but during his pursuit of Haakon's robber band, he ventured too far out upon the insecure ice of the Bevje-Aa, fell through, and while struggling to get ashore was killed by an arrow (1161). King Inge wept like a child, when he heard of his friend's death, and swore either to avenge him or to die in the attempt. Scarcely a month had elapsed, when he was attacked by Haakon's band at Oslo, and fought a bloody bat- tle upon the ice of the Folden Fjord. Here he fell, defending himself desperately, after having been de- serted by King Gudrod of the Hebrides, who by his treason decided the battle in Haakon's favor (1161). Inge Crookback was the only one of Harold Gille's sons who was an honorable man. In spite of his physical weakness, he had courage and pluck, and a strong sense of loyalty to those who served him well. Fie was but twenty-five years old when he died. It was during his reign, but while his brothers still were alive, that the Cardinal Nicolas Break- speare was sent to Norway (1152) by Pope Eugene III., to arrange the ecclesiastical affairs of the coun- try. He established an archiepiscopal see in Nidaros, under the jurisdiction of which were included Nor- way and all its dependencies among the Scottish Isles, besides Iceland, Greenland, the Faeroe Isles, and the Isle of Man. As the first archbishop he appointed, in accordance with the wishes of King THE SONS OF HAROLD GILLE. 321 Inge, the Bishop of Stavanger John Birgersson. The bishopric of Hamar at Lake Mjosen also owes its foundation to the cardinal's visit. Nicolas Break- speare became, later, Pope under the name Hadrian IV., and always preserved a lively interest in the welfare of the Church in Norway. CHAPTER XXII. HAAKON THE BROAD-SHOULDERED, (l 161-1 162). Haakon Sigurdsson lost no time in proclaiming himself king of all Norway, though he dispensed pre- liminarily with the ceremony of a formal proclama- tion at O^rt-thing. As he was but a boy of four- teen, it was, of course, his advisers who dictated his actions. He was a tool in the hands of a few ambi- tious liegemen, who had staked their fortunes on the chance of his ascendancy. For the purpose of portioning out lucrative ofHces among his adherents, he called a secret meeting in the church of St. Hall- vard in Oslo. As it was of great importance to Erling Skakke to know how these men felt toward him, his wife Christina bribed the priest who kept the keys of the church, to conceal one of her friends where he could hear the proceedings. She then sent a messenger to her husband, enjoining him under no circumstances to trust Haakon or his party. But Erling was too conspicuous a man to be allowed to preserve neutrality ; and as he could not declare for Haakon, he was obliged to declare against him. He then proposed, though scarcely in good faith, to make the child, Nicholas Simonsson, the son of Simon Skaalp and Harold Gille's daughter Maria, the head 322 HAAKON THE BROAD-SHOULDERED. 323 of the opposition and to proclaim him king. There were, however, serious objections to this course ; and after many consultations, Erlingallowed himself to be urged to do, what had been his intention from the be- ginning, viz., to proclaim his own son Magnus. Mag- nus, to be sure, was not of royal birth, but he had royal blood in his veins, being the grandson of Sigurd the Crusader. By shrewd manoeuvres, Erling suc- ceeded in rallying the greater part of King Inge's party about his son, who was but five years old, and to induce the liegemen to swear him allegiance. A thmg was then summoned to meet in Bergen, and Magnus was formally acknowledged as king (1161). The land was now divided between two tolerably evenly balanced parties, and only the sword could decide to which of the two the government should belong. After the great defeat at Oslo, however, Inge's party had lost much of its prestige, and Erling felt that foreign help was needed to secure its pre- dominance. He, therefore, sailed with his son and a large following of high-born men to Denmark and obtained the promise of help from King Valdemar the Great on condition of ceding to him the greater part of Viken. Haakon availed himself of his ab- sence to take possession of the fleet which had belonged to Inge and to have himself proclaimed king at O^x^-tJiing. His friend Sigurd of Reyr he raised to the dignity of earl, and delegated to him the task of watching for Erling, whose return from Denmark was expected. Erling was, however, a shrewd man who did what was least expected of him. He did, indeed, return from Denmark, but by 324 THE STORY OF NORWAY, a singular route. He crossed from Skagen in Jut- land to Agder, and thence steered northward to Bergen, where he killed or otherwise punished many who had given their allegiance to Haakon. Then, before Earl Sigurd had yet heard of his arrival, he attacked Haakon in Tunsberg and beat him. Having accomplished this and secured the recognition of his son in Viken, Agder, Rogaland, and Hordaland, he returned to Bergen where he spent the winter. Haakon, who found his strongest support in Tronde- lag, went into winter quarters in Nidaros. It was merely a question of time when the two rival kings, or the men who represented them, should meet for a final contest. Therefore, as soon as the ice broke up, preparations began on a grand scale. Erling's cunning again stood him in good stead, for by a stratagem he succeeded in surprising Haakon at Sekken, in Sondmore, and utterly destroying him (1162). The poor boy, who was but fifteen years old, jumped from his ship on board the one which lay nearest, and found himself unexpectedly among enemies. He told the men who he was, and surren- dered himself to their mercy. The battle was then virtually at an end ; but when Erling found that the men to whom Elaakon had surrendered were deter- mined to guard his life, he began a fresh attack, and managed it so that, in the tumult, the boy-king was slain. His own former candidate for the throne, Nicholas Simonsson, whom he had forcibly abducted from Bergen, he also contrived to get rid of in the same battle, and there can be little doubt that he was responsible for his death. HAAKON THE BROAD-SHOULDERED. 325 HaaRon Sigurdsson was king of Norway for about a year and three months. He was large for his age, and on account of the slenderness of his waist and the breadth of his shoulders, was called Haakon the Broad-Shouldered {Hcrdcbrcd). CHAPTER XXIII. MAGNUS ERLINGSSON (1162-II84). Erling Skakke had effectually cleared the way to the throne for his son, by killing every descendant of the royal house whom he could lay hands on. There was, however, another undoubted son of Sigurd Mouth left, whom he had not got into his power, besides several whose claims had not yet been pronounced upon. The bitterness between the party of Erling and that of Haakon was indeed so great, that a reconciliation was not to be thought of, and the latter, therefore, seized the opportunity to rally about a king whose royal descent was unquestioned. This new claimant was a boy named Sigurd Marcus- fostre (the foster-son of Marcus), probably ten or twelve years old, who had been brought up by Mar- cus of Skog, a friend and kinsman of Earl Sigurd of Reyr. Another magnate, the much-travelled Ein- dride the Young, transferred his allegiance to Sigurd, and a large number of proud and adventurous men, who could not tolerate Erling's supremacy, joined the new party. The peasants, however, who had hitherto suffered but little from the feuds of the kings, now began to find these roving bands trouble- some, especially when they levied contributions and 326 MAGNUS ER-LINGSSON. 32/ foraged wherever they went. Erling availed himself of this circumstance to excite their indignation against the " Sigurd party," as it was called, and he presently succeeded in forcing the hostile chieftains to give battle at Ree, near Tunsberg. Here Earl Sigurd fell, and Eindride the Young, Marcus of Skog, and the boy-king Sigurd were captured and executed. Although no formidable pretender was now left, Erling, whose ambition was nothing less than the founding of a new dynasty, did not feel secure in his possession of power. The Tronders, who had been partisans of Sigurd Mouth, were yet at heart devoted to the party which represented him, and the Danish king Valdemar was incensed, because Erling had not kept his promise in regard to the cession of Viken. To fortify himself against the contingencies arising from this situation, Erling found it necessary to cast about him for new allies, and the choice which he made was exceedingly shrewd. The Archbishop of Nidaros, at that time, was the able and imperious Eystein Erlendsson, who de- scended from a mighty Trondelag family, and there- fore, apart from his episcopal office, was a man of great influence. He shared the political sympathies of the community in which he lived, and was there- fore more disposed to be Erling's enemy than his friend. The sagacious chieftain, however, succeeded in propitiating him and in forming an alliance with him for mutual advantage. The result of their nego- tiations was, that a great meeting was called in Ber- gen, at which Norway was declared to be St. Olafs 328 THE STORY ,0F NOR WA V. heritage and property, and the bishops, as his repre- sentatives, acquired the right to reject any legitimate heir to the throne, in case they held him to be un- worthy. The clerical and secular magnates were, at the death of a king, to select among his heirs the one who was to succeed him, the presumption being always in favor of the eldest son born in wedlock, un- less he was declared unworthy. In case of disagree- ment, a majority of votes was to decide the choice, but only in so far as the archbishop and the other bishops gave their consent. If the king left no heirs of whom the magnates approved, they were at liberty to elect any one whom they regarded as fit to guard '^ the right of God and the laws of the land.'* It is obvious that the secular and the clerical mag- nates here united for the spoliation of the crown, and in return for the concessions which Erling had made, as the nominal representative of the latter, the arch- bishop crowned Magnus in Bergen (1164), thereby repairing, in the eyes of many, the deficiency of his title. He had the friendship of the Church, which had it in her power to influence the people in his favor. He could therefore look forward without fear to meeting the Danish king, who was preparing to take forcible possession of the province which had been promised him. In order to test the sentiment of the people toward Magnus, Valdemar sent secret messengers with presents and friendly greetings to many prominent Tronders, some of whom com- mitted themselves in writing to join him, in case he invaded Norway. Their letters, however, fell MAGNUS ERLINGSSON, 329 into Erling's hands, and the offenders were pun- ished with severity. Some were killed, others outlawed, and again others were sentenced to pay enormous fines. When King Valdemar finally, in 1 165, sailed with a large fleet to Norway he received a different reception from what he had expected. The number of the disaffected who were ready to do him homage was very small, compared to the number of those who were ready to fight him. He, therefore, returned to Denmark, without awaiting Erling's arrival. It is said that he suffered from lack of provisions ; and was indisposed to harry in a prov- ince which he hoped soon to lay under his crown. Before Erling had time to return this visit, a band of rebels was organized in the Oplands under the leadership of Olaf Guldbrandsson, a grandson on the mother's side of King Eystein I., the brother of Sigurd the Crusader. This new pretender attempted to rally the discontented chieftains under his banner. His adherents were called the Hood-Swains (Hette- sveiner), and he himself got the surname, the Unlucky (Ugaeva), because he came within an ace of captur- ing Erling at the farm, Rydjokel, north of Lake Oieren, but failed through mischance (1166). The Hood-Swains then for some time eked out a pre- carious existence in forest and field ; for the fear of Erling was so great that few who had any thing to lose dared to make common cause with them. He would probably have put an end to them without de- lay, if the hostilities with Denmark had not demanded his attention. It was, just then, the favorable mo- ment for attacking Valdemar's kingdom, as he was 330 THE STORY OF NORWAY. himself absent in Wendland and his kinsman, Buris Henriksson, who had the greater part of Jutland in fief, had promised to co-operate with the Norsemen and even to capture and kill the king on his return. Erling accordingly sailed with his fleet to Denmark and beat the Danes at Djursaa ; but was prevented, by the resolute conduct of Bishop Absalon, from reaping any benefit from his victory. A second campaign of Valdemar in Norway was as indecisive as the first, and finally, when both parties were tired of the aimless warfare, peace was concluded (1171), on condition that Erling should govern Viken as Valdemar's vassal and accept from him the title of earl. It is probable that Erling, after his return, made known only in part the terms of this peace ; for the national feeling had now begun to assert itself in Norway ; and it is scarcely credible that the peo- ple of Viken, who had, but a short time ago, mani- fested their hostility to the Danish king, should now willingly submit to becoming his subjects. What Erling did was really to confirm his own power and that of his son, at the expense of the integrity and the independence of his country. But in that respect he only followed the traditions of his class. The aristocracy of Norway usually (though there were many honorable exceptions) regarded their own in- dependence and power as more important than those of their country. It was not the first time that the tribal magnates bartered away faith and honor for personal gain. In the olden time, when Norway was but a loose agglomeration of tribes, who felt their kinship to the Dames and Swedes more strongly 332 THE STORY OF NORWAY. than they did their own geographical isolation, such conduct was often excusable. But in the days of Erling Skakke, the Norsemen were a nation, quite distinct from their neighbors, and the cession of a fertile province, like Viken, gave the Danes a foot- hold on the peninsula, and meant in the future, as Erling was shrewd enough to know, infinite compli- cations, wars, and the possible loss of independence. Having thus placated his foreign foes, Erling set himself to the task of exterminating the domestic ones. Olaf the Unlucky he had already, before the conclusion of the negotiations, beaten in two fights (at Stanger and at Dav, ri68), and had destroyed his band. Olaf had fled to Denmark, where he died (1169). There were, however, several pretenders left who had as much right to the throne as Magnus Erlingsson ; and Erling did not choose to wait until they became dangerous, before relieving himself of their presence. Sigurd Mouth's daughter, CeciHa, he sent to Vermeland and made her the mistress of a man, named Folkvid the Lawman. His own step- son, Harold, an illegitimate son of his wife Christina, and accordingly a grandson of Sigurd the Crusader, he beheaded, in spite of King Magnus' prayers and protests. That kind of clemency which involved future danger he professed not to understand. *' If I let him live," he said to his son, ''they will all want him for their king, and thee to kiss the lips of the axe." In spite of all his precautions, however, there was one scion of the royal house, and that the most dan- gerous of all, who escaped his attention. There MAGNUS ERLINGSSON. 333 was, at that time, living in the Faeroe Isles a youth named Sverre Sigurdsson, and the history of Norway for the next thirty years is chiefly his story. But before he enters upon the scene, a pretender named Eystein Meyla (Little Girl), who professed to be a son of Harold Gille's son Eystein, made a little stir and gathered about him the remnants of the rebel- lious party. He tried to obtain aid in Sweden, and was well received by Earl Birger in Gotland, who had married Harold Gille's daughter, Brigida. He could, however, not sustain himself against Erling's power, and was obliged to roam about with his band on mountains and in wildernesses, robbing and plunder- ing in order to keep from starving. His men thereby got a bad name, and on account of their dilapidated appearance and their habit of using birch-bark for shoes, the peasants called them derisively Birke- beiner, i. e., Birchlegs. The discipline of hardship and danger which their arduous life imposed upon them stood them, however, -in good stead; and in- significant though they were in number, they were, as Erling found to his cost, not a foe to be despised. However often he beat them, they would never stay beaten. With wonderful intrepidity and endurance they rallied after each defeat, and fought again, when- ever there was a chance of fighting. Many of them were undoubtedly little better than highwaymen, and to treat them as a political party would be an extravagant compliment. Their chief political pur- pose was, for a good while, to keep body and soul together. Gradually, however, their band was in- creased by political malcontents and even by men of 334 THE STORY OF NORWAY. high birth, who had quarrelled with Erling, or liad the death of kinsmen to avenge. In the summer of 1 176 they were numerous enough to surprise the city of Nidaros and have their chieftain, Eystein Meyla, proclaimed king at the O^x^-thing ; but the following year their luck deserted them, and in the battle of Ree, near Tunsberg, they were overwhelmingly de- feated by King Magnus, and Eystein Meyla was slain (1177). The band then broke up, and the Birchlegs would perhaps never have been heard of again, if their fortunes had not become identified with those of a great man — Sverre Sigurdsson. Sverre was born in the Faeroe Isles. His mother Gunhild was, according to the legend, cook in the service of King Sigurd Mouth. She was not par- ticularly handsome, but quick-witted and intelligent. The king begged her to kill her child, as soon as it was born ; and being unwilling to listen to such a proposi- tion, she fled on a ship to the p^aeroe Isles, where she took service as milkmaid with Bishop Mathias. Here she bore a son, whom she named Sverre. A smith or combmaker named Unas came, the following spring, from Norway, and she suspected him of having been sent by the king to kill her child. She therefore hid it in a cave, which is yet called Sverre's Cave. Unas, however, followed her and discovered where the child was hidden, but promised not to harm it, if she would marry him. She consented, though re- luctantly, and returned with him to Norway. Sigurd Mouth was then dead, and she had nothing to fear. When the boy was five years old, he returned to the Faeroe Isles with his mother and step-father. The MAGNUS ERLINGSSON. 335 latter's brother, Roe, had been made bishop after the death of Mathias, and Unas was not insensible to the advantage of hving in a neighborhood, where he had such an influential relative. Sverre grew up in the belief that he was the son of Unas, and Bishop Roe, who took a fancy to him on account of his ex- traordinary intelligence, began to educate him for the priesthood. His ambition, as he himself asserts, did not then extend beyond a bishopric, or possibly a cardinal's hat. But when he was ordained as di- acomis (which is one of the lower grades of the priest- hood), his mother burst into tears, and to his ques tion why she was displeased at the honor conferred upon him, she answered : *' This is but a paltry honor, compared to that which by right belongs to thee. Thou art not the son of him whom thou thinkest, but of King Sigurd in Norway. I have kept this from thee, until thou shouldst reach the age of manhood." From that day Sverre's peace of mind was gone. Great thoughts tossed and whirled about in his soul and his life seemed poor and meaningless. His ambi- tion kept him awake in the night and bright vistas of future achievements beckoned him from afar. '' If I am born to a crown," he said to his mother, "then I will strive to win it, whatever it may cost me. Life has no more joy for me without it, and therefore I will stake life on it." Disregarding the warnings of the bishop he em- barked for Norway, and, without revealing who he was, spent some time in investigating the sentiments of the people toward King Magnus. This is highly 33^ THE STORY OF NORWAY. characteristic of Sverre. He made no leap in the dark, but computed carefully the strength of the enemy whom he was to combat. What he learned was, however, far from encouraging. The people seemed everywhere devoted to King Magnus and well contented with his rule. Sverre also made the acquaintance of Erling Skakke, studied him thorough- ly, and talked with his men-at-arms, who found the priest from the Faeroe Isles a droll and entertaining fellow, and freely told him all the gossip of the royal household. To enter the lists, alone and penniless, against a power so formidable as this, seemed mad- ness. Sverre was too shrewd not to see that such an undertaking was hopeless. At the same time, he was not minded to return, after his dream of royalty, to his obscure priesthood on the bleak isles in the North Sea. He knew that Earl Birger in Sweden was mar- ried to a sister of Sigurd Mouth, and, as a forlorn hope, he crossed the frontier, revealed his origin to the earl, and begged him for aid. The earl, it ap- pears, who had reaped no glory from his alliance with Eystein M^yla, did not receive Sverre's request graciously, suspecting that he had been sent by Erling to mock him. Sverre, then, betook himself to his half-sister, Cecilia, who was the mistress of Folkvid the Lawman, and met here with a better reception. The rumor that a son of Sigurd Mouth had made his appearance in Sweden had, in the meanwhile, gone abroad and had reached the rem- nants of the Birchleg band. They made haste to find Sverre and requested him to be their chief ; but Sverre, seeing what condition they were in, declined. MAGNUS ERLINGSSON. 33/ He made them a little speech, in which he remarked that the only thing he had in common with them was poverty ; and advised them, in conclusion, to select as their chief one of Earl Birger's sons, who were, like himself, descendants of Harold Gille. The Birchlegs acted upon this advice, but received no en- couragement from the earl. He told them, perhaps not without a humorous intention, that Sverre was their man, and advised them, in case he persisted in his refusal, to threaten him with death. Back they went, accordingly, to Sverre, and this time he yielded to their persua- sions. He must then have been twenty-four or twenty-five years old. And thus, with two empty hands and seventy ragged and badly armed men, he began the fight for the crown of Norway. He started from Vermeland southward for Viken, and so many gathered about him on the way, that by the time he arrived in the Saurbygd, he had 420 men. These proclaimed him, in spite of his pro- test, king, and touched his sword in token of alle- giance. But when he forbade them to rob and plun- der the peasants, the majority grew discontented and left him. In order to test them he ordered them back to Vermeland, but by the time he reached the Eidskog, his band had shrunk to the original sev- enty. Sverre was now in a serious dilemma. He had announced himself as a claimant to the throne, thereby making himself fair game for any one who could slay him. And to wage war against King Magnus and Erling Skakke with seventy men was too absurd to be considered. In his extremity he 33^ THE STORY OF NORWAY. sent messengers to Thelemark, where he had heard that some Birchlegs had sought refuge after the battle of Ree, and where there was said to be much dissatisfaction with King Magnus. Wherever he appeared, the peasants met him with hostile demon- strations, and many were those who wished to earn the gratitude of Earl Erling by destroying the run- away priest and his robber band. But it was in these desperate emergencies that the wonderful resources of Sverre's mind became apparent. Though he often had to live on bark and frozen berries, which were dug up from under the snow, his courage never failed him. Though in his journeys through pathless moun- tain wildernesses, his men dropped dead about him from exposure and hunger, and he had to cover him- self with his shield and allow himself to be snowed down, he kept a stout heart in his bosom and re- buked those who talked of suicide. It is told of him that during his march from Sweden to Nidaros, he came to a large mountain lake which it was neces- sary to cross. Rafts were made, but the men were so exhausted, that it took them a good while to fell the logs. One by one the rafts were launched and rowed across. Sverre himself boarded the last, but it was already so heavily loaded, that the water reached above his ankle. One man, however, who was half dead with weariness, had been left. He crawled down to the edge of the water and begged the king to take him along, as otherwise he must perish. The Birchlegs grumbled loudly, but Sverre commanded them to lay to and take the man aboard. The raft then sank still deeper and the king stood in MAGNUS ERLINGSSON. 339 the icy water up to his knees. It looked for awhile as if they would -3 \c go to the bot- torn.' But Sverre did not -^hin-- 1 ] lien. Ih I idled, fallen in- t o the U water. The men, eager for safety, scram bled over into th( tree, and Sverre was the last tc leave the raft which, the mo ment his foot wa.^ oiT it, sank. Thii _ incident was re- _. .^__J^ garded by the " --^i-_-:- — - ■Rirrhlf-o-Q oo ^ORNELEN ; a cuff on the island bremanger- AJiiumcgb dS LAND AT THE MOUTH OF THE NORDFJORD. a miracle, and strengthened their faith in Sverre's mission. 340 THE STOR Y OF NOR WA V. At last, after incredible hardships, Sverre arrived early in June, 1177, at the goal of his journey. He had then 120 men, but fortunately his message to Thelemark brought him a reinforcement of eighty more. With these he performed the most amazing manoeuvres — dodging a force of fourteen hundred men which the partisans of Erling had sent against him. He anticipated with ease what his enemies would do, while they never could form the remotest conception of what he meant to do. Therefore the peasant army scattered in its search for him, and was easily beaten in separate detachments. It seems incredible that with his 200 or 250 warriors he could have beaten six or seven times their number, and the explanation lies near, that many of the Tronders in secret sym- pathized with him, though fear of Erling deterred them from openly espousing his cause. Their suc- cess now gave the Birchlegs courage, and they thronged joyously out to O^x^-thing, whither Sverre had summoned twelve representatives from each of the eight shires of Trondelag. Here he was proclaimed king of Norway (i 177). The rejoicings of the Birchlegs were however, a little premature. Erling Skakke was, by no means, dead yet, and he had no sooner heard of Sverre's performances in Trondelag than he gathered a large fleet and sailed northward to have a reckoning with him. Sverre did not care to meet the relentless earl just then, and he therefore sought refuge again in the mountains. For two years he led, most of the time, a life which no dog would have envied him ; now descending into the valleys on foraging MAGNUS ERLINGSSON. 341 expeditions, now again retiring into the wilderness and suffering untold privations. Occasionally hunger drove him to play a practical joke on the peasants, surprising them as an uninvited guest at their Yule-tide feasts, sitting down with his Birch- legs at the banqueting boards and devouring their holiday fare^ Altogether his hardships were not unrelieved by humor. Like Robin Hood and his Merry Men, he had pity on the small, and often dis- pensed a kind of rough justice to the great. His name was cursed from one end of the kingdom to the other ; as he himself remarked, many believed him to be the devil incarnate. Nurses scared naughty children with the threat that Sverre would come and take them, and the girls when they pounded the wet clothes at the river brink never failed to wish that Sverre's head was under the pounder. At the same time, a certain admiration for the power of the man and his undauntable spirit can scarcely have failed to affect those who had not directly suffered by his depredations. His many battles and guerilla fights with King Magnus and his liegemen, his second and unsuccessful attempt to capture Nidaros, and his skirmishing with the peasants cannot here be de- scribed in detail, though the saga, which was pre- pared under his own supervision, enables us to follow all his movements with tolerable accuracy. It was not until June, 1179, that he fought a battle which gave a decisive turn to his future. Then, he made a sudden descent from Gauldale upon Erling, who was feasting in Nidaros. '' Would that it were true," said the earl, when 342 THE STORY OF NORWAY. the approach of the Birchlegs was announced to him ; " they shall then get their deserts, but for that matter, we may sleep soundly to-night, for I have been told that they have already retired into the moun- tains, and Sverre will not venture to attack us, when we are watching for him, as we are doing now." Accordingly he told his men to go to bed ; and this they did in a condition which made it no easy task to wake them. When Sverre, who, as usual, was well informed, was about to make his attack, he ad- dressed his men as follows : '* Now it is necessary to fight well and bravely ; for a beautiful victory is to be won. I will tell you what you can now obtain by your bravery. He who can prove by truthful witnesses that he has slain a liegeman shall himself become a liegeman ; and every man shall get the title and dignity of the man who falls by his hand." The Birchlegs needed no further encouragement. Poorly armed though they were, they stormed down over the hill-sides into the city. One fellow who was rushing along with a wooden club in his hand was asked what he had done with his weapons. *' They are down in the town," he answered ; *' as yet, the earl's men have got them." The alarm was now given, and bewildered and heavy with sleep, the earl's warriors tumbled out into the streets. King Magnus was also present, but the confusion was so great that he had much difficulty in rallying his followers. Many of the chieftains advised Erling to flee on board his ships and make his escape. . MAGNUS ERLINGSSON. 343 " I don't deny," he answered, " that that might seem to be the best ; but I can't endure the thought that that devil of a priest, Sverre, should put him- self in my son's place." He therefore retired outside the city to Kalvskin- det and there awaited the attack ; but though his force was far^ greater than Sverre's, he could not maintain himself against the furious onslaught of the Birchlegs. After a brief defence the earl was slain, and the flight became general. King Magnus, when he saw his father's bloody face upturned against the sky, paused in his flight, stooped down and kissed him. " We shall meet again, father mine, in the day of joy," he said, and hastened reluctantly away. Great was the rejoicing among the Birchlegs when it became known, that Earl Erling was dead. Sverre, who rarely missed a chance to make a speech, and who, moreover, was duly qualified for the office of conducting obsequies, made a funeral oration over his fallen foe. He drew the moral of the earl's life, and said some things which, no doubt, were true. But as he went on he gave more and more play to his caustic irony, and was, perhaps, less gen- erous than he could have afforded to be in his judg- ment of the dead chieftain. From this time forth, Sverre had the upper hand, and though the war lasted for several years more, it changed its character. It was no longer a fight between law and order on one side and a handful of outlawed adventurers on the other. It was rather a civil war be- tween two well-matched parties. Personally Magnus 344 THE STORY OF NORWAY. was Indeed no match for Sverre, but as the representa- tive of the old order of things — a monarchy deriving its power and support from the tribal aristocracy,* — he was no mean opponent. With Sverre and his Birchlegs a lower stratum of society arose — an un- couth and hungry democracy, — demanding its share of the good things of life, which had not hitherto been within its reach. It is Sverre's merit that he knew how to discipline these fierce and greedy ele- ments, and force them into subjection to law and order. While before the battle at Kalvskindet he stimulated their cupidity by offering each man the honors and dignities of the man whom he slew, he took good care, when the victory was won, to keep this cupidity within bounds. He kept his promises, raised men of low degree to high offices, rewarded fidelity and valor, and revolutionized society in a democratic spirit. But, considering the time in which he lived and the completeness of his victory, he showed remarkable moderation. He meant the new order of things which he founded to be lasting, and instead of turning his victorious Birchlegs loose to prey upon the state, he charged them with the maintenance of law and order, invested them with responsibility, and punished them if they exceeded their authority. He could do this without peril, because his men loved and admired him as much as they feared him. His power over them was com- plete. He had shared the evil days with them, braved dangers and hardships, and tested their man- * Munch : Det Norske Folks Historic, iii., 107. Sars ; Udsigt Qverden Norske Historic, ii., cap, iv. MAGNUS ERLINGSSON. 345 hood. An intimate comradeship and attachment had grown up between them, which, however, did not exclude authority on one side, and respect and obedience on the other. How much Magnus had lost by the battle of Kalvskindet is indicated by the fact that his ad- herents now get a party name and sink to the position formerly occupied by their opponents. They were called '' Heklungs," because it was told of them that they had once robbed a beggar woman whose money was wrapped up in a cloak {Jiekl). *' Birch- legs," from having been a term of reproach, now became an honorable appellation which Sverre's veterans were not a little proud of."^ Magnus spent the year after his defeat mostly in Bergen where he had many adherents, went thence to Viken, and made every effort to gather an army with which to destroy his enemies. He must have had considerable success, for when he went north- ward to Nidaros, he had a force much more numer- ous than the one Sverre could muster. Nevertheless he suffered an ignominious defeat at the Ilevolds (i 1 80), near Nidaros, and had to flee head over heels to Bergen. Thither Sverre followed him, and came near being caught in a trap by one of Magnus' fol- lowers, Jon Kutiza, who came with an army of peasants to kill that " devil's priest." The devil's priest was, however, as usual, too clever for the Heklungs, and sent them flying, as soon as he lifted his sword. Magnus, in the meanwhile, had sought refuge in Denmark, where King Valdemar received * Munch : iii., 106. 34^ THE STORY OF NORWAY. him well, and this kingdom became the base of op- erations against Sverre. Long time did not elapse before the Heklungs were again on the way north- ward with thirty-two ships, and came within an ace of making an end of Sverre in the Salto Sound ; but as usual he slipped out of the trap by a daring strata- gem. Soon after, Magnus overtook the Birchlegs at Nordness (ii8i), near Bergen, and this time Sverre, who was anxious not to lose his prestige, determined to stay and give battle, although his fleet was but half as large as that of his enemies. The Birchlegs were, as a rule, not good sailors, and never fought as well on the sea as on dry land. The Heklungs made a fierce onset, and were gradually gaining several advantages, when Sverre stepped forw^ard where the fight was hottest, lifted his hands toward the sky, and sang in a loud, clear voice the Latin hymn, " Alma chorus domini." Hostile missiles beat like hail about him ; but though he had no shield, he re- mained unharmed. Just then Magnus, flushed with warlike zeal, stormed forward and was on the point of boarding one of the hostile ships, when he re- ceived a wound through the wrist. The pain made him pause abruptly, and in so doing he slipped upon the bloody deck and fell backward. The Birchlegs sent up a tremendous shout of victory, and Orm King's-Brother (a half-brother of Harold Gille's sons), hearing that the king was slain, cried : '' Then the fate of the realm is decided." Instantly he cut the ropes which held the ships to- gether, and, breaking the battle-line, fled as fast as he could. Magnus, getting on his feet, called vainly to MAGNUS ERLINGSSON. 347 his men that he was ahve, and begged them not to flee frofn a victory. But the confusion soon became general, and Sverre, who was quick to take advantage of it, captured ship after ship and forced the rest into ignominious flight The war was still continued for three years with changing fortunes. In fact, Magnus, whenever he returned from Denmark, where he sojourned in the intervals between his defeats, seemed as formidable as ever, and had little difficulty in gathering an army under his banner. Sverre, therefore, in order to put an end to an internecine conflict which was draining the resources of the country, proposed to share the kingdom with him, and, when this proposal was re- jected, that they should reign alternately for a term of three years each. This well-meant offer Magnus likewise repelled, and, after repeated interviews and fruitless negotiations, hostilities were resumed. Three times during the years 1181 and 1182 the Heklungs attacked Nidaros, where the Birchlegs had their head-quarters, and fought with variable success. In 1 183 Sverre assumed again the offensive, sur- prised Magnus in Bergen, and compelled him to flee to Denmark, abandoning his fleet, his treasures, and the crown regalia. Archbishop Eystein, who had been one of the staunchest partisans of the Heklungs, had, some years before, fled to England, and had hoped to injure Sverre by declaring him in the ban of the church. Sverre was, however, not in the least disturbed by the ban, while the archbishop was greatly disturbed by the loss of his see. Perceiving that Magnus' chances of regaining his power were 348 THE STORY OF NORWAY, diminishing, the wily prelate opened negotiations with the excommunicated king and received hi!n back into the bosom of the Church, on condition of being restored to his dignities. A last attempt to recover what he had lost was made by Magnus in the summer of 1184. He then sailed northward to Bergen with a fleet of twenty-six ships and about three thousand two hundred men. He learned that Sverre had sailed up into the Nore- fjord (a narrow arm of the Sognefjord) with a few ships and a small force of men, for the purpose of punishing the Sognings, who had killed his prefect, Ivar Darre. Sverre was, as a rule, not easily sur- prised. But in the present instance he had not the faintest suspicion of danger until he saw the galleys of the Heklungs steering right down upon him. Escape was not to be thought of. He was shut in on all sides. The Heklungs, seeing that he had but fourteen ships, and that his force scarcely numbered more than half of theirs, were disposed to give thanks to God for having at last delivered their enemies into their hands. But it is sometimes a doubtful blessing to have such enemies as the Birchlegs delivered into one's hands. At all events, Magnus began to have doubts, as soon as battle had commenced, as to who were the captors and who the captives. The Birch- legs fought with heroism, and the Heklungs fell in great numbers and many leaped into the sea. Among the latter was King Magnus. It was mid- night before the bloody work was at an end, and by that time two thousand men had lost their lives. All the ships of the Heklungs and much booty fell MAGN-US ERLINGSSON. lAf) into Sverre's hands. When the morning broke there could be seen through the clear waters of the Sogne- fjord the corpses of slain chieftains lying outstretched on the bottom, while the fishes swam around them. The corpse of King Magnus was not found until two days after the battle, and was then taken to Bergen, where it was buried with great solemnity. In the battle of Norefjord fell, beside the king, the flower of the Norse aristocracy. King Inge's son Harold, Orm King's-Brother and his son Ivar Steig, and a large number of proud chieftains, were among the slain. They had pinned their hope to King Magnus, and with his death their dominion was at an end. With Sverre Sigurdsson's reign begins a new epoch in the history of Norway. CHAPTER XXIV. SVERRE SIGURDSSON (1182-I202). It was a dangerous precedent Sverre established when, without any other proof of his royal birth than his own assertion, he ascended the throne of Norway. The prospect was thus opened to any ambitious ad- venturer, skilled in mendacity and the use of arms, to snatch the crown at the point of the sword. The mere fact that a doubt existed in the minds of many, as to Sverre's origin, was in itself demoralizing. It destroyed that bond of loyalty which had hitherto bound the people to the descendants of Harold the F'airhaired, and made it easy for unscrupulous pre- tenders, by the prospect of booty, to entice men into rebellion. We see, therefore, during Sverre's reign and that of his immediate successors, an abundant crop of pretenders and rebellious bands start up in different parts of the country, only to be cut down after a more or less extended existence by the con- stituted authority. That Sverre, in a measure, had himself to thank for this state of things he must have been well aware ; and the frequency of his insistence upon his mission to deliver Norway from the illegal sway of Erling Skakke's son shows how anxious he was, 350 SVERRE SIGURDSSON: 35 I lest the same thought should occur to others. Even though he was the son of Sigurd Mouth (which, is in- deed, probable), he must have seen that the people were suffering no hardships from Magnus* mild exer- cise of his power, while the wars which were directly and indirectly inflicted upon the realm by his own pretendership shook it to its very core. In. the role of a deliverer Sverre was therefore scarcely sincere, and a certain insecurity in his position, springing, perhaps, from an inward doubt, made him at times appear with less dignity than we might expect in a man of his genius and power. Thus, when in 1181 a man named Erik, whose origin seems wrapped in obscurity, obtained permission to prove by ordeal that he was Sigurd Mouth's son, Sverre insisted upon inserting in his oath the words *' and Sverre's brother," thereby obtaining, as it were, a surreptitious proof of his own descent from the royal house. Erik, how- ever, objected to assuming this double responsibility, but succeeded in proving the truth of his assertion in regard to himself. He was from this time named Erik Kingsson ; but pledged himself never to aspire to the crown. Sverre gave him first command of his household troops and made him later Earl of Viken. Sverre's first endeavor, after having become sole ruler in the land, was to strengthen the foundation of his throne. An alliance with the aristocracy who had hitherto wielded the greatest influence was out of the question, first because the magnates had been the partisans of Magnus, and secondly, because to the Birchlegs, to whom Sverre owed his power, such an alliance would have been odious. He therefore de- 352 THE STORY OF NORWAY. termined to seek the supports of his kingship among the same class, from which his Birchlegs had come, viz., the tenants, small farmers, and, in general, among the lower strata of the population. These men had hitherto been at the mercy of the chief- tains ; and though it was in the interest of the latter not to injure or maltreat them, their position was one of dependence and penury. They were practi- cally beyond the pale of the law ; because, if wronged by one of their superiors they lacked the means and influence to prosecute him at the thing. In order to improve the position of these lowly people and thereby gain their friendship, Sverre appointed a new class of officers, the so-called lawmen, whose business it should be to procure justice for the oppressed at small expense and without delay. As one of the first appointed lawmen, Gunnar Grjonbak in Trondelag, said : " King Sverre, when he gave me this office, bade me administer justice among cot- tagers, not among chieftains." The lawmen w^ere thus judges who, backed by the authority of the crown, were charged with the interests of the small, both in their mutual quarrels and in their quarrels with the great. That their appointment was a shrewd act, on Sverre's part, is obvious. Another class of officers who, though they were not first appointed by Sverre, had more definite functions and duties assigned to them by him, were the prefects {syslu-madr"^). They were not, * Vigf usson translates syslu-madr, ' ' prefect, bailiff, king's stew- ard " ; but he also translates gjald-keri and ar-madr with steward, and in this case correctly. The only English term I know for an ofifi- SVERRE SIGURDSSON. 353 like the liegemen, royal vassals who held land in fief and exercised independent authority, but servants of the king and the representatives of his power.* They collected the royal revenues in their districts, and watched over the interests of the crown. They thus deprived the liegemen of their principal functions and a large share of their income. As a measure in- tended to weaken the influence of the aristocracy, the appointment of these prefects was therefore most effective. Sverre was not minded to share his power with these haughty magnates, many of whom had not hesitated to barter away provinces and enter into alliances with foreign princes against their own king. He wished the crown to be strong enough to curb this unruly element, and by the aid of the small pre- vent, the great from growing above his head. With great shrewdness and statesmanlike insight he began this work, which in one way or another absorbed his time and energy during his entire reign. Seeing that the king meant to deprive them of their ancient privileges, the remnants of the liege- men's party began to look about for a new pre- tender, whom they could put in the field against Sverre. Such a one was soon found in the person of a monk named Jon, who professed to be a son of King Inge Crookback. Though his story was evi- dently mendacious, there gathered about him a considerable band, which received the name Kuv- lungs or Cowlmen. Not all the former adherents cer whose functions correspond approximately to those of the syslu- madr is prefect, as the office now exists in France. Even this term is, however, imperfect. * Munch, iii., io8. 354 THE STORY OF NORWAY, of Magnus did, by any means, join this band, but yet a sufficient number to make it formidable. Now began the usual depredations along the coast, attacks upon Bergen and Nidaros, indecisive fights and sud- den retreats, occasional victories, and a, great deal of destructive guerilla warfare. There was a suspicion that Archbishop Eystein, who hated Sverre, was the power that kept the Kuvlungs in motion, and it was obvious that he secretly favored them. The arch- bishop, however, died in 1188 having, as Sverre as- serted, made peace with him on his death-bed. Soon after, the rebel band was destroyed in Bergen (1188) and their leader slain. If Sverre had expected to sit at ease in the enjoy- ment of his power, he must by this time have been undeceived. He had indeed sown the wind, and he reaped the whirlwind. No sooner were the Kuv- lungs out of the way than a new band, called the Varbelgs (Wolf Skins), was organized by the chieftain Simon Kaaresson, who picked up a pretender in the person of a child, named Vikar. This boy, who was but a few years old, was born in Denmark, and was alleged to be a son of King Magnus Erlingsson. But the deception was a little too barefaced to gain cred- ence, and the Varbelgs came to an inglorious end at Bristein, near Tunsberg(i 190), where both the little Vikar and Simon Kaaresson were slain. Rebellion had by this time grown so popular that any plausible impostor, who chose to take the risks, might expect to gain a considerable number of adherents. The many who were unable or indisposed to put up with the new order of things, preferred to stake all on a SVERRE SIGURDSSON. 355 desperate chance rather than submit meekly to the terms of Sverre's amnesty. It was, therefore, of small consequence who headed the rebellion ; the rebellious spirit which was abroad was sure to find expression, and was never in want of a leader. The successors of the Varbelgs were called Oyeskeggs (the Islanders), because their band was recruited largely from the Orkneys, where Earl Harold fav- ored them. Their chieftains were Hallkel Jonsson, a brother-in-law of King Magnus, Sigurd Jarlsson, an illegitimate son of Erling Skakke, and Olaf, a brother- in-law of Earl Harold, of the Orkneys. All these had nominally submitted to Sverre and had received many favors at his hands. Nay, even after they had hatched their conspiracy, Olaf continued to act as the king's friend and sit at his table. Sverre was, however, not deceived by his duplicity. One day when they were talking together the king said : " Thou, Olaf, oughtest to have been faithful to me." '' Why do you say that, my lord ? " asked Olaf. The king, instead of answering directly, made a thrust with his knife in the air and said : " The fol- lowers of our foes are now swarming about us." At this the traitor took alarm and quickly left the hall. Outside he met his foster-son Sigurd, who was said to be a son of King Magnus, and was later pushed into the role of a pretender by the Oye- skeggs. '' There we narrowly escaped a trap, foster-son," said he, as he took the boy by the hand and hurried away. He immediately set sail for the Shetland 35^ THE STORY OF NORWAY. Islands, where he could mature his plans without interference. In the summer of 1193 he appeared with Hallkel and Sigurd Jarlsson and a large flock of rebels in Viken, where shire after shire submitted to them without resistance. There were, probably, no royal troops in Viken at this time, and the inhabi- tants, who had formerly been partisans of King Magnus, had not recently acquired any deep sense of loyalty to Sverre. When provisions became scarce, the rebel chieftains went aboard their ships and began to prey upon the shipping in the Belts. In this way they gained such large amounts of goods and money that they became known as the *' Gold- legs " {Gullbciiicr). In the autumn of 1193 they sailed northward, full of courage, hoping soon to make an end of Sverre, who was understood to have but few people about him. They met him at Flors- vaag, near Bergen, and prepared for battle. His force amounted to about twelve hundred men, while the Oyeskeggs had two thousand. As it was too late to fight, when the fleets first approached each other, Sverre betook himself to the city with a few followers in order to get reinforcements. On his way back, it occurred to him that it might be a good plan to pay the rebels a visit. In a small boat he rowed stealthily, under cover of the darkness, up to the ship where the chieftains were having a council of war, and had the pleasure of hearing Hallkel Jonsson unfold the whole plan of the battle. He took his own measures accordingly, and by his well- calculated manoeuvres frustrated their plans. The battle was, however, a bloody one, and fiercely con- SVERRE SIGURDSSON. 357 tested. It looked badly for the Birchlegs for a while, but the arrival of ninety well-armed men from the city decided the day in Sverre's favor. The king of the Oyeskeggs leaped overboard, but was pierced by a spear while he was swimming shoreward. All the rebel chieftains, except Sigurd Jarlsson, and nearly all the men were slain (1194). While thus indefatigably engaged in quelling re- bellion, Sverre had another struggle on his hands which made even heavier demands upon his vigilance and energy. The church is not apt to look with favor upon one who deserts it, even for a throne, and the fact that the king had been admitted to the lowest order of the priesthood, so far from reconciling the priests to his authority, placed them in a hostile atti- tude to him. In spite of this, however, there is little doubt but that he could have bought their friendship by making the proper concessions. If he had been willing to ratify the agreement between Archbishop Eystein and Erling Skakke, hold his crown in fief from St. Olaf, which was but another name for the hierarchy, and give the bishops the right to exact similar conditions from his successors, his former deaconship would have proved no obstacle to his receiving the support of the Church. Sverre knew, however, too well the spirit of the priesthood to venture upon such concessions. It was his policy to make the monarchy strong enough to quell the un- ruly spirit of the aristocracy and give peace and security to the people. The Church had from the beginning taken sides against him, and secretly or openly aided every band of rebels which had endeav- 358 THE STORY OF NORWAY. ored to overthrow his government. No wonder that, apart from all other considerations, he was not favor- ably disposed toward the Church. When Archbishop Eystein died, after having made a pretended peace with the king, Bishop Erik, of Stavanger, was elected as his successor. It is said that Eystein, on his death-bed, obtained Sverre's reluctant consent to this choice. At all events, Erik was chosen, and was no sooner warm in his seat, than he showed his disposition toward the king. Without consulting Sverre, he named for his successor to the bishopric of Stavanger one of his bit- terest enemies, Nicholas Arnesson, a half-brother of King Inge Crookback. Sverre naturally objected, first because Nicholas had never taken orders, sec- ondly because his election had taken .place in an illegal manner, the king having not been present. For all that, he agreed in the end to waive his objections, because his queen, Margaret (a sister of the Swedish king, Knut Eriksson), interposed in Nicholas' be- half. The latter, who was a master of intrigue, had, by his humility and flatteries, gained the favor of the queen, and even Sverre, who was ordinarily a keen judge of men, was made to waver in his dis- trust of him. He was, however, soon to have his eyes opened. As soon as Nicholas had received his investiture, he again joined the ranks of the king's enemies, making common cause with the archbishop, who was indefatigably quarrelling with Sverre about the alleged prerogatives of his ofifice. First, he wanted the fines and penances, payable to the Church in Trondelag, to be rendered according to actual SVERRE SIGURDSSON. 359 weight in silver, and not in the coin of the realm, which was but worth half its nominal value. Sec- ondly, he wished to reserve for himself and his fel- low bishops the right of making all clerical appoint- ments, and thirdly, he claimed the privilege of surrounding himself with a kind of ecclesiastical court, and keeping ninety to one hundred men-at- arms in his service, although the law only allowed him thirty. To settle these points, Sverre sum- moned the archbishop to Frosta-//^/;/^, and, after having read him the law, decided against him. Full of wrath, the haughty prelatfe left the country, seek- ing refuge with Archbishop Absalon in Denmark, who received him cordially. Here he composed a letter to the Pope in which he bitterly complained of the king's usurpations and infringements of the rights of the Church. The Pope responded by put- ting Sverre in the ban and releasing his subjects from their oath of allegiance. Before the bull reached Norway, however, Sverre had induced the bishops, remaining in the country, to crown him at Bergen (June 29, 1194). Even Bishop Nicholas, who had recently been transferred from Stavanger to Oslo, had participated in this ceremony, though probably much against his will. Sverre treated the papal bull, at first, as a mere fraudulent invention of archbishops, Erik and Absalon, but that he was far from believing this to be the case is shown by the fact that he sent embassadors to Rome to present counter charges against the archbishop, and to explain the causes of the controversy from his point of view. As far as we know these embassadors accomplished- 360 THE STORY OF NORWAY. nothing, and on their homeward way they died sud- denly in Denmark (1197), having probably been poisoned. Soon after, a falsified papal bull was pub- lished by Sverre, in which the ban was revoked. It is not improbable that he was himself responsible for this falsification. It was a question of '* to be or not to be " with him, and he had been long enough connected with the Church to know how to soothe his conscience in such a matter. It is, moreover, scarcely credible that any one else would have com- mitted the fraud in his favor. Seeing that they could not destroy Sverre by spiritual weapons only, his enemies resorted once more to the sword, and this time chance played into their hands in a most remarkable manner. The Byzantine emperor Alexius sent, in 1 195, a Norse- man named Reidar the Messenger {Sendemand), to Norway to hire him 200 mercenaries, and Sverre, though he was of opinion that Norway had no troops to spare, was persuaded to permit the emperor's emissary to enlist such as desired to follow him. Rei- dar went to work without delay and gathered a con- siderable force, but in the meanwhile Bishop Nicho- las had approached him and induced him to enter into a league for the overthrow of Sverre's govern- ment. Next to Nicholas himself, the most important man in the league was Sigurd Jarlsson, the son of Erling Skakke, and formerly a chief of the Oye- skeggs. A boy named Inge, alleged to be the son of King Magnus Erlingsson, was their candidate for the throne. The band received the name of Bagler, i. e., Crookmen, after bagall, a crook or bish- SVERHE SIGURDSSON. 36 1 op's staff. They were, owing to the accession of Reidar's mercenaries, much more formidable than any of the former bands which had risen in rebel- Hon against Sverre. In the first battle which the king fought with them, they had no less than 125 ships and 5,000 men. This encounter, which took place in Salto Sound, in Viken (1196), was inde- cisive, though some advantage seems to have been gained by the Baglers. At all events, Sverre dared not remain in Viken, but steered northward to Nid- aros, leaving the rebels masters of all the southern provinces. They had here the sympathy of the pop- ulation, and experienced no difficulty in having the pretender Inge proclaimed king at Borgar-Z/^/;/^. Sverre, in the meanwhile, levied troops in the north- ern provinces, and in the summer of 1197 attacked the rebels at Oslo, where they suffered a crushing defeat. Here his prudent foresight and strategic skill insured him a splendid success, while Nicholas showed himself a cowardly braggart, devoid of gen- eralship. He tried to make his men believe that the swords of the Birchlegs would not bite, because they were in the ban, and when this lie had been effectu- ally disproved, the bishop was among the first to take to his heels. " Ride forth hard now, my lord," one of the Bag- lers called to him. *' Our men sorely need your help and exhortation ; for, methinks, in sooth, that the swords of the Birchlegs bite pretty well." "■ No, let us ride away as fast as we can," Nicholas made answer; '' for now the Devil is loose." After the battle the prelate sent a priest to Sverre 362 THE STORY OF NORWAY. with offers of peace ; but the latter, who knew the treacherous character of his foe, would not treat with him, unless he appeared in person. He prom- ised him safe-conduct, averring that he had other means of gaining fame than by killing a man like him. Nicholas made no response to this proposi- tion ; but instead of presenting himself before the king, hastened with his men overland to Nidaros, attacked the city, burned Sverre's fleet, which was lying in the fjord, and besieged the block-house, which finally fell by the treason of its commander, Thorstein Kugad. This was a severe blow to the king, and placed him in the subsequent contest at a great disadvantage. To meet the rebels on the sea with the small ships which were now left to him, was hazardous, as the battle of Thorsberg, near the mouth of the Drontheim fjord, during the following year plainly showed (1198). The Birchlegs were here worsted, in spite of their splendid bravery, and many of the king's staunchest friends and adherents were slain. Sverre hastened thence to Bergen, where the Bagler chief, Sigurd Jarlsson, in the meanwhile had been raging with fire and sword. He had burned those of Sverre's ships which he had found in the harbor, as well as the houses of the Birchlegs in the city, and he now laid siege to the block-house, where Queen Margaret was with all her household. As this rude fort was built of wood, his first intention was to fire it, and he began, for this purpose, to pile up wood for an enormous bonfire close to the walls. Sigurd Borgarklett, the commander of the fort, suc- ceeded in lighting the wood-pile, before it was large THORGHATTEN, A FAMOUS ISLAND WITH A NATURAL TUNNEL, IN NORDLAND. 364 THE STORY OF NORWAY. enough to do any harm. The Baglers began to pile up wood once more, but again the besieged flung burning barrels of tar down upon them and drove them off. After many fruitless attempts, Sigurd Jarlsson gave up the plan of firing the block-house. It was not, however, only his enemies without, who gave Sigurd Borgarklett trouble. The queen, at the sight of the fire, grew frantic and insisted upon sur- rendering ; and all her women surrounded the brave commander, tearfully imploring him not to expose them to being burned alive. A friend of Sverre, named Aura-Paul, to whose care the queen had especially been entrusted, feared that the lamenta- tions of the women might have a discouraging effect upon the garrison, and in order to save the com- mander from their importunities, he persuaded them to enter the room above the gate, which had been used as a jail, and there await the issue of the nego- tiations with the Baglers. To this they readily con- sented ; and were forthwith locked up, with full permission to wail to their hearts' content. When, however, the danger from fire was past, Aura-Paul went to the queen and asked her, what she would give him if he could induce the Baglers to depart. She offered him a great sum of money; whereupon he begged the loan of her seal. He now sat down and wrote a letter in the queen's name to two priests in the city, urging them to use every means in their power to detain the enemy, as the king was coming with a large force the next day and would be sure to make an end of them. This communication he despatched by a small boy who managed to be SVERRE SIGURDSSON, 365 caught by the Baglers and, on being searched, had to deliver up the letter. Sigurd Jarlsson, without sus- pecting the deceit, hurried away as fast as he could, not, however, without having punished the two priests, who, though professing friendship for him, yet were in communication with the queen. This was regarded by the Birchlegs as a delightful joke; for the priests were, like most of their order, enemies of the king. But to make this comedy of errors complete, Sverre did actually, to the surprise of his friends, arrive on the day appointed in the letter. Nevertheless, it was fortunate that Sigurd Jarlsson had taken to his heels ; for the main force of the Baglers were pursuing the king southward, and if the two divisions had effected a junction in Bergen, Sverre would scarcely have been able to hold his own against them. The summer of 1 198, which became known among the people as the Bergen summer, was passed by the hostile armies in and about the latter city, and there was almost an incessant skirmishing, besides some hard fighting, A battle at the Jonvolds resulted in favor of the Birchlegs, but was not decisive enough to destroy the Baglers' power of resistance. The summer passed, neither party gaining any de- cided advantage. Then Bishop Nicholas, despairing of destroying the Birchlegs as long as they had the town to fall back upon, determined to deprive them of this shelter. He accordingly set fire to the town and burned the greater part of it. The Birchlegs had enough to do in saving the block-house, and could give but little aid to the citizens in their efforts to 366 THE STOR Y OF NOR WA Y. limit the conflagration. It is doubtful, however, if the Baglers gained any thing by this unwarrantable destruction, for the citizens of Bergen, a large num- ber of whom had been favorably inclined toward them, became from this day their enemies. Sverre was, indeed, compelled to abandon his position, leav- ing, however, a garrison in the block-house. But the Baglers scarcely profited by his departure, as the country round about had been denuded of provi- sions, and want compelled them to move. Bishop Nicholas then sailed northward to Nordmore and Haalogaland, where he met with no opposition ; and desertion from the ranks of the Birchlegs increased his army until its very magnitude caused him embar- rassment. Oddly enough, at this very time, when the king's fortune was at its lowest ebb, the traitor, Thorstein Kugad, who had surrendered the block- house in Nidaros, returned to him. He flung him- self at Sverre's feet, embraced his knees, and cried : " Happy I am now, my lord, that I am so near you — that I can touch you. -^ * * Dear my lord, receive me, and let me never more part from you." Though his former comrades demanded his death, Sverre gave him full pardon. The king's desperate position was indeed sufficient guaranty of the sin- cerity of Thorstein's repentance. The whole coun- try, outside of Trondelag, was now in the hands of the rebels. The royal fleet was burned, and even many of the veteran Birchlegs had deserted. Then, as the final crushing blow, came the bull of Pope In- nocent III., laying the country under interdict, pro- hibiting the celebration of pubhc worship and the SVERRE SIGURDSSON. 367 administration of the sacraments, in all those parts of the kingdom that yet remained faithful to Sverre. If the vicar of Christ had contented himself with hurling the thunderbolt of divine wrath against the king, he might perhaps have achieved his destruc- tion. But the Pope, finding that the bull of his predecessor had been practically ineffective, aimed this time to affect the popular conscience, and he addressed to it certain arguments which showed how completely he had allowed himself to be de- ceived by Sverre's enemies. In his bull he described the king in a manner which must have appeared ab- surd to those who knew him ; he attributed to him crimes which all knew that he had never committed ; and exposed thereby — not Sverre's wickedness, but his own fallibility and partisanship. The king, in- stead of meekly submitting to an unfair sentence, felt, therefore, justified in coming forward in his own defence. He wrote or caused to be written, under his immediate supervision, a polemical bro- chure, in which he reviewed his relation to the Church and ably defended his conduct. The be- havior of the clergy he subjected to a scathing criticism, showed the inconsistency of their position, as the partisans of Baglers, and exposed the true mo- tive of their actions. The author's shrewdness, abil- ity, and learning are manifest in every page, and the lucidity of expression and the plain common-sense arguments seem to reveal the well-known personality of Sverre. That it had the effect of preventing many from leaving him, who otherwise might have been frightened into desertion, is very probable. The dis- 368 THE STORY OF NORWAY. loyal clergy had, however, better facilities for reach- ing the people than the few who were yet faithful, and they improved their opportunity in inciting the peasants to an unreasoning, fanatical hostility to the excommunicated king. The Pope, in the meanwhile, was active in stirring up foreign enemies against him, and wrote the most urgent letters to the kings of Sweden and Denmark, exhorting them to merit the gratitude of God and his vicar, the Pope, by destroy- ing the sacrilegious monster, Sverre. Happily, these exhortations had no effect ; for King Knut of Den- mark had his hands full at home, and King Sverke of Sweden was rather favorably inclined toward his neighbor. In this desperate strait Sverre's true greatness re- vealed itself. He had been accustomed to fight against heavy odds, and the sense of danger served to bring all his energies into play. With undaunted resolution he set to work to repair his losses and to equip himself once more to meet his foes. His first task was to build a fleet instead of the one which the Baglers had destroyed ; for without ships he would have been at their mercy. The Tronders whom he called upon for help assisted him faithfully ; and by the beginning of spring (1199) he had eight large galleys ready to be launched. Besides these he ex- pected a number of others which the peasants were building for him throughout Trondelag. The city of Nidaros he fortified with a large new block-house, and built hurling-machines which were used for throwing stones at the enemy. Early in June the Baglers appeared in the fjord with a large fleet, and SVERRE SIGURDSSON. 369 the usual skirmishing commenced. All their efforts to capture the city were, however, unavailing, and in the battle at Strindso (June, 1199) their great fleet, which had formerly given them an advantage over the Birchlegs, "fell into Sverre's hands. The battle was stubbornly contested, and both parties were wrought up to a warlike fury which refused to give or to take quarter. The king, whose gentleness and humane sentiments had made his stern resolu- tion and courage the more admirable, put here a blot upon his fair name. He yielded to the importunities of his men, and allowed them to avenge the death of their kinsman upon the prisoners. It is but fair to ascribe this single act of cruelty to the momentary ferment of his blood and the hate that flared up uncon- trollably against the authors of all his misfortunes. After the battle of Strindso the Baglers fled southward with the few ships that were left to them, and were pursued by Sverre, w^ho did not, however, succeed in overtaking them. They found, as usual, a refuge in Denmark, where they continued to plot mischief. They felt themselves, in point of strength and resources, so superior to Sverre that it seemed to them merely a question of time, when they should gain possession of the entire land. Even in Nidaros, where the king was yet able to hold his own, the rebels had many sympathizers among the clergy. After his victory at Strindso, Sverre sailed south- ward and went into winter-quarters in Oslo. The Baglers took advantage of his absence to visit Nidaros where they fought indecisively with an army of 1,800 peasants who undertook to defend the city. 370 THE STORY OF NORWAY. In the meanwhile a storm was drawing up over Sverre's head more menacing than any which he had hitherto weathered. The preaching of the disloyal clergy Avas beginning to show its effects. The peas- ants of Viken and the Oplands rose in rebellion, and poured in great torrents toward Oslo, for the purpose of destroying the excommunicated king. From three different directions their armies came march- ing, intending to effect a junction near the city, and by their greatly superior numbers overwhelm Sverre. The king had then only three thousand men, while the forces of the peasants, all told, must have num- bered forty or fifty thousand. To fight against such odds would seem to be simple madness. Never- theless he determined to sell his life dearly. Never did his genius shine more brightly than in the hour of danger. Calmly and confidently he addressed his men, assigning to each commander his task, and ex- horting his Birchlegs to be brave, and to trust in God. Then, by a series of swift manoeuvres, he pre- vented the junction of the hostile armies, leaving his sons, Sigurd Lavard and Haakon, to guard his rear, while he engaged and defeated the two main divisions of the peasant army. The force under Sigurd and Haakon, which only numbered four hun- dred and eighty men, had in the meanwhile been routed by the third division, numbering twenty-four hundred, and the king would have had small chance of escape, if the peasants had had the wit to follow up their advantage. Instead of that they began carousing in the city, and even refrained from firing the royal fleet, which was in their power, because 3/2 THE STORY OF NORWAY. they regarded it already as their own. When, how- ever, the sanguinary battle which was in progress out on the ice was at an end, the hilarious peasants discovered their mistake. Sverre came, not as van- quished, but as victor. Then there was hurly-burly of battle once more — fight, flight, and pursuit. The yeomen, sturdy fellows though they were, and not unaccustomed to war, lacked discipline, and above all they lacked a competent commander. Sverre chased them so hotly that they had to fling away their shields and trust for safety to their speed alone. The exhausted Birchlegs had now need of rest, and the king ordered the famous loor Andvake to be blown, and gathered the army about him. Food and drink were brought from the city and the hungry warriors were about to refresh themselves, when they perceived that the fugitives of the several peasant armies had united, and were returning to challenge once more the fortune of battle. The rebels had discovered that they were yet, with a proper plan of attack, formidable enough to destroy the Birchlegs. Their chief purpose now was to kill Sverre, because they supposed that, if he were dead, the resistance of his party would soon collapse. Reluctant though they were to fight again, the Birchlegs responded bravely to their king's exhortation. They stormed down to the frozen fjord, where the peasants were forming their battle line, and made a fierce onset. Sverre, as was his wont, rode about among them, was now at the front, now in the rear, and with his clear eye directed each manoeuvre. The peasants, when they saw him, cried out : " Stab him, hew SVERRE SIGURDSSON. 373 him down, kill him, cut his horse from under him." And from all sides resounded hoarsely the shout: ''Stab him, kill him." But in their eager- ness to slay Sverre, they neglected to preserve order. Their battle array broke up into a series of wild and irregular charges, the weak points of which Sverre was not slow to detect. The Birchlegs rushed in among them and routed them with great carnage. A liegeman, named Aale Hallvardsson, whom the rebels mistook for the king, because he was similarly dressed, fell after a brave defence, and an exultant shout was heard, that the king was slain. The Birch- legs were for a moment stricken with terror, and stopped in their pursuit. But suddenly Sverre came dashing forward on his horse ; the warriors rallied joyously about him, the loor was blown for a fresh attack, and at the head of his men the king charged once more and broke the last resistance of the dis- comfited peasants. This was the greatest victory that Sverre ever won, and altogether one of the most extraordinary battles ever fought in Norway. For the peasants a day of accounting was now at hand, and the king made them feel the heavy hand of his wrath. A policy of gentleness and amnesty they would have mistaken for fear ; only severity could inspire them with respect. Many farms were burned and great fines in money and provisions were exacted from those who had taken part in the rebellion. One incident will suffice to show, however, how little Sverre's heart was in this work. As he was approach- ing a farm, a little boy came running out of the 374 THE STORY OF NORWAY. woods and begged him piteously not to burn his home. " Nay, surely it shall be spared, since thou askest," answered Sverre, gently ; " and if the peasants had stayed at home and begged for peace, no farm would have been burned. Tell them now, that the rest will be spared." Forthwith he gave orders to his men to refrain from further destruction. The heroic endurance which Sverre had developed in this long and exhausting struggle had indeed weakened the cause of the Baglers, but had by no means deprived them of their courage. A civil war and particularly a war of classes, such as this was, arouses fiercer hates and passions than international contests, and must therefore continue, until one party or the other is utterly humbled or destroyed. The Norse magnates, who formed the bone and sinew of the Bagler party, hated Sverre, not only because they believed him to be an upstart and an adventurer, but as the destroyer of the old oligarchic government, in which they had secured the lion's share of power. A class, so formidably intrenched both in the institu- tions and the traditions of the country, could not be overthrown at one blow ; nor could it be humbled by misfortunes and reverses. It was not in his cleri- cal capacity, but as the most eminent representative of the old aristocracy, that Bishop Nicholas became their leader ; and the adherence of the clergy to the Bagler party was not so much the result of a personal sympathy with him, as of a common animosity to the democratic king, the leveller of distinctions, the SVERRE SIGURDSSON, 375 champion of the rabble. These proud descendants of the great historic families of Norway were of the same blood as the Norman nobility of England, and though they did not live in castles, nor dress in satin and ermine, yet they were animated by the same spirit. They were ready to fight for their rights, whether real or imagined, even against their own king and country. In the spring of 1201 Sverre called fresh levies from the ever faithful North, and sailed again south- ward, leaving a garrison in Bergen under the com- mand of his friend, Dagfinn Peasant, and his son-in- law Einar, surnamed the Priest. He learned that the Bagler chief, Reidar Messenger, with about two hundred and forty men had taken possession of the block-house at Tunsberg, and he thought the oppor- tunity a favorable one for annihilating one of his most dangerous enemies. To this end he laid siege to the block-house, which, however, from its situation oh the mountain, overlooking the town, was well- nigh impregnable. His attempt to take it by storm failed, and his various ingenious stratagems were like- wise unsuccessful. After a siege of twenty weeks, the Baglers were reduced to such a strait that for their Christmas dinner they had to eat boiled and chopped ropes, made out of walrus and sealskin. They could not endure this long; one by one they began to desert, in the dead of night, and instead of being slain, as they expected, they were received with kindness by the king. The Birchlegs grumbled loudly at his forbearance, but he rebuked them sternly, and they had to own that he was right. Last 37^ THE SrORY OF NORWAY. of all came Reidar Messenger with the little band that had remained with him. Sverre not only spared his life, but he treated him with the greatest consid- eration. He warned the Baglers not to eat too heartily after their long fast, and cared for those among them who were ill. Many who disregarded his advice died ; while others dragged themselves through life with ruined health. The chief himself also suffered much, although Sverre exerted all his medical skill to cure him. The incessant hardships of war and the strain upon his energies which they involved had, in the meanwhile, undermined the king's strength, and he was after a while compelled to take to his bed. When he left Tunsberg in January or February, 1202, he had his bed made on the raised poop of the deck, and that of the Bagler chief was placed at his side. And there lay, side by side, the conqueror and the conquered, gazing up into the wintry sky, and watching the clouds that chased each other under the wind-swept vault. Often they talked pleas- antly together, and each learned to admire the re- markable qualities of the other. Reidar, who had been a crusader, told of his adventures and observa- tions in Constantinople, and the Holy Land ; and the days passed quickly to the king, while he listened to the entertaining narrative. On the arrival of the fleet in Bergen, the king was moved to the royal mansion where his bed was made in the great hall. When he felt that his death was near, he called some of his trusted friends to him and declared solemnly, in their presence, that he had but one son living, SVERRE SIGURDSSON. 377 namely Haakon, and if any one else claimed to be his son, he was a rebel, and an impostor. Then he ordered a letter, which he had dictated to Haakon, to be read and sealed, and he charged his nephews, Haakon Galen, and Peter Steyper, to deliver it into his hands. " I wish," he said, " before receiving the extreme unction, to be lifted into my high-seat, and there await life or death." When the sacrament, in spite of his excommunica- tion, had been administered to him, he continued: *' My kingship has brought me more tribulation, dis- quietude, and danger, than ease and pleasure, and methinks that mere envy has impelled many to be- come my enemies, which sin may God now forgive them, and judge between them and me and in my whole cause." King Sverre expired March 9th, 1202. He was in point of genius the greatest king who has ever ruled over Norway. A bright, clear, and resolute spirit dwelt within his small frame. His presence of mind and his wonderful fertility of resource saved him out of the most desperate situations. Firmness, and gentleness were admirably united in his char- acter. A clear-sighted policy, based upon expedi- ency as well as upon conviction, governed his actions from the beginning of his reign to its end. He pos- sessed the faculty of attaching men to him, even when he punished them and restrained their lawless passions. Though he did not possess the beauty or the magnificent physical presence of the earlier kings of Norway, he knew how to inspire respect as well 37S THE STORY OF NORWAY. as love. The charm of his conversation, and his af- fabihty of manner impressed every one who came in contact with him. '' What especially makes his per- sonality interesting," says Munch, "^ ''is the remark- able mingling of seriousness and humor, which seems to be peculiar to the Norse national character, and which, in his demeanor, was so striking that he may almost be regarded as its embodiment." In many respects he was much in advance of his age. Thus, it is told of him that, so far from regard- ing the national vice, drunkeness, as an amiable weakness, for which no man was any the worse, he endeavored earnestly to check it, and punished with severity those who committed excesses under the in- fluence of drink. As far as his constant occupation with war permitted him, he encouraged trade and all industrial pursuits. For learning he had a high regard ; was himself a good Latin scholar and well read in the law, and displayed much zeal in procur- ing for his sons the best educational advantages that the time afforded. In spite of the hardships and dangers, to which he was constantly exposed, he lived to be fifty years old, — an age which, since the death of Harold the Fairhaired, but one king of Norway had reached. * Munch, iii., 391. CHAPTER XXV. HAAKON SVERRESSON (1202-I204). In his dying message to his son Sverre advised him to make peace with the Church. He foresaw that the interdict which was weighing heavily upon the land would be an increasingly powerful weapon in the hands of the Baglers, and would continue to alienate the hearts of the people from the king, Haakon, who had not personally been engaged in the controversy, could, without loss of dignity, make overtures for a reconciliation, and might, if neces- sary, make concessions. The bishops were, however, so tired of their long exile and dependence upon foreign bounty, that they accepted with eagerness his offer of peace and hastened to return to their bishoprics. What the terms of the reconciliation were we do not know. The old Archbishop Erik, who was now blind and decrepit, was especially glad to return home, as his patron, Archbishop Absalon, had recently died, and his position in Denmark, as a dependent of the king, was scarcely an agreeable one. No sooner had he set foot on Norse soil than he declared the interdict revoked, without even awaiting the Pope's consent — a rashness for which he was later rebuked by Innocent III. The Pope, 379 380 THE STORY OF NORWAY. however, though he no doubt enjoyed wielding the tremendous weapons of his wrath, acquiesced in the terms of the peace, and had no fault to find with the new king's attitude toward the Church. The fact was, Haakon Sverresson was a gentle and lovable character, who delighted in peace rather than war. All the people, weary of the long and bloody civil feud, felt drawn toward him and hastened to ac- knowledge him. After his proclamation as king at OtYQ-thing, and the revocation of the interdict, he was undisputed master of the land ; and the star of the Baglers seemed forever to have set. Many of their influential chiefs deserted to Haakon ; and their so-called king, Inge, was slain on an island in Mjosen by his own men and the peasants. Bishop Nicholas exchanged temporarily the helmet for the mitre, and kept as quiet as his restlessly intriguing mind would permit. Reidar Messenger had, after his capitulation at Tunsberg, sworn fidelity to Sverre, and meant to keep faith with his son. It seemed therefore that, at last, all dangers were removed, and that the young and popular king had a prospect of a long and happy reign. Then, as a bolt of light- ning out of a sunny sky, came a calamity which sud- denly plunged the country again into war and misery. We have heard that Sverre married Margaret, the daughter of the Swedish king, Erik the Saint. He had with her no sons, but a daughter, Christina. His two sons, Sigurd Lavard, who died before his father, and Haakon, were born on the Faeroe Isles ; and their mother was Astrid, the daughter of Bishop Roe. It is probable that Sverre was married to her, HAAKON SVERRESSON. 38 1 but it is told that he did not bring her to Nor- way, because she had been unfaithful to him. Ac- cording to a tradition, however, she was brought to Norway by her son, who gave her a large estate near Nidaros and treated her with consideration and kindness. This act Haakon's step-mother, the queen- dowager Margaret, regarded as an insult to her, and determined to leave the country. Being a passion- ate and imperious woman, proud of her birth and relentless in her hate, she imagined that she was not accorded the honor that was her due at the court, and she particularly took offence because the king claimed precedence before her. Being averse to strife, he did his best to conciliate her, but with small success. The queen-dowager betook herself to Oslo with her daughter, intending thence to pro- ceed to Sweden, where she owned large estates. The king, though he did not dispute her right to leave, denied her right to take with her his half-sister, whose natural guardian he was; and sent his cousin, Peter Steyper, to induce her to desist from her reso- lution. The queen, however, remained obdurate. She would not concede that Haakon had any right over her child. Finding threats and persuasion un- availing, Peter Steyper attempted a strategem. He burst into the princess' room, while her mother was taking a bath, crying at the top of his voice that the Baglers had come to town. Christina implored him in terror to save her ; whereupon he seized her in his arms and ran with her down to the piers, jumped on board of his ship, and set sail. The queen, as soon as she heard the noise, rushed into the street, 382 THE STORY OF NORWAY. and reached the pier just as the ship was gHding from its moorings. Beside herself with wrath, she screamed after the Birchlegs : '' Would that I may live to see the day when I shall cause you as great a sorrow as you to-day have caused me." Much more that she cried they did not hear, for her voice came more faintly to them through the wind, as the distance increased. From that day she hated the king, though it is by no means clear that he approved of Peter Steyper's violence. Finding her position in Sweden less agreeable than she had expected, she was soon induced to return to Nor- way, where she became a centre of mischievous in- trigue. Among her partisans was the king's cousin, Haakon Galen, a son of Sigurd Mouth's daughter Cecilia and Folkvid the Lawman, a brave and reck- less youth who was deeply in love with the queen's niece, Mistress Christina.'^ Over him the two women» both of whom were arch-plotters, had considerable influence, and the desire rose in them to put him on the throne in his cousin's place. King Haakon, who, if he had suspected his stepmother's design, would have been on his guard, furnished her now with the opportunity for accomplishing her evil purpose. He invited her and her daughter to his Yule-tide feast, offering her the high-seat at his own side. So far from being conciliated by this offer, the queen burst forth vehemently : ^' Long shall I remember how I sat in the high-seat with my lord. King Sverre, on Christmas Eve. Bring my greeting to King Haakon, * Not the same as the Princess Christina, Sverre's and Margaret's daughter. HAAKON SVERRESSON. 383 and tell him that I shall not share his high-seat to-night." The king was aggrieved at this rebuff, and sent a second message, begging her at least to allow his sister Christina to grace his feast by her presence. The messenger added that the king was very wroth. '' Does he suppose," cried Margaret, '^ that I do not remember how he caused my daughter to be torn away from me at Oslo, without his reminding me of it into the bargain ? " To everybody's surprise, however, she began to dress for the feast, and soon both mother and daugh- ter entered the banqueting hall, where they were received with much honor. The feast was a merry one and good cheer reigned in the hall. Toward the evening of the day after Christmas, however, the king began to feel indisposed, and grew worse as the night advanced. He had himself bled, but the illness made rapid progress, until he lost consciousness. His body turned blue and swelled up terribly. On New Year's Day, 1204, he died, it was evident that he had been poisoned, and the rumor soon got abroad that it was the queen who had killed him. Although Haakon Galen did his best to lead suspicion away from her, a general clamor arose that she should prove her innocence by carrying glowing irons. This the queen refused to do, and in consideration of her rank obtained per- mission to appoint a substitute who should submit to the ordeal in her place. This substitute, however, though he betrayed no fear of the result, was found to have been badly burned, and the belief now be- 384 THE STOR Y OF NOR WA Y. came general that the queen was guilty. The ex- citement against her was so great that Haakon Galen was obliged to conduct her secretly away from Nid- aros, and to hide her in the house of one of his kins- men in the country. Later she made her escape to Sweden, where she probably passed the rest of her days on her estates. Both the Princess Christina and her cousin Christina remained in Norway, the latter as Haakon Galen's mistress. The death of Haakon Sverresson plunged the country in deep grief,, not only because he was per- sonally beloved, but because it was supposed that he left no issue. The opportunity was now at hand for a new crop of pretenders to fight for the crown and spread once more anarchy and desolation over the land. CHAPTER XXVI. GUTTORM SIGURDSSON (1204), AND INGE BAARDS- SON (1204-12 1 7). The legitimate heir to the throne after Haakon's death was his nephew, Guttorm Sigurdsson, as on of his brother, Sigurd Lavard. In spiteof his tender age, the Birchlegs made haste to elect him, with the understanding that Haakon Galen, with the title of earl, should conduct the government. There were, however, some of the Birchlegs who were dissatisfied with this arrangement, partly because they were jealous of Haakon Galen, partly because they felt that, in such troublous times, a king was needed, who should be something more than a name or a figure-head. The Baglers, too, strange to say, were ill at ease, because they feared that, Haakon Sver- resson's restraining influence being removed, the Birchleg chiefs would give free rein to their passions of avarice and vengeance. Half in self-defence they, therefore, reorganized their troop under the leader- ship of an impostor, calling himself Erling Stone- wall (Steinvegg), who pretended to be a son of King Magnus Erlingsson. A pretender of this name had, during the reign of Sverre, made some little stir, and had been imprisoned by King Knut of Sweden in a 385 386 THE STORY OF NORWAY. tower, whence he had escaped by means of a rope, made out of his bed-clothes. The rope proved, how- ever, to be too short, and in letting himself drop to the ground, Erling broke his hip. He was overtaken, oh his flight, by Sverre's men and in all probability slain. Neverthless, it required audacity rather than proof of royal birth, in those days, to figure as a pretender ; and the second Erling Stonewall, though probably few at first believed in him, soon had a considerable following. It was of no use that Bishop Nicholas opposed him, and urged his own nephew, Philip, a grandson of Harold Gille's queen, Ingerid, for the chieftainship. When Erling de- manded the right to prove his birth by the ordeal of fire, the bishop told him bluntly that the result was in his hands. Under such circumstances, the pre- tender found it more to his advantage to make terms with the bishop and receive his assurance that the ordeal should turn out successfully. Erling, on his side, promised, when he became king, to make Philip his earl, and in other respects satisfied the prelate's demands. The latter had, in the meanwhile, by con- ferences with his peasants, ascertained that Philip's candidacy was regarded with great disfavor, because he neither had nor pretended to have a drop of royal blood. The peasants utterly refused to recognize him, and threatened to rebel, in case he was elected. It was therefore to the bishop's advantage to keep faith with Erling. The ordeal accordingly took place with great solemnity in the presence of the Danish king, Valdemar the Victorious, and proved successful. GUT TOR M SIGURD SSON.— INGE BAARDSSON. 387 Erling was then proclaimed king, and received as a present from Valdemar a fleet of thirty fine ships. In return he recognized him as his feudal overlord and gave him hostages. The party of the magnates was thus faithful to its traditions, in sacrificing pa- triotism to private interests. With the aid of the powerful Danish king the party had, indeed, a good prospect of crushing the disheartened and disunited Birchlegs, who just at that time received a fresh blow in the death of their newly elected king. Christina, Haakon Galen's mistress, could not allow so slight an obstacle, as the life of a child, to stand between her and the goal of her wishes. If Gut- torm were dead, her lover would have the best chance of succeeding him, being on his mother's side a grandson of Sigurd Mouth. It was, therefore, no mere accident that Guttorm died ; and with all the symptoms of poisoning. He said that the *' Swedish woman " had taken him upon her lap and stroked him caressingly over his whole body. Soon after he felt, as if needles were piercing his flesh, and before long he expired in great agony. Though Christina's guilt was obvious, her lover had yet sufficient in- fluence to have the matter hushed up ; and in order to give her the full benefit of his protection, he married her soon after. A meeting was now called in Nidaros to elect a new king. Earl Haakon, who was a favorite with the army, seemed to have every chance in his favor ; and he would probably have been the choice of the Birchlegs, if Archbishop Erik had not opposed him, on account of his relation to Christina. The guilt thus defeated its own object. 388 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Several candidates were discussed, some of whom were related to Sverre only on his mother's side and thus had no consanguinity with the royal house. The most prominent among these was Peter Steyper, who had the additional advantage of having married a daughter of King Magnus Erlingsson. After long deliberations, the chiefs finally decided to leave the choice to the peasants, who would then be sure to stand by the king whom they themselves elected. The peasants were according summoned to Oere- thing where they conferred the royal dignity upon Inge Baardsson, a younger half-brother of Haakon Galen and like him, on the maternal side, a grandson of Sigurd Mouth. No sooner did the Baglers hear that the Birchlegs had chosen a new king than they started northward from Tunsberg, in order to test his mettle. The caution of Bishop Nicholas pre- vailed, however, over the counsel of the more war- like chiefs, and after some unimportant fights in and about Bergen, the rebels betook themselves to Den- mark, where they had always a safe place of refuge. King Inge and Earl Haakon, therefore, found no op- position, when they visited Viken, and the peasants, though the great majority of them sympathized with the Baglers, had no scruple in swearing them alle- giance. In fact, the long war was having a demoraliz- ing influence upon the people, and its barbarizing effects began to be visible in many ways. To save their lives, the yeomen were obliged to feign friend- ship for every pretender who came along with his band, and swear him fidelity, or fly to the woods, leaving their farms a prey to the marauders. Even GUTTORM SIGURDSSON.—INGE BAARDSSON, 389 the ties of blood which had been exceptionally strong among the Norsemen, began to be disre- garded, as members of the same family were im- pelled, by diverging interests, to join different parties. It was no rare occurence that brother fought against brother, and father against son. Thus it is told of a Bagler that during the attack upon Nidaros in 1206, he was hotly pursuing a Birchleg whom he finally killed. As he stooped over the dying man, in order to deprive him of his arms and garments, he dis- covered that it was his own brother. A great laxity in all moral obligations resulted from this state of things. Kings and chieftains broke their words ; enemies who had surrendered on promise of pardon were ruthlessly slain ; murder and rapine filled the land. Under these circumstances it was no great privi- lege for the young and inexperienced Inge to wear a crown which merely put a price upon his head. In the spring of 1206, while he was in Nidaras celebrat- ing the wedding of his sister, the Baglers surprised him in the night and slew a large number of his men. The king himself escaped by pure chance, threw himself into the river, and swam, hajf-clad, in the icy water, out to a ship, and clung for a while to the anchor cable. More dead than alive he reached the shore, and would probably have perished from ex- posure, if the Birchleg, Reidulf, who was also fleeing, had not found him, wrapped him in his cloak, and carried him on his back to a place of safety. Yet Inge never overcame the effects of this terrible night. He grew morose and despondent, and never 390 THE STORY OF NORWAY. regained his former light-heartedness. It was not merely that he felt discredited as a chieftain by the disgrace of having been surprised by his enemies in a drunken sleep, in the house of his mistress ; his health, too, had suffered a shock from which it was slow to recover. On their return from Nidaros, the Baglers paid a visit to Bergen, where they expected to starve the Birchleg garrison in the block-house into surrender. But here they reckoned without their host. Earl Haakon, though he had not been present at the as- sault upon his brother in Nidaros, felt impelled to avenge it. He therefore sailed southward with a small fleet and about seven hundred men, overtook the rebels in Bergen and inflicted upon them a severe defeat. Thus blindly pursuing partisan advantage, Baglers and Birchlegs kept killing each other, for- getting that they were all Norsemen, who would, in the end, suffer by the devastation and exhaustion of their common country. Year after year they con- tinued surprising each other in Nidaros, Bergen, Tunsberg, and Oslo, burning each other's ships, and robbing each other's treasures ; but they appeared to avoid a decisive battle which would have given an overwhelming advantage to one party or the other, thereby securing peace to the land. The death of Erling Stonewall in 1207 enabled Bishop Nicholas to carry out his desire to make his nephew, Philip Simons- son, king of the Baglers. But Philip made no change in the policy of his predecessor, persevering in the same aimless marauding, which could scarcely be dignified by the name of war. The parties were, in- GUTTORM SIGURDSSON.—INGE BAARDSSON. 39 1 deed, so evenly matched, that it seemed hopeless for the one to destroy the other, for which reason the political stake in the struggle was almost lost sight of, while immediate profit yet furnished a motive for continuing in arms. It was while anarchy was thus rioting and despond- ency reigning throughout the land, that a hope sud- denly sprang up, like a star out of the depth of night. It was well known that King Haakon Sverresson, during his visit to Sarpsborg in 1203, had become enamoured of the beautiful Inga of Varteig, and it had also been whispered that she had reciprocated his love. Soon after Haakon's death, she had borne a son, and though it was taken for granted that the king was his father, the matter had been hushed up, lest the Baglers, who were masters in Viken, should hear that an heir had been born to the throne. The priest, Thrond, in whose house Inga gave birth to the boy, baptized him and gave him the name Haakon, after his father ; but advised the utmost secrecy, and let no one but his immediate family know of the child's existence. Such a secret is, however, hard to keep, and, after a while, the priest took Erlend of Huseby, a man of good repute and a friend of Sverre's house, into his confidence. Erlend rejoiced that King Sverre's race was not extinct ; but found the boy's position, in the midst of the enemies' land, perilous. He therefore persuaded Thrond to send him and his mother to King Inge, and himself offered to take them across the mountains. The boy Haakon was then (December, 1205,) about a year and a half old. There must have been some imminent danger 392 THE STORY OF NORWAY. at hand which impelled the priest, after having waited so long, to choose the most inclement season of the year for the journey across the trackless, snow-cov- ered wilderness. The two friends started northward with their precious charge and arrived, after infinite hardships, in Nidaros, where they were well received by King Inge. The boy now, for a while, sojourned with his mother at court and was kindly treated. The old Birchlegs came often to see him and play- fully took him between them and pulled him by the arms and legs in order to make him grow faster. For they were impatient to serve, once more, a king of the old royal race. Haakon Galen, too, took a great fancy to his young kinsman, though his demonstra- tions of love were, no doubt, looked upon with fear by those who had the boy's welfare at heart. Never- theless, it appears that the earl was actually sincere, and felt moved, perhaps, by the very helplessness of the boy to protect him. A kind Providence seemed to be watching over him ; for though living in the midst of the intrigues and plottings of rival chiefs, all of whom must have seen in him their most dan- gerous rival, his life was preserved, and he escaped unharmed from many dangers. Even the Baglers refrained from killing him, when in 1206 he fell into their hands, at the surrender of the block-house in Bergen. It is perhaps not safe to assume that a half- latent consciousness asserted itself, that in this boy Norway's future was bound up ; that upon him de- pended the country's deliverance from the scourge of civil war. More likely it is that his beauty and winning ways appealed to friends and foes alike, GUTTORM SIGURDSSON.—INGE BAARDSSON. 393 while on the other hand, the love of the Birchlegs was his best guard, because it convinced his ill- wishers that disaster would swiftly overwhelm any one who should venture to harm him. Of the many small victories and defeats, sieges and surrenders, flights and pursuits, which filled the years 1206 and 1207, without according any decisive ad- vantage to either party, it is not necessary to speak at length. They were a series of barren futilities, resulting in loss of life, and waste of the resources of the land, without lastingly benefiting any one. Un- der these circumstances, it is not strange that both Birchlegs and Baglers began to long for a reconcilia- tion. Even to so bitter a partisan as Bishop Nich- olas, it became evident that a continuance of the war would mean mutual destruction, and that the prize of victory would be a devastated land and a barbar- ized people. King Inge, too, was heartily tired of the aimless hostilities, and even his pugnacious brother, Haakon Galen, was not disinclined to listen to proposals of peace. The new archbishop, Thore, acted as mediator between the parties and used his influence and his eloquence to extort from both the necessary concessions. At last, when the conditions were well understood on both sides, a meeting of the Birchleg and Bagler chiefs was held at Hvitingsoe (1208), at which Philip Simonsson, the king of the Baglers, swore allegiance to Inge, and became his earl. In return he received Viken and the Oplands in fief, and was wedded to Sverre's daughter, Chris- tina. The restoration of peace was not hailed as an un- 394 THE STORY OF NORWAY. mixed boon by many of those who had lost their property by the war, and could only hope to enrich themselves by the same means. Others had carried arms so long, as to have lost all inclination for peace- ful industry. A great number of these, irrespective of parties, started on an old-fashioned Viking expedi- tion to the Orkneys, Hebrides, and Man, ravaged and plundered, and compelled the earls of those isles, once more, to acknowledge the supremacy of the crown of Norway. In spite of this service which they had done to the king, ' they were severely censured on their return, and forced by the bishops to surrender their booty to the Church. The last years of King Inge's reign were embit- tered by his strained relation to Earl Haakon. The latter, feeling his superiority to Inge in all the qual- ities that grace a king, could not reconcile himself to his subordinate position. He began intriguing behind his brother's back, and privately sounded the sentiments of the prominent peasants and chiefs, in regard to his pretensions. From many he received a favorable answer, and the plot was in a fair way to succeed, when it was unexpectedly discovered by the king. Inge, who had had perfect confidence in his older brother, was more shocked than angered by the proof of his treachery, He summoned all his men to a house-///2>/^ and called upon them to stand by him, declaring that he would tolerate no other king in the land, as long as he was alive. This speech won general approval and compelled Haakon henceforth to weave his plots with greater secrecy. Whether he was the instigator of the attempt upon GUTTORM SIGURDSSON.—INGE BAARDSSON. 395 the king's life, which was made a year later, is not known, but that either he or his wife Christina was in some way implicated in it, is evident from the king's unwillingness to have the would-be assassin tried or punished. When his brother, Skule Baards- son, urged him to make an example of the wretch, he promised to have the matter investigated, to exile the criminal, etc., but as nothing was done, Skule lost his patience and killed him on his own responsibility. It was, on the whole, a laudable spirit on Inge's part which impelled him to avoid an open rupture with Earl Haakon, even at the cost of personal sac- rifice. He knew the horrors of civil war and would not take the responsibility of precipitating a breach of the peace, as long as it was in his power to pre- vent it. The fact that his health was poor, and that there was a chance that Haakon might succeed him, may also have disinclined him to discredit the latter in the eyes of the people. Among Haakon's partisans was Archbishop Thore, to whose intervention it was chiefly due that the king and the earl in 12 12 made a compact, in accordance with which illegitimate children were to be excluded from the succession, and the one of the brothers who survived the other should inherit the throne. This agreement, which was proclaimed at OtYQ-t/mtg, and sanctioned by the bishops and the magnates of the land, was chiefly aimed against the young prince, Haakon Haakons- son, who, though a direct descendant in the male line of the old royal house, was of illegitimate birth. It excluded also, for the same reason, Inge's son Guttorm, and transferred the succession to Haakon 39^ THE STORY OF NORWAY. Galen and his legitimate son, Knut. But in making this compact, they underestimated the strength of the sentiment which bound Sverre's veterans to the boy Haakon. One of them, Helge Hvasse, who was in the habit of going frequently to see the prince, and playing with him, grew very wroth when he heard of the agreement. When Haakon ran up to him to have his usual romp, he pushed him roughly away and bade him begone. The boy, unaccustomed to such treatment, looked reproachfully at him, and asked why he was angry. " Begone," cried Helge ; '' to-day thy paternal her- itage was taken from thee, and I don't care for thee any more." ^' Where was that done, and who did it ? " asked Haakon. '' It was done at O^VQ-thing, and they who did it were the two brothers. King Inge and Earl Haakon." " Do not be angry with me, mine own Helge," said the boy ; " and be not troubled about this ; their judgment cannot be valid, as my guardian was not present to answer in my behalf." " Who, then, is thy guardian ?" inquired Helge. *' My guardians are God, and the Holy Virgin, and St. Olaf," exclaimed Haakon solemnly; "into their keeping I have given my cause, and they will guard my interests, both in the division of the country and in all my welfare." Much moved, the veteran seized the boy in his arms and kissed him. "Thanks for those words, my prince," he said; " such words are better spoken than unspoken." 39^ THE STORY OF NORWAY. When this occurrence was reported to Christina, she scolded Haakon, and henceforth treated him harshly. But she dared not show her evil disposi- tion toward him in the presence of her husband. For the earl, though he had no scruples in barring the boy's way to the throne, was yet attached to him, and would not allow him to come to harm. Haakon's remarkable precocity amused him, a.s it did all his men. Several anecdotes are preserved of his droll sayings and doings. Thus, when once the weather was so cold that the bread could not be buttered, the little prince took a piece of bread and bent it around the butter, saying : " Let us tie the butter to the bread, Birchlegs." This saying became a proverb in the camp of the Birchlegs. The king's indulgence to his brother in the matter of the succession had not quieted but rather stimu- lated the latter's ambition. By incessant intriguing he succeeded in fomenting a peasant's rebellion in Trondelag which was, however, quelled without serious loss of life. Soon after this exploit, he was taken ill and died in Bergen 12 14, aged thirty-eight years. His wife, who knew that the Birchlegs had a long score to settle with her, made haste to quit the country with her son. Haakon Haakonsson, who had been fostered in the earl's house, was now trans- ferred to the court, where he was treated as became his rank. There the Birchlegs flocked again about him, watching jealously every one who approached him. They were in many ways discontented with King Inge, whom they held to be an aristocrat, and GUTTORM SIGURDSSON.—INGE BAARDSSON. 399 by his poor health and peaceful disposition unfitted for the chieftainship. Besides, his brother Skule was openly intriguing to push Haakon aside and place himself in the line of succession. The disaffection then became so great that a number of Birchlegs under the leadership of Andres Skjaldarband en- deavored to persuade Haakon to place himself at the head of a rebellion. But Haakon refused to give ear to such counsel. As the king's health declined and he perceived that his death was approaching, he loved to have the boy about him and to listen to his droll and vivacious talk. All public business passed, during this time, through the hands of Skule Baardsson, whom Inge made his earl, and the guardian of his son. The king died in April, 1217, being but thirty years old. CHAPTER XXVII. > HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD (l 2 1 /-1 263). The first act of the Birchlegs, after the death of King Inge, was to give Haakon a body-guard, which was to follow him night and day. Earl Skule, on his side, opened a campaign of intriguing and chican- ery, in which he was faithfully supported by the new archbishop, Guttorm, and the canons of the cathe- dral chapter in Nidaros. In spite of all their under- hand measures, however, Haakon was proclaimed king at O^r^-tJiing by the Birchlegs, and Skule, who did not feel himself strong enough to defy the gen- eral sentiment, had to acquiesce in what he could not prevent. It was of no avail that the canons of the chapter locked up the shrine of St. Olaf upon which the king was to swear to keep the laws ; the Birchlegs determined to dispense with the shrine rather than to dispense with their king. Nor did the negotiations of the earl with Philip, the so-called king of the Bag- lers, lead to anything; for Philip died shortly after King Inge, leaving no children; and Haakon sailed southward with a large fleet and took possession of Viken and the Oplands, which since the treaty of Hviting-soe in 1208 had been under the dominion of the Baglers. By a wise policy of conciliation he 400 HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD. 4OI induced the chiefs of the rebels to acknowledge his overlordship, on condition of their being permitted to keep one half of the fiefs which had been granted to Philip. The following year, they also consented to give up their old party name, which recalled the times of civil dissension and strife, and to fight side by side with the Birchlegs, against a new band of rebels, called the Slittungs (Ragamufifins), which had been organized under the leadership of a priest, named Benedikt or Bene Skindkniv (Skin-knife). This arrant impostor professed, like so many of his predecessors, to be the son of King Magnus Erlings- son, and in spite of the utter improbability of his story, upwards of a thousand men soon gathered about him and began robbing and plundering. It was merely to furnish an excuse for a breach of the peace that they professed belief in Bene's pretensions. Robbers, footpads, and all sorts of nomadic vaga- t)onds could, in those days, give themselves a sem- blance of respectability by providing themselves with a candidate for the throne. A great many credulous people could then be induced to join them and their depredations were called war instead of robbery. A war, and especially a civil war, always drags in its wake a long train of disastrous consequences. The longer it lasts, the more difficult is the return to peace. The miserable internecine strife which had lasted, with brief interruptions, since Harold Gille's ascension of the throne (1130), had weaned a whole generation from the pursuits of peace, accustoming it to scenes of bloodshed and violence. It had added to the natural risks of industrial occupations, 402 . THE STORY OF NORWAY, and made rebellion, as it were, a legitimate profes- sion. The thousands of homeless vagabonds who infest every imperfectly organized society, and the numerous class who, by nature, are criminally inclined, will always seize such an opportunity to support themselves, at the expense of society, and will far rather endure the dangers and hardships of a per- petual war than the wearing routine and sustained activities of peace. The material was therefore at hand for continued rebellion, and as long as the supply of pretenders showed no signs of giving out, there was every prospect that the king would have his hands full. Only the gradual destruction of the turbulent and the greater chances of the survival of the friends of order would, in the end, decide the struggle in favor of the latter. The problem is, how- ever, more complicated than it appears to be, for the gradual destruction of the turbulent came, in the course of time, to mean the destruction of the war? like spirit itself. And a century after peace had been concluded, a period of decline set in, which continued for four hundred years. A greater danger than the rebellion of the Slit- tungs was, however, threatening King Haakon from one who called himself his friend. The role of in- triguer and mischief-maker, which during King Inge's reign had been filled by Haakon Galen, appeared to have devolved with his other dignities upon his brother. Earl Skule. To see royal honor bestowed upon a fourteen-year-old boy, who had done nothing to merit it, galled his proud soul. Like Haakon Galen, he had long stood so near to the throne, that WEST FRONT OF DRONTHEIM CATHEDRAL. 404 THE STOR V OF NOR WA Y. he could not comprehend, why it should always re- main beyond his reach. After the brief campaign against the Slittungs, he began again his machina- tions, aided as usual by the archbishop and the clergy, who seemed yet to cherish their ancient grudge against Sverre's house. When Haakon arrived in Nidaros, two weeks before Easter (121 8), the arch- bishop treated him with studious discourtesy, while he did every thing in his power to distinguish the earl. When the king on Palm Sunday went up to place his offering upon the altar, the prelate did not even turn toward him, or in any way appear to be conscious of his presence. When taken to task for his incivility, he replied boldly that he was acting deliberately on the advice of all the bishops and many chieftains, who, like himself, had doubts as to whether the king was the son of Haakon Sverresson. Haakon, young as he was, saw at once the plot that was here concealed. But so great was his confidence in the justice of his cause, that he consented to have his mother bear glowing irons, to prove his origin. Inga had before offered to submit to this ordeal, but had been prevented by the archbishop, who for some reason did not then desire to pronounce upon her son's claim, possibly because he had not yet arranged his terms with Skule. It was of course unheard of, that a king, actually in possession of the realm, should be put to the humiliation of proving who he was; and his friend Dagfinn Peasant expressed the general sentiment when he said : ^' It will be hard to show another instance of such a case ; that the sons of peasants and cottagers have ventured to prescribe HAAKON' HAAKONSSON THE OLD. 405 such humiliating terms to an absolute king. * * * I think it were just as well to bear another kind of iron, viz., cold steel, against the king's foes, and then let God judge between them." As Earl Skule's plot seemed now in a fair way to succeed, he became suddenly affable and affectionate toward the king. He felt positive that his clerical friends would manage to have the ordeal result in accordance with his wishes. Nevertheless, to make assurance doubly sure, he bribed a foreigner in his service, named Sigar of Brabant, to approach the king's mother, and offer her an herb which, he as- serted, had the power to heal burns ; but a guard of devoted Birchlegs, among whom was Dagfinn Peas- ant, surrounded the church in which she was fast- ing, preparatory to the ordeal, and the earl's emissary was, therefore, compelled to confide his errand to the latter. Dagfinn replied : "■ No art or healing will we employ here, except such as Christ in his mercy will grant. Begone with thy twaddle, or dis- aster will overtake thee, if thou darest again utter such speech." Inga was then warned of the plot and told to be on her guard. For if it could be proved that she had used healing herbs, the test would be invalid, and opprobrium would have overwhelmed both her and her son. All the machinations of her enemies, how- ever, came to naught ; she endured the ordeal trium- phantly. It is difficult to explain how this result came about, for the odds were certainly against her. The earl had, perhaps, from over-confidence, neglected some link in his long chain of precautions. However 406 THE STORY OF NORWAY, that may be, he had, after this severe check, to start all over again — to spin, with painstaking care, a fresh web of intrigue, in order slowly to undermine the king's power. His plan seems to have been to alienate Haakon's trustiest friends from him, or to get them removed to such a distance that they could no longer be of any help to him ; then to set them by the ears mutually, so that one slew the other and the king punished the survivor. But ingenious as this plot was, it was not entirely successful. The king's forgiving disposition, and a suspicion, on his part, that the earl was really at the bottom of these mysterious enmities and slayings, impelled him to act contrary to the latter's expectation. It was obvious to all that he bought the earl's pretended friendship at too high a price, and many of his men would have preferred open warfare to this suppressed suspicion and hypocritical good-will. There was, indeed, ample opportunity for strife between the two parties, and quarrels and bloody fights between the " earl's- men " and the " king's-men " were of frequent occurrence. All the conditions for another civil war war were, in fact, at hand, and it was only the disin- clination of the king to let loose, once more, the dogs of war, which preserved even the semblance of peace. The fact that the king was under the guar- dianship of a man who spent his tirne in plotting against him, seemed to the Bircheleg chiefs to call for precautions, on their part ; and the idea occurred to them to convert Skule's hostility into friend- ship, by identifying his interests with those of the king. For this purpose they proposed a marriage HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD. 407 between Haakon and the earl's ten-year-old daugh- ter, Margaret. The king, though he was not eager for such a marriage, yielded to the representations of his counsellors, and Skule, after some hesitation, consented to have the betrothal take place (12 19). The actual marriage was preliminarily postponed, on account of the tender age of the bride. But those who had supposed that Skule could be made to aban- don his scheming, because the king was his son-in- law, had made a miscalculation. Circumstances, however, compelled him, soon after the betrothal, to fight in defence of the crown, against a new band of rebels, called the Ribbungs, who had absorbed their predecessors, the Slittungs, and added largely to their number. This band owed its origin to the former Bagler chief, Gudolf of Blakkestad, who had been appointed a prefect by Haakon, but had later been deprived of his office, on account of his un- popularity with the peasants. To avenge himself, he raised the banner of rebellion, and provided him- self with a candidate for the throne in the person of Sigurd, an alleged son of the Bagler king, Erling Stonewall. All those who had a real or an imagined cause for discontent, and many who were merely intent upon plunder, now rushed together under the standard of the Ribbungs. These made considerable progress in Viken, defeated and chased away the royal prefects, and gained much booty. They were secretly supported by that hoary mischief-maker, Bishop Nicholas, who, in spite of his professions of friendship, yet remained consistent in his hatred of Sverre's race. The earl, too, who was sent to de- 408 THE STORY OF NORWAY. stroy the rebels, was less energetic than he might have been, giving himself an appearance of zeal in his master's behalf, but being really disinclined to strike an effective blow. It was, rather, in his inter- est to keep them in the field, for the purpose of injuring the king and preventing him from growing too powerful. In the various fights which he had with the Ribbungs in Viken (1221), he did, indeed, inflict considerable injury upon them, and in the battle of Svang, at Lake Mjosen (1222), killed one hundred and fifty of their number. But imme- diately afterward he made peace with Sigurd Rib- bung, who had the impudence to demand one third of the kingdom and the earl's daughter for his wife. Skule replied that neither had he brought up his daughter to live in the woods, nor was he minded to give up any part of his fiefs. But if the king was in- clined to consider Sigurd's proposition, the earl promised to use whatever influence he had with his son-in-law in his behalf. On these conditions the rebel chief dismissed his band, and, on the promise of safe-conduct, betook himself to the earl's camp where he was treated with great distinction. The moment for pushing his claim was, however, not a favorable one, as the relation between the king and the earl, at this time, took a sudden turn for the worse. It appeared that Skule had levied troops and contributions, outside of his own fief, accord- ingly in the king's domain, and Haakon was so incensed at this fresh infringement of his rights that he wrote him a letter, in which he threatened him with war, in case he persevered in disregarding their \ .^ x^ Sflbi^^'^"^ 4IO THE STORY OF NORWAY. agreement. The earl replied to this letter by im- mediately setting sail for Denmark. He had evi- dently taken a great resolution. What this resolu- tion was is easy to guess. The kings of Denmark had, since the days of Harold Bluetooth, claimed overlordship over Viken, and they had repeatedly fomented rebellion in Norway for the purpose of regaining the lost province. Skule's intention was now to thrust Haakon from the throne by the aid of Valdemar the Victorious, and to take the entire country in fief from him. But to his unutterable astonishment, when he arrived in Den- mark, Valdemar was nowhere to be found. He had been captured, five days before, by Count Henrik of Schwerin, and was now languishing with his son in a prison in Mecklenburg. Bitterly disappointed, Skule returned home, and was compelled to resume his mask of benevolent interest in his son-in-law's affairs. The latter had just filled his eighteenth year, which, in the case of princes, was regarded as the age of majority. He needed, therefore, no long- er a guardian, and custom seemed to demand some ceremony on his formal assumption of the govern- ment. An assembly of notables was therefore sum- moned to meet in Bergen (1223), where Archbishop Guttorm, who, in the meanwhile, by concessions, had been bribed to take the king's side, solemnly re- affirmed his right to the throne. Sigurd Ribbung's claim was pronounced invalid, as was also that of Squire Knut, the son of Haakon Galen and Christina, who had sent representatives to the meeting. Earl Skule saw from the beginning that the sentiment of HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD. 4II the assembly was so bverwhelmingly in Haakon's favor, that it would be of no use for him to urge his pretensions. He therefore contented himself with extorting as favorable terms for himself as possible at the renewal of his compact with the king. After many negotiations he exchanged his southern fief for the northern third of the country, extending from the North Cape to the southern boundary at Sondmore. But he still remained, in name at least, a royal vassal, and was compelled to swear allegiance to the king ; although he enjoyed all the royal revenues from his fiefs, and paid no tax or tribute to any one. In accordance with this agreement Haakon now moved southward and took up his residence in Oslo. This city, which had recently been burned down, he rebuilt with great care, and came thereby into fre- quent contact with the ancient enemy of his race, Bishop Nicholas. This venerable scoundrel suc- ceeded actually in gaining his confidence for a time, and obtained during this brief friendship sub- stantial advantages for himself and his see. Haakon always took pleasure in showing his zeal for religion by liberality toward the Church, and the wily bishop was the man to take advantage of such a dispo- sition. He persuaded him on the death of Archbish- op Guttorm (1223) to give the weight of his recom- mendation to his enemy, Peter of Husastad, who, in accordance with the advice of Nicholas, feigned friendship, until he had got the mitre securely on his head. It was not in accordance with the earl's plans to let the king sit quietly in Viken, increasing his popu- 412 THE STORY OF NORWAY. larity and power. He was therefore scarcely grieved, when he heard of Sigurd Ribbung's flight ; nay, it is even probable, that he gave the rebel chief the oppor- tunity to escape, if he did not actually persuade him to renew the rebellion. The Ribbungs, who were not loath to resume their former activity, gathered again in large numbers about their leader, and began plun- dering and killing the king's adherents as of old. Whenever they were pursued, they made their es- cape across the frontier into the Swedish province, Vermeland, only to return as soon as their pursuers had turned their backs on them. King Haakon wrote repeatedly to the Swedish king, or rather to his guardians, as he was himself a child, complaining of the protection which Sweden afforded his ene- mies. Prominent among the counsellors of King Erik was then Eskil Lawman, who had married Chris- tina, the widow of Haakon Galen. This unscru- pulous woman, who had hated Haakon from his childhood, now exerted her influence against him at the Swedish court ; the consequence was that the counsellors disregarded his remonstrance, and con- tinued to give the Ribbungs an asylum. Their au- dacity naturally grew, in proportion as they became conscious of this protection ; and Haakon was at last compelled to invade Vermeland with an army of 2,400 men, in the middle of winter (1225). He burned many farms, and ravaged several parishes, but had no chance to fight any decisive battle, either with the Ribbungs or the Swedes. The latter had fled to the woods, and the former had availed themselves of the king's visit to Sweden to make a foray into Vest- HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD. 413 fold, and attack Tunsberg. The former Bagler chief, Arnbjorn Jonsson, who was close on their heels with his troops, was detained in Oslo by Bishop Nicholas, who by his double dealing succeeded in insuring the escape of the rebels. In April, 1225, the king, in the midst of his pro- tracted campaign against the Ribbungs, celebrated his wedding in Bergen with his betrothed, Earl Skule's daughter. The bride was then about seventeen years old, the groom twenty. If It was Skule's intention, when he gave his consent to the marriage, to secure himself an ally at court, he was disappointed. For Margaret, from the moment she became queen, made common cause with her hus- band, and in no wise favored her father's schemes. She was a gentle and affectionate wife and a good mother. The Ribbungs in the meanwhile continued their guerilla warfare, having taken possession of the Helgeo, an island in Lake Mjosen, whence they made forays into the fertile parishes that border on the lake, and practically controlled the Oplands. Earl Skule, who was again sent out to quell the re- bellion, dawdled as usual, nursing his secret treason and being at heart more anxious to injure the king than his enemies. In order to destroy the Ribbungs, it was necessary to reach the island, and ostensibly for this purpose he began to build ships on the shores of the lake. He built them, however, delib- erately in such a fashion that they leaked, and could scarcely be kept afloat. The Ribbungs, instead of being frightened by his preparations, grew daily 414 THE STORY OF NORWAY. bolder, and sent messengers to the king in Oslo, pro- posing to give him battle. Haakon accepted the offer, and advanced with his army to the appointed place of meeting (Eidsvold), while the earl, instead of hastening to meet him, took the road across the mountains to Nidaros, after having burned his worth- less ships. Here was the most incontrovertible proof of treason ; and there are also indications that in a correspondence between Bishop Nicholas and the Ribbungs which had fallen into the king's hands, the earl was seriously compromised. Nevertheless, Haakon chose to feign blindness rather than call the traitor to account. Possibly he did not feel himself strong enough to fight Skule and the Ribbungs at the same time, preferring to get rid of one enemy before engaging the other. After having waited in vain for the Ribbungs at Eidsvold, Haakon returned with his army to Oslo, where he learned that Bishop Nicholas was lying upon his death-bed. The old prelate, with whom falsity and double-dealing had become a second nature, seemed yet to feel some anxiety as to his fate in the hereafter. He therefore summoned the king to his bedside, made him a full confession (not, however, until the king had shown him the evidence of his treason), and implored his forgiveness, which was readily granted. The bishop died in November, 1225, seventy-five years old, having spent his long life in fomenting rebellion, and in ravaging and de- stroying his native land. His great talents proved a curse both to himself and his people. Not long after his demise, Sigurd Ribbung died (1226), and Haakon ON THE SOGNE FJORD. 4l6 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Galen's son, Squire Knut, was induced by his guileful mother to take his place. He brought with him a large band of Swedes, thereby giving his warfare the appearance of a foreign invasion, and arousing the hostility of the peasantry of the Oplands, who had formerly been friendly to the Ribbungs. In a fight at Aker he was defeated by a united army of Birch- legs and peasants, and during the following months he suffered repeated disasters, and was deserted by many of his best men. After a dastardly attempt to capture the king by inviting him to a conference, under promise of safety, — an attempt' which failed by the merest chance, — Squire Knut dismissed his band (1227), submitted to Haakon, who not only forgave him, but for his father's sake gave him fiefs, and treated him with distinction. The young man, as soon as he was removed from his mother's influ- ence, gave up all thought of rebellion, married, some years later, a younger daughter of Earl Skule, and became one of the king's most devoted friends. As the Ribbungs were now out of the way and could no longer be made to serve his purposes, the earl hatched a new plot which, on account of its in- genuity, ran less risk of premature detection. He professed a desire to take the cross, and began war- like preparations on a grand scale. He obtained from the Pope permission to exact one twentieth of all the ecclesiastical revenues of the province of Nidaros in aid of his enterprise, and satisfied his con- science by endowing the Church, in return, with his great family estate. Rein, which was converted into a nunnery. Extreme caution was characteristic of HAAKON HAAKONSSOISr THE OLD. 417 Skule ; and he meant, this time, to leave nothing to chance. He began at once to build ships, and to gather warriors about him from all parts of the coun- try. As the Danish king, Valdemar the Victorious, had now regained his liberty, he could also count upon his aid, and a formal agreement was made be- tween them in accordance with which Skule should assist the king in recovering his lost provinces. In return for this service Valdemar promised to put Skule on the throne of Norway. That some such agreement must have existed is obvious from the fact that the earl actually set sail for Denmark (1227), without asking Haakon's permission, but was met on his way by the latter and informed of the disastrous defeat of his ally at Bornhoved. He then concluded to await developments ; as he would run too great a risk in visiting Denmark, while Valdemar's enemies had the upper hand. Putting on a bold face, he joined his fleet to that of his son-in-law and returned to Bergen. The king, although he did not deceive himself as to Skule's purposes, kept his counsel and feigned ignorance. Nay, he even carried his gener- osity so far as to lend the traitor ships and provisions when, the following year, (1228) he set out once more to visit the king of Denmark. Since his defeat at Bornhoved, Valdemar was indeed much less formid- able than before his captivity, and the warlike spirit had wellnigh left him. Haakon may therefore have suspected that, surrounded as he was with enemies, both on the south and the west, he would scarcely care to add another on the north. Moreover, Haakon had by this time secured the friendship of the Ger- 4l8 THE STORY OF NORWAY. man emperor, Frederick II., who was a bitter enemy of Denmark, and be might, therefore, have a chance to keep Valdemar in check, in case he should lend a favorable ear to the earl's persuasions. Under these circumstances he hardly exposed himself to any risk, nay hoped, perhaps, by facilitating his father-in-law's approach to the Danish king, to convince him of the futility of all his plottings. If that was his intention, he must have been disappointed in the result. For when Skule returned he had added to his power for mischief, by obtaining the northern half of the Dan- ish province of Halland in fief, thereby becoming the vassal of a foreign prince, who, moreover, was the enemy of his own king. One would have supposed that he was now ready for a decisive blow. But he hesitated again, and seemed half inclined to retrace his steps. There was always something lacking in the completeness of his preparations, and another delay was always necessary. He is, indeed, an interesting figure, this wily and am- bitious intriguer, who has the courage to plot treason, nay takes pleasure in perfecting all the details of his plot, but always pauses before taking the irretriev- able step. Like Schiller's Wallenstein, he fondles the thought, plays with it, utters it cautiously and hypo- thetically, but leaves himself always, as he supposes, a path of retreat, until his own acts spin a web about him and bar him the road back to safety. Year by year he compromises himself more irretrievably ; his treasonable letters fall into the hands of the king, and when, after twenty-two years of covert treason, he drifts into open rebellion, it is because there is appar- ently no other alternative left to him. 420 THE STORY OF NORWAY. In the meanwhile, the king left no means untried to keep the earl to his allegiance. In 1233 he sum- moned him to an assembly of notables in Bergen {Rigsmode), at which the archbishop, the bishops, and a great number of secular dignitaries were pres- ent. The king here called his father-in-law formally to account for his actions, and the liegemen rose, one after the other, and cited proofs of the earl's dis- loyalty. When the turn came to Skule to defend himself, he began in this wise : ^' I know a ditty : ' The eagle sat on a stone,' and I also know another which runs like this : ' The eagle sat on a stone,' and a lot more which all run the same way. Thus it is here to-day. Every one talks in his own way, but they all finish up with the same ditty, viz. : to bring accusations against me." He made a long and eloquent speech, and, as it is said, defended himself with great adroitness. It is doubtful, however, if anybody believed him, and it was only the king's reluctance to resort to the sword, which saved him, on this as on many previous occa- sions. A new agreement was drawn up which was no more effective in restraining the earl's treasonable scheming than the previous ones had been. On the contrary, he was no sooner left to his own devices than he resumed his activity for the overthrow of the king. His purpose this time was to involve Haakon in a quarrel with the Church, in order after- ward to crush him with the formidable weapons which the Church had at its command. He shrewdly provided himself with a cat's paw in the person of Bishop Paul of Hamar, who was his devoted adhe- HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD. 421 rent. The archbishop, at this time, Sigurd Tavse, was a partisan of the king, but zealous for the wel- fare of the Church, and therefore, as Skule reasoned, capable of being alienated by a controversy in which the interests of the Church and those of the king were in conflict. Bishop Paul accordingly produced a document, alleged to have been issued by the Bagler king, Inge, in 1226, in which the Helgeo in Mjosen, which was the property of the crown, was presented to the episcopal see of Hamar. The king naturally contested the validity of this document, as Inge, a rebel chief, had no right to give away the property of the crown which had never been his. An appeal was now made to the Pope, Gregory IX., and a cam- paign of intrigue and mendacity was begun. The excellent and honorable Haakon was systematically reviled and slandered, until the Pope came to believe that he was a villain of the deepest dye. Bishop Paul, virtually as the ambassador of the earl, though nominally in the interest of the Church, betook him- self to Rome, where he succeeded in prejudicing Gregory IX. against all the king's adherents, and even against his own superior, the archbishop. Skule, on the other hand, was represented in the most flattering light, as the munificent friend of the Church, and its defender against the encroachments of the unscrupulous king. The object was to pro- cure a ban-bull against Haakon. The plot was spoiled, however, by being prema- turely revealed. An Icelander, named Sturla Sig- hvatsson, a nephew and an active enemy of the historian Snorre Sturlasson, met Bishop Paul in 422 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Rome and started homeward in his company. Whether he gained the confidence of his travelling companion, or otherwise obtained an insight into his intrigues at the Roman Curia, is not known. At all events, he immediately sought the king, on his arrival in Norway, and acquainted him with the doings of his enemies. The king summoned the earl once more to meet him in Bergen ; but this time Skule's courage failed him. Instead of going to Bergen, he went with his army to Nidaros, and thence across the mountains to the Oplands, which was the king's ter- ritory. This was about equivalent to a declaration of war, but as usual, he took only half measures, hesitated, talked threateningly, but refrained from actual hostilities. At the intercession of Archbishop Sigurd, he was induced to promise to keep the peace during the winter (1235-6) on condition of receiving one third of the royal prefectures {Sysler) in the Oplands and Viken. It seems to indicate weakness on Haakon's part that he was willing to make such concessions ; and his readiness to yield had naturally the effect of encouraging the earl's adherents and making them screw their demands still higher. During the following year (1237) a new agreement was made, in accordance with which Skule was con- firmed in the possession of his territory in the south, and was raised to the rank of duke — a rank which had never before been conferred upon any man in Norway. There was but one title, however, which could satisfy Skule's ambition, and as long as Haakon refused to grant that, he felt himself justified in con- tinuing his agitation. With increasing recklessness HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD. 423 he defied the king's will, gathered great numbers of warriors about him, built ships, and conducted him- self in every way as an independent ruler. It became the fashion at his court to ridicule the king as a cowardly busybody who only talked, but lacked the heart to strike. The Varbelgs "'^ — thus the partisans of the duke were called — invented for him the nick- name, Haakon Sleepy. His reluctance to assume the responsibility for civil war, they mistook for fear, and his conscientiousness for pusillanimity. When the spirit of rebellion which the duke had bred in his surroundings had thrown away all re- straint, it began to react upon himself, spurring him on to deed, and counteracting his natural indecision of character. He was now nearly fifty years old, and if he ever were to gain the crown, there was no time to be lost. Accordingly he mustered courage in 1239 to summon the Tronders to OcvQ-thing, and to pro- claim himself king of all Norway. When the canons of the cathedral refused to permit the shrine of St. Olaf to be used for the ceremony, Skule's son, Peter,f jumped up on the altar, pulled the cofhn up, and had it removed, by force, to the thing. In order that Haakon should gain no intelligence of what had taken place, all the roads which led out of the city were guarded, but for all that, one man, named Grim Keikan, managed to make his escape and to warn the king of the threatening danger. It was in the middle of the nip;ht that the king; received this mes- * The same name had been borne by another band of rebels which, under the boy Vikar, had fought against King Sverre. f Peter was an illegitimate child. His mother was the wife of Andres Skjaldarband, 424 THE STORY OF NORWAY, sage, and he went instantly to the queen's rooms and demanded admittance. The queen, aroused from her sleep, asked anxiously what news he brought. " Only this trifle," he said, '' that there are now two kings in Norway." '' Only one is the right king," she answered gravely, '' and that one are you." It had been Skule's first plan to surprise Haakon in Bergen, and capture him. But he soon learned that the king had heard of his exploits, and was pre- pared to receive him. He then sent out bands of warriors to different parts of the country to kill the royal prefects and all prominent friends of the king. A great many excellent men, who were utterly un- prepared for hostilities, were thus foully murdered ; churches were violated, and many atrocities com- mitted. The duke, in the meanwhile, remained quietly in Nidaros where he occupied himself in writing letters to foreign princes and potentates, in- forming them of the step he had taken, and en- deavoring to stir up dififlculties for Haakon by un- scrupulous misrepresentations. When, however, he learned that the king was coming with a large force to attack him, he started (Feb., 1240) with six hundred men across the mountains to the Oplands. Here he was met by his son-in-law. Squire Knut, who had been appointed earl in his place, and de- feated him and the able commander, Arnbjorn Jonsson, at Laaka. It was now high time for the king to appear upon the scene, if he were to prevent the rebellion from assuming such proportion, as to be beyond his power to quell it. The danger suddenly HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD. 425 developed in him a decision and promptness of action, which went far to raise the sinking courage of his men. He dechned the archbishop's offer to open negotiations once more; arrived, after a voyage of unprecedented rapidity, in Viken, and rowed, under cover of a fog, up the Folden Fjord to Oslo. In view of the possibility of his death, he had made all preparations for the succession, but he was re- solved to sell his life dearly. The Varbelgs, who had not the faintest suspicion that he was near, were sleeping soundly after a night's carouse, when suddenly the war-horn resounded, and the storm-bell rang. The prows of the royal fleet were then seen emerging from the fog and making for the piers. The duke, as soon as the alarm was given, tumbled out of bed and flung on his clothes. The dawn was just reddening in the east, and the fog was lift- ing. The ships were now at the piers, and the troops were disembarking. The Varbelgs supposed, at first, that it was Earl Knut, who had come to re- venge his defeat at Laaka. But they were soon un- deceived. When they caught sight of the royal banner they knew that King Haakon was not far away. Strangely enough, though they saw him storming forward, every moment exposing himself to danger, nay, even rushing on ahead of his men, they were not eager to kill him. They feared that the duke's cause was lost, and though they fought bravely, they had no hope of victory. The duke fled and was pursued by the Birchlegs ; but they did not succeed in overtaking him. Many men fell in that fight, but many more sought refuge in the churches and were pardoned. 426 THE STORY OF NORWAY. It was, indeed, the duke himself, as we have seen, who was the originator as well as the leader of the rebellion. He was not the expression and embodi- ment of a disloyal feeling among the people, as many previous pretenders had been, but the rebellion was solely due to his own personal ambition. As long as he was alive, therefore, the brands of civil war might at any moment be rekindled. It was this re- flection which prompted the king, in this instance, to smother all natural feeling for his father-in-law and not to shrink from punishing him as he had deserved. Seven days after the battle of Oslo he sent fifteen well-manned ships to Nidaros, whither the duke had fled, under the command of Aasulf of Austraat, a resolute man and one of Skule's bitterest enemies. On his arrival in Nidaros, Skule fled to the woods, roaming about for two days and nights with a few friends who would not desert him. At last the friars of the monastery of Elgeseter took pity on him, provided him and his followers with cowls, and hid them in a tower. The tidings soon reached Aasulf that some strange-looking monks had been seen to enter the cloister, and he immediately set out with his men and demanded their surrender. When the friars refused, some of the Birchlegs set fire to the monastery. Others endeavored to put out the fire, but their efforts were futile. The smoke and the heat now compelled the duke and his com- panions to descend from the tower. As he stepped out of the gate he held his shield above his head, saying: '^ Hew me not in the face ; for it is not meet thus to treat chieftains." HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD. \2J Instantly the Birchlegs fell upon him and slew him (1240). The death of Skule ended the rebellion. There was now no man in Norway who was strong enough to contest the power of the king ; probably no one who had the desire. It is a remarkable fact, consid- ering the duration of the civil war, since the death of Sigurd the Crusader, that the country apparently recovered so soon from its effects. The period of stagnation and decline did not occur until nearly a century later, and may then have been in part at- tributable to other and more immediate causes. The seed, however, of destruction had been sown during this disastrous epoch, even though it required a cen- tury to sprout. The return of peace left the king free to further an ambition which he had long had at heart. In a half unacknowledged way, he regarded his illegiti- mate birth as a blot upon his 'scutcheon which he was anxious to have removed. For this purpose he desired to be crowned. He had made an effort to gain the Pope's consent to such a ceremony during Skule's lifetime, but his ever-active enemy had frustrated his plan. Gregory IX. was now dead, as was also his successor, Celestin IV,, and St. Peter's chair was occupied by Innocent IV., who had no prejudice against Haakon. The bishops, as usual, endeav- ored to exact fresh privileges, in return for their good offices in this matter, proposing that the king, on assuming the crown, should swear the same oath as Magnus Erlingsson had sworn, acknowledging himself the vassal of the Church, and taking the 428 THE STOR Y OF NOR WA Y. crown in fief from St. Olaf. But here they were met by a firm refusal. '' If I should swear such an oath as King Magnus swore," Haakon replied, *' then methinks my honor in being crowned would be diminished, instead of increased. For King Magnus did not care what he did in order to attain that to which he had no right. But by God's help I shall not need to buy of you what God has rightly chosen me to be, after my father and my ancestors." When the Pope's consent was obtained, Cardinal William of Sabina was sent to Norway to set the crown upon the king's head. But on arriving, he, too, incited by the native prelates, was disposed to exact conditions. Haakon, however, secure in his right, maintained his attitude with firmness and dig- nity, and in the end the cardinal had to accept his terms. The coronation took place with great pomp on St. Olaf's Day, July 29, 1247, in Christ's Church in Bergen. The guests at the banquet which fol- lowed the ceremony were so numerous that the royal mansion could not hold them, and it became necessary to fit out a huge boat-house as a temporary banqueting hall. The feast continued for three days, and outdid in magnificence any thing that had hith- erto been seen in the North. Then followed a five days' /ete in honor of the cardinal and the other dignitaries. When the festivities were at an end, a meeting was called at which affairs of state were discussed, and the king voluntarily made several concessions to the clergy. The right of the Church to choose its own servants was confirmed, as also its HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD. 429 right of separate jurisdiction. Ordeals were solemnly- abolished, because, as the cardinal expressed it, it was not seemly for Christian men to challenge God to give his verdict in human affairs. At his departure from Norway, the cardinal re- ceived a present of 15,000 marks sterling, or about half a million francs, for his master the Pope, besides a munificent compensation for his own services. The remainder of Haakon's reign was externally uneventful, and for that very reason beneficial to the country. The king was wise enough to see that the noisy deeds of war bring no enduring blessing, while the industries of peace produce sound prosperity and progress. He therefore devoted himself with un- flagging energy to the furtherance of agriculture and trade. His chief interest was, however, architecture. Cloisters, churches, and fortifications were built in different parts of the country. His love of splendor he indulged in the erection of a magnificent royal mansion in Bergen, and his benevolence in the erec- tion of a hospital for lepers. In Tromso he put up a church, which long enjoyed the distinction of being the northernmost church in the world. The laws of succession were so amended as to exclude illegitimate sons ; the civil and criminal codes were improved, and the number of lawmen increased to eleven. A well-equipped fleet of 300 ships was maintained, which, in the hands of a peace-loving king, was a guaranty of peace rather than a menace of war. By embassies, by exchanges of gifts with foreign princes, and by the power and splendor which he displayed at home and abroad, Haakon gained a place among 4^6 THE STORY OF NOR WAV. the rulers of Europe, which had been accorded to no Norwegian king before him. The German em- peror, the noble and gifted Frederick II., sought his friendship, and maintained communication with him until his death. The Russian grand duke, Alexander Newsky, applied for the hand of his daughter, Chris- tina, for his son, and King Alfonso the Wise of Castile wooed her for his brother. The suit of the latter was accepted, and Christina married in 1257 the Spanish prince, Don Philip. The Pope, Alexander IV., endeavored to extort from Haakon a promise to participate in a crusade, and the king of France, Louis IX., offered him, '' in view of his power and ex- perience on the seas," the command of an allied Norse-French fleet ; and to crown his honors, it is said that the Pope in 1256 urged him as his candi- date for emperor of Germany. What gave King Haakon, in spite of the remote- ness of his country, this extraordinary influence abroad was particularly his fleet. During a brief war with Denmark in 1256 and 1257, the awe which the sight of this strong naval force inspired was so great, that it induced the Danish king, Christopher, to make peace on Haakon's terms without venturing a battle. The Icelanders, enfeebled and brutalized by perpetual internecine feuds, acknowledged his supremacy and promised to pay him tribute (1261). The few and scattered inhabitants of Greenland like- wise recognized his overlordship. A dispute con- cerning the Orkneys and the Shetland Isles led to war with the Scottish king, Alexander HI. Haakon, determined to maintain his power over these distant HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD. 431 dependencies, which had already cost Norway so much blood and treasure, started with his fleet for Scotland (1263), but suffered severely from a storm which wrecked many of his ships. He sailed around to the NORWEGIAN STABBUR, OR STORE-HOUSE. western side of Scotland, ravaged the coasts of Cantire and Bute, and fought a battle at Largs (near the entrance to the Firth of Clyde), in which, accord- ing to the account of the Scots, the Norsemen were defeated, while, according to the sagas, they were victorious. At best, however, the battle afforded them no advantage. For Haakon retired, immedi- 43^ . THE STORY OF NORWAY. ately after, to the Orkneys, where he determined to spend the winter, hoping to renew the campaign again in the spring. Here he was suddenly taken ill and died in Kirkevaag, December 15, 1263. Dur- ing his illness he had the sagas of his ancestors read aloud to him, from Halfdan the Swarthy down to the days of his grandfather, King Sverre. During the reading of Sverre's saga he passed quietly away. All records agree in the judgment that Haakon Haakonsson was a wise and noble king. He was not a man of genius, not endowed with the brilliant gifts of his grandfather. But he was what we call a safe man. He possessed strong common-sense ; was generous and forgiving, yet resolute and firm where justice demanded severity. His noble heart and his clear-sighted intelligence led him invariably to choose the right. He was therefore a great king, without being necessarily a great man, unless a well-balanced combination of all average good qualities constitutes in itself greatness. His enemy, Duke Skule, was in many respects a more brilliant personality, and yet what a misfortune it would have been to Norway, if Skule had displaced Haakon ! In appearance Haakon resembled his grandfather. He was, like him, of middle height, and had the same large and wondrously expressive eyes. He looked taller when he sat than when he stood, but his pres- ence was always dignified and impressive. He was fifty-nine years old when he died, and had ruled over Norway forty-six years. CHAPTER XXVIII. THE STURLUNGS IN ICELAND. During the reign of Haakon Haakonsson lived the renowned Icelandic historian, Snorre Sturlasson. It is due to him that the ancient history of Norway has been saved from oblivion. His great work, called Heimskringla (the Circle of the Earth), after the words with which it begins, is a coherent and in the main reliable record of the events which took place in Norway from the time of Harold the Fair- haired down to the Battle of Ree in ii 77. The more or less mythical history which precedes the reign of Harold is also included, though it can scarcely, in many features, lay claim to credibility. The style is clear and vigorous, and the characteriza- tions are extremely vivid. Scaldic lays are introduced into the text as evidences of the veracity of the nar- rative, and anecdotes are preserved which throw a strong light upon the characters of the heroes. The Heimskringla is, accordingly, not a loose conglom- eration of fact and fiction, such as monkish chroni- clers in the Middle Ages were in the habit of com- posing, but a historic work of high rank, betraying a mature critical spirit and artistic taste, in style and arrangement. Several scaldic lays are also attributed 433 434 THE STORY OF NORWAY. to Snorre, besides portions of the Younger Edda — a collection of myths and legends, dealing with the traditions of the ancient Asa faith. It is as editor and collector, however, not as author, that he is here entitled to credit. Snorre Sturlasson was born in Iceland in 1 178, and was, at the age of three, adopted by the great chief- tain, Jon Loftsson, a grandson of Saemund the Learned. His father was Sturla Thordsson, a high- born but turbulent man, and his mother, Gudny Bodvar's daughter, Jon Loftsson, had inherited a very considerable collection of historical MSS. from his grandfather, Saemund, and his house was the home of the best culture which the island at that time possessed. Snorre, though any thing but a book-worm, became interested in the myths and tales of paganism, and by intercourse with his foster- father imbibed a taste for historical research. After the death of the latter in 1198, he found himself penniless, his mother having wasted his paternal inheritance. In order to maintain his dignity, he was therefore obliged to look about for a rich mar- riage, and by the aid of his brothers succeeded in gaining the hand of the wealthiest heiress in Iceland. He now devoted himself to the task of increasing his power. By shrewd bargaining, by intimidation, and by open violence he gained possession of six large estates and amassed an enormous fortune. Iceland, at that time, was torn with factional feuds, and Snorre understood to perfection the art of fish- ing in troubled waters. He was a man of energetic and determined character — a man of large plans and IJORGADAL IN THE NOKTH QP ICEi^ND* 43^ THE STORY OF NORWAY. few scruples. There is a vigorous worldliness visible in all his acts, and a prudent adaptation of means to ends. At his residence, Reykjaholt, which he forti- fied, improved, and beautified in a manner, the like of which had never been seen in Iceland, he lived like a prince, maintaining an armed force which seemed to threaten the republic. Ruins of his bath- house are yet to be seen, and yet bear his name (Snorrelaug). The bath was built of hewn stones, and the hot water was conducted by a stone aque- duct, from the neighboring geysers. Snorre had two brothers, Thord and Sighvat. The former was of a quiet disposition, and not over- ambitious, while the latter was Snorre's counterpart, and like him engaged in increasing his fortune by trickery and violence. Two men, thus constituted, would scarcely be re- strained by their fraternal relation, when their inter- ests clashed ; and before long, we find Sighvat and Snorre at swords' points. By the weight of his influence, Snorre gradually absorbed the more important offices in the gift of his countrymen. Thus he was, in 1215, elected speaker of the law, and in this capacity came in con- flict with his foster-brother, Saemund Jonsson, who took exception to one of his rulings. The Icelandic Althing was both a legislative assembly and a supreme court, and it was the duty of the speaker in legal cases to decide what was law. If any of the contending parties rejected the decision of the Al- thing, an appeal to the sword was always open to him. The law was a consultative, not an absolute THE STURLUNGS IN ICELAND. 43/ power, and depended upon its fairness for its author- ity. Snorre, whose duty it was to give weight to the law, had so small respect for his office, that he appeared with eight hundred and forty armed men, determined to overawe his opponents. A compro- mise was with difficulty arranged, but the seed of mischief had been sown, and was not slow to sprout and bear fruit. Snorre's fame had, in the meanwhile, reached Nor- way, and many honorable invitations were extended to him from the foremost chieftains of the land. Accordingly he set sail in 1218, with a large train of followers, visited King Haakon and Earl Skule, and gained the latter's friendship. The king made him his liegeman, and it is said that Snorre promised Skule to bring Iceland under the dominion of the mother country. The plan was a tempting one. If by the surrender of the liberties of the island, he could attain the dignity of Earl of Iceland, he could, at one blow, by Skule's aid, crush all his enemies, and reign undisputed as the first man in the land. On his return home, however, he discovered that the obstacles in his way were greater than he had antici- pated. It appears, even, that he repented of his rash promise, and was anxious to postpone the day of its fulfilment. Whether, in his subsequent machina- tions, he meant to secure his own predominance, as a means to carrying out his bargain with the earl, is difficult to determine. In 1222 Snorre's rival and bitterest enemy, Sae- mund Jonsson, died, and his children, who were at variance about an inheritance from their uncle, Orm 438 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Jonsson, called upon Snorre to arbitrate between them. They did this, not because they loved him and had confidence in his fairness, but because they feared him and were anxious to have the old feud terminated. Snorre understood this perfectly, and had no hesitation in taking advantage of his position. Having recently been separated from his wife, he saw a chance of further enriching himself by marry- ing the beautiful Solveig, the sister of the contend- ing brothers. H e accordingly divided the inheritance so as to give her the lion's share ; but just as he seemed to have made sure of his game, his nephew, Sturla Sighvatsson, stepped up and snatched the girl from his expectant arms. By his unfair arbitration, he thus benefited the man who was henceforth to become his most dangerous enemy. Nothing daunted, however, Snorre turned his attention to another and far wealthier heiress, whom he succeeded in marrying. By a series of bargains, in which he made an unscrupulous use of the fear which his name inspired, he continued to increase his wealth, until his power overshadowed that of all other chieftains in the island. Sturla, who in shrewdness and daring was more than a match for his uncle, pursued a simi- lar course, and with the perpetual clashing of inter- ests their hostility grew more pronounced. Snorre had, in the meanwhile, by his friendship for Earl Skule, incurred the enmity of King Haakon. Sturla on his return from a pilgrimage to Rome, succeeded in gaining the king's confidence, and in deepening his distrust of Snorre. He made now the same bargain with the king that his uncle had previously made 440 THE STOR V OF NOR WA V. with Skule, promising, in return for the dignity of Earl of Iceland, to bring the country under the Nor- wegian crown. On his return home, he did not, however, at once venture to attack his rival, but con- tented himself with picking quarrels with his son, Urokja, and his son-in-law, Gissur Thorvaldsson. The former he captured and maimed, but in his con- flict with the latter he succumbed. In a regular battle, which was fought in 1238, both Sturla and his father, Sighvat, were killed. Snorre was at that time in Norway, where he had the imprudence to commit himself as a partisan of Skule, and thereby still fur- ther incensed the king. Contrary to the command of the latter, he returned to Iceland, where his pre- dominance seemed now secured. But King Haakon, who henceforth regarded him as an open enemy, be- came the means of his destruction. Snorre had already, by his rapacity and greed, incurred the hos- tility of his son-in law, Gissur Thorvaldsson, and with him the king opened negotiatins, demanding of him that he should either kill his father-in-law or send him as a prisoner to Norway. Gissur accord- ingly attacked Snorre at Reykjaholt with seventy armed men, and slew him (1241). Snorre's nephew, Sturla Thordsson, who at one time was a great chieftain and a defender of Icelan- dic independence, continued the Heimskringla in his uncle's spirit, writing the Saga of Haakon Haakonsson. This is a model biography, clearly and vigorously written, and abounding in interesting de- tails. Another remarkable book, which was written in Norway during Haakon's reign, is the so-called THE STURLUNGS IN ICELAND. 441 King's Mirror (Konungsskuggsja). It contains, in the shape of a dialogue between father and son, moral teachings and rules of life and conduct. Its maxims of worldly wisdom and rules of etiquette give a vivid insight into the modes of life and thought in the thirteenth century. CHAPTER XXIX. MAGNUS LAW-MENDER (1263-1280). With the death of Haakon Haakonsson, the con- tinuous story of the sagas ceases. A fragment of the life of his son, Magnus Law-Mender (Lagaboter), written by Sturla Thordsson, is preserved, but the greater portion has unhappily been lost. What is known concerning the later kings, during the period of independence, is derived from many scattered and often unreliable sources. A period of decline, at first gradual and imperceptible, set in with the reign of King Magnus, and culminated in the loss of inde- pendence. Magnus had been proclaimed king during his father's lifetime, and as he was of age, the govern- ment passed into his hands without dispute. Being indisposed to continue the expensive war with Scot- land, he sent his chancellor, Askatin, to Alexander HI. and obtained peace on the condition of ceding the Island of Man and the Shetland Isles, receiving in return 4,000 marks sterling, besides an annual tribute of 100 marks. The latter stipulation was intended to save appearances, as an annual tribute might well be interpreted as a continued recognition of the supremacy of the king of Norway. 442 MAGNUS LAW-MENDER. 443 It has often been questioned whether Magnus acted wisely in refusing to draw the sword to preserve the integrity of his kingdom. That the Scottish isles already had cost Norway more in blood and treasure than they were worth, is generally conceded ; and the chances were that, as Scotland increased in power, still greater efforts would be required to assert the sway of Norway over the remote dependencies. Moreover, as England later rose to become a Euro- pean power and absorbed Scotland, it was merely a question of time when Norway would be compelled to relax its hold upon the islands. Whether it was a mere native disinclination to fight, or a careful counting of the cost, which induced Magnus to depart from his father's policy, time seems to have justified the wisdom of his course. For all that, it is undeni- able that the respect and influence abroad which Norway had gained by Haakon's assertion of the national dignity, were much diminished by the un- warlike spirit of his son. He had indeed the satis- faction to add Iceland to his possessions. But even this was in no wise due to his skill or merit. It was apparently the result of King Haakon's interference in the feuds of the Sturlungs, but in a deeper sense it was due to causes which do not lie so near the sur- face. The descendants of the proud men who, during the reign of Harold the Fairhaired, emigrated from Norway, merely because they would not surrender their allodial rights, would not have surrendered lib- erty itself without resistance, if they had not sadly degenerated from their ancestors. Liberty had in Iceland long ago degenerated into 444 THE STORY OF NORWAY. license. No law had the power to bind the strong. It is a mistake to suppose that the institutions of the country were democratic. Though theoretically the rights of every free man were recognized, in practice they soon came to amount to very little. Icelandic so- ciety early separated itself into a yeomanry or peas- antry and an aristocracy. The latter, who had the government entirely in their hands, proceeded by a series of bloody feuds to exterminate each other, until, of the fifty or more ruling families, scarcely half a dozen were left in possession of their dignity and power. As a matter of course, these half a dozen then endeavored to cut each other's throats, and, as the struggle grew fiercer, welcomed aid from any source and at any price. All public interests were lost sight of in the furious strife for personal ascendency. The proud sense of independence, which had been the glory of the race, developed into a mere ferocious passion for power, and a savage de- termination to crush out rivalry. Civic rights, moral obligations, and the bonds of blood were equally dis- regarded ; brother waged war against brother and father against son. Murder and arson were every- day occurrences. Complete anarchy prevailed. Of this state of things Haakon Haakonsson took ad- vantage, and by aiding one faction against the other secured the allegiance of the conquering party and thereby the submission of the island itself to the crown of Norway. Snorre's son-in-law and slayer, Gissur Thorvaldsson, was the first Earl of Iceland. He received the dignity from King Haakon (1258), before his countrymen had yet recognized the latter's overlordship. MA GN US LA W-MENDER. ^45 If it be true that the happiest nations are those which have no history, it may be safe to conclude that the happiest periods of a nation's Hfe are the most uneventful. If so, the reign of Magnus Haa- konsson afforded every chance of happiness to his subjects. The peasant cultivated contentedly his fields, and, undisturbed, the merchant and the artisan pursued their avocations. The development of the resources of the country afforded the king satisfac- tion, and he did all in his power to further every peaceful industry. To this end he also interested himself in legislation, and spent many years of his life in revising the laws and making them uniform. Formerly the country had been divided into four judicial districts, each with its own thing and its own laws. The Yrostdi-tkmgs code was the law of Trondelag, the Guldi-things code was valid on the western coast, the Eidsivia code in the Op- lands, and the Borgar-///2>^^'^ code in Viken. Out of these four, Magnus now caused a new general code to be elaborated for the whole country, abolishing what was antiquated, removing inconsistencies and adapting the spirit of the legislation to the needs of the age. For four hundred years his laws remained in force, and a few of them have remained until re- cent times. All things, great and small, relating to civic life interested him ; and a certain over-confidence in the power of law to regulate all human con- cerns is traceable in his labors. P'or the cities he elaborated a municipal law, and for his vassals and courtiers a court law {Hirdskraa), which was, how- ever, an adaptation of a previously existing code, 44^ THE STORY OF NORWAY. dating from the days of Sverre. The court law dealt with the feudal duties and privileges of vassals, pre- scribed rules for courtly intercourse, and a fixed ceremonial for the proclamation of a king, the con- ferring of the feudal dignities, etc. Amo-ng other things it ordained that no longer, as of old, should a peasant, as the representative of the people, confer the royal dignity upon the heir to the throne, but the man of highest rank present. An inclination is visible in King Magnus' legisla- tion to break with the democratic past, and to remodel Norway, as nearly as possible, after foreign patterns. It was particularly England, with its feudal institutions, which seemed to him and his surroundings worthy of imitation. Although it was by no means a pure democracy which had prevailed in Norway hitherto, there had yet been a recogni- tion of the people as the source of power, and the old stubborn sense of independence which charac- terized the peasantry had never been eradicated. Hitherto the laws had been submitted to the people at the tilings^ where every free-born man could make himself heard. Now this venerable custom was abolished, and the king and his council reserved for themselves the right to make and repeal laws, with- out consulting the people. That this decree was accepted without protest, nay appears to have caused no particular excitement, shows plainly the change that had come over the spirit of the Norse- men. If a king had proposed such a law, in the days of Haakon the Good or Olaf Tryggvesson, he would have risked his throne and his life. Whether it was MAGNUS LAW-MENDER. 44/ because royalty had risen to such dignity and power that it seemed hopeless to oppose it, or because the tribal aristocracy, instead of making common cause with the people, had attached itself to the crown, certain it is that the supine acceptance of so radical a change argued a degeneracy which explains the sub- sequent events. It is scarcely to be wondered at that the rise of feudalism throughout Europe, during the thirteenth century, also had its effect upon the institutions of Norway. The ideas which Magnus embodied in his laws were, so to speak, in the air; and the commer- cial intercourse with England had familiarized the Norsemen with the titles and the pomp and circum- stance of chivalry. Thus the Royal Council, con- sisting of the chancellor, the earls, and the liegemen, was obviously copied after the English institution of the same name, and, to make the resemblance com- plete, the ancient title of liegeman was abolished and that of baron substituted. The court officials were made knights and squires.* A privileged class was thus raised distinctly above the people ; and the foundation laid for a hereditary nobility. A partial immunity from taxes was granted to barons and knights, and the lucrative offices in the gift of the crown were parcelled out among them. Though some elements of the ancient tribal aristocracy were absorbed in the new order, there was also a large element which owed its rise purely to royal favor. It is thus to be noted, that the new nobility of Nor- * It is impossible to give an adequate translation of the word herra in this connection. It is a lower title than baron and knight. 44^ THE STORY OF NORWAY, way was in the main a court nobility, which depended upon the crown for its dignity, and could not be expected, when occasion demanded, to antagonize the king in the interest of the people. It therefore shared the fate of royalty and lost its power when the royal house became extinct. For the later rulers, the Danish kings, were surrounded by a hungry aristocracy of their own, whose fortunes they were bound to push, and the Norse candidates for their favor had to be neglected. Thus it happened that the Norse aristocracy again returned to the people, from which it had originally risen. It was gradually absorbed by and identified with the peas- antry, which thereby gained more than the nobles lost. "" A compact class of allodial freeholders was formed, which, on account of their numbers and their remoteness from public affairs, may be styled a peasantry, but by reason of their liberty and self- assertion almost maintained the rank of a nobility." ^ It is this proud peasant-nobility which until this day have constituted the strength of the Norse people and the bulwark of its re-arisen liberty. They have at all times, even during the darkest days of the union with Denmark, constituted a force with which the government had to reckon. In spite of his conciliatory disposition. King Mag- nus' reign had its share of quarrels and disturbances. Chief among these was his controversy with the Church, which ended, on his part, with an abject sur- render. The archbishop, at that time, was the haughty and ambitious Jon the Red (Rode), who, before con- , *J. Sars : Udsigt over Norge's Historic, ii., 399. MAGNUS LAW~MENDER. 449 senting to a change in the law of succession, which the king had much at heart, extorted from him a series of humiliating concessions. At a meeting of notables in Tunsberg (1277), Magnus bound himself to abstain from all interference in the selection of bishops, and to surrender to the latter the right of filling, in accordance with their pleasure, all the cler- ical offices. He conceded, moreover, to the arch- bishop the privilege of coining money and to have a hundred men in his personal service, who should be exempt from feudal obligations to the king. In his relation to foreign powers Magnus was equally unsuccessful in maintaining the dignity of his crown. When his brother-in-law, the Swedish king, Valdemar, begged him for help against his brother Magnus, who had deprived him of the greater part of his kingdom, preparations were indeed made for a grand campaign, but after several futile meetings and much talk, the Norwegian fleet was ordered home again and the Swedish king was left to his fate. To a proud and adventurous people like the Norsemen, jealous of their dignity at home and abroad, this unconquerable reluctance to draw the sword must have appeared humiliating. A high regard for honor and a genius for war had character- ized the race up to this time ; and however much one may disapprove of war, one cannot deny that peace may be bought at too high a price. The right to hold one's head high ; to feel proud of one's history and one's country, is a precious privilege, without which no race ever achieved great things. King Magnus, by lessening the prestige which the country 4iO THE STORY OT NORWaY. had enjoyed during the reign of his father, therefore contributed much toward the decadence which fol- lowed. Physically as well as mentally, signs of degeneracy are beginning to be perceptible in the royal race of Norway. King Magnus was, indeed, endowed with a good intellect and his morals were blameless. But for all that, he was a far less sturdy and impressive personality than his father, and a still greater distance separated him from his great-grandfather, the wise, brave, gentle, unconquerable Sverre. Many of his imprudent acts are explained by the fact that his health was never vigorous. While he was yet in the prime of life, he began to suffer from ailments which warned his councillors that his days were numbered. He died in 1280, at the age of forty-one. CHAPTER XXX. ERIK PRIEST-HATER (1280-I299). The barons, who had acquired extensive privileges during the reign of King Magnus, had a chance to estabUsh their power still more securely during the minority of his son Erik, who, at his father's death, was but twelve years old. A great influence was also wielded by the imperious queen-dowager, Ingeborg, who made common cause with the barons and was the real soul of the regency. Of her two surviving sons, Duke Haakon, the younger, was the more fitted, by strength of body and mind, to occupy the throne. He received great fiefs, and though recognizing Erik's overlordship, conducted himself as an inde- pendent sovereign. He issued decrees, coined money, and made independent alliances with foreign princes. His brother was a week, good-natured man who never knew how to assert his will against that of his mother and his high-handed councillors. The latter, among whom the barons, Hallkell Agmundsson, Audun Hugleiksson, and Bjarne Erlingsson of Giske and Bjarko, were the most eminent, disapproved highly of the concessions which King Magnus had made to the Church, and were watching for an oppor- tunity to check the power and arrogance of the clergy. 451 452 , THE STORY OF NOEWAY, They found it necessary, however, to conceal their plans, until the king had been crowned by Arch- bishop Jon, and they even consented to have him include in the coronation oath the promise " to yield all due honor to the clergy and the bishops, and to repeal all bad laws, especially such as might conflict with the liberty of the Church." The archbishop interpreted this promise literally, and demanded after the coronation the repeal of the laws in question. The queen and the barons were, however, not disposed to yield a single point, but rather welcomed the opportunity to measure strength with the domineering prelates. It was of no use that the archbishop put Hallkell Agmundsson in the ban ; his colleagues only honored him more con- spicuously, and when Queen Ingeborg and Bjarne Erlingsson received the same punishment, they, as well as the people, showed an indifference, which left the archbishop powerless. After having vainly ap- pealed to the Pope, and having been foiled at the Roman Curia by ambassadors from the barons, Jon the Red and two other bishops were outlawed and compelled to leave the country. The archbishop died in exile in Sweden in 1282. The king, who was yet a mere boy, was neutral in this struggle. If the decision had rested with him, he would probably have continued his father's policy of concession, and the epithet '' Priest-Hater," which has been attached to his name, is therefore unde- served. When Erik was fourteen years old, he was married to Margaret of Scotland, the daughter of his grand- , ERIK PRIEST-HATER, 453 father's enemy, King Alexander III. The young queen died, however, a year later, 'after having given birth to a daughter, who, on the death of King Alexander (1284), was acknowledged as the heir to the throne of Scotland. While yet a child (1290), the Maid of Norway, as she was called, em- barked for the land which she was to rule, but died before reaching it. Her father then, as his daugh- ter's heir, laid claim to the Scottish crown, but the armed interference of King Edward I. of England compelled him to abandon his candidacy. He had at that time another controversy on his hands, which threatened serious results. The queen-dowager, Ingeborg, was the daughter of the Danish king, Erik Plowpenny. Plis nephew, Erik Clipping, who succeeded his father, Christo- pher I., refused to surrender her inheritance, which consisted in landed estates in different parts of the kingdom. Magnus Law-Mender had vainly insisted upon the surrender of the property, and Erik, at the instigation of his mother, resumed negotiations, and, when these resulted in nothing, made threat- ening demonstrations. The Norse baron. Sir Alf Erlingsson, a special favorite of the queen, began to prey upon the shipping in the Sound, and by his recklessness and daring, made his name dreaded among seamen and merchants. He did, indeed, inflict much injury upon Danish commerce, and ravaged the coasts of Jutland and Halland ; but the principal sufferers were the cities of the Hanseatic League, which, by the concessions of Magnus Law- Mender, had obtained a virtual monopoly of the 454 THE STORY OF NORWAY. foreign trade of Norway. Their ships were now seized without mercy by the noble pirate, who added insult to injury by once appearing incog- nito among them in an open boat, and bargain- ing with them about the price which they had set upon his head. It was of no use that the League sent out ships of war to capture him ; he out- manoeuvred them, deceived them, sent them on a wild-goose chase, and ended by capturing his would- be captors. Though not officially authorized to carry on war in this fashion. Sir Alf perceived that his performances were winked at by the queen- dowager, who was actually so gratified at his suc- cess, that she had him created an earl, and induced the king to use him as his ambassador to England. As allies of the King of Denmark, the Hanseatic cities were, in the queen's opinion, entitled to no consideration, but she forgot in her blind hostility that they had it in their power to take revenge. Partly on account of the risk, partly as a measure of retaliation, the Hansa forbade the importation of grain and other staples of food to Norway, and the result was famine and misery. The hostilities with Denmark in the meanwhile continued, but were, after the death of Queen Ingeborg (1287), conducted, not by piracy, but by open warfare. A conspiracy was formed against the life of King Erik Clipping, and he was murdered, while on the chase (1286), by Marshal Stig, Count Jacob of- Hal- land, and others. The murderers, who were out- lawed in Denmark, found a refuge in Norway, and accompanied King Erik on his campaign against ERIK PRIEST-HATER. 455 their native country in 1289. The city of Elsinore was burned, and the Norwegian fleet lay for four weeks near Copenhagen, serving as a basis of opera- tions for the outlawed king-slayers, who satisfied their private vengeance by burning cities and cas- tles. Three similar expeditions, during the follow- ing six years, brought Erik neither honor nor profit in proportion to the cost of the enterprise ; al- though, in the end, the Danish king, Erik Men- ved, was compelled to conclude an armistice for three years at Hinsgavl, in Funen (1295), at which he made a definite promise of the surrender of the disputed property. The king-slayers were permitted to return unmolested to their homes, and their estates were to be restored to them. The war with the Hanseatic cities had come to an end long before, by the peace of Kalmar, (1285). The formidable weapon which they wielded, in their ability to cut off supplies, gave them so great an ad- vantage that King Erik had no choice but to accept their terms. King Magnus of Sweden, who, ac- cording to mutual agreement, had been selected as umpire negotiated peace, on the conditions that King Erik should return to their owners all ships which had been captured, pay an indemnity of six thousand marks and greatly extend the commercial privileges of the Hansa. Thus the lawless valor of " Little Sir Alf," as the pirate earl was called, proved no less dis- astrous to his country than it did to himself. He did not appreciate the difference which the death of the queen had made in his position ; but continued to tread law and honor under foot with defiant 45 6 THE STORY OF NORWAY. heedlessness. The baron, Sir Hallkell Agmundsson the commander of Oslo Castle, had for some reason in- curred his hostility ; and Earl Alf gathered, in the ancient fashion, a band of adventurers about him and commenced a rebellion, as it appears, against Duke Haakon, who was Sir Hallkell's protector. He even had the audacity to attack Oslo, set fire to the town, capture his foe, and after a brief imprisonment executed him. This daring murder brought upon him a sentence of outlawry ; and he was forced to seek refuge in Sweden, where King Magnus took him under his protection. His luck had, however, deserted him, for when again he appeared as a corsair in Danish waters, he was captured and brought in irons into the presence of Queen Agnes. According to the ballad, she twitted him on the smallness of his stature ; to which he replied that she would never live to see the day when she could bear such a son. Another and still more insolent remark made the queen so furious that she struck her fist against the table and declared that Little Sir Alf should be tor- tured on the rack, and his bones broken on the wheel. The sentence was executed the following day (1290). After the death of his first queen, King Erik had married Isabella Bruce, the sister of Robert, who later became King of Scotland. He had by this marriage a daughter, Ingeborg, who became the wife of Duke Valdemar, the brother of the Swedish king, Birger Magnusson. King Erik died at the age of thirty-one (1299), after having been king for nine- teen years. CHAPTER XXXI. HAAKON LONGLEGS (HAALEGG), 1299-1319. Duke Haakon, the second son of Magnus Law- Mender, succeeded his brother without opposition. He was then twenty-nine years old, tall and of stately appearance. He had not been long upon the throne, before he showed the haughty barons that he meant to have a reckoning with them. He first summoned Sir Audun Hugleiksson to meet him in Bergen, tried him for treason, and had him executed (1302). A woman from Liibeck had, two years before, ap- peared in Norway and created much excitement by claiming to be the Princess Margaret, " The Maid of Norway," who had died on the Orkneys. Her trial proved her to be an impostor, and she was burned at the stake. According to one conjecture. Sir Audun was in some way compromised by her trial, and it is not unlikely that he may have encouraged her pre- tensions. The legend, however, relates that Sir Au- dun suffered death for having insulted the king's bride, Countess Euphemia of Arnstein, whom, in 1295, he brought over from Germany. It must have been an unpleasant surprise to the barons, who had had their own way so long, to find a stern and determined master in the new king, and it 457 458 THE STORY OF NORWAY. is the more to his credit that, in spite of their hos- tility, he induced them to consent to a change in the law of succession in favor of his daughter Inge- borg and her issue. As he was the only male de- scendant in the direct line of the old royal house, it was a source of uneasiness to him that he had no sons, and he foresaw that the only means of averting civil war, after his death, was to secure the succession to the prospective sons of his daughter, and in case she had none, to herself. Princess Ingeborg was, while a mere child, promised in marriage to the bril- liant and ambitious Duke Erik, the second son of King Magnus Birgersson of Sweden. By this be- trothal. King Haakon became involved in the quarrels of the dukes Erik and Valdemar with their brother, Birger Magnusson, whom they were endeavoring to dethrone. The dukes hated the king, and the king, who was jealous of Erik's popularity and emi- nence in chivalrous accomplishments, reciprocated their feelings. The long-smouldering hostility at last blazed forth, in 1306, when the dukes treacher- ously assaulted their brother and held him captive for about eighteen months. King Haakon was in- duced to take their part in the struggle, perhaps chiefly because his enemy, the king of Denmark, made common cause with King Birger. The good understanding between them did not, however, last long, for when it began to look as if Duke Erik aimed at the union of the three Scandinavian king- doms under his own sceptre, Haakon, as an interested party, could scarcely remain inactive. He demanded the restoration of the fiefs which he had granted the HAAKON LONGLEGS. 459 duke during his exile. When this was refused, he opened negotiations with the king of Denmark, who was the brother-in-law of King Birger, and concluded a preliminary treaty at Copenhagen (130S) in accord- ance with which the Princess Ingeborg was to marry Magnus, the son of King Birger. Duke Erik then invaded Norway with an army, took Oslo and vainly besieged the fortress of Akershus. The province of Jemteland was also attacked by the Swedes, and the duke had in 1309 an indecisive fight with a portion of the Norwegian fleet in Kalfsund. Finally, after another fight, in which Erik gained the upper hand, negotiations were resumed, and by mutual conces- sions peace was reestablished (13 10). Duke Erik had a powerful ally at the Norwegian court in Queen Euphemia, whose love for him was not of an entirely maternal character. He had thus little difficulty in conciliating King Haakon and getting again the promise of his daughter's hand. The wedding was finally celebrated with much splendor in Oslo in 1 3 12. Duke Valdemar married the same day the king's niece, Ingeborg, the daughter of King Erik Priest- Hater. About four years later, when the hope had almost been abandoned, each of the duchesses bore a son. King Haakon's joy at this happy event was great, for it relieved him of his anxiety for the suc- cession. But his joy was of short duration. There was one man in Sweden who was not rejoiced at the birth of the young princes, and that was King Bir- ger. He feigned, however, delight, and invited his brothers to a great feast of reconciliation at the castle of Nykoping. When the festivities were at an end. 460 * THE STORY OF NORWAY. the dukes were thrown into prison and deprived of their hves. As there was no sign of violence on their bodies, the rumor went abroad that they had been starved to death. This was probably true. The tidings of this calamity gave King Haakon such a shock that he never recovered from it. He died, 1 3 19, aged forty-nine years. With him the male line of the race of Harold the Fairhaired became extinct. The war with Denmark which had lasted twenty- eight years, was continued in a desultory fashion during Haakon's reign, but no important battles were fought. He used his fleet mainly as a threat to enforce his claims. All that he gained was the temporary possession of the province of Northern Halland, as security for the final surrender of his ma- ternal inheritance. In internal affairs King Haakon exhibited, accord- ing to the ideas of his age, no mean degree of states- manship. His administration was both prudent and vigorous. He checked the usurpations of the Han- seatic cities, which were driving native merchants out of the foreign trade, and deprived them of some of their privileges. An honest intention to do right, coupled with considerable ability, characterized both his public and private life. For all that, his despotic temper tended to alienate the people from public affairs ; and thus prepared the way for the following centuries of humiliation. B ^^^p»^^ 9 B CHAPTER XXXII. MAGNUS SMEK (1319-I374), HAAKON MAGNUSSON (13 5 5-1 380), AND OLAF THE YOUNG (1381-1387). Magnus Eriksson, the son of Duke Erik and Ingeborg, was only three years old when his grand-, father died, and the government therefore fell into the hands of a regency, the members of which had already been designated by King Haakon. Shortly before, a rebellion had broken out in Sweden against King Birger, who, on account of the murder of his brothers, was detested by his people. He was de- posed and his son Magnus, though he was in no wise responsible for his father's crimes, was executed. At the instance of the regent. Mats Kettilmundsson, Magnus Eriksson was proclaimed king ; and Norway and Sweden were thus for the first time united under one ruler. The union was a mere nominal one, the two countries having separate laws and administra- tions, and nothing in common except the king, who was to divide his time equally between them. During Magnus' minority, however, his mother. Duchess Ingeborg, governed in Norway with the utmost recklessness, making great scandal by her love of the Danish nobleman Knut Porse, duke of 461 462 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Halland, whom she later married. To enrich him she squandered the revenues and forfeited her popu- larity. When the treasury was on the verge of bankruptcy and loud murmurs of discontent were heard from all sides, the duchess was at last deprived of her power, and Sir Erling Vidkunsson of Bjarko and Giske was made regent in her place. When King Magnus, surnamed Smek, reached his majority, he assumed the government in both coun- tries (1332). Being born a Swede, he lacked compre- hension of the Norsemen, and showed little interest in their affairs. He was a weak and good-natured man, anxious to please all, and therefore succeeded in pleasing no one. In Sweden he had his hands full, in endeavoring to control the unruly nobility, whose pretensions were supported by his oldest son, Erik. He therefore rarely came to Norway, and made no adequate provision for the government during his absence. Erling Vidkunsson then made himself the spokesman of the universal discontent, and with other magnates compelled the king, at a meeting in Bergen (1350), to take his second son, Haakon, as co-regent and to abdicate the crown of Norway, in his favor, as soon as he should have reached his majority. It was then understood that Erik would be his father's successor in Sweden. But unforseen events frus- trated this expectation. In 1359 Magnus and his queen, the wily and malicious Blanca of Namur, made a visit to King Valdemar Atterdag in Copen- hagen. It was there arranged that Haakon should marry Valdemar*s eldest daughterand heir, Margaret, and that the Danish king should extend his protec- MAGNUS SMEK. 463 tion to Queen Blanca's favorite, Bengt Algotsson, whom Erik had declared to be a public enemy and was determined to destroy. At the instigation of King Valdemar, she chose, however, an easier way to accomplish her baneful purposes. She poisoned her son. Haakon was now heir both to Norway and Sweden, and his and Margaret's issue, presumptively, to Denmark. The Swedes were by no means pleased with this arrangement, and the Norwegian magnates would, if they had been consulted, have expressed themselves no less strongly against it. They must have foreseen in this union the inevitable decay of the Norse national spirit and the gradual extinction of their nationality. The Swedes, being a larger peo- ple, had less to fear from it, but yet regarded it as prejudicial to their interests. Their feeling toward Denmark was not, just then, of a friendly character, chiefly owing to the pusillanimity of their king, in ceding the provinces Skaane, Halland, and Blekinge to the latter country, without any adequate return, unless it was a pledge of aid from King Valdemar against his own subjects. So secure felt Magnus in his new alliance, that he actually helped the Danish king to conquer the Swedish island Gottland, and permitted him to sack the town of Visby, which was one of the principal depots of the Baltic trade. Now, the patience of the Swedes was at last ex- hausted. The Royal Council, supported by the no- bility, declared that King Magnus, as well as his son Haakon, had forfeited their rights to the crown (1363), and called Duke Albrecht of Mecklenburg to the succession. Weak as he was, however, Magnus 4^4 THE STORY OF NORWAY, was not minded to give up his kingdom without a struggle. With whatever troops he could scrape together from the provinces which were yet faithful to him, he attacked King Albrecht at Enkoping, but was defeated and taken prisoner. Haakon, danger- ously wounded, made his escape into Norway. Though the Norwegians cared little for Magnus, they were too loyal to refuse Haakon their aid in his attempt to liberate him from the horrible prison in which he was languishing. The war was therefore continued with varying success until the Hanseatic League interfered and came near deciding it in Albrecht's favor. The German merchants had, dur- ing the feeble government of Magnus, obtained so great a power in Norway that they trod justice under foot, slew their enemies, refused to accept the king's money (which was not good), and leagued together to defy the laws and protect each other from punish- ment. The king was so incensed at their arrogant conduct, that he issued a decree expelling all Ger- mans from the country. Unhappily he had not the power to enforce obedience to this mandate, and when the Hansa made war upon him, he was obliged to buy peace by further concessions. This left him comparatively free, however, to prosecute the war with King Albrecht, and when all negotiations had proved futile, he advanced with an army upon Stock- holm, laying the country waste as he progressed. Here, at last, peace was concluded (1371) on the con- dition that Haakon should pay a ransom of twelve thousand marks for his father and renounce his claim to the throne of Sweden, In return, Magnus was to MA GNUS SMEK AND HAAKON MA GNUSSON. 465 receive Skara-Stift, Vestergotland, and Vermeland. The old king was, however, not to enjoy long his dearly bought liberty. Three years later he was drowned in the Bommelfjord in Norway (1374), and his son only survived him six years. Like so maciy of the kings of Norway, he died in his prime (1380). The reigns of Magnus Eriksson and his son were a period of great disaster to Norway. In 1344 the Gula-Elv suddenly changed its course, owing to the fall of an enormous rock into its bed, and forty-eight farms were destroyed, and two hundred and fifty people and a multitude of cattle were drowned. In Iceland an earthquake and a great eruption of Hekla spread alarm and desolation. But the worst of all calamities was the Black Death, a terrible pestilence, which, after having ravaged Germany, England, and Southern Europe, reached Norway in 1349. An English merchant vessel first brought the pestilence to Bergen, whence it spread with great rapidity over the entire land. In Drontheim the archbishop and all the canons of the cathedral chapter died, ex- cept a single one, who then alone elected the new archbishop. In many districts the entire population was swept away ; horses and cattle starved to death, for want of attendance, or perished in the woods. The results of the labor of centuries were destroyed. Where once there had been fertile valleys and ani- mated human intercourse, the forest grew up un- heeded. The fox barked in the deserted farm-houses, and the wolf prowled in the empty churches. In many places the dead lay unburied, until, by the slow process of dissolution, the earth reclaimed them. 466 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Sloth and indifference took possession of the sur- vivors. The peasant neglected to till his fields, because he could procure neither horses nor laborers to assist him. Famine and death were the result. All industries stagnated, and what there was left of Norwegian commerce fell completely into the hands of foreigners. As is usually the case in the times of great plagues, when the restraints of social order are relaxed, vice grew riotous, and every extreme of lawless passion was wantonly displayed. Centuries elapsed before the country recovered from the results of this terrible calamity. But there were other causes which combined with the pestilence in pro- ducing the political impotence and social barbarism which followed. There is a danger in doing injus- tice, even to the Black Death, and it has, until recently, been the fashion to make it solely respon- sible for the eclipse of Norway's glory. Olaf, the only son of Haakon Magnusson and Margaret, was proclaimed King of Norway at his father's death. Five years earlier he had, after the death of his maternal grandfather, been elected king of Denmark. As he was yet a child, his mother Margaret and the Council of the Regency conducted the government in his name. Thus com- menced the union of Norway and Denmark, which lasted without interruption for 434 years, and which proved so disastrous to the former country. Olaf died at the age of seventeen at Falsterbro in Skaane. CHAPTER XXXIII. NORWAY DURING THE KALMAR UNION. Olaf was succeeded both in Denmark and Nor- way by his mother, Margaret, who became reigning queen. The real heir to the Norwegian throne was, in accordance with the law of succession, the Lord High Steward (Drost) Haakon Jonsson, a grandson of Agnes, an illegitimate daughter of Haakon Long- legs. But he did not possess the power to assert his claim against Margaret, who, by skilful intriguing, had induced the archbishop, Vinald, and the majority of the clergy to take her side. The Norwegian Council of Regency, in which the partisans of the queen likewise preponderated, seemed ready to do any thing which she demanded, and even yielded to her wish in pledging themselves to choose her grand- nephew, Erik of Pomerania, as her successor (1388). In accordance with this promise they declared Erik, during the following year (1389), king of Norway, under the guardianship of Margaret, until he should reach his majority. The ambitious queen now turned her attention to Sweden, where she had a bitter and determined foe in Albrecht of Mecklenburg. He was remotely related to the royal house of Norway, and therefore 467 468 THE STORY OF NORWAY. believed himself to be the nearest heir to the throne. He was boiling over with animosity toward Mar- garet, whom he called '^ Queen Breechless," and never referred to, except with approbrious epithets. As this kind of harmless ammunition produced no effect, however, he boldly assumed the title of king of Denmark and Norway, and prepared to enforce his claim. But he had reckoned without his host, when he supposed that the Swedes would support him in this enterprise. The Swedish nobility, which pos- sessed greater power than the king, had long been dis- satisfied with Albrecht, because he had surrounded himself with Germans, to whom he had given fiefs and posts of honor. They had long desired to rid themselves of him, and when Margaret made over- tures to them, they seized the opportunity to accom- plish their purpose. In February, 1389, Albrecht had to confront a united Swedish, Danish, and Nor- wegian army. The battle, fought at Falkoping, in Vestergotland, was fraught with great results. Al- brecht, who was unacquainted with the region, ven- tured with his heavy cavalry out upon a frozen marsh, fell through, and was taken prisoner. Mar- garet had him now in her power and determined to make him pay the penalty for the liberty he had taken with her name. Instead of the crown of Den- mark, which he had meant to wear, she put upon his head a fool's cap with a tail 28 feet long, and mocked him mercilessly. He was then imprisoned in the castle of Lindholm, in Skaane, where he spent six years. After the battle of Falkoping Margaret's army NORWA V DURING THE KALMAR UNION. 469 met with no resistance in the southern provinces; but Stockholm had to be subjected to a long siege, during which it suffered greater depredations from internal than from external foes. Bloody feuds be- tween two contending parties raged within the city. A brotherhood of pirates, the so-called Vitalie Brethren, furnished the citizens with provisions, thereby delaying their surrender. These pirates had for the nonce entered into an alliance with Rostock and Wismar, two cities of Mecklenburg, which sym- pathized with the imprisoned Albrecht. In the end Stockholm was forced to open its gates to Queen Margaret, in accordance with a compromise which was concluded in 1395. Albrecht was to pay a ran- som of sixty thousand marks, and in case of his failure to provide this sum, within three years, he should either return to his prison or surrender Stock- holm. He chose to do the latter. Margaret had now reached the goal of her desires. She was the ruler of the whole Scandinavian race. She might have placed the triple crown upon her head, but preferred to secure this proud prize to her nephew, Erik of Pomerania, by having him crowned while she was yet alive. To this end she summoned representatives of the three kingdoms to a meeting in Kalmar, where a draft was made for a constitu- tion, upon which the union was to be based. Although the document was signed by the Nor- wegian, Swedish, and Danish magnates present, it was scarcely legally binding upon their countrymen. It bears the date of July 20, 1397, and contains the following stipulations: 470 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 1. The three kingdoms were to, be eternally united under one king. 2. If the king died without issue, the magnates of the three kingdoms should come together and peace- ably elect a successor. 3. Each kingdom should be governed in accord- ance with its own laws and customs; but if one of the kingdoms was attacked, the two others should, in good faith, assist in its defence. 4. The king and his councillors from the three kingdoms should have the right to enter into foreign alliances, and whatever they agreed upon should be binding upon the three countries. This was the famous Kalmar Union, which, might have been a blessing to the brother kingdoms, but which to two of them, at least, became a curse. At first sight, it seemed a rational arrangement which promised success. The three nations were so closely akin, that they understood without effort each other's languages, which were but slight modifications of the same original tongue. If the forces which had been wasted in mutual wars and rivalries could have been combined for mutual help and common purposes, the kingdom of Scandinavia would have risen in prosperity and strength and would have taken a place among the European powers. Under a wise and far-sighted policy, the society of the three kingdoms could have been gradually amalga- mated, its similarities and common interests empha- sized, its differences slowly obliterated. If the kings of the Union had had the slightest conception of the task that was presented to them, and had NORWA Y DURING THE KALMAR UNION. A^Jl been capable of viewing themselves apart from their Danish nationality, such results might have been achieved. But they were, with a single exception, utterly destitute of political ability and foresight. ^^^&^'^w#i^-<'/ ■~^s>' QUEEN MARCiARET. They were determined to raise the Danish to the position of a dominant nationality and to reduce Norway and Sweden to a provincial relation. Here- by they aroused again the ancient jealousies. They sent a troop of Danish and German nobles to prey 4/2 THE STORY OF NORWAY. i Upon the latter countries, which they seemed to regard as conquered territory. Tlie Swedes com- plained of their being obliged to pay taxes, in order to defray the expenses of Danish wars, and they were vehement in their denunciation of the extortion of the Danish officials who plundered their provinces like Roman proconsuls. The Norwegians were preliminarily disposed to be more patient, chiefly because they lacked spokesmen, the remnants of their old nobility being too power- less to assert themselves against the Danes. Nor can it be said that, during Queen Margaret's life, the conditions were intolerable. She died, however, in Flensborg (141 2) aged 59 years, leaving her wide dominions in the feeble hands of Erik of Pomerania. Erik had inherited from Margaret a war with the dukes of Sleswick, which lasted for twenty-five years, exhausting the resources of his realm and completely revealing his incapacity for government. The Swedes grumbled at the taxation which the war necessitated, and rebelled under the leadership of Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson. A Danish prefect, Josse Eriksson, had been guilty of great cruelty to the peasants in Dalarne, taking their horses and oxen from the plow, hitching their pregnant wives to hay -loads, and hor- ribly maiming all who dared to complain. Engel- brekt went twice to Denmark and asked the king to remove this malefactor, but was the first time put off with promises and the second time bluntly re- buffed. He then placed himself at the head of a rebellion, which spread from Dalarne over the whole kingdom. In Norway a similar, though less for- NORWA V DURING THE KALMAR UNION. 473 midable, revolt broke out under Amund Sigurdsson Bolt (1436), who likewise sought to obtain redress against the Danish magistrates. The king, however, who saw his advantage in allowing considerable lati- tude to his creatures, wearied of the eternal com- plaints, and, carrying with him whatever money was left in the treasury, took up his residence in a fortified castle on the island of Gottland (1438). He was now formally deposed both in Denmark and Sweden, while in Norway the regent, or governor, Sigurd Jonsson, continued for a while to conduct the gov- ernment in his name. When it became generally known, however, that the king had become a pirate, the Norwegians, too, revoked their allegiance (1442). For ten years Erik lived in his castle in Gottland, supporting himself by piracy, but was finally driven away. He then returned to Pomerania, where he died in 1459. During the reign of this unworthy king, the city of Bergen was twice sacked and partly burned by the Vitalie Brethren, who murdered the citizens, plun- dered the churches and the episcopal residence, and carried away a rich booty. With the tenacious fidelity peculiar to their race, the Norwegians adhered to the cause of Erik, even after he himself had abandoned it. They had, how- ever, no choice but to recognize as his successor his nephew, Christopher of Bavaria, who had already been proclaimed king in Denmark and Sweden. In the latter country Charles Knutsson Peasant (Bonde), who, after the murder of Engelbrekt, had become the leader of the rebellion, and later regent, 474 THE STORY OF NORWAY. had vainly endeavored to break the Union. The clergy made common cause with Christopher, and were instrumental in securing his election. Christopher was a jolly and good-natured man, who had no aptitude for affairs of state. When the Swedes complained of the piracy of Erik of Pome- rania, he answered merrily : '' Our uncle is sitting on a rock ; he, too, must earn his living." He deserves, however, as far as Norway was con- cerned, the credit of good intentions. He made an effort, though a futile one, to deprive the Hanseatic cities of their monopoly of trade, by giving equal privileges to the citizens of Amsterdam. The League was then less formidable than it had been, owing to the successful rivalry of the Dutch in other markets. It is difficult to say what the issue of the struggle would have been, if Christopher had lived. Death overtook him in izj48, when he was but thirty-two years old. i^ -r^ P m f^t <^^^k,( ■^7u^ ^^m ^^^^mh CHAPTER XXXIV. THE UNION WITH DENMARK. It has been said that, during the union with Den- mark, Norway had no history, and this is partly true. The history of the Oldenborg kings, with their wars, and court intrigues and mistresses, is in no sense thq history of Norway. Nor was the social development of Norway parallel with that of Denmark, during the reign of these kings. Though oppressed and politi- cally powerless, the remoter kingdom escaped the utter misery and degradation which overtook its op- pressor. The Danish nobility, though, like hungry wolves, they consumed the people's substance, did not succeed in reducing the Norse peasantry to serf- dom, as they did their own. The so-called Voriicd- skab ^ in Denmark was but another name for serfdom. The nobles, who held the land, in a hundred ways oppressed and maltreated their peasants ; they could sell, though they were not at liberty to kill them. Denmark, being an elective and not an hereditary kingdom, afforded the nobility opportunities for con- tinually strengthening their position, by exacting an increase of their privileges of each candidate for the * Prof. J. E, Sars : " Norge under Foreningen med Danmark." and i86i. 475 476 THE ST OR Y OF NOR WA K. throne, before consenting to elect him. This con- tract or charter granted by the kings to the nobles (Haandfestning) became a terrible instrument for the oppression of those estates which were either unrep- resented or without influence in the Royal Council. From having been a body, subordinate to the king, the council gradually became co-ordinate with him, and at last his superior. From this state of things it followed that the king needed some counterbal- ancing support against its overweening influence, and this support he sought in Norway. Here the elec- tion was a mere form, the succession being based upon hereditary right. The king could, if he was minded to redress the grievances of the people, rely upon their loyalty. Even if he was deaf to their com- plaints, they were disposed to excuse him, and hold his councillors responsible for his shortcomings. But, as a rule, the kings of the house of Oldenborg did pay more attention to the complaints of their Norse subjects than to those of their own, and they did this — first, because it was important to them to pre- serve the loyalty of the Norsemen ; secondly, because the Norsemen, if their petitions were unheeded, stood ready to take up arms. They knew their rights from of old, and a continued infringement of them, on the part of the foreign officials, made sooner or later the war-arrow fly from farm to farm ; and the king was confronted with an armed rebellion. Again and again the obnoxious magistrates, who had imagined that these sturdy mountaineers were as meek and long- suffering as their Danish brethren, were mercilessly beaten, maimed, or killed. Repeatedly the govern- THE UNION WITH DENMARK. ^77 ment was forced to concede to rebels what they had not yielded to supplicants. Unpopular laws were revoked, oppressive burdens removed, and promises made of improved administration. And yet, in spite of these ameliorating circum- stances, Norway's condition during the Danish rule was miserable. The revenues of the country were spent in Copenhagen, and the people were heavily taxed to support a foreign court and a hungry brood of foreign officials, whose chief interest was to fill their own pockets. Danish nobles married into the great Norwegian families, and secured, by bribery and in- trigue in Copenhagen, a virtual franchise for unlim- ited ill-doing. Great estates were accumulated in the hands of men like Vincent Lunge, Hartvig Krum- medike, and Hannibal Sehested, and the courts were prostituted to favor the land-grabbing schemes of noble adventurers. The public spirit which, in times of old, had jealously watched over the Interests of the realm, had already been weakened by the incipient despotism of the last national kings ; and what there was left of it now gradually expired. A most striking proof of this is the fact that when, in 1537, Norway lost the last vestige of her independence, being declared to be a province of Denmark, the decree was accepted without protest, and caused no perceptible excitement. So gradually had the change taken place, that no one was surprised. The same peasants who boldly resented any encroachment upon their personal rights and killed the magistrate who overtaxed them, heard without a murmur of the ex- tinction of their nationality. It has been surmised. 47^ THE STORY OF NORWAY, as a cause of their lethargy, that they did not hear of it^ — at least, not simultaneously, but gradually and casually, in the course of years ; and it is not improb- able that the imperfect means of communication was responsible for their apparent acquiescence. No attempt will be made in the following pages to relate the history of Denmark, except in so far as it directly affected that of Norway, and the plan of the present work excludes any but the most general characterization of the social conditions. The story of the Union will, therefore, be disproportionately short. The death of Christopher of Bavaria afforded the Swedes an opportunity to assert again their inde- pendence. The common hatred of the Danes en- abled the hostile estates to forget their differences and to unite in electing Charles Knutsson Peasant king of Sweden. The Norsemen had a candidate for the throne of Norway in the regent, Sigurd Jonsson, a descendant of Agnes, the daughter of Haakon Longlegs, -but they failed to support him. One party desired to make common cause with Swe- den and elect Charles Knutsson, while another fa- vored Count Christian of Oldenborg, who had just been elected in Denmark. This latter party, supported by the Danish nobles, who already wielded a great influence, was victorious. King Christian I. (1450- 148 1) arrived in Norway in the summer of 1450, and was crowned in the cathedral of Drontheim. At a meeting of the Council of Re- gency in Bergen, it was resolved that Norway was to remain eternally united with Denmark under one THE UNION WITH DENMARK. 479 king, but that each kingdom should be free and the other's equal, and should be governed in accordance with its own laws and by native-born officials. Christian could not give up the thought of rees- tablishing the Kalmar Union, and he therefore waged war for several years with King Charles Knutsson. In 1452 the latter invaded Norway C HUT ^Ti^i\ru^ - 1 - and conquered Drontheim, but the commandant in Bergen, Sir Olaf Nilsson, again drove him back across the frontier. Soon internal dissensions in Sweden enabled Christian to defeat Charles and expel him from his country (1457); and, in 1458, the three kingdoms were thus again united. Chris- tian's extortions and shameless breaches of faith 480 THE STORY OF NORWAY. made him, however, soon so detested both among peasants and nobles, that a rebellion broke out ; Charles was recalled, and, though he did not at once become master of the situation, he succeeded in keeping the Danes at bay. He died as King of Sweden in 1470. When Christian during the fol- lowing year made an attempt to conquer Sweden, he was overwhelmingly beaten at Brunkeberg near Stockholm by the regent, Steen Sture the Elder. In Norway Christian broke his promises with the same cynical disregard as he did in Sweden. Instead of appointing native officials, he allowed the Danish nobles to plunder as of old, and made no effort to discipline them. The German merchants in Bergen also became constantly more insolent in their be- havior toward the citizens, whom they drove away from the wharves and treated like conquered people ; but Christian did not dare to restrain them in their violations of law and order, because he feared that the Hansa might avenge itself by interfering in his war with Sweden. Even when the Germans mur- dered Sir Olaf Nilsson, his friend. Bishop Thorleif, and sixty other citizens, and burned the cloister of Munkeliv, the king refrained from punishing them. Highly characteristic of the way the Danish kings regarded Norway was Christian's transaction with James HI. of Scotland. A marriage was arranged with the latter and Christian's daughter Margaret, and the dower was fixed at 60,000 gulden. As the Danish king was unable to pay this amount, he re- mitted the tribute due from Scotland for the He- THE UNION WITH DENMARK. 48 1 brides, pawned the Orkneys for 50,000 gulden and the Shetland Isles for an additional amount. Thus Norway lost these ancient dependencies ; for it is needless to say that they were never redeemed. Christian I. was succeeded by his son Hans or Jo- hannes (1483-15 13). The Norsemen, who had now had a sufficient taste of Danish rule, were not anxious to be governed by him, and a rebellion broke out, which, however, was short-lived. The Danish nobles, who, by marrying Norwegian women, could obtain citizenship, had by this time secured a preponderating power in the Council of Regency, and had small difficulty in getting their king acknowl- edged. The Swedes resisted until the year 1497, when Hans defeated Steen Sture's army and was de- clared king of Sweden. Three years later, however, he suffered a terrible defeat in Ditmarsken (1500), whose inhabitants opened the dikes and called in the ocean as their ally. Four thousand Danes were here slain or drowned, and enormous treasures were lost. This was the signal for renewed risings both in Sweden and in Norway. The Norse knight. Sir Knut Alfs- son, of Giske, who derived his descent from the old royal house, united with the Swedes and defeated Duke Christian, the king's son, in Vestergotland. Then he invaded Norway and captured the fortresses Tunsberghus and Akershus ; but was besieged in the latter place by the Danes under Henrik Krumme- dike. Seeing small chance of taking the fortress, the Danish general invited Sir Knut to a conference, under safe-conduct, but foully slew him and threw his body into the water. The wretched king appa- 482 THE STORY OF NORWAY. rently approved of this treason, for instead of pun- ishing Sir Henrik, he heaped honors upon him, and declared the great possessions of the murdered man to be forfeited to the crown. Once more the Norsemen attempted to throw off the detested Danish yoke (1508), under the leader- ship of the peasant Herluf Hyttefad, but the country was already too divided between the foreign and the native interest to afford sufficient support for a suc- cessful rising. Duke Christian came with a Danish army and quelled the rebellion, and executed its leaders. He did not, however, satisfy himself with this. He was a believer in radical measures. In order to break the rebellious temper of the Norse- men, once for all, he captured and murdered as many of the representatives of the great Norse families, as he could lay hold of. With atrocious cruelty he raged in Norway until every trace of the rebellion seemed extinct. The Swedes were more fortunate in their resist- ance to this blood-thirsty tyrant. After the death of Steen Sture the Elder (1503), they elected Svante Nilsson Sture regent, and after his death, his son, Steen Sture the Younger. These brave and patriotic men conducted the government with wisdom and energy, and succeeded in maintaining themselves against the power of the Danes during the remainder of the reign of King Hans. Christian H. (1513-1523, d. 1559), was forced, on mounting the throne, to grant a charter to the no- bility, which nearly deprived him of all power. The rule of the nobles had by this time become so great a THE UNION WITH DENMARK. 483 curse, both in Denmark and Norway, that any measure for its curtailment seemed justifiable. Their principle of government was that of hawks in a poultry-yard. Whatever the citizens undertook for their advance- ment was checked by the interference of the privi- leged classes ; commerce and industry were discour- aged, lest the bourgeoisie should gain power enough to assert itself. The peasantry were given absolutely into the barons' power, and their degradation was made complete by the so-called " right of neck and hand," which Christian II. granted as the price of his crown. By this concession the nobles acquired the right to sentence and punish their peasants at their own discretion, without the intercession of the courts. The king, however, felt the humiliation of this concession scarcely less than its victims. He determined to prepare himself for a life and death struggle with the nobility ; and with this in view strove to increase his power. He secured foreign alliances and married the w^ealthiest princess in Europe, Isabella, sister of the German Emperor Charles V. In order to reach that summit. of power from which he should be able to crush the refractory magnates he deemed it important to regain the crown of Sweden, and at Bogesund he defeated Steen Sture the Younger, who fell in the battle (1520). The latter had had a bitter enemy in the wily arch- bishop, Gustavus Trolle, who made common cause with Christian, and crowned him king of Sweden. The archbishop thought this a good chance to avenge himself upon his enemies, of Steen Sture's party, and at his instigation Christian executed fifty 4^4 THE STORY OF NORWAY. of the most eminent men in Sweden, among whom were two bishops, thirteen members of the Council of Regency, and many brave citizens. This was the notorious Carnage of Stockholm. Secure in the thought that the Swedes were now cowed into submission, Christian II. returned to Denmark ; but his dastardly deed had an unforeseen effect. A young nobleman, Gustavus Eriksson Wasa, whose father had been beheaded and who had him- self been captured by Christian, escaped from his prison and became the deliverer of his country. The common indignation against the tyrant united once more all warring factions ; the Danes were everywhere defeated, and Gustavus Wasa became first, regent, and later, king of Sweden (1523). From that time forth, the power of the Danes in Sweden was at an end. The failure of his plans abroad discredited Chris- tian II. at home. His overweening self-esteem and impetuosity led him to commit rash acts, whereby he gave his enemies an advantage. Also in inaugurating reforms, which would have been beneficial, if they could have been carried into effect, he failed to meas- ure the strength of the opposition which he would be sure to encounter. He issued a decree abolishing serfdom, encouraged commerce and industry, and hoped in the impending struggle to find support among the bourgeoisie and peasants, whose gratitude he had earned. Nor did he in this respect deceive himself. But long oppression had made the people timid, and their support was largely passive, and could not, without energetic leaders, be made to as- THE UNION WITH DENMARK. 485 sert itself. The upper estates were yet too powerful. Christian had, by his devotion to Luther's teachings, also added the clergy to the number of his enemies, and by his championship of Dutch and native com- merce he had incensed the Hansa. His uncle, Duke Frederick, of Holstein, took advantage of his many blunders, made alluring promises to the nobility, allied himself with the Hansa and began a war against his nephew. Christian summoned an assem- bly of notables to meet him at Viborg, but the nobles of Jutland, fearing that he might repeat the Carnage of Stockholm, sent him a letter, revoking their alle- giance. Christian lost his courage, and instead of summoning the citizens to his support gathered all his treasures and fled to Holland (1523). Duke Frederick, of Holstein, now ascended the throne under the name of Frederick I. (i 524-1 533), and by the aid of the Danish nobleman, Vincentz Lunge, soon succeeded in gaining Norway. Sir Vin- centz, who was a highly-cultivated but rapacious and unscrupulous man, had married the daughter of the Norse knight. Sir Nils Henriksson, whose wife, Inger Ottesdatter, was related to the old royal house. This remarkable woman, commonly known as Mistress Inger of Oestraat, played a prominent role in her day, but, unhappily, threw the weight of her wealth and influence on the side of the oppressors. One of her daughters married the Danish nobleman Erik Ugerup, another Nils Lykke, and a fourth was be- trothed by her ambitious mother to a Swedish im- postor who pretended to be a son of Steen Sture and a candidate for the Swedish throne. ( . 486 THE STORY OF NORWAY. The doctrines of Luther were at that time being zealously preached in Sweden and Denmark, and were favored by the king and the greater portion of the nobility. In Norway there was no effort made to introduce the Reformation, and the people there remained devoted to the Catholic faith. Christian II. saw in this circumstance a chance of regaining his lost throne. He had previously inclined toward Lu- ther, but he now declared himself the champion of the old faith, arrived in Norway with a fleet (1531), and gained a large number of adherents. But the same incapacity and imprudence, which had wrecked his fortunes before, again precipitated his downfall. In the critical moment, when resolution and courage were required. Christian, as usual, showed himself a poltroon. When the fortress of Akershus, which he was besieging, was relieved by the Ltibeckers, and a Danish fleet arrived under the command of Knut Gyldenstjerne, he began to despair and finally betook himself to Denmark under safe-conduct, in order to negotiate with his uncle. On arriving there he was unceremoniously thrown into prison. Frederick I., although he had pledged his royal honor, at the re- quest of the nobility, broke his promise and Chris- tian was held a prisoner until the day of his death (1559)- The Norsemen were severely punished for their alliance with the deposed king, although Frederick I. had promised them immunity, on condition of their returning to their allegiance. At the death of Frederick I. an interregnum of four years occurred (1533-1 537), before a successor THE UNION WITH DENMARK. 48/ was chosen. It was the religious question which had divided Denmark into two hostile camps. Christian, the oldest son of the late king, was devoted to Protestanism, while Hans, the younger, had been brought up in the Catholic faith. The nobles, accordingly, favored the former, and the clergy the latter, while the lower estates desired to reinstate Christian II. in the possession of his throne. In Norway there were but two parties, one headed by Vincentz Lunge, favoring Duke Christian, and a Catholic party, which pinned its hopes upon the imprisoned king. A sudden show of strength was imparted to the latter's faction, when the Liibeck- ers took up his cause, and their general, Count Christopher of Oldenborg, invaded Denmark, and gave the peasantry a chance to avenge themselves upon their oppressors. This opportunity was eagerly embraced ; castles were sacked and destroyed, noble- men murdered, and the wildest atrocities committed. For a while civil war raged in Denmark with all its horrors, and in the presence of this calamity the opposing parties buried their differences and elected Christian III. king (i 537-1 559). By the aid of King Gustavus in Sweden he succeeded in defeating and expelling Count Christopher, after whom this war is called the Count's Feud. The Norwegians were not disposed to recognize the validity of King Christian's election, concerning which they had not been consult- ed ; and when, after the capitulation of Count Christopher, the cause of Christian II. seemed hope- lessly lost, they declared in favor of his son-in-law. Count Palatine Frederick, whose candidacy was 488 THE STORY OF NORWAY, supported by the German Emperor. The Danish nobles, headed by Vincentz Lunge, were, of course, adherents of Christian III., while the archbishop, Olaf Engelbrektsson, was the leader of the opposi- tion. At a meeting in Bergen, called for the purpose of electing a king, the people grew furious at the sight of the Danish magnates, attacked them and murdered Sir Vincentz Lunge. Many others were imprisoned and otherwise maltreated. If the Count Palatine had now arrived in Norway and supported his adherents, there might have been a chance of his success. But unhappily he lacked money and was not effectually aided by the emperor. The arch- bishop had therefore no choice but to offer his alle- giance to Christian III. on condition of his respecting the ancient liberties of the land. But the Danish King, though he seemingly acquiesced, had no. inten- tion of granting such easy terms. He sailed to Nor- way with his fleet (1537), and although he met with no opposition, he seemed to think that he had con- quered the country and had the right to do with it as he chose. He abolished the Norwegian Council of Regency and henceforth administered the govern- ment through a viceroy and a chancellor, both of whom were Danes. The last vestige of Norwegian independence was thus lost, and Norway became a province of Denmark. Archbishop Olaf, without awaiting the king's arrival, fled to Holland, taking with him the treas- ures of the cathedral, and died in exile. CHAPTER XXXV. NORWAY AS A PROVINCE OF DENMARK (1537-1814). During the reign of Christian III. the Lutheran faith was introduced into Denmark, and its introduc- tion into Norway followed as a matter of course. The new Danish ecclesiastical law, called the Ordi- nance, was also made to apply to the provinces. The landed estates which had belonged to the Church were confiscated by the crown or distributed among royal favorites. In fact, the plunder of churches and monasteries was the only evidence of religious zeal which the Danes exhibited in Norway. The Catholic bishops were removed ; but many of the priests were allowed to remain, as Lutheran pas- tors were hard to obtain and were needed at home. Gradually, however, the change took place ; and everywhere aroused discontent among the peasantry. Many parishes were left, for long periods, without any kind of religious teaching, and when Lutheran pastors were sent up from Denmark, they were usually ignor- ant or vicious men who could not be used at home- Ex-soldiers, ex-sailors, bankrupt traders, and all sorts of vagabonds, who were in some way disqualified for making a living, were thought to be good enough to 489 490 THE STORY OF NORWAY. preach the word of God in Norway. The majority of them were utterly destitute of theological training, and it is said that there were some who could not even read. No one, then, ought to wonder at the reception they received from their parishioners. Some of them were killed, others driven away and horribly beaten. At last physical strength became the prime requisite for holding a pastorate in the Norse mountain val- leys, and the surest road to popularity for a parson was to thrash the refractory members of his congre- gation. That inspired respect and inclined the rest more favorably toward his preaching. Great credit deserves the first Lutheran bishop in Bergen, Gjeble Pedersson, for his efforts to educate a native Protes- tant clergy. The Danish language, however, re- mained the language of the Norwegian church ; all religious instruction was imparted in it, and at the present day, all who lay claim to culture in Norway speak Danish. The depredations committed by the Danish nobles, during the reign of Christain III., defy description. It was the darkest period in the history of Norway, and, as far as the people were concerned, very nearly the darkest, too, in the history of Denmark. The power of the nobles reached such a height that the king himself was merely the tool of their will and was used by them, as an instrument for the most cruel and heartless oppression. The discomfiture of the Liibeckers in the Count's Feud was the first serious check which the Hansa received in the North, and it never regained its former power. The Danish nobleman, Christopher Valken- BELT WRESTLING, A MODE OF SETTLING DIFFERENCES FORMERLY IN VOGUE IN NORWAY, DESCRIBED IN BAYARD TAYLOR'S "LARS." 492 THE STORY OF NORWAY. dorf, who was governor {Lensherre) in Bergen, suc- ceeded in destroying the monopoly of the Germans in the fish trade, which now fell into the hands of native merchants. Christian III. was succeeded by his son Frederick 11.(1559-1588), a vain and worthless man, whose fond- ness for drink shortened his life. He waged a long and costly war with Sweden about the right to carry the Swedish " three crowns " in the Danish coat-of-arms. The Norwegians, although their sympathies were at the outset with the Swedes, suffered greatly from the inroads of hostile armies, which burned cities and ravaged the land. Sweden, regarding Norway merely as a Danish province, thought to injure its foe, by destroying whatever belonged to him or acknowledged his sway. Thus the cathedral of Hamar was burned ; the fertile districts of Aker were harried, and the city of Drontheim was taken. The Danes burned Oslo in order to prevent it from fall- ing into the hands of the Swedes. Two Danish governors, Ludwig and Erik Munk, became notorious for their unheard of cruelties and extortions. The peasants sent repeated com- plaints to the king and threatened rebellion. At last Erik Munk was sentenced to return all taxes which he had illegally collected, and to restore to a peasant his property, of which he had unlawfully taken pos- session. Later he was deprived of his office, and committed suicide while in prison. The city of Frederickstad, which was forced into existence, after the burning of the ancient Sarpsborg, bears the name of Frederick II. u III ' 494 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Christian IV. (1588-1648) had not inherited his father's infirmities. He was a man of many excel- lent qualities; desirous of furthering the welfare of his subjects, but crippled in his efforts by the opposi- tion of the arrogant nobility. What particularly deserves notice was his good disposition toward the Norsemen. Unlike his predecessors, he paid frequent visits to their country, once even penetrating within the Arctic Circle. He listened to the complaints of the people, and punished with fines and imprison- ment the Danish officials who ventured to exceed their rights. The old law of Magnus Law-Mender which, on account of the change of the language, was now hard to comprehend, he abolished, and elaborated, in its stead, a Norse law, some regula- tions of which are yet in force. Also the ecclesiasti- cal law or Ordinance was altered and adapted to the needs of the country. The present capital of Nor- way, Christiania, was founded by him, as also the city of Christiansand. The discovery of silver at Kongsberg, and of copper at Roraas, gave an im- petus to the mining industries of the country, and thereby started the growth of two small towns. By his kindness, his love of justice, and his in- terest in their affairs, Christian IV. won the hearts of the Norsemen, as no king of the house of Oldenborg, before or since. Sometimes he dropped in at a peasant's wedding, and drank the health^of the bride ; watched the games upon the German wharf in Bergen, and attended a party at the apothecary's where the jolly guests smashed all the windows. He had a pair of eyes which nothing escaped ; and an active NORWAY AS A PROVINCE. 495 and alert mind which turned his observations to good account. All economical questions interested him ; whatever he undertook, he supervised with the most minute care every detail of its execution. With level and square in his pocket he walked about testing the soundness of the work of his carpenters, masons, and architects. Three great wars, two of which concerned Norway, disturbed the reign of Christian IV. The first, the so-called Kalmar War (1511-1513), occasioned an invasion of Scotch mercenaries hired by the king of Sweden. These came, however, to grief at Kringen in Guldbrandsdale, where the peasants attacked them, and at the first shot killed their commander. Colonel Sinclair. Of the entire force, numbering nine hundred, not one man, it is said, escaped. More fortunate was Colonel Monnikhofen, who landed with eight hundred Dutch mercenaries in Sondmore, and made his way, ravaging and plundering, across the frontier. The cause of this war was the assumption, on the part of the Swedish king,Charles IX., of the title of King of the Lapps, and his claim to the Norwegian province of Finmark. Charles died during the hos- tilities, and his son Gustavus Adolphus made peace at Knaerod, abandoning both the claim and the title. The participation of Christian IV. in the Thirty Years' War, as the ally of the oppressed German Protestants, brought him no glory. After his defeat by Tilly at Lutter and Barenberge, the imperial armies overran Sleswick and Jutland, and at the Peace of Liibeck (1629), Christian had to promise never- 49^ THE STORY OF NORWAY. more to meddle in German politics. After this humiliation, he could not see, without alarm, the progress of the Swedes in Germany ; and could not refrain from placing obstacles in their way. The war was being continued, after the death of Gustavus Adolphus, by able generals and diplomats, who resolved to anticipate the Danish king in his efforts to thwart them. Before Christian suspected that his intentions were revealed, General Torstenson crossed the southern frontier, invaded Holstein, and advanced into Jutland (1643). The Danes were utterly unable to resist the conquering host, and though they hotly contested two naval battles, their inability to cope with the Swedes soon became ap- parent. Peace was, therefore, concluded at Brom- sebro ; and Norway was made to pay the costs of Danish incapacity and miscalculation. The two great Norse provinces Jemteland and Herjedale were ceded to Sweden ; as also the island of Gott- land, which had latterly belonged to Denmark (1647). In Norway this war was named Hannibal's Feud, after the viceroy Hannibal Sehested, a son-in-law of the king, who, with the aid of the brave parson, Kjeld Stub, guarded the frontier. One might have supposed that the nobles, at the death of Christian IV. would have rested content with the excessive privileges which they already possessed, and allowed his son Frederick HI. (1648- 1670) to ascend the throne, without stripping him- self of the last remnant of his power. But as long as there was any thing left to grab, it seemed worth FREDERICK III., KING OF DENMARK AND NORWAY. 49^ THE STORY OF NOF^WAY. grabbing. Frederick III. was, therefore, compelled to grant a more humiliating charter than any of his predecessors, and would have been, if he had long acquiesced in the agreement, a mere shadow king. The arrogance and greed of the nobles, fostered by long security in aggression, became, however, the cause of their downfall. The Royal Council, which was the real governing power in the state, had the imprudence to declare war against Sweden, on the strength of a rumor, that the Swedish king, Charles X. Gustavus, had suffered an overwhelming defeat in Poland. This rumor proved to be false, and Charles conquered in a short time both Jutland and Funen, and threatened Copenhagen. Denmark was completely at his mercy, and the Council was com- pelled to buy peace at Roskilde (1658) by the ces- sion of Skaane, Halland, Blekinge, Bornholm, and the Norwegian provinces, Viken and Drontheim. And yet in Norway the only success of the war had been won, the Norwegian general Bjelke having con- quered Jemteland. It seemed as if Charles Gustavus, after having obtained these enormous advantages, regretted that he had not made an end of Denmark altogether. He hesitated to quit Danish territory, renewed the war, and was, by aid of the Dutch and Austrians, who feared his overweening power, de- feated at Nyborg and repulsed at Copenhagen. In Norway the Tronders revolted successfully against the Swedish rule, and the Bornholmers likewise drove away the invaders. At the Peace of Copenha- gen (1660), Charles Gustavus was forced to relinquish his hold upon these provinces, while keeping his other conquests. NORWAY AS A PROVINCE. 499 It was plain that it was chiefly the nobles com- posing the Royal Council who were responsible for the degradation which these wars had brought upon Denmark. And yet, although they were in posses- sion of great wealth, gained by pillaging the lower estates, they refused to bear any share of the public burdens. The condition of the country was now so desperate and the misery so great that but a breath was needed to kindle the smouldering indignation into flame. The public debt had reached an enor- mous amount, and there was no prospect of paying it without increased taxatiom The king then sum- moned a diet to meet him at Copenhagen, and in- vited representatives of the clergy and the bour- geoisie to participate in its deliberations. These entered into an alliance with him against the nobles, and the latter, fearing an outbreak of violence, did not at first dare offer any resistance. When they picked up their courage again, the citizens of Copen- hagen locked the gates and compelled them to come to terms. It was then resolved that Denmark should henceforth be an hereditary kingdom, and that the Royal Council should be abolished. All fiefs were revoked and a new system of administration was introduced, with royal officials, responsible to the king. It was agreed that a constitution should be adopted, and its elaboration was, very unwisely, en- trusted to the king. Frederick III. was thus master of the situation, and as the matter seemed to have been left to his discretion, he preferred to rule with- out any constitution. The so-called Royal Law, which he endeavored to pass off as such, was rather in- 500 THE STORY OF NORWAY. tended to make his power secure, than to subject it to limitations. Thus absolutism pure and simple was introduced into Denmark (1660). The Danes had jumped from the frying-pan into the fire; and yet, though their condition was not enviable, there was a relief in having one master Instead of many. In Norway the effects of absolutism were chiefly perceptible in placing the country more nearly upon an equal footing with Denmark, and in producing a somewhat Improved administration. The nobles continued to hold many lucrative offices, but the king was able to exercise a more restraining influence over them now that his authority was absolute. The fiefs were changed into counties (aniter) and adminis- tered by royal officials with well-defined functions. A chance was presented to citizens to rise in the ser- vice of the state, and was improved by several able Norsemen, among whom the naval hero, Kort Adeler, was preeminent. After an honorable career in Dutch and Venetian service, against the Turks, he was made admiral in the Danish Navy, and greatly increased its efficiency. Frederick III. visited Norway but once. The city of Frederickshald bears his name. Although the royal revenues had been quintupled by the revocation of the fiefs, Frederick's son. Chris- tian V. (1670-1699), was always in want of money. He spent his time in all sorts of costly amusements, hoping to rival the splendor of the French king, Louis XIV., whom he had taken for his model. In order to counteract the influence of the old Danish nobility, which, on account of Its wealth, was yet JVOJ^PVAV AS A PROVINCE. 50I formidable, Christian V. created a new court nobility of counts and barons, most of whom were Germans. German became the language of the court, and lands and lucrative offices were given away to German favorites. In order to procure money wherewith to imitate the glittering vices of Versailles, Christian V. sold his subjects, both Norwegians and Danes, as mercenaries for foreign service. He had an able ad- viser in his chancellor, Griffenfeld, who rose from poverty to the highest position, in order as suddenly to be plunged into misery. His enemies aroused the fickle king's suspicions as to his loyalty ; and he was condemned to death, but his sentence, on the scaf- fold, was commuted to imprisonment for life. " Oh mercy more cruel than death," he exclaimed. Tow- ard the end of his life he was, however, pardoned. Christian V. had a new code of laws elaborated for Norway, which is yet partly in force. He waged a futile war with Sweden which cost blood and treas- ure, but brought no advantage to either of the com- batants. Frederick IV. (1699-1730) ascended the throne like his father, by right of inheritance, but did not in other respects follow in his footsteps. He was a shrewd, but ignorant man ; penurious, industrious, and heartless. By his feud with the Duke of Hol- stein, he came into collision with the latter's brother- in-law, Charles XII., of Sweden, and after a brief and unsuccessful campaign, made peace on unfavorable terms at Travendal (1700). When, however, Charles XII., in 1709, lost the battle of Pultawa, in Russia, Frederick thought his opportunity had come for re- 502 THE STOR V OF NOR WA Y. gaining what he had lost ; wherefore he entered into an alliance with Russia and Poland and began the Great Northern War (i 709-1 720). Sixteen thousand Danish troops invaded Skaane, but were beaten by the Swedish general, Magnus Stenbock (1710). In the naval battle of Kjogebugt, the Norseman, Ivar Hvitfeldt, who commanded the ship Dannebrog, made a valiant attack upon the Swedish fleet. His ship, however, took fire, and although he might have saved himself by beaching it, such a course would have endangered the rest of the Danish fleet, which lay nearer shore. Hvitfeldt, therefore stayed where he was, sending volley after volley against the Swedes, while death was staring him in the face. When the fire reached the powder magazine, he, with five hun- dred men, was blown into the air. On his return to Sweden in 171 5 Charles at- tempted to conquer Norway and penetrated by three different routes into the country. He him- self commanded the division which entered Holand (17 1 6). The Norwegian Colonel Kruse met him with 200 men, who fought with such heroism, that Charles, brave as he was himself, was filled with admiration. '' Has my brother, King Frederick, many such officers as thou?" he asked the colonel, as he lay wounded at his feet. "Oh, yes," answered Kruse, ''he has plenty of them, and I am far from being among the ablest." In his blindness, Frederick had, in order to raise money, hired out a large number of the country's defenders as mercenaries, leaving only a wretched NORWAY AS A PROVINCE. 503 little, half-naked and half-starved force of 6,000 men under General Liitzow. Charles with his well-drilled troops expected to make short work of such paltry opponents. But he failed to take account of the Norsemen's temper. Every man, young and old- nay, many a woman, too, was ready to defend hearth and home against the foe. Colonel Lowen, whom he had sent with 600 men to destroy the silver mines of Kongsberg, was captured with 160 Swedes, by the Norsemen at the parsonage in Ringerike, after having been hoodwinked by the parson's wife, the intrepid and quick-witted Anna Kolbjorns- datter. When, suspecting that he was trapped, Lowen put the pistol to her head, she asked, coolly : ''Do you serve your king in order to kill old women? " Charles captured Christiania, but could accomplish nothing against the fortress of Akershus. The citi- zens of Frederickshald burned their town, so that it might not afford a shelter for the Swedes against the cannon of the fortress Fredricksteen. Here the two brave and patriotic brothers, Peter and Hans Kol- bjornsson, half-brothers of Anna, distinguished them- selves, and, with their hardy volunteers, harassed the enemy incessantly. It became evident to Charles that he could not take the Norse fortresses without artillery, and he expected a convoy from home with field-cannon and other munitions of war. But this expectation, too, failed. His fleet was destroyed in Dynekilen by a daring deed of Tor- denskjold, the greatest naval hero that Norway has 504 ' THE STORY OF NORWAY. produced. Tordenskjold, having learned from some fishermen that the Swedish admiral was to have a banquet on board, that night, concluded that the officers would scarcely be in condition for fighting, after having risen from the table. He cried to his lieutenant, Peter Grib : '' I hear that the Swedish admiral is going to have a carousal on his fleet. Would it not be advisable if we went with our ships and became his guests, though unbidden? The pilot says we have wind." Under a rattling fire from the shore batteries Tor- denskjold ran into Dynekilen and attacked the hos- tile fleet. He was right in his supposition that the enemy had imbibed heavily. But the danger so- bered them. After three hours of heavy cannonad- ing, the Swedish admiral capitulated with 44 ships and 60 cannon. When this intelligence reached the king, he began his retreat from Norway. But he could not give up the thought of conquering a country which was so poorly equipped for defence. In 1718 he sent General Armfelt with 14,000 men against Drontheim and moved, himself, against Fred- ricksteen with 22,000. The outer redoubt was stormed and taken and trenches were dug toward the main fortress. In one of these trenches Charles was standing, when he was hit in the head by a bullet from the fortress and fell dead. Armfelt, on receiving this intelligence, immediately retreated to- ward the frontier, but lost a great number of men, who froze and starved to death upon the mountains. Thus the war was at an end, and peace was con- cluded in Fredensborg (1720). THE CAPERCAILZIE TN NORWAY, 5o6 THE STORY OF NORWAY. The fortitude of the Norsemen had saved Den- mark from a great danger. Frederick IV. rewarded their staunchness and intrepidity by subjecting them to further pillaging. In order to raise money for Danish needs, he sold all the churches of Norway to private parties, contending that, if the people owned them, they must have deeds and papers proving their right of property. By this miserable quibble, he pretended to give a show of legality to his spolia- tions. The trade with Finmark he sold to three citi- zens of Copenhagen, who interpreted their monopoly as a license for unlimited extortion. The population sank into misery and degradation. During the reign of Frederick IV. lived the Norse- man Ludvig Holberg, who was born in Bergen, 1684. He spent his life, however, in Denmark, writing a great number of excellent comedies, in Moliere's style, mock-heroic poems, satires and historical works. The life of the first half of the eighteenth century is vividly portrayed and satirized in his writings. Christian VI. (i 730-1 746) was an extreme pietist, and surrounded himself with Germans who sympa- pathized with his morbid and lugubrious religion. He was lavish in his expenditures, built costly pal- aces, and introduced a rigid ceremonial at his court. The one meritorious act of his reign was the issue of a decree ordering confirmation in the Lutheran faith, and thus indirectly compelling all classes of the people to learn to read. Well-meant, but misdirected, were his efforts to encourage trade and manufactures, and positively disastrous was his decree forbidding the inhabitants of southern Norway to import grain from any other country than Denmark. CARVED I.INTEL, STABBUR, OR STORE-HOUSE ■ CARVED BEER-MUGS. 5o8 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Frederick V. (1746-1766) was a man of kindly na- ture, but limited intelligence. He opened the thea- tres, which his father had closed, and abolished the many arduous regulations for the keeping of the Sab- bath. He came within a hair of having war with Russia, and was only saved by the murder of the emperor, Peter HI. But the great preparations he had made necessitated an increase of taxation, which especially fell heavily upon the poor Norse peasants. In Bergen, the " extra-tax " led to a revolt. The pea- sants broke into the city, and insulted and maltreated the magistrates, whereupon the tax was abolished. The Norwegian Military Academy in Christiania was founded during the reign of this king, as also the Academy of Sciences in Drontheim. Christian VH. (i 766-1 808) succeeded to the throne at the age of seventeen, and wasted his youth in the wildest dissipation. His vitality was accordingly used up before he reached mature manhood, and in- sanity followed. During a journey abroad, he be- came much attached to his body physician, a Ger- man, named Struensee, and, after his return, made him prime-minister, and left the government entirely in his hands. Struensee was a man of great ability, penetrated with the Ideas of Voltaire and Rousseau, and rather headlong in the reforms which he Intro- duced. The nobles and the queen-dowager, Juliana Maria, hated him, and, by their Influence, the king was Induced to sign an order for his arrest. From the prison to the block the road was short. A favor- ite of the queen-dowager, named Ove Guldberg, car- ried on the government during the next twelve years, NORWAY AS A PROVINCE. 509 and revoked all Struensee's liberal measures. He en- deavored to abolish the very name of Norseman, in- sisting that no such nationality existed, all being citi- zens of the Danish State. During the reign of the last three kings, Norway had, owing to the peace, steadily advanced in mater- ial prosperity. The population had, in one hundred years, nearly doubled, being, in 1767, 723,000; and the merchant marine had, since the destruction of the Hanseatic monopoly, grown from 50 to 1,150 ships. A class of native officials, educated at the University of Copenhagen, began to replace the Danish, and, by the sale of the estates of the crown, the number of freeholders among the peasants was largely increased. As the insanity of the king made him unable to attend to the government, his son. Crown Prince Frederick, became, in 1784, the responsible regent, and made an excellent selection of a premier in Andreas Bernsdorff (i 784-1 797). This capable and enlightened man piloted Denmark and Norway safely through the stormy times of the French Revolution. In the latter country £our provincial superior courts were established, and a peculiar in- stitution called '' commissions of reconciliations," in- tended to prevent litigation. In 1800 Denmark had the imprudence to conclude a treaty of armed neutrality with Russia and Sweden, with a view to resisting the right, which England demanded, of searching the ships of non-combatants for munitions of war. It was the aim of England to cut France off from all commercial intercourse with the rest of 5IO THE STORY OF NORWAY. the world and, as munitions of war were regarded not only guns and powder, but grain and all kinds of provisions. The Norwegian and Danish merchant marines, which were then doing a great business as carriers, were injured by this arbitrary interpretation. The government was, however, not strong enough to bid defiance to England, and after the battle in Copenhagen harbor (April 2, 1801) Denmark was forced to retire from the *' armed neutrality." The crown prince, Frederick, seemed, however, to have a poor idea of the power of England, for his policy soon again began to show symptoms of friend- liness for the emperor of the French. According to a secret agreement between Napoleon and Alexan- der of Russia (1807) at the Peace of Tilsit, the former was to take possession of the Danish fleet, and by means of it dispute England's dominion over the sea. The English government soon got wind of this plan, and immediately demanded the temporary surrender of the Danish fleet, guaranteeing its return as soon as peace was reestablished. When this de- mand was refused, the English landed troops on See- land and surrounded Copenhagen, while from the sea side they bombarded the city for three days and a half (1807). The Danes then had no choice but to surrender their fleet, but, owing to their resistance, it was never returned. This second battle of Copen- hagen threw Denmark more completely into the arms of Napoleon, and when the emperor's star de- clined and set, his ally was left helpless at the mercy of his enemies. Owing to the isolation of Denmark during the 512 THE STORY OF NORWAY. war and the difficulty of maintaining communication, Norway was temporarily governed by a commission, or council of regency, under the presidency of Prince Christian August of Augustenborg. When Frederick VI. (1808-1814), at the death of his insane father, mounted the throne, the condition of his two countries was deplorable. His wrong- headed policy had placed him in a position which was wellnigh desperate. The war with England had put an embargo upon all commerce, and famine and misery were the result. Norway, which, with- out being consulted, had been dragged into this maze of difficulties, suffered from constant naval attacks, to which it was, by its long coast-line, par- ticularly exposed. The finances were in hopeless disorder. To add to the confusion, a war broke out with Sweden, which, in time, had seen its advantage in seeking an English alliance. General Armfelt once more invaded the country, but Christian August did not lose his courage. The Council of Regency unfolded a heroic activity in carrying out his measures for the defence of the land, and divi- sions of Norwegian troops beat the Swedes in three successive fights (Toverud, Trangen, and Preste- bakke). Simultaneously Sweden was attacked by Russia, which had guaranteed to enforce the stipula- tions of the Peace of Tilsit, one of which was the blockading of the Swedish ports against the English. But the obstinate king, Gustavus IV., would not give his consent to this measure, in consequence of which the Russians invaded Finland, and, after several hotly contested engagements, drove the NORWAY AS A PROVINCE. 5x3 Swedes out. The result of these disasters was the dethronement of the king and the election of his brother, Charles XIII., as his successor. As the lat- ter was childless, he was induced to adopt the regent of Norway, Prince Christian August, as his heir, and there was thus a chance of the peaceful union of Norway and Sweden under an able and popular king. But, unhappily, this beloved prince died very soon after, at a review of troops in Skaane (1809). At the Peace of Frederickshamn, Sweden was obliged to cede Finland to Russia, but by the Treaty of Paris was guaranteed possession of Pomerania, on condi- tion of its adhering to Napoleon's so-called '* conti- nental system." This naturally involved war with England, which was the one unconquered and ir- reconcilable enemy of the emperor; but as long as Sweden refrained from actively aiding Napoleon, England, which had its hands full elsewhere, as- sumed an expectant attitude and exercised no hos- tilities. But this semi-neutrality was far from satis- fying Napoleon. Enraged by the indecision of Charles XIII., he again occupied Pomerania, thereby giving Sweden a pretext for openly siding with his enemies. Peace was concluded with England at Oerebro (18 12), and soon after Sweden joined the great European alliance, which had for its object the overthrow of Napoleon. This change of policy was, no doubt, to a Targe extent, due to Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, Prince of Pontecorvo, who had risen from the ranks in Na- poleon's service, had become a field marshal, and after the death of Christian August, had been made 514 THE STORY OF NORWAY. * crown prince of Sweden (1812). At a meeting with Alexander of Russia at Aabo, he was promised Nor- way, as a reward for his adherence to the cause of the alHes ; and the same promise was later repeated by England. The condition of Norway, during this period, was aggravated by the continued blockading of her ports by the English. In 1812a famine broke out, and the people were obliged to grind birch bark into flour and bake it into bread. The depreciation of the Danish paper money swept away the savings of thousands of families, and demoralized all com- mercial relations. Everywhere the greatest discon- tent prevailed at the union with Denmark, which had brought the country to such a strait. The tardy grant of a charter for a Norwegian University (181 1) which had before been refused, caused a temporary enthusiasm, but did not allay the discontent. The political sense which seemed to have been dormant for centuries, began to awake again, and a feeling of independence and a desire for national self-assertion found expression in the Society for Norway's Welfare, (1810), in the liberal contributions to the University, and in a sudden patriotic ferment, which pervaded the land. The native ofificial class came to the front as the leaders and exponents of these political aspira- tions, and rendered important service by formulating the people's desires and leading them toward rational aims. To be disposed of, like chattels, by foreign powers, which had no sympathy with Norway's tra- ditions, nor interest in her welfare, was revolting to their self-respect, and amid all the insecurity, which NOR WAY AS A PRO VINCE. 5 I 5 the various moves upon the foreign diplomatic chess- board produced, a stubborn determination to resist to the utmost asserted itself among the thinking classes of the people. As long, however, as Norway was a mere appen- dage of Denmark, it could not escape being involved in the consequences of King Frederick's policy. When, after Napoleon's disastrous campaign in Rus- sia, the allies demanded the surrender of Norway to Sweden, the king refused and sent his cousin. Prince Christian Frederick, to govern the country as vice- roy. But Napoleon's defeat at Leipsic and Berna- dotte's invasion of Holstein, at the head of a large army, compelled him to come to terms. At the Peace of Kiel, (January 14, 18 14) he ceded Norway to Sweden, and soon after released the Norsemen from their allegiance to him, giving up all claim upon their country for himself and his descendants. CHAPTER XXXVI. NORWAY RECOVERS HER INDEPENDENCE. The indignation which the Peace of Kiel aroused in Norway was evidence that the Norsemen had awak- ened from their long hibernating torpor and meant to assert their rights. They were quite ready to give up their allegiance to Frederick VI., but contended that he had no right to dispose of it to any one else. Re- membering how their country had without its own con- sent, contrary to law and treaties, become a depen- dency of Denmark, they held that the sovereignty, which Frederick renounced, reverted to the people who were thus in position to bestow it upon whom they chose. The viceroy, Christian Frederick, finding this sentiment very general, refused to abide by the decision of the powers and summoned several repre- sentative men to meet him at Eidsvold (1814). It had been his first intention to claim the crown of Norway by hereditary right and to govern as absolute monarch. But yielding to the advice of Professor Sverdrup and other patriotic- men, he declared himself ready to accept the crown from the people and to govern in accordance with the constitution which the people should adopt. In or- der to explore the sentiment throughout the coun- 516 NOR WA Y RECO VERS HER INDEPENDENCE. 5^7 try, the prince had travelled in the middle of winter across the Dovre Mountain to Drontheim, and there were many who believed that it had been his inten- PRINCE CHRISTIAN FREDERICK, VICEROY OF NORWAY ; LATER, KING OF DENMARK (CHRISTIAN VIII. )• tion to have himself crowned at once in the ancient city of kings. In Guldbrandsdale he stopped to read the inscription upon the monument, erected 5 1 8 THE STOR Y OF NOR WA F. to commemorate the destruction of Sinclair and his Scottish mercenaries : " Woe to the Norsemen whose blood does not course more warmly through his veins when he looks upon this stone." ''Are you, too," he asked the peasants who had come to see him, " like your forefathers, willing to sacrifice life and blood for your country ? " The result of the deliberations at Eidsvold was the summoning of a diet, consisting of representatives of the people from all parts of the country. The place of meeting was again Eidsvold, and the number of representatives was 1 12, most of whom were officials. A constitution, which was extremely liberal in its provisions, was adopted May 17, 18 14, and Prince Christian Frederick was elected king. Norway was declared to be a fi^ee and independent country, but there was a division of opinion as to whether It should seek a union with Sweden or maintain a king of its own. The so-called party of indepen- dence, which was led by Judge Falsen, Professor Sverdrup, and Captain Motzfeldt, largely outnum- bered the friends of Sweden, prominent among whom were Count Wedel- Jarlsberg, Chamberlain Peder Anker, Iron-master Jacob Aal, and the Rev. Nicolai Wergeland. The latter were not desirous of surrendering the liberty of the country, believing^ on the contrary, that liberty was securer in a union with a stronger power. The smallness of Norway and the inability of the people to maintain an army adequate for its defence would, in their opinion, ul- timately make the country the prey of any foreign power that chose to pick a quarrel with It. JVO/^IVJV RECOVERS HER INDEPENDENCE. 519 The Norwegian constitution, which, sHghtly amended, is yet in force, provides that: 1. Norway shall be a limited, hereditary, monarchy, independent and indivisible, whose ruler shall be called king. 2. The people shall exercise the legislative power through their representatives. 3. The people shall alone have the ri^ht to levy taxes through their representatives. 4. The king shall have the right to declare war and to make peace. 5. The king shall have the right of pardon. 6. The judicial authority shall be separated from the executive and the legislative power. 7. There shall be liberty of the press. 8. The evangelical Lutheran religion shall be the religion of the state and of the king. 9. No personal or hereditary privileges shall, in future, be granted to any one. 10. Every male citizen, irrespective of birth, sta- tion, or property, shall be required, for a certain length of time, to carry arms in defence of his coun- try. The representatives at Eidsvold were not unaware that the step which they had taken involved war with Sweden. For Bcrnadotte would scarcely regard the resolutions of a deliberative assembly as an obstacle to the possession of the prize, which he had earned by assisting in the overthrow of Napoleon. In the meanwhile, it was a happy circumstance to the Norse- men, that this overthrow had not yet taken place, and that the emperor for several months kept the army 520 THE STORY OF NORWAY. of the allies busy, thereby preventing Bernadotte from turning his immediate attention to Norway. It was a surprise to him to find the Norsemen deter- mined to defend their rights, as he imagined that their long dependence upon Denmark had accus- tomed them to obedience and subordination. A letter which Charles XIII. had sent them, previous to the diet at Eidsvold, offering them a constitution and a Swedish viceroy, had been received with indig- nation, but after the surrender of Paris (March 31st) and the abdication of the emperor, the Napoleonic drama seemed preliminarily at an end, and there were no more foreign complications to prevent the Swedes from enforcing the paragraph in the treaty of Kiel, relating to Norway. The intelligence now arrived that the great powers had promised Berna- dotte to compel Norway to accept the treaty, and envoys were sent from the various courts, command- ing the Norsemen forthwith to submit themselves unconditionally to the king of Sweden. This the Norsemen refused to do, and soon after a Swedish army under Bernadotte crossed the frontier. The newly elected king now began to waver, and, being destitute of^ warlike spirit, he ordered the surrender of the fortress Fredericksteen to the Sweciish fleet, with- out having fired a shot in its defence. The Nor- wegian army, ill-provided though it was with food and ammunition, was eager for fight, but the faint- spirited king showed his generalship chiefly in re- treating. A second division of the Swedish army under Gahn was beaten in Lier by the Norwegians, under Colonel Krebs, and after a second assault at NOJ^IVAV RECOVERS HER INDEPENDENCE. 521 Matrand was forced to retire across the frontier. It became obvious that, without bloodshed, the con- quest of the country was not to be accomphshed, and as the Swedes, after their German campaign, were no less desirous of peace than the Norsemen, CHARLES XIV. JOHN. (BERNADOTTE.) KING OF NORWAY AND SWEDEN. an armistice wes concluded at Moss (August 14, 1 8 14), in accordance with the terms of which the king should summon an extraordinary Storthing or Parliament, for the negotiation of a permanent peace. This Storthmg, which met October 7th, accepted King Christian Frederick's renunciation of 522 THE STORY OF NORWAY. the Norwegian crown and elected Charles XIII. king, on condition of his recognizing the indepen- dence of Norway and governing it, in accordance with the constitution given at Eidsvold. These terms Bernadotte accepted, in behalf of the king of Swe- den (November 4th), and swore allegiance to the con- stitution. The Swedish troops then evacuated the country, and Christian Frederick returned to Den- mark, where, at the death of his cousin, he became king under the name of Christian VIII. The follow- ing year a convention was negotiated with Sweden, fixing the terms of the union {Rigsakten). The Bank of Norway was established in Drontheim, and a Su- preme Court in Christiania. To all appearances Norway had now regained her independence. Considering the desperate position in which the country was placed in 18 14, resisting single-handed the decree of the powers, there can be no doubt that the terms of the union were more favorable than there was reason to expect. For all that, there was one feature of it which was incom- patible with the idea of independence, and that was the presence in the capital of a Swedish viceroy {Statholder), representing the authority of the king. Bernadotte, who, at the death of Charles XII I. (1818), succeeded to the throne under the name of Charles XIV. John (18 18-1844), scarcely regarded, at first, the independence of Norway seriously, but rather allowed the Norsemen to deceive themselves with an illusion of liberty, as long as their illusion was harmless. But he showed plainly his irritation when he found that the Start king hegd^n to oppose his meas- JVO/^IVAV RECOVERS HER INDEPENDENCE. 523 ures, and to insist upon a stricter interpretation of the constitution. One of the first causes of contention was the question of the payment by Norway of a part of the Danish pubHc debt which Charles John had guaranteed in the treaty of Kiel. The Storthing was of opinion that, as Norway had never accepted the treaty of Kiel, it could not be bound by any of its stipulations. A compromise was finally effected by which the king renounced his civil list from Nor- way for ten years for himself and his son, the crown prince, and the Storthing of 1821 agreed to pay about three million dollars. Simultaneously came the struggle about the abolition of the nobility. Three successive StortJiings passed a law, abolishing noble titles and privileges, and the king, who feared a con- flict with the powerful nobility of Sweden, in case he sanctioned it, made repeated efforts to induce the Storthing to abandon its position. He urged that Norway was watched by the powers of Europe, and that the democratic spirit which manifested itself in its legislative assembly would arouse suspicion and hostility abroad. The Storthing, however, remained inflexible, and finally the law was promulgated, though in a slightly modified form. Those of the privileges of the nobility which were in conflict with the constitution were forthwith abolished ; their ex- emption from taxation and all personal privileges should cease on the demise of the nobles then living, and should not be inherited by their descendants. This postponed the final abolition of nobility for one generation. , A number of other laws and proposals for laws, 524 THE STORY OF NORWAY. concerning which the king and the StortJiing differed, caused ill-feeling and excitement during the reign of Charles John. And it is indeed marvellous, consid- ering the comparative inexperience of the representa- tives in political life, that they dared present so bold a front and insist so strenuously upon their rights. To these intrepid men Norway owes the position she occupies to-day. For, if they had been meek and conciliatory, accepting gratefully what the king was pleased to grant them, their country would inevitably have sunk into a provincial relation to Sweden, as it had formerly to Denmark. The manly ring and fearless self-assertion, which resound through the de- bates of those early StortJiings^ show that the ancient strength was still surviving, and could, indeed, never have been dead. No inert and degraded nation can draw such representatives from its midst ; and the fact that Norway has continued to draw them, up to the present time, shows that she is truly represented by manliness anc^fearless vigor — that she is worthy of the liberty she gained. The attitude which the Norwegian Storthings as- sumed toward the king is illustrated by the deter- mination with which they resisted his efforts to extend the royal authority. Though he had been trained in the school of the French Revolution, Charles John was no believer in democracy or " the rights of man." He was an able ruler, a skilful diplomat, and a man of honorable intentions. But he had been too little in Norway to comprehend the spirit of the Norwegian people ; and he was forced, in order to maintain his position among his brother 526 THE STORY OF NORWAY. monarchs, to sympathize with the reactionary ten- dencies which asserted themselves throughout Eu- rope after the overthrow of Napoleon. In 1821 he proposed ten amendments to the constitution, which were unanimously rejected by the Storthing of 1824. Among these amendments was one giving the king an absolute instead of, as formerly, a suspensive veto ; another, conferring upon him the right to appoint the presiding officer of the Storthing, and a third, authorizing him to dissolve the Storthing at pleasure. The former minister of state, Christian Krogh, gained great popularity by recommending the rejec- tion of these propositions, and the king's persistence in bringing them up before several successive Stor- things did not secure them a more favorable recep- tion. An eminent figure in the political struggles of those days was the poet Henrik Wergeland, who, as the leader of the students, persisted in celebrating the anniversary of the constitution (May 17th) con- trary to the king's command, instead of the anniver- sary of the union with Sweden (November 4th). The king exaggerated the importance of this demon- stration and in 1829 called out troops, which dis- persed, by force of arms, the multitude celebrating the national holiday. Wergeland, though he personally professed reverence for the king, did not evince the same reverence for his policy, and by his indefati- gable activity in prose and verse nourished the defiant and aggressive patriotism of his countrymen. In an intoxication of patriotic pride he sang the praise of liberty and celebrated the beauties of forest, NORWAY RECOVERS HER INDEPENDENCE. 527 mountain, and fjord ; and a chorus of minor poets declaimed about Norway's Lion, and the rocks of Norway which " defied the tooth of time." There was a good deal that was boyish and irrational in this enthusiasm ; but it was wholesome and genuine and politically useful. That Charles John did not only hold up the powers as a scarecrow, with which to frighten the Norsemen, but was himself restrained in his policy by a regard for their opinion, is obvious enough. The political ferment which, after the July Revolution (1830) in France, spread throughout Europe and also reached Norway, caused him much apprehension, and in order to intimidate the steadily progressing democ- racy, he suddenly dissolved the Storthing of 1836. The Storthing, regarding this dissolution as contrary to law, indicted the Minister of State, Lowenskjold, before the high court of the realm [Rigsret), and sen- tenced him to pay a fine for not having dissuaded the king from violating the constitution. This bold- ness, instead of impelling the king to further meas- ures of repression, induced him to make a conces- sion. He conciliated the Norsemen by appointing their countryman. Count Wedel-Jarlsberg, as viceroy. This was a great step toward real independence and made the king justly popular. During the last years of his life, after he had given up the hope of stem- ming the tide of democracy, Charles John won the hearts of the Norsemen and he was sincerely mourned at his death (1844). The remnants of subordination in Norway's rela- tion to Sweden were one by one removed during the 528 THE STORY OF NORWAY. reign of Charles John's son, Oscar I. (1844-1859). He gave to Norway a flag of her own, carrying, as a symbol of the union, the blended colors of both countries in the upper corner ; and what was more, he practically abolished the viceroyalty, though per- manently it was not abolished until 1873. Peace and prosperity reigned in the land ; the population increased rapidly, and all industries were in a flour- ishing condition. It had, hitherto, been chiefly the official and the mercantile class which had partici- pated in the public life, but now the peasants, too, began to assert themselves and to send representa- tives from their own midst to the Storthing. The political awakening penetrated to all strata of society ; and many sturdy figures appeared in the halls of the legislative assembly, fresh from the plough and the harrow. Eminent among these were Ole Gabriel Ueland and Soren Jaabcek. A prudent moderation, coupled with a tough tenacity of purpose, is charac- teristic of these modern peasant chieftains. Good common-sense, incorruptibility, and a stern regard for the useful have enabled them to render valuable service to the nation. Eloquent they are not ; nor are they, in the conventional sense, cultivated. But they have usually, by experience, accumulated a con- siderable store of facts, which in its application to the legislative business is more valuable than loosely acquired book-learning. Their struggles with a rough climate and a poor soil have made them economical ; and they naturally apply their parsi- monious habits to the business of state. Being the principal tax-payers of the country they have the NORWAY RECOVERS HER INDEPENDENCE. 529 right to influence its fiscal policy ; and Norway has profited by their careful husbanding of her resources. They know, however, when to spend as well as when to save ; and the many costly railroads, highways, schools, and other improvements, which have come into existence since the peasant party commanded BRIDE AND GROOM. a majority in the Storthing, give evidence of a prudent liberality and a well-balanced regard for the public weal, which one might scarcely have expected in people, whose chief experience is derived from the tilling of the soil. The majority of them, however, bring with them some practice in public life from 530 THE STORY OF NORWAY. home, as since the estabhshment of parish and mu- nicipal councils [Formandskaber), (1837), the man- agement of local affairs is almost entirely in the hands of local tax-payers. The first Sleswick-Holstein war, between Germany and Denmark, occurred during King Oscar's reign (1848), and induced him to make a military demon- stration in Skaane ; and during the following year, when the war, after an armistice, broke out anew, to occupy North Sleswick with Swedish and Norwe- gian troops, pending the negotiations for peace. In the Crimean War, King Oscar sided with England and France, which, by a treaty of 1855, guaranteed their aid, in case of hostilities with Russia. King Oscar died at the age of sixty (1859), "^"^^ was succeeded by his oldest son, Charles XV. (1859- 1872). He was a chivalrous character, and endowed with literary and artistic talents. The same good- will toward Norway which animated his father had been inherited by him, and all efforts, on the part of the StortJiing^ to further the welfare of the land, were readily seconded. The Norwegian merchant marine, which is one of the largest in the world, carried the flag of Norway to the remotest ports ; the lumber trade increased, and the wealth obtainable in man- ufactures and commerce stimulated the energy of Norse merchants, and quickened everywhere the pulses of life. Religious liberty was Increased by the law concerning dissenters (1845), although there Is, In this respect, yet much to be accomplished. In 185 1, the paragraph of the constitution excluding Jews from the country was repealed, owing largely NOR WA V RECO VERS HER INDEPENDENCE. 5 3 1 to the agitation commenced, some years before, by the poet Wergeland. The telegraph was introduced, and soon extended from the North Cape to Lindes- ness. In 1869, a law was passed, making the Stor- things annual, instead of, as hitherto, triennial. Charles XV. died in the prime of life, and, having no sons, was succeeded (1872) by his brother, Oscar II., who is still reigning. The progress toward a more complete and consistent democracy, which had been going on, since the adoption of the constitution, has recently reached a crisis, which might have had disastrous consequences, if the king had not wisely made concessions to the parliamentary majority. There were really two points at issue, viz., the abso- lute veto in constitutional questions and the control of the government. As regards the former, the king held that the Norwegian constitution was a contract between him and the Norwegian people, prescribing the terms of the union. Accordingly, it could not be altered without the consent of both parties. He had, therefore, the right to insist upon the terms of the contract, and to forbid any alteration of it, that did not meet with his approval. There can be no doubt but that legally this point was well taken ; and the faculty of law in the University sustained the king's position. Another question is, whether such a contract, if eternally enforced, would not cripple the nation's progress, and in time become as great a curse, as once it had been a blessing. If the framers of the constitution, when they submitted it to Charles John, failed. to provide for its amendment, they com- mitted a serious error, which may, perhaps, be bind- 532 THE STORY OF NORWAY. ing upon their descendants, in point of law, but scarcely in point of equity. No constitution, how- ever excellent, is fitting for all times ; and the con- stitution of Eidsvold is no exception to the rule. This struggle over the absolute veto was occa- sioned by the king's refusal to sanction a lav/, passed by three successive Storthings^ admitting the cabinet ministers to participation in the debates of the house, so as to establish a closer rapport between the peo- ple and the government. This seemed especially desirable, as long as the king and a division of the cabinet were resident in Stockholm, and, accordingly, were in danger of losing sight of the needs of the people whom they were governing. The king de- clared himself ready to sign this law, if the ministers were given the right to vote, and the right was granted him to dissolve the Storthing at will. It seemed to him a disturbance of the balance of power to introduce one feature of English parliamentarism, giving an advantage to the legislature, without also granting the other, which enabled the executive to exert a restraining influence. The StortJiing was, however, unwilling to grant this right, being of opin- ion that there was no need of gov jrnmental restraint, where elections were annual. The ministry, Selmer, which maintained the attitude here ascribed to the king, was impeached by the StortJiing before the high court of the realm, for having refused to pro- mulgate the law concerning the participation of the ministers in the deliberations of the house, and for failing, in other points, to carry out the will of the Storthing. to^ OSCAR II. 5 34 THE ST OR y* OF NOR WA V. The other phase of the question was scarcely less important. A certain antagonism had early devel- oped itself between the ofificial class, which had been accustomed to take the lead in public affairs, and the peasantry, which became every year more conscious of its power. The king, who is naturally conserva- tive, chose his advisers from those, whose political views accorded with his own, irrespective of par- liamentary majorities. The constitution did not limit his liberty of choice, and the Storthing could scarcely do it, without passing an amendment, which he would be sure to veto. The conservative ministry, Stang, conducted the government for many years with a hostile majority in the Storthing, and the ministry, Selmer, which succeeded it (1880), had even less popular support. The result was a dead- lock ; legislative business threatened to come to a standstill. The impeachment and conviction of Mr. Selmer and his colleagues brought a fresh ministry of officials into power, which, after a few months, re- signed. The king then sent for Mr. Sverdrup, the leader of the " left," or liberal party, and effected a compromise, in accordance with which he agreed to sanction .the law in question, and to summon a min- istry, representing the party of the majority, without, however, surrendering, in principle, his right to an absolute veto in constitutional questions. Since then the executive and the legislative power have worked together in harmony, and the former good relation between the king and the people - has been in a measure re-established. It will be seen from the above, that Norway has, NORWAY RECOVERS HER INDEPENDENCE. 535 through the conflicts of seventy years, gradually at- tained to perfect independence and equality with the brother kingdom. All attempts to amalgamate the two nations have failed, and have, long since, been abandoned. Politically, the person of the king ex- presses the union. He is king of Norway and he is king of Sweden, but he governs each country in accordance with its own laws and through distinct and separate ministries. Each country has its own parliament; no Swede holds. office in Norway, and no Norseman in Sweden. The only offices which are open to citizens of both countries are those of the diplomatic and consular service. The general sentiment in Norway is opposed to a closer union. A stubborn insistence upon every feature of national distinctness has characterized the people, since the separation from Denmark. Thus an effort has been made to get rid of the '' union mark " in the Norwegian flag ; because it seemed vaguely to hint at a provincial relation. A separate literature has sprung up in the Norse dia- lects {Maalstrdz'), because the Danish, which is yet spoken, with some modifications, by the cultivated classes, is a reminder of the period of degradation, and is not the language of the people. Popular high schools, aiming to build the intellectual life of the people upon a strictly national basis, have been started by devoted and patriotic men, in nearly all the provincial parishes, and have produced excellent results. The national literature, under the lead of men like Bjornstjerne Bjornson, and Henrik Ibsen, is moving in the same direction, its language being $36 THE STORY OF NORWAY. continually enriched from the dialects, and its themes largely drawn from the ancient sagas and the life of the people. The aggressive and declamatory patriot- ism of Wergeland, and the aesthetic and more cosmo- politan patriotism of his opponent, Welhaven, seem equally alien to the Norsemen of to-day. The frank national self-assertion of the present poets is that of a people, proud of its past, and secure in its national existence. The Norseman, having obtained what is his due, has cause for jealousy neither of Sweden nor of Denmark. In an age when strength, bravery, and an adven- turous spirit made a nation eminent, Norway played a great role upon the arena of the world, founding and destroying kingdoms, mingling her vigorous blood with that of other nations, and infusing her love of liberty, restrained by law, into their souls. Since powder and modern strategy have subordi- nated heroism to discipline and numbers, Norway must resign herself to the fate which her numerical weakness imposes upon her. A people of scarcely two millions can cut no very great figure in the world, as it is now constituted. It must either rest upon its laurels or win new ones in other fields. As the militant organization of society, with its needless bloodshed and oppression, slowly yields to the indus- trial, history will find another gauge of merit than that of Krupp guns and heavy battalions. Then, perhaps, there will again be a chance for small nations to assert themselves. Norway has made a beginning in this direction by her contributions, during recent years, to science and bjOrnstjerne bj5rnson. 53S THE STORY OF NORWAY. literature. The astronomer Hansteen (d. 1873), the mathematicians Abel and Sophus Lie, the zoologist Sars, the historians Munch, Keyser, Sars, and Storm, and the philologist Ivar Aason, have gained recogni- tion, beyond the boundaries of their own country. The painters Tidemand (d. 1876) and Gude have interpreted in colors the poetry of Norse popular life and scenery. The musicians Ole Bull (d. 1880), Nordraak, and Grieg have made the melancholy strains of their native mountains resound through the concert-halls of Paris and London, and the poets Bjornson, Ibsen, Jonas Lie, and Alexander Kielland have made Norway known to the world and the world known to Norway. They have broken down the wall which so long hedged in their country, and excluded it from the intellectual life of Europe. INDEX. Aabo, 514 Aachen, 31, 32 Aake, the Yeoman, 58 Aal, Jacob, 518 Aale Hallvardsson, 373 Aaluf , 1 1 r Aamunde Gyrdsson, 312 Aaros, 237 Aasa, 32 Aasa, Haakon (jrjotgardsson's daughter, 60 Aasbjorn Sigurdsson, 211, 212 Aasbjorn of Medalhus, 92 Aasen, Ivar, 538 Aasgerd, wife of Egil Baldgrim's son, 78, 79 Aasta, mother of Olaf the Saint, J82, 186, 187, 188, 199, 200, 240 Aastrid, queen of Olaf the Saint, ]97 Aastrid, Olaf Tryggvesson's mother, 108, log, 134, 135 Aastrid, Olaf Tryggvesson's sis- ter, 148 Aastrid, daughter of Thirik, 153 Aastrid, wife of Earl Sigvalde, 163, 171 Aasulf of Austraat, 426 Abel, mathematician, 538 Absalon, Bishop, 330, 359, 379 Adalbert of Bremen, 272 Adeler, Kort, 500 Aeger, 23 Aelgifa, see Alfifa Aesir, 13, 14 Africa, 32, 298 Agdeness, 294, 300 Agder, 32, 47, 147, 173, 324 Agmund Skoftesson, 288 Agnes, Queen of Denmark, 456 Agnes, daughter of Haakon Longlegs, 478 Agvaldsness, 95, 211 Aker, 416, 492 Akershus, 459, 481, 486, 503 Akron, 293 Albrecht of Mecklenburg, 463, 464, 467, 468, 469 Alexander Newsky, 430 Alexander IV., Pope, 430 Alexander, I., Emperor of Rus- sia, 5TO, 514 Alexander III., King of Scot- land, 430, 442, 453 Alexius I., Comnenus, 293 Alexius HI., Angelus, 360 Alf Askman, 100 Alf Erlingsson, 453-456 Alf Guldbrandsson, 207 Alfheim, 21 Alfhild, mother of Magnus the Good, 230 Alfifa, 225-229 Alfonso the Wise, 430 Alfvine, J 37, 138 Allogia, see Olga Almannagjaa, 439 Alsted, 248 Althing, 159, 436 Amboise, 34 America, 31, 179 539 540 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Amsterdam, 474 Amund Sigurdsson Bolt, 473 Andres Skjaldarband, 399, 423 Andvake, 372 Anglesey, 288 Anglo-Saxon, 41, 138, 147 Anker, Peder, 518 Anna Kolbjornsdatter, 503 Ansgarius, St., 32 Anund, 145 Anund Jacob, King of Sweden, 198, 213, 214, 217, 218 Apostles, Church of the, 294 Arctic Circle, 494 Arinbjorn Thoresson, 78, 82, 85 Armfelt, General, 504, 512 Arnbjorn Jonsson, 413, 424 Arnmodlings, 255 Aryans, i, 2, 3, 5 Asaheim, 13 Asgard, 13, 18, 19, 20, 23 Asgeir, 36 Asia, I, 13, 240 Ask, 18 Askatin, 442 Aslak Erlingsson, 179 Aslak Rock-Skull, 124 Astrid, Sverre's first wife, 380 Audhumbla, 16 Audun Hugleiksson, 451, 457 Aun the Old, 45 Aura-Paul, 364 Austrian, 498 B Baard, steward of Erik Blood- Axe, 78, 79 Bagler, 360-401, 407, 413 Balder, 21, 22 Bald Grim, 57, 62, 63, 77, 78, 79 Baldwin, 293 Baltic, the, 94, 237, 277, 312, 463 Bank of Norway, 522 Beauvois, 36 Belts, the, 356 Bene Skindkniv, 401 Bengt Algotsson, 463 Beorthric, 41 Berg-Anund, 79, 80 Bergen, 280, 294, 307, 309, 316, 323, 324. 327, 328, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 354, 356, 359, 362, 365, 366. 375, 376, 388, 390, 392, 398, 410, 413, 417, 420, 422, 424, 428, 429, 457, 462, 465, 473, 478, 480, 488, 492, 494, 506 Bergljot, 119, 178, 261, 264 Bergthor's Knoll, 158 Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste, 513, 515, 519-528, 531 Bernsdorff, Andreas, 509 Bertrand of Tripolis, 293 Bevje-Aa, 320 Biadmuin, 289 Bifrost, 17 Birchlegs, 333-407, 4i4. 425, 426, 427 Birger, Earl of Gotland, 333, .336. 337 Birger Magnusson, King of Swe- den, 456, 458, 459, 461 Bjarkemaal, 221 Bjarko, 211, 212, 451, 462 Bjarne Erlingsson, 451, 452 Bjarne Herjulfsson, 179 Bjelke, General, 498 Bjorgvin. see Bergen Bjorn, King of Sweden, 196 Bjorn Egilsson, 311 Bjorn Ironside, 34 Bjorn, a peasant, 109 Bjorn the Merchant, 71, 182 Bjorn Stallare, 194, 195, 197, 218 Bjornson, Bjornstjerne, 535, 537, .538 Bjorn, the yeoman, 77, 78, 79 Black Death, the, 465, 466 Blanca of Namur, 462, 463 Blekinge, 463, 498 Bor, 16 Bogesund, 483 Bohemia, i Borg, see Sarpsborg ^oxgox-thing, 253, 361, 445 Borghild, daughter of Olaf of Dal, 297 Bornhoved, 417 INDEX, 541 Bornholm, 498 Brage, 22, 45, 120 Bratsberg, 155, 317 Breidablik, 21 Bremangerland, 339 Bremen, 147, 272 Brenn Islands, 231 Brigida, Harold Gille's daughter, 333 Brising, 23 Bristein, 354 Bromsebro, 496 Brunkeberg, 480 Brynjulf, 129 Bue the Big, 122-126 Bugge, Prof. Sophus, 153 Bull, Ole, 538 Bure, 16 Buris Henriksson, 330 Burislav, 136, 142, 154, 162 Buste, 110 Bute, 431 Byzantine, 360 Candor, Lay of, 234 Canterbury, 147 Cantire, 431 Cape Cod, 180, 181 Capercailzie, the, 505 Carolingians, 36 Carrara, 34 Catholic, 487, 489 Cecilia, second queen of Sigurd the Crusader, 304 Cecilia, daughter of Sigurd Mouth, 332, 336, 382 Celestin IV., Pope, 427 Charlemagne, 31, 32, 33, 230 Charles the Bald, 36 Charles the Simple, 64, 65 Charles Knutsson Peasant, 473, 478, 479. 480 Charles Sunesson, 312 Charles V., Emperor of Ger- many, 483 Charles IX., King of Sweden, 495 Charles X. Gustavus, 498 Charles XII., King of Sweden, 501. 502, 503 Charles XIII., 513, 520, 522 Charles XIV. John, see Berna- dotte Charles XV., King of Norway and Sweden, 530, 531 Christ-Church, 284, 428 Christian I., 478-481 Christian II., 481-487 Christian III., 487-492 Christian IV., 494-496 Christian V., 500, 501 Christian VI., 506 Christian VII., 508 Christian VIII., see Christian P>ederick Christian August, of Augusten- borg, 512, 5I3_ Christian PVederick, 515-522 Christiania, 256, 494, 503, 508, 522 Christiania Fjord, 46 Christiansand, 494 Christina, Avife of Erling Skakke, 318, 322, 332 Christina, Sverre's daughter, 380, 381, 383, 384, 393 Christina, wife of Haakon Galen, 382, 384, 387, 395, 398, 410, 412 Christina, daughter of Haakon the Old, 430 Christopher I., King of Den- mark, 430, 453 Christopher of Bavaria, 473, 474, 478 Christopher, Count of Olden- borg, 4S7 Churl's Head, the, 190, 191 Clement, St., 193, 227 Clyde, Firth of, 431 Constantinople, 240, 264, 293, 302, 376 Conqueror, see William the Copenhagen, 219, 455, 459, 462, 477,^ 498, 499, 5c6, 509, 510 Count's Feud, the, 487, 490 Cowlmen, see Kuvlungs Crane, the, 157, 164, 165 542 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Crimean War, the, 530 Crookmen, see Baglers Curia, the Roman, 422, 452 Cuthbert, St., 42 D Dagfinn Peasant, 375, 404, 405 Dalarne, 472 Dale-Guldbrand, 207, 208, 210 Dalsland, 288 Dannebrog, the, 502 Dannevirke, 116 Dav, 332 Delling, 17 Dingeness, 113 Ditmarsken, 481 Djursaa, 258, 330 Domesday Book, 63 Donald Bane, 285 Donmouth, 42 Dorchester, 41 Dorestad, 36 Dovre Mountain, 286, 294, 300, 517 Drontheim, 54, 91, 92, 118, 121, 140, 148, 189, 219, 220, 403, 465, 478, 479, 492, 498, 504, 508, 517, 522 Drontheim Fjord, 54, 71, 107, 140, 362 Dublin, 38, 40, 139, 238 Dumbarton, 40 Durham, see Simeon of Dutch,_474, 485, 495, 498, 500 Dynekilen, 503, 504 Eadburg, 41 Eadgar the Etheling, 285 Eadwine, Earl, 268 Ecgfridh, 42 Edda, the Younger, 434 Edward the Confessor, 236 Edward I., 453 Egil Aaslaksson, 287 Egil, Bald Grim's son, 62, 77-84 Egil Woolsark, 96, 97 Eidsivia Law, the, 47, 210, 445 Eidskog, 337 Eidsvold, 70, 210, 414, 516, 518, 519, 520, 522, 532 Einar Thambarskelver, 162, 169, 170, 178, 179, 189, 190, 191, 192, 217, 227, 228, 229, 231, 232, 233, 236, 237, 238, 239, 243, 244, 246, 247, 249, 252, 254, 260, 261-265 Einar the Priest, 375 Eindride Einarsson, 238, 239, 264 Eindride the Young, 327, 328 Elgeseter, 426 Elivagar, 16 Ellisif, queen of Harold Hard- Ruler, 242, 235, 260, 272, 274 Elsinore, 455 Embla, 18 Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson, 472, 473 England, i, 12, 28, 31, 40, 41 42, 43, 72, 79, 80, 81, 84, 88 90, 91, 128, 137, 138, 139 142, 147, 177, 179, 183, 184 185, 207, 212, 213, 217, 228 236, 268, 273, 276, 277, 278 283, 287, 292, 347, 375, 443 446, 447, 453, 454, 465, 509 510, 512, 513, 514, 530 Enkoping, 464 Erik, Archbishop, 358, 379, 387 Erik Blood-Axe, 68, 70-86, 88, 94, 95, 99, 102, 160, 182 Erik Eiegod, 288 Erik Eimundsson, 57, 58, 196 Erik Emune, 312 Erik Eriksson Lisp, King of Sweden, 412 Erik Clipping, 453, 454 Erik Gudrodsson, 32 Erik Haakonsson, Earl, 119, I2i— 127, 163-181, 184, 215, 254 Erik, King of H[6rdeland, 52 Erik Kingsson, Earl, 351 Erik Magnusson, Duke, 458, 459. 461 Erik Magnusson, son of Magnus Smek, 462, 463 Erik Menved, 455 Erik of Ofrestad, 108 Erik Plowpenny, 453 INDEX. 543 Erik of Pomerania, 467-474 Erik Priest-Hater, 451-456, 459 Erik the Red, Archbishop, 179, 181 Erik the Saint, 380 Erik the Victorious, King of Sweden, 152, 196 Erik the Younger, King of South Jutland, 68 Erlend of Husaby, 391 Erlend Plaakonsson, 129, 130 Erling Eriksson, 106 Erling Haakonsson, 121, 123, 128 Erling Skakke, Earl, 318, 319, 322-343, 350, 355, 357, 360 Erling Skjalgsson of Sole, 148, 162, 164, 174, 176, 17'8, 179, 190, 192, 210, 211, 212, 216, 217, 318 Erling Stonewall, 385, 386, 387, 390 Erling Vidkunsson, 462 Erne, Loch, 38 Ernst, Herzog, 242 Eskil Lawman, 412 Essex, 138 Esthonia, 135, 196 Estrid, daughter of Sweyn Fork- beard, 236 EthelredIL, 138, 139, 183 Ethelstan, 72, 73, 79, 80, 85, 150 Eugene III., Pope, 320 Euphemia of Arnsteini 457, 459 Europe, 465, 483, 523, 526, 527, 538. Eystein, Earl of Hedemark and Vestfold, 76 Eystein Erlendsson, 327, 347, 354. 357. 358 Eystein Haroldsson, 314-317 Eystein Magnusson, 291-301, 317, 329 Eystein Meyla, 333, 334, 336 Eystein Orre, 255, 270 Eyvind Kinriva, 154, 156, 157 Eyvind Lambe, 57, 59 Eyvind Scald-Spoiler, 98, 99, 100, 105, 154 Eyvind Skreyja, 79, 100 Faeroe Isles, 40, 43, 158, 159, 320, 333, 334, 336, 380 Falkoping, 468 Fall River, 180 Falsen, Judge, 518 Falsterbro, 466 Fenris-Wolf, 21, 23 Fensal, 22 Finland, 196, 512, 513 Finmark, 74, 173, 495, 506 Finn Arnesson, 255, 265, 266, 267 Finn Eyvindsson, 170 Finns, 3, 50, 61, 67, 74, 278, 295 Fitje, 98 Fjolne, 45 Flanders, 28 Flensborg, 472 Florsvaag, 356 Folden, 46, 190, 256, 320, 425 Folkvang, 23 Folkvid the Lawman, 332, 336, 382 Fontenelle, 36 Formentera, 292 Fors, 317 Forsete, 22 Fraedoe, 96 France, i, 36, 43, 64, 137, 277, 430, 509, 527, 530 Fredensborg, 504 Frederick, Count Palatine, 487, 488 Frederick I., 485, 486 Frederick II., Emperor of Ger- many, 418, 430 Frederick II., King of Den- mark and Norway, 492 Frederick III., 4()6-500 Frederick IV., 501, 502, 506 Frederick V., 508 Frederick VI., 509-516 Frederickshald, 500, 503 Frederickshamn, 513 Frederickstad, 492 Fredericksteen, 503, 504, 520 Freke, 20 Frey, 21, 45, 144, 150, 207 544 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Freya, 22, 23 Freydis, 181 Fridkulla, 288 Frigg, 22 Frisian, 205 Yxo%\.2,-thing, 88, 91, 92, 149, 359. 445 Frosten, 150, 189 Fulford, 268 Funen, 245, 455, 498 Fuxerne, 288 Fyrileiv, 307 G Gahn, Colonel, 520 Gall, St., 32 Gallia Narbonensis, 32 Gamle Eriksson, 94, 97 Gardarike, see Russia Gauldale, 129, 341 Gaule, 79 Gaul River, see Gula Elv Gatiier, see Goths Gautland, 118, 152 Geira, 136, 162 Georgios Maniakes, 240, 242 Gerd, 21 Gere, 20 German, 3, 25, 31, 44, 430, 464, 468, 471, 480, 483, 488, 492, 494, 495, 496, 501, 506, 508, 521 Germany, 115, 277, 430, 457, 465, 496, 530 Ginnungagap, 16 Giske, 451, 462, 481 Gisla, wife of Duke Rollo, 65 Gissur the White, 127 Gissur the White, 158 Gissur Thorvaldsson, Earl, 440, .444 Gjallar Bridge, 21 Gjallar Horn, 21, 22 Gjeble Pedersson, Bishop, 490 Glommen, 194 Godfrey the Hunter, see Gudrod Gold-FIarold, 112, 113 Goldlegs, 356 Gorm the Old, 53, 86, 214 Gotha Elv,, 231, 257, 259, 260 Gotland, 333 Gottland, 463, 473, 496 Goths, 3 Gran, 153 Great Northern War, the, 502 Greece, 137, 138 Greeks, 3, 44, 240, 293 Greenland, 158, 179, 180, 181, 320, 430 Gregorius Dagsson, 316, 317—320 Gregory IX., Pope, 421, 427 Gfib, Peter, 504 Grieg, J., 538 Griffenfeld, 501 Grim, see Bald Grim Grim Keikan, 423 Grimkel, Bishop, 207, 227 Grjotgard Haakonsson, 106 Gude, J., 538 Gudleik Gerdske, 278 Gudny Bodvar's daughter, 434 Gudolf of Blakkestad, 407 Gudrid, wife of Thorfinn Karls- evne, 181 Gudrod Bjornsson, 88, 102, 105, 107 Gudrod Eriksson, 104, 107, 113, 160 Gudrod Haroldsson, 60 Gudrod the Hunter, 31, 32, 46 Gudrod, King of Hadeland, 199 Gudrod, King of the Hebrides, 320 Gudrod Ljome, 68, 69 Gudrod Meranagh, 286 Gudrun, daughter of Ironbeard, 152 Gudrun Lundarsol, 129 Gula Elv, 120, 465 Gula-///m^, 79, 89, 210, 445 Guldberg, Ove, 508 Guldbrandsdale, 207, 208, 210, 245, 495, 517 Gungner, 20 Gunhild, Queen of Erik Blood- Axe, 74-86, 94, 95, 99, 100, lOi, 102, 104-114, 130, 134 Gunhild, mother of Sverre, 334 Gunnar of Gimse, 311 INDEX. 545 Gunnar Grjonbak, 352 Gunvor, 153 Gustavus Adolphus, 495, 496 Gustavus IV., 512 Gustavus Trolle, 483 Gustavus Wasa, 484, 487 Guttorm, Archbishop, 400, 410, 411 Guttorm Eriksson, 94, 95 Guttorm Haroldsson, 60 Guttorm Ingesson, 395 Guttorm, son of Sigurd Hjort, 47, 48, 52, 53, 62 Guttorm Sigurdsson, 385, 387 Guttorm Sigurdsson, 199, 200 Guttorm Sindre, 71 Gyda, wife of Harold the Fair- haired, 52, 53, 59, 60 Gyda, wife of Olaf Tryggvesson, 137, 142, 228 Gyldenstjerne, Knut, 486 H Haakonarnmal, loi Haakon Eriksson, Earl, 178, 179, 184-186, 215-218 Haakon Galen, 377, 382-398, 402, 410, 412, 414 Haakon Grjotgardsson, 56, 60 Haakon, Gunhild's emissary, 109 Haakon Haakonsson the Old, 391-433, 437-444 Haakon Ivarsson, 259, 264-268 Haakon Jonsson, Lord High Steward, 467 Haakon Longlegs, 451, 456, 457- 461 Haakon Magnusson, son of King Magnus Haroldsson, 274, 285, 286 Haakon Magnusson, son of King Magnus Smek, 461-466 Haakon Paulsson, 287 Haakon Sigurdsson, Earl, 106, 107, 110-134, 139, 163, 166, 173, 254, 261 Haakon Sverresson, King of Nor- way, 370, 377, 379-385, 391, 404 Haakon the Broad-Shouldered, 316, 319, 320, 322-326 Haakon the Good, 72, 73, 80, 87-101, 105, 106, 150, 160, 294, 446 Haakon the Old, a Swedish Peas- ant, no, 134 Haalogaland, 56, 60, 148, 154, 155, 158, 211, 366 Haarek Gand, 48 Haarek Haroldsson, 60 Haarek of Thjotta, 148, 154-156, 158, 233 Haavard the Hewer, 124, 127 Hadeland, 50, 51, 153, 199, 203 Hadrian IV., Pope, see Nicholas Breakspeare Hadulaik, 121 Hafrs-Fjord, 59, 60, 63 Hagustald, 121 Hake, a Berserk, 47, 48 Haldor Brynjulfsson, 320 Half dan Haalegg (Longlegs) 68, 69 Halfdan Sigurdsson, 199, 200 Halfdan the Swarthy, Gudrods- son, 32, 46-52, 318, 432 Halfdan the Swarthy, liarolds- son, 60, 71, 72, 76 Halfdan the White, 60 Halfdan Whiteleg, 46 Halland, 214, 266, 267, 273, 307, 418, 453, 454, 460, 462, 463, 498 Hallkel Agmundsson, 451, 452, 456 Plallkel Jonsson, 355, 356 Hall of the Side, 158 Hallvard Vebjornsson, St., 256, 322 Hals, 258 Hamar, 321, 420, 421, 492 Hamburg, 32 Hampshire, 138 Hannibal's Feud, 496 Hans, King of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, 481, 482 Hans, son of Frederick I., 487 Hans Kolbjornsson, 503 Hansa, see Hanseatic League 546 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Hanseatic League, 453, 454, 455, 460, 464, 474, 480, 485, 490, 509 Hansteen, astronomer, 538 Hardeland, 41 Harold, Earl of the Orkneys, 355 Harold, grandson of Sigurd the Crusader, 332 Harold Bluetooth, 86, 94, 95, 110-120, 138, 161, 410 Harold Gille, 303-311, 313, 314, 320,322, 333, 337, 346, 382, 386 Harold Godwineson, 268, 269, 272 Harold Greyfell, 94, 100, 102- 114 Harold Gronske, 152, 182 Harold Hard-Ruler, 199, 200, 201, 221, 240-274, 278, 283, 286, 308 Harold Ingesson, 349 Harold the Fairhaired, 31, 49, 50-74, 87, 88, 99, 105, 130, 134, 139, 140, 152, 155, 174, 176, 177, 182, 183, 187,. 188 198, 201, 226, 231, 245, 251, 252, 256, 275, 276, 318, 350, 378, 433, 460 Harthaknut, 229, 231, 234, 236 Hasting, 34, 35, 36 Hastings, 272 Haug, 232 Hauk, 155 Haukby, 284 Hebrides, 40, 43, 63, 288, 311, 312, 394, 480 Hedemark, 48, 51, 76, 203, 210 Heidaby, 257 Heimdal, 22 Heimskringla, 13, 45, 433, 440 Hekla, 465 Heklungs, 345-348 Hel, 23, 24 Helge Hvasse, 396, 397 Helge-aa, 215 Helgeness, 237 Helgeo, 413, 421 Helheim, 24 Hellenes, i Helluland, 180 Heming Haakonsson, 119 Henrik of Schwerin, 410 Henry I,, King of England, 292 Hercules, Pillars of, 34 Heredhaland, 41 Herjedale, 496 Herlaug, King in Naumdale, 54 Herluf Hyttefad, 482 Hettesveiner, see Hood-Swains Himinbjarg, 22 Hindoos, 2, 3 Hinsgavl, 455 Hirdskraa, 445 Hitterdale Church, 299 Hjalte Skeggesson, 194 Hjorungavaag, 121, 122 Hlade, 127, 132,148, 149, 152,189 Hnos, 23 Hoder, 22 Hofudlausn, 85 Hogne Langbjornsson, 262, 263 Holand, 502 Honefoss, 371 Honer, 18 Horda-Kaare, 318 Hordeland, 52, 98, 140, 147, 324 Horgadal, 435 Holberg, Ludvig, 506 Holland, 485, 488 Holmengraa, 313 Holstein, 485, 496, 501, 515, 530 Holy Land, 171, 218, 292, 298, 308, 376 Hood-Swains, 329 Hornboresund, 312 Hornelen, 339 Hrimfaxe, 17 Hugditrich, 242 Hugin, 20 Humber, 81 Hvergelmer, 16 Hvitingsoe, 393, 400 Hyrning, 161, 162 Ibsen, Henrik, 535, 538 Iceland, 40, 44, 62, 63, 77, 79, 80, 85, 146, 158, 159, 202, 320, 430, 433-441, 443, 444, 465 INDEX. 547 Icolmkill, 38 Ida, plain of, 20 Idun, 22 Ilevolds, 296, 345 India, 2 Inga of Varteig, 391, 404, 405 Inge Baardsson, 284, 385-400, 402 Inge Crookback, 311-321, 323, 349. 353. 358 Inge, chief of the Baglers, 360, 361, 380, 421 Inge, King of Sweden, 288 Ingeborg, queen of Magnus Law-Mender, 451, 452, 453, 454 Ingeborg, daughter of Erik Priest-Hater, 456, 459 Ingeborg, daughter of Haakon Longlegs, 458, 459, 461 Ingegerd, daughter of Harold Hard-Ruler, 268, 272 Ingegerd, daughter of Olaf the Swede, 195, 197, 217, 218 Inger of OeStraat, 485 Ingerid, Queen of Harold Gille, 311, 314, 386 Ingjald Ill-Ruler, 45 Ingrid, queen of Olaf the Quiet, 274 Innocent III., Pope, 366, 379 Innocent IV., Pope, 429 lona, 38 Iranians, 2 Ireland, I, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 138, 228, 277, 287, 289, 295, 303, 309 Irishman, 303, 304, 313 Iron Ram, 169 Ironbeard, 149, 151, 152 Irp, Valkyria, 123 Isabella Bruce, queen of Erik Priest-Hater, 456 Isabella, queen of Christian II., 483 Italic tribes, i, 3 Italy, 292 Ivar, King in Limerick, 40 Ivar Assersson, 307, 308 Ivar Darre, 348 Ivar of Fljod, 295 Ivar Steig, 349 J Jaaboek, vSoren, 528 Jacob, Count of Halland, 454 Jaederen, 59 James III., King of Scotland, 480 Jaroslav, 217, 218, 240, 242 Jaxartes, i Jemteland, 194, 198, 294, 300, 459, 496. 498 Jerusalem, 233, 291, 293 Jews, 32, 44, 530 Josse Eriksson, 472 Johannes, see Hans Jomsborg, 120, 237 Jomsvikings, 120-128, 163 Jon Birgersson, Archbishop, 321 Jon, chief of the Kuvlungs, 353 Jon Kutiza, 345 Jon Loftsson, 434 Jon the Red, Archbishop, 448, 452 Jonvolds, 365 Juliana Maria, queen of Fred- erick V. , 508 Jumieges, 36 Jutland, 41, 68, 95, 116, 236, 237, 257. 324, 330, 453, 485, 495, 496, 498 K Kalf Arnesson, 217, 222, 228, 229, 231, 232, 233, 235, 255, 265, 266 Kalfsund, 459 Kalmar, 301, 455, 467, 4C9, 470, 479, 495 Kalvskindet, 343, 344, 345 Karelen, 196 Kark, 130,. 131, 132 Karlsevne, 181 Karlshoved, 190 Kelts, I Kent, 138 Ketil Calf, 190, 199 548 THE STORY OF NORWAY, Keyser, Rudolf, 538 Kiel, 515, 516, 520, 523 Kielland, Alexander, 538 King's Mirror, 441 Kirkevaag, 432 Kjogebugt, 502 Kjolen, 4 Klerkon, 135, 136 Klypp Thorsson, in Knaerod, 495 Knut Alfsson, 481 Knut Eriksson, King of Sweden, 358, 385 Knut Haakonsson (Squire K.), 396, 410, 416, 424, 425 Knut the Mighty, 179, 185, 212- 218, 225, 226, 229, 231, 232, 236, 243, 261, 268 Knut Porse, 461 Knut VI., King of Denmark, 368 Kolbjorn Stallare, 171 Kolbjorn the Strong, 209 Konghelle, 152, 198, 274, 288, 310, 319 Kongsberg, 494, 503 Krebs, Colonel, 502 Kringen, 495 Krogh, Christian, 526 Krokaskogen, 313 Krummedike, Hartvig, 477 Krummedike, Henrik, 481, 482 Krupp, 536 Kruse, Colonel, 502 Kurland, 196 Kuvlungs, 353, 354 Kveld-Ulf, 56-63, 77 Laaka, 424, 425 Labrador, 180 Laerdal, 119 Landnama Book, 63 Laps 3, 495 Largs, 431 " Lars," 491 Latin, 378 Leif Eriksson, 179, 180, 181 Leipsic, 515 Leso, 257 Lie, Jonas, 538 Lie, Sophus, 538 Lier, 520 Limerick, 40 Lim Fjord, 258 Lindesness, 173, 179, 210, 531 Lindholm, 468 Lindisfarena, 42 Lodin, 135, 143 Lodur, 18 Lowen, Colonel, 563 Lowenskjold, 527 Lofoten, 315, 331 Loire, 34 Loke, 23 London, 73, 538 Long-Serpent, The, 162, 164- 169 Lothair, 37 Louis the German, 32, 37 Louis the Pious, 32 Louis IX., 430 Louis XIV., 500 Lubeck, 457, 486, 487, 490, 495 Luna, 34 Lunge, Vincentz, 477, 485, 487, 488 Luther, 485, 486 Lutheran, 489, 490, 506, 519 Lutter and Barenberge, 495 Lutzow, General, 503 Lykke, Nils, 485 Lyrskogs Heath, 237 M Maelsechnail, King of Meath, 38, 39 Magne, Bishop, 304, 305 Magnus Barefoot, 285-290, 295, 303, 308 Magnus Birgerson Barnlock, King of Sweden, 449, 455, 456, 458 Magnus Birgerson, the Younger, 459. 461 Magnus Eriksson Smek, King of Norway and Sweden, 461— 465 INDEX. 549 Magnus Erlingsson, King of Nor- way, 323-349. 35 f, 355, 356, 385, 388, 401, 427, 428 Magnus Haroidsson, 273, 274 Magnus Law-Mender, 442-451, 453, 457, 494 Magnus the Blind, 297, 305-313 Magnus the Good, 218, 229-250, 251, 254, 255, 265 Maid of Norway, The, 453, 457 Malcolm, 285 Malmfrid, 302, 304 Man, island of, 288, 289, 320, 394, 442 Maniakes, see Georgios Marcus of Skog, 326, 327 Margaret, see Maid of Norway Margaret, queen of Magnus Barefoot, 288 Margaret, queen of Sverre, 358, 362, 381, 382, 383 Margaret, queen of Haakon the Old, 407, 413 Margaret, queen of Erik Priest- Hater, 452 Margaret, Reigning Queen of Norway, Sweden, and Den- mark, 462, 463, 466, 467-472 Margaret, daughter of Christian I., 480 Maria, relative of the Empress Zoe, 242 Maria, daughter of Harold Hard- Ruler, 268, 272 Maria, daughter of Harold Gille, 322 Markere, Earl, 268 Markland, 180 Massachusetts, 180, 181 Mathias, Bishop, 334, 335 Matrand, 521 Mecklenburg, 410, 463, 467, 469 Medalhvis, 130 Mediterranean, 318 Michael, Church of St., 294 Military Academy, 508 Mimer, 18 Minne, 311 Mjolner, 20 Mjosen, 199, 321, 380, 408, 413, 421 Moliere, 506 Monnikhofen, Colonel, 495 More, 56, 59, 64, 69, 130, 150 Moors, 292, 300 Mora, 197 Moss, 521 Moster, 72, 140, 158, 167 Mostero, 167 Motzfeldt, Captain, 518 Muirkertach, 286, 289 Munch, P. A., Prof., 378, 538 Munin, 20 Munk, Erik, 492 Munk, Ludvig, 492 Munkeliv, 294, 480 Muspelheim, 16, 17 N Nanna, Balder's wife, 21 Napoleon I., 510, 513, 515, 519, 520, 526 Naumdale, 54 Nessje, 190 New England, 18 r Nicholas Arnesson, Bishop, 358- 362, 365, 366, 374, 3S0, 386, 388, 390, 393, 407, 411, 413, 414 Nicholas Breakspeare, Cardinal, 320, 321 Nicholas, Church of St., 294 Nicholas Simonsson, 322, 324 Nid River, 140 Nidarholm, 308 Nidaros, 148, 156, 189, 192,207, 213, 215, 227, 232, 253, 260, 262, 274, 284, 286, 294, 311, 320, 324, 334, 338, 341, 345, 347, 354, 361, 362, 366, 368, 369, 381, 384, 387, 3S9, 390, 392, 400, 404, 413, 416, 422, 424, 426 Nidhogger, 16, 18 Niflheim, 16, 18 Nils Henriksson, 485 Nimwegen, 36 Nis-aa, 259-266 550 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Njaal, 158 Njord, 21, 22, 23 Noatun, 21 Nordfjord, 339 Nordhordland, 309 Nordland, 363 Nordmore, 96, 193, 287, 366 Nordness, 346 Nordraak, Richard, 538 Norefjord, 348, 349 Normandy, 64 Normans, 12 Norns, 18 Northampton, 225 North Cape, 411, 493, 531 North Sea, 184, 258, 336 Northumberland, 41, 80, 81, 137, 268, 269 Nortmannia, 31 Norway's Libn, 527 Norway's Welfare, Society for, 514 Nyborg, 498 Nykoping, 459 Odd, 22 Oder, 120 Odin, 13, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 45, 46, 84, 118, 123, 128, 144, 150, 205, 207 Oelve Nuva, 57, 59 Oelve of Egge, 207 Oerebro, 513 O&YQ-thing, 140, 229, 230, 246, 253, 322, 323, 334, 346, 380, 388, 395, 396, 400, 423 Offa, 41 Ofrestad, 108, 109 Oieren, Lake, 329 Olaf, son of Harold the Fair- haired, 76 Olaf, Chief of the Oyeskeggs, 355 Olaf of Dal, 297 Olaf Engelbrektsson, Archbish- op, 488 Olaf K varan, 137 Olaf Magnusson, 291, 296, 301 Olaf Nilsson, Sir, 479, 480 Olaf the Quiet, 268, 272-285, 293, 294 Olaf the Saint, 49, 179, 182-224, 227-232, 248, 252, 255, 261, 267, 275, 278, 282, 293, 294, 318, 327, 357, 396, 400, 423, 428 Olaf the Swede, 152, 163, 166, 173, 192, 193, 194, 195, 197 Olaf Tryggvesson, 108, 130-174, 177, 178, 179, 182, 183, 184, 187, 188, 189, 195, 198, 205, 206, 218, 228, 318, 446 Olaf the Unlucky, 329,332 Olaf the White, 40 Olaf the Woodcutter, 46, 57 Olaf the Young, 461, 466 Oldenborg, 475, 476, 478, 487, 494 Ole the Russian, 136 Olga, 136, 137, 142 Oplands, 88, 174, 188, 190, 199, 210, 267, 268, 285, 287, 329, 370, 393, 400, 413, 416, 422, 424, 445 Ordinance, the, 489, 494 Orient, the, 242 Orkdale, 54, 189 Orkhaugen, 279 Orkneys, 40, 43, 63, 69, 88, 113, 114, 127, 176, 233, 268, 272, 279, 288, 289, 308, 355, 394, 430, 432, 457, 481 Orm Jonsson, 437 Orm King's-Brother, 346, 349 Orm Lyrgja, 129 Oscar I., 528-530 Oscar II,, 531-538 Oslo, 256, 306, 312, 320, 322, 323, 359, 361, 369, 370, 381, 383, 390, 411, 413, 414, 425, 426, 456, 459, 492 Ottar Birting, 302, 303, 314, 316 Otto I., Emperor of Germany, 115 Otto II., Emperor of Germany, > 115 Oxus, the, I Oyeskeggs, 355, 356, 357, 360 INDEX. 551 Paderborn, 31 Paris, 36, 513, 520, 538 Paul, Bishop of Hamar, 420, 421 Paul, Earl of the Orkneys, 288 Persia, 2 Peter III., Emperor of Russia, 508 Peter Kolbjornsson, 503 Peter of Husastad, 411 Peter Skulesson, 423 Peter, St., 427 Peter Steyper, 377, 381, 382, 388 Philip, Don, 430 Philip Simonsson, 386, 390, 393, 400, 401 Piraeus, 241 Poland, 498, 502 Pomerania, 163, 473, 513 Pontecorvo, 513 Prestebakke, 512 Protestantism, 487, 495 Prussia, 136, 163 Pultawa, 501 R Rafnista race, 56 Raft Sund, 331 Ragnar, a viking, 36 Ragnar Lodbrok, 34, 198, 214, 231, 236 Ragnfred Eriksson, 113 Ragnhild, queen of Harold the Fairhaired, 68 Ragnhild, queen of Half dan the Swarthy, 47, 48 Ragnhild, daughter of Magnus the Good, 265, 266, 267 Ragnvald, Earl of More, 56, 59, 64, 69 Ragnvald, son of Erik Blood- Axe, 80 Ragnvald Rettilbeine, 68, 71 Ragnvald, Earl of Vestergotland, 195 Ran, 23 Ranafylke, 317 Randsfjord, 51, 108 Ranrike, 57, 173, 284 Ratibor, 310 Raud the Strong, 156, 157, 162 Raumarike, 46, 51, 173, 199, 210 Raumsdale, 193 Reas, 135 Ree, 327,, 334, 338, 433 Reformation, the, 486 Reidar Grjotgardsson, 313 Reidar Messenger, 360, 361, 375, 376, 380 Reidulf, a Birchleg, 389 Rein, 416 Reinald, Bishop, 308 Revolution, the French, 509, 524 Revolution, the July, 527 Reykjaholt, 436, 440 Rhine, The, 37 Ribbungs, 407, 408, 412-416 Richard the Fearless, Duke of Normandy, 65 Richard the Good, Duke of Nor- mandy, 65 Rimul, 131, 140 Ring, King, 188 Ringeness, 190, 199 Ringerike, 47, 51, 183, 186, 199, 244, 503 Robert Bruce, 456 Robert Guiscard, 292 Robert the Magnificent, Duke of Normandy, 65 Robin Hood, 341 Roe, Bishop, 335, 380 Rorek, King, 188, 199, 201, 202, 206 Rorek, Viking, 36 Rogaland, 174, 324 Roger, Duke, 292 Rolf the Walker, see Rollo Rollaug, King in Naumdale, 54 Rollo, Duke of Normandy, 56, 64, 65 Rome, I, 31, 34, 36, 171, 214, 308, 359, 421, 422, 438 Roskilde, 498 Rostock, 469 Rother, King, 242 Rouen, 36 Rousseau, 508 552 THE STORY OF NORWA V. Riigen, 163 Russia, I, 134-137, 142, 192, 217, 218, 229, 232, 239, 240, 277, 501, 502, 508, 509, 510, 512, 513, 514, 515, 530 Rydjokel, 329 Ryfylke, 121 S vSaemund Jonsson, 436, 440 Saemund the Learned, 434 Salto Sound, 346^, 361 Sandness, 61 Saracens, 240, 318 Sarpen, 194, Sarpsborg, 194, 197, 213, 391, 492 Sars, Prof., 538 Sars, J. E. Prof., 538 Saudung Sound, 185 Saurbygd, 337 Saxons, 31, 42, 146, 236 Scandinavia, 470 Schiller, Friedrich, 418 Sciences, Academy of, 508 Scotland, 40, 43, 80, 113, 114, 137, 268, 285, 287, 314, 431, 442, 443, 452, 456, 480 Seeland, 244, 248, 510 Sehested, Hannibal, 477, 496 Seine, The, 36 Sekken, 324 Selmer, Clir. August, Prime Min- ister, 532, 534 Selven, 71 Serpent, The, 157 Shetland Islands, 43, 176, 355, 430, 442, 481 Short-Serpent, The, 162, 165 Sicily, 240, 241 Side-Hall, 238 Sidon, 293, 299 Sif, 21 Sigar of Brabant, 405 Sigfrid, King of Nortmannia, 31 Sigfrid Haroldsson, 60, 76 Sighvat Scald 230, 234, 260, 261, 262 Sighvat Sturlasson, 436, 440 Sigmund Brestesson, 158 Sigrid the Haughty, 152, 154, 161 163, 169, 182 Sigrid, daughter of Earl Sweyn, 179 Sigrid, sister of Thore Hund, 212 Sigrid, wife of Ivar of Fljod, 295 Sigrid, wife of Haldor Brynjulfs- son, 320 Sigtrygg, King in Waterford, 40 Sigurd, Bishop, 147, 157, 208, 211, 220 Sigurd of Haalogaland, 155 Sigurd Borgarklett, 362, 364 Sigurd the Crusader, 289, 29 1~ 305, 309, 310, 313, 318, 323, 329, 332, 427 Sigurd, Earl of Hlade, 87, 90, 93, 95, 98, 102, 105, 106 Sigurd Eriksson, 134, 135 Sigurd Haakonsson, 121 Sigurd Hjort, 47, 48 Sigurd Jarlsson, 355-357, 360, 362, 364, 365 Sigurd Jonsson, 473, 478 Sigurd Lavard, 370, 380, 385 Sigurd Marcusfostre, 326 Sigurd Mouth, 311-321, 326, 327, 332, 334, 335, 336, 351, 382, .387, 388 Sigurd, alleged son of Magnus Erlingsson, 355 Sigurd Ranesson, 295, 296, 297 Sigurd Ribbung, 407, 408, 410, 412, 414 Sigurd of Reyr, 323, 324, 326, 327 Sigurd Rise, 68 Sigurd Sigurdsson, 307 Sigurd Slembedegn, 308, 309, 311-314 Sigurd Sleva, 104, 11 1 Sigurd Syr, 182, 183, 186-190, 192, 199, 221, 240 Sigurd Tavse, Archbishop, 421, 422 Sigurd Wool-String, 287 Sigvalde, Earl, 120, 123, 163, 164, 171 INDEX. 553 Silgjord, 155 Simeon of Durham, 42 Simon Kaaresson, 354 Simon Skaalp, 317, 322 Sinclair, Colonel, 495, 518 Siric, Archbishop of Canterbury, 147 Skaane, 214, 242, 259, 463, 466, 468, 498, 502, 513, 530 Skade, 21 Skage Skoftesson, 119 Skagen, 324 Skara Stift, 464 Skegge Aasbjornsson, see Iron- beard Skinfaxe, 17 Skiringssal, 46, 5 i Skraellings, 181 Skuld, 18 Skule Baardsson, Duke, 284, 395- 427, 432, 437, 438, 440 Skule Tostigsson, 283 Slavs, I, 237 Sleipner, 20 Sleswick, 31, 237, 257, 472, 495, 530 Slittungs, 401, 402, 404, 407 Smaaland, 301 Smaalenene, ii Snarfare, 62 Snefrid, wife of Harold the Fair- haired, 67, 68, 71, 183 Snorre Sturlasson, 13, 45, 49, 52, 66, 72, 74, 160, 186, 254, 276, 421, 433-441, 444 Snorrelaug, 436 Sondmore, 122, 193, 217, 324, 411, 495 Sogn, 1 19, 234 Sognefjord, 179, 210, 348, 349, 415 Sognesund, 228 Sognings, 348 Solveig, 438 Sonartorek, 85 Sotoness, 95 Sound, The, n8, 242, 453 Stamford Bridge, 268, 269, 272, 283, 287 Stang, F., Prime-Minister, 534 Stanger, 332 Stavanger, 59, 321, 358, 359 Steen Sture the Elder, 480, 481, 482 Steen Sture the Younger, 482, 483, 485 Steinker, 189 Steinkii, King of Sweden, 267 Stenbock, Magnus, 502 Stig, Marshal, 454 Stiklestad, 212, 221, 227, 232, 235,* 240, 255 Stockholm, 464, 469, 480, 484, 485, 532 Storm, Prof.Gustav, 538 Storthing, 521-534 Strand, 121, 183 Strindso, 369 Struensee, 508, 509 Stub, Rev. Kjeld, 496 Stuf Katsson, 254 Sturia Sighvatsson, 421, 438, 440 Sturia Thordsson, father of Snorre Sturlasson, 434 vSturla Thordsson, nephew of Snorre Sturlasson, 45, 440, 442 Sturlungs, The, 433-441, 443 Styrbjorn, 214 Styrkaar Stallare, 270, 271 Supreme Court, 522 Surtur, 16 Sussex, 138 Suttung, 20 Svang, 408 Svanhild, daughter of Earl Ey- stein, 76 Svante Nilsson Sture, 482 Sverdrup, Prof, 516, 518 Sverdrup, John, Prime-Minister, 534 Sverke, King of Sweden, 368 Sverre Sigurdsson, 195, 333-379, 382, 385, 386, 388, 391, 393, 396, 404, 407, 423, 432, 446, 450 Svolder, 157, 163, 173, 178, 193 Sweyn, a pretender, 287 Sweyn Alfifasson, 225-229, 233, 287, 292 554 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Sweyn Estridsson, 236, 237, 244, 245, 247, 248, 250, 252, 257, 258, 259, 265, 266, 267, 268, 273, 274, 276 Sweyn Forkbeard, 116, 118, iig, 138, 139, 154, 161-166, 168, 173, 177, 214 Sweyn Haakonsson, Earl, 119, 121, 122, 173-181, 186, 187, 189, igo-193 Sweyn, Rorek's servant, 201 Tacitus, 25 Taylor, Bayard, 491 Tegelsmora, 223 Telemark, 338, 340 Thamb, 162 Thames, The, 42 Thangbrand the priest, 146, T47, ■ 158, 159 Thirty Years' War, 495 Thjostulf Aalesson, 311, 312 Thor, 20, 21, 22, 128, 144, 151, 204, 208, 209, 224 Thora, wife of Earl Haakon, 119 Thora, wife of Harold Hard- Iluler, 255 Thora Guttorm's daughter, 309 Thora Moster-Pole, 72 Thora of Rimul, 130 Thora Saxe's daughter, 308 Thoralf Lousy-Beard, 108, 109, 135 Thorbjorn Hornklove, 59 Thord Sturlasson, 436 Thore, Archbishop, 393, 395 Thore Herse, 77, 78 Thore Hjort, 148, 154, 156 Thore Hund, 211, 212, 222, 233 Thore Klakka, 139, 140 Thore Sel, 21 1 Thore of Steig, 245, 262, 274, 286, 287 Thorfinn Karlsevne, 181 Thorgeir, brother-in-law of Olaf Tryggvesson, 161, 162 Thorgerd, Valkyria, 123 Thorghaettan, 363 Thorgils Thoralfsson, 135 Thorgils, 224, 227 Thorgisl, 38, 39, 40 Thorgny the Lawman, 195, 196 Thorkell Dyrdill, 164, 165 Thorkell Leira, 124, 125, 126 Thorleif, Bishop, 480 Thormod Kolbruna-Scald, 221, 222 Thorolf, Bald Grim's son, 77, 78, 79 Thorolf, Kveld-Ulf's son, 57-60 Thorsberg, 362 Thorstein, a peasant, 109 Thorstein Kugad, 362, 366 Thorstein, son of Side-Hall, 238, 239 Thorvald Eriksson, 181 Thrond the Priest, 391 Thrudvang, 20 Thyra, queen of Olaf Tryggves- son, 154, 161, 168, 171, 214 Tiber, 34 Tidemand, Adolf, 538 Tiding-Skofte, 119 Tilly, General, 495 Tilsit, treaty of, 510, 512 Toke, a peasant, 246 Tordenskjold, 503, 504 Torstenson, General, 496 Tostig Godwineson, Earl, 269, 270, 283 Tours, 34 Toverud, 512 Trangen, 512 Travendal, 501 Trondelag, 54, 76, 80, 87, 88, 102, 106, 130, 140, 148, 177, 178, 189, 193, 220, 234, 255, 285, 287, 324, 327, 340, 352, 358, 366, 368, 398, 445 Tronders, 94, 95, 106, 107, 148, 149, 189, 193, 207, 227, 228, 232, 265, 285, 286, 311, 327, 328, 340, 368, 423, 498 Trollhaettan, 288 Tromso, 429 Tryggve Olafsson, son of Olaf Haroldsson, 76, 88, 94, 95, 102, 105, 107, 108, 144 INDEX. 555 Tryggve Olafsson, son of Olaf Tryggvesson, 228 Tunsberg, 20 r, 306, 324, 327, 334, 354, 375, 376, 380, 388, 390, 413, 449 Tunsberghus, 481 Turf-Einar, 69 Turges, 38 Turks, 2, 500 Tyr, 21 Tyrker, 180 U Ueland, Ole Gabriel, 528 Ugerup, Erik, 485 Ulf Thorgilsson, Earl, 214, 215, 236 Ulf Uspaksson, 255 Uller, 22 Ulster, 289 Unas, 334, 335 University of Norway, 514 Upland, 223, Upsala, 45, 195 Urd, 18 Urokja Snorresson, 440 Utgard, 17 V Vaagen, 294, 299 Vaerdalen, 220, 221, 222, 232 Vagn Aakesson, 122-127 Valdalen, 217 Valdemar Atterdag, 462, 463 Valdemar Birgersson, King of Sweden, 449 Valdemar, the Great, 323, 327- 330, 345 Valdemar Magnusson, Duke, 456, 458, 459 Valdemar the Victorious, 386, 387, 410, 417, 418 Valders, 52, 127 Valfather, 19 Valhalla, 19, 84, lor, 204 Valkendorf, Christopher, 490 Valkyries 19, 84, 123, 204 Vandals, 136 Vanir, 14, 21 Varangians, 240, 241 Varbeigs, 354, 355, 423, 425 Ve, 13, 16 Vebjorn, 256 Venice, 241 Venetian, 500 Venus, 22 Verdande, 18 Vermeland, 57, 58, 267, 332, 337, 412, 464 Versailles, 501 Vesteraalen, 331 Vestergotland, 195, 267, 312, 464, 468, 481 Vestfjord, 331 Vestfold, 46, 51, 57, 76, 190, 412 Vestgoths, 268 Viborg, 485 Viborg-/////?^, 231, 237, 252 Vidar, 22 Vidrar, 84 Vige, 156 Vikar, Chief of the Varbeigs, 354, 423 Viken, 57, 64, 76, 88, 94, 102, 105, 107, no, 118, 119, 143, 144, 147, 160, 213, 245, 256, 266, 273, 285, 307, 319, 323, 324, 327, 330, 332, 337, 345, 351, 356, 361, 370, 388, 391, 393, 400, 407, 408, 410, 411, 422, 425, 445, 498 Vile, 13, 16 Vingulmark, 57, 173 Vinland, 180, 181 Vinold, Archbishop, 467 Virgin Mary, The, 144, 146, 396 Visby, 463 Vitalie Brethren, 469, 473 Vladimir, 134, 136, 137, 142 Voltaire, 508 Vornedskab, 475 Vors, in W Wallenstein, 418 Waterford, 40 Wedel-Jarlsberg, Count, 518, 527 556 THE STORY OF NORWAY. Welhaven, J. S., 536 Wendland, 136, 142, 161, 162, 163, 168, 237, 330 Wends, 236, 237, 310, 312 Wener, Lake, 288 Wergeland, Henrik, 526, 531, 536 Wergeland, Rev. Nicolai, 518 Wessex, 41 Widukind, 31 William the Conqueror, 12, 56, 65, 272, 277, 283 William Longsword, 65 William of Sabina, Cardinal, 428 Wismar, 469 Wollin, 120 Ygdrasil, 18 Ymer, 16, 17 Ynglings, 31, 40, 45, 57, 62 Yngve, 45 York, 8t, 268 Yotun, 16, 17, 21, 23 Yotunheim, 17, 18, 21 Zoe, Empress, 242 The Story^of the Nations. Messrs. G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS take pleasure in announcing that they have in course of pubHcation a series of graphic historical studies, intended to present to the young the stories of the different nations that have at- tained prominence in history. In the story form the current of each national life will be distinctly indicated, and its picturesque and note- worthy periods and episodes will be presented for the young reader in their philosophical relations to each other as well as to universal history. It will be the plan of the writers of the different volumes to enter into the real life of the peoples, and to bring them before the reader as they actually lived, labored, and struggled — as they studied and wrote, and as they amused themselves. In carrying out this plan, the myths, with which the history of all lands begins, will not be overlooked, though these will be carefully dis- tinguished from the actual history, so far as the labors of the accepted historical authorities have resulted in defi- nite conclusions. It is proposed to have the series present the results of the latest investigations in the progressive department of historical research. Disputed points will, however, not be discussed, but, instead, the writers will present, in a simple, direct, and graphic style, the story of each land, utilizing also, to illuminate the narrative, the side lights that the poets and novelists have cast upon it. Possessing a knowledge of and sympathy with the youthful way of looking at such subjects, the writers will not offer annals, arid and unconnected, nor bare chrono- logical statements of events, however complete. They will not expect to include all details of minor importance ; but, on the contrary, will try to present pictures adapted to leave faithful impressions of the essential facts. The editors will endeavor to preserve a unity of design and execution that will enable the series to give to the reader a survey of the rise and progress, of the nations sufficient to form a sound basis for subsequent reading and study ; but it will not be attempted to cover in detail the entire ground of universal history. The subjects of the different volumes will be planned to cover connecting and, as far as possible, consecutive epochs or periods, so that the set when completed will present in a comprehensive narrative the chief events in the great Story OF THE NATIONS; but it will, of course, not always prove practicable to issue the several volumes in their chronological order. The '' Stories " will be printed in good readable type, and in handsome i2mo form. They will be adequately illustrated and furnished with maps and indexes. They will be sold separately, at a price of about $1.50 each. The following is a partial list of the subjects thus far determined upon : THE STORY OF EGYPT. Prof. George Rawlinson. *CI-IALDEA. Z. Ragozin. *GREECE. Prof. James A. Harrison, Washington and Lee University. *R0ME. Arthur Oilman, *THE jews. Prof. James K. Hosmer, Washington University of St. Louis. CARTHAGE. Prof. Alfred J. Church, University College, London. GAUL. BYZANTIUM. Charlton T. Lewis. THE GOTHS. Henry Bradley, the NORMANS. Sarah O. Jewett. PERSIA. S. G. W. Benjamin. SPAIN. Rev. E. E. and Susan Hale. GERMANY. S. Baring Gould. THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS. HOLLAND. Prof. C. E. Thorold Rogers. NORWAY. HjALMAR H. Boyesen. THE MOORS IN SPAIN. Stanley Lane-Poole. HUNGARY, Prof. A. Vambery. THE ITALIAN KINGDOM. W. L. Alden. * (The volumes starred are now ready.) G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS New York London 27 AND 29 WEST TWENTY-THIRD STREET 27 KING WILLIAM ST., STRAND LBJa'IO i