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HARPER'S SCHOOL HISTORY. 
 
 A NARRATIVE OF 
 
 THE GENERAL COURSE OF HISTORY FROM THE EARLIEST 
 
 PERIODS TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE 
 
 AMERICAN CONSTITUTION. 
 
 \ 
 
 PREPARED WITH QUESTIONS FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS 
 
 AND 
 
 ILLUSTRATED WITH 150 MAPS AND ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 
 
 FRANKLIN SQUARE. 
 
 .N 
 
Enterecl, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight hundred 
 and fifty-six, l)y 
 
 HARPER & BROTHERS, 
 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District of New York. 
 
 Copyriglit, 1884, by Benjamin Vaitghan Abbott, Austin Abbott, 
 Lyman Abbott, and Edward Abbott. 
 
HARPER'S SCHOOL HISTORIES. 
 
 HARPER'S 
 
 ANCIENT HISTOKY. 
 
 FOE THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 BY JACOB ABBOTT. 
 
 COPIOUSLY AND BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED ^VITH 
 AND PREPARED WITH QUESTIONS FOR THE CONVENIENCE OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 ^ 
 
 XJ 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 OF C ONG RESS 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 FRANKLIN SQUARE, 
 
 * 1864. 
 
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight hundred 
 and fifty-six, by 
 
 HARPER & BROTHERS, 
 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District of New York. 
 
 
TO THE TEACHER. 
 
 The present volume forms one section of a connected work, 
 wlaich is intended as a complete text-book of general history for 
 the use of schools. It does not consist, as is often the case with 
 books of this class, of a condensed summary of names, dates, and 
 detached chronological events, but presents, in a simple and con- 
 nected narrative, a general view of the great leading events that 
 have occurred in the history of the world, beginning at the ear- 
 liest periods, and coming down through the Assyrian, Persian, 
 Grecian, Roman, and British empires, to the organization of the 
 American Republic, and the establishment of the American Con- 
 stitution. It is intended for Americans, and the narrative conse- 
 quently follows the line which leads to, and is most directly con- 
 nected with, the events of our own history. 
 
 For convenience of use, the work is published in three sections, 
 Ancient History, English History, and American History. 
 Each volume is fully illustrated with maps and engravings, and 
 is prepared with questions on a new and very convenient plan 
 for the use of teachers. 
 
 In using the work, the teacher is requested to call the special 
 attention of the class to the following directions in respect to the 
 mode of studying the book, before they commence it. 
 
 Directions to the Pupil in studying the Booh. 
 
 1. The pupil must observe that, though there is a question at 
 the head of each paragraph, still the paragraph is not itself a mere 
 
VI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 answer to the question. It is a general statement which contains 
 the answer. In other words, the book is not a catechism of his- 
 tory, but a connected narrative, written without regard to the 
 questions. These, having been afterward introduced, are placed 
 at the heads of the paragraphs instead of at the foot of the page, 
 solely for the convenience of the teacher. In studying the les- 
 sons, therefore, you must not be satisfied with merely searching 
 in each paragraph for a few words or phrases which will serve as 
 an answer to the question placed at the head of it, but you must 
 study attentively the statements made in its paragraph in connec- 
 tion with what precedes it, so as to peruse the whole- as part of a 
 connected story, and make yourself fully acquainted with all that 
 it contains. To this end, read the paragraph twice in a very care- 
 ful manner, thinking while you read, not of the question, but of 
 the facts which the paragraph states, and of their connection with 
 the main thread of the story. In other words, while you are read- 
 ing the paragraph, dismiss the questions entirely from your mind, 
 and think only of the general course of the narrative. After you 
 have thus become completely master of the sense of the paragraph, 
 then read the questions, and from your own knowledge of the sub- 
 ject, as obtained from the perusal of the paragraph, frame an an- 
 swer to them yourself in your own language. 
 
 By this means you will receive into your mind, and fix there, 
 a clear idea of the course of events described in the narrative. 
 You will make the knowledge imparted by the book your own, 
 and you will have it at command in the form in which you will 
 require it for the purposes of reading and conversation in future 
 life ; whereas, if, as is very often practiced, you only look over the 
 paragraph for the purpose of marking with a pencil certain words 
 or phrases to be repeated by rote at the recitation as an answer 
 
INTEODUCTION. Vll 
 
 to the question, you do not study history at all ; you merely learn 
 to repeat mechanically a set form of words. 
 
 2. At the recitation, give your answers to the questions asked 
 you fluently, in a narrative form, and in your own language. 
 Such a work as this, studied and recited in the proper way, will 
 be of great service to you in increasing your command of lan- 
 guage, and thus improving your power of expressing yourself 
 in conversation. This, indeed, is one of the great advantages of 
 such a study. 
 
 3. Find every place mentioned in the work upon the map, and 
 keep the relative situations of these places in mind as you go on 
 with the narrative. This will greatly assist you in understanding 
 the story, and in giving to the transactions described, in your con- 
 ceptions of them, the effect of reality. 
 
 Jacob Abbott. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 ClIAPTKK PAGB 
 
 I. DISTRIBUTION OP THE HUMAN RACE 13 
 
 II. NINEVEH AND THE ASSYRIANS o 23 
 
 III. BABYLON 36 
 
 IV. RUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON 48 
 
 V. FOUNDATION OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE 59 
 
 VI. THE STATES OF GREECE 67 
 
 VII. DARIUS AND THE FIRST INVASION OF GREECE 72 
 
 Vin. XERXES AND THE SECOND INVASION OF GREECE 78 
 
 IX. ALEXANDER THE GREAT 87 
 
 X. THE FOUNDATION OF ROME 95 
 
 XI. ROME UNDER THE CONSULS 104 
 
 XII. PYRRHU8, KING OF EPIRUS 109 
 
 XIII. THE CARTHAGINIANS AND HANNIBAL 119 
 
 XIV. POMPEY AND CiESAR * 128 
 
 XV. EGYPT 139 
 
 XVI. FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE 151 
 
 XVII. ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY 155 
 
ENGRAVINGS, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 LIFE IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS 15 
 
 GREENLANDER AND SEAL 16 
 
 ESQUIMAUX 17 
 
 TROPICAL SAVAGES 19 
 
 INDUSTRIAL ARTS o 21 
 
 SITUATION OF NINEVEH 24 
 
 SEMIRAJMIS IN THE WOOD , 29 
 
 SEMIRAMIS ON THE WALL 31 
 
 THE BRIBE 33 
 
 KING HEZEKIAH SHOWING HIS TREASURIES 39 
 
 THE HANGING GARDENS 43 
 
 CYRUS ENTERING BABYLON 47 
 
 MOUNDS Iln 49 
 
 ARCHER — SPEARMAN — SLINGER 50 
 
 WRITING DOWN THE NUMBER OF THE SLAIN 52 
 
 ADVANCING TO THE ATTACK 53 
 
 THE COMPOUND HORSEMAN 54 
 
 CROSSING A RIVER 55 
 
 WAR CHARIOT 56 
 
 HEAD-DRESS OF A HORSE 57 
 
 DISCOVERIES 58 
 
 THE herdsman's INFANT 61 
 
 Cyrus's hunting 63 
 
 expeditions of cyrus 65 
 
 states op greece 68 
 
 VIEW OF ATHENS r 70 
 
 PH^DYMA AND SMERDIS 74 
 
 CROSSING THE HELLESPONT 81 
 
 MARCH OF XERXES 82 
 
 THE PERSIAN EMBASSADORS AT SPARTA 84 
 
 MARCH OF ALEXANDER 90 
 
 MARCH THROUGH THE PASS OF SUSA 94 
 
 MAP OF LATIUM 97 
 
Xll . ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 the twins 9h 
 
 the bracelets 102 
 
 roman military road 105 
 
 plebeians 106 
 
 empire of pyrrhus 110 
 
 pyrrhus viewing the roman encampment 115 
 
 display of the armor 116 
 
 death of pyrrhus 118 
 
 situation of carthage 121 
 
 crossing the alps 126 
 
 scipio burning the carthaginian fleet 128 
 
 Cesar's invasion of Britain 130 
 
 excitement in rome 132 
 
 assassination of pompey : 136 
 
 the triumphal procession 138 
 
 the pyramids of egypt 140 
 
 the sphinx - hi 
 
 the statues of memnon h2 
 
 Cleopatra's stratagem 146 
 
 Cleopatra's entertainment 148 
 
 room in Cleopatra's palace 149 
 
 burning of ROME f. 153 
 
 riots in ROME 154 
 
 RUINS OF ROME 156 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 DISTEIBUTION OF THE HUMAN EACE. 
 
 What is the cause of the different climates of the earth'' s sur- 
 face f 
 
 The various portions of the earth differ very much from each 
 other in respect to tlie manner in which the sun shines upon 
 them, both in his daily and in his annual course, and very great 
 differences are thus produced in the climates of the several regions, 
 and in the course of their seasons, and in all the productions of 
 the soil, both plants and animals. 
 
 Describe the tropical re(/ions. 
 
 In some parts of the earth, for example, the days and nights are 
 always equal, the weather is always warm, and flowers and fruits 
 bloom and ripen all the year round. The reason of this is, that 
 these regions, being the central part of the earth, turn every day, 
 as the great globe revolves, directly toward the sun. They are 
 called the tropical regions.* 
 
 * 'The earth turns round every day before the sun very much as an apple, suspend- 
 ed by a twisted string to roast, turns before the fire. The middle parts of the apple, 
 half way between the stem and the blossom, which are turned directly toward the fire 
 as it goes round, correspond with the equatorial or tropical regions of the earth. Only, 
 of course, the earth is immensely large, and the sun is at such an enormous distance 
 that the beams of it shine very gently on the earth, even on the parts that come di- 
 rectly opposite to its rays. 
 
14 DISTEIBUTION OF THE HUMAN EACE. 
 
 Describe the Polar regions. 
 
 In other places, there are regions where the sun does not shine 
 for six months at a time, and then, when the period for his shining 
 comes, he never rises high in the heavens so as to shine warm and 
 full upon the ground, but moves round and round the sky just 
 above the horizon. Of course, for half the year in these regions 
 it is winter and night, and during the other half, though they call 
 it summer, the sun shines with very faint and feeble rays. In 
 consequence of this, scarcely any plants grow upon the land, and 
 the sea is covered at all times, both in summer and winter, with 
 immense floating fields and mountains of ice. These are the 
 Polar regions. The northern Polar regions are called the Arctic 
 regions. The southern Polar regions have been very little ex- 
 plored. They are called the Antarctic regions. 
 
 Describe the temperate regions. 
 
 Then, besides these two extremes, there are the temperate re- 
 gions, which lie between them. We ourselves live in the temper- 
 ate regions. Here, for half of the year, the sun rises high in the 
 heavens, and his beams are warm. During this period the grass 
 grows, the flowers bloom, the fruits ripen, and the land is rich 
 with waving fields of corn and grain. Then comes the winter, 
 when the sun declines, and all vegetation ceases, and the ground 
 is bound up with frost or covered with snow. 
 
 How has Nature adajyted onan to these different regions f 
 
 Of course, regions so diiferent from each other as these must 
 not only produce altogether different kinds of plants and animals, 
 but very different kinds of men, we might suppose, would be re- 
 quired to inhabit them. Nature has accordingly provided a great 
 variety of races of men to occupy the several portions of the earth, 
 the people of each race being adapted, both in their bodily consti- 
 tutions and in the capacities of their minds, for the situation in 
 which they dwell, though they are all, as the Scriptures inform us, 
 descended from one common ori2:in. 
 
DISTRIBUTION OF THE HUMAN RACE. 
 
 15 
 
 What hind of animals inhabit the Polar regio7is f 
 In the Polar regions, where the sun is gone entirely for half the 
 year, and shines very faintly and feebly for the other half, no plants 
 except mosses, and lichens, and a few stunted shrubs can ever 
 grow ; but then the shores of the seas, and the fields and islands 
 of ice, and all the lakes and bays, are thronged with animals. The 
 sea is full of whales, seals, walruses, and other monsters, that are 
 
 %'^L 
 
 
 LIFE I^; THK AUCTi«^ 
 
 kept warm in the winter by the thick coats of blubber or fat which 
 envelop them, while on the land, and over the fields of ice, white 
 bears, wolverines, foxes, and other fierce beasts of prey are con- 
 stantly prowling. These land animals are kept warm by thQirfur. 
 Then, in the summer, immense flocks of ducks, and geese, and 
 gulls, and other wild-fowl throng the lakes, and rivers, and bays, 
 and swamps that lie along these shores, to make their nests and 
 rear their young. Before the long winter night sets in, however, 
 the birds fly away across the continent thousands of miles, taking 
 with them the young birds that they have reared. These birds 
 are kept warm by i\\Q\Y feathers. 
 
 What qualities in men are required for these regions f 
 To live and to thrive in such regions as these, men must be of 
 a very hardy constitution, so as to be able to bear cold without in- 
 jury. They must be fitted, too, to subsist almost entirely on flesh 
 
16 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE HUMAN RACE. 
 
 GEEENLA>,DEK AND SEAL. 
 
 and other animal food, since scarcely any vegetables grow in such 
 
 _ =^ ^ii= a clime. They must 
 
 - be endued with pow- 
 
 -^ ' ' ers and capacities of 
 
 mind high enough to 
 enable them to hunt 
 wild beasts, to catch 
 and kill whales and 
 seals, and to build 
 such huts as they 
 need, and yet not so 
 high as to make them 
 discontented or rest- 
 less with their mo- 
 notonous* and solitary country, and with the half-torpid life that 
 they must lead during the long dark and dismal night of their 
 winter. 
 Describe the 7nodes of life of the Polar tribes. 
 These are, in fact, the characteristics of the various races of men 
 that are found dwelling on the Polar shores. They can live alto- 
 gether on tlie coarsest flesh. They can endure the greatest ex- 
 tremes of cold. They build huts of the drift-wood that is brought 
 down by the rivers, and is then washed by the sea upon their 
 shores. They cover their huts with earth three or four feet thick 
 to keep them warm, leaving an opening for a door in front large 
 enough to creep in and out. When they have no drift-wood, they 
 build their huts of blocks of snow, arching them over at the top 
 like an oven or a dome. They light and warm their huts suffi- 
 ciently for their purpose by means of big lamps fed by whale oil. 
 They set traps for animals on land ; they take fish in the lakes and 
 at the rapids in the river with nets and hooks, and they kill seals 
 and whales with harpoons and spears. They can travel on foot 
 
 * That which is in every part alike — without variety. 
 
DISTEIBUTION OF THE HUMAN RACE. 17 
 
 over the snow with snow-shoes which the women make for them, 
 while some of the natives train dogs, and others reindeer, to draw 
 them in sledges over the ice and snow. These people sometimes 
 
 ESQUIMAUX. 
 
 endure suffering, it is true, as all men must, but generally they are 
 contented and happy in the condition in which God has placed 
 them, so well are they adapted to it. They could not easily be 
 persuaded to change their country or their modes of life for those 
 of any other people. 
 
 What is known of the history of these tribes f 
 
 There are a great many separate races and nations of these Arc- 
 tic men, nearly all of whom have probably lived where they do 
 now, and as they do now, for hundreds and hundreds of years. 
 Their history, if it could be known, would consist only of accounts 
 of the wars which they have waged with each other, and of the 
 seasons of famine and distress which they have sometimes endured. 
 But their history is not known, nor would the rest of mankind feel 
 any special interest in it if it could be discovered. 
 
 What is the state of things in the trojpical regions f 
 
 In tropical regions, the state of the case is entirely changed. 
 Here the days and nights are nearly equal all the year, and the 
 
 1 B 
 
18 DISTEIBUTION OP THE HUMAN EACE. 
 
 sun ascends every clay into the mid-heavens, and shines down di- 
 rectly upon the land with his most powerful rays. There is no 
 winter. Frost and snow are unknown. There is, indeed, no 
 spring, nor autumn, but summer reigns supreme throughout the 
 year. 
 
 What forms of animal and vegetable life ^prevail in the trop- 
 ical regions f 
 
 Of course, in a region like this, plants thrive luxuriantly. Flow-, 
 ers bloom and fruits ripen in perpetual and ceaseless succession, 
 furnishing to man and beast an abundance of food without labor or 
 care. Trees grow in the forests to an enormous magnitude, dense 
 underwood springs up among them, and vines and creepers twist 
 and twine about their stems, and hang in festoons from their 
 branches, and bind them all together in an intricate, impenetrable 
 maze. In these entangled thickets lions, tigers, and hyenas roam 
 and prowl in search of prey, and apes, monkeys, and parrots, and 
 thousands of other birds of gaudy plumage, chatter, and sing, and 
 play among the branches through all the year. 
 
 What are the characteristics of the men that inhabit the trop- 
 ical regions f 
 
 The circumstances being thus so entirely different in the trop- 
 ical regions from those of the Arctic or frigid zone, the men fitted 
 to dwell in them are different too. Their color is black, that they 
 can better resist the heat of the sun. Their constitutions are such 
 that, while they can not endure cold, they enjoy heat, and thrive 
 in it. They love the sun. In temper of mind they are quiet and 
 gentle. 
 
 What are their wants in respect to food and clothing f 
 
 As the season in their country is always warm, and as fruits 
 grow abundantly without tilling of the ground, these people have 
 very little to do to procure themselves food and clothing. Very 
 slightly-built huts are sufficient, too, to form their lodgings, as they 
 only need dwellings to shelter them from the rain. Thus .they 
 
DISTRIBUTION OF THE HUMAN RACE. 
 
 19 
 
 tkopical savages. 
 
 live almost like the animals that inhabit the forests around them, 
 eating what comes most readily to hand, and spending the rest of 
 the time in luxurious repose. They need no high intellectual 
 powers, no capacities for enduring hardship or hunger, and no spirit 
 of industry or ambition, and they are consequently not endued 
 with them. 
 
 Describe the Bushmen, 
 
 Some of these tropical nations occupy a very humble position 
 indeed in the scale of humanity. There is a race called Bush- 
 men, who live in the southern part of Africa, whose life is almost 
 wholly animal. They build no houses, but sleep under the trees, 
 or in holes which they burrow in the ground. They live on roots, 
 nuts, and insects, and are as wild as the chimpanzees or orang- 
 outangs, which they much resemble. 
 
 What are the principal tropical countries? 
 
 The tropical portions of the earth that are inhabited by races 
 like these are the central parts of Africa and South America, the 
 islands of the Pacific Ocean that are near the equator, and a por- 
 tion of New Holland. 
 
20 DISTRIBUTION OF THE HUMAN RACE. 
 
 In what respect does the condition of the Polar and tropical 
 nations agree? 
 
 These tropical savages differ very widely from the wild men 
 that dwell about the poles in all their mental and bodily powers 
 and qualities, and in their modes of life. In one respect, however, 
 * they agree with them, namely, in this, that their past history has 
 neven been written, and it can now, therefore, never be known ; 
 nor, indeed, would mankind in general be expected to take much 
 interest in the history of such wild and savage tribes, even if it 
 could be known. 
 
 Describe the condition of things in the temperate regions. 
 
 We now come to the temperate portions of the earth. Here 
 the course of the seasons, and the action of the sun on vegetable 
 life, are such as to require the exercise of far higher and more in- 
 tellectual qualities in man than are necessary either in the tropics 
 or at the poles, because here man must till the ground during half 
 of the year, and lay up stores of food produced by this tillage for 
 the other half. Of course, he must be able to devise agricultural 
 implements, and to make inclosures to defend his fields from wild 
 beasts, and to tame animals to do his work, and to build barns 
 and granaries for his stores of food, and houses to protect his fam- 
 ily from the cold of winter. To meet tliese exigencies of their 
 condition, the races that have lived in the temperate regions have 
 been endued with higher and more intellectual natures than those 
 that have been before described, and the powers that they have 
 been endued with have been greatly improved by the cultivation 
 and the exercise of them. 
 
 What are the characteristics of the races that inhabit the tern- 
 perate regions f 
 
 The consequence has been, that these races have formed them- 
 selves into extensive and powerful nations, and made innumerable 
 discoveries and improvements in the arts of life. They have es- 
 tablished systematic governments, and enrolled immense armies. 
 
DISTRIBUTION OF THE HUMAN EACE. 
 
 21 
 
 and organized vast combinations of various kinds, to accomplish 
 objects beyond tlie powers of individual men. They have ^ug 
 deep mines down through the most soHd rocks, and extended them 
 under the beds of rivers, and even beneath the sea, to procure 
 metals and coal. They have constructed roads, and invented 
 
 wheel vehicles to run 
 upon them, some by 
 the power of animals, 
 and others by the 
 power of steam ; and 
 ships and steamers 
 for the sea, in order 
 to convey the pro- 
 Q ductions of one coun- 
 try to another for the 
 purpose of exchange. 
 They have built vast 
 cities to place the 
 public and general 
 stores of these productions in. They have investigated the laws 
 of nature, and by their science and art have learned to surmount 
 the greatest physical obstacles, and to perform the most astonish- 
 ing exploits; and, finally, by means of various arts of writing 
 which they have invented, they have kept, for many centuries, 
 regular records of their history. 
 
 What are the princijpal nations that have been formed from 
 these races f 
 
 There are a great many distinct races of men that have thus 
 formed civilized nations in the temperate regions of the earth. 
 The principal of them are the Chinese, the Japanese, the Tartars, 
 the Hindoos, the Persians, the Assyrians, the Greeks, the Egyp- 
 tians, the Romans, the Russians, the Germans, the French, the 
 Spaniards, the Moors, the» British, the Mexicans, the Central 
 
 :dustkial 
 
22 DISTEIBUTION OF THE HUMAN RACE. 
 
 Americans, and, lastly, ourselves — the Americans. All these 
 ha^ye preserved records, more or less complete and authentic, of 
 the events of their history. 
 
 How far is the history of these nations of interest to us f 
 
 Of these various nations, however, there are very few whose 
 history is of any special interest or of any practical value to us. 
 That in which we are chiefly concerned is simply the line of our 
 own history, traced back through the nations that preceded us, 
 and from which we descended, to ancient times. 
 
 What course do we take in tracing hack the line of our own 
 history f 
 
 In going back to retrace this line, we follow, for two hundred 
 years, the history of our own country. The people that settled 
 this country two hundred years ago came from England. Of 
 course, when we arrive at the origin of this nation, we proceed to 
 the line of English History, which we follow back for about sixteen 
 hundred years, to the point of its connecting with the Roman em- 
 pire near the time of Christ. We here enter the field of what is 
 called Ancient History, and we follow the line back through the 
 Romans, Greeks, Persians, Assyrians, and Egyptians, till the rec- 
 ord loses itself in the legends and traditions of the remotest an- 
 tiquity. Thus the course of history which is of practical interest 
 and value to us divides itself into three periods. 
 
 What are the three general branches of the subject f 
 
 1. Ancient History, extending from the earliest records to the 
 decline and fall of the Roman empire. 
 
 2. English History, extending from the commencement of the 
 first origin of the British government to the colonization of Amer- 
 ica. 
 
 3. American History, extending from the first colonization of 
 this country to the present time. 
 
 What digressions will he reguii-'ed f 
 
 In following this course, however*, we shall not absolutely be 
 
NINEVEH AND THE ASSYEIANS. 23 
 
 confined to the history of the nations that come directly in the 
 line, but shall be led to frequent digressions among nations inci- 
 dentally and collaterally connected with them. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 NINEVEH AND THE ASSYEIANS. 
 
 W/iat territory was first sought for settlemeiit by the earliest 
 inhabitants of Asia f 
 
 When the people were scattered abroad on the earth at the 
 original dispersion of mankind, as described in the Scriptures, they 
 would naturally, at first, seek out the most fertile regions, and 
 those most easily tilled, to live in, and in these regions they would, 
 of course, most rapidly increase and multiply. Accordingly, the 
 first glimpses that we obtain of the history of the human race in 
 those remote ages relate to several nations which seemed to spring 
 up at a very early period, and nearly at the same time, on the 
 borders of certain great rivers of that portion of the world which, 
 as it happened, flowed through regions of extraordinary natural 
 fertility. 
 
 What were the principal nations that were thus formed f 
 
 The principal nations that thus early organized themselves in 
 these great river districts were these, namely, the Assyrians in the 
 country of the Tigris, the Babylonians in that of the Euphrates, 
 and the Egyptians in the valley of the Nile. In addition to these 
 there was another very important nation, the Phoenicians, whose 
 country was near the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 What was the situation of these countries f 
 
 The situation of these ancient nations in respect to each other 
 you will see by the following map. The first named of them, 
 the Assyrians, as appears by the map, occupied the country wa- 
 tered by the Tigris, and their capital was Nineveh. 
 
24 
 
 NINEVEH AND THE ASSYEIANS. 
 
 
 
 T/rsw 
 
 ^ojr 
 
 Jjf'JJamascas 
 
 lyre 
 
 What loas the capital of Assyria f Of Bahyloiiia f 
 
 We should have known probably very little about the Assyrians 
 at the present time had it not been for the celebrity attained by 
 the city of Nineveh, which was the capital of the country, and 
 which acquired great renown all over the world in its day for its 
 magnificence and splendor. It was the same in respect to Bab- 
 ylon and the Babylonians, who will form the subject of the next 
 lesson. 
 
 What are the sources of information in respect to these cities 
 at the present day f 
 
 At the time when these cities flourished the art of writing was 
 not known, so it happens that no true and authentic accounts have 
 come down to us respecting them. There were, however, a great 
 many legends and tales that were related in those days in regard 
 to the manner in which they were built, and to the people who 
 lived in them ; and these tales, when the art of writing was at 
 length discovered, were narrated more or less fully yi the works 
 of various authors, and thus have come down to our day. 
 
NINEVEH AND THE ASSYRIANS. 25 
 
 What evidence is there in resjpect to the truth of these accounts f 
 
 It is impossible now to determine how far these tales are true. 
 There is no doubt, however, that the cities themselves really ex- 
 isted, and that they were very prosperous and powerful, for the 
 places where they stood have been found at the present day, and 
 the ground is covered for miles with long grassy ridges and mounds, 
 which are found, on digging into them, to be filled with ruins and 
 remains of every kind, bricks, sculptures, utensils, images, columns, 
 and almost every other kind of architectural relic. Some of these 
 relics will be presently described. 
 
 Which was the oldest of these cities f 
 
 Nineveh is supposed to have been the oldest of these two cities -, 
 at least, the period of its power and prosperity was earlier than 
 that in which Babylon flourished. Some of the legends and tales 
 that are related of its early history are very curious and enter- 
 taining. 
 
 In what way do great cities usually arise at the present day, 
 and in lohat situations f 
 
 And here it must be remarked, that ^jities and towns in ancient 
 times were founded and built up very differently from those of the 
 present day. Now they grow up gradually of themselves, as it 
 were, as places of trade or of manufacture, wherever conveniences 
 naturally exist for carrying on these pursuits, as, for example, at 
 good landing-places on rivers, or around harbors on the sea, or by 
 the side of waterfalls, where the flow of the water can be used to 
 drive mills and machinery. 
 
 And how did great cities usually originate in ancient times f 
 
 In ancient times they were built by kings and chieftains to 
 gather the people into for defense, or to make safe places for the 
 residence of their courts, or the head-quarters of the armies. 
 
 What sort of defenses were constructed ? 
 
 The first thing to be done, therefore, in founding an ancient city, 
 was to build a wall about it to protect the people within. It was 
 
26 NINEVEH AND THE ASSYEIANS. 
 
 not necessary, in general, that these walls should be very strong, 
 for there were no cannon in those days, nor any other means of 
 battering down a wall except to hurl stones and beams of wood 
 against it, or to undermine and overthrow it by means of pickaxes, 
 spades, and levers. 
 
 Where do we find the first account of the founding of Nin- 
 eveh f 
 
 The first foundation of Nineveh took place at so early a period 
 that the event is recorded in the Book of Genesis, where, in chap- 
 ter X., 11, it is said, "Out of that land went Ashur, and builded 
 Nineveh." The place was undoubtedly, at first, only a small 
 walled town — a sort of stronghold of the chieftains who first occu- 
 pied it to retreat to with their troops, and a place for the laborers 
 to live in who cultivated the neighboring fields. It gradually in- 
 creased, however, and became, at length, great and powerful. 
 
 From what source jprohably was its early prosjperity first de- 
 rived f 
 
 This prosperity was owing, in part, to the very fertile character 
 of the surrounding country ; for the whole country through which 
 the Tigris and Euphrates flow is a vast plain, which has been 
 famed from the earliest ages for the beauty of the scenery and the 
 fruitfulness of the soil. 
 
 What monarch first made it a greed cajpital f 
 
 Nineveh did not, however, acquire any considerable celebrity 
 for centuries after this time. It was made a great capital at last 
 by Ninus, a king of the country, who arose some centuries later, 
 and became a mighty conqueror. Ninus possessed greater talents 
 than the kings and chieftains around him for organizing armies 
 and carrying on wars, and so he invaded the territories of his 
 neighbors, and conquered them, in spite of all their efforts to re- 
 sist him, and thus brought their lands under his dominion, com- 
 pelling the laborers who tilled the fields to pay tribute and taxes 
 to him instead of to them, and to work for him in building the 
 
NINEVEH AND THE ASSYRIANS. 27 
 
 walls of cities and towns. Thus he made himself master of a 
 great empire. 
 
 Desci'ibe the jplans which Ninus adopted for making Nineveh 
 a great capital. 
 
 When at last he was well established in his power, he determ- 
 ined to build a splendid capital for the metropolis of his kingdom, 
 and he made choice of Nineveh, which was well situated on the 
 banks of the river, in a central part of his dominions, for the site 
 of it. He accordingly began to lay his plans for the new city, 
 and then proceeded to execute them on a very grand and magnif- 
 icent scale by means of the money which he collected from the 
 people, and of the labors which he compelled them to perform. 
 He built new and strong walls around it, and reared splendid pal- 
 aces, and laid out parks and gardens, and collected together a large 
 population of merchants and artisans to carry on commerce and 
 manufactures in it, and then, when his work was finished, he in- 
 vited all the princes, potentates, and nobles of his realms to come 
 and make it their abode. 
 
 ^hat was the empire called over which Ninus ruled ? 
 
 The empire which Ninus thus established, and of which Nine- 
 veh became the capital, was the Assyrian empire — the first great 
 empire of ancient times. 
 
 Who was the most celebrated sovereign of the Assyrian line? 
 
 Ninus was succeeded by a line of Assyrian sovereigns, of whom 
 the most celebrated of all was the renowned Queen Semiramis. 
 She was the queen of Ninus during that monarch's lifetime, and 
 after his death she reigned for a time herself as regent for her son, 
 who was very young when his father died. 
 
 What led the people of those days to invent such wonderful 
 tales about their sovereigns f 
 
 The story of Semiramis's life was a very marvelous one. Men 
 were accustomed in those days to invent very wonderful tales 
 about their kings and queens, partly to impress the people with 
 
28 NINEVEH AND THE ASSYKIANS. 
 
 very exalted ideas of these personages, and partly to amuse them 
 by the narration of interesting stories. Of course, at the present 
 day, these tales are not believed, but it is useful to know what 
 they were. 
 
 Relate the account that was given of the hirth of Semiramis, 
 
 The story of Semiramis is that she was the child of a goddess. 
 This goddess lived on the banks of a beautiful lake, which had the 
 magical power of changing into fish every thing that fell into the 
 water. The goddess, soon after the babe was born, determined, in 
 a fit of passion, to kill the father of her child, who was a young 
 shepherd that lived near the lake, and also to kill herself. She 
 wished to destroy the babe too, but she could not bear to kill it 
 with her own hands, and so she carried it into a lonely place in the 
 woods, and left it there under a tree to die. When she had thus 
 disposed of the child, she murdered the young shepherd its father, 
 and immediately afterward she leaped into the lake herself, intend- 
 ing to destroy her own life. Instead of being drowned, however, 
 she w^as turned into a fish by the magical power of the water, and 
 from that time she continued to live in the lake in that fori# all 
 the rest of her days. 
 
 How loas the hahe saved from j^erishing in the woods? What 
 was the name of the shejpherd who received her f 
 
 Nor did the poor child die that had been left exposed in the 
 wood. A flock of doves found her lyii|g there under the tree, and 
 they at once took compassion on her. While some of them hov- 
 ered about the spot to watch over her as she lay, others went off 
 to the neighboring cottages to see if they could not, in some way 
 or other, contrive to bring her food to eat. The shepherds who 
 lived in the cottages saw the doves, and, observing their extraor- 
 dinary actions, determined to follow them into the woods and see 
 what it meant. The doves led the shepherds to the place where 
 the babe was lying. The shepherds took the child, and carried 
 her home, and one of them, a man named Simma, having no chil- 
 
NINEVEH AND THE ASSYEIANS. 
 
 29 
 
 SBMIRAMIS IN THE WOoi) 
 
 dren of his own, adopted her. He named her Semiramis, and 
 brought her up in his cottage as his own child. 
 
 Relate the circumstances of her marriage. 
 
 As Semiramis grew up, she became renowned through all the 
 country around for her beauty, her wit, her graceful manners, and 
 the sweetness of her disposition. Now it happened that Simma, 
 her adopted father, was chief of Ninus's shepherds in this prov- 
 ince, and when Semiramis was about seventeen years of age, and 
 in 'the highest bloom of her beauty, the king sent one of his chief 
 officers, named Menon, to make a survey of his flocks there. Me- 
 non came to the country of the shepherds to attend to this duty, 
 and so saw Semiramis at Simma's house. He was enraptured 
 with her beauty and her gra^ce, and he immediately offered her his 
 hand. Semiramis was for a long time unwilling to leave her 
 adopted father and her happy home among the shepherds, but 
 finally she allowed herself to be persuaded, and she became Me- 
 non's wife. Shortly afterward she bade her father and all her old 
 
30 NINEVEH AND THE ASSYEIANS. 
 
 companions farewell, and went away with Menon, in great state, 
 to Nineveh. 
 
 How was her husband at length temjporarily separated from 
 her f How did she rejoin him f 
 
 She lived in Nineveh two or three years very happily, until at 
 length, in one of the wars in which Nineveh was engaged, Menon, 
 who was a general in the army, was called upon to accompany the 
 king on a grand military expedition which he was about to make 
 into, the country of the Bactrians, which lies to the eastward of 
 Assyria. The expedition was quite successful for a time, hut at 
 last the army arrived before a city called Bactra, which made so 
 obstinate a resistance that for a long time they could not subdue 
 it. They encamped about it, and invested it closely on every side, 
 but the walls were strong and high, and they could not gain ad- 
 mission into the city. At length, after a considerable time had 
 passed, Menon began to wish to see his wife again, whom he had 
 left in Nineveh, and, as he could not be spared from the army to 
 go and visit her, he sent word by a messenger requesting her to 
 come and visit him. She was very ready to come, and, in order 
 to travel more safely, she disguised herself as a young man,, and 
 in this way made the journey without meeting with any molesta- 
 tion. In due time she arrived safely at the camp. Menon was 
 overjoyed to see her. 
 
 Describe the exploit which she performed at the siege. 
 
 Semiramis immediately began to take an interest in the siege, 
 and, after examining carefully the situation of the army and of the 
 town, she observed that there was a certain tower at a corner, 
 which, being built on a rocky eminence, had been left somewhat 
 unguarded. She said to her husband that if he would give her a 
 band of good and true men, such as she would choose out of his 
 troops, she would climb up to that tower and get possession of it, 
 and thus gain access to the city. Menon consented. Semiramis 
 made the attempt, and succeeded triumphantly. She climbed up 
 
NINEVEH AND THE ASSYRIANS. 
 
 31 
 
 with her men to the tower, and, as soon as they had got upon the 
 wall, they made signals to the army below, and opened the gates 
 and let them in. Thus the city was taken. 
 
 ^^% 
 
 
 SEMIKAMIS ON THE WALL. 
 
 What was the result of this transaction f 
 
 The king was, of course, struck with admiration at the heroism 
 of the deed, especially when he learned that the leader of the band 
 that scaled the tower was a young and beautiful woman, the wife 
 of one of his generals. He immediately sent for her, and when he 
 came to see her, he was so much struck with her beauty and com- 
 manding air, that he told Menon that if he would give her up to 
 him he would give him his daughter Sosana for a wife. 
 
 How did Menon receive the king's jprojposal ? How did the 
 affair end? 
 
 Menon absolutely and positively refused to make any such ex- 
 change. " Then," said Ninus, " I will compel you to give her up. 
 I will torture you till you do, and I will begin at once by putting 
 out your eyes." Menon was dreadfully distressed and terrified by 
 
32 NINEVEH AND THE ASSYRIANS. 
 
 these threats, but still he would not give up his wife, and, finally, 
 he was driven to such a pitch of desperation in his anguish that 
 he killed himself. Ninus then married Semiramis, and thus she 
 became the Assyrian queen. What she herself thought of these 
 proceedings, and how she felt at being thus transferred from one 
 husband to another, no one knows. There is no evidence that she 
 made any objection. 
 
 What hecmne of Semiramis after her m^arriage to the king f 
 Ninus returned to Nineveh, taking Semiramis with him, and 
 there they lived together in peace and prosperity. After a time 
 they had a son named Ninyas, and not long after Ninyas was born, 
 Ninus died. Semiramis herself then took possession of the em- 
 pire in the name of her son, and she reigned for many years in 
 great magnificence and splendor. She greatly enlarged the city, 
 and adorned it with many sumptuous edifices. She carried on 
 many foreign wars, and built and embellished a great many cities, 
 and performed a vast number of heroic exploits. She died at 
 length, after having acquired a character of having been one of the 
 most remarkable women that ever lived. 
 
 Who was Sardanajyalus f What was his character f 
 The first severe shock which the Assyrian empire received took 
 place under the reign of a monarch named Sardanapalus. He was 
 a very efieminate and dissolute man. He spent almost all his time 
 shut up in his palaces with the dancing and singing women and 
 girls that he kept there for his amusement, and he devoted himself 
 entirely to the kind of pursuits and occupations that such women 
 would be naturally pleased with, until at length he carried his 
 efieminacy to an almost incredible extreme. He used to dress 
 himself in woman's attire, and curl his hair, and paint his face, 
 and put on jewels and other ornaments such as women were ac- 
 customed to wear in those days. Indeed, he seemed to wish that 
 he was a woman himself, and he did all in his power to change 
 himself into one. 
 
NINEVEH AND THE ASSYRIANS. 
 
 33 
 
 What effect did his mode of life jproduce f Who headed the 
 consj)iracies formed against him f 
 
 Of course, such a mode of life as this rendered the man odious 
 and contemptible to liis subjects, and very soon the affairs of the 
 government, being wholly neglected, became involved in great con- 
 fusion. The people were indignant at this misrule, and very soon 
 the governors of some of the great provinces began to plan a re- 
 bellion. One of the chief leaders in these plots was Arbaces, the 
 governor of Media. He wished very much to obtain access to 
 Sardanapalus in his palace, in order to see for himself whether his 
 conduct was as effeminate and disgraceful as public rumor repre- 
 sented it. For a long time, however, he could not succeed. The 
 servants of the palace, according to Sardanapalus's orders, would 
 not allow visitors to go in. 
 
 How didArhaces at length contrive to gain admittance to the 
 palace f What was the result of his observations f 
 
 At length Arbaces applied to a eunuch, who is a sort of servant 
 employed a great deal by Oriental sovereis^ns, and offered him a 
 
 I'll 
 
 m \) 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 \ 
 
 ^^ 
 
34 NINEVEH AND THE ASSYEIANS. 
 
 golden cup as a bribe to induce him to admit him to see the king. 
 The eunuch yielded to this temptation, and Arbaces went into the 
 palace in disguise. Pie was fully confirmed in his opinion of the 
 infamy of Sardanapalus's conduct by what he saw. He commu- 
 nicated the results of his observations to the other leaders, and 
 they immediately matured their, plans. The rebellion broke out, 
 and the whole country was soon involved in war. 
 
 W/iat ivas the end of the rehellioii f What desjperate ]plan 
 did Sardanajpalus at last adojpt f 
 
 The rebels gradually gained ground against the king, defeating 
 his armies one after another, until at length Sardanapalus himself 
 was obliged to retreat to Nineveh, where he was closely shut up, 
 and reduced to the greatest straits. At last, finding that there 
 was no hope for him, and being determined that neither he him- 
 self, nor any of his household, nor even his treasures, should fall 
 into the hands of his enemies, he resolved upon destroying them 
 all. So he selected from among his palaces one which stood, 
 among others, in the midst of an inclosure of parks and gardens 
 in the heart of the city, and ordered all his treasures to be carried 
 there, his gold and silver utensils, his costly armor, his stores of 
 embroidered garments, his signets, his jewels, and his gems. He 
 also sent to the same palace his women, his eunuchs, his dancing 
 and singing girls, and all his household. Finally, he went in him- 
 self, and then ordered the doors to be shut and barred, and the pal- 
 ace to be set on fire. The order was obeyed, and the palace, with 
 the king liimself, his household, and all his treasures, were burned 
 up together. 
 
 Describe the conflagration. 
 
 So great was the pile, that the fire continued to burn, they said, 
 for fifteen days. There was a wall around the inclosure which 
 was guarded all the time by soldiers, who, in accordance with the 
 king's command, would not let any body come in. The people 
 outside saw the smoke of the fire, but it was several days before 
 
NINEVEH AND THE ASSYRIANS. 35 
 
 they found out what such a great conflagration among the palace 
 buildings could mean. They thought it was some great sacrifice 
 that the king was offering. 
 
 What became of the Assyrian empire at the death of Sar- 
 danaj)alus f 
 
 At the death of Sardanapalus, the first or great Assyrian em- 
 pire came to an end ; for the leaders of the rebellion, when Sar- 
 danapalus was overthrown, divided the empire into three separate 
 kingdoms, making one for each of them. Of these new kingdoms. 
 Media was one. Babylonia was another, and what remained of As- 
 syria, with Nine veil for the capital, was the third. 
 
 What became of Ni7ieveh f 
 
 The city of Nineveh never recovered from the blow that it re- 
 ceived at the revolution that took place in the days of Sardanapa- 
 lus. It gradually declined in wealth and power, while the other di- 
 visions of the empire. Babylonia and Media, gradually increased, 
 and at length, a few hundred years later, the kings of these two 
 realms united together in one of the wars that broke out, and laid 
 siege to Nineveh. The people of Nineveh defended themselves as 
 well as they could, but the defense they made only served to ex- 
 asperate their enemies, so that at length, when the Babylonians 
 and Medians succeeded in getting possession of the city, they were 
 so infuriated against the inhabitants that they sacked it, and de- 
 stroyed it altogether. The territories of the Assyrians were after 
 this absorbed in those of their conquerors, and thus this famous 
 empire, considered as a separate and independent power, came to 
 a final end. 
 
 What calcidation has been made in respect to the duration of 
 the Assyrian empire? 
 
 Although so little is known at the present day of the Assyrian 
 empire, or of the kings that ruled over it, the period during which 
 its power and prosperity continued was very long. According to 
 the best calculations that can now be made, the town of Nineveh 
 
36 BABYLON. 
 
 was first built 2400 years before Christ, and it was not till 900 
 years before Christ that the great empire was brought to an end 
 in the days of Sardanapalus. The smaller empire continued 300 
 years more. Thus the whole duration of this famous dominion 
 extended over a period of 1800 years, which i.? nearly as long as 
 from the Christian era to the present time. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 BABYLON. 
 
 What was the situation of Bahylon in respect to Nineveh f 
 
 By looking at the map placed near the commencement of the 
 last chapter, you will see the situation of Babylon in respect to 
 Nineveh. Nineveh was on the Tigris, while Babylon was on the 
 Euphrates. The distance of one of these cities from the other was 
 about three hundred miles in a straight line, and considerably 
 fjirther by the course of the river. 
 
 Which was the most ancient city f 
 
 It is very probable that Babylon was originally built at as early 
 a ]Deriod as Nineveh ; but as the period of its independent power 
 and its greatest prosperity was much later, we have received more 
 full accounts of it than of the former city. 
 
 When did Babylonia become an independent kingdom. ? 
 
 During the time that the Assyrian empire was in the height of 
 its power and splendor, the region of country in which Babylon 
 was situated, which was called Babylonia, was a part of it, and 
 was ruled by a governor who derived his power from the King of 
 Assyria. After the destruction of Nineveh in the time of Sarda- 
 napalus, as related in the last chapter, this province became an in- 
 dependent kingdom, and the power and wealth for which Nineveh 
 had been so renowned was transferred in a great measure to Bab- 
 ylon, its great southern rival. 
 
BABYLON. 37 
 
 W/w loas governor of Babylon at the time of the fall of Sar- 
 danajpalus f What thought occurred to him after the burning 
 of the treasures f 
 
 There was one transaction, by which the wealth of Babylon was 
 increased at the expense of Nineveh, that was very curious. It 
 occurred immediately after the fall of Sardanapalus and the burn- 
 ing of his treasures. It happened that the name of the governor 
 of Babylon at that time was Belesis. He was one of the rebels 
 who conspired against Sardanapalus. After the fire was over, and 
 he and his fellow-conspirators had obtained full possession of the 
 city, it occurred to him that there must be a large amount of val- 
 ue in the form of gold and silver, and perhaps of other things not 
 fully consumed, remaining in the ruins. 
 
 What 'means did he contrive for getting possession of the treas- 
 ure that remained? 
 
 So he wished to get possession of all the remains of the fire, 
 and he contrived this ingenious way of doing it. He informed 
 the other rebel generals that in the midst of the fight he had made 
 a vow to the god of Assyria that, if the god would grant him vic- 
 tory, he would convey all the ashes of the conflagration to Bab- 
 ylon, and deposit them in a great temple which he would build to 
 receive them there in honor of the god. 
 
 "And now," said he, "since victory has been bestowed upon 
 us, I feel bound to fulfill my vow." 
 What luas the result of this scheme? 
 
 Of course, the generals could not well make any objection to so 
 pious a proposal as this, and so Belesis set his men at work to 
 gather up all the remains of the fire and convey them to Babylon, 
 and there immense quantities of gold and silver were found, which 
 Belesis employed in embellishing the city and in enriching his 
 royal treasures. 
 
 IToio much is known of the line of Babylonian kings ? 
 
 Belesis made Babylon a great and wealthy capital. After him 
 
38 BABYLON. 
 
 we find, in ancient accounts, a record of a line of monarchs whose 
 reigns extended over a period of several hundred years. We know 
 nothing, however, of all these kings except their names. Indeed, 
 after the time of Belesis, the first information that was obtained 
 of the Babylonian history is the accounts contained in the Scrip- 
 tures of the intercourse and connection between the Babylonians 
 and the Jews. 
 
 What was the first act of intercourse hetween the King of 
 Babylon and the Jews f 
 
 The first act of intercourse was a very friendly one. The King 
 of Babylon sent a complimentary embassy to King Hezekiah to 
 congratulate him on his recovery from sickness. Hezekiah re- 
 ceived the messengers with great distinction, and showed them all 
 his treasures. 
 
 Through what regions did the road hetween these countries lay? 
 
 By referring again to the map, you will see that the distance 
 from Babylon to Jerusalem was not very great, though the road 
 from one of these cities to the other lay through a somewhat 
 dreary and desert country. Jerusalem was nearly west of Baby- 
 lon, as you will see. 
 
 What effect did the display which Hezekiah tnade of his treas- 
 ttres have ujpon the Babylonians? What consequences ensued? 
 
 Hezekiah acted very unwisely in making such a parade of his 
 treasures to the Babylonian embassadors, for, of course, their re- 
 port to the king, when they should get home, would awaken in 
 his mind a desire to get possession of them. This, indeed, was 
 the effect ; and before a long time, wars broke out between the 
 Babylonians and the Jews, and a series of invasions took place, 
 in the course of which all the Jewish treasures were seized and 
 carried ofi', and at last the people themselves were made captives, 
 and driven across the deserts to Babylon, to work as slaves for 
 their conquerors there.* 
 
 * The curious circumstances under which the wars between the kings of Babylon 
 
BABYLON. 
 
 39 
 
 ^... ^•^ ^^ \ 
 
 A^^ 
 
 KING HEZEKIAH SHOWING HIS TREASURES. 
 
 How were the cajytive Jews employed in Babylon f 
 The work which they had principally to do was to dig water- 
 courses for the overflow of the rivers— the lands all about Baby- 
 lon being low and level— to make dikes and embankments, to 
 
 and the Jews first broke out, and all the particulars of the several mvasions, are given 
 in a very interesting manner in the books of Kings and Chronicles, beginning a. 
 2 Kings, xxiii., 29. 
 
40 BABYLON. 
 
 make bricks, and build walls and towers with them, and to con- 
 struct other pubhc edifices in and about the city, and to perform 
 personal services for their owners.- 
 
 How long did the captivity last f 
 
 This captivity lasted seventy years. How it terminated we 
 shall presently see. 
 
 Who was the most celebrated of the Bahylonian kings f 
 
 The king who figured most conspicuously, perhaps, among all 
 the Babylonian sovereigns, was Nebuchadnezzar. He was one of 
 the greatest and most renowned of all the kings of Babylon. He 
 very much enlarged the city, and embellished it with most mag- 
 nificent structures, so as to make it, at the time, the wonder of 
 the world. 
 
 How is the city described by the ancient historians f 
 
 The most marvelous accounts have come down to us of the ex- 
 tent and grandeur which Babylon attained when the improvements 
 which he made in it were completed. The sides of the city, it 
 was said, were fifteen miles in length ; this Avould make the in- 
 closed area more than two hundred square miles. We must not 
 suppose, however, by any means, that all this great space was oc- 
 cupied with streets and buildings, for the cities of that age of the 
 world always included vast spaces of open ground, which were 
 used for parks, gardens, forests for hunting, and even for tillage 
 land. ■ Indeed, Babylon, as represented by the writers of those 
 days, was a small kingdom inclosed in walls rather than a city. 
 
 Describe the walls. How were the Babylonian bricks man- 
 ufactured f 
 
 The walls were very thick and very high. They were built of 
 brick, and were cemented by a bituminous sort of slime, which is 
 found in that part of the country, and which answers exceedingly 
 well instead of mortar. The reason why bricks were used for 
 architectural constructions in Babylon instead of stone was, that 
 there were no stone -quarries near, the country for hundreds of 
 
BABYLON. 41 
 
 miles, up and clown the river, consisting of level plains, which seem 
 to have been formed almost entirely by alluvial deposits from the 
 river. The soil beneath the surface in all these plains was formed 
 by a sort of half-indurated mud and slime, which could be cut out 
 by the spade in square blocks, and these blocks, when dried, made 
 very good bricks without baking. Thus, in fortifying the city, the 
 material which came out of the ditches was used to make the wall, 
 and this was so convenient that it was easy to make the ditch very 
 wide and deep, and the wall very broad and high. It was said 
 that the walls of Babylon were so broad in some places that ten 
 or fifteen carriages could drive abreast upon the top of them. 
 
 Describe the form of the city and the arrangement of the 
 streets. 
 
 The city was square, and there were twenty-five gates on each 
 side, making one hundred gates in all. There were twenty-five 
 streets each way, running from the gates on one side to those on 
 the other. These streets crossed each other at right angles, and 
 divided the whole interior area of the city into six or seven hund- 
 red squares or blocks, each of which must have been about three 
 quarters of a rnile in length each way. The houses and other ed- 
 ifices of the city were built only along the margin of the squares, 
 by tlie side of the street, leaving the whole interior of them for 
 gardens, parks, lawns, pleasure-grounds, and fields for cultiva- 
 tion. 
 
 TFA?/ was a large sjpace for cultivation loithin the walls con- 
 sidered necessary f 
 
 It was considered very important to have a large space of ground 
 for cultivation inclosed within the walls of the city, so that, in 
 case of its being besieged by an enemy, and of the siege being 
 protracted beyond the tim'^, that the supplies of food would last, 
 the people could raise food from this land, and thus maintain them- 
 selves much lonsier a2:ainst the danc^er of f imine than would other- 
 wise be possible. 
 
42 BABYLON. 
 
 In what way did the river divide the city? How were the 
 hanks of it defeiided f 
 
 The Eiver Euphrates flowed through the city from north to 
 south, and divided it into two equal parts. The walls of the city 
 were continued along the banks of the river, with gates opposite 
 to the streets, and steps to go down to the water. These inner 
 walls were, of course, not so strong as the outer ones, for it was 
 not supposed that any army could enter in that way except by 
 coming up or down in boats on the river, and this, of course, would 
 be an exceedingly difficult and dangerous operation. 
 
 Describe the j^edaces and the gardens. 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar built very magnificent palaces, too, in Babylon, 
 and surrounded them with parks and gardens, all very beautifully 
 laid out, and most splendidly adorned. But perhaps, after all, the 
 most wonderful of all his structures was what was called the hang- 
 ing gardens, though the structure might, perhaps, more properly 
 have been called an artificial mountain. 
 
 What were the circumstances which led Nebuchadnezzar to 
 conceive the idea of the hanging gardens ? 
 
 His particular object in building this curious work was to please 
 one of his wives, a young and beautiful princess named Amytis. 
 She was a native of ]\Iedia, which is quite a mountainous country, 
 and when she came to reside at Babylon, though she was pleased 
 with the extreme beauty and fertility of the plains which lay along 
 the river, she complained of the monotony of them, and said she 
 longed*l;o see a hill. The celebrated hill called the hanging gar- 
 dens was the result. 
 
 Describe the gardens. 
 
 The structure consisted of a series of platforms or terraces, sup- 
 ported on arches of masonry, rising one above another, so high that 
 the topmost one overlooked the walls of the city, which were said 
 to be more than a hundred feet high. The several platforms were 
 formed of immense flat blocks of stone, which were brought from 
 
BABYLON. 
 
 43 
 
 THE HANGING GARDENS. 
 
 a great distance up the river for this express purpose. On these 
 platforms was laid a very deep covering of garden mould, deep 
 enough for the largest trees to grow in. These various platforms, 
 thus covered, were laid out and cultivated as gardens, with walks, 
 parterres of flowers, groups of trees nnd shrubbery, fountains, stat- 
 
44 BABYLON. 
 
 lies and bowers, and with broad flights of steps leading up from one 
 platform to the other. The structure must have presented some 
 such an appearance as is represented in the preceding engraving. 
 
 What great power at length began to overshadow the Babylo- 
 nian kingdom f 
 
 The Babylonian empire rose to a very high degree of grandeur 
 and renown under the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, and its power con- 
 tinued in a great degree unimpaired under Nebuchadnezzar's suc- 
 cessors for many years. At length another great power, which 
 had been for some time rising, farther to the northward, began 
 gradually to overshadow it. This was the empire of the Medes 
 and Persians. 
 
 What king of the Medes and Persians laid siege to Babylon? 
 Who was then king of Babylon ? 
 
 At length Cyrus, the king of that country, in the course of his 
 conquests advanced toward Babylon, and laid siege to the city. 
 This was during the reign of a king of Babylon named Nabona- 
 dius — the same who in the Scriptures is called Belshazzar. He 
 was a very effeminate and inefficient man, and he left the whole 
 management of the government and the defense of his capital in 
 the hands of his mother, the Queen Nitocrls. 
 
 Who loas Nitocris^ and lohat was her character f 
 
 Nitocris was a woman of remarkable genius. She was, as it 
 seems, quite distinguished in those times for her engineering and 
 architectural plans. She had contrived, and caused to be executed, 
 several grand designs for improving and beautifying the city. She 
 caused to be constructed, for instance, an immense lake or reser- 
 voir, to take off the superfluous water in case of a flood, and thus 
 prevent the land being devastated by inundation. She, too, had 
 built the bridge which connected the two parts of the city across 
 the Euphrates. Some time before she died, she caused her tomb 
 to be built over one of the principal gates of the city, where it long 
 remained a monument to Iier memory. 
 
BABYLON. 45 
 
 Hoio did Nitocris manage the war ? 
 
 Nitocris, being left by her son Belshazzar in charge of the de- 
 fense of the city against the invasion of CyruSf displayed a most 
 wonderful degree of courage and energy in carrying on the war. 
 A great battle was fought at first without the walls, but the Bab- 
 ylonians were defeated and driven within the city, and were shut 
 in by Cyrus, who then commenced a siege which lasted several 
 years. 
 
 What was the plan which Cyrus filially devised for getting 
 into the city f 
 
 At length Cyrus contrived a way of getting into the city, which 
 lias been celebrated in all ages of the world as one of the greatest 
 strategic exploits in war that were ever performed. This plan 
 was no less than that of diverting the Euphrates from its course, 
 and then marching his army into the city along the old bed of the 
 river. 
 
 What was the first step in executing the plan f 
 
 In executing this plan, Cyrus first employed a vast number of 
 men to build dams across the river above the city, and to open 
 channels to convey the waters off over the surrounding country, 
 which was very low and level, and contained great numbers of old, 
 deserted channels, and wide tracts of low, swamj)y land to re- 
 ceive it. 
 
 What was the object of the gateioays which he constructed in 
 the new channels that loere dug? 
 
 In constructing these works, Cyrus made gateways in the sluices 
 and dams, so as not to change the flowing of the water till all was 
 ready, and he took great pains to conceal the operations from Bel- 
 shazzar's armies within the city. 
 
 How did Belshazzar act while these preparations were going 
 on? 
 
 In the mean while, Belshazzar within the walls felt perfectly 
 secure. The fortifications of the city, although they would have 
 
46 BABYLON. 
 
 made but little resistance to the cannonading of modern warfare, 
 were complete protection, he thought, to the battering-rams of Cy- 
 rus's army, and he little knew what means the enemy was taking 
 to effect an entrance. In this feeling of security he, with his no- 
 bles devoted himself to the enjoyment of all the gayeties, luxu- 
 ries, and festivities which his palaces and the resources of his city 
 could furnish. 
 
 WAai tvere the final preparations made hy Cyrus for the ex^ 
 ecution of his plaoif 
 
 Cyrus meantime pushed forward the execution of the scheme by 
 which he was to gain admittance unresisted into the besieged city. 
 He stationed a very large detachment of troops at the opening in 
 the wall where the river entered the city, and another at the other 
 side of the city, at the opening where the river came forth. He 
 then gave orders that, as soon as these forces should observe that 
 the water of the river had subsided and disappeared, they should 
 go down into the bed of the stream and march into the city. 
 What was the result? 
 
 When all these preparations were ready, the proper orders were 
 given, and the gates in the dams were shut, and those in the sluices 
 opened at such a time in the evening as to cause the bed of the 
 river within the city to be laid dry in the course of the night. The 
 army of Cyrus then marched in over the sands, now bare, and then, 
 going up the stairways, entered the city through the gateways in 
 the river walls, which had been left comparatively unguarded. 
 
 How many columns entered the city ? 
 
 Thus the enemy came suddenly into the city, and marched 
 without opposition to the very heart of it, one column coming 
 from the north, and another from the south wall. 
 
 What became of Belshazzarf 
 
 Belshazzar was found carousing with the nobles of his court in 
 the royal palace, where he was put to death in the midst of the 
 company. 
 
BABYLON. 
 
 47 
 
 CYRUS ENTERING BABYLON. 
 
 What book in the ScrijJtures contains an account of these 
 transactions ? 
 
 The book of Daniel, in the Bible, contains a very interesting 
 narrative of the downfall of Belshazzar. 
 
 What tvas the coiiclition of Bahijlonia after this conquest f 
 
 From the time that Babylon was thus taken, the city itself, to- 
 gether with the country pertaining to it, became a province of the 
 
48 EUINS OP NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 
 
 great Medio-Persian empire. The people revolted from time to 
 time, and endeavored to regain their independence, but they did 
 not succeed. Babylon gradually declined in wealth and power, 
 and at length all its mighty edifices went entirely to ruin. 
 
 What became of the Jewish captives at this thne f In what 
 hooks do we find the history of their return^ and of their efforts 
 to rebuild Jerusalem ? 
 
 Not long after the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, the Jews 
 were released from their captivity, and were allowed to return to 
 their native land. Very interesting accounts of the difficulties 
 which they encountered on their return, and of the labors, dangers, 
 and sufferings which they incurred in rebuilding Jerusalem, are 
 given in the Scriptures, in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 RUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 
 
 ^¥hat degree of reliance is placed at the present day in the ac- 
 counts given of Nineveh and Babylon by ancient writers f^ 
 
 A great many of the marvelous tales that were related in an- 
 cient times of the cities of Nineveh and Babylon are considered 
 entirely fabulous at the present day, and it might even have been 
 doubted whether such cities ever existed, were it not that the ruins 
 and remains of them have recently been discovered and extensive- 
 ly explored. The remains found among the ruins prove the truth 
 of many of the ancient accounts. 
 
 What was the general appearance of the ruins when first ob- 
 served f 
 
 These ruins remained concealed for more than a thousand years, 
 none of them being visible above the surface of the ground. Noth- 
 ing was to be seen, indeed, on the sites which they occupied but 
 long grassy ridges and conical mounds, which, though very cu- 
 
EUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 49 
 
 rious in their form and appearance, presented nothing to the eye 
 indicating their true character as ancient ruins. 
 
 Why is it that these cities went so entirely to decay f 
 These cities would probably not have gone so entirely to decay 
 if they had been built of any solid material, such as granite or 
 marble, for the pyramids, and many of the columns and temples 
 in Egypt, which are of far greater age, remain standing to the pres- 
 ent time. But the structures of Nineveh and Babylon, having 
 been built chiefly of bricks made out of the mud dug out of the 
 meadow lands, and hardened only by being dried in the sun, in 
 the course of a few centuries went entirely to ruin, and the exterior 
 surfaces of the heaps, being softened by rains, were gradually cov- 
 ered with soil and vegetation, and so, in process of time, it was 
 entirely forgotten that there had ever been any cities there. 
 Who first explored the moimds, and what did they find f 
 Within a few years, however, certain French and English trav- 
 elers in the East undertook to dig into some of these mounds, and 
 explore the contents of them. They found them full, in every 
 part, of bricks, pottery, ruined walls, sculptures, fragments of arch- 
 itectural ornaments, and other ancient relics and remains, which 
 not only prove that these places were really the sites of ancient 
 cities of vast extent and magnificence, but also furnish us with a 
 great deal of curious information in respect to the customs, usages, 
 and modes of life which prevailed in those ancient days. 
 1 D 
 
50 
 
 EUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 
 
 What was done with the relics that were discovered? 
 A great many of these relics, containing inscriptions and picto- 
 rial representations, which were found lining the walls of the pal- 
 aces, have been taken out carefully and carried to England, where 
 they have since been set up in the British Museum, in long rooms 
 similar in form to those in which they were found, and where they 
 may now be seen and examined by all the world. 
 Describe the sculptures which were discovered^ 
 Some of these sculptured pictures represent hunting scenes, and 
 some battles and sieges, showing the forms of ancient weapons, 
 and the modes of warfare practiced in those days. Others give 
 us views of civil or military processions, or of scenes in domestic 
 life. "We can thus learn from them a great deal about the forms 
 of the furniture, the utensils, and the arms used by the ancient 
 Assyrians and Babylonians, and also -gather much information in 
 respect to their usages and modes of life. 
 
 What weapons are represented in the three figures shown f 
 Here, for example, are three figures of warriors, showing the 
 kinds of weapons and armor which were used in those days. 
 
 SPEARMAN. 
 
EUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 51 
 
 What is the first warrior, and how is he armed ? 
 
 The general character of the dress in all these figures is the 
 same, though the weapons are different. The archer has one of 
 his arrows in his hand, and he holds his bow in the other. He 
 has also at his side a quiver to put his spare arrows in. The 
 quiver is made to hold his bow likewise. 
 
 What is the second warrior, and how is he armed f 
 
 The second is a spearman. He wears a crested helmet on his 
 head, and he Jiolds a large round shield on his left arm. His legs 
 are protected by chain-mail. 
 
 What is the third warrior, and in what jposition is he Tejpre- 
 sented f 
 
 The third warrior is a slinger. He has just thrown a stone. 
 He holds another in his hand ready to put into the sling, and he 
 has, moreover, a small pile of stones at his feet. All three of the 
 warriors have swords by their sides, in addition to their own ap- 
 propriate weapons. 
 
 Describe the group representing the ceremony of writing down 
 the number of the slain after a battle. 
 
 Many of the sculptures on these slabs represent groups of men 
 performing certain acts, by means of which we obtain an insight 
 into several of the customs of these ancient nations. On the fol- 
 lowing page, for example, is one representing the mode by which, 
 after a battle, the victors were accustomed to reckon up the slain. 
 The soldiers are bringing in thfe heads of their enemies and throw- 
 ing them together in a heap, in the presence of two officers appoint- 
 ed to keep the reckoning. One of these officers is counting the 
 heads, and the other is writing the number down. 
 
 In what respect do the figures in this group correspond with 
 the others f 
 
 The dresses of these men are similar to those of the other fig- 
 ures. They are archers, and their bows, being not in use, are 
 placed in the quivers. 
 
52 
 
 EUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 
 
 WRITING DOWN THE NUMBER OF THE SLAIN 
 
 Describe the growp representmg men attacking a city. 
 On the opposite page is a sculpture representing soldiers ad- 
 vancing to the attack of a besieged city. The two foremost are 
 armed with shields and spears. The shields are to defend them 
 from the arrows which the enemy shoot at them from the walls of 
 the city. Two such arrows have been already intercepted, and 
 we see them sticking in one of the shields. The men are crouch- 
 ing down and kneeling as they advance, so that their bodies may 
 be more perfectly covered and protected by the shields. 
 What is the arrangement for jprotecting the archers f 
 The two other men are armed in quite a diiferent manner. One 
 of them is an archer, and is armed with a bow and arrow, while 
 the other one supports a large shield before him to protect him. 
 A spearman can hold his own shield, for it requires only one hand 
 to throw a spear; but for a bow and arrow both hands are re- 
 quired. 
 
 Describe the shield used to protect the archers. 
 
 The shield is very large ; the lower end of it rests on the ground. 
 
RUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 
 
 53 
 
 ADVANCING TO THE ATTACK. 
 
 SO that all the shield-hearer has to do is to keep it in an upright 
 position, and also to move it forward from time to time as the 
 archer advances. This he does by means of a handle which we 
 see attached to the inner side of the shield. 
 
 What is the form of the tojp of it f 
 
 The top of the shield is bent over, so as to protect the faces of 
 the men standing behind it. 
 
 What else does the shield-bearer carry besides the shield? 
 
 The shield-bearer, besides his shield, is armed with a spear. 
 He manages the shield with one hand, and the spear with the 
 other. The two spearmen in front wear the same kind of crested 
 helmet that we saw on the head of the spearman in the single fig- 
 ure on a previous page, and the archer and his shield-bearer wear 
 pointed ones, like that of the slinger. 
 
 What custom prevailed in those dMys in respect to fighting i?i 
 pairs f 
 
 It seems to have been very much the custom in those days for 
 soldiers to fight together in pairs, like this archer and shield-bearer, 
 and to conduct various other operations in the same manner where 
 more than one pair of hands was required. Sometimes even there 
 
54 
 
 EUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 
 
 are three, as, for example, in the chariots of war, where there are 
 usually represented three men standing up together, one to drive, 
 one to hold a shield, and a third, the warrior, who is armed for the 
 fight. We should have supposed that three men standing thus 
 together in one small chariot, each having a different function from 
 the rest to perform, would have been very much in each other's 
 way ; but it seems that, by careful training to the duty, they ac- 
 quired so much skill in it as to act together as if they formed but 
 one man — a sort of six-legged and six-handed man. 
 
 Describe the sculpture representing two men fighting as a pair 
 on horsehacJc. 
 
 Here is another sculpture which affords a very remarkable ex- 
 
 THE COMPOUND HORSEMAN. 
 
 ample of these complex animals. It consists of two horses, ridden 
 by two men, one to drive both horses, and the other to fight with 
 a bow and arrow. You can see that the left-hand horseman holds 
 the reins of both horses, so that the other rider may have both 
 
EUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 
 
 55 
 
 hands free for his bow and arrows. He has a quiver, and we can 
 see the ends of the spare arrows projecting out of it a little way 
 at the top. 
 
 W/iat sort of boats are represented on these seuljptures f 
 
 The boats that are represented in these ancient sculptures are 
 very curious. It seems that the original mode of making boats 
 on these rivers was to take the hide of an ox, or some similar an- 
 imal, and stretch it over a frame of osiers. The form of such a 
 craft would, of course, be very peculiar — short and broad, and 
 more like an oval bowl than a boat. Besides these boats, the men 
 were accustomed to swim across the rivers by means of the skins 
 of smaller animals, which they inflated for this purpose, and placed 
 under them to buoy them up, as a boy would do with a bladder. 
 
 Describe the sculpture rejpresenting the crossing of a river. 
 
 Here is a sculpture showing these things very plainly. The 
 
 CROSSING A RIVER. 
 
 waving lines which form the groundwork of the picture represent 
 water. In one place we see a fish swimming in it. There are a 
 great many such water-pieces as this in the diiferent sculptures. 
 The boat goes first, transporting a war chariot. We can see the 
 wheel, and the other parts of the chariot in the boat. Two men, 
 denoting soldiers of the army, are following, swimming on inflated 
 skins. The man who is steering the boat is looking back to see 
 how the swimmers get along. There are two other men rowing. 
 We know that the articles in the boat are the parts of a war char- 
 iot, because in many of the other sculptures we have full repre- 
 
56 
 
 EUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 
 
 sentations of these chariots going into battle, and the parts are the 
 same as are represented here. In one sculpture, indeed, there is a 
 representation of people on the bank of the stream taking a chariot 
 to pieces, in order to put it into a boat, while other persons stand- 
 ing by are blowing up their skins in order to get ready to swim. 
 
 WAat is the action represented in the sculpture of the war 
 chariot f 
 
 Here is a representation of one of the chariots complete. Ob- 
 
 WAR CHARIOT. 
 
 serve the peculiar structure of it, and the style of the harness. 
 By comparing the several parts of this chariot with those in the 
 boat, you will see that they are the same. 
 
 Describe the form of the chariot and the action of the men. 
 
 The wheels of the chariot, you perceive, are massive, though 
 low, and the body is small. There is just room enough for two 
 men to stand. One holds the reins of the horses, while the other 
 is armed with a bow and arrow. He is just shooting the arrow. 
 Beneath the horses lies a wounded enemy. His attitude denotes 
 that he is in pain. His bow and his quiver lie by his side. 
 
EUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 
 
 57 
 
 There are two quivers full of arrows by the side of the chariot. 
 There is also a spear ready to be seized at any moment when it 
 is required. The bird flying above the horses represents a vul- 
 ture flying toward the battle-field to devour the slain. 
 How are the horses caparisoned? 
 
 The horses are gorgeously caparisoned, their trappings being 
 
 adorned with tassels, and rosettes, 
 and other similar embellishments. 
 It is so with almost all the horses 
 that are represented in these sculp- 
 tures. Observe, for examj)le, how 
 splendidly this horse's head is 
 adorned. 
 
 There seems to have been an es- 
 tablished fashion in respect to all 
 these things, for on all the sculp- 
 tures the devices of the dress and 
 equipage are very nearly the same. 
 
 HEAD-DRESS OF A HORSE. 
 
 By what means have these ancient relics been hrought to light f 
 
 Travelers from England and France, visiting the ruins of Bab- 
 ylon and Nineveh, have made vast excavations in the mounds, 
 with the assistance of the Arab natives, and have brought to light 
 these relics. 
 
 Were the Arab natives who lived near these mounds acquaint- 
 ed loith lohat they contained f 
 
 The country bordering on the rivers Tigris and Euphrates is 
 inhabited by Arabs, a wild and half-civilized people, who live in 
 villages of huts which they have built along the banks of the riv- 
 ers, and sometimes on the slopes of the mounds. They have no 
 idea whatever of the history, or even of the existence of the an- 
 cient cities whose ruins lie buried under their soil. When the 
 English and French travelers began to dig into the mounds, they 
 supposed that they were searching for hidden treasures, and noth- 
 
58 
 
 RUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 
 
 ing could exceed the amazement which they manifested as they 
 stood around the excavations and gazed on the prodigious sculp- 
 
 ASTONISHMENT OF THE NATIVES 
 
 tures, and the curious utensils and relics that were brought to 
 
 W/iat degree of civilization do these sculjptures indicate in the 
 Assyrians and Bahylonians f 
 
 It is very plain, from these sculptures, that the ancient Assyri- 
 ans and Babylonians were quite a cultivated people, and had made 
 great progress in many of the arts and refinements of life. 
 
FOUNDATION OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 59 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 FOUNDATION OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Describe the situation of Media and Persia, Who laid the 
 first foundations of the Persian empire? 
 
 To tlie eastward of tlie great river valleys watered by the Ti- 
 gris and Euphrates — the region of the cities of Nineveh and Bab- 
 ylon — are the two countries of Media and Persia — Media on the 
 north, and Persia on the south. During the period while Nineveh 
 and Babylon were flourishing, these countries, too, were gradually 
 increasing in wealth and power, until at length they entirely over- 
 powered those earlier dominions. The great conqueror in whom 
 the power of the Medes and Persians was first combined was Cy- 
 rus, and he subsequently extended his command over all that 
 part of Assyria, thus laying the foundation of the great Persian 
 empire. 
 
 What is thought at the prese7it day of the accounts given of 
 Cyrus by the ancient historians ? Why are these accounts deem- 
 ed incredible f 
 
 This Cyrus was one of the greatest and most renowned con- 
 querors of ancient time. He lived, however, at so early a period, 
 that no authentic and regular accounts of his history were written 
 at the time, and the world was, accordingly, filled for some hund- 
 reds of years after his death with the most romantic and marvel- 
 ous tales respecting him. We can not possibly believe these sto- 
 ries, even if we were to wish to believe them ; for, besides being so 
 marvelous, they are, many of them, inconsistent with each other. 
 It is well, however, to know what some of these stories were. 
 
 What was the j)arentage of Cyrus ? 
 
 A remarkable tale is told of a very narrow escape from destruc- 
 tion in his infancv. He was born in Media, and was the son of 
 
60 FOUNDATION OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Mandane, who was a princess of that country, her father being the 
 king. The king's name was Astyages. 
 
 Describe the occurrence ichich led Astyages to feel alarm in 
 respect to his daughter. 
 
 One night, at the time when Mandane was living at home with 
 her father as a young maiden, Astyages had a dream concerning 
 her which frightened him. Kings in those days, who governed, 
 not by any just right, but by despotic and arbitrary power, were 
 always ready to take alarm in respect to the tenure of their sway, 
 and Astyages imagined that his dream denoted that his daughter 
 would in some way or other be the means of dethroning him. 
 "Ah!" said he to himself, "she will marry some warlike prince, 
 and will rebel against me and take away my crown." 
 
 What measures did Astyages adojpt to avert the danger? 
 Whom did he choose as a husband for Mandane f 
 
 In order to prevent this calamity, the king began to look about 
 for some husband for Mandane who was of so gentle and quiet a 
 disposition that there should be no danger of his cherishing any 
 such ambitious designs. He made choice of Cambyses, the prince 
 or governor of Persia, which country seems to have been at that 
 time, in some sense, a dependency of Media. So Mandane was 
 married to him, and soon after she went to Persia with her hus- 
 band. 
 
 In what way loas the alarm of Astyages renewed ? 
 
 By-and-by Astyages had another dream, which led him to sup- 
 pose that the danger which he had to fear from Mandane would 
 come from her son, and not from her husband. This frightened 
 him more than ever, and he sent for Mandane to come home, in 
 order that he might kill her child as soon as it was born. 
 What measures did he now adopt f 
 
 Accordingly, as soon as the child was born, he gave it to one 
 of his officers named Harpagus, with orders that he should kill it. 
 He was very unwilling to kill the child himself, and so he gave it 
 
FOUNDATION OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 61 
 
 to a herdsman, directing him to cany it out into the woods, and 
 leave it there till it was dead, and then to bring the body home. 
 
 Describe the situation of the herdsinarC s faimly at this time. 
 What became of Cyrus ? 
 
 Now it happened that the herdsman's wife had a child at this 
 time that was dead, and the body was lying in the hut when her 
 husband brought little Cyrus home. So she concluded to make 
 an exchange. She kept Cyrus alive, and carried her own child 
 out into the woods, intending to leave it there a few days, and 
 then to take the body to Harpagus and pretend it was that of 
 Mandane's child. While the body was lying in the woods, a 
 man was stationed near to watch it, and drive off the beasts and 
 birds of prey. 
 
 THE herdsman's INFANT. 
 
 In due time they carried the body back to their hut, and Har- 
 
62 FOUNDATION OF THE PERSIAN EM^IEE. 
 
 pagus came to see it. He then went to the king and told him 
 that Mandane's child was dead. He was perfectly sure of it, he 
 said, for he had seen the body. 
 
 W/ien at length these thiiigs were discovered hy the king, was 
 he pleased or displeased that Cyrus was saved f What retitrn 
 did he make to Harpagus f 
 
 Several years elapsed before it was discovered by the king that 
 Cyrus was alive. He had then become a tall and handsome boy, 
 and the king, when he accidentally discovered him, was very much 
 pleased, though he was dreadfully enraged with Harpagus for 
 having failed to obey his command to kill him. He punished 
 Harpagus by killing his son in the most cruel and horrid manner. 
 Harpagus made no open complaint, but he secretly resolved to be 
 avenged. 
 
 ^¥here and how was Cyrus brought up f 
 
 Cyrus was sent to Persia to his mother, and was brought up 
 there. Here he was educated in a very thorough and careful man- 
 ner, according to the customs and modes of education adopted in 
 those days. He was taught to wrestle, to run, and to perform 
 various other athletic exercises. He was practiced also in the use 
 of arms and armor employed in those days — the spear, the javelin, 
 the bow and arrow, the shield and the sword. He was often 
 taken out into the forests, too, with the other young men of the 
 court, to practice what he had learned in hunting wild beasts. 
 
 What was his character in his youth f 
 
 Cyrus became a great favorite while he lived in Persia with his 
 mother, on account of the amiableness and gentleness of his man- 
 ners, and the kind and open-hearted honesty which he manifested 
 in all his actions. In a word, he was a general favorite among all 
 who knew him. 
 
 When did he return to Media f 
 
 When he was about twelve years old, he went to make a visit 
 to his grandfather in Media, and remained there several years. 
 
FOUNDATION OF THE PEESIAN EMPIEE. 
 
 63 
 
 }Iow did he appear thei^e^ and how was he regarded? 
 
 Here he attracted much attention, and made himself a still great- 
 er favorite than he had been at his father's court in Persia. He 
 surpassed all the young men of the court in strength, in agility, 
 in manly courage, and in the high moral and intellectual qualities 
 which he manifested in all his intercourse with those around him. 
 
 Describe the adventure that he inet with in hunting. 
 
 The following engraving represents an incident that occurred 
 in hunting, that strongly illustrated the ardor and impetuosity of 
 his character. The hunting party, while hunting a stag, came to 
 a dreadful chasm, and all except Cyrus reined up their horses in- 
 stinctively upon the brink of it ; but he drove on, and went over 
 
 CYRUS'S HUNTING. 
 
 it, though at the imminent risk of his life. On gaining the farther 
 side of the chasm, he pressed on, overtook the stag, and killed him 
 with his javelin. 
 
64 FOUNDATION OP THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 What'was the character of Cyrus when he became a man? 
 Who first conceived the idea of making him hingf 
 
 At length Cyrus returned to Persia, and there, in process of 
 years, grew up to be a man, and, as might have been expected, 
 from the energy and impetuosity of character which he had mani- 
 fested as a youth, an aspiring and ambitious man ; and in process 
 of time, Harpagus, who had not forgotten his vows of vengeance 
 against Astyages, began to form plans to raise a rebellion, and, 
 after dethroning iistyages, to make Cyrus king of Media and Per- 
 sia in his place. 
 
 What was the result of these plans f 
 
 He communicated this plan to Cyrus, and Cyrus, after some 
 hesitation and delay, concluded to accede to it. He raised an 
 army in Persia, and marched into Media. Harpagus joined him, 
 and the revolution was effected. Astyages was deposed, and Cy- 
 rus ascended the throne as King of the Medes and Persians. 
 
 Describe the first military exjoedition which Cyrus undertook. 
 
 As soon as he had well established himself in power, he began 
 to think of enlarging his dominions, and one of the first expedi- 
 tions which he undertook was the invasion of the territories of 
 Croesus, king of Lydia. You will see the situation of Lydia, and 
 the route which Cyrus took in marching into it with his army, by 
 looking at the opposite map. 
 
 Who was Crmsus, and for what was he chiefly renowned? 
 
 Croesus was immensely rich. He obtained his riches from the 
 gold which was found abundantly in one of the rivers in his do- 
 minions. The common proverb, " as rich as Croesus," refers to 
 him. Sardis was the capital of his dominions, and the River Ha- 
 lys was the eastern boundary of it. The capital of Cyrus, in Me- 
 dia, was Ecbatana. The situation of all those places can be seen 
 upon the map. 
 
 Describe the situation and extent of Croesuses dominions. 
 
 Croesus was not only very rich, but he was also very powerful, 
 
FOUNDATION OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 65 
 
 EXPEDITION OF CYRUS. 
 
 and he had himself been extending his conquests very far and 
 wide beyond the boundaries of his native kingdom of Lydia when 
 Cyrus went to meet him. 
 
 W/iat tvas the result of Cyrus's invasion of Lydia f 
 
 Cyrus was successful in his invasion. He defeated Croesus's 
 armies in the field, and then besieged and conquered Sardis, the 
 capital, and finally took Croesus himself prisoner, and carried him 
 away captive. He, however, allowed him a great deal of liberty, 
 and treated him always with the utmost kindness and consideration. 
 
 What other great military expedition did Cyrus undertake f 
 How did it succeed f 
 
 Cyrus acquired great renown fi:om the success of this expedi- 
 tion to Lydia, and not very long after his return he marched into 
 Babylonia and laid siege to Babylon, as was related in a preceding 
 chapter. Here he was successful too, and thus the boundaries of 
 his empire were still more enlarged. Thus he went on from one 
 
 1 E 
 
66 FOUNDATION OF THE PEESIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 conquest to another, until at length almost the whole of Asia, so 
 far as it was then known to the world, was under his sway. 
 What new plans did he now form f 
 
 One might have supposed that he would now be content, but 
 the ambition of these great conquerors is insatiable, and at length, 
 after the lapse of many years, among his other plans, he con- 
 ceived the desire to conquer the Scythian country, which lay be- 
 yond the River Araxes, which you may see on the map to the 
 north of Media. 
 
 Who was the queen of the Scythians at this time f What was 
 her proposal to Cyrus when he reached her frontiers f 
 
 The sovereign of this country was a queen named Tomyris. 
 Cyrus, after some fruitless negotiations, advanced to the Araxes, 
 and was planning how he should cross it, when Tomyris sent him 
 word that she did not fear him, and that he need not trouble him- 
 self to devise any ingenious way of getting across the river, for she 
 was willing to allow him to cross without resistance. She would 
 retire three days' march from the river, she said, if he wished, and 
 let him come into her dominions without opposing him ; or, if he 
 would retire three days' march from the river, she would come into 
 his dominions, and fight him there. 
 
 Which of the alternatives did Cyrus choose f What was the 
 result f 
 
 Cyrus chose the former, and so he crossed the river and march- 
 ed into Scythia. Tomyris met him, and a battle was fought. 
 First Cyrus's soldiers seized Tomyris's son, and he, in his anguish 
 and despair at having been made a captive, killed himself. 
 
 Describe the circumstances of Cyrus's death. 
 
 Afterward a greater Scythian force came up, and another battle 
 was fought, in which Cyrus himself was killed. Tomyris was so 
 exasperated with him for coming to invade her dominions, and for 
 having caused the death of her son, that she cut off his head and 
 plunged it into a bucket filled with the blood of Persians, saying 
 
THE STATES OF GREECE. 67 
 
 as she did so, "There! bloodthirsty wretch! you can there drink 
 as much blood as you will." Thus the mighty conqueror came 
 to a miserable end. 
 
 Who succeeded Cyrus f 
 
 After the death of Cyrus the army left Scythia and went home, 
 and the immense empire which he had established fell into the 
 hands of Cambyses, his son and successor. 
 
 At what time did Cyrus live ? 
 
 The time when Cyrus lived w^as between five and six hundred 
 years before Christ. He commenced his reign in the year bbSi 
 B.C. This is almost the first date in ancient history that is con- 
 sidered as certainly known. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE STATES OF GEEECE. 
 
 When the Persian empire had extended itself to the confines 
 of Europe^ what groujp of states did it find rising to jpower and 
 ready to oppose it there ? 
 
 During the time while these three Asiatic empires — the As- 
 syrian, the Babylonian, and the Persian — had been successively 
 rising to power, and each falling again to make way for the next, 
 a great many other states and kingdoms had been gradually grow- 
 ing up in different parts of the world. Among them were the 
 States of Greece ; and when, at length, the Persian empire had 
 extended itself so as to include all the western part of Asia, it 
 began to come into collision with these states of Grreece, and a se- 
 ries of dreadful wars arose between those two great powers, which 
 continued for hundreds of years. Before beginning to narrate tlie 
 liistory of these wars, I must go back, and give some account of 
 the origin of the different states and kingdoms of Greece, and of 
 the character of the people. 
 
68 
 
 THE STATES OF GEEECE. 
 
 Describe the situation of the States of Greece. What waters 
 separated these countries from the Persian dominions f 
 
 The territories of Greece were situated in Europe, near the con- 
 fines of Asia. They were 
 
 separated from Asia, as ap- 
 pears in the map, by the 
 ^gean Sea and the Sea of 
 Marmora, and by the straits 
 connecting the Sea of Mar- 
 mora with the Black Sea 
 on the north and the ^ge- 
 an Sea on the south. It 
 is necessary to observe this 
 particularly, for in the wars 
 that took place between the 
 Greeks and the Persians, 
 one of the greatest difficul- 
 ties and dangers which the 
 armies encountered in the 
 outset was the getting over 
 
 STATES OF GREECE. 
 
 this water. They usually crossed at the narrow strait which lies 
 between the ^gean Sea and the Sea of Marmora, which was called 
 in those days the Hellespont. 
 
 Describe the face of the country. What was the character of 
 the people? 
 
 The country of the Greeks was farther to the north than that 
 of the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians, and, instead of con- 
 sisting of smooth and level plains, it was very rugged and mount- 
 ainous, and the character of the people, in consequence of this very 
 fact, perhaps, was quite different from that of the inhabitants of 
 the river valleys of Asia. They were more hardy, more intellect- 
 ual, more active and energetic, and far more capable of enduring 
 fatigue, privations, and suffering. 
 
THE STATES OF GKEECE. 69 
 
 Describe the systein of govermiient that they adopted. 
 
 They loved liberty too, and wished to manage their own public 
 business themselves, instead of giving themselves up, as the Asi- 
 atic nations were always ready to do, to the arbitrary sway of a 
 despotic sovereign. Thus, instead of one great kingdom or em- 
 pire, the people of Greece formed themselves into a great many 
 separate republics and states, in which the people themselves, in 
 assemblies which they held for this purpose, regulated and con- 
 trolled the government. They often had kings, indeed, but then 
 they kept these kings under a strict responsibility, and, when they 
 overstepped or abused their power, they rose against them, and 
 deposed, and sometimes killed them. Indeed, they were, in all 
 essential respects, republics rather than kingdoms. 
 
 Which were the two most jproinineiit states? For what is 
 Macedon celehrcdedf 
 
 The two most prominent and important of the states of Greece 
 were Athens and Sparta. Besides these, there were two other 
 kingdoms, situated to the northward of Greece proper, that subse- 
 quently acquired great renown — namely, Epirus and Macedon. 
 Macedon became celebrated through Alexander the Great, who 
 was king of that country, and who acquired great fame, both for 
 himself and his native land, by his conquests eastward in Asia. 
 Epirus owed its fame, in the same manner, to Pyrrhus, one of its 
 kings, who was also a great conqueror, though the course of his 
 expeditions was turned westward into Italy and other parts of 
 Europe. We shaU come to the history of these heroes by-and-by. 
 All that is necessary now is that you should notice the position 
 of these countries on the" map, a little north of the great Grecian 
 peninsula. 
 
 Describe the cities of Athens and Sparta, 
 
 The city of Athens was' on a neck of land called the Pelopon- 
 nesus, just north of the entrance to the Peloponnesus, while Sparta 
 was situated within the peninsula. They were both populous and 
 
Vo 
 
 THE STATES OF GEEECE. 
 
 powerful cities, and they exercised a great influence and control 
 over all the other states of Greece. They were rivals to each 
 other, and often enemies, especially when there was no foreign foe 
 to contend with. 
 
 What VMS the situatmi of Athens? 
 
 Athens was one of the most beautiful cities in the world. It 
 was built at the foot of a steep, rocky hill. The summit of this 
 
 VIEW OF ATHENS. 
 
 hill was strongly fortified, and was called the Acropolis or Citadel, 
 and there were many temples and monuments upon it, all mag- 
 nificently adorned. 
 
 For to hat qualities were the Atheiiians celebrated f 
 The Athenians were celebrated for their wealth and refinement, 
 and for their exquisite skill in music, painting, and sculpture. 
 They were great scholars too, and the fame of their science and 
 
THE STATES OF GEEECE. 71 
 
 philosophy was renowned throughout the world. They had learn- 
 ed the art of writing, and poets and historians arose among them 
 whose works were very much admired. These books, of course, 
 could not be printed, for the art of printing was not known in those 
 days ; so tlie authors were accustomed to read them aloud, at the 
 great assemblies of the people that were convened from time to 
 time for games and celebrations. 
 
 Describe the characteristics of the people of Sparta. 
 
 The Spartans were a very different people from the Athenians 
 and the other Greeks. They affected to despise wealth, and to 
 contemn luxury and refinement in all its forms. They prided 
 themselves on their fortitude, their energy, and their indomitable 
 powers of endurance. They trained up their children to endure 
 hardships, to despise pain, and to be utterly reckless of danger. 
 They considered the Athenians as effeminate, ostentatious, and 
 vain ; while the Athenians considered them, on the other hand, as 
 rude, rough, and little better than savages. They laughed at the 
 Spartans' iron money and black broth, and insisted that, to possess 
 courage, strength, and fortitude, it was by no means necessary that 
 men should make themselves barbarians. 
 
 Describe the general situation of the rest of the country. 
 
 Besides Athens and Sparta, there wxre otlier cities and king- 
 doms in Greece, which were sometimes independent of each other, 
 and sometimes were confederated together in groups and combi- 
 nations, which were continually changing. The country was in- 
 expressibly beautiful, the landscape being varied every where by 
 a succession of blue mountains, fertile valleys, and picturesque 
 shores where deep and tranquil bays alternated with bold head- 
 lands and promontories, and by large and fertile islands, scattered 
 every where over the surface of the surrounding seas. 
 
 In lohat Tes2)ect did the architecture of the Greeks differ from 
 that of the Asiatic natioris f 
 
 .The buildino;s which the Greeks constructed were far more en- 
 
72 DARIUS AND THE FIEST INVASION OF GEEECE. 
 
 (luring than those of the Asiatic nations, for they were made of 
 marble instead of mud bricks. The remains of them continue to 
 the present day. They are all in a state of great dilapitation and 
 decay, it is true, but many of them still retain such a degree of 
 preservation that the original form and pro^Dortions of them can be 
 plainly seen, and they are considered to this day as the most per- 
 fect models of architectural beauty that the world has ever pro- 
 duced. 
 
 At what time did these states of Greece come first into collision 
 loith the Persian empire f 
 
 It was with these states of Greece that the great Persian em- 
 pire came into collision, in the period immediately succeeding the 
 first establishment of it by the conquests of Cyrus the Great. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 DAEIUS AND THE FIEST INVASION OF GREECE. 
 
 Who succeeded Cyrus as king of Persia f 
 
 At the death of Cyrus, the government of the Persian empire 
 devolved upon Cambyses, Cyrus's eldest son. 
 
 What was the character of Camhyses f 
 
 He was a monster of despotism and cruelty. He commenced 
 his career by an invasion of Egypt, and there, after a great variety 
 of disasters, he was at length killed. He had a brother named 
 Smerdis, but this Smerdis had been assassinated by Cambyses's 
 orders, so that when Cambyses himself was dead, there was no 
 one to succeed to the throne. 
 
 Who was Smerdis the Magian^ and tuhat ambitious design 
 did he form f 
 
 There was another Smerdis — a Magian — among the officers of 
 Cambyses's court, and he resolved to take the command of the em- 
 pire, and pretend that he was Cyrus's son. His name was the 
 
DAEIUS AND THE FIEST INVASION OF GPvEECE. 73 
 
 same, and then, besides, lie looked like the true Smerdis. There 
 was another thing that favored the deception, and that was that it 
 was not generally known that the true Smerdis was killed, for 
 Cambyses had ordered the assassination to be perpetrated secretly. 
 
 Did Smerdis succeed in his cUtemj)t f How did he attemjpt to 
 Ijrevent the 2)coj)le ftwn discovering the imjposturef 
 
 Smerdis the Magian succeeded in making the people think that 
 he was the true prince, and he governed the country for some time 
 without any opposition. lie kept himself all the time closely shut 
 up in his palace, allowing no one but his own family and servants 
 to see him, for fear that something might happen by which the 
 people might find him out. 
 
 What danger did he nnostfearf 
 
 The thing that he was particularly afraid of was lest some one 
 should see his ears. It seems that Cambyses, some years before 
 this time, had ordered his ears to be cut off in a fit of anger against 
 him, and Smerdis was now very much afraid that he might be 
 discovered by means of this indelible disfigurement ; so he kept 
 himself closely shut up, and also covered his ears carefully with 
 his hair. 
 
 Describe the scheme which the nobles formed for discovering 
 the truth. 
 
 In process of time, however, some of the nobles began to sus- 
 pect him, and finally they laid a plot to induce one of his wives, 
 named Pha3dyma, who was a daughter of one of the leading con- 
 spirators, to go to him when he was asleep and feel for his ears. 
 It was Pha^dyma's father that proposed to her to do this. At 
 first Pha^dyma was afraid. She said that she should not dare to 
 do such a thing. But her father urged her, saying that, if Smerdis 
 was really an impostor, the deception ought to be made known. 
 
 Ph^dyma at last consented to do as her father desired, though 
 she knew that she hazarded her life in the attempt. "If he has 
 no ears," said she, " and if I awaken him in attempting to feel 
 
74 DARIUS AND THE FIRST INVASION OF GREECE. 
 
 for them, I am sure that he will kill me. He will kill me on the 
 
 spot." 
 
 pHjEdyma and smerdis. 
 
 How did the jylari succeed? 
 
 Ph^dyma examined and found that the ears were gone. The* 
 conspirators, when they learned this, matured the plot. Darius 
 was the leader of them. They broke into the palace and killed 
 the impostor Smerdis, and then, organizing a new government, 
 they put Darius at the head of it. 
 
 Who was the leader iii this revolution^ and by rohat name 
 was he afterward known in history ? 
 
 This was Darius the Great. He is so called partly on account 
 of the splendor and magnificence of his reign, and partly to dis- 
 tinguish him from another Darius, who was king of Persia at a 
 subsequent time. 
 
DARIUS AND THE FIEST INVASION OF GREECE. 75 
 
 W/iat great design did Darius conceive in respect to Greece ? 
 
 It was in the reign of Darius the Great that the first great con- 
 test took place between the Persians and the Greeks. Darius 
 himself was the aggressor. He conceived the plan of an invasion 
 of Greece, intending to conquer the whole country and annex it to 
 the Persian dominions. The idea of undertaking this great enter- 
 prise was first suggested to him by a Greek physician named De- 
 mocedes, who was at that time a captive in Susa, which was then 
 the capital of the Persian empire. 
 
 Relate the circumstances which led to the first acquaintance 
 betioeen Democedes and Darius. 
 
 The way in which Darius came to know Democedes was this. 
 One day, when he was riding furiously in the woods, in hunting, 
 he fell from his horse and hurt his ankle. All the physicians of 
 the court tried to cure it, but they only made it worse. At length 
 somebody informed Darius that there was a Greek captive in the 
 city who was very skillful as a physician, and so Darius sent for 
 him. Democedes soon cured the ankle, and subsequently became 
 a great favorite of th^ king. 
 
 What resulted from this acquainta7ice f 
 
 Democedes gave Darius a great deal of information about Greece, 
 and at length contrived to interest him in the plan of invading that 
 country. His proposal was that Darius should first send out a se- 
 cret expedition to explore it, and bring back an account of its re- 
 sources, its geographical situation, and such other information as 
 would be necessary for the proper conducting of the campaign. 
 
 What was the secret motive of Democedes in making this pro- 
 posal ? 
 
 Democedes was very cunning in forming this plan. His motive 
 was to make the scheme a means of affording him an opportunity 
 to return to his native land. 
 
 "For," said he to himself, "if the king sends a reconnoitering 
 party to explore the country, he will, of course, send me as a guide 
 
76 DAEIUS AND THE FIRST INVASION OF GREECE. 
 
 to them, and then, when I once get to Greece, I will take good 
 care not to come back again." 
 
 How did the expeditioii of Dem.ocedes end f 
 
 This cunning contrivance was very successful. Darius sent 
 the expedition and directed Democedes to go with it as guide. 
 Democedes went, and he pretended to be verj much interested in 
 the object of the mission until he got into Greece, but then he 
 made his escape from the party and left them to take care of them- 
 selves. After meeting with a great variety of adventures and 
 narrow escapes, and being finally reduced to a state of great des- 
 titution and distress, they made their way back again to Darius, 
 and reported all that they had learned. 
 
 For what cause was the invasion of Greece for a time delayed? 
 
 Darius resolved to put his plan of the invasion into execution, 
 though he was obliged to postpone it for some time on account of 
 other wars in which he was then engaged in Asia, and of rebellions 
 that had broken out in his dominions, and which, of course, it was 
 necessary first to suppress. At length, when all his other enemies 
 were subdued, he began to organize his ^rand expedition into 
 Greece. 
 
 Describe the arrangements which Darius finally made for the 
 invasion of Greece. 
 
 He assembled an immense armament, and put it under the com- 
 mand of one of his generals named Datis. He also ordered a large 
 fleet of ships, galleys, and transports of all kinds to be collected 
 together at Cilicia, which was the nearest point on the Mediterra- 
 nean Sea. His plan was to march his troops to that point by land, 
 and then to convey them the rest of the way over the sea, by 
 means of this fleet. 
 
 What course did the expedition take in advancing into the 
 Grecian territories f 
 
 The plan above described was carried into effect. The troops 
 marched to Cilicia and there embarked on board the fleet. The 
 
DAEIUS" AND THE FIRST INVASION OF GREECE. 77 
 
 fleet soon afterward set sail. It advanced along the southern 
 shores of Asia Minor, and then turned to the northward into the 
 ^Egean Sea. As the fleet moved slowly on, the commanders 
 stopped from time to time to take possession of such islands as 
 came in their way. The people on the other islands assembled 
 upon the heights to watch the progress of this immense armament 
 as it moved majestically along. It was supposed to be the great- 
 est fleet which at that period of the world had ever been assembled. 
 What effect was jyroducecl in Athens hy the approach of the 
 fleet f Where did the Persian expedition land f 
 
 The people of Athens were in the greatest consternation, for the 
 fleet was advancing directly toward that city. They had sent to 
 Sparta and to other parts of Greece for aid, but no force could be 
 assembled in sufficient season to prevent the landing of the troops. 
 The fleet advanced up the channel between the island of Euboea 
 and the main land, which you will see upon the map,* and there 
 were brought into port near Marathon, which was not very far 
 from Athens, and the troops were safely landed. There were 
 about a hundred thousand men. 
 
 What loas the comparative strength of the tivo armies f 
 The Greeks, on the other hand, when their forces were all as- 
 sembled, were found to consist of only ten thousand, and the gen- 
 erals were in great doubt and perplexity what to do. Some were 
 in favor of shutting themselves up in the city, and defending them- 
 selves as well as they could there ; but one of them, named Miltia- 
 des, was strongly in favor of going out to attack the enemy on the 
 plains of Marathon, where they were encamped. 
 
 What was the proposal made hy the Greek general f 
 "If the ten thousand men will follow me," said he, "we will 
 break through the hundred thousand Persians, and drive them into 
 the sea." 
 
 * For the situation of the JEgean Sea, and of the countries here referred to, see 
 the map on page 82, or refer to any ancient Atlas. 
 
78 XERXES AND THE SECOND INVASION OF GREECE. , 
 
 Was this proposal accepted? Describe the battle thai took 
 place, and the residt of it. 
 
 The Greeks acceded to this proposal. They marched out un- 
 der the command of Miltiades, and advanced toward the plains of 
 Marathon, where the Persians were encamped. The Persians 
 were astonished to see them coming. They could not think it 
 possible that so small a force would dare to attack the immense 
 host that was arrayed against them. The Greeks, however, came 
 on with headlong impetuosity, bearing down all opposition, and 
 cutting their way into and through the ranks of the enemy with 
 a fury that nothing c%ald withstand. The Persians, in various 
 parts of the field, continued for some hours to struggle against 
 them, but they were finally beaten in every part and driven off, 
 some into the surrounding fens and morasses, and others into the 
 sea. A small portion of the force succeeded in regaining the ships 
 and galleys, and, after encountering great hardships and suffering, 
 made their way back again to Persia. 
 
 What is the name of this battle f 
 
 This was the great and celebrated battle of Marathon. It w^as 
 the end of the first Persian invasion of Greece. 
 
 What other expedition against Greece did Darius form f 
 
 After this, Darius formed another plan for the invasion of Greece, 
 intending to put his son Xerxes in command of the expedition, 
 but he died before the time arrived for the expedition to set out, 
 and Xerxes, his son, reigned in his stead. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 XERXES AND THE SECOND INVASION OF GREECE. 
 
 What step did Xerxes take after his accession in respect to 
 Greece f 
 
 As soon as Xerxes had succeeded to the throne, and had set- 
 
XEEXES AND THE SECOND INVASION OF GREECE. 79 
 
 tied the affairs that required his immediate attention in Persia, he 
 held a grand consultation of his officers and generals to consider 
 whether he should go on with the expedition which his father had 
 planned for the invasion of Greece. 
 
 Jlbw did he propose to vary Darius' s plan f 
 
 He said that if he should decide to undertake the enterprise, he 
 should not attempt to convey his troops in ships by sea as his 
 father had done, but should march them by land to the Helles- 
 pont, and cross there by means of some sort of bridge that he 
 would construct for the purpose. 
 
 What tvas the coun^l of Mardonius f 
 
 Mardonius, one of his chief generals, expressed a strong ap- 
 proval both of the plan itself, and of the proposed mode of ex- 
 ecuting it. He said that it was manifestly the destiny of Persia 
 to rule the world, and that, as all the neighboring nations in Asia 
 had already been subdued, the next step in the path of glory which 
 lay before the monarchs of the Persian empire obviously was to 
 subjugate Greece. He said, too, that by the plan which Xerxes 
 proposed, namely, to enter Greece by means of a bridge across 
 the Hellespont, he could take a force into Greece so overpower- 
 ing that all attempts at resistance would be utterly hopeless and 
 impossible. 
 
 What was the opinion of Artahanus ? How did Xerxes 
 decide f 
 
 Xerxes had an uncle named Artabanus, a venerable man, who 
 was eminent in wisdom as well as advanced in years ; and he, 
 when it came to his turn to speak in the council, strongly dis- 
 suaded his young nephew from embarking in any such enterprise. 
 He told him that it might possibly prove very easy to get into 
 Greece, and yet not at all easy for him to get out of it again. But 
 Xerxes was young, and ardent, and very sanguine in his disposi- 
 tion, and nothing that his counselors could urge would persuade 
 him to give up his design. 
 
80 XERXES AND THE SECOND INVASION OF GREECE. 
 
 Describe the joilans which Xerxes formed^ and arrangements 
 that he made for carrying them into execution. 
 
 So he immediately begaln to form plans, and to make arrange- 
 ments in every part of the empire, for enlisting soldiers, purchasing 
 horses, establishing granaries and depots of provisions, manufac- 
 turing arms and ammunition, and wagons and carriages of every 
 kind that were used in the military movements of those days. 
 These operations occupied four years, and at the end of that time 
 the various divisions of the army were assembled at their several 
 places of rendezvous, ready to commence their march ; and at 
 length, when the appointed day came, the^ all advanced together 
 on the different converging roads that led to the shores of the Hel- 
 lespont, at the point where the bridge was to be made. 
 
 What occurred in resj^ect to the bridge f 
 
 The bridge was to be a floating one, built of boats. The strait 
 was too wide and deep for any other kind of structure. The boats 
 for the bridge had ail been made before the army arrived. They 
 were now soon arranged in position, and the bridge was made, but 
 a storm coming up, the structure was broken to pieces by tlie 
 winds and waves, and so they were obhged to build it a second 
 time. 
 
 Iloia was trie bridge constructed? 
 
 There were two ranges of vessels placed side by side, from shore 
 to shore. These were all* secured to their places by strong cables. 
 Over the decks of the vessels a platform was made of timbers, and 
 this was covered with a thick layer of earth for a roadway. 
 
 Describe the finul crossing of the bridge by the army. 
 
 When the bridge was completed, the immense army commenced 
 its march across it in a magnificent procession, arrayed with the 
 utmost possible pomp and parade. There were horses and chariots 
 elegantly equipped and caparisoned, and camels, and elephants, 
 and guards splendidly dressed and armed, and torch-bearers car- 
 rying torches aloft in the air, and waving banners and sounding 
 
XEEXES AND THE SECOND INVASION OF GREECE. 81 
 
 trumpets. This was the head of the procession. It occupied the 
 
 CROSSING THE HELLESPONT. 
 
 two first days. It consisted first of the vanguard, and then of the 
 king himself, with his guards and attendants, and the officers of 
 his cou.rt. The whole army was so large that it took seven days 
 for the troops all to pass over. 
 
 For what picrpose did the army halt at Doriscus ? 
 
 After the passage of the strait had thus been safely effected, 
 Xerxes marched the whole army to a great plain, called the Plain 
 of Doriscus, not far from the place, and there went through a grand 
 review of the whole mighty host. Besides the land forces, there 
 were a great many ships that were attendant on the expedition, 
 and these were drawn up in a line a little way from the shore. 
 
 Describe the review of the troops on land. 
 
 When every thing was ready, Xerxes ascended into his war 
 
 chariot, and, accompanied by a great cavalcade of officers and 
 1 F 
 
84 XEEXES AND THE SECOND INVASION OF GREECE. 
 
 The people of the country, while the army were passing, were in 
 a state of the utmost terror and dismay. Some fled from their 
 dwellings, carrying with them all such valuables as they could 
 easily remove. Those that remained were often treated with great 
 cruelty. Their possessions were seized by the soldiers, and some- 
 times they themselves were made captives, and compelled to fol- 
 low the army. At one time Xerxes conceived the plan of offer- 
 ing a human sacrifice, in order to propitiate the favor of some of 
 the gods, and so he took nine young men and nine young girls 
 from the people of the country, and buried them alive. 
 
 ^Vhat was the sicccess of the embassadors sent forward by 
 Xerxes f 
 
 While his army was thus advancing into the country, he sent 
 embassadors forward to the various cities and states, summoning 
 the people to surrender to him and acknowledge themselves trib- 
 
 THE PERSIAN EMBASSADOKS AT SPARTA. 
 
XEEXES AND THE SECOND INVASION OF GREECE. 81 
 
 trumpets. This was the head of the procession. It occupied the 
 
 CROSSING THE HELLESPONT. 
 
 two first days. It consisted first of the vanguard, and then of the 
 king himself, with his guards and attendants, and the officers of 
 his court. The whole army was so large that it took seven days 
 for the troops all to pass over. 
 
 For what jpurpose did the army halt at Doriscus f 
 
 After the passage of the strait had thus been safely effected, 
 Xerxes marched the whole army to a great plain, called the Plain 
 of Doriscus, not far from the place, and there went through a grand 
 review of the whole mighty host. Besides the land forces, there 
 were a great many ships that were attendant on the expedition, 
 and these were drawn up in a line a little way from the shore. 
 
 Describe the review of the troops on land. 
 
 When every thing was ready, Xerxes ascended into his war 
 chariot, and, accompanied by a great cavalcade of officers and 
 
84 
 
 XERXES AND THE SECOND INVASION OF GREECE. 
 
 The people of the country, while the army were passing, were in 
 a state of the utmost terror and dismay. Some fled from their 
 dwellings, carrying with them all such valuables as they could 
 easily remove. Those that remained were often treated with great 
 cruelty. Their possessions were seized by the soldiers, and some- 
 times they themselves were made captives, and compelled to fol- 
 low the army. At one time Xerxes conceived the plan of offer- 
 ing a human sacrifice, in order to propitiate the favor of some of 
 the gods, and so he took nine young men and nine young girls 
 from the people of the country, and buried them alive. 
 
 W/iat was the success of the embassadors sent forward by 
 Xerxes f 
 
 While his army was thus advancing into the country, he sent 
 embassadors forward to the various cities and states, summoning 
 the people to surrender to him and acknowledge themselves trib- 
 
 THE PERSIAN EMBASSADORS AT SPARTA. 
 
XERXES AND THE SECOND INVASION OF GREECE. 85 
 
 utaries to Persia. The customary form of sending such a sum- 
 mons, in those days was to demand "earth and water." The 
 giving of a little earth and water, with certain ceremonies of trans- 
 fer, denoted a conveyance of a title to the country from which the 
 earth and water were taken. When Xerxes's embassadors came 
 to Sparta, the people took them into the street and threw them 
 down into one of the public wells, telling them that if they want- 
 ed earth and water they would find plenty of it there. 
 
 Describe the character of the country through which the army 
 was to inarch. What was the situation of Thermopylae, f 
 
 You will see by the map that Xerxes, in marching his army 
 round the ^gean Sea, would pass through Thrace and a part of 
 Macedonia, and thence through Thessaly. These were all com- 
 paratively open countries, and could not well be defended by a 
 small force against a large army. But between Thessaly and the 
 other states of Greece which lay to the southward there was a 
 range of mountains extending across the country, with only a nar- 
 row pass at a place called Thermopylas, between the mountains 
 and the sea, through which the army could pass. So the Greeks 
 determined to concentrate their forces at this pass, and endeavor 
 to stop the Persian army there. 
 
 Describe the battle of Thermopylce. 
 
 When at length Xerxes and the advanced guard of his forces 
 came up to the defile, the great and celebrated battle of Thermop- 
 ylas was fought. There were three hundred Spartans, under a 
 general named Leonidas, stationed at the head of the 'defile, at a 
 place where the pass was so narrow that very few men could be 
 engaged. Xerxes sent forward detachment after detachment from 
 his army to break through this guard, but they could not succeed. 
 At length, after some days, the Persian troops found a way u^p by 
 a secret path through the forests and along the side of the mount- 
 ain, so as to come out upon the pass at a wider place, some dis- 
 tance below where the Spartans were stationed. They went in 
 
88 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 cendency that his father had held in the Greek confederacy, and 
 which the other states were at first disposed to refuse to him on 
 account of his being so young. He was then but little more than 
 twenty years of age. 
 
 Did these measures succeed? 
 
 The measures which he took to accomplish these ends were so 
 vigorous and determined, and he carried them into effect with so 
 much resolution, and, at the same time, with so much prudence 
 and skill, that all Greece soon acquiesced in his ascendency over 
 them, and he found himself in complete and quiet possession of 
 more than his father's power. 
 
 What grand design did he at length form f 
 
 At length, in looking around for something new to undertake, 
 he conceived the design of retaliating on the Persians for their re- 
 peated invasions of Greece, under Darius and Xerxes, by under- 
 taking himself a grand invasion of Persia. For a man so young 
 as he, scarcely twenty years of age, the sovereign, too, of so com- 
 paratively small a kingdom, to conceive the design of marching a 
 thousand miles into the heart of the greatest and most powerful 
 empire in the world, was one of the boldest and most extraordinary 
 undertakings that could easily be conceived. 
 
 Who were his principal generals ? 
 
 There were two old generals, named Antipater and Parmenio, 
 who had served under Philip, Alexander's father, and they strong- 
 ly dissuaded the young prince from engaging in so desperate an 
 enterprise. But he persisted in his design. 
 
 Describe the arrangements that he made in setting out on this 
 expedition. 
 
 He raised an army of thirty-five thousand men for the cam- 
 paign. He took Parmenio with him to command the troops, and 
 left Antipater at home to govern Macedon while he should be gone. 
 With these troops he crossed the Hellespont, and commenced his 
 march through Asia Minor. 
 
XERXES AND THE SECOND INVASION OF GREECE. 85 
 
 utaries to Persia. The customary form of sending such a sum- 
 mons in those days was to demand "earth and water." The 
 giving of a little earth and water, with certain ceremonies of trans- 
 fer, denoted a conveyance of a title to the country from which the 
 earth and water were taken. When Xerxes's embassadors came 
 to Sparta, the people took them into the street and threw them 
 down into one of the public wells, telling them that if they want- 
 ed earth and water they would find plenty of it there. 
 
 Describe the character of the country through which the army 
 was to march. What was the situation of ThermojpylcB f 
 
 You will see by the map that Xerxes, in marching his army 
 round the ^gean Sea, would pass through Thrace and a part of 
 Macedonia, and thence through Thessaly. These were all com- 
 paratively open countries, and could not well be defended by a 
 small force against a large army. But between Thessaly and the 
 other states of Greece which lay to the southward there was a 
 range of mountains extending across the country, with only a nar- 
 row pass at a place called Thermopylae, between the mountains 
 and the sea, through which the army could pass. So the Grreeks 
 determined to concentrate their forces at this pass, and endeavor 
 to stop the Persian army there. 
 
 Describe the battle of ThermoptjlcE. ^ 
 
 When at length Xerxes and the advanced guard of his forces 
 came up to the defile, the great and celebrated battle of Thermop- 
 yl^ w^as fought. There were three hundred Spartans, under a 
 general named Leonidas, stationed at the head of the defile, at a 
 place where the pass was so narrow that very few men could be 
 engaged. Xerxes sent forward detachment after detachment from 
 his army to break through this guard, but they could not succeed. 
 At length, after some days, the Persian troops found a way up by 
 a secret path through the forests and along the side of the mount- 
 ain, so as to come out upon the pass at a wider place, some dis- 
 tance below where the Spartans were stationed. They went in 
 
88 ALEXANDEE THE GEEAT. 
 
 cendency that liis father had held in the Greek confederacy, and 
 which the other states were at first disposed to refuse to him on 
 account of his being so young. He was then but little more than 
 twenty years of age. 
 
 Did these nneasures succeed? 
 
 The measures which he took to accomplish these ends were so 
 vigorous and determined, and he carried them into effect with so 
 much resolution, and, at the same time, with so much prudence 
 and skill, that all Greece soon acquiesced in his ascendency over 
 them, and he found himself in complete and quiet possession of 
 more than his father's power. 
 
 What grand design did he at length form f 
 
 At length, in looking around for something new to undertake, 
 he conceived the design of retaliating on the Persians for their re- 
 peated invasions of Greece, under Darius and Xerxes, by under- 
 taking himself a grand invasion of Persia. For a man so young 
 as he, scarcely twenty years of age, the sovereign, too, of so com- 
 paratively small a kingdom, to conceive the design of marching a 
 thousand miles into the heart of the greatest and most powerful 
 empire in the world, was one of the boldest and most extraordinary 
 undertakings that could easily be conceived. 
 Who were his principal generals? 
 
 There were two old generals, named Antipater and Parmenio, 
 who had served under Philip, Alexander's father, and they strong- 
 ly dissuaded the young prince from engaging in so desperate an 
 enterprise. But he persisted in his design. 
 
 Describe the arrangements that he 7)iade in setting out on this 
 expedition. 
 
 ' He raised an army of thirty-five thousand men for the cam- 
 paign. He took Parmenio with him to command the troops, and 
 left Antipater at home to govern Macedon while he should be gone. 
 With these troops he crossed the Hellespont, and commenced his 
 march through Asia Minor. 
 
ALEXANDER THE GEEAT. 89 
 
 Where is the River Gr aniens f What forces did Alexander 
 encounter there f 
 
 Here, however, he was soon met and opposed by a large Per- 
 sian army of several hundred thousand men, that were drawn up 
 on the banks of a small river called the Granicus, which was near 
 the site of the ancient city of Troy. It seems that Darius (for 
 that was the name of the king of Persia at that time) had heard 
 of Alexander's plans, and had sent one of his generals, named 
 Memnon, to meet him as soon as he should enter the Persian do- 
 minions. So Memnon gathered together all the troops that were 
 at his command in that part of the empire, and, having drawn 
 them up on the banks of the Granicus, waited there to see what 
 Alexander would do. He felt confident of victory, for his troops 
 were far more numerous than those of Alexander. 
 
 Describe the battle. What was the result of it f 
 
 Alexander, when he arrived at the bank of the river, was not at 
 all intimidated by the superiority of the force brouglit up to op- 
 pose him, but, drawing up his men in order of battle, he marched 
 them across the stream, and attacked the Persians on the bank 
 with the utmost fury. After an obstinate conflict, the Persians 
 were entirely defeated. Their ranks were thrown into disorder, 
 and they fled in all directions. Alexander encamped on the bat- 
 tle-ground to refresh his troops and take care of the wounded. In 
 a few days he resumed his march, and advanced into Asia Minor 
 without any opposition. 
 
 What was the situation of Issus f 
 
 By a reference to the map on the following page you will see 
 the River Granicus, and also, on the northeastern corner of the 
 Mediterranean Sea, you will see a place marked Issus. It was 
 at Issus that Alexander fought his next great battle. He fought 
 here against Darius himself; for Darius, as soon as he heard that 
 Memnon had been vanquished at Granicus, and that Alexander 
 was coming on with none to oppose him, immediately gathered 
 
92 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 fused. " I would," said Parmenio, " if /were Alexander." " So 
 would I," said Alexander, "if I were Parmenio." 
 
 WAe7''e did Alexande?' go after leaving Tyre f What great 
 city did he found there f 
 
 From Tyre Alexander continued his march to the southward 
 into Egypt. You will see the situation of Egypt by looking at 
 the map.* Here he had a great variety of adventures, but was, 
 on the whole, successful in the campaign. While in Egypt he 
 laid the foundations of the city of Alexandria, near one of the 
 mouths of the Nile, and so wxU was the site of the city chosen, 
 that it soon became one of the most wealthy and powerful com- 
 mercial cities in all the East. Indeed, it has continued to main- 
 tain this character, in a great measure, to the present day. It is 
 the principal port of Egypt, and has been celebrated for many cen- 
 turies as the great resort of merchants and travelers in that country. 
 
 Where did A lexander proceed after leaving Egyjpt f Describe 
 what took j)l(^c^ cct the liiver Tigris. 
 
 After completing his conquest of Egypt, Alexander turned his 
 course again to the northward, and advanced into the heart of the 
 Persian dominions. Darius, in the mean time, had collected an- 
 other immense army, and had drawn them up to meet Alexander 
 on the plains of Arbela, in the country of the Tigris and Euphrates. 
 Alexander, in marching to meet Darius, had great difficulty in 
 crossing the River Tigris. His army undertook to wade across 
 the stream, but the current was so deep and rapid that many of 
 the men were swept away and drowned, and others, who were not 
 carried away themselves, lost their spears and their bundles of 
 clothes, and these things were floated down in immense quanti- 
 ties, to embarrass and impede the men below. Alexander waded 
 with the rest. He went in advance of the others to help find the 
 shallowest parts and the best places to land. At length they 
 reached the bank, and the army then marched on toward Arbela. 
 
 * See Paare 90. 
 
AliEXANDER THE GREAT. 89 
 
 'Where is the River Gr aniens f What forces did Alexander 
 encounter there f 
 
 Here, however, he was soon met and opposed by a large Per- 
 sian army of several hundred thousand men, that were drawn up 
 on the banks of a small river called the Granicus, which was near 
 the site of the ancient city of Troy. It seems that Darius (for 
 that was the name of the king of Persia at that time) had heard 
 of Alexander's plans, and had sent one of his generals, named 
 Memnon, to meet him as soon as he should enter the Persian do- 
 minions. So Memnon gathered together all the troops that were 
 at his command in that part of the empire, and, having drawn 
 them up on the banks of the Granicus, waited there to see wliat 
 Alexander would do. He felt confident of victory, for his troops 
 were far more numerous than those of iVlexander. 
 
 Describe the battle. What was the result of it f 
 
 Alexander, when he arrived at the bank of the river, was not at 
 all intimidated by the superiority of the force brouglit up to op- 
 pose him, but, drawing up his men in order of battle, he marched 
 them across the stream, and attacked the Persians on the bank 
 with the utmost fury. After an obstinate conflict, the Persians 
 were entirely defeated. Their ranks were thrown into disorder, 
 and they fled in all directions. Alexander encamped on the bat- 
 tle-ground to refresh his troops and take care of the wounded. In 
 a few days he resumed his march, and advanced into Asia Minor 
 without any opposition. 
 
 What was the situation of Issusf 
 
 By a reference to the map on the following page you will see 
 the River Granicus, and also, on the northeastern corner of the 
 Mediterranean Sea, you will see a place marked Issus. It was 
 at Issus that Alexander fought his next great battle. He fought 
 here against Darius himself; for Darius, as soon as he heard that 
 Memnon had been vanquished at Granicus, and that Alexander 
 was coming on with none to oppose him, immediately gathered 
 
92 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 fused. " I would," said Parmenio, " if 7" were Alexander." " So 
 would I," said Alexander, "if I were Parmenio." 
 
 Where did Alexander go after leaving Tyre f What great 
 city did he found there ? 
 
 From Tyre Alexander continued his march to the southward 
 into Egypt. You will see the situation of Egypt by looking at 
 the map.* Here he had a great variety of adventures, but was, 
 on the whole, succes&ful in the campaign. While in Egypt he 
 laid the foundations of the city of Alexandria, near one of the 
 mouths of the Nile, and so well was the site of the city chosen, 
 that it soon became one of the most wealthy and powerful com- 
 mercial cities in all the East. Indeed, it has continued to main- 
 tain this character, in a great measure, to the present day. It is 
 the principal port of Egypt, and has been celebrated for many cen- 
 turies as the great resort of merchants and travelers in that country. 
 
 Where did A lexander proceed after leaving Egypt f Describe 
 what took place at the River Tigris. 
 
 After completing his conquest of Egypt, Alexander turned his 
 course again to the northward, and advanced into the heart of the 
 Persian dominions. Darius, in the mean time, had collected an- 
 other immense army, and had drawn them up to meet Alexander 
 on the plains of Arbela, in the country of the Tigris and Euphrates. 
 Alexander, in marching to meet Darius, had great difficulty in 
 crossing the River Tigris. His army undertook to wade across 
 the stream, but the current was so deep and rapid that many of 
 the men were swept away and drowned, and others, who were not 
 carried away themselves, lost their spears and their bundles of 
 clothes, and these things were floated down in immense quanti- 
 ties, to embarrass and impede the men below. Alexander waded 
 with the rest. He went in advance of the others to help find the 
 shallowest parts and the best places to land. At length they 
 reached the bank, and the army then marched on toward Arbela. 
 
 * See Page 90. 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 93 
 
 Where was the final battle fought ? Describe Alexander's 
 dress and appearance on the morning of the battle. 
 
 At Arbela the great final battle was fought. On the morning of 
 the battle, Alexander was very much excited with sentiments of 
 pride and joy. He dressed himself in very splendid armor. He 
 wore a short tunic, with a belt embossed with beautiful figures. 
 On his head he had a helmet of polished steel, with a neck-piece be- 
 hind made of the same metal, and ornamented with precious stones. 
 The helmet was surmounted with a white plume. His sword was 
 light and slender, and was of the most perfect temper. • It was a 
 present to him from the King of Cyprus. He carried, also, a shield 
 and a lance, both made in the most perfect manner for use, and 
 not for display. Every part of his dress, in a word, was arranged 
 for convenience and efficiency. 
 
 What ii^ere the means of defense employed by the Persians f 
 
 The Persians had elephants in their armies, and war chariots 
 such as we saw represented in the sculptures of the ancient As- 
 syrians, only these Persian chariots had the axles armed with 
 scythes, made to cut down the enemy when the chariots were 
 driven among them. The numbers of the Persians, too, were im- 
 mense. Their lines extended for many miles along the plain. 
 
 Describe the result of the battle. 
 
 The Persians were defeated. The Macedonians advanced in a 
 small, but compact and irresistible band, bearing down every thing 
 before them. The elephants turned and fled, and in their flight 
 they trampled down the Persian ranks that were behind them. 
 Alexander's soldiers seized the chariots and disabled them by 
 cutting the traces of the harness. In a short time the whole Per- 
 sian host was thrown into confusion and fled, and Alexander was 
 left master, not only of Arbela, but of the whole Persian empire. 
 
 What progress did Alexander make after the battle of Ar- 
 bela f 
 
 After this he met with very little resistance. He took posses- 
 
96 THE FOUNDATION OF EOME. 
 
 tribute to the government of the cities, in consideration of being 
 defended from any enemies that might come to plunder their farms. 
 The cities were generally surrounded with walls, so that in case 
 of alarm, the people of the surrounding country might retreat to 
 them, and be defended. 
 
 Why are not 7nodern cities usually surrounded with walls f 
 
 Very few cities built at the present day are surrounded with 
 walls, partly because walls now would be of no use unless they 
 are made thick enough and strong enough to stand against cannon, 
 and to make such walls as these is immensely expensive. But 
 all that was required in ancient times was to make walls that men 
 could not climb over. The worst that in any case they had to 
 stand against was the blow of a battering-ram, and it was very 
 easy to make a structure solid enough for that. 
 
 Are there any authentic accounts of the original building of 
 Borne f 
 
 Eome was such a city as this at the beginning. There was no 
 account of the first building of it written at the time ; it is very 
 doubtful even whether any of those who were concerned in the 
 affair knew how to write, nor is it probable that they attached any 
 great importance to what they were doing, for there was no rea- 
 son to suppose that the town would ever become any greater or 
 more powerful than any of the thousand other towns in Italy, and 
 in the countries around it, that had risen up in substantially the 
 same way. At length, however, when Rome became a great city, 
 a most extraordinary and romantic tale was found to be coming 
 down from generation to generation in respect to the first building 
 of the city. It is not now supposed that this story is true ; but, 
 though we can not really believe it, it is still proper to know 
 what it is. 
 
 What is the ancient legend in respect to yEneas f 
 
 The story is, then, that the ancestors of the men who built 
 Rome came from Troy by sea, under ^neas, and landed in a part 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 93 
 
 Where was the final battle fought f Describe Alexander's 
 dress and appearance on the onorning of the battle. 
 
 At Arbela the great final battle was fought. On the morning of 
 the battle, Alexander was very much excited with sentiments of 
 pride and joy. He dressed himself in very splendid armor. He 
 wore a short tunic, with a belt embossed with beautiful figures. 
 On his head he had a helmet of polished steel, with a neck-piece be- 
 hind made of the same metal, and ornamented with precious stones. 
 The helmet was surmounted with a white plume. His sword was 
 light and slender, and was of the most perfect temper. It was a 
 present to him from the King of Cyprus. He carried, also, a shield 
 and a lance, both made in the most perfect manner for use, and 
 not for display. Every part of his dress, in a word, was arranged 
 for convenience and efiiciency. 
 
 What were the means of defense employed by the Persians f 
 
 The Persians had elephants in their armies, and war chariots 
 such as we saw represented in the sculptures of the ancient As- 
 syrians, only these Persian chariots had the axles armed with 
 scythes, made to cut down the enemy when the chariots were 
 driven among them. The numbers of the Persians, too, were im- 
 mense. Their lines extended for many miles along the plain. 
 
 Describe the result of the battle. 
 
 The Persians were defeated. The Macedonians advanced in a 
 small, but compact and irresistible band, bearing down every thing 
 before them. The elephants turned and fled, and in their flight 
 they trampled down the Persian ranks that were behind them. 
 Alexander's soldiers seized the chariots and disabled them by 
 cutting the traces of the harness. In a short time the whole Per- 
 sian host was thrown into confusion and fled, and Alexander was 
 left master, not only of Arbela, but of the whole Persian empire. 
 
 What progress did Alexander make after the battle of Ar- 
 bela f 
 
 After this he met with very little resistance. He took posses- 
 
96 THE FOUNDATION OF HOME. 
 
 tribute to the government of the cities, in consideration of being 
 defended from any enemies that might come to plunder their farms. 
 The cities were generally surrounded with walls, so that in case 
 of alarm, the people of the surrounding country might retreat to 
 them, and be defended. 
 
 Why are not modern cities ttsually surrounded with walls f 
 
 Yery few cities built at the present day are surrounded with 
 walls, partly because walls now would be of no use unless they 
 are made thick enough and strong enough to stand against cannon, 
 and to make such walls as these is immensely expensive. But 
 all that was required in ancient times was to make walls that men 
 could not climb over. The worst that in any case they had to 
 stand against was the blow of a battering-ram, and it was very 
 easy to make a structure solid enough for that. 
 
 Are there any authentic accounts of the original huilding of 
 Home f 
 
 Kome was such a city as this at the beginning. There was no 
 account of the first building of it written at the time ; it is very 
 doubtful even whether any of those who were concerned in the 
 affair knew how to write, nor is it probable that they attached any 
 great importance to what they were doing, for there was no rea- 
 son to suppose that the town would ever become any greater or 
 more powerful than any of the thousand other towns in Italy, and 
 in the countries around it, that had risen up in substantially the 
 same way. At length, however, when Rome became a great city, 
 a most extraordinary and romantic tale was found to be coming 
 down from generation to generation in respect to the first building 
 of the city. It is not now supposed that this story is true ; but, 
 though we can not really believe it, it is still proper to know 
 what it is. 
 
 What is the ancient legend in respect to ^neas f 
 
 The story is, then, that the ancestors of the men who built 
 Eome came from Troy by sea, under ^Eneas, and landed in a part 
 
THE FOUNDATION OF KOME. 
 
 97 
 
 
 of Italy called Latium, on the banks of the Tiber, a short distance 
 
 from its mouth. 
 In the adjoining 
 map you will see 
 the situation of 
 Latium, and the 
 place where ^n- 
 eas is reputed to 
 have landed, not 
 far from the Ti- 
 ber's mouth. 
 
 What was the 
 issue of the land- 
 ing in Italy of 
 ^neas and his 
 followers f 
 
 These men set- 
 tled in the coun- 
 
 MAP or 
 
 try, and formed a kingdom of their own there, which lasted for 
 several hundred years. 
 
 Why did the brother of the royal princess wish to destroy his 
 sister's twin children? How did he propose to destroy them? 
 
 At length it happened that a certain princess of the royal fam- 
 ily, who had been consecrated as a virgin in a temple in one of 
 the towns in Latium, in violation of the vows which she had 
 taken, united herself to a young man whom she accidentally met 
 in a grove near the temple, and lived with him secretly. After a 
 time she had two children — twins. Her uncle, who was then 
 king of the country, was very angry at this. He ordered the 
 children to be thrown into the Tiber. The reason why he did 
 this was, he was afraid that, when these children grew up, they 
 might dispute his right to the throne, being, as they were, the 
 princess's children. 
 
98 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF EOME. 
 
 
 Describe the plan adopted by Faustulus for destroying the 
 children. 
 
 The name of the 
 man who was sent 
 to drown the chil- 
 dren was Faustu- 
 lus. He could not 
 bear to throw the 
 helpless babes di- 
 rectly into the wa- 
 ter, and so he made 
 a sort of box for 
 them. Having put 
 the children in it, 
 he launched them 
 forth upon the wa- 
 ter. "Poor little 
 things!" said he ; "I will give you what chance I can for your 
 lives." 
 
 Who were these children f 
 
 These children were the celebrated twins Eomulus and Eemus, 
 who afterward became the founders of Rome. 
 
 What became of the arh that they were placed in? 
 The little box or ark in which Faustulus had placed the babes 
 was carried swiftly down the current, until at length, at a little 
 curve in the stream, it struck upon the beach and was upset ; the 
 poor children were tumbled out upon the sand. 
 How were the lives of the children saved f 
 They immediately began to cry, and an old mother wolf who 
 happened at that time to be prowling in the forest heard them, and 
 came to see what was the matter. The wolf took pity on the 
 children, thinking, probably, that they were little wolves, and nes- 
 tled down over them to nurse them. 
 
 THE TWINS. 
 
THE FOUNDATION OF ROME. 99 
 
 What animal aided the wolf in taking care of the children f 
 WhatfnaUy became of them f 
 
 The wolf took care of the children for some days. There was 
 a woodpecker in the woods, too, that assisted her, by bringing 
 ripe strawberries and other such things for the children to eat. 
 At length a herdsman who lived in that neighborhood found the 
 babes in the nest which the wolf had made for them in the grass 
 by the river side, and brought them home. He also found the 
 box which the children had floated down in, and carried that 
 home too. 
 
 When the young men grew ujp^ what became of them f 
 
 The boys grew up, and became remarkably tall, handsome, and 
 accomplished young men. At length the secret of their birth was 
 discovered, and they went back, after meeting with various adven- 
 tures and encountering many difficulties, to the royal palace in 
 Alba, which was at that time the capital of the kingdom. Here, 
 in the course of a year or two, certain difficulties arose between 
 the young men and the government. A strong party adhered to 
 Homulus and E-emus, and at length, to settle the trouble, it was 
 arranged that they should leave Alba with all their friends and 
 followers, and go and build a new city for themselves. 
 
 Where did they go to found a new city f 
 
 Eomulus and Remus set oif at the head of their company, and, 
 after exploring the neighboring country for some time, they se- 
 lected a place on the Tiber for the site of their city, and they all 
 went to work to build the wall. 
 
 Describe the quarrel which occurred between Romulus and 
 Remus, 
 
 The work went on pretty well for some days, only there soon 
 began to grow up a difficulty between Romulus and Remus in re- 
 spect to the command. Each was jealous of the other, and wish- 
 ed to be first himself. In the end, a sudden quarrel arose one 
 day about the wall, when Eomulus took up a spade, and struck 
 
100 THE FOUNDATION OF EOME. 
 
 his brother down with it in a fit of passion. Poor Eemus was 
 killed in an instant by the blow. 
 
 How was Romulus affected when he saw what he had done f 
 
 Eomulus was overwhelmed with remorse and horror at the deed 
 he had done, and he did every thing in his power to express his 
 grief, and to show respect to the memory of his brother. 
 
 Describe the progress of the enter jprise after Remuis death. 
 
 After a brief interruption, produced by this unhappy event, the 
 work of building the city went on. A gTeat number of people 
 from the neighboring country came in to join the enterprise, so 
 that it was necessary that the original plan should be enlarged. 
 After a time they consulted on the system of government to be 
 adopted, and decided to make it a monarchy. They chose Rom- 
 ulus king. From this small beginning arose 'the great and world- 
 renowned city of Eome. 
 
 With what neighboring country did the Romans first become 
 involved in war ? 
 
 Things went on very peaceably for some time with the new 
 kingdom, for most of the surrounding provinces gave their allegi- 
 ance to the new government of their own accord. The Romans, 
 however, at length became involved in a terrible war with a peo- 
 ple called the Sabines. You will see the situation of the Sabine 
 country in relation to Rome by looking again at the map.* It 
 lies to the northeastward from Eome. 
 
 What was the first great want experienced in Rome in resjpect 
 to population f 
 
 This war had a very extraordinary origin. It was wholly the 
 fault of the Romans. The case was this. They found, after their 
 city was built and their kingdom in some degree established, that 
 the inhabitants were almost altogether of the male sex. The rea- 
 son was, that, though the young men were willing to come in great 
 numbers to join their enterprise, the girls and young women of the 
 * See map on page 97. 
 
THE FOUNDATION OF ROME. 101 
 
 surrounding countries were afraid to trust themselves in such a 
 turbulent community. 
 
 Describe the plan which the Romans formed for ^procuring 
 wives. 
 
 In order to remedy this want, the Romans prepared a splendid 
 spectacle and entertainment just without the city, and invited the 
 Sabines to come, bringing with them their sisters, and cousins, 
 and other female friends. In the midst of the feast, the Eon^ans 
 arose and seized the women, each taking one for his own wife, and 
 carried them off within the walls of the city, while they drove the 
 men away. 
 
 How did they contrive to seize and hear aiuay the women f 
 
 They accomplished their stratagem by means of the sudden- 
 ness and unexpectedness of the movement. Romulus himself 
 gave the signal. He chose a moment during the last day of the 
 celebration, when the attention of the company was absorbed by 
 a grand spectacle, and the Sabine men were wholly off their guard. 
 Romulus himself was seated on a sort of throne, where all the 
 Romans could see him, and he gave the signal by taking off his 
 mantle. When the Romans saw the signal, they all arose at once, 
 drew their swords, seized the females, and bore them away before 
 the Sabines had time to arm themselves, or recover from their 
 surprise. 
 
 What was the result of this measure ? 
 
 The men went home in a great rage, and immediately declared 
 war. The war was carried on for some time with great vigor, 
 the Sabine women remaining all the time within the city with 
 their husbands ; for the Romans had at once persuaded or com- 
 pelled them to become their wives. 
 
 What was the proposal made by Tarpeia in respect to admit- 
 ting the Sabines into the city? 
 
 At one time the Sabines came very near taking the city. They 
 did succeed in getting possession of a portion of it. A girl named 
 
102 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF EOME. 
 
 Tarpeia let them in. She spoke to them from the top of the wall 
 at one time when there was nobody by to hear, and promised that 
 
 she would open a 
 
 ^"^^V^.fr gate for them in 
 the night and let 
 them in, if they 
 would present her 
 those things that 
 they wore on their 
 arms. She refer- 
 red in this offer 
 to certain brace- 
 lets which she saw 
 upon the soldiers' 
 wrists. She dis- 
 covered that they 
 were ornaments of 
 some kind, but yet 
 
 THE BRACELETS. 
 
 she seems not to have known what they were called. 
 
 How did the soldiers fulfill their agreement? 
 
 The crafty soldiers promised to grant her request, and at night 
 Tarpeia opened one of the gates, and let them in. The soldiers 
 then, as they passed along by her in going through the gate, threw 
 their shields upon her until their number and weight crushed her 
 to death, saying, as they did so, that that was what they wore 
 upon their arms. 
 
 In what loay was the Sabine war finally ended? 
 
 After a while, the Sabine war was brought to a conclusion 
 through the intercession of the Sabine women themselves. They 
 came out between the combatants, and begged them not to fight 
 any more. They told their fathers and brothers that, although 
 they were dreadfully frightened at first, yet now, since they had 
 become settled as the wives of the Romans, they were contented 
 
THE FOUNDATION OF EOME. 103 
 
 and happy ; and, at any rate, the mischief was done, and could 
 not now be undone, and so they entreated the two nations to make 
 peace and live in harmony. 
 
 Describe the plan of union which, was finally formed. 
 
 They all finally agreed to these proposals, and the Sabines and 
 Eomans joined together to form one kingdom. The Sabine terri- 
 tory was added to the Eoman dominions, and the Sabine chieftains 
 came to Eome and shared in the government there. 
 
 Who succeeded Romulus as hing f 
 
 Romulus lived some years after this, and at length died, and 
 another king, whose name was Numa Pompilius, succeeded him. 
 Numa Pompilius was a Sabine. 
 
 Describe the condition and progress of Rome under the kings. 
 
 After this the kingdom of Eome continued to flourish more and 
 more for many years, under a line of several successive kings. 
 Excellent arrangements were planned for the internal administra- 
 tion of the country, and many additions were made to the terri- 
 tory, some by war and conquest, and some by peaceable negotia- 
 tions. Every thing went on prosperously and well, except that 
 the kings gradually became arbitrary and tyrannical. At first, as 
 is usual in such cases, they were Avise and good, and formed their 
 plans and arrangements with a view to promote the welfare of the 
 people, but each new monarch was less faithful to his duties than 
 his predecessors, and at last they became extremely unjust, selfish, 
 and tyrannical. 
 
 In what manner was the reign of the kings brought to an end? 
 
 After some time, one of the kings, named Tarquin, treated a 
 noble Eoman lady so outrageously, at a time when her husband 
 was away, that she killed herself as soon as her husband had re- 
 turned, and she had had an opportunity to call upon him to re- 
 venge her wrongs. Her husband raised a rebellion, and the peo- 
 ple drove Tarquin out of the city, and resolved that they would 
 never be governed by any king again. 
 
104 EOME UNDER THE CONSULS. 
 
 How long did the kingly government continue in Home f 
 Rome was governed by kings for about two hundred and forty- 
 five years. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 EOME UNDER THE CONSULS. 
 
 What system of government did the Romans adopt after ex- 
 pelling the kings f 
 
 When the Romans deposed their kings, they adopted the plan 
 of choosing every year two chief magistrates, called consids, who 
 were to reign in conjunction with each other. This system con- 
 tinued for about five hundred years, and under it the Roman com- 
 monwealth rose to a very high degree of grandeur and renown. 
 
 Describe the condition and progress of Home under the consuls. 
 
 The city itself, during this period, advanced very rapidly in 
 size, in population, and in wealth. The walls were extended, and 
 the inclosed space enlarged, and castles and temples were built 
 upon the hills. The government was so well planned and so 
 ably administered, and the measures that were adopted were so 
 systematic and comprehensive, and were carried into effect with 
 so much promptness, resolution, and energy, that the power of the 
 Romans extended continually more and more, until at length the 
 whole of Italy was brought under its dominion, and then they be- 
 gan to make conquests and establish colonies beyond the seas. 
 
 In what manner did the Romans exercise their power over the 
 nations that they conquered? 
 
 The various nations which came thus under the dominion of 
 the Romans submitted generally very readily and willingly to 
 their sway, for the government which they exercised over their 
 realms was usually very just and fair. They made great improve- 
 ments in the laws of these countries, and they constructed an im- 
 
ROME UNDER THE CONSULS. 
 
 105 
 
 mense number of public works which were of great utility. They 
 built aqueducts to convey water into towns, and bridges across 
 rivers, and piers and breakwaters in ports, and light-houses for the 
 guidance of ships coming in from sea. 
 
 Describe the military roads which they constructed. 
 
 They also constructed great military roads all over Italy, making 
 
 <#ill* 
 
 vSA^Mk- 
 
 
 
 ROMAN MILITARY ROAD. 
 
 them so hard, and smooth, and straight, and building them of such 
 solid and substantial materials, that many of them remain to the 
 present day. These roads were intended in a great measure for 
 military purposes, such as the marching of armies and the trans- 
 port of baggage, but they were so extremely useful for the pur- 
 poses of trade and commerce, that they exerted a vast influence 
 in promoting the progress of the people of Europe in refinement 
 and civilization. 
 
106 
 
 ROME UNDEE THE CONSULS. 
 
 Who and what were the plebeians ? Who were the patri- 
 cians f 
 
 Notwithstanding this general prosperity, the Eomans experi- 
 enced many difficulties and incurred many dangers during this pe- 
 riod. One of their troubles was the internal dissensions that took 
 place between the different classes of the population. The lower 
 classes of people were called plebeians. The upper classes were 
 
 PLEBEIANS. 
 
 styled the patricians. The plebeians were a very sturdy and 
 somewhat turbulent set of men, who were by no means disposed 
 to submit to being trampled upon by the proud, aristocratic fam- 
 ilies above them, and thus a great many contests arose, each party 
 contending for a greater share of power than the other was willing 
 to accord to it. At length the plebeians carried the day, and the 
 
EOME UNDER THE CONSULS. 107 
 
 patricians were obliged to allow to them their proper share of the 
 power. 
 
 Give an account of the war made upon the Romans by the 
 Gauls. 
 
 At one time, too, the Roman commonwealth came very near be- 
 ing entirely overwhelmed and destroyed by the violence of foreign 
 enemies, and it was saved by the courage and military skill of one 
 of the plebeian generals, whose name was Camillus. The enemies 
 in this case were the Ganls, the people that inhabited the northern 
 part of Italy. The Ganls had advanced to the very gates of Rome. 
 The people and a portion of the army were shut up within the city, 
 while the principal part of the army had fled to a neighboring 
 stronghold, and had intrenched themselves there. They were 
 greatly perplexed, and did not know what to do. 
 
 To whom did the army offer the command? What was the 
 reply of Camillus f 
 
 . The army at last sent for Camillus to come and take the com- 
 mand. Camillus had had the command in former wars, and had 
 acquired great renown ; but he had afterward fallen into disfavor 
 with the people, and had gone into banishment. And now, when 
 the army sent to him to come and take the command of them again, 
 he replied that he would not do it unless the people of Rome 
 themselves voted to appoint him. So they sent a messenger to 
 see if he could make his way into the city. This was an ex- 
 tremely difficult undertaking, for the Gauls had invested Rome on 
 all sides ; they had even broken through the walls, taken posses- 
 sion of and burned a large part of the city, and had shut up the 
 Romans that remained in a sort of citadel on the top of Capitol Hill, 
 where it would be very difficult for the messenger to reach them. 
 
 What was the decision of the people f 
 
 The messenger; however, succeeded in making his way into the 
 city, and in getting into the citadel. The people there, on receiv- 
 ing his message, voted unanimously to make Camillus dictator. 
 
108 ROME UNDER THE CONSULS. 
 
 What were the vowers of a dictator f 
 
 A dictator was an officer appointed in great and extreme emer- 
 gencies, with absolute power to do whatever he thought best. 
 Every body was to obey him, whatever his orders might be. 
 
 Describe the occurrences which took j^lace when Camillus as- 
 sumed the command. 
 
 When the messenger returned, CamiUus took command of the 
 army, and marched to the rehef of Rome. He came upon the 
 Gauls by surprise just as the Roman people were weighing out a 
 large sum of money in gold to pay for peace. Camillus stopped 
 this proceeding at once, saying that the Romans were accustomed 
 to secure peace with steel, not with gold. He fell upon the Gauls 
 with great fury, and routed them completely. Their army was 
 utterly discomfited and driven away, and Rome was saved. 
 
 What were the feelings of the jpeo^le lohen they saw the con- 
 dition of the city f 
 
 When the people came down from the Capitol, and found to 
 how complete a state of devastation and ruin the city had been 
 reduced, they were so dispirited and discouraged that many of 
 them were inclined to abandon it altogether, and to emigrate in a 
 mass to some other place ; but Camillus dissuaded them from doing 
 this, and so they all went to work to repair and rebuild the city, 
 and in a few years it was greater, more wealthy, and more pros- 
 perous than ever. 
 
 In what two great foreign wars were the Romans engaged 
 during the time of the consids f 
 
 During the time that Rome was under the consular govern- 
 ment, the people were engaged in two great foreign wars, which 
 were so important that they must be made the subjects of separate 
 chapters. The first was a war with Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and 
 the second was with the Carthaginians. 
 
PYERHUS, KING OF EPIRUS. 109 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 PYRRHUS, KING OF EPIRUS. 
 
 Describe the situation of Ejpirus, 
 
 The country of Epirus was situated on the Grecian side of the 
 seas lying to the westward of Italy. You will see the position 
 of it by the map on the next page. It was north of Greece proper, 
 and to the southward and westward of Macedonia, the country of 
 Alexander. 
 
 Who was the king of Epirus at this time f 
 
 Pyrrhus was born about four years after Alexander, so that the 
 wars which Alexander waged in the East against the Persians 
 took place at nearly the same period in the history of the world 
 with those which Pyrrhus carried on in the West with the Eomans. 
 
 What danger did Pyrrhus escajpe in his childhood ? 
 
 There were two rival families in Epirus, each of which claimed 
 the throne. Pyrrhus was the heir of one of these families. The 
 other family succeeded in gaining the ascendency, and they de- 
 termined to kiU all the members of the rival household, so as to 
 get them out of the way. They did kill nearly all of them, but 
 Pyrrhus himself escaped. 
 
 How was he rescued ? 
 
 He was an infant at the time, and his life was saved by his 
 nurses and attendants carrying him away. They fled with him, 
 intending to take him across the frontier of the country into Mac- 
 edonia, where they thought he would be safe. 
 
 Relate the occurrences of his flight. 
 
 At one time they came very near being overtaken by the troops 
 which were sent to pursue them, for they were stopped in their 
 course by a river which was so swollen by the rains that they 
 could not get across it. There was a town on the other side, and 
 
110 
 
 PYEEHUS, KING OF EPIEUS. 
 
 some people of the town were standing on the shore when they 
 came up. The persons who had charge of little Pyrrhiis called 
 out to these people, but could not make them hear, on account of 
 the roaring of the stream. They wished to tell the townspeople 
 upon tlie other bank who they were, and to ask them to contrive 
 some way by which they, and the little prince under their charge, 
 might get across the water. But it was impossible to make them 
 hear. 
 
 Eoio did tJiG party communicate their wishes across the rivSr f 
 They stripped a piece of bark from a tree that was growing there 
 on the bank, and wrote what they wanted upon it by means of the 
 tongue of a buckle which belonged to the belt of one of the young 
 men. Then they tied the piece of bark to a stone or something 
 heavy, and threw it across the stream to the people on the other 
 side. 
 
 How did they transport the child across the river f 
 
 The people then got axes, and cut down some trees, and made 
 
PYEEHUS, KING OF EPIEUS. Ill 
 
 a raft, and in this way they got the child and all the persons who 
 were with him safely over. 
 
 W/iat became of Pyrrhics after tJiis escape f 
 
 The men who had charge of Pyrrhus found it would not be 
 safe for him to remain in Macedonia, so they turned to the north- 
 ward, and went on till they came to the country of Illyria, which 
 you will see on the map lying to the northward of Macedonia and 
 Epirus. Here little Pyrrhus was received and taken care of by 
 the king, and he remained here until he grew up to be a man. 
 Then, after waiting for a time to watch for a favorable opportunity, 
 he raised an army and marched into Epirus. The people were 
 willing to receive him, having fallen out at that time with the other 
 branch of the royal family, and so he very easily established him- 
 self on the throne. 
 
 Describe the character of Pyrrhus, What was the first war 
 that he became engaged in f 
 
 Pyrrhus was a very ambitious, high-spirited, and warlike man, 
 and was not at all disposed to remain quietly at home, and gov- 
 ern his empire in peace and quietness. There were various wars 
 going on at this time among the surrounding nations, particularly 
 in ]\Iacedonia, where two or three different princes were fighting 
 for the mastery of the kingdom. Pyrrhus joined himself to one of 
 these parties, and went into Macedonia with his army. Here he 
 gradually got involved deeper and deeper in the quarrel, and he 
 continued in the country for several years. At last, when he was 
 beginning to get tired of this, a circumstance occurred which led 
 him to conceive the idea of crossing over the sea into Italy, and 
 making war upon the Roman empire. 
 
 In what period of the history of Povie was it that Pyrrhus 
 formed his design of invading Italy f 
 
 This was during the time that Rome was governed by consuls, 
 and between two and three hundred years after the consular gov- 
 ernment commenced. 
 
112 PYEEHUS, KING OF EPIEUS. 
 
 Where was Tarentumf What were the circumstances that 
 induced the Tarentines to invite Pyrrhus to come to their coun- 
 try? 
 
 If you look upon the map* you will see that just in the hollow 
 of the foot of Italy there is a round gulf, called the Gulf of Ta- 
 rentum, and that at the head of this gulf stands the city of Taren- 
 tum. Now the Romans, in the time of Pyrrhus, had extended 
 their dominions over all that part of Italy, except that they had 
 not yet been able to subdue the people of Tarentum. They were 
 now, however, drawing very near to this city, and the Tarentines 
 were in great alarm. They had heard of Pyrrhus, and of his fame 
 as a warrior. They knew, too, that he liked war, and was willing 
 to fight in other people's quarrels when he had none of his own ; 
 so they concluded to send to him to come to Tarentum and assist 
 them. They said that they would put all their armies under his 
 command if he would do so. 
 
 What argument was offered at Tarentum against giving Pyr- 
 rhus this invitation ? 
 
 Some of the more considerate and far-sighted of the people of 
 Tarentum were altogether opposed to sending for Pyrrhus in this 
 way. " Depend upon it," said they, " that if we send for such a 
 man as he to come among us, and put our troops under his com- 
 mand, he will make himself our master, and we shall be all his 
 slaves ; and if we are going to submit ourselves to any other gov- 
 ernment than our own, we may as well be under the Eomans as 
 under Pyrrhus." 
 
 How did the people finally decide f 
 
 The people were so much alarmed at the danger from the Ro- 
 mans that they would not listen to these counsels, and so, after 
 many stormy and violent debates and discussions, it was decided 
 to send to Pyrrhus to invite him to come, with a view of putting 
 all their forces under his command. 
 
 * See page 110. 
 
PYRRHUS, KING OF EPIRUS. 113 
 
 Describe the arrangements of the exjpedition. 
 
 As soon as it was known that Pyrrhus was going to embark in 
 this enterprise, great numbers of men in Epirus volunteered to join 
 him, and he soon collected a very large army. He also caused a 
 great number of galleys to be built or purchased, in order to trans- 
 port his troops and munitions of war. As soon as a part of this 
 fleet was ready, he sent forward a large detachment of his army in 
 it, under the command of one of his generals. Pyrrhus himself 
 followed a short time afterward with the remainder of the force, the 
 vessels having been sent back for the purpose. His army consist- 
 ed of twenty elephants, three thousand horse, twenty thousand foot, 
 two thousand archers, and twenty thousand slingers. 
 
 What disaster occurred at the outset ? 
 
 The enterprise commenced disastrously, for no sooner had Pyr- 
 rhus set sail with his part of the army than a storm arose, and 
 made sad havoc with the fleet. The vessels were dispersed in all 
 directions, far and wide. The ship that Pyrrhus was in succeed- 
 ed in getting pretty near the shore, but then the wind suddenly 
 changed and threatened to drive it back to sea again. So Pyr- 
 rhus leaped out into the water, and attempted to swim to shore, 
 and many of his oflicers and attendants immediately jumped over- 
 board too, to assist him. They all came very near being drowned, 
 though at last, after being dashed about mercilessly for some time 
 by the waves, they succeeded in reaching the land. 
 
 What portion of the expedition was saved f 
 
 Some of the other ships, too, succeeded in eflecting a landing at 
 different parts of the coast, but when Pyrrhus collected his forces 
 together again, he found that there was but a very small part of 
 the original number remaining. Of his twenty elephants there 
 were only two left. The rest had all been drowned. 
 
 What course of procedure did Pyrrhus adojyt vjhe^i he reach- 
 ed Tarentumf 
 
 Pyrrhus, however, nothing daunted, proceeded to Tarentum, and. 
 
 3 H 
 
114 PYKEHUS, KING OF EPIRUS. 
 
 entering it with great pomp, he immediately took possession of all 
 the departments of the government just as if he were the natural 
 and proper king of the country. He found the people in a great 
 state of alarm and confusion, but he soon reduced things to order. 
 He strengthened the walls and gates, and organized the garrison, 
 and adopted a very strict system of rules and regulations for the 
 government of the city. 
 
 How soon did he hear news of the Romans^ and what did he 
 then do f 
 
 While he was engaged in these operations, the news came that 
 the Roman army was approaching, under the command of one of 
 the consuls. The consul's name was Lasvinus. Pyrrhus march- 
 ed out to meet them. After advancing some days he came into 
 the neighborhood of the encampment, and then, watching for a 
 favorable opportunity, taking with him a suitable guard, he went 
 out to reconnoitre. 
 
 Describe the general arrangements of a Roman encampment. 
 
 Nothing could be more completely systematized and arranged 
 than the Roman encampments of those days. The tents were dis- 
 posed in rows, like the buildings of a town, with streets between. 
 The .place chosen was usually a spot of level ground on the banks 
 of a river or other stream, for it was necessary to have abundant 
 supplies of water for the army close at hand. The camp was 
 generally square, the streets crossing each other at right angles, 
 and it was surrounded by an embankment which served the pur- 
 pose of a wall. There were gateways through this embankment, 
 •tvith roads leading from them down to the water. 
 
 What impression was onade upon JPyrrhus's mind by the sight 
 of the encampment ? 
 
 At the time that Pyrrhus went out to reconnoitre the position 
 of the Romans, he found them encamped on the banks of. the River 
 Siris, which you will find laid down on the map not far from Ta- 
 rentum. He was very much struck with the magnificence of the 
 
PYERHUS, KING OF EPIRUS. 
 
 115 
 
 PYRRHUS VIEWING THE ROMAN ENCAMPMENT 
 
 spectacle, and began to tliink that lie had a much more formida- 
 ble enemy to contend with than he had at first supposed. 
 
 How did the Romans cross the river f 
 
 He, however, prepared for battle, and very soon the Eoman^army 
 marched across the river and attacked him. They came across in 
 three bodies, holding their shields over their heads as they waded 
 through the water. The divisions looked like immense animals 
 covered with scales. 
 
 Describe the stratagem that Pyrrhtis resorted to on the day of 
 the battle. What was the consequence of it f 
 
 Pyrrhus was accustomed, when on the field of battle, to wear a 
 gay and beautiful suit of armor, which made him very conspicuous 
 among the other generals ; but in this instance, just before the bat- 
 tle commenced, he changed his dress with one of his ofiicers named 
 Megacles, and, in consequence of this, the enemy supposed that 
 }Iegacle^ was Pyrrhus, and so, whenever they saw him, they press- 
 
116 
 
 PYERHUS, KING OF EPIEUS. 
 
 DISPLAY OF THE ARMOR. 
 
 3d upon him with great faiy, and finally they killed him. They of 
 
 course thought 
 it was Pyrrhus 
 that was killed, 
 so they took off 
 his armor and 
 carried it about 
 tlie ranks, with 
 music and ban- 
 ners, in token of 
 triumph. This 
 produced a very 
 encouraging ef- 
 fect on the Ro- 
 mans, and, as a 
 
 consequence, greatly discouraged the Tarentines, for they too, for 
 a time, supposed that Pyrrhus was killed. The effect was so 
 great, that at length, in order to correct the mistake, Pyrrhus was 
 obliged to ride along the ranks of liis army with his head uncov- 
 ered, calling out at the same time to the men every where to look 
 at him, and see that he was still alive. 
 What was the result of the battle f 
 
 At length, after a long and obstinate contest, the Eomans were 
 defeated. The victory was owing, in a great measure, to the ele- 
 phants. The E-oman horses were terrified at the sight of such 
 huge beasts, and they fled from before them in dismay, trampling 
 down the troops under their feet, and producing dreadful confu- 
 sion and slaughter. 
 
 What were the consequences of this victory f Why was not 
 jyeace now made f 
 
 This victory made Pyrrhus master of the eastern part of Italy, 
 and, on reflection, he concluded to be satisfied with that, and so 
 he sent an embassador to Bome to propose peace ; but the Ro- 
 
PYERHUS, KING OF EPIRUS. 117 
 
 mans said that they would not listen to any proposals of peace 
 while Pyrrhus remained in the country. So the embassador came 
 back, and both parties prepared again for war. 
 
 How did the Romans attenvpt to defend themselves from the 
 elephants in the second battle f 
 
 After some time another great battle was fought. This time 
 the Romans were prepared for the elephants. They came on 
 against them with chariots armed with long spears, that projected 
 forward very far from the pole, so as to pierce the elephants be- 
 fore they could come near. They also had blazing torches to wave 
 in the air, and firebrands to throw at the huge beasts, in' order to 
 frighten them. In this way they drove many of them back, but 
 still they could not entirely subdue them. 
 
 What was the result f 
 
 The battle ended doubtfully. Both parties withdrew at the 
 end of it to their camps, and remained there for some time, not 
 knowing what to do next. 
 
 Relate the story of Nicias. 
 
 While things were in this state, Pyrrhus's physician, whose 
 name was Nicias, went secretly to the Roman camp, and offered 
 for a bribe to poison Pyrrhus. Instead of accepting this offer, the 
 consul seized the traitor and sent him in chains to Pyrrhus, with 
 a letter explaining to Pyrrhus the atrocious proposal the man had 
 made. Pyrrhus was very much struck with the generosity of this 
 act, and, as an acknowledgment of it, he immediately sent the 
 Romans all the prisoners that he had taken in the battle. 
 
 Relate the sequel of the history of Pyrrhus. 
 
 After this Pyrrhus continued for some time in Italy, and the 
 war, though it turned occasionally in his favor, was more frequent- 
 ly against him. At length he was driven back to Tarentum, and, 
 finally, he concluded to withdraw from the country altogether, 
 leaving all Italy under the Roman dominion. He carried on sev- 
 eral other wars after this in various countries, being always ready 
 
118 
 
 PYERHUS, KING OF EPIRUS. 
 
 to go whenever he was called, to fight in any body's quarrels, no 
 matter who they might be. 
 
 Describe the circumstances of his death. 
 
 At last he found his way into Greece, and there, while he was 
 fighting in the streets of the city of Argos, a woman, whose son 
 
 "V^/ //^. 
 
 DEATH OF PYRRHUS. 
 
 he had killed, threw a tile down upon him from the top of a house 
 
THE CARTHAGINIANS AND HANNIBAL. 119 
 
 as she s:%w him going by. The tile struck him on his head, and 
 felled him from his horse. He lay there helpless upon the ground 
 for a little time, nobody knowing who he was. At length a sol- 
 dier came by, and, having stopped to look at him, and finding it 
 was Pyrrhus, he cut off his head. 
 
 What was Pyrrhuis character f 
 
 Thus ended the life of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, one of the most 
 celebrated warriors of ancient times ; a man who seemed to love 
 fighting for its own sake, and who was always ready to engage in 
 any quarrel just for the sake of the excitement and pleasure of war. 
 
 CHAPTEE XIII. 
 
 THE CAETHAGINIANS AND HANNIBAL. 
 
 What was the situation of ancient Carthage f 
 
 Soon after the time of Pyrrhus, the Komans encountered anoth- 
 er still more formidable foe in Hannibal the Carthaginian. Car- 
 thage was a great city that had been gradually growing up in Af- 
 rica, on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea, while Rome had been 
 rising to power and wealth in Italy. Thus Eome and Carthage 
 were rivals. 
 
 What were the principal jpursidts of the Carthaginians? 
 
 There was this difference between the two cities, namely, that 
 Rome was an interior town, and it was maintained at first by the 
 agriculture of the surrounding country, while Carthage, on the 
 other hand, was a commercial town, and the people lived by buy- 
 ing and selling merchandise. The merchants of Carthage o-^ned 
 a great many ships, and they sent their ships all over the Medi- 
 terranean Sea, buying and selling goods in different countries, and 
 making a profit on all their trade, so that, at length, they became 
 very wealthy, and their wealth made them very powerful. They 
 built fleets, they hired large bodies of soldiers, they established 
 
120 THE CARTHAGINIANS AND HANNIBAL. 
 
 colonies along the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea — they became,' 
 in fine, a great maritime power. 
 
 How was the city of Carthage originally fou7icled f 
 
 The Carthaginians came originally from Tyre. Tyre was one 
 of the cities of Phoenicia, a country on the eastern shores of the 
 Mediterranean Sea. PJioenicia was one of the earliest countries 
 that were settled by man, the Phoenicians being known in history 
 from a period almost as remote as the Assyrians and Babylonians ; 
 but, living as they did on the borders of the sea, they were natu- 
 rally the first to learn the art of buikling ships and of navigating 
 them, and, in process of time, they established ports and colonies 
 in various parts of the Mediterranean Sea, in order to enable them 
 the better to carry on their commerce. Carthage was one of these 
 colonies ; and when at last Tyre was taken, and in a great meas- 
 ure destroyed by Alexander, as has already been related, Carthage 
 took its place, and became the greatest mart of commerce in the 
 world. 
 
 For how long a period did the wars between the Romans and 
 Carthaginians continue f 
 
 This was the origin of Carthage ; and while she was gradually 
 growing up to power and greatness, Rome was growing up too, so 
 that at length the two powers began, here and there, to come into 
 collision, and at last they came to open and general war. The 
 wars between Rome and Carthage continued about one hundred 
 years, with varying success during the continuance of them, but 
 at last Carthage was vanquished, and then, by order of the Ro- 
 man government, the city was entirely destroyed. 
 
 By what name are these wars known in history f 
 
 The wars between Rome and Carthage are known in history as 
 the Punic wars. Punic means Carthaginian. 
 
 What was the character of the first Punic war f Which party 
 was successful at first at sea f 
 
 In the first Punic war the contest was chiefly on the sea. The 
 
THE CARTHAGINIANS AND HANNIBAL. 
 
 121 
 
 difficulty commenced in Sicily ; but at length the Romans, find- 
 ing that the Carthaginians possessed a powerful fleet, concluded 
 that conquering them on land was not enough, so they determined 
 to build a fleet too, and attack them at sea. They did this, and, 
 to the surprise of all the world, they were successful. The Car- 
 thaginian fleet was defeated, and almost entirely destroyed. 
 
 What measure did the Romans then determine upon f Who 
 commanded the Roman army f 
 
 The Romans then determined to carry the war into Africa — that 
 is, to send an army across the sea, and attack the Carthaginians 
 
 in their own city. 
 The consul's name 
 who had command 
 of the Roman ar- 
 mies in this cam- 
 paign was Regu- 
 lus, who has made 
 his name renown- 
 ed in all ages by 
 the noble fortitude 
 and magnanimity 
 which he exhibited 
 in exposing him- 
 self to the severest 
 privations and suf- 
 ferings rather than 
 be faithless to his 
 
 SITUATIO^ OF CARTHAGE. 
 
 duty. Regulus took command of the army and proceeded to Africa. 
 
 How did the cam/paign of Regulus end f 
 
 He was not successful in his campaign in Africa. He triumph- 
 ed over the Carthaginians for a time, it is true, and advanced 
 with his armies very near to Carthage ; but then a large body of 
 Greeks came to the aid of the Carthaginians, and this turned the 
 
122 THE CAETHAaiNIANS AND HANNIBAL. 
 
 scale. The Roman army was defeated, and E,egulus was taken 
 prisoner. 
 
 What did the Carthaginians finally resolve to do with Reg- 
 ulus f 
 
 The Carthaginians were of course overjoyed at the result. For 
 a time they scarcely knew what to do with their captive. Finally 
 they conceived the idea of sending him to Rome, to propose con- 
 ditions of peace with the Romans, under a promise that if he did 
 not succeed he would come back to Carthage again, and surrender 
 himself into their hands. 
 
 How did the Carthaginians reason among themselves in re- 
 sjpect to the mission of Regulus f 
 
 "He will certainly do all in his power to make peace," said 
 they, " as that will be the only means by which he can escape a 
 miserable captivity. As to his coming back to us, we can trust 
 to his word." 
 
 Describe the progress and residt of Regidu^s mission, 
 
 Eegulus proceeded to Rome. He laid there the Carthaginian 
 proposal before the senate and people, but, instead of urging 
 them to make peace, he strongly recommended them not to do so. 
 He thought it was best that the war should be carried on. The 
 Romans decided, therefore, not to make peace ; but they declared 
 to Regulus that he was not under any obligation to return to 
 Carthage, and tried to persuade him to remain at Rome. But he 
 would not. He had promised, he said, atid he would not break 
 his word. They told him that it was a promise extorted ; it was 
 given when he was not free, and he was under no obligation to 
 keep it. But all had no effect. Regulus insisted on returning ; 
 and, when he arrived among the Carthaginians, they were so en- 
 raged with him for not making peace, that they put him to death 
 with the most cruel tortures. They knew that the embassage 
 failed on account of the influence which Regulus himself exerted 
 on the minds of his countrymen. 
 
THE CARTHAGINIANS AND HANNIBAL. 123 
 
 To what has the grefict celebrity of the Roman namie^ in the 
 ojnnion of mankind, been in a great measure owing f 
 
 It was in a great measure owing to this spirit of firm, inflexi- 
 ble, and uncompromising adherence to right and to duty, which 
 was so often manifested by the generals, and statesmen, and sol- 
 diers of E-ome, that the Roman name acquired so great celebrity 
 throughout the world. 
 
 What course did the war take after the death of Regulus f 
 
 After the death of E-egulus, the war continued seven or eight 
 years, and then, both parties becoming weary of the contest, a sort 
 of peace was made, though there was still no cordial good-will be- 
 tween the countries. This peace, however, such as it was, lasted 
 about a quarter of a century. Then war broke out again. This 
 was the second Punic war, and in the course of it the Roman pow- 
 er was brought into very great danger. 
 
 Who was the great hero of the second Punic war ? Who was 
 his father? 
 
 The great hero of this second Punic war was the celebrated 
 Hannibal. He was the son of a Carthaginian general who had 
 commanded in Spain ; for the Carthaginians had colonized in va- 
 rious places along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, and one 
 of their most important colonies was in Spain. They had gold 
 and silver mines there. 
 
 Where and how did the Romans and Carthaginians first come 
 into collision? 
 
 The Romans had extended their dominion also into Spain, hav- 
 ing fought their way round into that country through France by 
 land ; so the frontiers of the two countries came together there. 
 The River Ebro, or, as it was then called, the Iberus, was the 
 boundary. Hannibal's father was in command on the Carthagin- 
 ian side of the Ebro, and when his son Hannibal, who was a re- 
 markably talented and energetic young man, grew up, he sent to 
 Carthage to have him appointed second in command. 
 
124 THE CARTHAGINIANS AND HANNIBAL. 
 
 How was it that Hannibal came to have the command of the 
 arm/yf What was the first m^easure that he adopted? 
 
 After some debates and difficulties, this was accomplished, and 
 Hannibal went to Spain. Soon after this, Hannibal's father died. 
 Hannibal was then, of course, first in command, and he soon con- 
 ceived the design of crossing the Iberus and attacking Saguntum, 
 a city near the frontiers, which, though it was not actually a pos- 
 session of the Romans, was still their confederate and ally. The 
 Romans warned him not to do it. He, however, would not desist. 
 He attacked Saguntum, captured and plundered it, and thus Rome 
 and Carthage were again brought into a state of open war. 
 
 What was the character of Hannibal at this time f 
 
 Hannibal was at this time a very young man, and, though he 
 was sedate in his manners, simple and unostentatious in his pre- 
 tensions, and very calm and quiet in all his demeanor, he was still 
 filled with a spirit of the most exalted enterprise and ambition. 
 
 What bold design did Ha7inibal now form f What were the 
 difficulties to be encountered? 
 
 He immediately conceived the very bold design of collecting a 
 very great army, and marching round into Italy through Switzer- 
 land, and so coming down upon the city of Rome itself from the 
 north. In doing this he knew that there were almost insurmount- 
 able difficulties to encounter. Not only was the distance very 
 great, but there were wide rivers and lofty mountains in the way 
 — ^rivers so wide and mountains so high that most persons would 
 have deemed it impossible to have transported so great an army 
 through that region of country. Hannibal, however, resolved upon 
 the undertaking ; so, after having made all possible preparations, 
 he commenced his march. 
 
 What was the difficidty in respect to crossing the Rhone ? 
 
 One of the first great difficulties which he encountered was the 
 Rhone. His course was such that he was obliged to cross this 
 river at its widest and deepest part. There was not so much dif- 
 
THE CARTHAGINIANS AND HANNIBAL. 125 
 
 ficulty in respect to the men and the horses, but he had a large 
 number of elephants in his army, and the greatest question was 
 how to contrive a mode for getting these monstrous animals across. 
 There was no other way but to build a great raft and float them 
 over. 
 
 Describe the mode which he adopted of transporting the el- 
 ephants across the river. 
 
 He set his army at work to cut down trees in the woods along 
 the banks of the river, and to make a raft of them. This raft 
 was of an enormous size ; and in order that the elephants might 
 not be afraid to go on it, he caused it to be covered with earth, 
 turf, and bushes, so as to make it look like the natural ground. 
 When the raft was finished it was brought up by the shore, and 
 the elephants were led upon it, and so floated over. 
 
 What was the behavior of the elephants upon the raft f 
 
 The elephants were easily induced to walk out upon the raft 
 while it remained moored to the shore, for it was made to resemble 
 very closely a portion of the solid ground. But as soon as the 
 raft was separated from the shore, and the elephants perceived that 
 it was in motion, they became greatly alarmed, and began imme- 
 diately to look anxiously this way and that, and to crowd toward 
 the edges of the floating mass which was conveying them away. 
 Here they found that they were hemmed in by the water on every 
 side, and they were terrified and thrown into confusion. Some 
 of them were crowded ofl* into the river, and were drifted down by 
 the current, until at length they landed below. The rest soon be- 
 came calm when they found that all hope of escape was vain, and, 
 resigning themselves to their fate, allowed themselves to be quiet- 
 ly ferried across the river. The raft was towed by boats prece- 
 ding it, which were propelled by oars. 
 
 What were the difficulties to be encountered in p)cissing the 
 Alps ? 
 
 At last Hannibal came to Switzerland and the Alps. The dif- 
 
126 THE CARTHAGINIANS AND HANNIBAL. 
 
 ficulties of getting his army over the wild and snowy passes of 
 
 CROSSING THE ALPS. 
 
 these mountains were immense. All the roads, of course, were to 
 be made, and this required bridges to be built over torrents and 
 ravines, and precipices to be walled up, and rocks to be split and 
 moved out of the way. When the army reached the higher Alps, 
 too, they encountered great difficulty on account of the snow. A 
 violent storm arose and nearly overwhelmed them. The poor 
 elephants, particularly, were amazed at the spectacle, and it was 
 with great difficulty that they could be induced to go forward at all. 
 
 Describe the prospect that opened before them when they reach- 
 ed the southern brow of the mouiitains. 
 
 At length, however, the army came out upon the brow of the 
 mountains that was toward Italy, and then they saw stretched out 
 before them a vast extent of rich and fertile country. They de- 
 
THE CAETHAGINIANS AND HANNIBAL. 127 
 
 scended the mountains, and, after encamping a while for rest and 
 refi'eshment on the plain, they moved on toward Rome. 
 
 W/iat was the general course of the war after Hannibal reach- 
 ed Italy ? 
 
 The Romans came out with an immense army, under the com- 
 mand of the consuls, to meet them. Battle after battle was fought, 
 and many victories were gained, now on one side and now on the 
 other. The war continued sixteen or seventeen years, during all 
 which time Hannibal advanced nearer to Rome, supporting his 
 army in the mean while by the plunder of the provinces which he 
 conquered. 
 
 Where was the great battle fought f What was the result of it f 
 
 There was one celebrated battle fought at a place called Cannae. 
 Hannibal gained a great victory here, so great that the battle of 
 Cannse has since been as renowned as any of the greatest conflicts 
 of ancient times. The Romans, after the battle of Cann^, were in 
 the utmost alarm, expecting that Hannibal would come immedi- 
 ately, and storm and plunder the city. But he did not come. 
 
 Who was finally appointed general ov^r the Romans? Hoio 
 did the exjjedition end f 
 
 At length the tide of victory seemed gradually to turn in favor 
 of the Romans. A Roman general named Scipio arose, who was 
 far more successful than any of those who had gone before him. 
 The Carthaginian army gradually wasted away. They were beat- 
 en in one contest after another, until at length the people of Car- 
 thage, becoming dissatisfied with the course which Hannibal's af- 
 fairs were taking, sent an order for his recall. He was in a dread- 
 ful rage when he received this order, but he was obliged to obey. 
 
 What exjpedition was next undertaken by the Romans f What 
 was the success of it f 
 
 But the Romans were not satisfied with thus expelling Hanni- 
 bal from Italy. They sent a large army, under the command of 
 Scipio, into Africa, and there waged war against Carthage so sue- 
 
128 
 
 POMPEY AND CiESAE. 
 
 cessfully that the city was in imminent danger of falling into 
 Scipio's hands. To save themselves from utter ruin, the Cartha- 
 ginians were compelled to make peace on Scipio's own terms. 
 One of the conditions was that they should give up their ships 
 and galleys, and Scipio burned the whole fleet in sight of the city. 
 
 CIPIO BURNING THE CARTHAGINIAN FLEET. 
 
 How long did the peace last f 
 
 The peace that was made at this time lasted about fifty years. 
 Another war then broke out, which, however, lasted only a very 
 short time, and at the end of it Carthage was totally destroyed. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 POMPEY AND CiESAE. 
 
 WJiat was the power that finally supplanted that of the con- 
 suls in the government of Rome f 
 
 The consular power in the Roman republic, after enduring for 
 
POMPEY AND C^SAR. 129 
 
 SO many hundred years, was overshadowed and lost in a higher 
 power, which gradually rose up and superseded it. This other 
 power was the authority of the great military commanders that 
 were produced by the Roman system, and who, in process of time, 
 came to acquire so great an influence and ascendency as to bring 
 all the civil departments of the state into subjection to them. 
 Having legions of armed men under tlieir command, they had 
 power, of course, to do any thing they pleased. 
 
 Describe the effects that were produced by the rivcdries of these 
 commanders. 
 
 Sometimes two or more of these great commanders would arise 
 at the same time, in different parts of the Roman dominions; for 
 by this time the Roman power had extended over almost the 
 whole of Europe, and over all the western part of Asia, and the 
 northern part of Africa. In such cases as this, the rivals would 
 quarrel with each other, and sometimes produce great devastation 
 in different parts of the empire by the civil wars which they would 
 incite. 
 
 What were the tioo most conspicuous examples of this rivalry ? 
 
 The first great case of this kind was that of Marius and Sylla. 
 They kept all Italy, and Rome itself, in a state of great alarm 
 and distress for many years with their dreadful quarrels. They 
 had each succeeded in placing themselves at the head of immense 
 armies, and the people could not displace them. The next great 
 case of this kind was that of Pompey and Ca3sar. These generals 
 both acquired a great military reputation, each in his own quarter 
 of the world, and then they came together at Rome, and quarreled 
 to see who should be master there. 
 
 Describe the eai'ly career of Ccesar. 
 
 Cassar acquired his power by his services in the northern part 
 of the empire — in Switzerland, France, and Germany. After hav- 
 ing conquered these countries, he fitted out an expedition from 
 France, or Gaul as it was then called, for an invasion of Britain. 
 
 1 I 
 
130 
 
 POMPEY AND C^SAR. 
 
 NVASION OF BRITAIN. 
 
 This enterprise, too, was successful, and the Britons, though not 
 wholly subdued, were still, in a great measure, brought under the 
 Roman dominion. The particulars of this invasion, and of the 
 events which followed it, will be related more particularly in the 
 Story of English History. 
 
 What measures did Ccesar adopt while absent at the north for 
 strengthening his influence at Home f 
 
 While Caesar remained in his province at the north, he was still 
 all the time engaged in strengthening, by means of his agents, his 
 influence at Rome, and increasing his party there. He was pos- 
 sessed of great wealth, and he employed this wealth in giving en- 
 tertainments to the people of the higher ranks, and in arranging 
 games and celebrations to please the lower classes. Pompey, the 
 rival general, who had acquired his fame and power with other 
 armies and in other provinces, was doing the same thing. Thus 
 
POMPEY AND C^SAE. 131 
 
 both had their partisans at the capital, and each was striving with 
 all his power to overbear the influence of the other. 
 
 'What hold design did Caesar finally adopt? 
 
 At length Caesar, finding that there was danger that Pompey's 
 party would become the stronger, conceived the daring design of 
 marching with his army to Rome. This would, of course, be in 
 violation of law, for no general could leave his province, especially 
 with his army, without orders from the senate. 
 
 What were his thoughts in the prospect of crossing the Rubi- 
 con f 
 
 The river which formed the boundary of the province toward 
 Home was the Rubicon. Cffisar advanced to the bank of this 
 stream, and paused for some time, hesitating whether to take the 
 fatal step. "If I cross this stream," said he, "the die will be 
 cast. I must then make myself master of the Roman empire, or 
 else perish." 
 
 He stood thus for some time on the shore of the river, musing 
 upon the greatness of the undertaking in which the act of passing 
 across it would involve him. His officers stood by his side. 
 "We can go back now," said he, "if we will, but if we once ci'oss 
 this little stream it will be too late to retreat. We must then go 
 on, and conquer or be destroyed." 
 
 What was his decision f 
 
 He determined at length to cross the stream. When this de- 
 cision was once taken, there was no longer any faltering. He put 
 his whole army in motion, and marched directly toward Rome. 
 He was very popular with his soldiers, and they followed him with 
 great alacrity. The people of the country, too, as he advanced 
 along the road, generally espoused his cause. 
 
 Describe the effects produced at Rome by the news that he was 
 coming. 
 
 Of course, the news of his approach produced the greatest pos- 
 sible excitement in Rome. Armed men assembled in great num- 
 
132 POMPEY AND C^SAR. 
 
 bers in the public places in tlie city, and discussed earnestly and 
 
 EXCITEMENT IN ROME. 
 
 eagerly the question what was to be done. Some were for re- 
 ceiving him, others were for resisting him. 
 
 What course did Pompey adopt f 
 
 Pompey exerted himself to the utmost to quell the alarm, and 
 to induce the government to take a decided stand against tlie rebel. 
 " We have nothing to fear from him," said he. " I can raise men 
 enough by stamping my foot to put him down." 
 
 Relate what occurred when Ccesar drew nigh to the city ^ 
 What became of Pompey f 
 
 Pompey soon found, however, that the current was likely to turn 
 against him. The approach of C^sar at the head of such an 
 army, all enthusiastically devoted to his interests, encouraged his 
 
POMPEY AND CJiSAE. 133 
 
 friends and intimidated his enemies. Those who had been most 
 opposed to him fled from the city. Every one who went made the 
 case more hopeless for those that remained. At last Pompey him- 
 self, taking with him a few of his most resolute adherents, set off 
 secretly at night, and traveled with all dispatch to Brundusium, the 
 port of embarkation for Macedon and Greece. He was intending 
 to cross over to his own provinces, in order to raise an army and 
 prepare for war. 
 
 Did Caesar pursue Pomjpey f What occurred at Brundusium f 
 
 Csesar followed him. He reached Brundusium before Pompey 
 had left it ; but Pompey succeeded in making his escape by em- 
 barking in the night, with all the forces that he had collected, not- 
 withstanding all that Caesar could do to prevent him; 
 
 When CcBsar found that Pompey had escaped beyond sea^ what 
 did he do f 
 
 C^sar then went back to Kome, determining to take full posses- 
 sion of the government there, and then pursue Pompey at his lei- 
 sure. He entered the city at the head of his troops, and assumed 
 at once the general direction of public affairs. 
 
 Relate what occurred at the treasury. 
 
 He summoned the treasurer to deliver to him the keys of the 
 treasury. The officer replied that it was contrary to law for him 
 to enter. Csesar said that for men with swords in their hands 
 there was no law, and added, that if the officer did not admit him, 
 he would kill him on the spot. "And you may rely upon it," 
 he added, "that it is easier for me to do it than to say it," 
 
 What was the result of the affair f 
 
 The officer yielded, and Caesar took possession of the treasury. 
 
 How soon did Ccesar resutne his operations against Pompey f 
 
 For some months Csesar was occupied, in Italy and the neigh- 
 boring provinces, subduing opposition, and extending and confirm- 
 ing his power. Then he marched toward the Adriatic to renew 
 his contest with Pompey. 
 
134 POMPEY AND C^SAR. 
 
 How had Pompey been employed in the mean time f 
 
 In the mean time, Pompey had been diligently employed in 
 gathering an immense force in Macedon and Greece, and had drawn 
 them up on the shores opposite Brundusium. The attention of the 
 whole E-oman world was directed to the scene, all anxiously await- 
 ing the result, of the conflict. 
 
 When was the great final battle fought f What was the re- 
 sult of it f 
 
 Notwithstanding all Pompey's efforts to prevent it, Caesar suc- 
 ceeded in crossing the Adriatic with his troops, and then, after a 
 succession of movements, evolutions, and manoeuvres, in the prog- 
 ress of which the two armies traversed the country southward as 
 far as Thessaly, they came to a halt on a plain in Thessaly, called 
 the Plain of Pharsalia, and here fought a great battle. It was a 
 most desperate and terrible conflict. Pompey was entirely defeat- 
 ed. His army was driven oif in all directions, his camp was bro- 
 ken up, his tents torn down, plundered, and trampled under foot, 
 and he himself was compelled to fly from the field, accompanied 
 with very few attendants, and in a state of the greatest distress 
 and terror. 
 
 Narrate the particulars of Pompey'' s flight. 
 
 As soon as he had got beyond the limits of the field, he turned 
 aside, and continued his flight, through forests and solitudes, to- 
 ward the sea-shore. He reached it at length, and found refuge 
 for the night in a fisherman's cabin. The next morning he em- 
 barked in a little boat, and the boatmen rowed him along the shore 
 until they came in sight of a merchant vessel which was about to 
 sail from the coast. Pompey was taken on board. The captain 
 of the vessel received the distinguished fugitive, when he learned 
 who he was, with the utmost kindness and consideration. 
 
 How was it that he finally obtained a company of followers 
 again f 
 
 In this vessel Pompey sailed along, touching at various points 
 
POMPEY AND C^SAR. 135 
 
 on the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean, and summoning 
 his friends every where to come to his aid. A considerable num- 
 ber responded to this appeal, and joined him. Some brought 
 ships with them, and so, in time, he had quite a little fleet. Still 
 he went on, and many and anxious were the consultations and 
 debates which he held with his friends on the question where it 
 would be best to go. 
 
 Relate the circumstances of Poinpey's meeting with his wife 
 at Lesbos. 
 
 On his way to Egypt, Pompey stopped to have an interview 
 with his wife Cornelia at the island of Lesbos, where he had sent 
 her for safety. Cornelia came on board her husband's vessel, and 
 resolved to accompany him, and share his fortunes, whatever they 
 might be. She was a very faithful and devoted wife, and was also 
 a very resolute woman. Her presence and her counsels greatly 
 encouraged and strengthened her husband. 
 
 Where did Pomjpey finally decide to go, and why? 
 
 At length it was decided to go to Egypt. Ptolemy, the then 
 king of Egypt, had been Pompey's friend, and so Pompey thought 
 that he would receive and protect him. 
 
 What advice did Ptolemfs counselors give when they heard 
 that Pomjpey loas coming f 
 
 When, however, the little fleet drew nigh the coast, and Ptol- 
 emy heard that it was coming, his counselors advised him that the 
 best thing he could do would be to entice Pompey to the shore, 
 and then kill him as soon as he landed. By this they thought 
 they should please Ca3sar, who was now likely to become the 
 master of the world. 
 
 How did the case finally end? 
 
 The king acceded to this plan. He sent men who induced 
 Pompey to come on shore from his galley in a boat, and then, as 
 soon as he disembarked, an assassin, whom they had provided for 
 the purpose, stabbed him, and he fell dead upon the sand. 
 
136 
 
 POMPEY AND C^SAR. 
 
 %^ r 
 
 ^A^SINATION OF POMTEY, 
 
 In what 7nanner did they announce the death of Pomjpey to 
 Ccesar f 
 
 The murderers of Pompey then cut off his head in order to send 
 it as a present to Ca3sar. 
 
 How did Ccesar receive the tidings f 
 
 When the dreadful trophy was sent to C^sar, instead of being 
 pleased with it, he was filled with indignation, and turned away 
 from the spectacle in sorrow and tears. He afterward did every 
 thing in his power to render honor to his great rival's memory. 
 
 What are the principal />«r^z(?w^«r5 of Ccesar''s subsequent 
 history f 
 
 Ca3sar, who had followed Pompey into Egypt, remained some 
 time there, and then returned to Rome. He was now firmly es- 
 tablished as the supreme magistrate of Rome. He did not call 
 himself king, for the Romans, ever since the expulsion of Tarquin, 
 
POMPEY AND CtESAE. 137 
 
 could never endure the name of king. So he styled himself Erti- 
 pero7\ which means commander. The word, in the language of 
 that country, is Imperator. His successors in this office took the 
 same title, and they are called collectively, in history, the Roman 
 Emperors. Rome continued under the government of the emper- 
 ors for several hundred years after the time of Caesar. 
 
 What ivas the character of Ccesar's government f 
 
 C^sar exercised his government, in many respects, exceedingly 
 well. . He arranged and systematized every thing throughout the 
 empire, and advanced the Roman commonwealth to the highest 
 summit of its greatness and power. He made excellent laws, and 
 established wise and beneficent institutions ; he planned and exe- 
 cuted many vast and magnificent schemes of public improvement, 
 and corrected an infinite number of abuses in the governipent, and 
 in a thousand ways improved the administration of public affairs. 
 
 Describe the manner in which he was accustomed to return 
 from his nnilitary expeditio7is. 
 
 From time to time, he went away on military expeditions and 
 campaigns, to quell insuiTCCtions, or to subdue some intractable 
 province. In returning to Rome at the close of these campaigns, 
 he usually entered the city in a triumphal car, at the head of great 
 processions, arranged with all possible pomp and parade. On these 
 occasions he caused to be carried in the procession trophies of the 
 victories he had achieved. These trophies .consisted of flags and 
 banners taken from the enemy ; vess^ of gold and silver, and 
 other treasures, loaded in vans ; or captives taken in battle, some 
 conveyed in carriages, and some marching sorrowfully on foot, des- 
 tined, perhaps, to public execution when the ceremony of the tri- 
 umph was ended ; displays of arms, and implements, and dresses, 
 and all else which might serve to give the Roman crowd an idea 
 of the customs of the conquered nations; and, lastly, specimens of 
 the animals that they used, caparisoned in the manner in which the 
 foreign nation used them. One of these processions was so long 
 
138 
 
 POMPEY AND C^SAR. 
 
 THE TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION. 
 
 that it was four days in entering the city, and on one of the even- 
 ings of these days there were forty elephants "in the line, bearing 
 torches to light the way. 
 
 What was the end of Caesar ? 
 
 At length a conspiracy was formed against C^sar, and he was 
 stabbed in the senate-house in open day, and thus his life was 
 brought to a sudden and ^-eadful end. The name of the person 
 who stabbed him was Brutus, though there were other persons 
 who were joined with him in the conspiracy. They all gloried in 
 the deed when it was done. 
 
 Thus in Julius Csesar, as well as in multitudes of others like 
 him, were fulfilled the words of Jesus Christ, " They that take the 
 sword shall perish by the sword." 
 
EaYPT. 139 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 Describe the situation of EgyjpL 
 
 The country of Egypt — a long and very narrow valley, fertilized 
 by the waters of the Nile — was extremely fruitful, and it seems to 
 have been one of the very earliest portions of the earth that was 
 settled by man. Lying, however, as it does, in a remote and se- 
 cluded position, it was very little connected with the rest of the 
 world until the time of the Romans, so that little is known of its 
 history by any of the ordinary channels until a comparatively late 
 period. The attention of the world was turned toward Egypt par- 
 ticularly on the occasion when Julius Csesar went there rn pursuit 
 of Pompey, for he remained some time in the country on that oc- 
 casion, and took an active part in the government of it, as we shall 
 presently see. 
 
 For what is Egyj)t now chiefly remarkable f 
 
 Egypt is more remarkable than any other country for the im- 
 mense and extremely ancient architectural remains which are found 
 there. The gi'eat edifices of Nineveh and Babylon, having been 
 built of mud bricks, have long since gone to decay ; but those of 
 Egypt were built of the hardest stone, and they were of the most 
 colossal size too, and were constructed in the most substantial 
 manner. They have, therefore, endured to the present day. 
 
 Which are the most remarkable of these structures f 
 
 The most remarkable of these structures are the pyramids, which 
 were built, as is supposed, for tombs, by the ancient kings. There 
 are about forty of them in all, standing in different groups in the 
 middle portion of the valley of the Nile. They are of various 
 sizes, though the form and the proportions of them are in all case^ 
 the same. 
 
140 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 THE PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT. 
 
 What apjpearaiice do the pyramids jpresent when seen at a dis- 
 tance f 
 
 Seen in the distance, they look like peaked mountains rising 
 from a sandy plain. 
 
 What, is known in respect to the origin of the pyramids f 
 It has always been a great mystery what these pyramids were 
 built for, as no account of the origin of them, nor even scarcely any 
 tradition respecting them, has come down to us. In the most an- 
 cient times of which we have any recorded information, travelers 
 and scholars visited Egypt, and found the pyramids there then, 
 just as they are now, and the people who lived in the country then 
 did not know, any more than they do now, who built them or what 
 they built them for. 
 
 What suppositions have been made to account for them, f 
 Some have supposed that they were temples consecrated to the 
 sun, for many of those Eastern nations were accustomed to wor- 
 
EGYPT. 
 
 141 
 
 ship the sun as a god. Others have thought that they might 
 have been designed as granaries, to store up supplies of grain ; but 
 the prevailing sentiment is, that they were simply tombs or mau- 
 soleums erected to perpetuate tlie memory of dead kings. 
 
 What other remarkabU monuments exist in Egypt? Describe 
 the Sphinx. 
 
 Among the other monuments of Egypt are a number of im- 
 mense statues and images, one of the most remarkable of whicli 
 is the Sphinx, a monstrous figure, si:xty or seventy feet high, with 
 
 -^s/^~' 
 
 THE SPHINX. 
 
 the head of a woman and the body of a lion. What this means 
 nobody knows ; though the Greeks had a story that such an an- 
 imal as this lived in their country in very ancient times. It lived 
 in a cave, and whenever it saw any body coming by, it would pro- 
 pose a riddle to him. If the man guessed the riddle, then he was 
 
142 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 allowed to go. If lie could not guess it, then the Sphinx ran out 
 upon him, seized him, and devoured him alive. 
 
 Describe the statues of Memnon. 
 
 There are in another part of Egypt two immense statues, called 
 the statues of Memnon, standing alone on the plain. They are of 
 
 THE STATUES OF MEMNON. 
 
 immense size, as you see by comparing the figures of the men 
 with them in the engraving. The water of the Nile, from an in- 
 undation, is spreading over the ground around the statues. They 
 stand firmly in their places still, but, like the Sphinx, they are 
 weather-beaten and time-worn, and all the distinct lineaments of 
 the face are obliterated and gone. 
 
 What is the reason why so little is known of the origin of 
 these monuments ? 
 
 There are a great many other wonderful ruins and remains in 
 
EGYPT. 143 
 
 Egypt, though very little is known of their origin, or of their char- 
 acter and design. The reason of this is that the country, in its 
 earliest ages, was so apart from the rest of the w^orld in its isola- 
 tion and seclusion, that its history did not become mingled and 
 incorporated with that of other nations. Egypt had a language 
 exclusively her own, the language of hieroglyphics. In this lan- 
 guage her history was recorded on temples, obelisks, and monu- 
 ments of every kind, and then the knowledge of this language was 
 lost before the day when travelers and scholars from the rest of 
 the world found their way into the valley. 
 
 Is it possible to decijyher any of these hieroglypJiics f 
 In modern times, the art of deciphering many of these hiero- 
 glyphics has been discovered, and thus a great deal of information 
 about the early history of the Egyptians has been obtained, though 
 this information consists, after all, of little more than the names 
 of the kings and the dates of their reigns. 
 
 Li what cases has Egyj^t been referred to before in this history f 
 We have already related in the chapter on Darius how Cam- 
 byses, the son of Cyrus, king of Persia, invaded Egypt, and brought 
 it under the Persian sway. After this, Alexander the Great, when 
 he conquered Persia, conquered Egypt too, as a part of the Persian 
 dominion. You recollect that he passed on directly to Egypt im- 
 mediately after the conquest of Tyre. It was then that he found- 
 ed the city of Alexandria. At his death, when his empire w^as di- 
 vided among his generals, Egypt fell to one of them named Ptol- 
 emy, and from him sprang a line of kings called the Ptolemies, 
 who governed Egypt for many years. 
 
 Describe the character and doings of the Ptolemies. 
 These Ptolemies were a very distinguished race of sovereigns. 
 Being of Greek origin, they were very intelligent and able rulers. 
 They greatly improved Alexandria, and made it a most powerful 
 and wealthy city. As the land was low and level all along that 
 coast, they built a very tall light-house on an island that formed 
 
144 EGYPT. 
 
 part of the city. They carried this light-house up to a great el- 
 evation, and they kept a bright light burning upon the top of it 
 every night, and all night long, so that ships steering for Alexan- 
 dria could see it at a great distance out to sea, and so easily find 
 the way in. 
 
 What contest was going on in Egyjpt when Ccesar came there 
 in his pursuit of Pompey ? 
 
 When Csesar visited Egypt, there was prevailing there a con- 
 test between Cleopatra the queen, and her brother, for possession of 
 the kingdom. Cleopatra, whom Caesar assisted, as we shall see, in 
 this contest to gain possession of the throne, was a princess in this 
 royal line of Ptolemies. Indeed, her brother's name was Ptolemy. 
 
 What did Ccesar do on his arrival in Egypt ? 
 
 When C93sar arrived in Egypt in pursuit of Pompey, it was in 
 Alexandria that he landed. He did not know to what part of the 
 coast Pompey had gone, so he himself proceeded directly to the cap- 
 ital. It was here that the news of Pompey's death came to him, 
 accompanied by the head which the murderers sent him, as re- 
 lated in the last chapter. 
 
 Describe the course that he pursued i7i Alexandria. 
 
 Csesar had landed in Alexandria with only a very small force, 
 but he immediately established himself in one of the royal palaces, 
 and assumed a very commanding tone and air, almost as if he were 
 himself the sovereign of the country. Both Ptolemy and Cleopa- 
 tra were then away, being at the head of their respective armies 
 in the field. There was a governor, however, in Alexandria, whom 
 Ptolemy had left in command there. His name was Pothinus. 
 He was very much displeased with Caesar's conduct,-and with the 
 demands which he made upon him from time to time, but he did 
 not think it prudent to quarrel with him openly. Cassar, however, 
 expected that it would come to a quarrel in the end, and so he dis- 
 patched a messenger to Rome, ordering them to send him a re-en- 
 forcement of ships and troops as soon as possible. 
 
EGYPT. 145 
 
 What was the effect produced upon the mind of Cleopatra by 
 Ccesar'^s arrival f 
 
 In the mean time, Cleopatra, who was encamped near Pelusium 
 at the time of Caesar's arrival, was very earnest to see him, and 
 try to persuade him to espouse her cause. This he would very 
 likely he willing to do ; for if he were to be the means of deposing 
 Ptolemy, and of putting her upon the throne instead, he could 
 exercise through her a commanding influence in Egyptian affairs. 
 
 What were the difficulties in the way of her gaining access to 
 Ccesarf 
 
 But the difficulty was, how she was to get to him, for Pothinus 
 was under Ptolemy's command, and would, of course, watch all 
 the avenues of approach to Cesar's palace with great vigilance 
 and care. She could not march to Alexandria at the head of her 
 army, for Ptolemy's army was strongly intrenched in a position 
 that was directly in the way. She could not attempt to pass alone, 
 or with few attendants, through the country, for every town and 
 village was occupied with garrisons and officers under the orders 
 of Pothinus, and she would certainly be intercepted. She had no 
 fleet, and could therefore not make the passage openly by sea. 
 Besides, even if she could by any means reach the gates of Alex- 
 andria, how was she to pass safely through the streets of the city 
 to the palace where Csesar resided, since the whole city, except the 
 palace thus occupied as Cassar's quarters, was wholly in the hands 
 of Pothinus's government? 
 
 Describe the stratagems that she devised for joining herself to 
 CcBsar, 
 
 She finally contrived to send a trusty messenger to C^sar se- 
 cretly, to ask him if he was willing that she should come. He 
 sent back word to her to come by all means. So Cleopatra left 
 her camp with a small number of attendants, and in disguise, and 
 came along the coast in a small boat, and so entered Alexandria. 
 She then caused herself to be rolled up into a bale, and to be thus 
 
 1 K 
 
146 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 CLEOPATRA'S STRATAGEM. 
 
 carried in on mens' shoulders. The guards at the door asked the 
 men what it was that they were carrying, and they said it was a 
 roll of carpet, or something of that sort, for one of Csesar's rooms. 
 So they let them go in. 
 
 Describe the course and the termination of the war. 
 
 C^sar immediately espoused Cleopatra's cause with great zeal, 
 and, after a long and obstinate war, Ptolemy was drowned in one 
 of the branches of the Nile, in attempting to make his escape 
 across it in a boat, after a battle in which his army had been de- 
 feated ; and then Cleopatra succeeded to the throne without any 
 farther opposition. Caesar soon afterward returned to Rome. 
 
 What occurred on the death of Ccesar f 
 
 Cleopatra continued to reign until after the death of Caesar. 
 As soon as his death occurred, several great generals rose at once, 
 and began to contend with each other for the command of the em- 
 
 I 
 
EGYPT. 147 
 
 pire. Mark Antony was one. Cleopatra espoused his cause. A 
 great battle was fought, and Antony was victorious. The victory 
 placed him at the head of the Roman commonwealth. 
 
 What course did Antony adojpt in respect to Cleojpatraf 
 
 As soon as his power was thus established, he sent a deputa- 
 tion to Cleopatra, summoning her to come to Asia Minor, and 
 meet him there, in order to answer to certain charges which he 
 had heard made against her. Many people supposed that this 
 was only a pretense, and that Antony, far from wishing to try 
 Cleopatra for any supposed crimes, only wished to see her and en- 
 joy her society, having heard a great deal of the fame of her 
 beauty. Indeed, the messenger who came for her told her that 
 she need not be alarmed. " As soon as Antony sees you," said 
 he, " no matter what the charges are, you will find yourself in 
 great favor." 
 
 The messenger furthermore advised Cleopatra not to hesitate in 
 respect to accepting the invitation. "Proceed at once to Cilicia 
 without fear," said he, " and present yourself before Antony in as 
 much pomp and magnificence as you can command. I will an- 
 swer for the result." Cleopatra determined to follow this advice. 
 Her imagination was fired with the idea of making so splendid a 
 conquest, and she determined at once to set out on the voyage. 
 
 ^Relate the adventures that Cleopatra met with in going to 
 Antony. 
 
 So Cleopatra set out for Alexandria with a fleet, and a large 
 company of attendants, to wait upon Antony. The place to which 
 she went was Tarsus, near the northeastern corner of the Medi- 
 terranean Sea. Tarsus is on the River Cydnus, not far from its 
 mouth. Cleopatra sailed up the river in a most magnificent gal- 
 ley, with purple sails and silver-mounted oars. She built a pavil- 
 ioh on the banks of the river when she had landed, and then in- 
 vited Antony to come and sup with her. He came, accompanied 
 by a party of his friends, and was perfectly amazed at the splen- 
 
48 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 CLEOPATRA S ENTERTAINMENT. 
 
 dor and magnificence of the scene, and at the luxuriousness of the 
 banquet. The tents and pavilions where the entertainment was 
 spread were illuminated with an immense number of lamps, which 
 were arranged in a very beautiful and ingenious manner. The 
 vast variety, too, of the meats and wines, and of the vessels of 
 gold and silver with which the tables were loaded, and the gor- 
 geous magnificence of the dresses worn by Cleopatra and her at- 
 tendants, conspired to form a scene that resembled enchantment 
 more than reality. 
 
 What toas the result of this mterview ? 
 
 The result was as the messenger had predicted. Antony was 
 so completely captivated by Cleopatra's charms that he soon lost 
 all his ambition, and all his interest in public aifairs. He finall^f ^ 
 went to Egypt, and spent the winter with Cleopatra there in lux- 
 ury and dissipation. The consequence was, that his affairs went 
 
EGYPT. 
 
 149 
 
 entirely to ruin, and both he and Cleopatra came to a miserable 
 end together. 
 
 ROOM IN CLEOPATRA S PALACE. 
 
 What were the consequences of Antony's connection with Cleo- 
 patra ? 
 
 Antony brought himself into the difficulties which finally led to 
 his destruction by remaining in Egypt so long, and giving himself 
 up so wholly to Cleopatra as to neglect entirely the affairs of gov- 
 ernment, and to produce great dissatisfaction and discontent at 
 Rome. His great rival Octavius took advantage of this state of 
 things to raise an army and assume an attitude of hostility toward 
 Antony, with a view of making himself master of the empire. 
 
150 EGYPT. 
 
 Antony at last aroused himself to effort. He collected a fleet, 
 and went across the sea to meet his enemy. Cleopatra went with 
 him. But it was too late. 
 
 Describe the battle of Actium. 
 
 The fleets met at Actium, on the western coast of Greece, and 
 a great battle was fought. Antony's force was vastly superior in 
 point of numbers to that of his enemy, and the battle was pro- 
 longed and hotly contested ; but in the end, Antony was entirely 
 defeated, and he and Cleopatra fled to Egypt together in dismay. 
 
 What became of Antony after the battle? 
 
 He remained in Alexandria some time in a state of stupid de- 
 spair, Octavius advancing all the time, and dooming him more and 
 more certainly to destruction. Antony meanwhile abandoned 
 himself more unreservedly than ever to carousals and dissipation. 
 Cleopatra made festivals and celebrations on the most lavish scale. 
 At length, when Octavius arrived, and the whole city was in a state 
 of wild confusion and excitement, Antony killed himself. 
 
 What became of Cleopatra ? 
 
 Cleopatra was taken prisoner. Octavius kept her confined in 
 a tower for some days, intending to take her with him a captive 
 to Rome ; but she was found dead in her cell on the day before 
 she was to sail. 
 
 JBy what means was it said that she destroyed herself? 
 
 It was supposed that she killed herself by placing an asp — a 
 poisonous reptile — upon her arm. There was, however, no mark 
 of the bite to be seen on her arm, and the actual cause of her death 
 was never certainly known. 
 
 What became of Egypt after this? 
 
 After this, Egypt became a Roman province. 
 
FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 151 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 What was the character of C(Esar''s power, and how was it ex- 
 ercised f 
 
 Julius C^sae exercised the vast power which he acquired over 
 the Roman commonwealth, on the whole, wisely and well, but it 
 was usurped power after all. He gained it by force ; that is, by 
 means of the military strength of the immense armies which had 
 been placed under his command for other purposes. 
 
 What is such a government as this called f 
 
 A government like this, which is maintained by the power of 
 armies, independent of the will of the people, is called a military 
 despotism. 
 
 What is the general character of a military despotism at first f 
 
 A military despotism may be, for the time being, a good gov- 
 ernment or a bad government. It depends upon the character of 
 the man who wields it. The man who first establishes a military 
 despotism is usually a man of great talent and energy, and of 
 enlarged, comprehensive, and far-sighted views ; and out of re- 
 gard to his own interest, seen as he sees it, he governs the coun- 
 try well. He wishes to increase its prosperity, and to develop its 
 resources in full, as a means of aggrandizing his own power. 
 
 JIow is it that its character usually changes afterward ? 
 
 But at his death, or in one or two generations afterward, all is 
 changed. The power usually falls, sooner or later, into the hands 
 of feeble and incompetent relatives, or dissolute and reckless sons, 
 who have no higher ends or aims, in the exercise of it, than to 
 gratify their own malignant passions, or their dissolute or vicious 
 desires ; for these weak or dissolute men, though they never would 
 have been able to establish such a government themselves, find it 
 
152 FALL OF THE EOMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 very easy to get possession of it when it is handed down to them 
 already established by a powerful predecessor. 
 
 Describe the quai'rels that usually arose among the great gen- 
 erals, and the effects of them. 
 
 For a time after the first establishment of the military despot- 
 ism in Rome, there was no obvious way, when an emperor died, 
 of determining who should succeed him, and dreadful wars broke 
 out among the great generals that were left in order to decide the 
 question. We have seen an example of this in the case of Anto- 
 ny and Octavius. In these controversies the people had little to 
 say. The armies had got the mastery over them, and they were 
 obliged to submit. The city was thrown into a state of terror and 
 confusion, the country was ravaged, innocent and helpless towns 
 were besieged, sacked, and destroyed, and all the countless mis- 
 eries and horrors of civil war spread over the whole land by the 
 lawlessness of a vast military monster which those who had cre- 
 ated it could no longer control. 
 
 What course do the Americans adopt in respect to great ar- 
 mies f 
 
 The people of America, who desire to keep the control of their 
 own public affairs in their own hands, are extremely watchful and 
 jealous against the formation of large armies. They know very 
 well that, after passing certain limits, they become masters of the 
 country, and rule it with an iron hand, and that, when once their 
 power is established, it is almost impossible for the people to es- 
 cape from the miserable thraldom. 
 
 What ivas, in general, the character of the Roman emperors f 
 
 The Roman people made repeated efforts to resist the dreadful 
 domination of these despots, but all was of no avail. The career 
 of one of them might be cut short by rebellion or assassination, but 
 while the army remained there was always another general at hand 
 ready to take his place, and thus the line went on. Some of these 
 emperors were perfect monsters of cruelty and vice. They op- 
 
FALL OF THE liOMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 153 
 
 pressed the people most mercilessly, and when, on any account, they 
 became specially angry with them, they vented their rage and spite 
 in the most wanton and ferocious manner. 
 
 WMit great crime was committed by Nero f 
 
 One of them, Nero, it was said, in a ht of anger set the city on 
 lire, and then was so much pleased and amused at the spectacle, 
 
 BURNING OF ROME. 
 
 that he went to one of the theatres, where he could see the flames 
 to good advantage, and sang and played there with delight. 
 
 What became of the administration of the governnient in these 
 times f 
 
 Of course, while the power was in such hands, the whole ad- 
 ministration of the government gradually fell into confusion, and, 
 in process of time, the greatness and strength of the empire was 
 wasted away. Rebellions which could not be quelled broke out in 
 the provinces, and riots and tumults, produced by turbulent and 
 
154 
 
 FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 hungry laborers and artisans, swept tlurough the streets of Eome. 
 The peaceful inhabitants were, of course, kept in a constant state 
 of alarm, and all the useful pursuits of life were interrupted or 
 wholly suspended. * 
 
 How did this state of things finally residtf 
 
 At length, certain half-savage tribes that lived in those days in 
 the northern parts of Europe, and who had never been subdued, 
 began to encroach upon the frontiers. There was no efficient force 
 there to resist them, and so they advanced gradually, nearer and 
 nearer, year by year, toward the heart of the empire. The names 
 of some of the principal of these hordes were the Ostrogoths, the 
 Visigoths, the Vandals, and the Huns. 
 
FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 155 
 
 Who toas the most distinguished leader of the barbarians that 
 invaded Rome f 
 
 One of the most distinguished of the leaders of these barbarians 
 was Alaric, the king of the Visigoths. He came from the north- 
 ern part of Germany. He came on gradually at the head of his 
 hordes until he had conquered Greece, and then he advanced with 
 a powerful army into Italy, and threatened E-ome. 
 
 How did the Roman emperor attem/pt to save the city from 
 ruin ? 
 
 The Eoman emperor, finding himself entirely unable to meet 
 the invader, offered Alaric a great ransom if he would spare the 
 city. This ransom consisted of a vast sum in gold and silver, 
 and a large quantity of silk and scarlet cloth, these being the kinds 
 of treasures that the barbarians most highly prized. The offer of 
 this ransom was a very desperate measure. Such a mode of buy- 
 ing off either conquerors or robbers is never long effectual, for 
 such men are never faithful to their agreements, and when they 
 find that they succeed thus in accomplishing their ends, the tempta- 
 tion soon becomes irresistible to renew the aggression. 
 
 How did the invasioii of the barbarians finally end? 
 
 This ransom saved the city for a time, but Alaric, as might have 
 been expected, soon came again, and as the emperor had now no 
 second ransom to pay, he laid siege to the city, and by surround- 
 ing it, and cutting off the supplies, he compelled it to surrender. 
 Then the whole horde of his barbarian army poured into the city, 
 plundering, burning, and destroying wherever they came. The 
 proud imperial city never recovered from this blow. A great por- 
 tion of it was burned, and the immense treasures which had been 
 accumulating there for a thousand years were carried off in pillage 
 or wantonly destroyed. 
 
 What is the jpresent condition of Rome f 
 
 Since that time this ancient capital of the world has gone grad- 
 ually more and more to decay. The people have become degen- 
 
156 
 
 FALL OF THE EOMAN EMPIKE. 
 
 erate and degraded, and the city itself has now little left to mark 
 its former grandeur except the imposing magnificence of its ruins. 
 
 f-Sii'w, 
 
 RUINS OF ROME. 
 
 What became the general condition of JEuivjje after the fall 
 of Rome f 
 
 After the fall of the Roman empire, all Europe sank into a con- 
 dition of semi-barbarism, which continued for several hundred 
 years. This period is commonly called in history the Dark Ages, 
 and it continued until at length the civilization of the modern na^ 
 tions of Europe began gradually to appear, and to develop itself 
 more and more. 
 
ANCIENT CHEONOLOGY. 157 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 What is chronology f 
 
 Chronology is the science that treats of the periods of time in 
 which chronological events have occurred. On the following page 
 is a table, which represents to the eye the progress of time from 
 the Deluge to the birth of Christ, with the most important events 
 recorded at the time when they occurred. 
 
 Describe the construction of the table. 
 
 The letters B.C. at the head of the column of figures stand for 
 Before Christ, and the figures below denote the years. Each line 
 represents a century. 
 
 At what ^period have nearly all the important events that are 
 recorded in history occurred f 
 
 From this table it appears that the Deluge took place about 
 2400 years before Christ, and that nearly all the important events 
 of history which have been thus far narrated in this work occurred 
 during the latter part of the time represented in the Table. The 
 foundation of Carthage, however, though it is mentioned in one of 
 the latter chapters of the book, occurred comparatively early. We 
 observe by the table too, at a glance, the comparative duration of 
 the several great empires of ancient times. 
 
 For ^hat portion of the history of the world is our knowledge 
 confined to what the Scriptures teach us ? 
 
 We observe, also, that after the foundation of Babylon and Nin- 
 eveh, which are set down respectively at 2200 and 2100, a long 
 period elapses, namely, from 2100 to 800, in which no events ex- 
 cept those relating to Scripture History are recorded. The truth 
 is, that of this whole period — about twelve centuries — notliing ex- 
 cept what is recorded in Scripture is certainly known. It is not 
 
158 
 
 ANCIENT CHEONOLOaY. 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 B.C. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "i 
 
 2400 The Deluge. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2300 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2200 Babylon founded. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 2100 Nineveh founded. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2000 
 
 1900 Abraham. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1800 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ', 
 
 1700 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1600 
 
 1500 Athens founded. 
 
 1400 Moses. 
 
 i 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 1300 
 1200 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 C5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1100 
 1000 
 
 900 Solomon. 
 
 800 Carthage founded. 
 
 DC 
 
 c 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rome founded. 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 700 Fall of Nineveh. 
 600 Cyrus. 
 
 Fall of Babylon. 
 500 Roman kings expelled. 
 400 Battle of Thermopyls. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 •i 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 'Si 
 
 s 
 
 6 
 
 
 300 Alexander the Great. 
 200 Punic wars. 
 
 
 
 
 (S 
 
 
 (S 
 
 
 
 100 Destruction of Carthage. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Csesar and Pompey. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Birth of Christ. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 till about the year 800 that the period of authentic secular his- 
 tory begins. And, indeed, for some centuries after this time, veiy 
 little reliance is to be placed upon the historical truth of the le- 
 gends which the ancient writers have recorded. 
 
ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY. 159 
 
 How is the duration of the several empires and kingdoims rep- 
 resented in the table f 
 
 To the right, in the Chronological Table, are black lines repre- 
 senting the duration of the principal empires and kingdoms of an- 
 cient times. By this plan the comparative durations of these 
 states are made visible to the eye, the beginnings and endings of 
 the lines being made to correspond with the years at which the 
 states respectively commenced, and, indeed, their independent ex- 
 istence. 
 
 What is the object of such a table as this f 
 
 Of course, such a representation as this can not be entirely ex- 
 act, but it assists us very much in obtaining general conceptions 
 of the ancient chronology. 
 
 THE END. 
 
HARPER'S SCHOOL HISTORIES. 
 
 HARPER'S 
 
 ENGLISH HISTORY. 
 
 FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 BY JACOB ABBOTT. 
 
 COPIOUSLY AND BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED WITH 
 
 Maps anb €ngrainngs, 
 
 AND PREPARED WITH QUESTIONS FOR THE CONVENIENCE OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 
 
 FRANKLIN SQUARE. 
 
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight hundred 
 and fifty-six, by 
 
 HARPER & BROTHERS, 
 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District of New York. 
 
TO THE TEACHER. 
 
 The present volume forms one section of a connected work, 
 which is intended as a complete text-book of general history for 
 the use of schools. It does not consist, as is often the case with 
 books of this class, of a condensed summary of names, dates, and 
 detached chronological events, but presents, in a simple and con- 
 nected narrative, a general view of the great leading events that 
 have occurred in the history of the world, beginning at the ear- 
 liest periods, and coming down through the Assyrian, Persian, 
 Grecian, Roman, and British empires, to the organization of the 
 American Republic, and the establishment of the American Con- 
 stitution. It is intended for Americans, and the narrative conse- 
 quently follows the line which leads to, and is most directly con- 
 nected with, the events of our own history. 
 
 For convenience of use, the work is published in three sections. 
 Ancient History, English History, and American History. 
 Each volume is fully illustrated with maps and engravings, and 
 is prepared with questions on a new and very convenient plan 
 for the use of teachers. 
 
 In using the work, the teacher is requested to call the special 
 attention of the class to the following directions in respect to the 
 mode of studying the book, before they commence it. 
 
 Directions to the Pupil in studying the Booh. 
 
 1. The pupil must observe that, though there is a question at 
 the head of each paragraph, still the paragraph is not itself a mere 
 
VI INTKODUCTION. 
 
 answer to the question. It is a general statement wliich contains 
 the answer. In other words, the book is not a catechism of his- 
 tory, but a connected narrative, written without regard to the 
 questions. These, having been afterward introduced, are placed 
 at the heads of the paragraphs instead of at the foot of the page, 
 solely for the convenience of the teacher. In studying the les- 
 sons, therefore, you must not be satisfied with merely searching 
 in each paragraph for a few words or phrases which will serve as 
 an answer to the question placed at the head of it, but you must 
 study attentively the statements made in its paragraph in connec- 
 tion with what precedes it, so as to peruse the whole as part of a 
 connected story, and make yourself fully acquainted with all that 
 it contains. To this end, read the paragraph twice in a very care- 
 ful manner, thinking while you read, not of the question, but of 
 the facts which the paragraph states, and of their connection with 
 the main thread of the story. In other words, while you are read- 
 ing the paragraph, dismiss the questions entirely from your mind, 
 and think only of the general course of the narrative. After you 
 have thus become completely master of the sense of the paragraph, 
 then read the questions, and from your own knowledge of the sub- 
 ject, as obtained from the perusal of the paragraph, frame an an- 
 swer to them yourself in your own language. 
 
 By this means you will receive into your mind, and fix there, 
 a clear idea of the course of events described in the narrative. 
 You will make the knowledge imparted by the book your own, 
 and you will have it at command in the form in which you will 
 require it for the purposes of reading and conversation in future 
 life ; whereas, if, as is very often practiced, you only look over the 
 paragraph for the purpose of marking with a pencil certain words 
 or phrases to be repeated by rote at the recitation as an answer 
 
INTRODUCTION. vii 
 
 to the question, jou do not study history at all ; you merely learn 
 to repeat mechanically a set form of words. 
 
 2. At the recitation, give your answers to the questions asked 
 you fluently, in a narrative form, and in your own language. 
 Such a work as this, studied and recited in the proper way, will 
 be of great service to you in increasing your command of lan- 
 guage, and thus improving your power of expressing yourself 
 in conversation. This, indeed, is one of the great advantages of 
 such a study. 
 
 3. Find every place mentioned in the work upon the map, and 
 keep the relative situations of these places in mind as you go on 
 with the narrative. This will greatly assist you in understanding 
 the story, and in giving to the transactions described, in your con- 
 ceptions of them, the effect of reality. 
 
 Jacob Abbott. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CUAPTEE PAGE 
 
 I. THE ANCIENT BRITONS 13 
 
 II. THE ROMAN INVASION 22 
 
 III. THE ANGLO-SAXONS 29 
 
 IV. THE DANES 40 
 
 V. KING ALFRED THE GREAT 49 
 
 VI. THE NORMAN CONQUEST 60 
 
 VII. RICHARD THE CRUSADER 70 
 
 Vin. KING JOHN 80 
 
 IX. KING RICHARD THE THIRD 90 
 
 X. HENRY THE EIGHTH AND THE REFORMATION 100 
 
 XI. QUEEN ELIZABETH Ill 
 
 XH. OVERTHROW OF THE MONARCHY 120 
 
 XIII. THE RESTORATION 129 
 
 XIV. THE REVOLUTION 139 
 
 XV. THE ENGLISH ARISTOCRACY 149 
 
ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 FORMS OF THE WAR CHARIOT AND THE ARMOR OF THE ANCIENT BRITONS 15 
 
 COAST OF ENGLAND AT DOVER 17 
 
 HUTS OF ANCIENT BRITONS 19 
 
 A DRUID IN HIS ROBES 20 
 
 DRUIDICAL RUIN 21 
 
 COMBAT ON THE BEACH 24 
 
 THE WALL OF SEVERUS 29 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON CHIEFTAIN 31 
 
 THE CORACLES 33 
 
 RUINS OF THE MONASTERY OF lONA 38 
 
 THE SEA-KINGS 41 
 
 ARMS AND COSTUME OF THE DANES 44 
 
 ALFRED READING TO HIS STEPMOTHER 50 
 
 ALFRED LETTING THE CAKES BURN 56 
 
 HASTINGS IN THE CHURCH 59 
 
 SITUATION OF NORMANDY 61 
 
 THE NEWS OF EDWARD'S DEATH 64 
 
 HASTINGS 66 
 
 DEATH OF WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR 70 
 
 DEATH OF WILLIAM RUFUS 72 
 
 VIEW OF THE RAMPARTS OF ACRE 76 
 
 SAVE me! SAVE ME ! 85 
 
 VIEW OF RUNNY MEAD 87 
 
 KING JOHN 88 
 
 DEATH OF KING JOHN 89 
 
 YOUNG EDWARD 92 
 
 THE TOWER OF LONDON 93 
 
 RICHARD AT THE COUNCIL 95 
 
 MURDER OF THE PRINCES 98 
 
 'the QUEEN-MOTHER MOURNING FOR HER CHILDREN 99 
 
 'KING HENRY THE EIGHTH 102 
 
 [TRIAL OF QUEEN CATHARINE 105 
 
 THE BAPTISM OF ELIZABETH 109 
 
 I 
 
XU ENGKAVINGS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 ELIZABETH'S PROGRESS TO LONDON / 113 
 
 PORTRAIT OP QUEEN ELIZABETH 117 
 
 PROCESS OF COINING 121 
 
 PURITANS PULLING DOWN A CROSS IN LONDON 123 
 
 BIBLE CHAINED IN A CHURCH 124 
 
 STRAFFORD ON HIS WAY TO EXECUTION 127 
 
 VIEW OP WORCESTER 132 
 
 KING CHARLES AT BOSCOBEL 135 
 
 LANDING OP CHARLES THE SECOND AT DOVER ,.. 136 
 
 VIEW OF EXETER 141 
 
 WILLIAM OF ORANGE IN HIS CARRIAGE AT THE HAGUE 144 
 
 LANDING OF WILLIAM, PRINCE OF ORANGE 147 
 
 JOHN Churchill's present 154 
 
 ENGLISH IRON- WORKS 155 
 
ENGLISH HISTORY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE ANCIENT BRITONS. 
 
 What were the original inhabitants of the island of Great 
 
 JBritain called? 
 
 The first part of this work contains a narrative of the course 
 
 of Ancient History from the earliest ages down to the final fall of 
 
 the Roman empire, and the sacking of Rome by Alaric and his 
 
 ; horde of Goths a few hundred years after the Christian era. In 
 
 ! that narrative it was related how Julius Caesar, the first of the 
 t .... 
 
 Roman emperors, invaded Great Britain from his province of 
 
 I Gaul. The aboriginal inhabitants, which Julius Caesar found on 
 ! the island at the time when he took possession of it, are called in 
 i history the Ancient Britons. They are the earliest inhabitants 
 j of the country of whom we have any information. 
 ' What is the only source of written information respecting 
 \themf 
 
 I Very little, however, is now known respecting them, for they 
 I did not understaild the art of writing, and so they have left no 
 [books giving an account of their origin or their history. All the 
 information we have comes through the statements made by Ju- 
 lius Caesar respecting them when he went back to Rome, and also 
 by other Roman generals who afterward visited the island. These 
 
14 THE ANCIENT BEITONS. 
 
 statements were written, and have been preserved in the Roman 
 books which have come down to our time. 
 
 What other sources of information have we respecting them f 
 ' Besides these accounts, there are some sculptures remaining at 
 Eome that have figures upon them, from which people have learn- 
 ed something of the manners and customs of the ancient Britons. 
 Also, in various parts of England, old coins have been dug up, 
 and fragments of arms and utensils. In one place a mould was 
 found which was used for casting spear-heads. It seems the 
 spear-heads of those days were not made of iron, which is usually 
 shaped by forging, but of bronze, which must be cast in a mould. 
 It was by means of the same metal that the people made their 
 war-chariots, their axes, and nearly all their utensils. 
 
 What are the metals that were iised hy the Britons ? 
 
 Bronze is a metal formed of copper and tin.* Brass is formed 
 of copper and zinc. The Britons used bronze for their armor be- 
 cause it is harder than iron, though it is by no means so hard as 
 steel. Perhaps, too, they could not work iron very well. There 
 were immense beds of iron ore in the northern and northwestern 
 parts of England, but they may not have been then known. The 
 copper and tin mines are in Cornwall, which is the country lying 
 in the southwestern part of England, near the sea, and these the 
 Britons had been accustomed to work from the earliest ages. 
 
 Describe the ancient commerce that originated in the tin mines. 
 
 Indeed, it was through these mines of tin and copper, in Britain, 
 that the country had chiefly been known before the days of Ca3sar. 
 Merchants were accustomed to go there to procure their metals, 
 
 * By tin is meant what is commonly called block tin. The material of which tin 
 pails, and other such ware are made, does not really consist of tin, but of thin sheets 
 of iron coated with tin, or, as it is called, tinned iron. It is only the surface which is 
 tin. Tin alone would not be strong enough for such vessels, so they make them of 
 iron, which is previously covered with a coating of tin to keep the iron from rusting. 
 
 When vessels made of this ware have been long used, the tin gets worn off, and we 
 come to the iron, as we know by the'rusting of the vessel in the worn places. 
 
THE ANCIENT BRITONS. 
 
 15 
 
 FORMS OF THE WAK CHARIOT AND THE ARMOR OF THE ANCIENT BRITONS. 
 
 and then to convey them to Greece or Italy, and to other countries 
 on the Mediterranean. The Carthaginians used to do this in their 
 ships. So, after the time of Csesar, did the Romans. They would 
 transport the metals across the Channel to France, thence up the 
 Seine in boats as far as the river was navigable. There they would 
 unlade the boats, and convey the metals across the land to the 
 Rhone, and then put it into boats again, and float it down the 
 Rhone to the sea. At the mouth of the river, or, rather, at the 
 town nearest the mouth, they would embark it on board their ships, 
 and send it by sea where it was required. 
 
16 THE ANCIENT BRITONS. 
 
 Relate the story of Brutus. 
 
 These Britons came, it was supposed, originally from the Con- 
 tinent. Indeed, there was a traditon among the people that they 
 came from Italy, under the guidance of a man named Brutus. The 
 story is a marvelous one, and is considered as a mere legend not 
 worthy of any serious attention. Brutus was a wild adventurer, 
 who proceeded from Italy at the head of a horde of men, that 
 were little better than robbers and pirates. He first invaded the 
 territories of a certain king, who, finding that he could not drive 
 him away, offered to give him his daughter in marriage if he would 
 go away of his own accord. Brutus accepted this offer, took his 
 bride, embarked his men in his ships, and sailed away. 
 
 Describe the course of his voyage. 
 
 Brutus, with his fleet and his bride, sailed on for some time, 
 until at length he came to a deserted island, w^here his party found 
 the ruins of a city. Here there was an ancient temple af Diana, 
 and an image of the goddess. This image, the legend relates, was 
 endued with the power of uttering oracular responses to those who 
 consulted it with proper ceremonies and forms. Brutus inquired 
 of this oracle where he should go to find a place of final settlement 
 for himself and his followers. The response of the oracle described 
 the island of Britain to him, and directed him how to find it. 
 
 He traversed the whole length of the Mediterranean with his fleet, 
 and then, passing out through the Straits of Gibraltar, he followed 
 the coast of Spain to the northward. After a while he came to 
 Britain, and, being much pleased with the country, he landed. 
 • Uoio did he get j)ossession of the country? 
 
 He found the country inhabited by giants. The chief of these 
 giants was named Gogmagog. Brutus had dreadful conflicts with 
 these giants in various parts of the island. Finally he conquered 
 and killed them all. Old Gogmagog he threw fi:om the cliffs of 
 Dover into the sea. After this, he and his men settled in the 
 country. 
 
THE ANCIENT BRITONS. 
 
 17 
 
 COAST OF ENGLAND AT DOVER. 
 
 WAat ivas the state of the island at the time when Ccesar 
 landed f 
 
 Whatever we may think of these stories in respect to the oiig- 
 inal settlement of the British Isles, there is no doubt that when 
 Csesar arriA^ecl in Britain he found the country densely peopled. 
 The inhabitants were divided into a great number of different 
 states and kingdoms, and, though they were in many respects rude 
 and uncultivated, they seem to have made considerable progress 
 in the arts of life. Many of their manners and customs were very 
 peculiar. 
 
 2 -> 
 
18 THE ANCIENT BRITONS. 
 
 Describe the towns. 
 
 Their towns, for instance, did not consist, as with us, of a com- 
 pact mass of buildings, but of quite a large tract of country, with 
 fields and woods, and scattered huts all over it. This space was 
 surrounded and inclosed with a sort of wall, made of earth and 
 sodded, for defense, with a ditch outside of it. This intrenchment 
 was carried all around the town. Sometimes the trunks of trees, 
 which had been felled for the purpose, were used for strengthening 
 the embankments. 
 
 Describe the houses. 
 
 The houses which the people lived in within these towns were 
 mere huts, being more like Indian wigwams than like houses. 
 They are described by the Romans as being small and round, and 
 covered with a conical or dome-shaped roof. There was a door 
 in front for an entrance, and before the door was a sort of yard in- 
 closed by a circular wall. In fact, every thing seems to have been 
 circular in their architecture. Tliis yard was probably for the an- 
 imals that belonged to the household, to confine them at night. 
 The whole structure is supposed to have presented the appearance 
 represented in the engraving on the opposite page. 
 
 What evidence is there that this was really the style of the 
 houses ? 
 
 We are not obliged to depend altogether on the Roman descrip- 
 tions of these huts, for there are representations of such structures 
 on some of the ancient monuments of Rome that remain to the 
 pres/cnt day. 
 
 What is hnown in respect to the furniture and household 
 %ttensils of the Britons f 
 
 In respect to the manner in which these huts were furnished, 
 and to th© utensils and implements which the ancient Britons used, 
 very little is now known. Their utensils were doubtless of a very 
 rude and primitive construction, and the number of articles of 
 every kind was probably very small. The people were skillful in 
 
THE ANCIENT BRITONS. 
 
 19 
 
 HUTS OF ANCIENT BRITONS. 
 
 making baskets and wicker-work, and many of the vessels which 
 they used were formed in this way. Even their huts were some- 
 times made of wicker-work. 
 
 Who tvere the Druids f 
 
 The different tribes and kingdoms of the Britons were govern- 
 ed by their several*princes or chieftains, but the most remarkable 
 thing in connection with their system was the existence of a class 
 of priests, Avhose functions were half religious and half political, 
 called Druids. These Druids performed the religious services of 
 the people and offered the sacrifices. On the following page is a 
 picture of one of them, in his sacerdotal robes. 
 
 Describe the remains still existing of the temples of the Druids. 
 
 The oak tree was considered sacred by the Druids. They per- 
 
20 
 
 THE ANCIENT BRITONS. 
 
 A DUUID IxN ills ROBES 
 
 formed their religious rites and built their temples in oak groves. 
 Thus the oak stands as the emblem and symbol of their religion. 
 Their temples must have been very curious structures. The re- 
 mains of some of them are to be found in different places in En- 
 
THE ANCIENT BRITONS. 
 
 21 
 
 gland at the present 
 day. They consist- 
 ed of great stones, 
 standing up on the 
 ends, and arranged 
 in a circle, with oth- 
 er very large stones 
 placed across at the 
 top. Precisely what 
 the Druids did in 
 these temples is not 
 now known, nor is it 
 known how the tem- 
 ples appeared when 
 they were entire. All 
 that we see remain- 
 ing of them now is 
 the stones, and these 
 are wasted away and 
 corroded by time, so 
 that even the original form of them does not distinctly appear. 
 In some cases only single sets of these stones remain, as in the 
 preceding engraving. In other cases a large part of the whole 
 circle can be traced. The most remarkable of these Druidical re- 
 mains is one called Stonehenge, which stands on Salisbury Plain. 
 What is the chief thing that is remarkahle in respect to these 
 ruins f 
 
 It is considered very remarkable that a people so rude and un- 
 instructed as the ancient Britons must have been, could have con- 
 trived the means of moving such immense stones as those of which 
 these ruins are composed. 
 
 DRUIDICAL RUIN. 
 
22 THE ROMAN INVASION. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE EOMAN INVASION. 
 
 W/iat was the first step taken by Julius Coesar when he con- 
 temjplated the invasion of Britain f 
 
 When Julius Csssar, standing -on the shores of Gaul, looked 
 across the Channel at the chalky cliffs which form the southern 
 shore of Britain, he said to himself, " Before I attempt to take my 
 army over, I must send a reconnoitrer to explore the shore and 
 find a suitable place to land the troops." 
 
 Whom did he send to reconnoitre f 
 
 So he sent an officer of his army, named Volusenus, directing 
 him to cross the Channel, and sail along the coast till he found a 
 good smooth shore for landing armed men. Yolusenus took only 
 a single galley. 
 
 What commimication did the people of Britain make to himf 
 
 Besides this, Csesar inquired of all the merchants whom he could 
 see, and carefully collected whatever of information they could give 
 him about the country. The people of Britain, in the mean time, 
 heard, through some of the merchants, probably, of Csesar's designs, 
 and they sent an embassador to him, with presents and peaceful 
 messages, wishing, if possible, to avert the danger that threatened 
 them by kind and gentle words. C^sar received the embassage 
 very civilly, and sent back friendly messages in return. He said 
 that he was glad to hear of the amicable feelings that prevailed in 
 Britain toward the Romans ; that he wished the Britons to be his 
 allies, and that he was coming soon to pay them a visit. He 
 treated the embassador kindly, and dismissed him with honor. 
 
 Describe the prepctrations that he made for the invasion. 
 
 All this time he continued to concentrate his forces on the coast 
 near Calais, and to collect all the ships and galleys that he could 
 
THE EOMAN INVASION. 23 
 
 procure, and get them ready for sea. x4.t length Volusenus re- 
 turned with his report, and Csesar's fleet prepared to sail. 
 
 Relate the occurrences luhich took ])lace in the passage of the 
 expedition across the Channel. 
 
 There were about eighty transports for the foot-soldiers, and 
 eighteen more at a different port for conveying a squadron of horse. 
 At length a favorable morning came, and Ca3sar gave orders for 
 the fleet to sail. The two divisions did not set out together, for 
 it took some time to send the order to the port where the squad- 
 ron of horse was to be embarked. This caused some delay. When 
 the fleets had crossed the Channel, too, instead of finding the land- 
 ing-place open, as they had expected, they saw a great army of 
 Britons assembled on the beach to resist them. Ca3sar's ships 
 then moved along the coast, the Britons following them, ready to 
 giye them battle whenever they should attempt to land. 
 
 How VMS the landing at length eifectedf 
 
 At length Ca3sar gave the order to turn the galleys in toward 
 the beach, and a dreadful conflict ensued, half in the water and 
 half on the shore. The surges of the sea, as they rolled in upon 
 the shelving beach, were dyed with the blood of the combatants. 
 At last, however, Caesar effected a landing, and drove the Britons 
 away. 
 
 What folloived after Ccesar had landed ? 
 
 He then advanced into the interior of the country, and for some 
 time carried on a vigorous war with the natives. He was gen- 
 erally victorious, but, after all, he did not succeed in making any 
 permanent conquest of the country. 
 
 Relate tuhat occurred in respect to the ships. 
 
 It was in the fall of the year that this invasion took place, and 
 C^sar did not think it safe to remain in Britain during the winter. 
 Indeed, as it was, his ships, as they lay on the beach, were once 
 or twice destroyed by the equinoctial storms, and he was obliged 
 to rebuild them or to send to Gaul for new ones. At last, to se- 
 
24 THE ROMAN INVASION. 
 
 COMBAT ON THE BEACH 
 
 cure them from this danger, he adopted the plan of drawing them 
 up on the shore, and storing them there in a fortified camp. This 
 shows that the vessels which they used in those days could not 
 have been of very large dimensions. 
 
 Did Ccesar spend the winter m Britain f 
 
 In consequence of these difficulties and dangers, C^sar left Brit- 
 ain before the winter came on, and returned to Gaul. 
 
 Describe the subsequent course of the war. 
 
 The Romans, however, did not give up the contest. Some years 
 after this they sent new armies into the country, and in course of 
 
THE ROMAN INVASION. 25 
 
 time made themselves masters of a great portion of it, and their 
 dominion, once established, continued several hundred years. 
 During all this time, however, wars were continually breaking out 
 between them and particular kings and princes among the Britons, 
 and a great many extraordinary events occurred. Two of the 
 most distinguished of the enemies of the Romans among the Brit- 
 ons were Caractacus and Boadicea. 
 
 Describe the exploits of Caractacus. 
 
 Caractacus was the king of a tribe of Britons called the Silu- 
 rians. I do not know in what part of the island the Silurians 
 lived ; some s'ay in the northern part, in or near Scotland. He 
 was a very brave prince. By means of his military talents and 
 skill he acquired a great ascendency over his countrymen, and at 
 length he organized a formidable rebellion against the Romans. 
 He fought them for some time desperately and with great success. 
 Tlie war with him continued for nine years before the Romans 
 were able to subdue him. 
 
 What resolution did he and his soldiers finally take f 
 
 At last he intrenched himself in a very strong camp, in a place 
 where he thought the Romans would not dare to attack him. "If 
 they do," said he to his soldiers, "we will die, every one of us, 
 before we will yield to them." 
 
 Describe the situation of the Roman general in reference to 
 an attach. 
 
 His position was so strong that for -a time the Roman general, 
 whose name was ©storius, did not dare to attack him, but the sol- 
 diers urged him on. They had been harassed by the operations 
 of Caractacus so long, that now, when his whole force was concen- 
 trated in one position, they were burning with impatience to con- 
 quer him, and so end the war. 
 
 What was the result f 
 
 The Roman general was finally persuaded to make the attack, 
 and the result was as the soldiers had anticipated. It ended the 
 
26 THE EOMAN INVASION. 
 
 war. The intrenchment of the Britons was broken m, and the 
 whole arm J routed. Caractacus himself and all his family were 
 taken prisoners. 
 
 W/iat hecame of Caractacus f 
 
 Ostorius carried Caractacus and his family, and all his princi- 
 pal attendants and officers, to Rome, and there made a sort of tri- 
 umphal procession, and paraded the poor captives before the peo- 
 ple of the city. The wife and daughters of Caractacus were with 
 him. They and all the other prisoners walked along in the pro- 
 cession, with downcast and anxious looks, and manifesting every 
 indication of terror, distress, and shame. Caractacus himself, how- 
 ever, walked erect, and looked around upon the assembled crowds 
 with a proud and haughty air, which showed very plainly that his 
 spirit was not subdued. When he came into the presence of the 
 emperor, where all the other captives began to beg for mercy in 
 the most humble and imploring manner, he stood wholly unmoved, 
 and answered the questions which they put to him in so manly 
 and undaunted a manner, that the emperor and all who witnessed 
 the scene were struck with admiration. The emperor immediate- 
 ly ordered that his chains should be taken off and that he should 
 be set at liberty. 
 
 What became of Ms family ? 
 
 His family were liberated too, but they did not return to their 
 native land. 
 
 Who was Boaclicea ? What plan did her husband form to se- 
 cure for her the protection of the Ro'inans ? 
 
 Boadicea was queen of a tribe of Britons that lived on the east- 
 ern coast of the island. Her husband's name was Prasutagus. 
 He was very much afraid of the Romans while he lived, which 
 was at about the time of the wars with Caractacus or a little after, 
 and when he died he made a will, dividing his property between 
 his two daughters and the Emperor of Rome. He thought this 
 would make the Roman government friendly to him, and that 
 
THE ROMAN INVASION. 27 
 
 they would be kind to his wife and daughters when he was no 
 more. 
 
 How did this plan succeed f 
 
 The plan, however, failed entirely. The Eomans, after Prasu- 
 tagus was dead, plundered his kingdom, and abused and maltreat- 
 ed his family, especially his two daughters, in the most outrageous 
 manner. 
 
 What vjere the temperament and character of Boadicea, and 
 what did she do f 
 
 Boadicea was not a woman to submit to such things quietly. 
 She was very strong and masculine in her character, and the in- 
 juries which had been inflicted on her daughters made her frantic 
 with rage. She immediately raised a rebellion. She gathered an 
 army, partly from her own kingdom or tribe, and partly from other 
 tribes near that she persuaded to join her. She took the field at 
 the head of this army, which, according to the accounts of the time, 
 was immensely large, and the Romans, gathering together all the 
 troops they could command, came forth to meet her. 
 
 Descrihe the ccppearance and demeanor of Boadicea before the 
 battle. 
 
 Before the battle Boadicea rode along the ranks of the army in 
 a war chariot, with her two daughters behind her. She herself 
 stood up in her chariot, and harangued the soldiers as she passed 
 along the lines, denouncing tlie tyranny and the crimes of the 
 Romans, complaining bitterly of the wrongs she had suffered from 
 their heartless cruqjty, and urging the soldiers to fight valorously 
 in the coming conflict, and thus at once avenge her wrongs and 
 save their common country. 
 
 What loas the residt of the battle f 
 
 All was, however, in vain. The battle was very fiercely fought, 
 but the Romans were victorious. Poor Boadicea, when she found 
 that all her hopes were now forever gone, was overwhelmed with 
 despair, and killed herself by taking poison. The Britons remain- 
 
28 THE ROMAN INVASION. 
 
 ed near the field of battle until they had honorably interred the 
 body, and then they dispersed and the war was ended. 
 
 Describe the change which at last took place in the feelings of 
 the Britons toward the Romans, 
 
 In process of time, after two or three generations had passed 
 away, and the anger and irritation engendered by the early wars 
 had been in some measure forgotten, tile Britons learned to acqui- 
 esce in the rule of the Romans over them, and at last they even 
 began to rely upon the Romans to jjrotect them against their other 
 enemies. 
 
 Who were the new enemies of the Britons f How did the Ro- 
 Qnans defend the Britons from them f 
 
 The principal of these enemies were the Picts and Scots that 
 inhabited the northern part of the island. At length, a little more 
 than two hundred years after the first invasion of the island, one 
 of the Roman emperors, named Severus, came there with an army 
 to assist the people to defend themselves against these northern 
 savages. After carrying on the war for some time, and finding it 
 difficult to repress the invasions of the enemy, Severus set his 
 soldiers at work to build a wall across the island from one side to 
 the other, with castles and towers upon it, for a garrison. 
 
 Describe the construction of the tuall of Seve7ms, and the ef- 
 fect of it. 
 
 The wall was not very high, though it was high enough to pre- 
 vent men from climbing over, and it was thick and strong enough 
 to resist any means of demolition which the Picts and Scots were 
 likely to have at their command. By means of this wall, a com- 
 paratively small number of men could keep back a large number 
 of invaders. The wall continued to do good service for a long 
 time, and remains of it are to be seen to this day. 
 
 Hoio long did the Romans continue in possession of Britain? 
 What induced them finally to withdraw f 
 
 The Romans continued in possession of Britain for two hundred 
 
THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 29 
 
 THE WALL OF 
 
 years after this time, making about four hundred years in all. But 
 then they began to be so hardly pressed by their own enemies, the 
 Goths and Yandals, in Italy, and at the very gates of E-ome, that 
 they were obliged to withdraw their troops altogether from such 
 remote provinces as Britain. The Britons then, finding their pro- 
 tectors gone, were obliged to look elsewhere for help. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 W/ie7i and under what circumstajices did the i7ivasion of Brit- 
 ain by the Anglo-Saxons take place? 
 
 About the year four hundred and fifty, a small fleet of vessels, 
 filled with armed men, suddenly made their appearance at the isl- 
 
30 THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 and of Thanet, at the mouth of the Thames. They had come 
 across the German Ocean from some place on the Continent. They 
 belonged to a race of men called in history the Anglo-Saxons. 
 The men landed, and undertook to establish themselves in the- 
 country. They were joined afterward by others of their country- 
 men, who came over in great numbers, and in the end they over- 
 spread the whole country, the old race of Britons gradually disap- 
 pearing before them, until finally the whole population seemed to 
 be changed. The present inhabitants of England are chiefly the 
 descendants of these Anglo-Saxons. 
 
 What two chieftains commanded the first exjpedition that 
 arrived f 
 
 The party of Anglo-Saxons that arrived first in England, and 
 landed on the island of Thanet, were under the command of two 
 chieftains, Hengist and Horsa, names that have become very fa- 
 mous in English history as those of the two first Anglo-Saxon 
 captains that landed in that country. The opposite engraving rep- 
 resents one of the Anglo-Saxon chieftains, in the dress and armor 
 which they were accustomed to wear in those days. In the back- 
 ground we see one of their vessels in the water. 
 
 Who was the jyrince of the Britons at this time f How did 
 he receive the Anglo-Saxons f 
 
 The name of the chief prince of the Britons at that time was 
 Vortigern. When Yortigern heard of the arrival of this new party, 
 he was pleased rather than troubled by it. He hoped that they 
 would help him to defend his dominions from the Picts and Scots, 
 and the other enemies that harassed them. So he sent a friendly 
 deputation to the Saxons, inviting them to become his allies. 
 
 What proposal did he Tnake to themf 
 
 If they would settle in his dominions, he said, and assist him in 
 his wars, he would grant them the isle of Thanet, and a consider- 
 able portion of territory on the main land besides, for their abode, 
 and treat them in other respects in a friendly manner. 
 
THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 31 
 
 <'^t 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON CHIEFTAIN. 
 
 How was t/ie proposal received f 
 
 Hengist and Horsa agreed to this proposal, and they sent im- 
 mediately back to the Continent to invite more of the Anglo-Sax- 
 ons to come and join them. This invitation was readily accepted^ 
 and great numbers came. 
 
32 THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 Who ivas JRowena ? Relate the circumstances of her first 
 introduction to Vortigern. 
 
 It happened that Hengist, the first of these chieftains, had a 
 daughter at home, a beautiful young maiden, and the same mes- 
 senger that was sent to bring more ships and a larger army was 
 also directed to bring her, and probably the other members of Hen- 
 gist's family. The young lady's name was Rowena. Soon after 
 Rowena arrived, Hengist invited Yortigern and some of his chief 
 officers to a great entertainment which he had made for him in his 
 camp, and in the midst of the entertainment he sent Rowena in to 
 present the king with a goblet of wine. Rowena performed the 
 duty assigned her in a very graceful and charming maimer. 
 
 What loas the result of this transaction ? 
 
 Yortigern was immediately so much struck with Rowena's 
 beauty and grace, that he proposed to Hengist to give her to him 
 in marriage. Hengist manifested great surprise at this offer, and 
 at first said that he could not possibly give his consent; but, 
 finally, he allowed himself to be persuaded. Indeed, it is probable 
 that this was secretly his design when he sent for Rowena. The 
 maiden herself made no objection to the marriage, and, according- 
 ly, the ceremony was performed. The alliance between the Brit- 
 ons and the Saxons Avas now complete. 
 
 Describe the oj)erations which noio took ]plac6 hetiveen the al- 
 lied chieftains and the Picts and Scots. 
 
 The chieftains now turned the united force of their arms against 
 tlie common enemies, especially the Picts and Scots on the north. 
 The wall of Severus was a very good protection so long as it was 
 well garrisoned and guarded, but when the Roman troops were 
 withdrawn, the Britons could no longer effectually defend it. The 
 Picts and Scots made breaches here and there, and broke through. 
 And then, besides, they contrived to come round the ends of the 
 wall in boats on the sea, and so find their way into England, some- 
 times in great numbers. 
 
THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 33 
 
 What sort of boats were used in those days f 
 
 The boats used by the various tribes of the island of Great Brit- 
 ain in those days are very curious contrivances. They were call- 
 ed coracles, and something very much like them is made in many 
 parts of Wales to this day. They were made of hides stretched 
 
 THE CORACLES. 
 
 over a frame of basket-work or wicker-work, very much like the 
 boats of the ancient Assyrians, as seen represented in the sculp- 
 tures found at ]^ineveh at the present day. 
 
 What were the qualities of these coracles f 
 
 These coracles were very light. The boatmen, when they came 
 to the landing, could take them up and carry them on their backs, 
 as represented in the preceding engraving. Of course, such a 
 
34 THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 craft as this would not stand a heavy sea, but they could be nav- 
 igated very safely across a smooth river, and even along the coast 
 at sea, in calm and pleasant weather. 
 
 How did the coming of the Saxons into Britain end f 
 
 The Saxons soon succeeded in driving back the Picts and Scots ; 
 then they proceeded to establish themselves every where through- 
 out the island, as if it had been their own native home. Their 
 numbers were continually increased by new arrivals, and as they 
 were remarkable for the courage and energy of their characters, and 
 the boldness and decision which marked all the measures of their 
 policy, they gradually became masters of the whole country, and 
 the Britons began to diminish very rapidly in numbers and influ- 
 ence, until at length they had almost entirely disappeared. 
 
 During all this time^ was there or not a good understanding 
 between the Britons and the Saxons f 
 
 During this period a great many wars broke out between the 
 two races, in all of which the Britons were overpowered, so that 
 they came out of every conflict diminished in numbers and weak- 
 ened in spirit. War broke out, indeed, even in Vortigern's day. 
 Some difficulty arose between him and Hengist, and in the course 
 of it, the latter, professing still to be friendly, invited Vortigern 
 and three hundred of his officers and attendants to come into his 
 camp to a feast, and while there the Saxons rose upon them, and 
 assassinated them all except Vortigern himself, who was taken 
 prisoner, and who was afterward compelled to ransom himself by 
 ceding to Hengist three provinces of his kingdom. 
 
 Belate the story of King Arthur. 
 
 It was in the course of these wars between the Britons and An- 
 glo-Saxons that the famous Eang Arthur appeared, about whom, 
 and his Knights of the Round Table, so many ballads and tales 
 have been written. According to these tales. King Arthur was a 
 man of miraculous strength and valor. He was all his life a most 
 terrible enemy to the Saxons. He fought twelve great battles 
 
THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 35 
 
 with them, and was victorious in every one. In one of these bat- 
 tles he killed, they said, in the course of the day, four hundred and 
 seventy men with his own hand. 
 
 What feats of strength did he perform f 
 
 Besides his battles with the Saxons, King Arthur performed a 
 great number of other exploits, denoting prodigious strength and 
 valor. He hunted and killed the most ferocious wild beasts, and 
 attacked and slew a great many giants, some in England, and some 
 in France and Spain. He instituted an order of knights, which he 
 called the Knights of the Round Table, consisting of those men 
 who were most successful in emulating his strength and courage. 
 
 What occurred in connection with his pilgrimage to Jerusalem^? 
 
 He was a very pious man too, according to the ideas of the 
 times, and after all these great feats of hunting and of arms had 
 been performed, and the world was filled with his fame, he made 
 a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. On his return, he found that his 
 nephew, a prince named Medrawd, had alienated the affections of 
 his wife during his absence, and, in consequence of this, he chal- 
 lenged the guilty seducer to single combat. The fight was long 
 and obstinate ; at length both parties fell. Medrawd was killed, 
 and Arthur was mortally wounded. His friends carried him off 
 the field, but he soon died, and then they buried him, digging a 
 very deep grave, like a well, for the body, in order, as they said, 
 that the Saxons might not find it, and dig it up again. 
 
 On the whole, what was the final result of the Saxon invasion? 
 
 Notwithstanding all the resistance that such chieftains as these 
 could make, the Saxon power gradually extended itself through- 
 out the island, and in the course of two hundred years from the 
 time that Hengist and Horsa landed on the shores of Thanet, the 
 whole country was entirely in their hands. 
 
 How long did they continue to rule in Britain f 
 
 The Saxons, after this, continued to rule in England for about 
 two hundred years more, making about four hundred years in all. 
 
36 THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 f 
 
 What is the reason that we have less information in respect to 
 the history of England during this period than before f 
 
 It is here to be observed that we know very much less of the his- 
 tory of England during this time than during the preceding period, 
 while the Romans were in possession of the country, for the Ro- 
 mans were writers as well as warriors, and they preserved accounts 
 of what they saw and heard, and these accounts have come down 
 to the present day in books written by the Roman historians and 
 scholars. Some of these books were written by the generals them- 
 selves in the midst of their campaigns. Others were written by 
 authors at Rome, who took pains to inquire of the generals when 
 they returned from Britain in respect to the events that occurred 
 during the period of their command in the province. In this man- 
 ner they obtained information of the most important events, and 
 recorded them for the instruction of all mankind, in historical nar- 
 ratives, which were written with so much eloquence and power, 
 that they have been read and admired in all succeeding ages. 
 
 Were the Anglo-Saxons generally acquainted with letters f 
 
 The Anglo-Saxons, on the other hand, could write very little, 
 and very few of the writings which they produced have been pre- 
 served. Thus, while we know a great deal of the first four hund- 
 red years of English history, yet of the four hundred years which 
 came after this first period very little is certainly known. Many 
 tales and legends relating to this period have come down to us, it 
 is true, such as the story of King Arthur, but no reliance is placed 
 upon the truth of any of them. 
 
 Describe the system of government that prevailed during the 
 Anglo-Saxon period. 
 
 In process of time, when the dominion of the Anglo-Saxons had 
 at length become supreme throughout the island, the whole terri- 
 tory was divided into seven states or kingdoms, which were gov- 
 erned each by its own king, while one of the seven, sometimes the 
 chief of one of these kingdoms and sometimes of another, ruled 
 
THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 37 
 
 in some sense over the whole, as general king of the country. 
 This compound sort of kingdom was called the Saxon Heptarchy.* 
 
 W/iat were the circumstances under which Christianity was 
 first introduced into England ? 
 
 It was during the continuance of the Saxon Heptarchy that 
 Christianity was first introduced into England. It had been, 
 however, established in Scotland and in Ireland a century or two 
 before. It was first preached in Ireland by St. Patrick. He was 
 born, the story is, in Brittany, on the coast of France, and was 
 somehow or other, in his youth, taken by a band of robbers or free- 
 booters, and carried to Ireland. Here he was employed by them 
 for some time as a shepherd-boy, and then, at length, when he 
 gained his liberty, he became a preacher of Christianity, and was 
 so successful, that in the course of his life he was the means of 
 bringing almost the whole population of Ireland over to the Chris- 
 tian faith. He founded churches, convents, and schools, he ordain- 
 ed priests and bishops, and he inaugurated a system of religious 
 worship. In a word, he effected a complete religious revolution 
 in Ireland, and founded an establishment there which has endured 
 substantially to the present day. St. Patrick has been accordingly 
 honored as the patron saint of Ireland from that day till now. 
 
 Who was the most distinguished ])reacher of Christianity in 
 Scotland f Relate the history of lona. 
 
 Soon after this, Christianity was preached in Scotland by mis- 
 sionaries from Ireland, and the Picts and Scots were converted to 
 the faith. The most distinguished of these missionaries was named 
 Columba. He went to the court of the king, whose name was 
 Brude, and, after explaining to him the doctrines and precepts of 
 Christianity, persuaded him to be baptized. Brude then granted 
 to Columba a beautiful little island called lona, which lies a short 
 distance off the western coast of Scotland, for the site of a college 
 
 * The word heptarchy comes from the Greek language, and means a system of 
 seven kingdoms. 
 
^8 
 
 THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 and monastery, and here Columba founded an institution of learn- 
 ing and piety, which acquired great celebrity. 
 
 
 W- 
 
 RUINS OF THE MONASTERY OF lONA. 
 
 W/iat is the condition of lona at the present thne f 
 
 The ruins of this monastery remain to the present day, and are 
 visited every year by great numbers of tourists, who go out to the 
 island in large parties every summer's day expressly to see them. 
 
 Relate the circumstances under which Christig^nity was first 
 i7itroduced into England, 
 
 After this, Christianity was introduced into England. It was 
 first preached to King Ethelbert by a priest named Augustin. 
 Ethelbert was one of the chief kings that reigned during the time 
 
THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 39 
 
 of the Heptarchy. His wife was a Christian princess from some 
 part of France, and this, perhaps, induced him to think more fa- 
 vorably than he otherwise would have done of the new religion. 
 
 W/iat arrangeraents did the king make for hearing Augustin f 
 The king appointed a time to meet Augustin, and the other priests 
 who came with him, and hear what they had to say. The place 
 of meeting was the open air. The Saxon priests recommended 
 this plan, for they said in the open air the king and his company 
 would be more safe against any of the magical contrivances that the 
 Christian preachers might intend to practice upon them. 
 
 Describe the tnanner in which Augustiii came into the assem- 
 bly. 
 
 When the assembly was convened, Augustin and his compan- 
 ions came into it, walking solemnly in a procession. One of them 
 bore a silver crucifix, and another carried a banner on which a pic- 
 ture of Jesus Christ was embroidered. The other monks filled 
 the air with the sounds of a solemn hymn, which they chanted in 
 unison as they advanced into the assembly. 
 
 What loas the decision of Ethelhert in resjpect to Augustin'' s 
 proposal ? 
 
 Ethelbert heard patiently all that Augustin had to ofier, and 
 then said that he did not think it best himself to change the re- 
 ligion of his forefathers, but that he would not forbid Augustin 
 and his brother monfcs to preach Christianity among the people 
 whenever they pleased. The result was, that before a great while 
 the whole population was converted to the Christian faith. 
 
 How did the Anglo-Saxons at length become involved in diffi- 
 culty themselves? 
 
 The government of the Anglo-Saxons went on very prosperous- 
 ly after this for several generations, until, at length, they became 
 involved in great difficulty by the invasion of the Danes. 
 
THE DANES. 
 
 CHAPTEE IV. 
 
 THE DANES. 
 
 Describe the origin and the character of the Danes, 
 During the time the Saxon kings were reigning in England, a 
 very extraordinary race of men were gradually rising to import- 
 ance and power on the German Ocean and on the adjacent seas. 
 They came, of course, originally from the land, but they lived al- 
 most wholly on the sea, only making occasional visits to the shores 
 of the various countries within their reach for purposes of conquest 
 and plunder. They were, in fact, little better than an organized na- 
 tion of pirates. As they came originally from Denmark and Nor- 
 way, and other countries on the shores of the Baltic Sea and Ger- 
 man Ocean, they are in English history commonly called Danes. 
 They were under the dominion of a race of chieftains, who, from 
 their being almost always on the water, were called sea-kings. 
 How were such invasions as these regarded in ancient times f 
 The work of conquering and plundering a country was, in those 
 ages of the world, considered a very honorable and proper employ- 
 ment, provided the deed was done by a sufficiently large number 
 of people, and on a great enough scale. So these sea-kings, though 
 really pirates and robbers, were considered* honorable men, and 
 many young persons, from high families on the Continent, used 
 to come and enter their service from time to time, in order to see 
 the world, and learn the art of seamanship and war. 
 
 Describe the characters and modes of life of the sea-hings. 
 It is true that the life which these sea-kings led exposed them 
 to almost every kind of hardship and suffering. The seas which 
 they frequented were subject to perpetual storms, and often, when 
 they attempted to approach a coast, the wind, rising suddenly, 
 dashed them against the rocky and iron-bound shore. At other 
 
THE DANES. 
 
 41 
 
 THE SEA-KINGS. 
 
 times, when they had been unsuccessful in their enterprises, they 
 were driven out to sea again with insufficient supplies of food, and 
 in the most boisterous weather. Still nothing daunted them. In 
 fact, they became themselves in time as rough and as indomitable 
 as the very storms with which they were accustomed to contend. 
 
 W/iat ivas the final result of the invasion of the sea-kings? 
 
 Etring the period of English history to which we have now ar- 
 rived, that is, about Anno Domini 850, these sea-kings began to 
 make descents upon the English territory. They succeeded at 
 length in establishing themselves firmly upon the coast, and final- 
 ly in obtaining possession of a large part of the country, and the 
 Anglo-Saxons found infinite difficulty in expelling them. The 
 contests continued, in fact, for twenty years, and the period is 
 known in the history of England as the period of the Waks with 
 THE Danes. 
 
42 THE DANES. 
 
 Who was Ragnar Lodhrogf 
 
 One of the first of the sea-kings that, invaded England was 
 named Ragnar Lodbrog. His father was a prince or chieftain of 
 some sort in Norway, and he himself married a Danish princess, 
 but he was driven away from his wife's kingdom by the power of 
 a rival chieftain, and so he took to the sea. He obtained some 
 ships, collected together a company of desperate followers for 
 crews, and made himself a sea-king. 
 
 Describe the plans that he formed for invading Britain. 
 
 After cruising about some time in the German Ocean and in the 
 English Channel, and making several successful descents upon the 
 coast, he finally resolved on attempting an incursion into England. 
 So he built two very large ships, and rigged and equipped them 
 in the most perfect manner. He manned them, too, with the most 
 daring and desperate of his followers, knowing well that in land- 
 ing in England he would have to encounter very formidable en- 
 emies. 
 
 What course did the expedition take in coming to the country f 
 
 Finally, when all was ready, he set sail with his ships toward 
 the coast of Scotland. He followed the coast for some time to 
 the southward, and at length approached the English shores on 
 the confines of the kingdom of JSTorthumbria, which was the most 
 northerly of the seven Saxon kingdoms. Here he landed, and 
 began to advance into the interior. 
 
 Who came forth to meet him f Describe the battle anS the 
 result of it. 
 
 It was not long before the king of the country, whose name was 
 Ella, came down to meet him at the head of a great force. A bat- 
 tle ensued. Ragnar and his men fought like tigers. They knew 
 that if they were defeated there was no hope of their being able to 
 escape, for their enemies would certainly never allow them time to 
 embark again, even if they were to succeed in making their way 
 back to their vessels. They made, however, the most desperate 
 
THE DANES. 43 
 
 attempts to get to the sliore again when they found that the bat- 
 tle was going against tljem. Three times they broke through the 
 Unes of their opposers, and three times the enemy closed up again 
 between them and the sea, so as to cut off their retreat. At length 
 the whole band were cut to pieces, except Lodbrog himself and a 
 few others, who were taken prisoners. 
 
 How was Lodbrog said to have been punished f 
 It is said that Ella, in his exasperation and rage against Lod- 
 brog for coming thus without any provocation to invade his ter- 
 ritories, caused a den to be filled with vipers and other poisonous 
 reptiles, and then shut Lodbrog up in it with them. The animals 
 instantly killed him with their venomous bites and stings. 
 
 This was the end of the first invasion of England by the Danes. 
 What was probably Ella's design in inflicting this horrid pun- 
 ishment on Lodbrog f 
 
 Probably Ella thought that, by putting Lodbrog to this horrid 
 death, he should strike terror into the Danes, and prevent any 
 others from repeating the attempt to invade his dominions. But 
 if he did reason in this way he was in error. A just and reason- 
 able punishment tends, it is true, to deter other men from repeat- 
 ing a crime, but a cruel and an excessive one only awakens their 
 anger, and inflames them with a spirit of resetitment and revenge. 
 What was^ in reality, the effect p)roduced by this cruelty? De- 
 scribe the new enterprise tmdertaken by the Danes. 
 
 Such, at any rate, was the effect that was produced in this in- 
 stance. When the other Danes heard .how barbarously their fel- 
 low-countryman had been treated, they at once resolved to avenge 
 his death. The sons and the relatives of Eagnar Lodbrog took 
 the lead in this enterprise. They proceeded very carefully and 
 deliberately in forming their plans. They communicated their de- 
 signs to a great many different chieftains, and invited them to join 
 in the enterprise. In this way they formed a great confederation. 
 There were eight kings and twenty earls, as they were called, in 
 
44 
 
 THE DANES. 
 
 ARMS AND COSTUME OF THE DANES. 
 
 the alliance. The commanders of the expedition were two cele- 
 brated kings, named Guthrum and Hubba. Hubba was one of 
 Ragnar Lodbrog's sons. 
 
 What occurred on the landing of the expedition f 
 
 When all was ready, the expedition set sail for England. They 
 
THE DANES. 45 
 
 landed without encountering any resistance. It is probable that 
 the Saxons did not know where thej intended to land. The 
 Danes, after leaving their ships, advanced a little way into the in- 
 terior of the country, and then encamped. Here they quietly es- 
 tablished themselves as if they were at home, and began to make 
 preparations for spending the winter. It was late in the fall when 
 they landed. 
 
 What were the xisual habits of life of these men f 
 
 Indeed, they were at home, as much so, at least, as men living 
 the lives of pirates and marauders, as they did, could be. They 
 seem to have had no regular abodes on land, but spent the time 
 in summer in cruising about on the sea in quest of plunder, and 
 in winter in some encampment which they made on any accessi- 
 ble shore, where they could most readily find shelter and fuel. 
 
 Did the Saxons attempt to drive out the invaders during that 
 winter ? 
 
 The Saxons, or the English as they may now properly be call- 
 ed, did not disturb the invaders all that winter. They hoped, per- 
 haps, that they had only come to encamp on the ground during 
 the cold season, and that they would go away in the spring. 
 
 What occurred in the spring f 
 
 Instead of this, l^owever, as soon as the spring opened, they sent 
 for re-enforcements. More sea-kings came, bringing with them 
 additional troops. The army was marshaled, and soon began to 
 move toward the interior. They directed their course toward 
 Northumbria. Their object was to take vengeance on Ella for 
 what they considered his brutal murder of Eagnar Lodbrog. Ella, 
 who had been by some "means aware of the danger for some time, 
 now, when he found his enemies actually advancing, gathered all 
 his forces together, and came to meet them. 
 
 What 'was the condition in which Ella now found himself 
 placed f What was the result of the battle fought f 
 
 He found, however, that it was in vain to attempt to oppose 
 
46 THE DANES. 
 
 their progress. Tliey were animated with such a spirit of resent- 
 ment and anger against him, that they fought with the utmost fury 
 in every battle, and almost always conquered. In this way they 
 advanced into Ella's dominions, ravaging the country, and bearing- 
 down all before them. At last a great pitched battle was fought. 
 The English were defeated, and Ella himself was taken prisoner. 
 The Danes, as soon as they got the wretched king into their hands, 
 put him to death with the most horrid tortures. They then made 
 themselves masters of the whole of Northumbria. 
 
 How were these jproceedings regarded hy the other kingdoms 
 of the Heptarchy f 
 
 By this time the other kingdoms of the Heptarchy began to be 
 alarmed. The several kingdoms were in some degree separate 
 from each other, though they had been some time before nominal- 
 ly united. 
 
 Who was Hthelred, and what expectations did he form? 
 
 The king who was considered the supreme ruler over all of them 
 at this time was Ethelred. Ethelred hoped that when the Danes 
 had accomplished what he supposed had been their chief design in 
 coming to England, namely, to wreak their vengeance on Ella for 
 the murder of Ragnar Lodbrog, they would go back to their ships 
 and leave the island altogether. 
 
 What was the actual result ? 
 
 But this was far from their design. When they found how 
 easily they succeeded in conquering the Saxons in Northumbria, 
 they concluded to go on and take possession of other parts of the 
 island. Guthrum and Hubba sent to the Baltic Sea for more 
 troops, and there were plenty of sea-kings all along the coasts of 
 Norway and Denmark that were ready to accept the invitation as 
 soon as they received it, and thus, in a short time, the forces under 
 Guthrum and Hubba's command were greatly increased. 
 
 Describe the subsequent career of the Danes iii Britain, 
 
 With this large force, which was continually growing larger by 
 
THE DANES. 47 
 
 fresh arrivals, the Danes commenced a career of conquest in En- 
 gland which continued for several years, and which ended in their 
 gaining almost complete possession of the island. The parts of 
 the country which submitted to them they colonized and settled 
 with their own men, ruling the Saxons, and reducing them to com- 
 plete subjection. Those that resisted they ravaged with fire and 
 sword. The king, Ethelred, made every exertion in his power to 
 resist them, but all was in vain. 
 
 Hoio did the Danes deal with the convents and monasteries f 
 
 The Danes took particular pleasure, while they were thus over- 
 running the Saxon territories, in attacking monasteries and abbeys 
 wherever they found them, on account of the treasures which they 
 often contained. These monasteries were the residences of monks 
 and nuns, who spent their lives in retirement, pursuing studies of 
 various kinds, instructing youth, and performing the exercises of 
 devotion. These establishments were all held sacred by the Sax- 
 ons themselves, and in the wars which the different kingdoms 
 waged with each other they were not disturbed. But the Danes, 
 being pagans, paid no regard to any sacredness either of places or 
 things, and they accordingly plundered the convents and monas- 
 teries in the most unscrupulous and merciless manner. This led 
 to many scenes of great sorrow and suffering. 
 
 Describe the situation and condition of the Ahhey of Croioland. 
 
 One of the most remarkable of these cases was that of the Ab- 
 bey of Crowland. This establishment was situated in the eastern 
 part of England, near the shore of a great shallow bay, which you 
 will find laid down on the map of England under the name of the 
 Wash. This Abbey of Crowland was a large and wealthy estab- 
 lishment. It possessed a great deal of land, and the tenants who oc- 
 cupied and tilled it were in some degree under the monks' control. 
 What was it that aroused the hostility of the Danes against 
 the ahhey ? 
 
 At one time the monks sent two hundred and fifty men to the 
 
18 THE DANES. 
 
 army, to assist in fighting against the Danes. This enraged the 
 Danes, and so they determined that when they reached that part 
 of the country they would plunder and destroy the abbey. 
 
 Describe the effects joroduced at the abbey by the ajpjproach of 
 the Da7ies. 
 
 When the monks heard that they were coming, they were in 
 great terror and dismay. They determined to remove all their 
 treasures ; so they packed them in boats as fast as they could, and 
 sent them down the river, and there burieH them in the ground, 
 in a solitary place in the woods where an old hermit lived. They 
 took with them, too, all the strong men that belonged to the mon- 
 astery, and left only the old and infirm behind. 
 
 How iDere the Danes received by the monks that were left at 
 the abbey ? 
 
 These old men clothed themselves in their priestly robes, and 
 went into the chapel, and employed themselves there in singing- 
 hymns and saying prayers, thinking that if the Danes found them 
 thus engaged, they would spare their lives out of regard to their 
 age and their sacred character. But they were greatly mistaken. 
 
 What was the fate of the j)riests? 
 
 The ferocious Danes, full of resentment and anger, broke into 
 the monastery, and then, rushing into the chapel, they began 
 slaughtering the venerable priests, in the midst of their devotions, 
 without any mercy. 
 
 Was any perso7i saved? 
 
 Indeed, of all the people that were found in the monasteries 
 when the Danes arrived, only one was saved, and he was a small 
 boy. His name was Turgar. 
 
 How was he saved? 
 
 This boy was saved by a sort of stratagem. One of the Danish 
 chiefs, named Sidroc, saw him standing there in great terror and 
 distress, and took pity on him. He went to him, and gave him a 
 Danish garment. "Put that on," said he, " and follow me. Keep 
 
KING ALFRED THE GREAT. 49 
 
 as close by my side as you can." The boy did so, and the Danish 
 soldiers supposed that he was a Dane. Thus he escaped with 
 his life. 
 
 What was the sequel of Turgar's story ? 
 
 After this, Turgar followed Sidroc and the Danes for some days, 
 but at length he succeeded in making his escape from them. He 
 watched his opportunity when they were crossing a river at a ford 
 with some wagons loaded with treasures. One of the wagons be- 
 came set, the wheels sinking in the sand. While Sidroc and his 
 men were busy with the wagon, Turgar ran off into the Avoods, 
 and finally got back to the monastery, where he found the monks 
 at work in sadness and sorrow repairing the ruins. 
 
 What was the filial result of the invasion of the Danes? 
 
 The Danes went on in this way, conquering one province after 
 another of the kingdom, and seizing all the treasures which they 
 could find. At last, Ethelred, the king of the country, was killed, 
 and the Saxon power seemed to be entirely overthrown. 
 
 What distinguished jyri^ce now succeeded to the throne f 
 
 The rightful heir of Ethelred was his brother Alfred, a j^rince 
 who, though his prospects, at the commencement of his reign, were 
 so exceedingly dark and gloomy, subsequently triumphed over all 
 his foes, and acquired the highest renown. He is known in his- 
 tory as Alfred the Great. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 KING ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 At what age had Alfred learned to read? 
 
 The engraving on the following page represents young Alfred, 
 when he was a boy about twelve years old, leaning upon his 
 mother's lap, and showing her that he knew how to read, having 
 studied and learned of his own accord. 
 
 2 D 
 
50 
 
 KINO ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 i 
 
 ALFRED READING TO HIS STEPMOTHER. 
 
 Give an account of Alfred's mother^ and of his stepmother. 
 
 Alfred's own mother was the queen Osburgha, the wife of the 
 Saxon king Ethelwolf, who reigned before the time of the incur- 
 sions of the Danes. She had four children, all sons. Alfred was 
 
KING ALFEED THE GREAT. 51 
 
 the youngest. Osbiirgha died not very long after Alfred was born. 
 Afterward, when Alfred was ten or twelve years old, his father 
 married a young French princess named Judith, and she, of course, 
 was Alfred's stepmother. . She was very kind to the children, as 
 stepmothers usually, though not always, are, notwithstanding what 
 is often said to the contrary. 
 
 What sort of books ivere used in those days f 
 
 There were no printed books in those days, but the monks and 
 scholars in the monasteries used to write books with the pen. 
 These books were written in very beautiful characters, with small 
 pictures here and there on the pages, in rich and elegant coloring. 
 These little paintings were called illuminations. 
 
 ITow did it happen that Alfred was not taught to read before 
 he loas tioelve years old? 
 
 Alfred's mother possessed one of these books. She had brought 
 it from France. She had been taught to read there, though this 
 was unusual, for, books being very scarce in those days, very few 
 persons except clerks and professed scholars were ever taught to 
 read. Alfred and his brothers, though they were royal princes, 
 and though great pains had been taken with their education in ev- 
 ery other point, had never been taught their letters. 
 
 How did he finally become interested in learning to read? 
 
 Judith showed the four boys her book, and they were all ex- 
 tremely pleased with it. They could not understand the reading, 
 it is true, but they admired the beauty of the characters, and they 
 were especially delighted with the illuminations. Judith told them 
 that she was glad to see that they were pleased with the book, and 
 she said that she would give it to that one of them who would 
 first learn to read it. 
 
 Hoio did he learn f 
 
 Alfred immediately resolved to learn. He found some clerk or 
 scholar in the palace who was willing to teach him, and in due 
 time he came to his mother and let her see that he could read the 
 
52 KING ALFEED THE GKEAT. 
 
 book. She was much pleased to find how well he had learned, 
 and she gave him the book according to her promise. 
 
 What progi'ess in study did he subsequently make ? 
 
 Alfred afterward read and studied a great deal, so that he be- 
 came, in the end, one of the greatest scholars, as well as one of the 
 most distinguished sovereigns of his time. 
 
 How was it that Alfred was Ethelred^s successor? 
 
 Ethelred, the king who governed England at the time that the 
 Danes commenced their invasions, was Alfred's eldest brother. He 
 had no children, and, of course, when he died, Alfred was his heir, 
 his other brothers having died before him. Ethelred was killed 
 in battle fighting with the Danes. Alfred was with him in the 
 battle, and was fighting by his side when he received his mortal 
 wound. Alfred was then about twenty-three years old. 
 
 What was his first duty^ and how did he jperform itf 
 
 The first thing that Alfred had to attend to was the burial 
 of his brother. Besides the obvious propriety of performing the 
 ceremony in a respectful manner, there was an additional duty 
 in this case, that of placing the body in some safe place, where 
 the savage and ferocious Danes could not find it. So he took it 
 away to a remote and solitary place, and their buried it in a very 
 deep grave. 
 
 Describe the condition in which he found the Saxon army 
 when he returned to the field. 
 
 When he returned to the field, he endeavored to gather the Sax- 
 on army together again ; but they were so scattered, discouraged, 
 and enfeebled that nothing could be done. They had lost their 
 king. Alfred, the rightful successor, had not been proved. He 
 was a very young man, and no one knew how much or what he 
 could do. It was not reasonable to suppose that he could rescue 
 the country from the dreadful danger in which it had become in- 
 volved. In a word, the people seemed to be entirely disheartened 
 and discouraged. 
 
KING ALFRED THE GEEAT. 53 
 
 What oneasure did he then adopt in order to j^rotect his own 
 kingdom f 
 
 Accordingly, after getting together what force he could, he en- 
 tered into negotiations with Hubba, who was then the leader of 
 the Danes, in that part of the island. Alfred's particular kingdom 
 was Wessex. It lay in the western part. So he agreed with 
 Hubba that if he, Hubba, would leave him in peace in that por- 
 tion of the island, he, Alfred, would not molest Hubba in any other 
 portions. Hubba, after making this compact, left Alfred in peace, 
 and went away to plunder and ravage the other divisions of the 
 general territory. 
 
 How did this plan succeed f 
 
 Alfred gained very little good by this measure. In the first 
 place, all the other Saxon princes and chieftains blamed him very 
 much for making a separate peace, for his own particular family 
 domain, while he left the country at large to the mercy of the en- 
 emy. What Alfred had to say in reply to this accusation I do 
 not know. 
 
 Gi'ue an account of the, exjMclition of Half den. 
 
 Then, besides, the peace for himself, that he secured by his 
 treaty, was not substantial or durable, for before long a new party 
 of Danes arrived on his coasts. They were under the command 
 of a prince named Halfden. Halfden landed on the southern coast, 
 and his first exploit was to take possession of one of Alfred's best 
 castles there for his head-quarters, and from this castle he began 
 to make excursions into the surrounding country, plundering and 
 murdering wherever he came. 
 
 How did Alfred attempt to defend his dominions from Half- 
 den? 
 
 Alfred immediately sent to expostulate with him, saying that 
 he had made a treaty with Hubba by which his particular part of 
 the island was to be held sacred, and not to be invaded by the 
 Danes any more. To this Halfden repHed that he had nothing to 
 
54 KING ALFKED THE GREAT. 
 
 do with Hubba or with Hubba's treaty. He was an independent 
 chieftain, acting for himself, and was not to be bound by any 
 treaties but his own. 
 
 Relate what took place in resjpect to the squadron of horse. 
 
 So the war went on ; and in a short time after this, Halfden and 
 his band greatly strengthened themselves by seizing a squadron 
 of horse which belonged to Alfred's army. Of course, they could 
 not bring horses over with them very well in their vessels, and 
 thus far they had been obliged to fight with foot-soldiers alone. 
 But now they contrived to capture a squadron of horse, and after 
 dismounting and driving off the riders, they took the horses them- 
 selves, and thenceforward were much more formidable than they 
 had been before. 
 
 How long did Alfreds adverse fortune continue f 
 
 Things went on in this way for two or three years, during all 
 which time the affairs of Alfred, and of all the Saxons, were going 
 from bad to worse, until at last the people all became completely 
 discouraged. 
 
 Describe Alfred's attemjpt to build a fleet 
 
 There was one measure, however, which Alfred adopted during 
 this period, which in the end led to great results. It was an at- 
 tempt that he made to build a fleet. He called together a num- 
 ber of the principal Saxon chieftains, and represented to them that 
 they ought to have a fleet, so. as to attack the Danes on the sea 
 before they reached the island, instead of waiting till they had 
 landed, and then attempt to expel them again. The chiefs all 
 agreed to this proposal, and they immediately took measures, un- 
 der Alfred's directions, to build the fleet. They had many diffi- 
 culties to encounter in accomplishing this purpose, and especially 
 in procuring sailors to man the ships ; but at last they succeeded, 
 and the fleet was ready for sea. * 
 
 What occurred at the time of the first sailing of the fleet f 
 
 When the day appointed for its sailing came, immense numbers 
 
KING ALFEED THE GEEAT. 55 
 
 of people assembled on the shores to witness the spectacle. This 
 was th5 first English fleet, and it is greatly celebrated in history 
 as the origin of that vast and unrivaled naval power that has since 
 made itself the wonder and admiration of the world. 
 What was the first exploit that the fleet j^erformed f 
 
 The fleet was quite successful at first. It encountered a squad- 
 ron of Danish ships in the channel and defeated them. But, after 
 all, it could guard only a small part of the coast, and so, in spite 
 of all that it could do, the Danes still continued to make descents 
 . on the portions of the coast that were unprotected. 
 
 What was, after this, the condition of Alfred's affairs in his 
 kingdom f 
 
 At length, about seven or eight years after Alfred's accession to 
 the throne, a greater company than ever came over, and, after mak- 
 ing some marauc^ing excursions in other parts of the island, they 
 came at length directly into Alfred's dominions. His resources 
 were now so wellnigh exh'austed that he had no means of resist- 
 ing them. The little that remained to him of an army soon dis- 
 persed, leaving Alfred with only a few attendants and friends. 
 These, one after another, forsook him too, and then he was left en- 
 tirely alone, a houseless, homeless fugitive. His career as a mon- 
 arch seemed to be at an end. Even his wife was not with him. 
 He had concealed her previously in the safest retreat that he could 
 find, so that he seemed now to be utterly friendless and alone. 
 
 Relate his adventures in finding a ])lace of shelter. 
 
 After wandering about for some time in woods and solitudes, he 
 at length came to a very secluded place, in the western part of En- 
 gland, where a cowherd lived. The place was a sort of island in 
 the midst of a region of marshes and stagnant water. Alfred push- 
 ed his way through the thickets until he came to the cowherd's 
 hut. He told the cowherd secretly that he was a Saxon chieftain 
 that had been defeated by the Danes, and asked the man to let 
 him stay for a while in his hut. The cowherd consented, and pre- 
 
o6 
 
 KING ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 tended to employ him as a liired man, in order that his wife might 
 not know who the stranger was. 
 
 Relate the incident of Alfred's heiiig set to watch the cakes. 
 
 It was while Alfred was at this cowherd's house that the famous 
 incident occurred of his letting the cakes burn. The cowherd's 
 wife, it seems, one evening, when he came home from his work, 
 asked him to watch some cakes that she was baking at the fire 
 while she was busy elsewhere. "Watch them," said she, "and 
 don't let them burn. Call me when they are done." So she went 
 away, leaving Alfred by the lire. 
 
 ALFRED LETTING THE CAKES BURN. 
 
 What was the sequel of the story f 
 
 But Alfred, who was busy making a bow, forgot the cakes, and 
 when the woman came she found them burned black. She was 
 in a great rage. She told him that he was always ready enough 
 to eat the cakes, but that he was too idle and good for nothing to 
 
KING ALFEED THE GEEAT. 57 
 
 do any thing in helping to bake tliem. The good woman little 
 knew that it was a king that she was scolding. 
 
 What plans and arrangements did Alfred make during his 
 seclusion f 
 
 Alfred remained in this place of seclusion for some time, but at 
 length he gradually contrived to get into communication with some 
 of the other chieftains, and they repaired to the place and held 
 consultations together there. They matured their plans, and then 
 took measures for gathering an army again. They concerted their 
 schemes so secretly that the Danes knew nothing of them until 
 they had quite a force collected and were ready to take the field. 
 What was the first operation vjhich the neio army undertook? 
 
 As soon as their plans were matured they marched immediately 
 to attack the army of the Danes which was nearest to them. It 
 was a considerable body of troops, under the command of Hubba. 
 Alfred's army came to the place secretly in the night, intending 
 to surprise the Danes in their camp. 
 
 Describe the banner of the raven. 
 
 The Danes possessed a banner which they regarded with super- 
 stitious veneration. It had a raven embroidered upon it. Hub- 
 ba's sisters had made the banner for him, and embroidered the ra- 
 ven, and the soldiers believed that it possessed supernatural pow- 
 ers. They thought that it would flutter its wings, when they 
 were going into battle, if they were destined to gain the victory. 
 On the other hand, if they were going to lose the battle, the raven's 
 wings would be lifeless and still. The truth was, that as the wind 
 waved and fluttered the banner when the soldiers were marching 
 with it into the field, it was impossible for them to tell whether 
 the wings made any motion of their own or not, and so they might 
 imagine it either way. 
 
 Give an account of the battle. • 
 
 Alfred and his army came upon the Danish camp in the morn- 
 ing just before daybreak, when all except the sentinels were asleep. 
 
58 KING ALFEED THE GREAT. 
 
 They made so sudden and furious an onset upon them that the 
 camp was thrown into the utmost confusion. The men were all 
 immediately put to flight. Hubba, the commander, was killed in 
 his tent, and the sacred banner was taken. 
 
 W/iat tvere the immediate effects of this victory f 
 
 The news of this victory spread like wildfire all over England. 
 It aroused the Saxons every where, and filled them with encour- 
 agement and hope. On the other hand, it greatly depressed and 
 dispirited the Danes. They were especially distressed at the loss 
 of the sacred raven. They considered this a very dark omen for 
 them. 
 
 Describe the jpre^parations made for a new encounter. 
 
 The Danes gathered their forces and prepared for a general bat- 
 tle. Guthrum was the commander of these forces. The Saxons 
 rose in arms too, in all parts of the kingdom, and flocked to Alfred's 
 standard. After a time the two concentrated armies came together, 
 and the great final contest ensued. 
 
 What was the result of the battle f 
 
 The Danes were defeated. Guthrum fled, and sought shelter 
 in a castle. Alfred pursued him, and shut him up closely in it. 
 After a time the two chieftains entered into negotiations for peace, 
 and peace was made. 
 
 What were the conditions of peace f 
 
 Alfred granted to the Danes the right to remain in England, if 
 they would live there in quietness as peaceful men ; and Guthrum, 
 on the other hand, acknowledged Alfred's sovereignty as monarch 
 of England. Guthrum agreed, too, that he and his followers would 
 become Christians. This was a part of the treaty, and in the rat- 
 ification of it Guthrum and his fellow-chieftains were publicly 
 baptized with the greatest ceremony and parade. 
 
 Describe the sequel of Alfred'' s reign. 
 
 After this, Alfred reigned over England long and very gloriously. 
 He devoted himself to the good of his subjects, and he founded 
 
KING ALFKED THE GREAT. 
 
 59 
 
 many of the institutions and made many of tlie laws to which the 
 subsequent power and greatness of the British empire are owing. 
 He had a great many difficulties to contend with, but by his dil- 
 igence, his patience, and his honest fidelity he triumphed over them 
 all, and at length came to be universally beloved and venerated 
 by his people, Saxons, Danes, and all. 
 
 W/io was Hastings^ and ichat exjploit did he jperform? 
 
 Alfred was often harassed and troubled by the arrival of new 
 parties of invaders from the northern seas. There was one of these 
 marauders, named Hastings, who came with a fleet of two hundred 
 and fifty vessels, and landed on the banks of the Thames. He 
 gave Alfred a great deal of trouble. At one time, when hard press- 
 ed, he took possession of a church, with all his horde, and fortified 
 himself there as if it had been a castle. 
 
 HASTINGS IN THE CHURCH. 
 
60 THE NOEMAN CONQUEST. 
 
 What tvas the final result of the expedition of Hasting sf 
 
 After a time, however, Alfred succeeded in gaining the victory 
 over Hastings, and in driving him away. 
 
 When at last Alfred found that his end luas approaching.^ lohat 
 did he do f 
 
 Alfred suffered a great deal from sickness all his life, and at 
 length, when he was about iifty-tAvo years of age, he found that 
 his end was approaching. He called his son to his bedside, in 
 order to make known to him his dying injunctions. 
 
 Repeat what he said to his son. 
 
 " Thou, my dear son, sit thee now beside me, and I will deliver 
 thee true instructions. 'I feel that my hour is coming. My 
 strength is gone ; my countenance is wasted and pale. My days 
 are almost ended. We must now part. I go to another world, 
 and thou art to be left alone in the possession of all that I have 
 thus far held. I pray thee, my dear child, to be a father to thy 
 people. Be the children's father and the widow's friend. Com- 
 fort the poor, protect and shelter the weak, and, with all thy might, 
 right that which is wrong. And, my son, govern thyself by law. 
 Then shall the Lord love thee, and God himself shall be thy re- 
 ward. Call thou upon him to advise thee in all thy need, and he 
 shall help thee to compass all thy desires." 
 
 Who was Alfred'' s successor? 
 
 So Alfred died, and his kingdom passed peacefully and quickly 
 into the hands of his son. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE NOEMAN CONQUEST. 
 
 When and hy whom was the Norman conquest effected f 
 About one hundred and fifty years after the death of Alfred, a 
 great event occurred in English history called the Norman Con- 
 
THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 
 
 61 
 
 quest. This conquest was effected by a great personage known as 
 William the Conqueror. He was originally a Duke of Normandy. 
 State what you can in resjpect to the situation and the early 
 history of Normandy. 
 
 JSTormandy was a very fertile and beautiful part of France, lying 
 
 along the shores of 
 the English Chan- 
 nel. You will see 
 the situation of it 
 by reference to the 
 adjoining map. It 
 wa3 called by the 
 name of Normandy 
 because it was set- 
 tled by the North- 
 men — the identical 
 class of men that 
 had made so much 
 trouble in England 
 under the name of 
 Danes. The orig- 
 inal leader of the 
 tribe that settled in 
 Normandy was a 
 noted warrior call- 
 ed RoUo. He land- 
 ed at first in England, but was driven off from that island by the 
 Saxons, and then he went southward and landed in France. 
 Other companies of Northmen afterward joined them, and they 
 made a permanent settlement in France on the banks of the Seine. 
 They called their country Normandy. The Normans were gov- 
 erned by a line of sovereigns 'called dukes. William the Con- 
 queror was one of these dukes. He was somewhere about the 
 
 SITUATION OF NOKMANDi 
 
62 THE NOEMAN CONQUEST. 
 
 seventh in the line. The circumstances which led him to under- 
 take the enterprise of invading England were very peculiar. 
 
 How "tnany royal families claimed the English throne at this 
 time, and what difficidty arose from this source f 
 
 Some time after the death of Alfred, the contests between the 
 royal family of the Danes and that of the Saxons broke out anew, 
 and for several successive reigns the affairs of the kingdom were 
 quite unsettled, sometimes one dynasty and sometimes the other 
 gaining the ascendency. The two families were connected togeth- 
 er by intermarriages, and they were also connected in the same 
 manner with the dukes of Normandy, so that, in process of time, 
 the hereditary claims and rights of the three houses became so in- 
 terwoven together, that in some instances, when a monarch hap- 
 pened to die without leaving any children to inherit his crown di- 
 rectly, it was, in truth, difficult to tell who the rightful heir was. 
 
 What two jpersons claimed the throne on the death of King 
 Edward the Confessor f 
 
 A great difficulty occurred at tlie death of a certain king of the 
 Anglo-Saxon line known in history as Edward the Confessor. 
 He died without issue. There was a relative of his in England, 
 named Harold, who claimed to be the true heir to the crown. 
 But William, the Duke of Normandy, claimed that he was the heir. 
 
 What was the special ground of William^ s claim ? 
 
 WilHam alleged that Edward had expressly appointed him to 
 be his successor, and that once, when Harold was on a visit to his 
 dominions, some time before King Edward's death, he had taken 
 a solemn oath never to claim the crown for him-self, but to ac- 
 knowledge William's right to the succession whenever Edward 
 should die. 
 
 What were the circumstances binder which Harold tooJc the 
 oath, and was he probably sincere in it f 
 
 Harold was undoubtedly insincere in taking this oath, and he 
 probably never had any intention of keeping it. He considered 
 
THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 63 
 
 himself as not free when he took it, and the rule was in those days, 
 as indeed it is now, that promises extorted by A^iolence are not bind- 
 ing. The oath which Harold took was not, however, exactly ex- 
 torted by violence, at least not by any open violence. Harold 
 had been shipwrecked on the coast of France, and had been taken 
 captive by the prince of the country in whose dominions he had 
 been thrown. William, when he heard of this, sent and ransom- 
 ed Harold, and brought him to Normandy. It was while he was 
 William's guest in Normandy on this occasion that Harold took 
 his oath. 
 
 How was it that Harold could maintain that his oath was ex- 
 torted hy violence f 
 
 There was no actual violence used on the part of William to 
 extort the oath from Harold. On the contrary, William treated 
 his guest with the greatest outward kindness and consideration. 
 Bat then Harold knew very well that, notwithstanding all these 
 external appearances, he was really, to all intents and purposes, a 
 prisoner, and that his only hope of being allowed to return to En- 
 gland at all would be in his ready compliance with all that Will- 
 iam might demand of him. So he took the oath with every ap- 
 pearance of honesty, but with a secret determination to pay no re- 
 gard to it whatever when the time for action. should come. Will- 
 iam, however, was satisfied, and so, after a time, he dismissed his 
 guest in peace, and Harold returned to England. 
 
 What measures did Harold adojpt on his return to England ? 
 
 Harold immediately began to form his plans for securing the 
 succession to himself as soon as Edward should die, by strength- 
 * ening his connections with the leading nobles of the land, and 
 forming a party to espouse his cause. William heard of these 
 doings, and so was satisfied that Harold did not intend to keep 
 his oath. There was nothing to be done, however, until Edward 
 should die, for neither of them claimed any right to the throne 
 during Edward's lifetime. 
 
64 
 
 THE NOEMAN CONQUEST. 
 
 Belate the circumstances that attended WilliaorCs receiving the 
 news of Edward's death. 
 
 The news of Edward's death came to William suddenly one 
 day while he was in his park trying a new bow and arrow that 
 had been made for him. A horseman came riding into the ring, 
 
 THE NEWS OF EDWARD S DEATH. 
 
 and, advancing rapidly to William's side, he communicated the 
 tidings to him in a whisper. William was greatly agitated. He 
 dropped his arrow upon the ground, and gave the bow to an at- 
 tendant. He then stood for a moment lost in thought, tying and 
 untying the cord of his cloak all the time, in his abstraction. 
 Presently he began to move slowly away. His attendants fol- 
 lowed him, wondering what the news was which had produced so 
 great an effect upon him. 
 
 What luas the effect that the news ])Toduced u])on him f 
 William was for a time greatly at a loss to know what to do. 
 
THE NOKMAN CONQUEST. 65 
 
 He had heard that Harold had quietly succeeded to the throne of 
 England, and that the whole country had acquiesced. Of course, 
 for him to raise an army, cross the Channel, and attempt to seize 
 the kingdom by force would be a very hazardous undertaking. 
 
 What was Fitz Oshorn's counsel ? 
 
 In his perplexity, one of his counselors, named Fitz Osbom, a 
 great officer of state, approached him, saying, " This difficulty, sire, 
 can be very easily remedied. You have the right to the English 
 throne, and you have soldiers enough to enforce your right. Un- 
 dertake the enterprise without fear. You will be sure to succeed." 
 
 What was William^ s decision f 
 
 William finally resolved to follow this counsel. He first, how- 
 ever, sent an embassage to Harold, calling upon him to surrender 
 the English crown according to the oath he had taken. This did 
 no good ; and William accordingly resolved on making war. 
 
 What were the projposals that he made to his nobles f 
 
 He summoned around him the chief nobles of Normandy, and 
 asked them how many were disposed to accompany him on the en- 
 terprise, and how many ships and men they could severally fur- 
 nish. He promised them that if he was successful in gaining his 
 kingdom, he would reward them liberally with lands and titles of 
 nobility, and would enrich them also with the treasures which he 
 expected to receive by confiscating the property of the Enghsh 
 nobles who should oppose him. 
 
 How were these proposals received? 
 
 The Norman chieftains embraced the scheme very eagerly. 
 They put down the number of ships and men that they could re- 
 spectively furnish, and William found, when these were enregister- 
 ed, that he should have an armament as large as he desired. 
 
 Describe the sailing of the exjpeclition and its jpassage across 
 the Channel, 
 
 The expedition was appointed to rendezvous at the mouth of a 
 small river on the coast of France. In due time it set sail. The 
 
 2 E 
 
66 
 
 THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 
 
 fleet was very large. It contained sixty thousand men. The 
 troops were all landed in safety on the English coast, near the 
 Straits of Dover. The army encamped not far from the shore, on 
 elevated ground near the town of Hastings, which is a small town 
 lying on the coast, at the foot of a valley opening toward the sea. 
 
 %-^" 
 
 What was the effect produced in England by the landing of 
 the expedition f 
 
 The whole country was now in a state of great alarm. Scouts 
 and couriers from the army were galloping about in all directions, 
 reconnoitring the ground. The inhabitants of the neighboring 
 villages were flying from their dwellings, carrying with them ev- 
 ery thing that they could move. 
 
 What were the measures adojpted by Harold f 
 
 King Harold advanced from the north with a great army to 
 meet the invaders. He sent round a fleet of seven hundred ships 
 too, by sea, to intercept the retreat of the Normans. He was sure, 
 he thought, of conquering them in the battle that was to ensue, 
 and, in order to make the most of his victory, he wished to cut ofi* 
 their retreat. He came with his army to the neighborhood of 
 
THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 67 
 
 Hastings, and there encamped at no great distance from the ene- 
 my. Both sides were preparing for battle. 
 
 Describe the atternpts that were made to settle the dispicte with- 
 out a battle. 
 
 Before the actual conflict commenced, some time was spent in 
 fruitless negotiations. Proposals were made on both sides, but 
 the parties could not come to any terms. Accordingly, on the 
 morning of the second day, they drew out their lines in order of 
 battle, and prepared for the fight. 
 
 Describe the ceremony with lohich the battle com^m^enced. 
 
 A powerful Norman knight rode out first from the lines, bidding 
 the English defiance, and claiming the right of striking the first 
 blow. He came out singing a ballad, and swinging and flourish- 
 ing his sword, and throwing it up into the air from time to time, 
 catching it in his hand with great dexterity when it came down. 
 The whole line of soldiers behind him joined in the chorus of the 
 song that he sang. 
 
 What became of the Norman knight f 
 
 He advanced to the English lines and ran one soldier through 
 the body. A second he felled to the ground. In attacking a 
 third, however, he was mortally wounded himself. The other 
 soldiers of the two armies had in the mean time rushed forward, 
 and the battle now became general. Both sides fought with the 
 utmost fury. 
 
 Describe the result of the battle. 
 
 The end of it was, that the English army was routed and driven 
 from the field. The battle, however, lasted all day long. When 
 night came, the field was covered with the bodies of the dead and 
 dying, and the surrounding country was filled w4th flying bands 
 of the English soldiers, now urging their way onward by the light 
 of the moon, through fields and thickets, and now turning back to 
 fight their pursuers. In the morning, William found that he had 
 gained a great victory, and lost one quarter of his men. 
 
68 THE NOEMAN CONQUEST. 
 
 What was the result of the battle in respect to Harold and to 
 "William ? 
 
 Harold was killed. An arrow pierced his eye and entered his 
 brain. His party, however, did not yet surrender, and the wars 
 between William and the English line were protracted for seven 
 long years, at the end of which time the country was entirely sub- 
 dued, and William found himself the undisputed monarch of En- 
 gland. It is in consequence of his having obtained the crown in 
 this way that he is styled in history William the Conqueror. 
 
 Describe the arrangements that William made i?i respect to 
 the kingdom. 
 
 In order to secure the crown more effectually to himself and his 
 posterity, William now parceled out the kingdom among his great 
 lords and generals, and conferred upon them all the great offices 
 of state. He introduced the Norman language, a species of French, 
 into the court, and into all the public proceedings of the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 What disposition did William make of the property of the 
 English nobles f 
 
 He confiscated the property of the former English nobles, and 
 enriched his own nobles with it, and so thoroughly did he do this 
 work, that the families that he thus founded, and their descend- 
 ants, constitute the oldest and most highly honored portion of the 
 great English aristocracy that govern England so entirely at the 
 present day. 
 
 How do the English people now regard the descendants of the 
 Normans f 
 
 The English people have long since ceased to resist or even to 
 dislike their conquerors ; on the contrary, they look up to them 
 with the utmost pride and veneration. Nothing gives a family a 
 greater weight in their estimation, or constitutes a higher claim to 
 their regard, than to say that their ancestors came in with the 
 Conqueror. 
 
THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 69 
 
 How would it jprohably have been in such a case with Amer- 
 icans f 
 
 In America the feeling would be exactly the reverse. The peo- 
 ple of this country could not tolerate for a day the idea of being 
 governed by a class who, however long ago, came into the country 
 as foreigners and conquered it, and now hold it as a conquest. 
 They might be compelled by superior force to submit, but they 
 would be exceedingly restive under such a rule, and would be 
 greatly ashamed of their subjection, not proud of it. 
 
 What luas the character of Williain's administi^ation f 
 
 William governed the realm of England very wisely — that is, 
 he was* very adroit and sagacious in the measures which he adopt- 
 ed for consolidating his power, and securing the government of the 
 country wholly, or almost wholly, to his friends and adherents. 
 
 Narrate the circimistances of Williatn^s quarrel with Philip. 
 
 The circumstances of William's death were very remarkable. 
 Philip, the King of France, who was in some sense his sovereign 
 as Duke of Normandy, was never friendly to him, especially after 
 he became King of England, and in various ways gave him a great 
 deal of trouble. Toward the latter part of his life William be- 
 came very corpulent, and at one time when he was in Normandy 
 — for he went over several times to his old home — he was under 
 some medical treatment for this difficulty which confined him to 
 his bed. While he was in this situation, Philip spoke of him in 
 a very contemptuous and insulting manner, by asking some one 
 from Normandy, who came to his court, if the old woman was still 
 in the straw. When William heard of this he was dreadfully en- 
 raged, and declared that, as soon as he got out again, he would 
 come and kindle up such fires in Philip's dominions as should 
 make his realms too hot to hold him. 
 
 What was the end of this quarrel f 
 
 Accordingly, when he was released from his confinement, he 
 made war upon Philip, and in the course of it, when riding through 
 
70 
 
 EICHARD THE CEUSADEE. 
 
 a town that they were storming, his horse stepped on some burn- 
 ing embers, and gave so sudden a start, that William, in the ef- 
 
 DEATH OF WILLIAM THE CONQUERO 
 
 fort to save himself, broke a blood-vessel, or inflicted upon him- 
 self some other internal injury, and so he died. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 EICHARD THE CEUSADEE. 
 
 'What was the general condition of the country for the next 
 hundred years after the death of William f 
 
 William the Conqueror died A.D. 1087. After his death the 
 kingdom of England was governed by a line of sovereigns, the 
 successors of William, for about a hundred years, during which 
 time a great many remarkable events occurred, which can not be 
 
RICHARD THE CRUSADER. 71 
 
 here particularly related. Wars were continually breaking out 
 between the different princes of this line ; for often, when one king 
 died, there were several of his relatives — brothers, cousins, or sons 
 — that rose to claim the throne ; and, in these cases, the several 
 claimants would usually raise armies and fight for the succession. 
 What were the feelings which subsisted between the people of 
 the country and their conquerors during this period f 
 
 The people hated their conquerors, and looked upon them as 
 foreign invaders. They were, indeed, in all respects foreigners. 
 Most of the monarchs of the time were born in France, and they 
 lived most of the time in France, and they regarded their domin- 
 ions on the Continent as the most important part of their realm. 
 England was considered simply in the light of a conquered province. 
 
 In what difficidties were the successors of William involved 
 'in respect to their possessions in Normandy f 
 
 Before long the different branches of the family became involved 
 in various quarrels in respect to their possessions in Normandy 
 and other parts of France, for they still retained these possessions 
 after acceding to the throne of England. In the course of these 
 wars and commotions, a great many remarkable and curious inci- 
 dents occurred, which it is very entertaining to read in the differ- 
 ent histories of England. 
 
 Relate the circumstances attendi7ig the death of William 
 Bufus f 
 
 One of the most striking of these occurrences was the death of 
 one of the kings named William Rufus. He was hunting in a 
 great forest which William the Conqueror had formed by laying 
 waste a large tract of ground and planting trees all over it. This 
 forest was many miles in extent. William Rufus was hunting in 
 it one day, and, being in a remote part of the wood, alone with one 
 of his officers named Tyrrel, a hart came by, and Tyn-el attempt- 
 ing to shoot it, his arrow glanced against a tree and struck the king 
 * in the side, and killed him instantly. Tyrrel was so terrified at 
 
72 
 
 RICHAED THE CRUSADEE. 
 
 DEATH OF WILLIAM RUFUS. 
 
 what he had done that he galloped off at once out of the wood, and 
 made all haste across the country to the sea-shore, and there em- 
 barked for Normandy. 
 
 How did King Richard the First distinguish himself? 
 
 There were various other extraordinary occurrences that took 
 place during this period of English History, but we must pass on 
 to the time of Eichard the Crusader. He is known also in history 
 as Richard I. There were two other Richards after him. Rich- 
 ard L, as his surname the Crusader imports, distinguished himself 
 greatly by his exploits and adventures in the Crusades. 
 
 What loere the Crusades, and how did they originate f 
 
 The Crusades were expeditions that the princes and nobles of 
 England and France made to conquer Jerusalem and the Holy Land 
 
RICHARD THE CRUSADER. 73 
 
 from the Turks. Even as early as the time of Alfred, it began to 
 be the custom of people to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem, to visit 
 the places there that were consecrated in their view, by being the 
 scenes of the great events of our Savior's history. They thought 
 there was a great merit in doing this, and that, however guilty they 
 might have been in their lives, this pilgrimage would atone for their 
 sins, and make them fit for heaven. Now Jerusalem, at this time, 
 was in the hands of the Turks, and they, feeling no veneration for 
 these sacred places, and no love for the Christians who came to see 
 them, were accustomed to insult the pilgrims, and maltreat them 
 in various ways. The princes and nobles of Europe accordingly 
 conceived the idea of raising an army of volunteers, and, marching 
 to Palestine, to take the country away from the Turks altogether. 
 They formed several expeditions of tliis kind, which are called the 
 Crusades. The people who went were called Crusaders.* 
 
 What was Richard's character ? 
 
 This Kichard the Crusader received the surname, while he lived, 
 of Coeur de Lion, which means Lion Heart. The name was given 
 to him on account of his headlong and reckless bravery. But his 
 heart, if it was like that of a lion, was a very bad heart. He was 
 an overbearing, cruel, and treacherous man, an undutiful son, a 
 faithless friend, and a tyrannical monarch. He was disobedient 
 and rebellious toward his father while his father lived, and by his 
 undutiful conduct did a great deal to bring him in sorrow to the 
 grave. But then, as soon as his father was dead, he turned against 
 all those who had been joined with him in his treasonable and re- 
 bellious practices, and put them to death, for fear that they might 
 now join some one else in plotting against him. 
 
 What did Richard's brother John think of his brother's going 
 on a crusade f 
 
 Soon after he succeeded to the throne, he joined with Philip of 
 
 * The word comes from a word meaning the cross. The cross was the emblenj 
 that the Crusaders carried on their banners. 
 
74 EICHARD THE CEUSADEE. 
 
 France to go on a crusade. He had a brother named John. John 
 was very glad when he heard of this plan. He hoped that Rich- 
 ard would be killed while he was gone, and then he would inherit 
 the throne in his place. 
 
 Describe the prej^arations and arrangements which Richard 
 and Philijp made for the expedition^ and for raising money. 
 
 Richard and Philip raised an immense army for their crusade. 
 It consisted, it was said, of a hundred thousand men. In order to 
 raise money for the expenses of the expedition, Richard sold the 
 public lands of the kingdom, and even the castles and some of the 
 towns. He put up the public offices, too, for sale to the highest 
 bidder, and thus sacrificed the interests of his kingdom in the most 
 reckless manner, in order to raise money just for the purpose of 
 gratifying his own love of fighting and glory. When some one 
 of his counselors remonstrated with him for the extent to which 
 he was carrying these measures, he said he did not care. He 
 would sell London itself, if he could find any body to buy it. 
 
 Give an account of the progress of the expedition. 
 
 In due time Richard's army was ready, and was sent across 
 the Channel to Normandy. Thence, marching through France, it 
 was joined by the divisions of the French army, and at length the 
 whole force arrived at Lyons. Here Richard's troops were taken 
 down the river to Marseilles, and there embarked on board a fleet 
 of ships. The ships sailed in the first instance for Sicily, which 
 is an island in the Mediterranean Sea, about half way to the Holy 
 Land. Philip, who had no ships to convey his troops in, was to 
 march round by land along the coast, and meet Richard in Sicily 
 at an appointed time. 
 
 What were the circumstances that led the army to rendezvous 
 in Sicily ? 
 
 One reason why the army were to rendezvous in Sicily on their 
 way to the Holy Land was because Richard had a sister there. 
 Her name was Joan. She had been married to the King of Sicily, 
 
RICHAED THE CRUSADER. 75 
 
 but her husband had died, and, as she had no children, the nobles 
 had placed one of their number, named Tancred, on the throne. 
 Tancred had cast Joan into prison, and taken possession of her 
 property, which consisted of castles, and towns, and large landed 
 estates. Richard stopped at Sicily ostensibly to avenge his sis- 
 ter's wrongs, but really to have the pleasure of showing his power 
 by lording it over the country, and exacting money from Tancred 
 to fill his treasures. He remained here some time, and accom- 
 plished all his ends, acting in a high-handed and tyrannical manner. 
 
 What ladies accompanied the expedition f What important 
 event took place at Sicily in connection with the Lady Beran- 
 garia ? 
 
 Richard's mother had coine out in one of the ships of his squad- 
 ron, together with a lady called the Lady Berangaria, whom Rich- 
 ard was intending to make his wife. The marriage was performed 
 in Sicily, and wlien the affairs of the country were all settled in 
 the island, Richard set sail again with his fleet for the Holy Land, 
 taking his mother, his sister, and his wife with him. 
 
 How did Richard agree with his ally Philip f 
 
 While in Sicily, Richard had begun to quarrel with Philip, his 
 ally. Philip was displeased with the high-handed and overbear- 
 ing manner in which Richard acted, but his remonstrances pro- 
 duced no effect. Afterward, when the expedition arrived in the 
 Holy Land, the two kings quarreled still more. 
 
 What was Philip'' s first undertaking when he landed? 
 
 Philip proceeded directly to the Holy Land, and occupied him- 
 self in laying siege to Acre. 
 
 Tn what consisted the importance of Acre? 
 
 Acre was a town and fortress in Palestine, on the coast of the 
 Mediterranean Sea. It was one of the strongest places in the 
 East, and the Crusaders were very earnest to gain possession of it. 
 They had besieged it before, and Philip was encamped before it 
 when Richard arrived. 
 
76 
 
 RICHAED THE CRUSADER. 
 
 VIEW OF THE RAMPARTS OF ACRE. 
 
 Describe the scene jpresented before Acre when Richard ar- 
 rived. 
 
 There was an immense number of troops in the camp before 
 Acre, but they had been greatly reduced by sickness and disasters, 
 and were making no progress in the siege. The camp was on high 
 land behind the town, so that the soldiers could see Richard's fleet 
 as it approached the bay, and when it anchored in the roadstead 
 they hailed its arrival with an astounding clangor of trumpets and 
 drums, and every other instrument of martial music then known. 
 
 What was Richard's demeanor on landing f 
 
 Richard landed his troops and took possession of the camp as 
 if he were the lord and master of it, acting toward Philip and the 
 other Christian commanders in the most overbearing and domi- 
 neering manner. This made them hate him ; but then, on the 
 
EICHARD THE CRUSADER. 77 
 
 other hand, the prodigious strength and prowess which he mani- 
 fested in the combats that he fought with the Saracens from time 
 to time excited their admiration. 
 
 What is said of his strength and courage ? 
 
 He was a man of prodigious personal strength, and of the most 
 reckless daring, and he could wield the heavy weapons used in 
 those days with dreadful effect. The knights were accustomed 
 to wear steel armor in those times, which afforded pretty good 
 protection against such weapons as arrows, and even spears and 
 swords. This steel armor was, however, very cumbersome to wear, 
 being of itself almost a sufficient load for a man to carry. 
 
 What was the hattle-axe^ and how was it used f 
 
 To break through this armor, a heavy weapon called a battle- 
 axe was used, which was a sort of hammer, perhaps, rather than 
 an axe, being intended to break through the armor of the enemy, 
 and crush him to death in spite of it. Richard performed prod- 
 igies of strength with his battle-axe. He had had one of these 
 weapons made in England expressly for his use. It was made of 
 the best of steel, and was said to weigh twenty pounds. 
 
 What was the result of the siege of Acre f 
 
 The Christian army fought many partial combats around the 
 walls of Acre, but they could not succeed in getting in. They, 
 however, invested the city so closely that at last the garrison and 
 the inhabitants were reduced to a state of famine, and were obliged 
 to surrender. 
 
 What were the terms exacted of the Saracens ? 
 
 In the capitulation, the Christians compelled the Saracens to 
 promise that, as a ransom for their lives, they would pay an im- 
 mense sum of money, and also deliver up as many as fifteen hund- 
 red Christian prisoners which they had taken in the course of the 
 war. They also gave up to Eichard and Philip several thousand 
 of their own people as hostages for the fulfillment of these stipu- 
 lations. They were allowed forty days for doing it. 
 
78 RICHARD THE CRUSADER. 
 
 What was the consequence of the non-fulfillment of these 
 terms f 
 
 At tlie end of the forty days it was found that the Saracens 
 could not or would not fulfill their agreement, and so the French 
 and the English led their hostages outside the camp and massacred 
 them all. The number was between two and three thousand, and 
 the most amazing thing connected with this horrid transaction 
 was, that it was generally approved throughout the Christian 
 world. It was deemed quite a meritorious thing to slaughter so 
 many infidels, as the poor Saracens were called. Their only 
 crime was that they defended their country. 
 
 Give an account of the remainder of Richard^ career in Pal- 
 estine. 
 
 After this, E-ichard spent one or two years in Palestine, roam- 
 ing about the country, attacking fortresses and towns, and fight- 
 ing desperate pitched battles with Saladin, the chief commander 
 of the Saracens, who was almost as famous a hero as he. In this 
 campaign he met with a great variety of wonderful adventures and 
 hairbreadth escapes. He and Philip quarreled more and more, 
 until at last Philip's patience became entirely exhausted, so that 
 he abandoned the enterprise and went home. 
 
 What finally induced Richard to return to England? Give 
 an account of his voyage. 
 
 Not a great while afterward, Richard heard from England that 
 his brother John was taking possession of the kingdom, so he con- 
 cluded to go home too. He accordingly set sail early in the sum- 
 mer with a small number of ships, containing his wife, his mother, 
 and his sister, and the chief knights and officers that had accom- 
 panied him This fleet was dispersed by a storm. The ship that 
 the ladies had embarked in reached Sicily in safety, but Richard's 
 ship was driven about hither and thither, until at last, since he 
 had now lost all his guards and protectors, he was afraid to land 
 any where for fear that he might be taken prisoner. He had met 
 
RICHARD THE CRUSADER. 79 
 
 with the kings and princes of a great many countries that lie along 
 the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, in the Holy Land, and had 
 made them his enemies by his tyrannical and overbearing de- 
 meanor, so that he did not dare to land and make himself known 
 in any of their dominions. 
 
 In what manner did he attempt to travel in passing through 
 Germany f 
 
 At last he landed in Germany, on the shores of the Adriatic Sea, 
 and attempted to pass through the country in disguise, so as to get 
 into England in that way, not daring to let any one know who he 
 was. He had plenty of money with him, and a man and a boy 
 for his attendants. In order to disguise himself, he put on the 
 dress of a pilgrim, and pretended that he was returning from a 
 pilgrimage he had been making in the Holy Land. 
 
 Was he skillful in carrying out his disguise? Belate the 
 story of the ruby. 
 
 He did not, however, succeed at all in acting his part. He 
 spent his money very freely, which was not at all like a pilgrim. 
 On one occasion he sent a valuable ruby as a present to the gov- 
 ernor of a town, with a message asking the governor for a pass- 
 port for two strangers, a pilgrim and a merchant, that were travel- 
 ing through. The governor looked at the ruby, and then at the 
 page who brought it, and said, " Go tell your master that I know 
 who he is. He is King Eichard of England ; but he may go in 
 peace." 
 
 How was he finally discovered, and what became of him? 
 
 Eichard was greatly alarmed at finding that he was thus known, 
 and he pressed forward with the utmost diligence.' He went three 
 days and three nights without entering any house, and he suffered 
 a great deal for want of food and rest. At last he became entire- 
 ly exhausted, and gave out altogether at a small town in the do- 
 minions of the Duke of Austria. Here he was at length discov- 
 ered by means of his page, whom he was obliged to send to mar- 
 
80 KING JOHN. 
 
 ket for provision, and the authorities of the town seized and de- 
 livered him to the duke. The duke immediately shut liim up in 
 a great castle on a hill, called the castle of Tiernsteign. 
 
 How was he at length set free f 
 
 E-ichard was kept in prison several months, and was only re- 
 leased at last by the payment of an immense ransom. The money 
 for this ransom was raised in England, and sent over to Ger- 
 many, and then the captive was set free. His brother John 
 made his escape very precipitately when he heard that Richard 
 was coming. 
 
 Relate the sequel of Richard^ s history. 
 
 Richard caused himself to be crowned anew when he arrived 
 again in his kingdom, under the idea that such a captivity as he 
 had endured annulled, as it were, his first coronation. He livedi 
 after this four or five years, and then died from a wound which he 
 received in storming a castle. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 KING JOHN. 
 
 For what is the reign of King John chiefly celebrated f 
 
 The reign of King John is chiefly celebrated for a great meas- ' 
 ure of state which was adopted in the course of it, by which thei 
 powers of the kings of England were greatly curtailed, and the 
 privileges and rights of the people were defined and established 
 by means of a solemn covenant which King John was compelled 
 to sign. The name of the document in which this covenant was 
 recorded was called Magna Charta. 
 
 How did the kings usually exercise their j)Ower before the time \ 
 of John? 
 
 Before the time of King John, the kings of England had been 
 accustomed, as we have seen, to lord it over the people in a very) 
 
KING JOHN. 81 
 
 liigli-haiided manner. Indeed, there was scarcely any practical 
 limit to their power. 
 
 What had been the general condition of the cotmtry f 
 
 During all the time while these rude and brutal kings and 
 princes of England had been fighting with one another, and with 
 rival claimants to the crown, the great mass of the people of the 
 country had been going on quietly in their various pursuits, as 
 well as the turbulent and reckless violence of the men who called 
 themselves their rulers would allow. Thus the country had grad- 
 ually increased in wealth and population, notwithstanding the great 
 numbers that had been enticed to join the Crusades, and had per- 
 ished miserably in those mad and wicked expeditions. 
 
 How was the land held^ and what was the arrangement iii 
 respect to the tenants f 
 
 The farming land was not owned generally by the people who 
 cultivated it. It had been parceled out by the preceding kings, 
 and especially by William the Conqueror, into great estates, which 
 had been conferred on the great nobles. These nobles were called 
 barons. They held the lands as their property, and compelled the 
 common people to pay rent to them for such portions as they sev- 
 erally cultivated. The king sustained them in the exercise of this 
 power, and they, in return, when the king wished to raise an army, 
 would each compel a certain number of his tenants to enlist. The 
 poor tenants were obliged to go and become soldiers, however un- 
 willing they might be. 
 
 Had the king and the nobles a right to make such an arrange- 
 ment as this, or only the power f 
 
 If we ask what right one class of men had thus to appropriate 
 to themselves all the land of the country, and compel those who 
 tilled the ground to pay them rent, while they themselves lived in 
 idleness and vice, or kept the country in confusion with their des- 
 perate and boisterous quarrels, the answer must be that they had 
 no right at all. They had the power. 
 
82 ^ KING JOHN. 
 
 In what way did they possess the power f 
 
 They had the power, because they had an army. The barons 
 furnished soldiers to make an army for the king, and the king used 
 the power of the army when necessary to sustain the barons. If 
 in any case a tenant refused to pay his rent, or a man called upon 
 refused to enlist as a soldier, there were plenty of other soldiers 
 always at hand to punish him, and compel him to submit. Thus 
 the barons oppressed the people, and the kings, who had grown 
 more and more haughty and tyrannical, oppressed the barons, 
 until, in the reign of King John, things came to a sort of a crisis. 
 
 Sow did it happen that things came to a crisis in Johni^s reign ? 
 
 Perhaps the reason why this crisis came in John's time was on 
 account of his character. He was an unprincipled, wicked, and 
 hateful man, and a great coward withal, so that he was despised 
 as well as hated. The manner in which he treated the young 
 prince Arthur, at the commencement of his reign, shows very clear- 
 ly what his character was. 
 
 Who was Prince Arthur^ and what claims had he to the throne ? 
 
 Arthur was his nephew. He was now about twelve years old. 
 He was the son of DukeGeofFery,who was an older brother of 
 John, and thus, if the crown was hereditary, he, according to the 
 established rules of descent, was the rightful heir. This was King 
 Richard's understanding, and he had repeatedly designated young 
 Arthur as his successor. 
 
 What course did John pursue ? 
 
 John, however, paid no regard to all this. He was a man grown, 
 and he had armies at his command, while Arthur was a mere child, 
 and was entirely helpless. So he caused himself immediately to 
 be proclaimed king. He was in Normandy at the time, but he 
 immediately put himself at the head of a force and went to England. 
 
 How ivas John received hy the barons of England ? 
 
 The barons of the kingdom at once determined to resist him. 
 They raised forces themselves among their several tenants, and 
 
KING JOHN. 83 
 
 then withdrew every man to his castle, and fortified themselves 
 there. They said that Arthur was the rightful king, and John 
 was a usurper. They were determined not to submit to him. 
 
 What loas the inotive that ledlLiiig Philip to esjpouse Arthur's 
 cause? 
 
 King Philip of France espoused Arthur's cause very warmly, 
 not from any honest and sincere friendship to him, however, but 
 only because it afforded him a pretext to make war upon John, 
 and to get possession of some portion of Normandy for himself. 
 
 Describe the interview which took place between Philip and 
 Arthur. 
 
 He invited Arthur to come to his court, and then asked him if 
 he would like to be King of England. Arthur said that he should 
 like to be a king very much indeed. "Well," said he, "I will 
 furnish you with an army, and you shall go and make war upon 
 John. I will go too, with another army. Then, whatever I take 
 away from John in Normandy shall be mine, but all England shall 
 be yours." Philip thought he could easily seize Normandy while 
 John was defending himself against Arthur's friends in England. 
 
 What did Arthur decide in respect to these proposals? 
 
 Arthur, who was now only about fourteen years old, was of 
 course too young to exercise any judgment in respect to such 
 questions as these, so he readily agreed to any thing that Philip 
 proposed ; and very soon he went at the head of a little army, 
 which Philip furnished him, into Normandy, to make war upon his 
 uncle. He was in name the commander of the army, though of 
 course there were officers older and more experienced under him 
 who really directed the operations. The different members of the 
 family took different sides in this dispute, and thus, in a short 
 time, they were all entangled in a most complicated domestic 
 quarrel. At one time, Arthur, a boy of fourteen or fifteen, was 
 besieging his grandmother of eighty, shut up in a castle, while his 
 uncle, with another army, was besieging him. 
 
84 KING JOHN. 
 
 What was the result of the campaign f 
 
 The end of the campaign, however, was, that Arthur's little arm j 
 was entirely defeated, and the young prince himself was taken 
 prisoner. John and his savage soldiers got possession of the town 
 where Arthur was in the night, and they seized the poor boy in 
 his bed. The soldiers, by John's command, took the prisoner 
 away, and shut him up in a dungeon, in a famous castle called 
 the Castle of Falaise. 
 
 Describe the circumstances of King JohrCs visit to Arthur in 
 prison. 
 
 King John went to visit Arthur in his prison, after waiting a 
 while, so as to allow time for the captive's spirit to be broken by 
 his confinement and his sufferings, and endeavored to make some 
 arrangement with him. His design probably was to offer him his 
 liberty, and perhaps some rich estate, if he would only give up 
 his claims to the crown and acknowledge John as king. But he 
 found that his prisoner's spirit was entirely unsubdued. All that 
 Arthur would say to him was. Give me back my kingdom. John, 
 finding thus that he could not make any terms with Arthur, went 
 away in a rage, and determined to kill him. If Arthur were dead, 
 there would then, he thought, be no farther difficulty, for all ac- 
 knowledged that, after Arthur, John was the nfext heir. 
 
 What was the determination that King John finally formed f 
 
 There was, however, one other way. There was an idea pre- 
 vailing in those days that no person who was blind, or deaf and 
 dumb, could inherit a crown, and so John, on second thoughts, 
 concluded, monster as he was, to destroy the prince's right to the 
 succession by putting out his eyes. So he sent two executioners 
 to perform this cruel deed upon the captive in his dungeon. 
 
 IIoiD was Arthur saved? 
 
 The name of the governor of the castle was.Hubert. He was 
 a humane man, and pitied his unhappy prisoner ; and so, when the 
 executioners came, and Hubert went to the cell to tell Arthur that 
 
KING JOHN. 
 
 85 
 
 they had come, and what they had come for, Arthur begged for 
 mercy, saying, Sdve me ! save me ! with so many cries and tears, 
 
 SAVE ME I SAVE ME 1 
 
 that Hubert concluded to put off the dreadful deed till he could 
 see the king again. We see him, in the engraving, kneeling before 
 Hubert in the dungeon, while the executioners are waiting without. 
 
S6 KING JOHN. 
 
 W/iat measure did John adopt when he found that his com- 
 mands had been disobeyed f 
 
 John was very angry when he found that his orders had not 
 been obeyed, and he immediately determined to remove Arthur to 
 another prison, the keeper of which was known to be a stern and 
 merciless man. This was done, and soon after it was given out 
 through all the kingdom of England that Arthur was dead. Ev- 
 ery body was convinced that John had caused him to be murder- 
 ed. There were several different rumors in respect to the way in 
 which the deed was done, all very horrible, but none too horrible 
 to be believed of such a monster as John. 
 
 Describe the rebellion that finally broke out against John. 
 
 After this, the tyrant reigned for some time unquestioned in re- 
 spect to his title, but generally abhorred and hated for his cruel- 
 ties and his crimes, until at length the leading barons of the king- 
 dom combined against him, and took the field witli their armies, 
 resolved to avail themselves of the public reprobation which his 
 tyranny awakened to reduce the kingly power of the realm once 
 for all within something like reasonable bounds. King John 
 fought these rebels, as he called them, for some time in various 
 parts of the kingdom, but he was at length overpowered and com- 
 pelled to come to terms. 
 
 How was the quarrel between King John and his nobles 
 brought to an endf In what light is Magna Charta now re- 
 garded f 
 
 The barons wrote their demands upon a roll of parchment, and 
 compelled the king to sign it. Tliis was the Magna Charta, which 
 means the great charter. It was the first great covenant between 
 the kings and people of England, and is considered as the original 
 basis and foundation of the civil rights which the British people 
 now enjoy. 
 
 In lohat ijlace tuas Magna Charta signed? 
 
 The place of assembly where King John came out to sign the 
 
KING JOHN. 
 
 «7 
 
 covenant was a broad and beautiful meadow on the banks of the 
 Thames, not far from Windsor Castle, where John was then quar- 
 tered. The name of the field was Runny Mead. The word Mead 
 is a contraction for meadow. 
 
 VIEW OK RUNXY MEAD. 
 
 HoiD did King John fed in resj^ect to this charter after he 
 had signed it ? 
 
 While King John was signing the Charta on the field, he pre- 
 tended to do it very willingly, and to be well pleased with the 
 provisions of it, but as soon as he returned to Windsor Castle he 
 flew into a great rage. He cursed the charter, and the barons who 
 had made him sign it, in the most bitter manner. He gnashed 
 his teeth, rolled his eyes, gnawed sticks and straws, and raved like 
 a perfect madman. 
 
S8 
 
 KING JOHN. 
 
 Did the king j^rove faithful to the engagements that he had 
 made f 
 
 The barons had taken care to bind the king, not only by his 
 signature and his oath, but had also exacted certain securities and 
 pledges which they thought might help to keep him to his word. 
 But all was not effectual. As soon as he recovered his liberty, 
 and his barons had in some measure disbanded their forces, he be- 
 W% §^^ *^ break his vows and return to 
 
 his old ways. So the barons reas- 
 sembled their forces and the war broke 
 out anew. 
 
 What was the residt of his attempts 
 to violate his engagements f 
 
 The barons, finding that no faith 
 would be kept by such an unprinci- 
 pled and treacherous monster, determ- 
 ined to have another king, and so they 
 sent to France to a prince named 
 Louis, and offered him the English 
 crown if he would come over and take 
 the command. Louis came, and then 
 new civil wars broke out, and the 
 kingdom was again in confusion. 
 lielate the circumstances of King 
 KING JOHN. John's last sickness. 
 
 At length, in the midst of these wars and commotions, King 
 John suddenly fell sick and died. He was crossing the mouth 
 of a stream with a train of wagons containing treasures, at a place 
 where the tide rises very rapidly. They were a little too late. 
 While they were still in the midst of the ford^ the wheels sinking 
 into the sand and water, the tide came upon them. They had a 
 dreadful time in getting out, and the king was much exhausted 
 by the excitement and the exposure. That night he ate glutton- 
 
KING JOHN. 
 
 89 
 
 ously of some fruit they set before him. Some say that his at- 
 tendants poisoned this fruit. At any rate, the next day he was 
 very sick. His men carried him on, in a litter, to a castle not far 
 off, and then they found that he could go no farther, and so they 
 put him down on a bed to die. 
 
 ^i(% -/''"^^^^ 
 
 -^%i^--^- 
 
 DEATH OF KING JOHN. 
 
 W/iat were his foelings on his death-bed, and what did he do ? 
 
 When he found that his end was so nigh, he was overwhelmed 
 with remorse. He sent for a priest to come and pardon his sins, 
 but all did no good. The wretched sinner died in despair. 
 
90 KING RICHAED THE THIED. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 KING EICHAED THE THIRD. 
 
 What was the condition of England after the death of King 
 John f 
 
 From the time of John, the affairs of the English kingdom went 
 on in all essential respects mach the same for three or four hund- 
 red years. There were the same dreadful quarrels among the 
 different branches of the royal family, the same beleaguering of 
 castles and storming of towns, and the same tyranny over all the 
 industrial classes of the kingdom by haughty lords and despotic 
 barons. Indeed, a very large proportion of the people of the coun- 
 try were little better than slaves. 
 
 What was the nature of the difficulties that occurred from time 
 to time with the Pope of Rome ? 
 
 In addition to these internal troubles, there were difficulties from 
 time to time with tlie Pope. The English people were Catholic at 
 that time, and were consequently under spiritual subjection to the 
 Pope of Rome, and he, whenever there was a quarrel in the king- 
 dom between rival claimants to the crown, would take sides with 
 one party or the other, whichever he supposed, if triumphant, 
 would most promote the power and ascendency of the Church. 
 This often made a great deal of trouble. 
 
 What was the nature of the difficulties with France f 
 
 Besides this, wars were continually breaking out between En- 
 gland and France ; for the kings of England, being descended from 
 William, inherited Normandy and some other French provinces. 
 Now the kings of France, while they admitted that the kings of 
 England were sovereign and independent in respect to their realm 
 of England, always maintained that in respect to their French 
 possessions they were bound to do homage to them as their feudal 
 
KING EICHAED THE THIRD. 91 
 
 superiors. This led to endless disputes, and frequently to open 
 war. The English kings were continually raising armies, by forc- 
 ing the people of the land to enlist, and then compelling them to 
 cross the Channel into France, to fight there in quarrels with 
 which they had no concern. . 
 
 How were the people prevented from asserting their rights and 
 protecting themselves from these evils? 
 
 The patience of the people was often entirely exhausted under 
 the oppressions and sufferings that they endured, but they were 
 so tied, hand and foot, by the armies which the kings kept always 
 under their command, that they could do nothing but submit. Once 
 or twice partial insurrections occurred, but they were speedily put 
 down. 
 
 Give an account of the insurrection of Wat Tyler. 
 
 One of these insurrections was headed by a man named Wat. 
 He was a laboring man. His business was to lay tiles upon roofs. 
 He was called Wat the tiler, but in history his name has got 
 changed to Wat Tyler. He was aroused to phrensy by the outra- 
 geous injuries which one of the king's officers inflicted upon his 
 daughter, a young girl about fourteen years old, when they came 
 to, his house to collect a tax that the king had levied in order to 
 pay the expenses of his wars. He killed the officer on the spot, 
 and then, rushing, into the streets, he called upon the people to 
 rise. They did rise, and a great insurrection they made of it. 
 For a time the king's government seemed to be in real danger. 
 But the insurgents were soon put down. Wat was killed in the 
 street, and all. the other leaders were hung in chains. 
 
 What luas the character of King Richard the Third f 
 
 One of the worst of the kings in this long and bad succession 
 was King E-ichard the Third. He was not the rightful inheritor 
 of the crown. He was a usurper. 
 
 Who was the true heir to the throne, and what was his situation ? 
 
 The true heir to the crown was a boy named Edward. He was 
 
92 
 
 KING RICHARD THE THIRD. 
 
 the fifth Edward in the royal line, his father being Edward the 
 Fourth. He was in a castle in the country when his father died. 
 He had a brother younger than himself, being about eleven years 
 ^, ,, ^.^ ^ old, who was with 
 
 his mother at this 
 time in London. 
 
 Who had the care 
 of Edward^ and what 
 did she do*f 
 
 Edward, the old- 
 est brother, was of 
 course king imme- 
 diately after his fa- 
 ther died. He was 
 a very pretty boy, 
 and his mother, be- 
 ing much attached 
 to him, was greatly 
 alarmed when she 
 heard of his father's 
 death, and immedi- 
 ately sent to have 
 him brought to her 
 in London. 
 
 Relate what occurred when Richard learned that Edward 
 was coining to London. 
 
 The danger which Edward's mother feared was from Richard, 
 his uncle, who was then Duke of Gloucester. Richard was a de- 
 termined, reckless, and desperate man, and one of the most pow- 
 erful nobles in England. When he learned that young Edward 
 was coming to London, he set out to come too, so as to meet him 
 on the way. The duke was accompanied by three hundred horse- 
 men. He arrested the lords who had charge of the king, and then 
 
 YOUNG EDWARD. 
 
KING RICHARD THE THIRD. 
 
 93 
 
 took the king under his own escort, but instead of conveying him 
 to his mother, he conveyed him to the Tower of London, and shut 
 him up there, under pretense that that was the safest place for him. 
 
 Wlmt attempt did the mother of the king makie to visit him 
 in the Tower ? 
 
 His mother immediately went to the Tower, with some relatives 
 and friends, in order to see her child, but the governor of the 
 Tower would not let them in. The engraving represents a view 
 
 THE TOWER 01' LONDON 
 
 of this scene. The governor's name was Brakenbury. We shall 
 hereafter hear of him again. 
 
 What course did the duke now pursue ? 
 
 The duke pretended great zeal for the safety of the two boys, 
 
94 KING EICHARD THE THIED. 
 
 the king and his brother. He styled himself the Protector, and 
 he took charge of the government of the country in that name. He 
 had soldiers enough under his command to enable him to do this, 
 and to overawe all opposition. It was his duty, he said, the king 
 being so young and inexperienced, and being his uncle and guard- 
 ian, to protect him not only from open force, but from the secret 
 machinations of his enemies. So he kept the king and his broth- 
 er closely shut up in the Tower. 
 
 What is the Tower f 
 
 The Tower is an ancient castle situated on the bank of the 
 Thames at the lower part of London. It was used in those days 
 as a prison for offenders against the government. It still remains, 
 though it is not now used as a prison. It is an object of great 
 historical interest at the present day. 
 
 In what way did he treat the nobles f 
 
 Then he began to cause all such nobles as he suspected of being 
 unfriendly to him, and friendly to the king, to be arrested under 
 one charge or another, and speedily executed. He pretended that 
 he had discovered conspiracies in which they had been engaged. 
 Governments had power to proceed in this prompt and summary 
 manner in those days whenever they deemed it fit so to do. Now 
 they can not do so. All men now w^io are accused of crime in 
 England must have a regular trial. 
 
 Give an account of the violent jproceedincjs of Richard at the 
 council. 
 
 In getting these men into his power, and in finding pretexts for 
 having them beheaded, Eichard acted in a manner that was at once 
 treacherous, tyrannical, and impudent. He went at one time into 
 a council where a number of the lords were assembled who he 
 knew were likely to take sides against him, and, after talking with 
 them for a time in an easy manner, to throw them off their guard, 
 he struck on the table with his fist to make a signal, and a large 
 number of armed men, that he had in readiness outside for the 
 
KING RICHARD THE THIRD. 
 
 95 
 
 . it.-^'-^i ^"'''\ ''L^t:_c>^^^^'!w 
 
 HARD AT THE COUNCIL. 
 
 po^e, rushed in, seized the lords that he suspected, and led them 
 away to immediate execution. He said he had found out that 
 they were traitors. 
 
 Who was Jane Shore^ and what accusation did the duke make 
 against her f 
 
 There was a lady of the court named Jane Shore. She had 
 been the friend and favorite of the last king, and she was now the 
 friend of one of the lords whom Gloucester knew to be hostile to 
 him. Eichard determined to disgrace her too, so he accused her 
 of being a sorceress. " See!" said he; "see what she has done 
 to me with her incantations and sorcery." 
 
 What proof did the duke offer of Jane Shore's sorcery f 
 So saying, Richard pulled up his sleeve and showed his arm, 
 which was smaller than the other arm, and somewhat shriveled. 
 It had always been so, and every body knew it, but he now pre- 
 tended that Jane Shore had bewitched it. 
 
 What was the punishment that he inflicted tipon her f 
 
 For punishment he compelled her to walk through the streets 
 
96 KING EICHAED THE THIRD. 
 
 of London with very little clothing on, and her head and feet bare, 
 carrying a lighted taper in her hands. She had to do this on Sun- 
 day, when the streets were full of people. E-ichard also seized all 
 her property, which consisted of a great amount of jewelry and 
 other such treasures, and appropriated them to his own use. He 
 did this, he said, not from covetousness, but to show his virtuous 
 indignation at her crimes. , 
 
 What was the character of Jane Shore ? 
 
 It is very true that Jane Shore was not a virtuous woman. 
 The former king had enticed her away from her husband, and she 
 had lived since a wicked life. But she was not a sorceress, 
 
 III what manner did Richard cause himself to he proclaimed 
 king ? 
 
 When these things had been done, Richard secretly arranged it 
 with his partisans and confederates that they were to make a call 
 upon him, in behalf of the people of England, to assume the crown 
 himself, on the pretense that Edward was not the true son of the 
 former king. So these men raised a company and proceeded to 
 Eichard's palace, calling out "Long live King Richard!" by the 
 way. 
 
 How did Richard receive the men vjho came to proclaim hiiii^ 
 and what was their reply f 
 
 When these men came to the palace, Richard at first pretended 
 to be alarmed, and would not receive them. Then he said he could 
 not possibly consent to be king. The love he bore to the young 
 king, and to the little prince his brother, absolutely forbade it. 
 The delegation then told him, as it had been previously agreed upon 
 that they should, that he must be king. The people of England 
 demanded it. Edward was not the true heir. The people never 
 would submit to his taking the crown, and if Richard would not 
 take it, they should immediately go and find some one who would. 
 
 Hoio did the affair end? 
 
 So Richard reluctantly allowed himself to be made king, and 
 
KING RICHARD THE THIRD. 97 
 
 immediately afterward he was proclaimed in all parts of London. 
 Soon after this he was crowned with the greatest pomp and parade. 
 Almost all the peers and peeresses of England were present, and 
 seemed to acquiesce in the usurpation. 
 
 W/iat was the first jpublic measure that Richard adojptedf 
 
 Immediately after the coronation, Richard made a royal progress 
 through his dominions. He was attended by a grand cavalcade, 
 and he entertained the people wherever he went with feasts and 
 celebrations. Of course they all came out to see him and his ret- 
 inue as hef passed, and E-ichard pretended that this was proof that 
 the country wished him to reign over them. 
 
 Were there any ]jlans formed for ojpposing him? 
 
 There were still a great many malcontents, and they secretly, 
 and in conference with %ne another, resolved on revenge. They 
 began to form plans for raising an army, breaking into the Tower, 
 and rescuing the princes, and then putting young Edward upon 
 the throne. This was to have been expected. Indeed, Richard 
 knew, as soon as he assumed the crown, that he never could be 
 safe while the two princes lived. 
 
 What resolution did the king noio take in res])eGt to the j)rinces, 
 and hoiv did he attem-pt to execute it f 
 
 He sent to Brakenbury, the keeper of the Tower, du'ecting him 
 to find some way to kill them. Brakenbury replied that he could 
 not do it. Eichard then put another man, named Tyrrel, in Brak- 
 enbury's place for a day, and he sent two assassins, named Miles 
 Forest and John Dighton, to perform the dreadful deed. These 
 were coarse, rough men, who Tyrrel knew would shrink from 
 nothing. 
 
 How was Richard^ s pur])ose finally accomplished f 
 
 The two assassins crept slowly up stairs to the room in the 
 Tower wdiere the young princes were sleeping. Tyrrel waited at 
 the foot of the stairs. The boys were sleeping quietly in each 
 other's arms, suspecting nothing. The assassins advanced to the 
 
 2 a 
 
9» 
 
 KING EICHARD THE THIRD. . 
 
 MURDER OF THE PRINCE& 
 
 bedside, and then put a pillow over the boys' faces, and held it 
 there till they were suffocated. It was a long struggle, but at 
 length the poor victims were dead. The assassins then carried 
 the bodies doWn stairs, and buried them in a court-yard of the 
 Tower. 
 
 What loas the effect of the tidings on the queen-mother f 
 
 When the queen-mother learned what had become of her dar- 
 ling sons, and saw the place where they lay, she was almost fran- 
 tic witli grief and horror. 
 
 For hoio long a time did Richard reign ? 
 
 Such were the means by which Eichard, Duke of Gloucester, 
 a desperate man, and a hard-liearted and cruel uncle, usurped the 
 English throne, and became King Richard the Third. He, how- 
 
KING RICHARD THE THIRD. 
 
 99 
 
 liifi'i 
 
 1' 
 1^ 
 
 P': ^'?'.;3^ 
 
 THE QUEEN-MOTHER xMOUK: 
 
 U HER CHILDREN". 
 
 ever, enjoyed the fruits of his crime only a very short time. He 
 reigned but two years, and even during this period he enjoyed no 
 peace. 
 
 How far did the English peojjle submit to his usiirjoation ? 
 
 A large portion of the English people submitted to his rule, it 
 is true, but a great many others never would submit to it, and 
 plots were continually forming to depose him, and to bring some 
 other prince — the nearest relative of the royal family that they 
 could find — to reign in his stead. 
 
 Describe the circumstances of his death. 
 
 The plots that were formed against him led to several out- 
 breaks of civil war, and at length, in one of the battles which 
 were fought, Richard wa^s overwhelmed by his enemies, struck 
 
100 HENKY THE EIGHTH AND THE KEFOEMATION. 
 
 down from liis liorse, and killed. Nobody mourned for him. 
 Nobody pitied him for his untimely fate. The crown which he 
 had worn fell from his head and was trampled in the mud. Even 
 his body lay for a while neglected where it fell. At length some 
 soldiers took it up, and threw it across a horse, behind the sad- 
 dle, like a sack of corn, and the horsemen rode away with it off 
 the held. 
 
 What branch of the royal family was it that now succeeded 
 to the throne f 
 
 At the death of Kichard a new branch of the royal family, call- 
 ed the Tudors, came to the throne. The branch to which Rich- 
 ard and his predecessors belonged were called the Plantagenets. 
 Of the sovereigns of the house of Tudor, the most distinguished 
 were King Henry the Eighth and Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 I 
 
 CHAPTEE X. 
 
 HENEY THE EIGHTH AND THE EEFORMATION. 
 
 For ivhat is the reign of King Henry the Eighth chiefly dis- 
 tinguished f 
 
 The reign of King Henry the Eighth is chiefly distinguished 
 in history for two things. First, for the abominable personal char- 
 acter and conduct of the sovereign, and, second, for the great event 
 of the separation of the English Church from the Roman Catholic 
 Church, which took place during this reign, and which is usually 
 called the Reformation* 
 
 Describe the character of King Henry the Eighth. 
 
 As to the character of King Henry, it was extremely bad, and 
 the depravity of it was of a peculiarly detestable type. Some of 
 the bad kings of England that had preceded him had been hated, 
 others even had been abhorred. King Henry the Eighth's was a 
 character to be loathed and despised. 
 
HENEY THE EIGHTH AND THE EEFOEMATION. 101 
 
 Hoio will his character comjpare loith that of the Richards f 
 
 The Richards, in violence and cruelty, were like brutes, it is 
 true, but the brutes they resembled were the lion and the tiger ; 
 while it would be necessary to choose some much more degraded 
 animal than these to match the beastliness of Henry. How it 
 was possible for twenty or thirty millions of men to submit for 
 forty years to be under the supreme dominion of such a wretch, 
 to say nothing of their placing him at the head of the Christian 
 Church, is an amazing mystery. 
 
 At what age did he succeed to the crown, and under lohat cir- 
 cumstances ? 
 
 Henry the Eighth succeeded to the crown when he was eighteen 
 years old. The circumstances under which he entered upon his 
 reign were very promising. His father had been very unpopular, 
 and the people of England were rejoiced at his death. Henry was 
 his sole surviving son, and there was no rival claimant to the 
 crown. Henry was moreover at that time a young man of great 
 personal beauty, and of agreeable manners, so that he v/as a gen- 
 eral favorite. He was just of an age, too, to excite most strongly 
 the interest of the people in his behalf. He and his father had 
 not agreed well together during his father's lifetime, and in con- 
 sequence of this he had spent his early years in retirement, where 
 he had acquired a taste for literature and the arts. But his de- 
 praved character, which was at first concealed, soon developed itself. 
 
 IIoio many times ivccs he married f 
 
 About the time of his accession he was married to the Princess 
 Catharine of Aragon, and the king and queen were crowned to- 
 gether. After this. King Henry had five other wives, one after 
 the other, making six in all. Indeed, the chief business of his 
 life seemed to be falling in love with ladies not his wife, and then 
 contriving ways and means to get rid of his wife, discarding, di- 
 vorcing, or beheading her to make room for a successor. In a 
 word, he was a slave to the most brutal and sensual propensities. 
 
102 
 
 HENRY THE EIGHTH AND THE EEFOEMATION. 
 
 Here is a picture of Henry, dressed in all the ostentatious and 
 gaudy paraphernalia with which he loved so well to adorn himself. 
 
 KING HENRY THE EIGHTH. 
 
 Relate the circumstances of his first marriage. 
 
 In respect to the first wife, Catharine of Aragon, there was a 
 difficulty at the outset, which, although it was surmounted at the 
 time, led afterward to serious consequences. Catharine was a 
 widow when Henry married her. She had been the wife of Hen- 
 ry's brother. 
 
 What difficulty stood iii the way of this m^arriage, and what 
 was the only way of surmounting it f 
 
 The rules of the Catholic Church, to which Henry and Cath- 
 arine, and all England in fact, at that time belonged, forbade a 
 
HENRY THE EIGHTH AND THE EEFORMATION. 103 
 
 marriage between a man and the widow of his brother, and there 
 was no way of surmounting this difficulty except by obtaining 
 what tkey called a dispensation from the Pope — that is, special 
 permission to disregard the rule in this case. It was believed in 
 those days, as it is now indeed in the Catholic Church, that the 
 Pope could pardon any past wrong, and c(5uld also make any fu- 
 ture wrong right by his permission. 
 
 What luere the circuinstances that induced the Pojpe to sanction 
 this marriage f 
 
 Now it happened that, a short time before the accession of King 
 Henry, the great reformer, Martin Luther, had commenced preach- 
 ing against the corruptions of the Catholic Church, and the vices 
 and crimes of the priests and clergy, and he had produced so great 
 an effect on the public mind, that the Pope began to be uneasy in 
 respect to his power. He needed the support of all his friends. 
 King Henry was likely to be one of his strongest friends, and it 
 was very desirable to retain his favor. Under the influence of 
 these and other considerations, the Pope granted the dispensation, 
 and the king and Catharine were married. 
 
 What hind of a loife did Catharine jorove f 
 
 Catharine proved to be a very true and faithful wife, though 
 Henry was entirely unprincipled and faithless as a husband. The 
 union continued twenty years. 
 
 Whom did he next desire for a wife^ and what was his plan 
 for obtaining her ? 
 
 At the end of that time Henry fell in love with one of the ladies 
 of his court named Anne Boleyn, who would not return his love 
 because he was already married. Then Henry determined to dis- 
 card his wife Catharine, so that he might be mamed to Anne 
 Boleyn, and the easiest way to do this would be to induce the 
 new pope — for the one who had granted the dispensation was 
 dead — to annul that decree, for this, he thought, would annul his 
 marriage, and leave him at liberty again. 
 
104 HENRY THE EIGHTH AND THE EEFOEMATION. 
 
 Why was the Pope unwilling to comply with the hinges wishes? 
 
 This, however, the Pope was extremely unwilling to do. He 
 was involved at that time in very serious difficulties. All*Europe 
 was at war, and his interests were very deeply involved in the con- 
 test, and some of the most powerful of the combatants were very 
 strong frieyids of Catharine. She was the daughter of a king of 
 Spain, and the Spanish influence at that time, in all the affairs of 
 the Continent, was predominant. King Henry sent his most able 
 minister, the Cardinal Wolsey, to Kome to urge the Pope to do 
 what he required, while equally able envoys from the Spanish 
 government and others urged him not to do it. 
 
 What plan did the Pop)e finally adopt? 
 
 Finally, the Pope contrived a plan for evading the responsibility 
 of acting at all. He appointed the Cardinal Wolsey and another 
 priest a commission to proceed to England and try the question 
 there. 
 
 Relate what occurred before the court. 
 
 The court was convened, and Queen Catharine was summoned 
 to appear before it. She came, but she would not answer to her 
 name, nor acknowledge the jurisdiction of the court at all. In- 
 stead of this, she fell down upon her knees before her husband, and 
 begged him not to cast her off. She had been his true and faith- 
 ful wife, she said, for twenty years. All this time she had been 
 dutiful and obedient in all things, and had never given him occa- 
 sion to be displeased with her by any thing which she had done 
 or failed to do. She called upon him to bear witness for her 
 that this was true, and she begged him not to cast her off now, 
 and, at any rate, she entreated him to grant her time to send to 
 Spain to consult with her friends there in respect to what she 
 ought to do. The opposite engraving represents a view of the 
 hall where the trial was held, with distinguished persons of the 
 court listening to the proceedings in the anteroom. In the hall, 
 
HENRY THE EIGHTH AND THE REFORMATION. 105 
 
 IjT ... 
 
 TKIAL OF QUEEN CATHARINE. 
 
 of which we have a partial view between the curtains of the en- 
 trance, we see the unhappy queen kneeling before the king, implor- 
 ing him to desist from his cruel design. 
 
 WAat did the queen allege as her chief reason for heing unwill- 
 ing that her marriage should he annulled f 
 
 One chief reason, Catharine said^ why she was so earnest in 
 imploring the king not to discard her, was for the sake of her 
 daughter. She had a daughter named ]\Iary, the only one of all 
 her children that was now living. Mary, of course, was heir to 
 the crown, and would become one day Queen of England if the 
 marriage of her mother with the king were allowed to stand, where- 
 as if it were annulled she would, of course, at once become a pri- 
 vate person. 
 
106 HENRY THE EIGHTH AND THE EEFORMATION. 
 
 How did the jpTOceedings before the court end? ' * 
 
 As soon as Catharine had concluded her piteous appeal to the 
 king, finding that she made no impression, she rose and walked 
 straight out of court. She was called back, but she would not 
 come. She declared that she would not acknowledge the jurisdic- 
 tion of the court at all. She appealed to the Pope. Henry was 
 very angry, and urged the court to proceed and pronounce the sen- 
 tence, but they would not. They said they must wait till they 
 could hear from Rome, and they adjourned the court to a later day. 
 
 Describe the controversy that followed^ and the 7nea7is that 
 were taJcen to settle it. 
 
 Then followed a long and tedious controversy. Henry resorted 
 to every possible means that he could devise to induce the Pope 
 to give the decree. He entreated him, he threatened him, he of- 
 fered to bribe him ; but all his efforts were neutralized by the in- 
 fluence of the King of Spain, who warmly espoused the queen's 
 cause. At length, some of the courtiers recommended to him to 
 have the case decided by the authorities in England, without ref- 
 erence to the Pope at all. This plan seemed to Henry excellent, 
 so he dismissed his old counselors, and appointed the others in 
 their place, and they proceeded at once to lay the question before 
 various English tribunals, such as the great universities, the Par- 
 liament, and certain ecclesiastical courts. Then followed long 
 and angry discussions. 
 
 What were the communications that ])assed between the Fojpe 
 and the Icing f 
 
 The Pope, learning what was going on, sent word to the king 
 not to proceed, and threatened him with excommunication if he 
 did not cease his opposition to the papal authority. Henry re- 
 plied that he was not making any opposition to the Pope, but was 
 only actuated in what he was doing by the scruples of his tender 
 conscience in respect to the validity of his marriage ; and in order 
 to prove how devoted he still was to the cause of the Church, he 
 
HENRY THE EIGHTH AND THE EEFOEMATION. 107 
 
 seized a poor man who had written a pamphlet in favor of the 
 Protestant cause, and burned him for his heresy at the stake, at 
 Smithfield, which was a great public market in London. This 
 unhappy victim was the first of the Smithfield martyrs. 
 
 How did the quarrel between the Pojpe and the king end at 
 last f 
 
 The breach grew rapidly wider and wider between the king 
 and the Pope, and in the end, Henry, partly by bribes, partly by 
 threats, and partly by cajolery, induced the English Church to sep- 
 arate itself wholly from the Church of Rome, and make Henry in- 
 stead of the Pope its ecclesiastical head. Tlie decree of annulment 
 in respect to the marriage was then passed, and soon after it was 
 publicly proclaimed that King Henry had married Anne Boleyn. 
 
 What was the true character of the English Reformation f 
 
 If this were all that constituted the English Reformation, Prot- 
 estants might well be ashamed of it. But it was not so by any 
 means. There were thousands and hundreds of thousands of 
 Christians among the people of England who before this time had 
 examined the subject, each for himself, in private life, and had be- 
 come honestly convinced that the claim of the Romish Church to 
 exercise supreme spiritual dominion over all the world was a great 
 usurpation, and that the influence which the papal power exercised 
 on the nations of the earth was to hinder and not promote the 
 cause of true piety. It was by means of this great prevaiHng sen- 
 timent, which had taken so strong a hold of the public mind, that 
 the king was able to efiect the outward change. Thus the En- 
 glish Reformation was, in fact and in substance, a great and hon- 
 est change of opinion among the mass of conscientious Christians 
 throughout the kingdom. 
 
 Was King Henry in reality the author of the English Eef- 
 orTnation^ or did he only make use of it f 
 
 King Henry fell in with this general change of sentiment among 
 the people of England, and availed himself of it to accomplish a 
 
108 HENRY THE EIGHTH AND THE REFORMATION. 
 
 corrupt and wicked purpose, it is true, and was the means of car- 
 rying the separation into full effect. But it was only the out- 
 ward and visible form, after all, that he had any thing to do with. 
 The real and inward change took place wholly independent of his 
 agency. 
 
 W/iat question in respect to the succession afterward arose 
 from these disputed marriages^ and hoio were the peojple of En- 
 gland divided iii respect to it f 
 
 Notwithstanding the annulment of the marriage, a large portion 
 of the people of England still believed that it was valid, and that 
 Mary was heir to the crown. After a time, Anne Boleyn had a 
 daughter named Elizabeth. Of course, those who believed that 
 the annulment of the former marriage was right, considered that 
 this babe Elizabeth was the true heir. The Catholics of the king- 
 dom — for the people were still nearly one half Catholics — believed 
 in Mary's claims. The Protestants, on the other hand, believed in 
 Elizabeth's. And every one expected that, whenever the king- 
 should die, the whole quarrel would be opened again, and there 
 would be a great struggle to determine which of these princesses 
 should take the throne. 
 
 What two interests did these rival princesses respectively 
 represent f 
 
 Of course, under the circumstances of the case, Mary became the 
 head and the representative of the Catholic party in England, while 
 Elizabeth represented the Protestants. The education of the two 
 princesses, moreover, corresponded with their relative situations. 
 Mary was brought up in communion with the Catholic Church, 
 while Elizabeth was trained as a Protestant. 
 
 Describe the ceremony of Elizabeth'' s baptism. 
 
 Of course, the king did all in his power to elevate Elizabeth in 
 public regard, and cause Mary to be forgotten. He celebrated 
 Elizabeth's baptism with the greatest possible pomp and parade. 
 The baptism took place at the palace of Greenwich, on the banks 
 
HENEY THE EIGHTH AND THE EEFORMATION. 
 
 109 
 
 of the Thames, a few miles below London. The company went 
 down the river in a long train of barges, and landed at the palace 
 
 THE BAPTISM OF ELIZABETH. 
 
 stairs, to the sound of trumpets and drums, and with the waving 
 of banners. 
 
 All this time lohat heccmie of Mary f 
 
 Poor Mary was sent away, and shut up in solitude and seclu- 
 sion, and even her mother was not allowed to see her. The un- 
 happy queen died soon after this of a broken heart. 
 
 Who was the person that Henry desired for a third wife, and 
 what plan did the king contrive to remove the second out of the 
 way f 
 
 The king lived with his new queen a few years, and then he be- 
 
110 HENEY THE EIGHTH AND THE EEFOEMATION. 
 
 came tired of lier, and fell in love with another lady of his court 
 named Jane Seymour. The question was now how he should get 
 lid of Anne Boleyn. After a while he accused her of the crime 
 of beino; unfaithful to him. There seems to have been no ground 
 for this accusation whatever. It is universally believed that she 
 was entirely innocent. Still, he manoeuvred and managed in such 
 a manner as to cause her to be condemned. 
 
 W/iat was the fate of A7ine Boleyn? 
 
 The court that he appointed to try her sentenced her either to 
 be burned or beheaded, at the pleasure of the king. Henry, pre- 
 tending to be extremely merciful, decided that she should be be- 
 headed. So they took her to the court-yard of the Tower, where 
 she was imprisoned, and, laying her head upon a block, they 
 chopped it off with a broad-axe. The block is to be seen in the 
 Tower now, by all who go there, with the mark of the axe upon it. 
 
 What other marriages did Henry contract f 
 
 The king was married to Jane Seymour the very next day after 
 Anne Boleyn was beheaded. He soon afterward caused his mar- 
 riage with Anne to be annulled, in order to cut off her daughter 
 Elizabeth from inheriting the crown. Jane Seymour did not live 
 a great while, and then Henry married again. This was his fourth 
 wife. Her name was Anne of Cleves. He soon became tired of 
 Anne, and caused himself to be divorced from her, and married 
 another lady named Catharine Howard. After a time he accused 
 Catharine of unfaithfulness to him, and she was beheaded too, as 
 Anne Boleyn had been. Then he married his sixth wife. Her 
 name was Catharine Parr. 
 
 HoiD did his life end ? 
 
 Thus he went on, growing worse and worse, and becoming more 
 and more violent and depraved, till at last, in the fifty-sixth year 
 of his age, he fell sick and died miserably. 
 
QUEEN ELIZABETH. Ill 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 QUEEN ELIZABETH. 
 
 Holo many and who toere the claimants to the crown after 
 the death of Henry f 
 
 King Henry the Eighth, at his death, left three children living, 
 Mary, the daughter of Catharine, Elizabeth, the daughter of Anne 
 Boleyn, and Edward, a young boy, the child of Jane Seymour. 
 It was somewhat doubtful which of these was entitled to the 
 crown. Each of them had a large party of adherents. The 
 party of Edward carried, the day, and he reigned, or, rather, he 
 wore the crown, aild his friends reigned for him, several years. 
 
 Describe the character of Mary, 
 
 When Edward died the Catholic party gained the ascendency, 
 and Mary was brought to the throne. She^vas by nature a stern, 
 austere, and hard-hearted woman, whom nobody loved. Still, she 
 may have been very honest and conscientious in her opinions. 
 
 What were her feelings in respect to the Catholic religion and 
 the Reformation f 
 
 She, of course, hated the memory of her father, on account of 
 his having persecuted her mother so cruelly, and having done so 
 much to deprive her of her rights as his daughter. She also, of 
 course, liked the Pope and the Romish Church, because they had 
 taken her mother's part in the controversy with her father. 
 
 What were the measures that she adopted? 
 
 She determined at once to undo all that her father had done for 
 the Reformation. She reorganized the Romish Church in En- 
 gland, ^nd subjected the kingdom again to the spiritual jurisdic- 
 tion of the Pope ; and vast numbers of the people who opposed 
 these changes, and resisted the reintroduction of the Romish re- 
 ligion, she caused to be burned at the stake or beheaded as here- 
 
112 QUEEN ELIZABETH. 
 
 f 
 
 tics. So numerous and so cruel were these persecutions, that in 
 
 distinguishing her from some other queens of the same name, she 
 is called in history Bloody ]\Iary. What a strange combination 
 of words is this ! 
 
 WAat ivas the ground of the enmity between Mary and Eliz- 
 aheth f 
 
 Of course, ]\Iary and Elizabeth, though half-sisters, were mortal 
 enemies. The cause of their disagreement, too, was of such a na- 
 ture that it could not possibly be removed or remedied. It was 
 only the mother of one or the other of them that could have been 
 the true and lawful wife of their father. Elizabeth and her friends 
 maintained that the marriao-e with Catharine was null and void 
 from the beginning, and that Mary was born in dishonor. On the 
 other hand, ]\Iary and her friends claimed tliat this marriage was 
 valid, and that the second marriage of the king, that is, the mar- 
 riage with Elizabeth's mother, was bigamy, which is a great crime, 
 and that GOiiSQf^aQiithf^JElizaheth was born in dishonor. 
 
 lloio did this quarrel end? 
 
 ]\Iary suspected that Elizabeth's party were plotting against her 
 and intending to dethrone her, and, finally, becoming more and 
 more uneasy on this point, she caused Elizabeth to be arrested and 
 conveyed to the Tower. Here she kept her shut up a prisoner 
 for several months. Afterward, when she found that treating her 
 sister in this way was likely to excite public odium, and increase 
 Elizabeth's party, she took her from the Tower and sent her away 
 into the country, to a retired palace near Oxford, but confined her 
 still as closely as ever. 
 
 ^Vhat occurred in respect to Elizaheth when Mary died? 
 
 Things continued much in this state a few years longer, when 
 at length Mary died. The great officers of state then rode \f^ great 
 haste to Hatfield, where Elizabeth was then residing, proclaimed 
 her queen, and brought her to London in a grand triumpha\ pro- 
 cession. 
 
QUEEN ELIZABETH. 
 
 113 
 
 Describe the procession by vjhich Elizabeth ivas conducted to 
 London. 
 
 In this procession she was accompanied by a thousand persons 
 of the highest rank and station. She rode in a splendid carriage, 
 open to the public view, and drawn by horses richly caparisoned, 
 while the music of trumpets and drums, and the waving of innu- 
 merable flags and banners, gladdened the scene. The people of 
 
 ELIZABETHS PROGRESS TO LONDON. 
 
 the country came out in immense crowds, and stood by the way- 
 side while the procession passed by. God save Queen Elizabeth 
 was the cry, and the whole air was filled with their joyous shouts 
 and acclamations. Thus Elizabeth commenced lier reign. 
 
 What course did Elizabeth pursue in respect to the Reforina- 
 tion f 
 
 Elizabeth was, of course, a Protestant, and, as soon as she was 
 established in power, she directed all her efforts to the work of un- 
 
 H 
 
114 QUEEN ELIZABETH. 
 
 doing what Maiy had done, and restoring the kingdom to the con- 
 dition in which her lather had pLaced it. She dismissed the Cath- 
 olic lords from her councils, and appointed Protestants in their 
 place. In a word, she re-established the Reformation. 
 
 W/uU ground did the Catholics then assume in resj)ect to 
 Elizabeth ? 
 
 This, of course, greatly excited the anger and enmity of the 
 Catholics throughout the kingdom and throughout Europe. They 
 were the more unwilling, too, to submit to this new revolution, be- 
 cause, as they maintained, Elizabeth was not the true heir to the 
 throne. She had no claim to it whatever, as they thought. They 
 all held that the marriage of the king her father with Catharine of 
 Aragon was valid, having been authorized by the Pope, and that the 
 revocation of it by the English courts was invalid, and, of course, 
 that the king's marriage with Anne Boleyn, and the subsequent 
 birth of Elizabeth, were irregular, and that consequently Elizabeth 
 was a mere private person, and not the heir to the crown at all. 
 
 Who did they claim was the rightful heir f 
 
 Who then was the heir ? Elizabeth was the only child of King- 
 Henry remaining alive, and, of course, if she were to be set aside, 
 it would be necessary to go to the nearest relative of the family, 
 reckoning from Henry's lather. Now this nearest relative was a 
 young and exceedingly lovely lady named ]\Iary. She was a 
 Scotch princess, and is known in history as the celebrated Mary 
 Queen of Scots. 
 
 Exjplain how it hajpjpened that Mary could he considered heir 
 to the throne. 
 
 The reader may perhaps wonder how it could happen that a 
 Scotch princess could be heir to the English throne. The explana- 
 tion is this. Her grandmother was the sister of Henry the Eighth, 
 and she married the King of Scotland. Of course, Mary was 
 Elizabeth's second cousin, and if all the children of Henry the 
 Eighth were set aside — as her grandmother came next to King 
 
QUEEN ELIZABETH. 115 
 
 Henry in the line, and as it happened that she was now her grand- 
 mother's sole heir — she would inherit the crown of Scotland through 
 her grandfather, and that of England through her grandmother. 
 This all the Catholic party in England maintained was the real 
 state of the case, and so they began, very soon after Elizabeth's 
 accession, to devise ways and means of deposing Elizabeth and 
 bringing Mary to the throne. , The reason why they were so much 
 interested in espousing Mary's cause, was that Mary was a Cath- 
 olic, and they thought that by making her queen they should pro- 
 mote the re-establishment of the Catholic religion in England. 
 
 Where was Mary at this time, and in what position ? 
 
 Mary, however, was not in Scotland at this time. She was 
 in France. She had been sent there when very young to be edu- 
 cated, and there, at length, when she was about fifteen years old, 
 it was arranged that she should be married to the Prince of 
 France. One reason for hastening this marriage was that this 
 prince was a Catholic, and they wished to confirm Mary in her 
 Catholic faith, and make it sure, if possible, that she would remain 
 one all her days. 
 
 What was, then, the general nature of the quarrel between 
 Mary and Elizabeth f 
 
 Thus every thing conspired to make Mary the head and the rep- 
 resentative of the Catholic cause in England and Scotland, and 
 Elizabeth of that of the Protestants. This rendered them rivals 
 and enemies of each other, and the history of their lives is little 
 else than a history of the plans, manoeuvres, stratagems, and de- 
 vices which they and their respective counselors and adherents 
 were continually forming against each other. The Protestants of 
 Scotland took Elizabeth's part against Mary, while, to balance 
 this, the Catholics of England took Mary's part against Elizabeth. 
 Elizabeth regarded Mary's friends in her dominions as traitors and 
 rebels, and considered Mary as directly or indirectly responsible 
 for all their machinations ; while Mary thought precisely the same 
 
116 QUEEN ELIZABETH. 
 
 of Elizabeth's friends in Scotland. Thus there was continual 
 jealousy between them, and sometimes open war. 
 
 How did the quarrel end? 
 
 It ended in Mary's falling into Elizabeth's hands as a prisoner 
 at one time when she was driven from her own kingdom by the 
 dissensions there, and had fled across the border. Elizabeth kept 
 her prisoner for many years, and then finally, having found some 
 reason to suspect that she was still plotting against her in her 
 prison, she caused her to be beheaded. 
 
 What is it that has led mankind to take so strong an interest 
 in the history of Mary Queen of Scots f 
 
 The story of Mary Queen of Scots, when you read it in full, is 
 an exceedingly interesting and affecting tale. Her beauty, her 
 misfortunes, the romantic adventures and vicissitudes through 
 which she passed, the strange and unnatural crimes of which she 
 was accused, and her mournful and tragical end, conspire to invest 
 the narrative of her life with an inexpressible charm. 
 
 How long did Elizabeth continue Queen of England^ a7idwhat 
 was the general character of her reign f 
 
 The reign of Elizabeth was very long. It continued nearly fif- 
 ty years. During all this time the affairs of the government were 
 managed very successfully by the ministers of state that she em- 
 ployed. She was involved in several foreign wars, gained many 
 victories, and carried on many great operations both by land and 
 sea, in various quarters of the globe. She built and equipped fleets, 
 erected fortresses, established colonies, sent exploring expeditions 
 round the world, and opened new channels of commerce and trade. 
 In a word, she was in all respects a great and powerful sovereign. 
 What teas her personal character ? 
 
 As a woman, she was exceedingly weak, vain, frivolous, and 
 childish. She was extremely fond of dress and personal deco- 
 rations, a trait which always denotes a weak and shallow mind. 
 You will see, by the representation of her in the adjoining en- 
 
QUEEN ELIZABETH. 
 
 117 
 
 graving, how she liked to load herself with finery. She was ex- 
 ceedingly plain in her face, and her selfishness and heartlessness 
 
 PORTRAIT OF QUEKN ELIZABETH. 
 
 made her manners disagreeable, and yet she was very vain and 
 extremely fond of personal flattery. She was never so well pleased 
 as when the gentlemen of her court complimented her on her 1 eauty 
 
118 QUEEN ELIZABETH. 
 
 and her personal charms, though every body knew that she pos- 
 sessed none whatever. 
 
 How did it hajp^en that she was never married f 
 
 She had several pretended lovers during her reign. They wish- 
 ed to marry her for the sake of the exalted station they would at- 
 tain to by being the husband of the Queen of England. Elizabeth 
 was pleased with their attentions, and was often almost inclined 
 to marry some one or other of them ; but she was afraid that by 
 so doing she should lose some portion of her power. Ambition was 
 a stronger passion with her than love, and thus, although she was 
 continually thinking of marriage, she continually postponed it, and 
 the result was that she spent her life as a single woman. 
 
 lielate the circumstance of her giving the Earl of Essex a 
 ring. 
 
 The last of Queen Elizabeth's favorites, one of the most distin- 
 guished characters of modern history, was the Earl of Essex. He 
 enjoyed the queen's regard in a remarkable degree, and when he 
 was in the height of his power and influence over her, she one day 
 gave him a ring, saying that if at any future time he would send 
 her that ring, she would pardon him any offense he might have 
 committed. Essex took the ring, and said he should remember it. 
 
 What afterward became of Essex f 
 
 Years passed away, and at length Essex became involved in 
 very serious political difficulties. Tliere was a rebellion in Ireland, 
 and Essex was sent to quell it. After a time, hearing that his en- 
 emies were plotting against him at court, he came home to Lon- 
 don without permission. This offended the queen. She reproach- 
 ed him, and he answered her in resentful language. This led to 
 a quarrel, and Essex began to form plans for ingratiating himself 
 with the next heir to the crown, Elizabeth herself being now ad- 
 vanced in years. These schemes were discovered, and Essex was 
 arrested through the influence of his enemies, tried for treason, and 
 condemned to die. 
 
QUEEN ELIZABETH. 119 
 
 Wkat were the queerCs thoughts and feelings in respect to Es- 
 sex when she found that he was condemned to die f 
 
 The queen's anger against him was now appeased, and she wish- 
 ed to save, him. "If he sends me the ring," said she to herself, 
 " I will pardon him. If he is too proud and stubborn to do that, 
 he must die." So she watched and waited, expecting every day 
 that Essex would send the ring to her, but it did not come. 
 
 Did she allow the sentence to he executed^ and why ? 
 
 "He means to compel me to pardon him of my own accord," 
 said she to herself, " without his sending me the ring, but I will 
 let him know that I am as obstinate as he." So she continued 
 to expect the ring to the very last day, but it did not come. The 
 law was accordingly allowed to take its course, and Essex was be- 
 headed. 
 
 Hmjo was it that Elizabeth did not receive the ring f 
 
 Essex had sent the ring. He gave it to a lady of the court, 
 who promised to carry it to Elizabeth, but she did not do it. Her 
 husband would not allow her to do it. Her husband was Essex's 
 enemy, and did not wish that he should be pardoned, so he forbade 
 his wife to dehver the ring. 
 
 What were the feelings of the queen when she learned the truth f 
 
 As soon as the excitement of the occasion, in respect to the ex- 
 ecution of Essex, was over, the queen bitterly repented that she 
 had not pardoned her favorite of her own accord. She thought of 
 all her former love for him, and mourned his unhappy fate with 
 many unavailing tears. The lady who had withlield the ring was 
 made very wretched too by the recollection of her unfaithfulness 
 to the trust which Essex had committed to her, and at length, two 
 years afterward, when she was sick and about to die, she found 
 that she could not leave the world in peace without seeing Eliza- 
 beth and making confession. So she sent for Elizabeth to come 
 and see her, and then confessed her fault, gave up the ring, and 
 humbly implored the queen's forgiveness. 
 
120 0\'ERTHROW OF THE MONARCHY. 
 
 Did the queen forgive the lady who iclthheld the ring? 
 
 Elizabeth, instead of being softened by the humility and remorse 
 of the offender, was greatly enraged. She could scarcely control 
 her passion. She shook the dying woman in her bed, saying, *' For- 
 give you ! God may forgive you if he pleases, but I never will." 
 
 What teas the effect of this transaction on Elizabeth's mind? 
 
 The effect of this occurrence, added to all the other anxieties, dis- 
 appointments, mortitications, and sorrows that had been long ac- 
 cunuilating, and were now preying upon Elizabeth's mind, soon 
 broke down her health and brought her to the grave. By her 
 deatli the family of Henry the Eighth became extinct, and James, 
 the son of Mary Queen of Scots, succeeded to the throne. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 OVERTHROW OF THE MONARCHY. 
 
 What 2cas the general conditioii of the people of England dur- 
 ing the reigns that have been described / 
 
 During the period in which this long line of kings and queens 
 had been ruling over England, the people of the country had been 
 gradually improving in the arts and refinements of life, and the 
 wealth and prosperity of the country had steadily increased. The 
 wars and the civil commotions which the kingdom was plunged 
 into from time to time, in consequence of the mismanagement of 
 the government, or the quarrels of rival claimants to the throne, 
 impeded this progress, but did not wholly prevent it. The coun- 
 try became more and more densely peopled. Towns and cities 
 were built, and increased rapidly in wealth and population. Man- 
 ufactories of various kinds were established, and considerable prog- 
 ress was made in many of the arts, especially in those relating to 
 the manufacture of arms and armor, and the fabrication of stuffs 
 for dress and of personal decorations. 
 
OVERTHROW OF THE MONARCHY. 
 
 121 
 
 What was the general condition of the mechanic arts ? 
 
 The use of machinery and of steam, by means of which so 
 much is accomplished at the present day, was not then known. 
 Almost every thing was done by hand, and the various processes 
 were, of course, effected at comparatively great disadvantage. The 
 engraving represents the coining of money, as it was performed in 
 those days, all the various processes, such as beating out the metal 
 
 PKOCESS OK COINING. 
 
 into plates, cutting it into pieces of the proper size, and stamping 
 it with the impression, being performed by hand. All this is done 
 now by machinery, and is effected in a far more complete, rapid, 
 and effectual manner. 
 
 What effects were produced hy the religions dissensions that 
 prevailed f 
 
 The stniggle between the Protestants and the Catholics was 
 protracted through several successive reigns, the government of tlie 
 
122 OVERTHROW OF THE MONARCHY. 
 
 country clianging from one side to the other, according to the re- 
 ligion of the sovereign, and this depended altogether upon the in- 
 fluences under which the several princes were educated. Then, 
 whatever was the religion of the government, those who dissented 
 from it were persecuted in the most cruel and relentless manner. 
 Some were imprisoned, some were branded with hot irons or oth- 
 erwise tortured, and some were burned at the stake in sight of the 
 king's palace, or in some public square of the city. 
 
 W/ien at length the Reformation became established^ what new 
 class of religionists arose f 
 
 At length, after the Protestant religion had finally gained the 
 ascendency, and the Episcopal Church of England became the es- 
 tablished religion of the land, a considerable portion of the people 
 began to dissent from that too. These persons were called Pres- 
 byterians, and Puritans, and sometimes Dissenters. 
 
 Describe the origin and the meaning of these differeiit names. 
 
 They were called Presbyterians in allusion to the form of Church 
 government that they adopted, wliich was a government oi pres- 
 byteries. A presbytery is a body of pastors associated together. 
 The Church of England, on the other hand, was governed by bish- 
 ops. The term Puritans was used to denote that they claimed to 
 have purified the Church entirely from all the rites and ceremonies 
 of popery, while the Church of England retained a great many of 
 them. Finally, they were called Dissenters because they dissent- 
 ed from the established religion of the country. The last name, 
 Dissenters^ is still retained, and denotes all in England who do 
 not adhere to the Established Church. 
 
 What was the conduct of the Dissenters f 
 
 When at any time they gained a little power and ascendency, 
 they resorted to force and violence in accomplishing their ends 
 just as the others had done. They could not endure any thing 
 that was connected in any way with the formalities and ceremo- 
 nies of popery. In the opposite engraving we see a party of them 
 
OVERTHROW OF THE MONARCHY. 
 
 123 
 
 ^ V_ 
 
 UmW^^ 
 
 •URITANS PULLING DOWN A CROSS IN LONDON. 
 
 engaged in pulling down a cross from the top of a monument in 
 the streets of London. They were determined to purify the 
 Church from all these things, and it was on this account, as has 
 already been said, that they received the name of Puritans. 
 
 Give an account of the controversy in resjpect to the use of the 
 Scriptures. 
 
 In the course of the contest between the Catholics and the Prot- 
 estants, one great cause of dissension related to the use of the 
 Scriptures by the common people. The Catholics would not al- 
 low the people to read the Bible for themselves. It must be read 
 and explained to the people, they said, by the priests. The Prot- 
 estants, on the other hand, insisted on the people's reading and 
 judging for themselves. 
 
 What curious custom was introduced to enable the peoi^le to 
 read the Bible for themselves ? 
 
 The art of printing was then so much in its infancy, that books 
 
124 
 
 OVERTHROW OF THE MONARCHY. 
 
 were very dear, and the people could not, as now, have copies at 
 their own homes. It was accordingly the custom of the Prot- 
 estants, when they had 
 the ascendency, to put 
 a copy of the Bible upon 
 a sort of desk or stand 
 in a church, in some 
 place which was conve- 
 niently accessible — as 
 newspapers are put up 
 now at hotels and read- 
 ing-rooms — for all per- 
 sons to come and read 
 who pleased. In order 
 to prevent the book from 
 being taken away, it was 
 usual to secure it to the 
 desk where it was placed 
 by means of a chain, as 
 is seen in the engraving. 
 Of course, when the Catholics came into power, this usage was 
 at once abolished. 
 
 In whose reign did the controversy with the Dissenters reach 
 its highest point ? 
 
 The Puritans, and the other dissenters from the Established 
 Church of England, became very numerous and strong in the time 
 of Charles the First, who was the son of James the First, and his 
 successor on the throne. Their numbers and their influence were 
 greatly increased by the very measures which the king took to 
 suppress them. 
 
 Explain the character and the views of King Charles the First. 
 
 King Charles was a very stern man, and he was fully convinced, 
 
 no doubt, that he had a perfect right to govern his kingdom as he 
 
OVERTHROW OF THE MONARCHY. 125 
 
 thought best, and he did govern it, as long as he could keep at the 
 head of it at all, with a very strong hand. The measures that he 
 adopted excited a great deal of discontent, which increased from 
 year to year, and was only aggravated by the king's efforts to 
 suppress it, until it ended at last in open rebellion. 
 
 Exjplain the origin and the nature of Parliaments. 
 
 In this great contest, the body which acted in behalf of the peo- 
 ple was the Parliament. The kings of England began to call Par- 
 liaments — that is, assemblies of men to give them counsel and as- 
 sist them in framing laws — at a very early period ; so early, indeed, 
 that it is not now known when and how the custom originated. 
 If the king was engaged in an important war, or if he wished rules 
 and regulations to be made about any branch of trade, or if he had 
 any large sums of money to raise, he would send orders to all the 
 chief lords and barons, in the various parts of the kingdom, direct- 
 ing them to come to London, and also to all the principal towns 
 and counties, and to the great ancient corporations, such as the 
 universities, requiring them to choose men to send in their behalf. 
 
 In what manner did the Parliament transact business f 
 
 The persons thus summoned would meet in two separate coun- 
 cils, the lords in one, and the representatives of the towns, coun- 
 ties, and corporations in another, and then the king or his minister 
 would send word to them what laws he wished to have passed or 
 what measures adopted, and they would mature the laws or the 
 measures, and write out the enactments in proper form, and at last, 
 when they were ready, they would send them to the king. If the 
 king approved of the acts as the Parliament had framed them, then 
 he would say so, and the acts became laws. If he did not approve 
 of them, he would say that he would think about it, and then they 
 were dropped, and nothing more was ever heard of them. 
 
 What was the chief source of the jpower of the Parliament 
 in their contests with the king f 
 
 In the course of several centuries, it came to be the establish- 
 
126 OVEKTHEOW OF THE MONAECHY. 
 
 ed custom and law of the land that the king could lay no taxes, 
 nor collect any money of the people, in any of the usual ways, 
 without the consent of Parliament, and thus the Parliament had 
 the king in some measure in its power. So, when the contest be- 
 gan in the reign of King Charles between the king and the peo- 
 ple, the struggle was carried on by the Parliament refusing to 
 grant the king the money that he wanted to carry on his wars. 
 
 Give an account of Strafford and Laud. 
 
 The king's leading ministers at this time were Strafford and 
 Laud. Strafford was a great minister of state. Laud was an 
 archbishop, and was at the head of the Church. Strafford aided 
 the king in his efforts to compel the people to submit to his author- 
 ity in respect to the civil affairs of the kingdom, and Laud in re- 
 spect to the affairs of the Church. The people and the Parliament 
 resisted them both. The more they resisted, the more the king 
 and his two great counselors were determined to make them sub- 
 mit ; and the more severe the measures were that the government 
 adopted, the higher the resentment and anger of the country were 
 aroused. 
 
 How was the contest at last brought to a crisis f 
 
 At last, the general feeling of resentment and indignation became 
 so overwhelming as to carry all before it, and one day the House 
 of Lords were thunderstruck by the appearing of a messenger from 
 the House of Commons at the door of their hall, saying that they 
 accused the Earl of Strafford of high treason, and demanded his 
 arrest and trial. Soon afterward Laud was arrested too, and 
 thrown into prison. 
 
 What became of Strafford f 
 
 Strafford was tried and condemned to death. The king did all 
 he could to save him, but the storm which he had awakened had 
 got now entirely beyond his control, and he was compelled to sign 
 the warrant for Strafford's execution to save his own life. On 
 his way to the place of execution, Strafford passed under the win- 
 
OVERTHROW OF THE MONARCHY. 127 
 
 dow of the cell where Laud was confined, and he kneeled down on 
 
 STRAFFORD ON HIS WAY TO EXECUTION. 
 
 the pavement as he went by to receive the captive prelate's bless- 
 
 ing and to bid him farewell. 
 
 What effect did the execution of Strafford produce in resjpect 
 to the progress of the quarrel f 
 
 The king was now thoroughly alarmed. He began to assemble 
 his troops, not knowing what was going to happen. The Parlia- 
 ment sent him word that they considered this assembling of troops 
 as an act of hostility to the people, and they called upon him im- 
 mediately to disband them. They also began at once to take 
 measures for raising an armed force themselves. In a word, both 
 sides began vigorously to prepare for war. 
 
 Describe the progress and result of the civil war. 
 
 It was not long before a great civil war broke out, which con- 
 tinued for several years, producing every where throughout the 
 
128 OVERTHROW OF THE MONARCHY. 
 
 kingdom a vast amount of confusion, distress, and sorrow. All 
 the people of the country took sides. The nobles generally, and 
 the Churcli of England, joined the king, while the common people, 
 the merchants and artisans, and all the Presbyterians and Puritans, 
 espoused the cause of the Parliament. The latter won the day. 
 
 W/iat became of the hhig at the close of the war f 
 
 The king was driven from one place to another, his friends and 
 adherents growing fewer and fewer all the time, until at last all 
 hope was gone, and he gave himself up a prisoner. The place 
 where he was finally imprisoned was a castle in the south of En- 
 gland, near the coast, called Carisbrooke Castle. Here the unhap- 
 py monarch remained some time, his friends all the while trying 
 to plan some means of effecting his escape and restoring him to 
 his tlirone. 
 
 Explain the circumstances which were connected with the trial 
 of the king. 
 
 At last the king himself became somewhat implicated in these 
 plans, and the Parliament, finding it out, caused him to be brought 
 to London and tried, as Strafford had been, for high treason. He 
 was tried in Westminister Hall, with great and solemn ceremony, 
 by an assembly of sixty or seventy judges. The trial lasted sev- 
 eral days. At the end of it, the fallen king was found guilty and 
 condemned to die. Of course, the tidings of this result produced 
 the greatest excitement throughout the kingdom. 
 
 What was the situation of his family at this time? 
 
 The king had a wife and four children. His wife and his two 
 oldest children had escaped to France, but the two youngest were 
 still in the palace. The king's parting with them was very sad 
 and affecting. They could scarcely understand that their father 
 was about to be killed. 
 
 Give an account of the preparations made for the executio7i. 
 
 When the day for the execution came, a scaffold was built 
 against the side of the palace of Whitehall, toward the street, and 
 
THE RESTORATION. 129 
 
 a passage-way to it was made through a window. There was a 
 block upon the scaiFold, which was covered with black cloth, with 
 a very broad axe by the side of it. The executioners were there 
 too, wearing masks upon their faces, in order that they might not 
 be known. The scaffold was surrounded with soldiers, some on 
 horseback and others on foot. Beyond them the streets were filled 
 with crowds of people. 
 
 Give an account of the execution itself. 
 
 When the proper hour arrived, the king was brought out through 
 the open window, and after a little time spent in prayers and th(; 
 necessary preparations, the king laid his head upon the block, and 
 one of the executioners severed it from the body at a single blow. 
 The other executioner held it up in view of the people in the street, 
 and cried out, "This is the head of a traitor." 
 
 What government was established by Parliament now that the 
 royal jpower was overthrown f 
 
 The English monarchy was thus entirely overthrown, and the 
 people, through the Parliament, were in possession of supreme 
 power. They established a republic, which continued about twelve 
 years. During a part of this time, the chief magistrate of the 
 country was Oliver Cromwell, who governed under the title of 
 Protector. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE RESTORATION. 
 
 Who were the Royalists^ and what were now their views and 
 intentions f 
 
 The party that favored the cause of the king were called Poy- 
 alists, and this party, though now vanquished, was still very large 
 and powerful. All the nobility were on that side, and thousands 
 of other great families. These all abhorred the act of Parliament 
 
 2 I 
 
ioO THE EESTORATION. 
 
 in beheading the king, and considered it the greatest crime that 
 could possibly be committed. They considered, too, that the crown 
 now devolved at once upon the oldest son of the deceased king. 
 His name was Charles too, and his title was accordingly Charles 
 the Second. He was now in France. 
 
 What measures did they adopt f 
 
 The Royalists immediately began to hold private communica- 
 tions with Charles, and to concert schemes for bringing him into 
 England again, and restoring him to his tlu'one. At their secret 
 meetings they would drink his health, styling him the king over 
 the water. Very soon, too, a rebellion against the government of 
 Parliament broke out in Ireland, and another in Scotland. Indeed, 
 the Scottish people proclaimed Charles the Second king, and they 
 raised an army to defend his rights. 
 
 Describe the character and doings of Oliver Cromioell. 
 Oliver Cromwell, who was the chief commander of the Parliament- 
 ary forces, soon put an end to these risings. He was a blunt, 
 rough man, but extremely prompt and energetic in all that he did. 
 The people called him Old Noll ; and though they laughed at many 
 things that he did, and especially at his way of doing them, still 
 lie was greatly respected for his talents and energy, and soon, as 
 commander of the army, and leader in the execution of all the 
 great measures that Parliament resolved upon, he rose to be more 
 powerM than the Parliament itsejf. 
 
 In tvhat loay did he finally proceed to get the government into 
 his own hands ? 
 
 In the end, after he had managed so as to reduce the power of 
 Parliament and its influence in the country to a very low point, 
 he dissolved it entirely, and took the government into his own 
 liands. He did this by coming into the Parliament House one 
 morning with a company of soldiers, and sending all the members 
 oif. When they had all gone he came out himself, locked the door, 
 and put the key in his pocket, and then the next day proclaimed 
 
THE RESTORATION. 131 
 
 that the Parliament was dissolved. lie afterward called a Par- 
 liament of his own, and governed England for many years extreme- 
 ly wisely and well, under the title of Protector. It is said that 
 he wished to be king, but the people would not bear it. 
 
 Give an account of the expedition that the prince planned for 
 recovering his kingdom. 
 
 About eighteen months after King Charles the First was be- 
 headed, his son, the young prince who was now in France, con- 
 ceived the design of invading England and endeavoring to recover 
 his throne. So he gathered together a small army, as many as 
 the King of France, whose guest he then was, could conveniently 
 furnish him, and sailed with them for Scotland. He thought it 
 best to land in Scotland first, and then to march down through 
 the country into England. "All the people of the country will 
 join me," said he, "as I pass along, and, therefore, the longer my 
 march is, the greater my army will be." 
 
 What occurred on the landing of the expjedition in Scotland f 
 
 The expedition at the outset seemed to promise success. The 
 Scotch received the king, on the whole, very well, though they were 
 a little distrustful of him. They remembered how tyrannical and 
 oppressive the father had been, and they were afraid to put them- 
 selves too much into the power of the son. They, however, con- 
 cluded to receive him. They prescribed certain conditions on 
 which they were willing to make him king of Scotland, and to aid 
 liim in recovering the English crown, and he, though very unwill- 
 ing to make terms in this way with his subjects, finally concluded 
 to accede to them. The people crowned him King of Scotland, and 
 then raised an army for him to march into England with. 
 
 ITovjfar did Prince Charles aftervjard advance into England, 
 and v)ho then came out to meet him ? 
 
 Charles put himself at the head of this army, crossed the frontier, 
 and advanced without any mishap as far as to the town of Worces- 
 ter. This was about half way from the Scotch frontier to London. 
 
132 
 
 rilK KESTOUATIUN. 
 
 Hv ihv i'nnc I ho king iuul ivaclu'il Worcester, niul hail ostal> 
 
 I 
 
 lished lums(>ir In that town, Olivier CriMnwt^ll Iuul I'^llortiHl his 
 forces together, and was ready to meet him. 
 ]V/iaf was the trsulf of f/ir haftl,? 
 
 All England, and, iniKHHl, all lMiro|H\ anxionsly awaidnl the re- 
 sult. As might have been expected, Cromwell gained the victory. 
 Charles's army had been very little increased during his mareli 
 through the country, t^onu* tow peojde camo to join him, luit not 
 many ; so that Cromwell had only the troops that the king had 
 brought with him tVom Scotland to contend with. IMiese troops 
 Cromwell attackcil on all tlu^ great roads and a})proaches to the 
 city, and conquered them at all points. Charles watched these 
 battles from a steeple of a church within the town. 
 
 What jHiH did the jmnve tale in the l>atth\ and trhaf hapj)en~ 
 ed to him ill attem2^ting to get hack info the toirn / 
 
 Charles at last went out Iiimself, at the head o( a troop of' High- 
 landers, to see what he could do. lie was beaten, the Highland- 
 
THE liESTOIiATION. 138 
 
 ers were dispersed, and lie Hed Lack toward the city ; but he could 
 not get in. The gate was choked up by a great aniniunition-cart 
 that had got wedged up there, in conse([uenee of one of the oxen 
 having been kiUcd. The troop that wan witli him were stopped. 
 So he lea})ed from his horse, and scrambled in through the gate 
 alone, on foot. Jle found every thing in the city in most dreadful 
 confusion. Every body was giving up his cause, and preparing 
 to ily. 
 
 ILyn") (lid he filially iiiahe Ids encajn',? 
 
 lie gatliered together a small nmnber of attendants, obtained a 
 fresh horse, and tliat evening, as soon as it began to be dark, he 
 made his escape, and rode off" for Iiis life, across the country, by 
 the most retired and solitary roads that he could find. 
 
 Describe the ^;r/j^67^>»<:^^ advent U7'es which he met with duriny 
 his fi/iyht. 
 
 lie knew that if he should be caught he would be beheaded, as 
 his father had been. Ho his great desire was to escnpe from the 
 country altogether and get back to l^'ranee. lie finally succeed- 
 ed in doing this, though in accomplishing the journey to the sea- 
 coast he met with a series of the most extraordinary and romantic 
 adventures and hair-breadth escapes. At one time he disguised 
 himself ns a servant, and dyed Jiis face to make it look suidnirnt. 
 At another time he was a woodman, carrying a bill-hook in his 
 hand. ( )flen lie traveled all night in the darkness and rain. The 
 country was full of peo])le hunting for liim every where, and watch- 
 ing every suspicious-looking person, and several times he came 
 very near being taken by them. He escaped only by the extreme 
 watchfulness and care of his friends, especially those that belonged 
 to the Royalist families that lived along the route that he was tak- 
 ing. These friends passed him along from one house to the other, 
 conveying him in disguise, or by night, and concealing him care- 
 fully by day. It was very dangerous for them to do so, but they 
 willingly incurred the hazard. 
 
134 THE EESTORATION. 
 
 What hind of sufferings did he endure ? 
 
 Sometimes his enemies and pursuers were so numerous, and so 
 close upon his track, that he could not safely stay in any house, 
 and then he was obliged to be content with the best shelter he 
 could find in the woods. He suifered, of course, extremely from 
 the hardship and exposure. Indeed, at one time he became so 
 exhausted that it seemed as if he could not possibly go any far- 
 ther. His feet were blistered and sore. His clothes were drench- 
 ed with rain. His shoes were full of wet sand and gravel which 
 he had got into them in wading across the streams. In a word, 
 he was in the most forlorn and wayworn condition imaginable, and 
 was reduced almost to despair. 
 
 Relate lohat hapjpened at Boscohel, 
 
 He arrived, while in this plight, in a wood near a place called 
 Boscobel, which belonged to one of his friends. His pursuers 
 were in all the country around, and it was known that they would 
 soon come to Boscobel, so that it would not be safe for him to stay 
 in the house. He went in, however, for a little time, to get warm- 
 ed and dried, and to eat some supper. It was necessary, however, 
 that every thing should be done in the utmost haste, and so, to 
 dry the king's shoes, the good woman of the house poured hot 
 ashes into them from the fire, while the king ate hurriedly the 
 supper whicli they had provided for him. 
 
 HoiD did the people conceal the prince at Boscobel f 
 
 The people knew that it would not be safe to keep the king in 
 the house except for a very short time, as a band of soldiers were 
 expected every hour, who would certainly search the house very 
 thoroughly to find the fugitive. So they took him out into a field, 
 and hid him in the top of an oak tree, and there he remained all 
 the next day, peeping out from time to time through the branches 
 and leaves, watching the soldiers who were searching for him. 
 He had one companion with him, an officer of his army, who was 
 assisting him in his flight. While the. king remained in the tree, 
 
THE RESTORATION. 
 
 135 
 
 KING CHARLES AT BOSCOBEL. 
 
 lie rested on a sort of cushion, which the officer placed for him in 
 the best position he could hnd among the branches. 
 
 W/iat became of the prince at last f 
 
 When night came, the king and his companion descended from 
 the tree and went into the house again, and soon afterward con- 
 tinued their flight. They journeyed on in this manner, secretly, 
 from the residence of one faithful adherent to another, encounter- 
 ing many perplexities, and narrowly escaping many dangers, un- 
 til at last they reached the seg--coast, and here, after a great deal 
 of management and manceuvering, they succeeded in embarking 
 on board a small vessel, and making their escape to France. 
 
 What was the character of Cromwell himself and of his gov- 
 eminent of the country f 
 
 After this, Cromwell continued to govern the country, as a re- 
 public or commonwealth, for several years, he himself being the 
 chief ruler of it, under the name and style of Protector. His ad- 
 
136 
 
 THE EESTORATION. 
 
 ministration was very able and very successfal. He was a maR 
 of great powers of mind, and of great honesty and intemty of pur- 
 pose. He was engaged in several foreign wars, but he conducted 
 them all to a speedy and successful termination. In a word, En- 
 gland never had a more honest or capable ruler. 
 
 Give an account of the maimer in which Charles was finally 
 raised to the throne. 
 
 At length Cromwell died, and there was nobody to succeed him 
 strong enough to fill his place. The country was in great confu- 
 sion. There was a party for the Parliament, a party for the army, 
 and a party for the king. At length, the people of the country, 
 tired of being without any head, sent to Charles the Second in 
 France, inviting him to come to England and reascend the throne 
 of his fathers. The king came at once. He landed at Dover, 
 where he was joyfully received. Thus the monarchy was restored. 
 
 LANDING OF CHARLES THE SECOND AT DOVER. 
 
 A 
 
THE RESTORATION. 137 
 
 W/iat was the character of Charles the /Second, and hoio did 
 he reign f 
 
 It might have been supposed that the king would have been 
 somewhat sobered by his misfortunes and sorrows, and that the 
 dreadful fate which his father had met with would have taught 
 him a useful lesson. But all this experience seems to have been 
 entirely lost upon him. Instead of devoting himself to the gov- 
 ernment of his kingdom, and the promotion of the welfare of his 
 subjects, he gave himself up, as soon as he got possession of his 
 throne, to every species of reckless dissipation and wickedness, 
 and soon made his palace and his court the mockery of the world, 
 for the open and shameless vices that reigned there. 
 
 IIoio did he usually speiid his time f 
 
 The king himself spent his time in drinking, reveling, and in 
 all sorts of disgraceful carousals with the very worst of company, 
 lie tilled his palace with shameless women, and insulted his wife 
 with intruding them upon her, and forcing her to receive them, and 
 tormented her in tliis Avay to such a degree that her life was a per- 
 fect burden to her. All this he did in the most barefaced and im- 
 pudent way, violating the moral sense of the whole country with- 
 out any compunction, and glorying in his shame. Many of the 
 people of the country highly disapproved of this conduct, but they 
 dreaded another revolution so much that they did not complain. 
 
 What sort of measures did his government adopt in respect to 
 the religion of the country f 
 
 At the same time, his government resorted to the most harsh 
 and tyrannical measures to promote what they considered the 
 cause of religion. They enacted the severest laws against all 
 that did not worship according to the usages of the Established 
 Church. It was three montlis' imprisonment for any person to 
 attend any religious service not according to the Prayer-book, 
 and all the dungeons in the jails were crowded with persons con- 
 fined under this law. 
 
188 THE EESTOEATION. 
 
 What was the first of the great calamities that signalized his 
 reign ? 
 
 The reign of this king was signalized, too, by some of the great- 
 est calamities that ever befell the kingdom of England. The wars 
 with foreign nations were disastrous in their results. At one time 
 a fleet of the enemies' ships came up the River Thames almost 
 to London, burning and destroying every thing in their way. The 
 whole city was thrown into a state of the greatest .possible panic 
 and confusion, and narrowly escaped being destroyed. The fleet 
 was, however, at length compelled to retire. 
 
 Give an account of the plague of London, 
 
 Then there was the great plague of London, which took place 
 in this reign, during which a hundred thousand people died mis- 
 erably, and scenes of horror were witnessed in all the streets and 
 dwellings of the city utterly indescribable. The infected houses 
 were marked with a red cross, and with the words "Lord- have 
 mercy upon us" inscribed upon them. The streets were desert- 
 ed, except that carts went rumbling round at night, with men ring- 
 ing bells and calling out, "Bring out your dead." These carts 
 came to get the bodies in order to carry them away and bury them. 
 They buried them by torch-light in great pits, and without any 
 funeral service or ceremony whatever. 
 
 Give an account of the great fire. 
 
 Then, besides the plague, there was a great fire. This fire was 
 one of the greatest conflagrations ever known. It broke out first 
 in a little shop near the water, and thence it spread in every di- 
 rection, and all attempts to stop it were unavailing. The houses 
 were all built of wood, and the summer having been very hot and 
 dry, they burned like stubble. The fire raged three days, and a 
 large part of the city was destroyed. There were not houses 
 enough left in the city to contain the people thus expelled from 
 their homes, and so, for a long time after the fire, they were obliged 
 to live in bivouac upon the ruins. 
 
 
THE EEVOLUTION. 139 
 
 How did the king at last come to his end f 
 
 Thus it seemed, during the whole of this reign, as if the wick- 
 edness of the king and his court was bringing down the special 
 judgments of Heaven on the country. But all had no effect on 
 the minds of the guilty ones. Indeed, the king grew worse and 
 worse the longer he lived, and at length, after reigning in this mis- 
 erable manner for twenty-five years, he was suddenly brought to 
 his death in the midst of some of his carousals by a stroke of ap- 
 oplexy. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 Who was Charles the Second's successor^ and what was his 
 character f 
 
 It would seem to be impossible that there could be a worse 
 king or more despicable man than Charles the Second, and yet 
 his brother James proved to be worse ; or, at aU events, he was 
 more despised and hated by the English people. His character, 
 and the measures of his government, awakened so strong and gen- 
 eral a feeling of indignation, that the country rose at last by com- 
 mon consent, and drove him out of the kingdom. They then es- 
 tablished another prince upon the throne in his stead, excluding 
 him and his posterity forever. 
 
 Why were the people unwilling that James should become 
 king f 
 
 The people were extremely unwilling that King James should 
 reign at all, on account of his being of the Catholic religion, and 
 also on account of his morose and gloomy character. He had 
 been brought up a Catholic from his childhood, and the people ex- 
 pected that, as soon as he should succeed to the throne, he would 
 attempt to bring the government and the people of the country to 
 
140 THE EEVOLUTION. 
 
 the Catholic religion again, and in doing this, they knew, from his 
 character, that he would persecute those who opposed him with 
 the most relentless cruelty. 
 
 'What rival claimant was there to the crown, and what were 
 the reasons that led ajportion of the 2)eoj)le to prefer himf 
 
 They very much regretted, therefore, that James was the heir 
 to the crown. But he unquestionably was the heir, for Charles 
 had no children that w^ere entitled to succeed him, and James, 
 being Charles's brother, was of course next in succession. There 
 was a nobleman nearly related to Charles, named the Duke of 
 Monmouth. He was a very agreeable man, and a great favorite 
 with all the people, and he conceived himself better entitled to the 
 throne than James. He was a Protestant too, and so a large por- 
 tion of the people preferred that he should be king. 
 
 Describe the attemjpt that Monmouth made to gain the crown^ 
 and the result of it. 
 
 Some time after James began to reign, Monmouth raised a re- 
 bellion, and induced a great portion of the people in the southern 
 and western parts of the island to join him. The rebellion, how- 
 ever, was soon suppressed by James's armies, and Monmouth was 
 taken prisoner. He was condemned to death, and was beheaded 
 on a block, just as King Charles the First had been, only in his 
 case the executioner had to strike three or four times before he 
 succeeded in severing the head from the body. It was a horrid 
 spectacle. 
 
 Who was J%tdge Jeffries f 
 
 The first great display which James made of the cruelty of his 
 disposition was in the measures which he took to punish the peo- 
 ple in that part of the country which had been the scene of the re- 
 bellion. He sent an infamous judge named Jeffries there, to try 
 the people who were supposed to have taken part in it, and this 
 judge performed the work with such terrible injustice and cruelty 
 that his very name has been ever since universally abhorred. 
 
THE EEVOLUTION. 
 
 141 
 
 Give a7i account of Jeffries' s jproceedings at Exeter, 
 One of the principal scenes of his cruelty was Exeter, a beauti- 
 ful town situated in a very romantic spot on the E-iver Wye, in 
 
 VIEW OF EXETER. 
 
 the south of England. 
 
 There was a list of several hundred pris- 
 oners to be tried, and their cases were disposed of in the most 
 brutal and summary manner possible. One man pleaded not 
 guilty, and the judge ordered him to be taken out of court and 
 hanged instantly. This so terrified the rest that they generally 
 pleaded guilty at once. Indeed, to plead guilty afforded almost 
 the only chance to the poor wretches of obtaining any sort of 
 mercy. Gr§at numbers were hung. The bodies of these were 
 cut into pieces, and then dropped into caldrons of boiling pitch or 
 tar, and hung up around the roadsides, in the streets, and at the 
 very doors of the churches, as a terror to the people. 
 
142 THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 What did James think and say of Jeffries^ s C07iduct f 
 
 King James was greatly pleased with these atrocities commit- 
 ted by his judge. He called the expedition Jeffries's campaign ; 
 and if the slaughter of great multitudes of men is all that is nec- 
 essary to make an expedition a campaign, this certainly was one. 
 The people of the country, however, called it for many a long year 
 afterward the Bloody Assize, and told the story of it to their chil- 
 dren, shuddering. 
 
 Describe the measures that James resorted to for restoring the 
 Catholic religion^ and the effects of them. 
 
 As soon as the rebellion was subdued, and the unhappy people 
 who had taken, or were supposed to have taken, a part in it had 
 been thus terribly punished, King James commenced a series of 
 violent and oppressive measures to force back the kingdom of En- 
 gland into communion with the Catholic Church. The bishops 
 of the Church of England began to oppose these measures. This 
 irritated the king, and he seized six of the bishops, and sent them 
 in barges down the river to the Tower. The people then took 
 sides with the bishops. They assembled in immense numbers on 
 the banks of the rivers, when the barges went by, to express their 
 sympathy with the bishops, and their undiminished confidence in 
 them by asking their blessing. This made -the king more angry 
 than ever, and thus there was a great deal of trouble. 
 
 How was it that the birth of James's son was a ^natter of polit- 
 ical importance f 
 
 About this time the king had a son born. It might be sup- 
 posed that this would be an event of no importance whatever in 
 respect to these great public disputes and commotions, but it really 
 was of the highest possible importance. Until this son was born 
 the people were contented to wait patiently in their trojibles, for the 
 king's other children were daughters, and were both Protestants, 
 and they thought that James, who was now somewhat advanced 
 in life, would not live very long, and that then one of his daugh- 
 
THE REVOLUTION. ]43' 
 
 ters Avould succeed to the throne, and all the difficulty would be 
 over. But now, since a son was born, all this bright prospect was 
 at once clouded. The boy, they knew, would be brought up a 
 Catholic, and, of course, when he came to reign instead of his fa- 
 ther, he would walk in his father's steps. 
 
 What determination did the nobles form in this ci^isis? 
 
 The leading nobles of the country determined to wait no longer, 
 but to bring things to a crisis at once by deposing the king, and 
 putting some Protestant member of the family on the throne in 
 his stead. They did not now undertake, as they had done in 
 King Charles the First's time, to revolutionize the government 
 entirely, by dethroning the king and establishing a republic, but 
 only to change the person of the sovereign by making some Prot- 
 estant prince the king. This they thought they could easily do, 
 especially if the prince so brought should be a descendant of the 
 English royal line. 
 
 Who loas the Prince of Orange^ and what was his situation 
 at this time ? 
 
 The most celebrated Protestant ruler in Europe at this time 
 was a prince named William of Orange. He was the stadthold- 
 er, as it was called — that is, a sort of king — of the Netherlands. 
 Now it happened very fortunately that this William was closely 
 related to the English royal line. He was himself a grandson of 
 King Charles the First, his mother having been King Charles's 
 daughter. Then, besides this, his wife was the daughter of King 
 James. She was a Protestant, as has already been said. 
 
 HoiD did the peojple of England contrive to open the negotia- 
 tion with him f 
 
 So the people of England determined to confer the crown on 
 William and Mary, and they secretly sent word to William that 
 if he would come to England with a fleet and an army, they would 
 make him king. William was a great and powerful prince before 
 this in his own native country of the Netherlands. The engraving 
 
144 
 
 THE EEVOLUTION. 
 
 WILLUM Oi ORANGE IN HIS CARRIAGE AT THE HAGUE 
 
 represents liim about to take a ride in his carriage in one of his 
 cities in Holland. The cities of Holland were very wealthy in 
 those days, and the nation was very powerful, both in fleets and 
 armies. Indeed, in the wars that were then raging between the 
 Catholic and Protestant nations of Europe, William of Orange 
 was the great champion of the Protestant cause ; and this was 
 one great reason why the people of England desired to have him 
 become their king. 
 
 Describe the circumstances of his coming to England, and the 
 manner in which he was received. 
 
 He accepted the invitation, and, after fitting out a great fleet and 
 
THE REVOLUTION. 145 
 
 army, he came to England. The people who were not in the se- 
 cret of the movement were astonished to see this vast armament 
 coming to their shores. They had supposed that the preparations 
 which they knew that William had been making were intended 
 for some expedition against the French, with whom he was then 
 at war. But wlien they saw the immense fleet, extending miles 
 over the sea, coming through the straits between Dover and Calais, 
 and then coasting along the southern shores of England, they were 
 at first greatly surprised, and then, as soon as the rumor spread 
 among them what the expedition was, and what was its destina- 
 tion and object, they were filled with joy. The ships sailed so 
 near the shore that the people that assembled on the headlands 
 could see the waving banners, and hear the bands of music play- 
 ing on the decks in the morning air, and they responded with 
 long and joyful shouts and acclamations. 
 
 W/iat became of James and his j)arty f 
 
 King James himself was greatly terrified. He sent off his lit- 
 tle son, the Prince of Wales, whose birth had hastened this threat- 
 ened revolution, to the southern coast, with a view of conveying 
 him to France, and then immediately began to take hurried meas- 
 ures to concentrate his forces for the defense of his kingdom. But 
 he found that he could not rely upon any of his men, either officers 
 or soldiers. One division after another forsook him and went over 
 to the enemy. Even those whom he had considered his most in- 
 timate and devoted friends went with the rest. 
 
 Give an account of the m^anner in which his daughter arid 
 his son-in-law deserted him. 
 
 One night, in the midst of his troubles, he had two of his con- 
 fidants to sup with him. One of them was his son-in-law, the 
 Imsband of his daughter Anne. They sat late, and discussed with 
 the king all his plans ; and then, when the king came to inquire 
 for them in the morning, he learned that, as soon as they had left 
 his table, they had taken horse and ridden off to join the Prince 
 
 2 K 
 
146 THE KEVOLUTION. 
 
 of Orange. Anne herself, his daughter, soon went away too. Slie 
 made her escape from the palace in the night. The king, when 
 he heard of it, exclaimed, " God help me ! my very children have 
 forsaken me." 
 
 Describe the subsequent progress of the Revolution, 
 
 Thus things went on. The whole country was in a state of 
 wild excitement. The Roman priests and monks, who had sur- 
 rounded James in his prosperity, now, foreseeing what was in 
 store for them, fled in all directions. Towns and cities all along 
 the southern coast were issuing proclamations and declarations for 
 the new king ; while the more violent of the Protestants broke 
 out into open violence in many parts of the kingdom, and added 
 to the general confusion by pulling down crosses, and burning 
 Roman Catholic convents and chapels with mobs and rioting. 
 
 What became of the family of the king f 
 
 The king's son — the little Prince of Wales — was first sent to 
 Portsmouth, in order to be carried out of the country, but he was 
 stopped and brought back to London. The king himself now be- 
 came greatly alarmed for his own personal safety. He gave up 
 all hope of retaining his kingdom, and only hoped to find some 
 means of escaping with his wife and son. So he sent the queen 
 and the infant prince across the Thames in the night to Lambeth 
 palace. The queen was disguised as an Italian lady. At Lam- 
 beth the two fugitives were put into a coach, and conveyed as rap- 
 idly as possible to Gravesend, near the mouth of the Thames, 
 and there sent in a yacht to Calais. The king himself, after 
 much difficulty, succeeded in following them. 
 
 Relate what occurred in the mean time in respect to the Prince 
 of Orange, 
 
 In the mean time, the Prince of Orange had landed from his 
 fleet, and was received by distinguished personages of the king- 
 dom, who awaited him on the shore, and hailed him with the ut- 
 most joy and satisfaction. 
 
THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 147 
 
 LANDING OF WILLIAM, PRINCE OF ORANGE. 
 
 Tn what manner did James attempt to Tnake his escajpe from 
 the country^ and why did he not succeed ? 
 
 As for the king, he met with a series of the most remarkable ad- 
 ventures in his attempt to escape to France. His object was to 
 get, as soon as possible, across the Channel. The boat that he 
 first put off in from the English coast did not succeed in making 
 the voyage at all. The captain found, soon after he left the shore, 
 that his vessel was not properly ballasted, so that there was dan- 
 ger of her being upset in case a wind should arise. Accordingly, 
 after going a little way down the mouth of tlie Thames, he turned 
 
148 THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 to the land again at an island on the coast called Sheppey Island, 
 in order to get more ballast. 
 
 Give an account of lohat happened at Sheppey Island. 
 
 Here a rabble of people, consisting of fishermen, smugglers, and 
 sailors, saw the king on board the boat. They knew that he was 
 some stranger, and they began to pull him about and make fun 
 of him, calling him a hatchet-faced Jesuit and other such names. 
 Then he made himself known to them, saying he was their king, 
 and begged them to let him alone, but this made little difference. 
 Indeed, the king was so terrified and so broken down by his 
 misfortunes and sorrows that he seemed like a complete wreck. 
 One moment he would threaten his persecutors, then he would fall 
 on his knees and implore their mercy. He said the Prince of Or- 
 ange was seeking his life, and he begged them to save him. Then 
 he would shout out, "A boat! A boat!" like an insane man. 
 Finally, he contrived to get some paper and write a note to the 
 lieutenant of the county. The lieutenant came with a force, and, 
 finding who the stranger was, took him out of the hands of his 
 tormentors and sent him back to London. 
 
 How did the hing finalhj make his escape? 
 
 The government were sorry to have him back again. They 
 would have much preferred to have had the people of the coast 
 let him go. So they made no eifort to confine him, and in a few 
 days he escaped again, and this time he succeeded in getting safe 
 to France. 
 
 Hoio was the government settled after the flight of the icing f 
 
 The English Parliament then decreed that James, since he 
 had abandoned the country, was to be considered as having abdi- 
 cated the crown, and they proceeded to settle the crown upon Will- 
 iam and Mary, the Prince and Princess of Orange, and their suc- 
 cessors forever. They also, at the same time, made some con- 
 siderable changes in the constitution of the kingdom, so as very 
 much to curtail and limit the power of the kings, aricl secure 
 
 i 
 
THE ENGLISH ARISTOCEACY. 149 
 
 greater influence and control to the nobles, and greater liberty 
 to the people. 
 
 Give an account of the efforts which James made to recover 
 his Jcirigdom. 
 
 James afterward made an effort to recover his kingdom, but he 
 did not succeed. The King of France furnished him with an army, 
 and with it he landed in Ireland, but the people were against him, 
 and his army was defeated. He himself, after the battle, made 
 his escape to France, and there he ended his days in great seclu- 
 sion. His son James then pretended that he was by right the 
 king of England, and he made an effort too to recover the crown. 
 He was called the Pretender. He made his landing in Scotland, 
 but he was as unsuccessful as his father, and was obliged to re- 
 turn to France and spend his days there a private man. 
 • Who were the princi]}al kings of the Stuart line ? 
 
 This was the end of what is called in history the Stuart line. 
 Stuart was the family name of the kings of Scotland. It came 
 from the fact that the ancestors of that house were originally he- 
 reditary stewards of some ancient royal line.. There were four 
 kings of the Stuart line in the English succession, James the First, 
 Charles the First, Charles the Second, and James the Second. 
 The whole history of this line is that of one continued struggle for 
 the possession of despotic power over the people of England. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 THE ENGLISH AEISTOCRACT. 
 
 What great change took place hi the practical operation of the 
 government after the Revolution f 
 
 It was mainly through the power and influence of the great fam- 
 ilies, the descendants of the principal generals and oflicers of state 
 who came over with William the Conqueror, that King William 
 
150 THE ENGLISH AEISTOCRACY. 
 
 » 
 
 was invited over from Holland, and his brancli of the royal line 
 was established on the throne ; and it was they that imposed the 
 terms and restrictions under which he should reign. These terms 
 and restrictions were such that the power of the government, in 
 a short time after the Revolution, passed almost entirely from the 
 hands of the kings to that of the nobles. These nobles are called 
 collectively the English aristocracy. They constitute the most 
 wealthy and powerful band of aristocrats in the world. 
 
 What position do the aristocracy occupy? 
 
 They feel entirely above the mass of the people, and never as- 
 sociate with them, except in some few and rare cases, in the small- 
 est degree. The mass of the people, on the other hand, look up 
 to them with the profoundest veneration and awe. 
 
 Describe their mode of life. 
 
 They live in great castles and palace-like halls, scattered here 
 and there over the cou.ntry. Each one owns an immense territory 
 of land, and the farmers and tenants who cultivate the ground have 
 to pay to him a large share of the value of what they raise for rent. 
 This enables them, to live in great splendor, without having any 
 thing to do. The only business they ivill do is attending to the 
 care of their estates, and to the government of the country. 
 
 In what light do they regard the industrial pursuits of the 
 community f 
 
 Indeed, most of them are so proud and haughty that they would 
 almost rather starve than be engaged, even indirectly, in any use- 
 ful employment of commerce or manufactures. Although the 
 power and prosperity of the country rests entirely on its com- 
 merce and manufactures, and it is only through the wealth-pro- 
 ducing power of these pursuits that they can get their own rents 
 from their tenants, still they seem to despise every one who is in 
 any way connected with business of this kind, and call them, con- 
 temptuously, tradesmen. The mass of the people, however, seem 
 to submit to this ill treatment very patiently. Instead of com- 
 
 J 
 
THE ENGLISH ARISTOCRACY. 151 
 
 plaining, they seem rather pleased that there is in their country so 
 exalted a class to crown and adorn their system of society. 
 
 Explain the system of government hy which the aristocracy 
 exercise their control. 
 
 The aristocracy govern the country through Parliament. They 
 themselves constitute the House of Lords, and they have power 
 and influence enough to control the House of Commons, so that 
 both houses virtually represent the upper classes alone. They 
 have arranged it so that the king can not carry on the government 
 himself. He must appoint ministers to do it. But the ministers 
 can do nothing without Parliament, for Parliament supplies all the 
 money. Thus, if tlie ministers do not do what pleases Parliament, 
 they are obliged immediately to roeign, and no other minister will 
 take their places except such as are willing to do what Parliament 
 wishes, for they know it would be useless. 
 
 What is the position of the sovereign under this syst&ni f 
 
 Thus the king, as the sovereign, is entirely powerless. It is 
 the same with the queen. She lives in splendid palaces, and is 
 followed by a magnificent retinue, and expends a vast amount of 
 money, and is looked up to by the nation at large as a sort of ideal 
 liead — a focus, as it were, for the concentration of the rays of pa- 
 triotism and loyalty, while the aristocracy alone govern the land. 
 
 What is the law of primogeniture^ and lohat is the o2}eration 
 of it? 
 
 The aristocracy of England is rendered permanent from gen- 
 eration to generation by the law of primogeniture. Primogeni- 
 ture means ^r^^ hirth^ and the law of primogeniture ordains that 
 when a nobleman dies, all his landed estate, the property from 
 which he derives his annual wealth and all his importance, is not 
 divided among his children, but goes entire to the oldest son. 
 Were it not for this, these great estates would soon be divided 
 up, and the families of the aristocracy would descend to the gen- 
 eral level of society. The law of primogeniture, however, holds 
 
15L THE ENGLISH AEISTOCRACY. 
 
 the property together, and hands it down from one generation to 
 another entire. The law is expressly intended for the purpose of 
 thus maintaining the ascendency of the privileged class, from gen- 
 eration to generation, through all time. 
 
 What becomes of the younger sons of the aristocracy f 
 
 The younger sons of the aristocracy are not left entirely desti- 
 tute, for their fathers, though they can not give them any share 
 of the ancient family inheritance, can still, if they please, lay up 
 and save something for them from their annual income. Then 
 there are three employments which they can engage in that are 
 considered genteel, and only three. They may enter the army, 
 or the navy, or the Church. 
 
 How are the ariny, the navy^ and the Church managed so (2sy 
 to sustain this system f 
 
 It is partly to provide places and income for the younger sonj 
 of the nobility that the army, and the navy, and the Church oi 
 England have been organized on their present footing. They are 
 all arranged on the grandest scale, and in all the higher ranks oi 
 each the pay and emoluments are very great. All these offices 
 are kept closely reserved for the families and relatives of the aris- 
 tocracy. The industrial class throughout the kingdom are, witl 
 very few and rare exceptions, entirely excluded from them. 
 
 What has been the general condition of the kingdom tender it 
 government of the aristocracy f 
 
 The English aristocracy has controlled the government of the 
 country now for about one hundred and fifty years, and during this 
 time the greatness, power, and wealth of the kingdom has risen to 
 a higher elevation, perhaps, than any nation ever attained before. 
 
 What is the true foundation of this prosperity f 
 
 The secret of this apparent prosperity and success is,^ not the 
 wise and good management of the governing classes, but the im- 
 mense power that has been put into their hands through the na-. 
 tional wealth created by the producing classes. 
 
THE ENGLISH AEISTOCRACY. 153 
 
 How has the government itself been managed f 
 
 The government itself has still been managed with great ability. 
 The army and navy have usually been victorious in all the wars 
 that England has been engaged in. By means of them the power 
 of the kingdom has been extended all over the world, and immense 
 extents of country have been brought under British' sway, and are 
 now held as possessions or colonies. 
 
 What is the system of rewards offered to distinguished public 
 servants f 
 
 Many very great and distinguished commanders have arisen from 
 time to time, and have acquired a very exalted military fame. The 
 government h*ave encouraged these efforts by rewarding successful 
 generals and statesmen in the most profuse and generous manner. 
 They raise them to the highest rank of the nobility, and grant 
 them immense estates, and render to them, during all the remain- 
 der of their lives, the most distinguished honors. On the follow- 
 ing page is an engraving representing a palace built at the expense 
 of the government for one of these heroes, the Duke of Marlborough, 
 who flourished in the reign of Queen Anne. The name of the pal- 
 ace is Blenheim House. It was so named in commemoration of 
 one of the duke's greatest battles, which was fought at a place on 
 the Continent called Blenheim. 
 
 What are the two great sources of the mechanical and manu- 
 facturing power of Great Britain f 
 
 While England has been thus, for the last century and a half, 
 extending its power externally all over the world, it has been ad- 
 vancing still more rapidly in internal wealth and prosperity. In- 
 deed, it is undoubtedly to the increase of wealth, and of mechani- 
 cal and manufacturing power within the country, that its external 
 prosperity is mainly owing. In the northwestern part of the isl- 
 and there lie immense beds of iron and coal, at a distance of a few 
 hundred feet below the surface, and these mines, opened and work- 
 ed with the skill and energy that characterize the English people, 
 
154 
 
 THE ENGLISH ARISTOCEACY. 
 
 JOHN CHURCHILL'S PRESENT. 
 
 have proved an inexhaustible source of wealth and power. The 
 people have exercised a great deal of inventive genius, too, in 
 turning these resources to good account. They have invented the 
 steam-engine, and the spinning-jenny, and the power-loom, and a 
 multitude of other labor-saving engines, by which a few men, with 
 the help of coal, can do the work of thousands. It is the coal, and 
 not the steam, that is the real source of power. The steam is only 
 the vehicle of it. 
 
 Describe the situation and the appearance of the manufac- 
 turing district. 
 
 In the northwestern part of England there is a large tract of 
 country that is entirely covered with these mining and manufac- 
 turing establishments. Every valley is filled with villages of work- 
 shops and forges. Tall chimneys, pouring out great volumes of 
 
THE ENGLISH ARISTOCRACY. 
 
 155 
 
 ENGLISH IRON-WORKS. 
 
 dense black smoke day and night, rise every where into the air, 
 and little railways, like a complicated network, with trains of coal- 
 vans, iron-vans, and cars loaded with every other species of mer- 
 chandise, cover the ground. The sound of the hammer and the 
 puff of steam fill the air by day, while lurid fires, illuminating the 
 whole horizon, glow at night. The spectacle is truly sublime. 
 
 Describe the commercial system of England. 
 
 Besides her manufacturing arts, England has been greatly en- 
 riched, also, by commerce. The merchants have built ships, and 
 sent them all over the world to buy the products of every land, and 
 bring them home to the immense docks and depots that they have 
 established in Liverpool and London. There the whole world 
 comes to buy, and thus England has made herself the centre, as it 
 were, of the commerce and navigation of the whole human race. 
 
 What important checks has the progress of the British empire 
 received f 
 
 These are the true elements of the wealth, prosperity, and pow- 
 
156 THE ENGLISH ARISTOCRACY. 
 
 er of England, and through their influence the grandeur of the king- 
 dom, and its influence in the world, have been steadily increased 
 ever since the aristocracy came into power. The empire has, how- 
 ever, met with some checks and reverses. The most important, 
 perhaps, of all was the separation of the American colonies from 
 the mother country in 1776. 
 
 What was the came of the separation of the colonies from the 
 mother country f 
 
 The cause of this separation was, that these colonies became 
 very strong, and at last they found themselves unwilling to be 
 any longer governed by a company of proud nobles three thousand 
 miles away, in the only way in which the English aristocracy could 
 govern them consistently with their general system — that is, by 
 keeping the power entirely in their own hands, and compelling the 
 colonies to submit. The colonies insisted that if they were taxed 
 to pay the general expenses of the empire, they ought to have a 
 voice in the government. This the aristocracy could not accede 
 to without departing entirely from their principle, which was, that 
 the empire should, be ruled by the privileged class, since there 
 were none of that class in the colonies. This dispute ended in a 
 war, and the war ended in separating the colonies from the mother 
 country, and establishing in America a separate and independent 
 government. 
 
 THE END. 
 
I 
 
HARPER'S SCHOOL HISTOIUES. 
 
 HARPER'S 
 AMERICAN HISTORY 
 
 FOR TUE USE OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 BY JACOB ABBOTT. 
 
 COPIOUSLY AND BfCAUTIFULFY ILLUSTRATED WITH 
 
 ittaps anb ^ngrarings, 
 
 AND PKEPAKKD WITH QUESTIONS FOR THE CjONVENIENCE OF THE TEAOIIEIi. 
 
 ( 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 HARPEK & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 
 
 FRANKLIN SQUARE, 
 
 1870. 
 
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight hundred 
 and fifty-six, by 
 
 HARPER & BROTHERS, 
 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District of New York. 
 
TO THE TEACHEK. 
 
 The present volume forms one section of a connected work, 
 which is intended as a complete text-book of general history for 
 the use of schools. It does not consist, as is often the case with 
 books of this class, of a condensed summary of names, dates, and 
 detached chronological events, but presents, in a simple and con- 
 nected narrative, a general view of the great leading events that 
 have occurred in the history of the world, beginning at the ear- 
 liest periods, and coming down through the Assyrian, Persian, 
 Grecian, Roman, and British empires, to the organization of the 
 American Republic, and the establishment of the American Con- 
 stitution. It is intended for Americans, and the narrative conse- 
 quently follows the line which leads to, and is most directly con- 
 nected with, the events of our own history. 
 
 For convenience of use, the work is published in three sections, 
 Ancient Histoey, English History, and American History. 
 Each volume is fully illustrated with maps and engravings, and 
 is prepared with questions on a new and very convenient plan 
 for the use of teachers. 
 
 In using the work, the teacher is requested to call the special 
 attention of the class to the following directions in respect to the 
 mode ^of studying the book, before they commence it. 
 
 Directions to the Pwpil in stvdying the Book. 
 
 1. The pupil must observe that, though there is a question at 
 the head of each paragraph, still the paragraph is not itself a mere 
 
VI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 answer to the question. It is a general statement which contains 
 the answer. In other words, the book is not a catechism of his- 
 tory, but a connected narrative, written without regard to the 
 questions. These, having been afterward introduced, are placed 
 at the heads of the paragraphs instead of at the foot of the page, 
 solely for the convenience of the teacher. In studying the les' 
 sons, therefore, you must not be satisfied with merely searching 
 in each paragraph for a few words or phrases which will serve as 
 an answer to the question placed at the head of it, but you must 
 study attentively the statements made in its paragraph in connec- 
 tion with what precedes it, so as to peruse the whole as part of a 
 connected story, and make yourself fully acquainted with all that 
 it^ contains. To this end, read the paragraph twice in a very care- 
 ful manner, thinking while you read, not of the question, but of 
 the facts which the paragraph states, and of their connection with 
 the main thread of the story. In other words, while you are read- 
 ing the paragraph, dismiss the questions entirely from your mind, 
 and think only of the general course of the narrative. After you 
 have thus become completely master of the sense of the paragraph, 
 then read the questions, and from your own knowledge of the sub- 
 ject, as obtained from the perusal of the paragraph, frame an an- 
 swer to them yourself in your own language. 
 
 By this means you will receive into your mind, and fix there, 
 a clear idea of the course of events described in the narrative. 
 You will make the knowledge imparted by the book your own, 
 and you will have it at command in the form in which yq,u will 
 require it for the purposes of reading and conversation in future 
 life ; whereas, if, as is very often practiced, you only look over the 
 paragraph for the purpose of marking with a pencil certain words 
 or phrases to be repeated by rote at the recitation as an answer 
 
INTRODUCTION. vii 
 
 to the question, you do not study history at all ; you merely learn 
 to repeat mechanically a set form of words. 
 
 2. At the recitation, give your answers to the questions asked 
 you fluently, in a narrative form, and in your own language. 
 Such a work as this, studied and recited in the proper way, will 
 be of great service to you in increasing jouy command of lan- 
 guage, and thus improving your power of expressing yourself 
 in conversation. This, indeed, is one of the great advantages of 
 such a study. 
 
 3. Find every place mentioned in the work upon the map, and 
 keep the relative situations of these places in mind as you go on 
 with the narrative. This will greatly assist you in understanding 
 the story, and in giving to the transactions described, in your con- 
 ceptions of them, the effect of reality. 
 
 Jacob Abbott. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CUA.PTKR PAGE 
 
 I. THE ABORIGINES 13 
 
 II. COLUMBUS 22 
 
 III. SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA 35 
 
 IV. SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK 44 
 
 V. SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND 51 
 
 VI. THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT , 62 
 
 VII. THE AMERICAN CONGRESS 75 
 
 VIII. COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR , 79 
 
 IX. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 89 
 
 X. PROGRESS OF THE WAR 97 
 
 XI. EXPEDITION OF BURGOYNE 109 
 
 XII. THE FRENCH ALLIANCE « 118 
 
 XIII. THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD 123 
 
 XIV. THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS 136 
 
 XV. THE ORGANIZATION OF THE FEDERAL UNION 146 
 
ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 WIGWAMS 15 
 
 INTERIOR OF A WIGWAM 16 
 
 INDIAN WARRIORS 17 
 
 THE AMBUSH 20 
 
 INDIAN CAROUSALS 21 
 
 PORTRAIT OF COLUMBUS 24 
 
 QUEEN ISABELLA 29 
 
 THE CARAVEL 30 
 
 LANDING OF COLUMBUS 34 
 
 ONE OF Raleigh's ships 38 
 
 PORTRAIT OF SMITH 39 
 
 POCAHONTAS , 43 
 
 BEGINNING OF SHIP-BUILDING IN NEW YORK 4G 
 
 NEGOTIATING WITH THE INDIANS 48 
 
 NEW YORK IN 1664 50 
 
 MAP OF PLYMOUTH BAY - 58 
 
 LANDING OF THE WALLOONS 60 
 
 FRAGMENT OF THE PLYMOUTH ROCK 61 
 
 THE PLYMOUTH ROCK 61 
 
 THE governor's HOUSE 63 
 
 colonial troops on a march 65 
 
 the troops surprised 66 
 
 the post-master general 68 
 
 the boston massacre '• 73 
 
 throwing the tea overboard 74 
 
 independence hall 78 
 
 monument on bunker hill 85 
 
 Washington's head-quarters at Cambridge 86 
 
 VIEW OF boston FROM DORCHESTER HEIGHTS 87 
 
 ADAMS, SHERMAN, LIVINGSTON, JEFFERSON, FRANKI.iN 95 
 
 JEFFERSON READING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 96 
 
 WASHINGTON BEFORE HE WAS APPOINTED TO THE COMMAND 101 
 
 WASHINGTON'S HEAD-QUARTERS AT TAPPAN •••• 102 
 
Xll * ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 avashington's tent 103 
 
 the camp-chest 104 
 
 avashington crossing the delaavare 107 
 
 battle of trenton 108 
 
 burgoyne and the indian chiefs ill 
 
 BDRGOYNE's ENCAMPMENT ON THE HUDSON 117 
 
 franklin at the french court 121 
 
 benedict arnold 124 
 
 view in the highlands 124 
 
 robinson's house 126 
 
 major andre • 128 
 
 map of the scene of arnold's treason 129 
 
 smith's house 130 
 
 lord cornwallis 137 
 
 remains of the intrenchments at torktoavn 138 
 
 surrender of cornwallis 144 
 
 mount vernon 153 
 
 i 
 
AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE ABORIGINES. * 
 
 What was the condition of the American continent when it 
 was first discovered f 
 
 The word Aborigines means the original inhabitants of any 
 country. The Aborigines of America were Indians. Before the 
 country was discovered by the Europeans it was quite thickly in- 
 habited, through the whole extent of it, by a great many distinct 
 nations or tribes of Indians. They lived, in a great measure, like 
 wild animals. 
 
 Describe the general characteristics of the Lidians. 
 
 The different nations and tribes of these Indians were very dis- 
 tinct from each other, while yet there was a general resemblance 
 among them all.^ Their faces were of a copper color, and their hair 
 was long, black, and straight. Their cheek-bones were high, and 
 this gave their countenances a peculiar and a singular expression. 
 
 What words of their language still remain in use among us ? 
 
 The different nations spoke different languages, and yet there 
 was a general resemblance among all, as if all had proceeded from 
 one origin. They had names for all the great rivers, lakes, mount- 
 ains, and other natural features of the country. Some of the 
 names of places in use at the present day are Indian names. 
 Other places have been named anew by the English or French 
 people who discovered and settled the country. 
 
14 THE ABOEIGINES. 
 
 How does it hcqypen that inany of the Indian names are so 
 lo7ig f 
 
 Some of the Indian names are these : Kennebec, Androscoggin, 
 Monadnoc, which is a mountain, Mississippi, Missouri, Cayuga, 
 Michigan, Michilimackinac, Ompompanoosuc. Some of the names 
 are pretty long. The reason is that they are made up of several 
 different words, as the Indians spoke them, while we write them 
 as one word ; just as if the Indians were to go to England, where 
 there is a place called- The Elephant and Castle, and were to write 
 and call it Elephantandcastle, or were to call The mouth of the 
 River The Mouthoftheriver. 
 
 What exa7nj)les can yoic pive of English names of places sub- 
 stituted for the Indian ones? 
 
 Europeans thus retained many of the Indian names of the places 
 in this country, but to other places they gave names of their own. 
 These are some of the names of their own which they gave : the 
 White Mountains, the Green Mountains, Hudson River, New 
 York. The Indian name for the place where New York now 
 stands was Manhattan. 
 
 Which are generally to he 2yTeferred^ the English or the Indian 
 nam^es f 
 
 Some persons like the Indian names best, but others think 
 they have an uncouth and barbarous sound. At any rate, by 
 reading them, we form some idea of the sound of the language 
 which the Indians used. 
 
 Describe the wigwams that the Indians lived in. 
 
 The Indians were accustomed to live in huts which they called 
 wigwams. These were made in various ways, but were always 
 light and easily taken to pieces, in order that they might be re- 
 moved from place to place, as the Indians rambled about in search 
 of game. On the opposite page is a view of three or four Indian 
 wigwams standing on the bank of a stream. The frames of them 
 are made, as you see, by poles set in the ground, and tied together 
 
THE ABORIGINES. 
 
 15 
 
 WIGWAMS 
 
 at the top, and they are covered with sheets formed of cloth, or of 
 the bark of trees, or mats, or some other suitable material, such as 
 the Indians could make 'or procure. There is a small opening left 
 on one side to serve as a door. The interior of these wigwams 
 would seem to us to be comfortless enough. And they must have 
 been really comfortless to the Indians sometimes, especially when 
 all the family were driven into them by cold weather or storms. 
 
16 
 
 THE ABOKIGINES. 
 
 Tliey could have a fire, it is true, but there was no chimney other 
 than an opening in the roof to allow the smoke to go out. 
 
 l.STERIOR OF A WIGWAM. 
 
 Did they possess any means of navigation f 
 
 The Indians liked very much to build their wigwams on the 
 banks of rivers and lakes, and they liked, too, to travel on rivers 
 and lakes in going from place to place in search of new hunting- 
 grounds. For this purpose, they used to make boats in various 
 ways. 
 
 What were the different ways they had of maJcing boats f 
 
 One way was to cut down a tree with a stone hatchet, and then 
 fashion the trunk of it into the form of a boat. We see such a 
 boat as this in the picture of the wigwams. Another way of mak- 
 ing boats which the Indians practiced was to make a frame of slen- 
 der withes of wood, and then cover it with sheets of birch bark. 
 This birch bark is very thin and flexible. It peels off from the 
 
THE ABORIGINES. 
 
 17 
 
 tree almost like paper. The Indians make very light and tight 
 boats in this way. 
 
 Give an account of the way in which they managed in remov- 
 ing from jplace to jplace. 
 
 When they could find no more animals to hunt in the place 
 where they were, they would take down their wigwams, and roll 
 up the coverings, and put them in their boats, and then take their 
 wives and children, and the few household implements they pos- 
 sessed, and sail away to some new place where there was a probabil- 
 ity that game might be more plentiful. The poles of their wig- 
 wams they would leave behind. 
 
 What were their modes of taking game f 
 
 The Indians had two ways of taking the animals they required 
 for food. One way was to catch them in traps, and the other way 
 was to shoot them with bows and arrows, or kill them with spears. 
 The business of hunting, and also of fighting the other tribes in 
 case of war, belonged to the men. All other kinds of work be- 
 longed to the women. 
 
 What toas their idea of dress f 
 
 The men, in time of war, felt great pride in adorning themselves 
 with gay dresses, and in fabricating arms of nice workmanship. 
 The engraving below represents a party of Indian warriors ready to 
 
 INDIAN WARRIORS. 
 
 B 
 
18 THE ABOEIGINES. 
 
 go forth to battle, as they appear at the present day. Their arms 
 consist of bows and arrows, battle-axes, clubs, and one of them 
 has a gun. The gun, of course, the Indians did not make them- 
 selves. They purchase such things as these of white persons now, 
 and before the whites came they had no giins. Observe how they 
 have ornamented their persons with feathers and embroidery. One 
 of them has a scalp in his hand, which he has taken from the 
 head of his enemy. 
 
 How do mankind generally seem to regard the work of war f 
 One would suppose that the work of going forth to kill his fel- 
 low-creatures, if man could ever be induced to consider it his duty 
 at all, would seem to him the most painful and distressing duty 
 that he could possibly be called upon to perform ; but, instead of 
 this, there is nothing that man seems so to rejoice in. In all na- 
 tions, savage and civilized, he decks himself, when he is going out 
 to fight and kill, in the most gay and gaudy colors, and provides 
 the most animating music, and takes leave, of his friends and his 
 home with songs and dances, and fetes of rejoicing, as if the dread- 
 ful occupation before him filled him with anticipations of delight. 
 What were the opinions of the Indians in respect to the differ- 
 ent pursuits of life f 
 
 The Indians were proud and happy when they were engaged in 
 combat with the tribes around them. Next to these wars they 
 were best pleased with hunting, for this was a species of fighting, 
 the wild animals in the forests that they pursued being looked 
 upon somewhat as foes. They, however, despised all labor. They 
 sometimes possessed fields of corn, but they compelled the women 
 to plant and hoe it, and to perform all other domestic labors. 
 They would themselves do nothing when at home except make 
 bows and arrows, or carve ornaments upon their clubs, or fashion 
 other warlike weapons. To hunt and to fight was honorable, but 
 labor in any branch of useful industry they considered beneath 
 them. 
 
THE ABORIGINES. 19 
 
 Is there any thing analogous to this among civilized nations ? 
 
 There is a large class of aristocratic personages in many highly 
 civilized countries who entertain the same ideas. They are will- 
 ing to hunt and fight, and to rule over and govern other men, but 
 they look with scorn on every species of peaceful industry. This 
 is particularly the case in the monarchical countries of Europe. 
 The aristocracy of England have always entertained these ideas, 
 and perhaps never more strongly than at the present day. 
 
 What Indian nations attained to some degree of civilization f 
 
 In Mexico and in some parts of South America there were sev- 
 eral aboriginal nations that had made great advances in civiliza- 
 tion before America was discovered by the Europeans. They had 
 built towns, palaces, and temples, and had made great advances 
 in many of the arts of life ; but those that lived within the pres- 
 ent limits of the United States were mere wandering tribes, that 
 existed almost altogether on the natural productions of the forest, 
 and possessed scarcely any permanent habitations. 
 
 What became of the Indians and of their lands when the Eu- 
 ropeans came to settle in the country f 
 
 When America was discovered and began to be settled by the 
 whites, the Indians were gradually forced to retire from those parts 
 of the country which the white men occupied. Sometimes the 
 white men would buy the lands of the Indians, paying them in 
 blankets, knives, axes, guns, gunpowder, and rum, and such other 
 things as the Indians could use in their wild and wandering mode 
 of life. 
 
 Describe the quarrels that sometimes arose. 
 
 Occasionally quarrels would arise, which would lead to wars be- 
 tween the Indian tribes and the white settlers. In these cases, 
 the Indians would sometimes come rushing into the villages at 
 midnight with dreadful yells and outcries, and massacre ihQ in- 
 habitants and burn the houses. At other times they would lurk 
 in ambush among the trees near the fields where the white men 
 
20 THE ABORIGINES. 
 
 INDIANS IN AMBUSH. 
 
 were at work, and shoot them with the guns and gunpowder which 
 they had bought of them before. 
 
 Give an account of the captives which the Bidians made^ and 
 of their way of treating them. 
 
 Not unfrequently it happened that children from the families of 
 some of the settlers were seized and carried off as captives, and 
 kept in the wigwam for many years. Whenever the Indians suc- 
 ceeded in getting a white child in their possession in this way, 
 they usually treated him kindly, and often made him a favorite and 
 pet. They regarded him and treated him much as a boy would 
 treat a young squirrel or young fox that he had succeeded in catch- 
 ing in the woods and bringing home. Still it was a dreadful ca- 
 lamity to the poor child to be taken thus away from his father 
 and mother, and from the comforts and pleasures of his home, and 
 compelled to dwell all his life with these rude and cruel s^-vages. 
 As for the mothers of these unhappy captives, they were almost 
 heart-broken to lose their children thus. They were generally far 
 
THE ABOEIGINES. 21 
 
 more distressed than they would have been in following them to 
 their graves. 
 
 What effects did a state of ])eace vnth the Europeans 'produce 
 on the Indians f 
 
 Sometimes the Indian tribes and the people of the white settle- 
 ments that were near them would live for a considerable period at 
 peace with each other ; but the Indians were generally as much 
 injured by the peaceful intercourse with the whites as by the wars. 
 The chief articles that they bought of the white men were gun- 
 powder and rum, and the rum exerted an awful influence in de- 
 moralizing and destroying them. The effect of it upon them was 
 to make them perfectly insane, and the imagination can scarcely 
 
 INDIAN CAROUSALS. 
 
 conceive the horrors of the drunken orgies which were sometimes 
 witnessed around their midnight fires. 
 
 What is the present state of the Indian tribes ? 
 
 From these causes the Indians have been gradually melting 
 away and disappearing, until now there are few left on this side of 
 the Mississippi Kiver. Beyond the Mississippi the country is still 
 
22 COLUMBUS. 
 
 filled with them, but their numbers are gradually diminishing, and 
 there is no doubt that in time they will entirely disappear. 
 
 What dealings does the government of the United States have 
 with them ? 
 
 The government of the United States makes treaties with the 
 different tribes from time to time for the purpose of purchasing 
 their lands, as fast as they are wanted for the use of the white set- 
 tlers. It pays them for these lands in goods of various kinds, 
 such as the Indians requu-e for their use, and sometimes in mon- 
 ey. Delegations from these tribes often go to Washington to con- 
 fer with the President and the government in respect to these 
 treaties, and other such business. In such cases they are always 
 very kindly received, and treated with great courtesy. 
 
 Do any remnants of the eastern tribes still remain f 
 
 A few remains of the tribes that formerly occupied the country 
 on the Atlantic coast still exist. We sometimes see their en- 
 campments on the banks of streams, or near the borders of the 
 lakes, and sometimes we see individuals of the race, dressed in 
 their own peculiar garb, in the streets of cities and towns. They, 
 however, remain completely distinct from the white population, and 
 still live, and dress, and act almost entirely as their ancestors did 
 before the country was discovered. 
 
 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 COLUMBUS. 
 
 What was the reason that this continent remained so long un- 
 known to the Europeans? 
 
 For a great many centuries the continent of America remained 
 in the possession of those Indian tribes, without being known to 
 the rest of the world at all. The nations of Europe had not the 
 least idea of the existence of any such land or of any such people. 
 
COLUMBUS. 23 
 
 The distance across the Atlantic Ocean from Europe to America 
 is about three thousand miles, and that was farther than any ships 
 had then ever sailed away from the shore. They had made pretty 
 distant voyages in those days along the coast, but they had never 
 gone very far out upon the open sea. 
 
 Why had not the navigators of those days made long voyages 
 on the open sea f 
 
 The reason why they did not venture far away from the land in 
 those days was because they had then no means of guiding their 
 ships on their course. The mariner's compass was not known, 
 and there was no way by which a ship could be guided, when out 
 of sight of land, except by the sun and the stars, and these, in 
 cloudy weather, could not be seen. Of course, it would be very 
 unsafe, under these circumstances, for a ship to venture far from 
 the shore. 
 
 When and hy whom was America discovered at last f 
 
 At length, between three and four hundred years ago, the exist- 
 ence of America was discovered, and the event, when it occurred, 
 produced among all the nations of Europe a feeling of great as- 
 tonishment. The first discovery was made by Christopher Co- 
 lumbus. The year was 1492. 
 
 What nations were most interested in malting discoveries in 
 those clays^ and what had they done f 
 
 It happened that at that period there was a great deal of inter- 
 est felt by many different nations in making voyages of discovery 
 in various parts of the world. The three nations that were most 
 engaged in these expeditions were the Spanish, the Portuguese, 
 and the Dutch. The governments of these countries fitted out 
 many ships for such purposes. Some they sent to the northern 
 shores of Europe to explore the Arctic Seas, and some they sent 
 to the southward, along the coast of Africa, on the way to India. 
 None, however, had yet attempted to venture very far across the 
 Atlantic, to see what could be found there. 
 
24 
 
 COLUMBUS. 
 
 (rive an account of Christopher Columhus. 
 
 At length, about 
 A.D. 1484, Chris- 
 topher Columbus 
 made his appear- 
 ance in Lisbon, at 
 that time a great 
 and celebrated sea- 
 port. He came in 
 from sea, but what 
 his previous histo- 
 ry had been no one 
 knows. And yet 
 he was then quite 
 advanced in life. 
 He was about for- 
 ty-eight years old. 
 In his figure and 
 bearing he was tall 
 and commanding, 
 and exceedingly graceful and winning, though very grave and se- 
 rious, in his manners. The above engraving represents a view of 
 him as he then appeared. His countenance expresses the grav- 
 ity and solemnity that mark his character. 
 
 What were his religious character and impressions f 
 He was a very devout man, and lived, as it seemed, in daily and 
 constant communion with God. It was inpressed strongly upon 
 his mind that God had destined him to the fulfillment of some high 
 and important duty, in which the welfare of mankind was deeply 
 concerned. Look upon his face, and observe the calm, but serious 
 and solemn expression that marks it. 
 
 Relate the circumstances of his marriage. 
 
 At the chapel where Columbus was accustomed to worship in 
 
 PORTRAIT OF COLUMBUS. 
 
COLUMBUS. ' 25 
 
 Lisbon, he saw and at length became acquainted with a lady 
 mamed Donna Felipa. He soon formed an attachment for her, and 
 after a time they Avere married. She was the daughter, as it hap- 
 pened, of a distinguished navigator of those days, and she had a 
 great many charts, journals, and other manuscripts which had be- 
 longed to her father. These Columbus read, and they tended to 
 deepen and strengthen the interest he had always felt for the sea. 
 
 How did Columbus reason in respect to the route to India f 
 
 Columbus knew that the earth was a globe, and that conse- 
 quently, if a person were to travel toward the east or toward the 
 west until they had gone far enough to encircle it, they would come 
 back again to the place that they set out from. Now various ad- 
 venturers in those days had gone to the eastward very far. Some 
 had journeyed across the continent by land. Others had gone 
 round through the southern oceans by water. They had finally 
 reached India, and Columbus supposed that if they had only gone 
 on somewhat farther, they would have come home again by the 
 way of the Atlantic Ocean, that is, from the opposite quarter of the 
 compass to that toward which they went away. They went away 
 toward the east, and they would come home, he thought, fi'om the 
 west. "And in the same manner," said he to himself, "if they 
 would sail to the west, they would soon reach India, and so might 
 come home fr*om toward the east." 
 
 Describe the illustration introduced to explain how the circum- 
 ference of the earth may be measured vnthout going round it, 
 
 Columbus thought he knew pretty correctly how large the earth 
 was, and how great the distance was which must be sailed to go 
 around it. It may seem strange that this could be known at all 
 when nobody had actually gone round it to measure the distance. 
 It was something like this. Suppose, in walking in the country, 
 you were to come to a large circular field, inclosed with a high 
 fence, so that you could not see what was within. You undertake 
 to walk around it. Now, by noticing the curvature of the bound- 
 
26 COLUMBUS. 
 
 ary as you go along, and comparing the distance tliat you travel 
 witli it, you could form a pretty accurate judgment of the portion 
 of the circumference that you had passed over at any time. You 
 would say, "We must be a quarter round, or we must be half 
 round," as the case might be. A mathematician, who had instru- 
 ments to measure the curvature and the distance, could, in such a 
 case, tell exactly, at any time, how much of the circle was still left. 
 
 What portion of the earths circumference did Goluinbus sup- 
 pose to have been explored? 
 
 This is precisely the case in going round the earth. The curva- 
 ture of tlie part that any navigator traverses can easily be meas- 
 ured by means of instruments and observations of the stars. It 
 was in this way that Columbus knew what portion of the circum- 
 ference of the earth remained to be explored. He thought it was 
 about one third of the whole ; and that the portion which had been 
 already passed over by travelers, from the shores of the Atlantic to 
 the easternmost known portions of India, was about two thirds. 
 
 Uoio far iDas Columbus right in his calculations f 
 
 Columbus was right in the theory of his calculations, but not 
 entirely correct in the results. Instead of there being only one 
 third of the earth's circumference remaining to be explored, there 
 was more than half. Such an error as this is what happens al- 
 most invariably to inventors and discoverers. They see very 
 clearly the end which they wish to attain, and are right in respect 
 to the theoretical truth and practicability of it, but they underes- 
 timate altogether the length or the difficulties of the way. 
 
 What idea did Colmnhus form of the situation of India? 
 
 Columbus had, of course, no means of knowing whether the 
 whole of the distance which yet remained to be explored of the 
 earth's circumference was water or not, but he supposed that a 
 great part of it was land. He thought that India extended much 
 fartlier round the world toward the east, beyond where any Euro- 
 pean travelers had been. It might very probably, he thought, 
 
COLUMBUS. 27 
 
 extend so far that only a short distance would remain across the 
 Atlantic Ocean to the European shores. At any rate, he resolved 
 ^that, if in any way he could obtain ships and sailors, he would set 
 jail to the west from Europe, and go on till he came to land. 
 
 What were the motives that induced Columbus to set out 07i 
 his voyage f 
 
 In forming these plans and designs, Columbus was actuated in 
 a very high degree by the spirit of lofty religious devotion that 
 marked his character. Mingled with this, however, there were 
 strong impulses of worldly ambition, and love of wealth and pow- 
 er. He truly thought that, by opening a near way to India by 
 the west, he should promote the glory of God and advance his 
 kingdom ; but he also intended, at the same time, to acquire glory 
 for himself and a lofty position in the world. 
 
 Describe the efforts which Columbus made to obtain shijps and 
 men^ and the arguments that he used. 
 
 He went to one after another of the princes and kings of the 
 countries in that part of Europe, made known to them his plans, 
 and asked their assistance in executing them. He explained to 
 them the reasons which led him to believe that there was a short 
 way to India across the Atlantic to the west, and that a vast in- 
 crease of power and boundless wealth would be the reward of the 
 nation that should first discover and open it. He showed them 
 that India must be accessible in that direction from the very form 
 of the earth ; and the confines of it, he was convinced, must be 
 near. The most westerly lands that were known in that direction 
 were the Azores and the Cape de Verd Islands ; and on these isl- 
 ands great trees, he said, had sometimes drifted in from the west, 
 and pieces of carved wood ; and once the bodies of two men, dif- 
 ferent in color and visage from any of the inhabitants of the then 
 known world, had been washed up on the shores from the sea. 
 These things proved not only that there was land in that direction, 
 but that it could not be at any great distance. 
 
28 COLUMBUS. 
 
 For hoio long a time were these efforts fruitless f 
 
 For ten or twelve long years Columbus persevered in vain and 
 fruitless attempts to induce some of the kings or princes of Eu- 
 rope to adopt his plans. The difficulties and delays which he en- 
 countered were exceedingly wearisome and discouraging. Some- 
 times he wasted months in fniitless attempts to obtain even an 
 opportunity to explain his plans. When at length he succeeded 
 in gaining an audience, the officers appointed to hear him in some 
 instances would condemn the plan before they understood it. At 
 other times they would make promises, and then wear out Colum- 
 bus's patience by endless delays. Sometimes a government would 
 give him encouragement in order to prevent his making proposals 
 to any other government, while they had really no intention of 
 adopting his views themselves. But, notwithstanding all these 
 difficulties, Columbus still persevered. 
 
 Why was he so earnest to act under the authority of some gov- 
 ernment f 
 
 It would not have comported with his views to go out on the 
 expedition under a commission from private persons only. He 
 wished to be clothed with authority from some responsible and 
 powerful government to take possession of and govern the coun- 
 tries that he should discover. 
 
 What sovereign at last adopted his plans? 
 
 At last he succeeded in inducing the Queen of Spain to listen 
 to his plans. Her name was Isabella. Her husband was Ferdi- 
 nand. Ferdinand was opposed to the plan, but Isabella became 
 ■greatly interested in it, so much so that she said at last that if the 
 king would not consent to furnish money from the treasury to pro- 
 cure and equip the ships, she would pawn her jewels for the pur- 
 pose, and sell her crown of Castile. Castile had been her own 
 kingdom before her marriage with Ferdinand, though by her mar- 
 riage it was united with his, to form what is the present kingdom 
 of Spain. 
 
COLUMBUS. 
 
 29 
 
 In what resjpect was Isabella not satisfied with Columbus's 
 proposals f 
 
 Queen Isabella thought, however, that the demands which Co- 
 lumbus made for himself were 
 somewhat extravagant and 
 unreasonable, and for a long 
 time she refused to accede to 
 them. What he demanded 
 was to be made admiral and 
 viceroy over all the lands he 
 should discover. 
 
 Why VMS Isabella imvnll- 
 ing to make Columbus a vice- 
 roy? 
 
 The office of viceroy is an 
 office of the most exalted char- 
 acter, and is seldom conferred 
 upon any except the very 
 highest nobility. Isabella was 
 extremely unwilling to confer it upon Columbus, who, though an 
 intelligent and well educated man, still belonged to the middle 
 classes of society. He was, however, firm in his refusal to engage 
 in the enterprise at all except on that condition, and so Isabella 
 finally consented to it. 
 
 Give an account of the sailing of the expedition, 
 Isabella furnished Columbus with two small vessels, and he 
 himself, with the aid of some friends of his, provided a third. Thus 
 he had a little fleet of three vessels. These vessels were fitted 
 for sea at a small sea-port town in Spain called Palos, and when 
 all was ready Columbus set sail. The time when the little squad- 
 ron put to sea was about midsummer in the year 1492. He in- 
 tended to have sailed earlier in the season, but the embarkation 
 was delayed by many unexpected causes. 
 
 QUEEN ISABELLA. 
 
30 
 
 COLUMBUS. 
 
 THE CARAVEL. 
 
 What was a caravel f 
 
 The vessels which Columbus was provided with were very 
 
 small. They were of 
 the kind called cara- 
 vels^ used in those days 
 for voyages along the 
 coast. They had no 
 decks, and were fitted 
 with oars as well as 
 sails. The adjoining 
 engraving represents 
 the form and fashion 
 of one of these vessels. 
 It is astonishing that Columbus could have succeeded in crossing 
 the wide Atlantic in them. 
 
 Describe the course which Columbus pursued in crossing the 
 ocea7i. 
 
 Columbus sailed first for the Canary Islands, which lay toward 
 the south, off the coast of Africa, about one thousand miles from 
 his place of embarkation. He reached these islands in safety, 
 and stopped there a little time to rest his sailors and refit his ships. 
 It was about a month after he sailed from Spain that he took his 
 final departure from the Canaries, and turned the course of his 
 ships toward the west over the boundless ocean. The crews of 
 his ships were half afraid to go, but his calm and quiet resolution 
 reassured them. 
 
 How many miles a clay did they go ujpon an average f What 
 cause of alarm did they experience when they were six hundred 
 miles from land? 
 
 They went on without any thing serious occurring for about 
 six hundred miles. It took thirteen days to accomplish this dis- 
 tance. They then found, to their great surprise and alarm, that 
 the compass, which was their only guide when the sky was cloudy, 
 
COLUMBUS. 31 
 
 seemed to fail them. They could see at night, when the north star 
 was shining, that it did not point right. It is true it did not devi- 
 ate very far, but when it once began to wander, who could tell how 
 far its aberrations might proceed ? And how awful they thought 
 would be their condition if, while out on that boundless waste of 
 waters, a thousand miles from any shore, their only safe and sure 
 reliance in finding their way were to desert them ! 
 
 What toohjplace in respect to this difficulty between Columbus 
 and the sailors ? 
 
 The sailors were overwhelmed with teiTor at the danger which 
 threatened them, and insisted on immediately turning toward home. 
 Columbus, however, succeeded in quieting their fears in some meas- 
 ure so as still to continue the voyage. He told them that he un- 
 derstood the nature of the deviation of the compass, and that it 
 could not proceed very far. The needle would always, he said, 
 point near enough toward the north to be a very safe guide for 
 them. This was, in fact, true, though it is somewhat doubtful how 
 far Columbus actually knew it to be true at that time. The men, 
 iiowever, were reassured again by the courage, resolution, and en- 
 ergy of their commander, and they consented to proceed. 
 
 How did the voyage go on after this f 
 
 After this they went on very pleasantly for many days. The 
 sea was smooth, the air was balmy, and the wind was fair. Some- 
 times they passed great fields of sea-weed floating in the water. 
 This "was a sign of land ; for sea-weed grows only on the margin 
 of the shore. They saw birds, too, from time to time, wheeling in 
 the air. around the ship, or sweeping down and dipping the tips of 
 their wings in the crests of the waves. Columbus was sure that 
 they were approaching some shore. 
 
 Describe the calm:, and the effects of it. 
 
 But now the breeze gradually died away, and there fell a calm. 
 The calm continued for many days. The ships lay helpless and 
 motionless on the sea. They had oars, it is true, but the progress 
 
32 COLUMBUS. 
 
 which could be made with oars would be too slow to make it worth 
 the effort to attempt to use them. The sailors soon became more 
 impatient than ever. While the ships were going forward on their 
 way, and they themselves were employed in their various duties, 
 their minds were diverted in some measure from their fears, and 
 from their longings for home ; but after the calm had continued for 
 some days, they became so home-sick and discontented that they 
 were ready to break out into mutiny. Columbus had great diffi- 
 culty in subduing this rebellious spirit. He, however, did subdue 
 it ; and partly by threats, and partly by persuasions and promises, 
 he induced them to persevere. 
 
 Give an account of the first supposed discovery of the land. 
 
 Presently a gentle breeze began to blow again, and at length, 
 a few days afterward, just at sunset, a sailor climbed up to a high 
 place on the stern to look out, and immediately shouted, in a very 
 loud and excited manner, " Land ! Land !" They all hastened to 
 the place, and there they saw, as they thought, a line of coast like 
 that of an island, extending along the horizon in the southwestern 
 part of the sky. The land proved to be nothing but a cloud. 
 This was a great disappointment. Still Columbus would not de- 
 spair. He insisted on proceeding, and for a fortnight more the 
 fleet went on. 
 
 Describe the mutiny that tooh place among the sailors^ and the 
 way in which Colunnhus appeased them. 
 
 The patience of the sailors was then entirely exhausted. They 
 declared that they would go no farther, and as Columbus would 
 not yield, they mutinied against him, and were about to throw him 
 into the sea, when one evening they caught sight of a coast-fish 
 swimming by, and very soon afterward they saw a small branch 
 of a thorn-tree, with berries on it, floating in the water, and a sort 
 of staff, with figures carved upon it, which must have been cut by 
 the hand of man. Columbus told the sailors that he was confi- 
 dent that they would all see the land the next morning. 
 
COLUMBUS. 33 
 
 Give an account of the final discovery of the land. 
 
 He himself sat up all night to watch. The vessels sailed on. 
 Near midnight he thought he caught the sight of lights glimmer- 
 ing, as if on a shore. He went down, in his joy, into the cabin, 
 to call one or two of his officers up to look. They came, and soon 
 they saw a torch moving and waving. Columbus was overjoyed. 
 He remained on the look-out all night, and in the morning, as soon 
 as it was light, the land, in the shape of long and beautifully-wood- 
 ed shores, came out fully to view. 
 
 Describe the aj)pearance of the country. 
 
 Of course, the whole company of voyagers on board the several 
 ships were greatly excited at the spectacle. The air was filled 
 with birds of beautiful plumage, and perfumes of tropical plants and 
 trees, wafted from the shores, awakened their senses to an intox- 
 ication of delight. The natives, too, were seen gathered in groups 
 at all the prominent points along the shore, gazing with amazement 
 at the ships, wondering apparently what they could be. 
 
 In what light did Columbus regard the act of landing f 
 
 Columbus looked upon the act of landing, which was now to take 
 place, as a great official ceremony. By the performance of it, he 
 was to take possession of the newly-discovered countries in the 
 name of the King and Queen of Spain. According to the ideas 
 that then prevailed, none but Christian nations could have any true 
 or valid titles to the territories of the earth, and discovering lands 
 occupied only by heathen savages was like discovering property 
 wholly unappropriated. Thus, by the act which he was now about 
 to perform, he was, as he supposed, to establish the right of the 
 King of Spain to the sovereignty over America forever. 
 
 In what manlier did Columbus land? 
 
 Columbus prepared to land. He dressed himself in a splendic^ 
 military dress of scarlet embroidered with gold. The chief officers 
 of the ships, bearing banners in their hands, and presents for the 
 natives, accompanied him. He went to the shore in a small boat. 
 
 3 C 
 
34 
 
 COLUMBUS. 
 
 LANDING OF COLUMBUS. 
 
 He stepped out upon the sand elated with the most exalted feel- 
 ings of pride and joy, and with a heart full of gratitude to God for 
 having brought his hazardous enterprise thus to a successful ter- 
 mination. 
 
 What was the first act performed on the shore? 
 
 As soon as all had landed from the boat, they kneeled down and 
 chanted a hymn of thanksgiving and praise to God. Then rising, 
 Columbus formally made proclamation that he took possession of 
 
SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 35 
 
 the land in the name of the King and Queen of Spain. And thus 
 was the existence of America first discovered by the European 
 nations. 
 
 What inistake did Columbus make in respect to the land which 
 he had discovered f 
 
 The shore on which Columbus first landed proved to be one of 
 the West India islands. He named the country West India be- 
 cause he then supposed that it was a part of the same India that 
 had been known before to Europeans, and had been reached by 
 travelers to the east. It was afterward found that there was a very 
 wide ocean intervening between the land that Columbus discovered 
 and the Indies of ancient times ; but the new discoveries still re- 
 tained the name of West Indies which Columbus had given them. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 
 
 What icas the object of most of the expeditions that were fitted 
 out for America after it was discovered? 
 
 After Columbus had thus found the way to American shores, 
 a great many other expeditions were fitted out by different ad- 
 venturers, and so, at length, in the course of a hundred years, the 
 whole eastern part of the continent was explored. The chief ob- 
 ject of most of these expeditions was to procure gold and silver, 
 and other such treasures, which were obtained in various ways 
 from the natives in the West India islands and Mexico. It was 
 not till a great many years had passed away that any permanent 
 settlements were made on that part of the coast which now be- 
 longs to the United States. 
 
 Where was the first settlement made, and what difficulty did 
 the settlers first experience f 
 
 The first of these permanent settlements was made in Virginia, 
 
36 SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 
 
 in 1609, more than a hundred years after America was discovered. 
 There were attempts made to establish colonies about twenty 
 years before, but they had been defeated in consequence of a fool- 
 ish and wicked quarrel which the settlers fell into with the In- 
 dians. They thought that it was their wisest policy to treat the 
 Indians with great severity, in order to intimidate them ; but they 
 made a woeful mistake. The Indians were only exasperated. 
 The consequence was, that the colonists were entirely destroyed, 
 and the work of settling the country by Europeans was put oiF for 
 twenty years. 
 
 Give an account of the origin of the difficulty which took place 
 with the Indians. 
 
 The circumstances of the case were these : When the colonists 
 first landed from their ships, they were received by the Indians 
 very kindly. They were allowed to sail up the river without any 
 molestation, and to land and explore the country in all directions. 
 They had constant intercourse with the Indians by signs, and all 
 things went on very harmoniously, until at length, one day, a sil- 
 ver cup was missed from the camp. They thought that some of 
 the Indians must have stolen it. A difficulty arose on this ac- 
 count, and, in the end, the English, wishing to strike terror into the 
 minds of the savages, attacked and destroyed one of their villages 
 of wigwams, and burned their fields of corn, as a punishment for 
 stealing the cup, and failing to discover and give up the thief. The 
 poor Indians fled in dismay. They could not openly resist, for 
 they had no weapons with which they could meet a foe provided 
 with fire-arms. They, however, secretly resolved on revenge. 
 
 W7iat was the stratagem which the Indians devised in order 
 to revenge themselves f 
 
 When the vessels which had brought the company of colonists 
 over had gone back to England, and the colonists themselves were 
 left alone, one of the Indians came to the settlement, and told the 
 white men wonderful stories of a place that he could show them, 
 
SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 37 
 
 up one of the rivers, where they could find plenty of gold. The 
 colonists sent a party of men, with the Indian for a guide, to see 
 the place ; but the Indian, instead of showing them a gold mine, 
 led them into an ambuscade, where, to their surprise and conster- 
 nation, they were suddenly attacked by a shower of arrows issuing 
 from a thicket. 
 
 How did the colonists retaliate f 
 
 The colonists foolishly resolved to punish this treachery by 
 worse treachery of their own. They sent for one of the principal 
 Indian chiefs to come and visit them at their camp. He came 
 with a few followers. As soon as he was in their power, the 
 whites fell upon and massacred the chief himself and all who were 
 with him. Their object in this retaliation was to terrify and over- 
 awe the Indians, and make them afraid to perpetrate any future 
 acts of hostility against the whites. But the effect was the reverse 
 of this. Instead of exciting the fears of the Indians, it aroused 
 their anger, and awakened in them a deep spirit of revenge. 
 
 What luere the consequences of this quarrel f 
 
 The Indians, being thus incensed beyond measure, began to take 
 every means in their power to harass the colonists, and, if possible, 
 destroy them. They finally succeeded, and, some time afterward, 
 when more ships came from England to bring stores and supplies 
 for the colonists, they found nothing on the spot where they had 
 been left but bones bleaching in the sun. 
 
 Who was the jprincijpal leader in the attemjpts to colonize Vir- 
 ginia f 
 
 These attempts to colonize Virginia were made through the in- 
 fluence and under the general direction of a distinguished English- 
 man of wealth and high rank, named Sir Walter Raleigh. He 
 lived in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Queen Elizabeth was an 
 unmarried lady, and it was in honor of her that the part of Amer- 
 ica which Raleigh attempted to settle was called Virginia. She 
 was often called the virgin queen. 
 
38 SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 
 
 Give an account of RaleigJC s jplans and efforts. 
 Raleigh made several different attempts to establish colonies 
 in the country, and sent at different times 
 many ships, with fresh supplies of men and 
 stores. The people who went met with a 
 great variety of adventures, and endured 
 indescribable hardships and sufferings. 
 Raleigh him self finally became entirely dis- 
 couraged, and determined to give up the 
 attempt. 
 . ONE OF KALEiQH's SHIPS. Wkcn and lu wkat manner was the 
 
 London Company formed f 
 
 In the mean time, notwithstanding Raleigh's failures, a great 
 many people in England had become interested in the plan of set- 
 tling America, and, after several years had passed away, and the 
 difficulties and hardships of Raleigh's expeditions had been in some 
 measure forgotten, two companies of merchants were formed with 
 the design of attempting the experiment again. Queen Elizabeth, 
 in the mean time, had died, and King James the First succeeded 
 her. The companies that were formed were organized under pow- 
 ers given them by the king, and they were to be under the general 
 control of the king's government. The name of the company that 
 intended to make a settlement in Virginia was the London Com- 
 pany. It was so named because London merchants chiefly were 
 engaged in it. 
 
 What was the history of the first expedition sent out by the 
 London Company f 
 
 The London Company sent their first expedition to Virginia in 
 1606. It consisted of three small vessels, containing a colony of 
 one hundred and five men. They did not know, when they sailed, 
 who were to be the rulers of the colony. That was for the king 
 to decide. He had written, he said, the names of the persons who 
 were to rule on a paper, which he had put in a box and sealed up. 
 
SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 
 
 39 
 
 He gave the box to the captain of one of the ships, forbidding him 
 to open it until the expedition should arrive in America. What 
 reason the king could have had for such a foolish restriction as 
 this, one can not imagine, unless it was the pleasure of exercising 
 arbitrary power, and showing the colonists how completely sub- 
 ject they were to his control. 
 
 Give an account of the adventures of John Smith before he 
 came to Amey^ica. 
 
 Among the other members of this company was one man who 
 afterward became greatly celebrated in Virginian history on ac- 
 count of his daring and desperate spirit, and the romantic adven- 
 tures that he met with in the colony. His name was John Smith. 
 He was born in Willougby, in the eastern part of England. From 
 his earliest youth he was very wild and reckless. He attempt- 
 ed to run away when he was a boy in order to go to sea, and 
 
 he sold his school-books 
 in order to raise money. 
 He was stopped, howev- 
 er, before he got away, 
 and was bound appren- 
 tice to a merchant. He 
 yielded to this arrange- 
 ment at first, in expec- 
 tation that the merchant 
 would send him to sea ; 
 but, as soon as he found 
 that this was out of the 
 question, he forsook the 
 merchant, and went off 
 to the Continent. He 
 was, at this time, about 
 
 .OKTBAIT OF SMITH. ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ JJ^ 
 
 roamed about the world after this for ten years, during which time 
 
40 SETTLEMENT OF VIEGINIA. 
 
 he met with a series of the most remarkable adventures, and had 
 a great many hair-breadth escapes. 
 
 What ^position did the king intend to give him in the colony f 
 
 At last he came back to England, and when this company was 
 formed for going to Virginia, he concluded to join them. His name 
 was on the list that the king had nominated for the council, though 
 none of the colonists knew this until they arrived in America. 
 
 What occurred during the voyage f 
 
 On the voyage the colonists quarreled among themselves and 
 had a great deal of difficulty. They all took a strong dislike to 
 Smith. They accused him of forming a plot to murder the coun- 
 cil when their names should be revealed, in order to make himself 
 king of the colony. It is not at all improbable, considering his 
 character, that he may have given them some reason for entertain- 
 ing such suspicions of him. At any rate, they seized him and put 
 him in irons, and kept him confined during all the rest of the voy- 
 age. When they landed, they seemed, from some cause or other, 
 to relent, and they accordingly released him from his confinement, 
 but they would not allow him to retain his office as councilor. 
 
 What difficulties did the colonists incur on their landing f 
 
 As soon as the company landed, and began to choose a place 
 for their settlement, and to commence their preliminary labors, 
 they found themselves involved in many difficulties. These dif- 
 ficulties were increased by continual disputes and disagreements 
 with each other, and the courage and the energy that Smith dis- 
 played in these circumstances were so great that he soon made 
 himself the real leader of the enterprise. In fact, he was one of 
 those men who will lead wherever they are, and whose resolution 
 and energy rise higher and higher in proportion to the dangers 
 and difficulties that surround them. 
 
 How soon were the colonists able to obtain fresh supplies of 
 provisions f 
 
 The ships that had brought the colonists went back to England, 
 
SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 41 
 
 but they returned again the next year with fresh supplies and 
 more men. The colonists had suffered dreadfully during the in- 
 terval while the ships were gone, but now they were relieved, and 
 the settlement was considered as permanently established. 
 
 Describe the plan which Captain Smith now formed^ and the 
 arrangements that he made for accomplishing it. 
 
 Captain Smith, as he was called, now conceived the design of 
 making an exploring tour into the interior of the country. He 
 was never content unless he was engaged in some daring or dan- 
 gerous enterprise, and so, as soon as he and his companions were 
 safe from the danger of immediate starvation, he formed this plan, 
 which promised enough of difficulty and hazard to suit his adven- 
 turous spirit. He took an open boat, and a few companions like 
 himself, and set out. He had two friendly Indians with him to 
 serve as guides. 
 
 Give an account of the progress of the expedition and of the 
 attack of the savages. 
 
 He went on up the river for about fifty miles. Then the water 
 became so shallow that he could not go any farther in the boat ; 
 so he left the boat, with some men to guard it, and set off himself, 
 with" his guides and two companions, to continue his journey on 
 foot. He went on for some distance safely, but at last his party 
 was attacked by a troop of savages that burst upon them sudden- 
 ly out of a thicket. The savages had seen the boat, killed the men 
 who had been left to guard it, and now had tracked Smith and 
 his party to this place. 
 
 Describe the combat of Smith with the Indians. 
 
 At the time when they came up. Smith's two companions were 
 asleep by their camp-fire. The Indians killed these men instant- 
 ly, and then pursued Smith, and when they came up with him, 
 they surrounded him and wounded him with an arrow. Smith 
 immediately fastened one of his guides to his left arm, and held 
 him there as a shield to keep off the arrows of the Indians, and 
 
42 SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 
 
 then, with his gun, he killed three of the foremost of his assailants 
 one after another, retreating all the time as he fired, in hopes of 
 making his way back to his canoe. Presently, however, he came 
 to a swampy place in the ground, and there sank in the mire so 
 tliat he became entirely helpless, and then the Indians came up 
 and made him prisoner. 
 
 How did the savages treat Captain Smith f 
 
 The savages took their prisoner to their wigwams, and began 
 to treat him at once with the greatest kindness and consideration. 
 They gave him an abundance to eat and drink, and showed him 
 all other possible favors. Smith was at first frightened at this. 
 He thought that they were going to fat him up and eat him. He 
 found out, at last, that their plan was to induce him to become 
 their ally and leader, and to aid them in an attempt that they 
 were going to make to surprise and destroy the English settle- 
 ment. But Smith gave them to understand that it was useless 
 for them to think of such a thing. The settlement was strongly 
 fortified, he said, and provided with dreadful engines of destruc- 
 tion, the nature of which he contrived to explain to them in some 
 degree by the help of his musket, so that all attempts on their part 
 to destroy it would be vain. 
 
 Grive an account of Powhatan^ and of the circumstances under 
 which Smith was hrought before him. 
 
 Smith was carried to one of the villages of a great Indian chief 
 named Powhatan, the most powerful ruler in all that part of the 
 country. Powhatan was seated under a great spreading pine-tree 
 when Smith was brought before him. Two of his daughters, 
 young Indian girls, were seated by his side. One of them, Poca- 
 hontas, was a child about twelve years old. The other chieftains 
 gathered around, and a consultation was held to determine what 
 should be done with the prisoner. Powhatan, after hearing the 
 case, condemned him to die, and the preparations were made to 
 carry the sentence at once into effect. 
 
SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 
 
 43 
 
 How did the case end f 
 
 POCAHOM'A.s. 
 
 They pinioned his arms, and 
 laid him down upon the ground 
 with his head upon a stone, 
 while the executioner stood by, 
 holding a war-club in his hands, 
 with which, at a signal from the 
 king, he was to beat out his 
 brains. But just at this mo- 
 ment Pocahontas left her seat, 
 and rushed down to the place 
 where the poor prisoner was ly- 
 ing, and, throwing herself upon 
 him, she declared that he should 
 not be killed. Her father was 
 moved by her entreaties, and 
 finally consented to spai^ the 
 
 prisoner's life, and in the end he let him" go free. 
 
 What afterward became of Smith f 
 
 Smith afterward met with a great many other strange and ro- 
 mantic adventures, and performed a great many services of ines- 
 timable value to the colony. At last he was blown up by the 
 accidental explosion of a bag of gunpowder in a boat in which he 
 was coming down the river, and was injured so much that he was 
 obliged to return to England. 
 
 What became of Pocahontas f 
 
 Pocahontas continued a good friend to the English as long as 
 she lived. Indeed, when she grew up, she married one of the col- 
 onists, and became, in the end, quite a distinguished character in 
 history. 
 
 What were finally the results of the colony at Jamestown? 
 
 The colony of Jamestown gradually increased after this time, 
 and other settlements were made near it. In process of time, 
 
44 SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 
 
 more colonies, independent of the one in Virginia, were established, 
 both to the north and to the south of it, until at last the whole 
 southern coast of the United States was occupied with settle- 
 ments fi'om England, and thus the foundations were laid of the 
 present Southern States of the American Union. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 
 
 By what nation was New York first settled? 
 
 New York was first settled by the Dutch, although the place 
 where the city stands was first discovered and explored by an 
 English captain. The way in which it happened that the Dutch 
 were the first to settle here was this. 
 
 Give an account of the origin of Hudson's expedition. 
 
 There was in those days, in Holland, a very wealthy and pow- 
 erful company of merchants, called the Dutch East India Com- 
 pany. This company employed a certain English sea-captain, 
 named Hendrick Hudson, to endeavor to find, if possible, an open 
 way by sea somewhere through North America to the East Indies. 
 Hudson had made two voyages to North America before, and this 
 was the reason why they employed him. They thought he would 
 be more experienced in those seas. Besides, he himself wished to 
 go again, and he applied to the Dutch company to fit out an ex- 
 pedition and to give him the command of it. 
 What sort of a shi/p and crew did he have f 
 
 So they fitted him out a small ship, and gave him a crew of 
 strong and fearless sailors, and he set sail. His vessel was very 
 small : it was of only ninety tons burden. The ships that navi- 
 gate the ocean now are often of two or three thousand tons, and 
 sometimes more. It is considered very remarkable that Hudson 
 should have ventured on such a voyage in so small a ship. 
 
SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 45 
 
 Give an account of the manner in which the Hudson River 
 was discovered, 
 
 Hudson explored the whole coast of North America from New- 
 foundland to South Carolina, but he could not find any passage 
 through. When he came to the mouth of the Hudson Eiver, he 
 thought at first that that might be a strait leading from sea to sea, 
 but after he had sailed up a Httle way he found that it was a river. 
 So he called it the Hudson River, after his own name. 
 
 What toas the re^port that Hudson carried hack to Holland^ 
 and what jproj)osal did he make ? 
 
 Soon after this he went back to Holland, and told the company 
 that he could not find any passage through the land leading to the 
 East Indies, but that he had found a very large and noble river, 
 with a very favorable situation for a town near the mouth of it, and 
 he advised them to establish a colony there. He said that the 
 country was full of Indian tribes, who were great hunters and trap- 
 pers, and that they were accustomed to catch an immense number 
 of wild animals in the woods, the skins of which would make ex- 
 cellent furs ; and that, if they would make a settlement at the 
 mouth of this river, they could buy almost any quantity of these 
 furs from the Indians in exchange for beads, iron nails, knives, 
 glass ornaments, and other cheap things. 
 
 What resulted from this proposal f 
 
 This plan was adopted. The Dutch company sent out several 
 ships, and they established quite a profitable trade for furs with 
 the Indians. They made a small settlement where New York is 
 now. They built some log cabins. They soon had quite a town. 
 It was not very long before they undertook to build a vessel there, 
 and this was probably the beginning of ship-building in America. 
 
 Give an account of the building of the first vessel. 
 
 The reason why the settlers built this vessel was that the one 
 which they had at that time was accidentally burned ; so they 
 felled some trees in the forest near, and dragged the timbers and 
 
46 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 
 
 planks to the shore, and then built a new vessel to take the place 
 of the one that was lost. In the engraving below you see them 
 busily engaged in this work. The skeleton of the vessel that was 
 burned is seen, too, at a distance, lying on the beach, and half im- 
 bedded in the sand. 
 
 BEGINNING OF SHIP-BUILDING IN NEW YORK. 
 
SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 47 
 
 Crive an account of the intercourse between the colony and, the 
 Indians^ and of the treaty made with them. 
 
 The great business of the Dutch colony of New York for a long 
 time was trading with the Indians for furs. They accordingly 
 did all they could to live on friendly terms with the Indians, and 
 by thus securing their good-will, they were enabled to make long 
 excursions into the interior of the country without being molested 
 by them. There was at this time a very great and powerful con- 
 federacy of Indian tribes in what is now the interior of the State of 
 New York. The Dutch colonists finally concluded to strengthen 
 the bonds of friendship between them and the Indians by making 
 a formal treaty with them ; so they sent a delegation of their num- 
 ber up the river, to the place where Albany now stands, and invited 
 the Indian chiefs to come there and meet them. The Indians came. 
 The Dutch received them under a great spreading beech-tree in 
 the woods, and there they made a treaty with them. The en- 
 graving on the following page gives a representation of the scene. 
 
 What was the Dutch colony originally called? 
 
 The Dutch colony was first settled ^n New York in the year 
 1614. The place was, however, not called New York by the 
 Dutch, but New Amsterdam ; Amsterdam being the name of one 
 of their own chief cities. The Indian name of the place was Man- 
 hattan. 
 
 In lohat manner did this colony first become hioimi to the 
 English colonies f 
 
 The English themselves, who had settled in Virginia and in 
 other places toward the south, do not seem to have known much 
 about this Dutch colony for several years. At last an English 
 vessel from Virginia came sailing one day into Long Island Sound, 
 and, passing down through the channel called East Eiver, it came 
 suddenly upon the Dutch town. The commander of the vessel did 
 not stop to communicate with the town, but made all haste to get 
 out of the harbor and go back to Virginia. 
 
48 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 
 
 What followed from this discovery? 
 
 The commander of the vessel reported in Vh'ginia what he had 
 discovered, and then the authorities there immediately sent a ves- 
 sel to New Amsterdam to warn the Dutch settlers away. All 
 that land, they said, belonged to the King of England, and they 
 
SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 49 
 
 had no right to settle there. To this the Dutch replied that they 
 found no English there when they came, and therefore they had 
 a right to land and take possession ; and, now they had no inten- 
 tion of being driven away. 
 
 On what ground did the English claim a right to the country 
 which the Dutch had settled f 
 
 The ground of the English claim was that they considered them- 
 selves as the rightful proprietors of the whole country, on account 
 of the discoveries and settlements, that they had made in Massachu- 
 setts and in Virginia. They considered the country as one, and the 
 Dutch, in coming in and planting themselves on an intermediate 
 spot, they regarded as intruders. In all these cases the rights of 
 the aboriginal inhabitants were never taken into the account at all. 
 
 Describe the farther history of the colony. 
 
 The Virginians not being strong enough to drive them away, 
 the Dutch colony remained unmolested. It gradually increased 
 in wealth and population, and other settlements were formed at 
 various points along the shores of the river and in the interior of 
 the country. This state of things continued for about fifty years. 
 During all this time the Dutch colony lield frequent intercourse 
 with the English colonies to the northward and the southward of 
 them. Sometimes disputes arose in respect to boundaries, or to 
 subjects connected with the traffic with the Indians. These dis- 
 putes -were, however, generally settled by negotiation in an ami- 
 cable manner. 
 
 What expedition luas sent out against the colony in 1664? 
 
 At last, in the year 1664, which was just about fifty years after 
 the colony was first founded, war broke out between England and 
 Holland, and the English government sent a small squadron of 
 ships and a band of armed men to take possession of New Am- 
 sterdam. The expedition sailed up the harbor and landed on the 
 shore of Long Island, near what is now the southern part of 
 Brooklyn. The engraving on the following page represents the 
 
 3 D 
 
50 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF NEW YOEK. 
 
 NEW YORK I.\ IGGi. 
 
 town as it appeared to the English, viewing it from the Brooklyn 
 shore. We see the fort with the tall flag-staff surmounting it, 
 and the church with its lofty roofs, and the wind-mill where the 
 people ground their corn, and a long row of Dutch-built houses. 
 Near, on the shore, are the gallows and the whipping-post, where 
 criminals were punished for their crimes, according to the usages 
 of those days. 
 
 Describe what took place when the English squadron arrived. 
 The English commander sent a summons to the governor of 
 the fort and town, calling upon him to surrender. The people 
 were disposed to yield, for they knew that they had not sufficient 
 force to resist the guns of the squadron. The governor, however, 
 declared that he never would yield. He tore up the summons 
 and threw the pieces on the ground. The people of the town, 
 however, were determined not to resist, and they finally compelled 
 the governor to surrender. Indeed, if they had not done so, the 
 place would have been entirely destroyed by the cannonade fi'om 
 the English squadron. 
 
SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 51 
 
 What was the result of this conquest f 
 
 The English, when they took possession, pulled down the Dutch 
 flag from the flag-stafF, and put up the English flag in its place. 
 They changed the name of the town, too, from New Amsterdam to 
 New York. Thus the colonies on the Hudson Eiver, like all the 
 other colonies of the country, came under the English power. 
 
 CHAPTEE V. 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 
 
 In what way did the northern and southern colonies differ 
 from each other in respect to their origin f 
 
 The northern part of the American coast — that is, the part 
 which forms the shores of New England, was settled by a very dif- 
 ferent class of men from those that planted the colonies in New 
 York and Virginia. These Southern colonists were generally wild 
 adventurers, who came in hopes of finding gold, or of growing rich 
 by trading with the Indians. Some of them, indeed, seemed to 
 have no other motive than a love of excitement and change. The 
 New England settlers, on the other hand, were sober, sedate, and 
 serious-minded men, who came across the ocean to escape from 
 their persecutors, and to find a home for themselves where they 
 and their children could be free. 
 
 ^Vhat were the political opinions of the settlers that came to 
 New England? 
 
 They were generally Republicans in politics and Puritans in 
 religion. They did not believe in being governed by priests and 
 kings. There were great dissensions and differences in England 
 in those days in respect to these subjects. The kings, though 
 they were the very vilest and most ignoble of men, insisted that 
 their kingdoms were their own* and that all the people who lived 
 in them were their subjects, and were bound to obey them, and to 
 
52 SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 
 
 submit to their authority in every thing. The Republicans, on 
 the other hand, believed that the people of any country had the 
 right to make their own laws, and establish and maintain such a 
 government as they pleased. 
 
 What were their religious opinions ? 
 
 The opinions of the Puritans were very decided in respect to re- 
 ligion. The Church of England consisted of a close and consoli- 
 dated confederation, with the king at the head, and a great body 
 of archbishops, bishops, and priests united together under him ; 
 and a complicated system of religious rites and ceremonies had 
 been ordained, to which the government attempted to compel every 
 one to conform. They honestly thought, no doubt, that every one 
 ought to conform to this system. The Puritans were opposed to 
 it altogether, and all who refused to submit to it the churchmen 
 considered as heretics and infidels. 
 
 What loas the result of this quarrel between the government 
 and the Puritans iyi England? 
 
 These differences of opinion led, in England, to dreadfal quar- 
 rels. The people formed themselves into parties, some taking one 
 side and some the other. At last the party in favor of the Church 
 and of the king gained the day, and the party of Republicans and 
 Puritans were discomfited and subdued. They were called Puri- 
 tans in derision, because they said they sought a pure and spirit- 
 ual religion — one entirely free from what they considered the con- 
 taminations of popery. 
 
 Give an account of the attempt made by the Puritans to set- 
 tle in Holland. 
 
 At last it happened that about the time that Virginia first be- 
 gan to be settled, a company of these men determined to go away 
 from England and find a home in some other part of the world, 
 where they might hope to live in peace. They thought first of 
 Holland, for Holland was at that tmie itself a republic. They ac- 
 cordingly made arrangements for procuring land there, and then 
 
SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 53 
 
 all went over together. They remained in Holland for more than 
 ten years, but they were not very contented theie. They did not 
 understand the language, nor were they accustomed to the habits 
 and usages of the country. 
 
 What plan did they form at last in respect to going to America f 
 
 At last they conceived the idea of breaking up their settlement 
 in Holland and removing in a body to America; " In America," 
 said they to themselves, " we can do as we please, and live in 
 peace. Besides, if we go there first and make a settlement, others 
 who think as we do will come from England and join us, and, in 
 process of time, we shall become a great and thriving colony." 
 
 What arrangements did they make for coming to America? 
 
 So they applied to one of the companies that had been formed 
 for settling America, and obtained leave to go. They received 
 what is called 2^ patent^* which was a paper authorizing them to 
 land and settle on a certain portion of the coast. They also made 
 an agreement with some merchants of London, by which the mer- 
 chants were to furnish them with goods and money to trade with 
 the Indians if they should have an opportunity, and they were to 
 divide the profits. 
 
 Hovn did it happen that only one vessel came over ? 
 
 They came over in only one vessel — the May-Flower — so cel- 
 ebrated in history on account of its having brought the first set- 
 tlers to New England. The company intended to have had two 
 vessels, for one was not large enough to bring them all. They, 
 in fact, provided another vessel, and a part of their number em- 
 barked on board of it ; but it sprang a leak, and was obliged to 
 return, and so the ^lay-Flower came on alone. 
 
 Give an account of the voyage of the May-Flower, 
 
 It happened, somehow or other, that the captain of the May- 
 Flower strayed- from his way, and instead of landing his company 
 
 * Patent means open. Letters patent are letters open — that is, not sealed. This 
 is the origin of the term patent as applied to public documents. 
 
54 SETTLEMENT OF NEAV ENGLAND. 
 
 on the part of the coast where they had intended to go, he came 
 much farther norili, and entered Massachusetts Bay. But it was 
 now very late in the season — the last of December — so that the 
 winter was coming on, and it was beginning to be cold and stormy. 
 The expedition, therefore, concluded to land where they were. 
 What plan of government did they form before they landed? 
 As they were beyond the limits within which they had been au- 
 thorized to settle by their patent, they perceived that if they were 
 to land there they would be entirely without any government, un- 
 less they formed one ancAV themselves. So they drew up a paper, 
 and formed themselves into a " body politic," as they termed it — 
 that is, a government and nation, and all the company signed it. 
 They did this before they landed. 
 
 What is there vemarkahle in respect to this compact f 
 This act is considered as marking an era in the political history 
 of the world. It is the first instance that ever occurred in which 
 the foundations of a government were formally laid by a written 
 compact entered into by the people themselves who were to com- 
 pose the nation to be governed. The number of men who signed 
 this compact was forty-one. The number of persons in the ves- 
 sel, men, women, and children, was one hundred and one. 
 What did the company noio do in respect to going ashore f 
 The party met with a great deal of difficulty and delay, as they 
 came in sight of the land, before they could finally go on shore. 
 So large a number of women and children, of course, could not 
 leave the ship until proper provision had been made for them on 
 land ; and as none of those who were on board the ship knew any 
 thing of the coast, a slow and careful exploration of it was neces- 
 sary before any thing could be done. This exploration could not 
 be made in the ship itself, for fear of running her upon rocks or 
 shoals. They were obliged, therefore, to take a boat for this pur- 
 pose, with a small party of brave, strong, and prudent men to 
 manao;e it. There was a Idnd of boat on board the vessel called 
 
SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 55 
 
 a shallop, but it had been damaged on the voyage, and needed re- 
 pairs. It was a fortnight before it was ready. 
 
 Give cm account of the voyage of the shallop. 
 
 When, at last, the shallop was ready, a small company of men 
 took it, and went on a voyage of discovery. The weather was 
 cold and stormy, and the party endured a great deal of exposure 
 and suffering. They went up into every bay and inlet they could 
 find, and landed in several places in search of a good situation to 
 build their town. It was necessary that the place should be near 
 a harbor, in order to accommodate the ships that would come, 
 from time to time, from England, to visit the colony and bring 
 supplies. So they looked every where for a harbor, but could not 
 find any. At some of the places where they landed they found 
 traces of Indians. There were deserted wigwams here and there, 
 and once they saw an Indian burying-ground ; but they could not 
 find any good place for a town, and at length they gave up the 
 search and went back to the ship. 
 
 What effect was produced on hoard the ship hy the report which 
 they hrought hack ? 
 
 The company on board, though they were very tired of the ship, 
 and longed to land, were not discouraged. They prayed daily to 
 Almighty God to take care of them and guide them, and they felt 
 fuU trust and confidence in his goodness and power. It was this 
 trust in God which sustained them in their heaviest trials. 
 
 Give an account of the second voyage of the shallop. 
 
 The next day another party was formed to renew the search. 
 It was a cold and windy day ; and when they launched the shallop 
 in the surf, and got down into it over the side of the vessel, the 
 spray dashed upon them, and froze upon their clothing. They, 
 however, persevered. They followed the coast that day for many 
 miles. It was the coast of Cape Cod, on the western side. When 
 night came, they went on shore and encamped. The ground was 
 covered with snow, but they contrived to build ^ hut to shelter 
 
56 SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 
 
 them, and, after praying to God to preserve tliem through the 
 night, they lay down and went to sleep. 
 
 How were they attacked by the Indians^ and why f 
 
 The next morning, while they were kneeling down on the cold 
 and snowy ground at prayers, they suddenly heard a whoop and 
 yell from a band of Indians, and a number of arrows came flying 
 about them from the woods. It seems that, some time ago, a ship 
 had touched on this part of the coast, and had enticed some In- 
 dians on board, and had then sailed away, taking the Indians with 
 them. This exasperated the tribe sa much that they resolved 
 that, if any English ever came again and landed on their shores, 
 they would kill them. After shooting their arrows at the party, 
 however, and endeavoring to frighten them with their dreadful 
 yelling, they did no more, but went away. The boat party then 
 embarked on board the shallop, and continued their voyage. They 
 sailed along the coast for forty miles, but could find no harbor. 
 
 Describe the effects of the storm lohich they experienced at the 
 close of the second day. 
 
 At length, near the close of the day, when they were beginning 
 to think of turning the boat in toward the shore to encamp for the 
 night, a sudden storm of wind, rain, and snow came on. The air 
 became so obscured that they could not see. The waves rose and 
 dashed against the boat, and finally broke the rudder. They then 
 had to steer by the oars alone. They kept all the sails spread, 
 so as to go as fast as possible, in order to get to the land before 
 the sea should rise so high as to overwhelm them. This was too 
 much for the mast in such a high wind, and at length it suddenly 
 snapped in three pieces, and all went overboard. The boat was 
 now near the shore, and there were roaring breakers ahead and all 
 around them. In a word, they were apparently in a situation of 
 the most imminent danger. 
 
 Sow did they escape f 
 
 But they were, in fact, just entering upon the hour of their de- 
 
SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 57 
 
 liverance. It is very often so in the dealings of God with his 
 people. He leads them through danger and terror to happiness 
 and rest. The boatmen saw before them an opening into an inlet, 
 and they contrived to guide the shallop in. They found them- 
 selves at the entrance of a harbor. They were so worn out and 
 exhausted with the labors and dangers of the day, that, as soon 
 as they got the boat into sheltered water, they turned and went 
 ashore on the nearest land. The land was an island which lay 
 just within the mouth of the harbor. The name of the first man 
 that stepped on shore was Clark, so they named the island Clark's 
 Island. You will see the situation of it on the map upon the next 
 page, as well as that of the harbor in which it lay, and the open- 
 ing from the sea where the shallop was driven in. 
 
 What was their situation when they found theinselves on the 
 land f 
 
 As soon as the men landed they built a fire. The storm cleared 
 away, but the snow was very deep on the ground, and it was dif- 
 ficult for them to provide for themselves any tolerable shelter. 
 They remained on this island all the next day, employed in mend- 
 ing their boat, drying their clothes, cleaning their arms, and in 
 other ways repairing the damages of the storm. 
 
 How long did they remain on the island f 
 
 It was Saturday when they landed. They remained on the isl- 
 and during the following day too, for they would not, even in such 
 an emergency as this, go on with the ordinary duties of life on the 
 Sabbath day. They spent the day in rest, in services of public 
 worship, and in silent meditation and prayer. 
 
 Give an account of their visit to the main land on Monday 
 morning. 
 
 Early on Monday morning the party launched the shallop again, 
 and sailed across the harbor to the main land. They stepped out 
 from their boat upon a small flat rock which lay on the beach. 
 The situation of the island where the party encamped over the 
 
58 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 
 
 \^'i 
 
 PIYMOIJTH 
 
 Scale Ss 2£lhi 
 jjerHich 
 
 EKMOUTH 
 
 
 M ^ 
 
 Sabbath, and of the rock where they landed on Monday morning, 
 is shown on the map. This rock has since become very famous 
 in history as the Plymouth Rock, the place where the pilgrim fa- 
 thers of New England first set their foot upon the main land. 
 
 What followed when the party returned to the ship ? 
 
 In the mean while, the people on board the ship were waiting pa- 
 tiently at their anchorage, fifty miles away, not knowing what had 
 become of the shallop and the party of explorers. In due time, 
 however, the boat went back, and, to the great joy of the company 
 on board the ship, informed them that they had found an excellent 
 
SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 59 
 
 harbor. The ship accordingly set sail, and soon entered the port. 
 The men landed near the rock, and very soon began to build 
 houses for the women and children on the shore. Thus was be- 
 gun the first permanent New England colony. 
 
 In what icay were the colonies in New England afterward 
 multiplied f 
 
 In process of time, new settlers came out in great numbers, and 
 new colonies were established all along the New England shores, 
 and in some places the settlements extended far into the interior 
 of the country. These settlers came in various expeditions and 
 at various times, but nearly all of them were animated with the 
 same spirit and the same desires in leaving their native land, and 
 coming to make for themselves new homes on the cold and stormy 
 shores of America. They wished to h^free ; and, more than all, 
 they wished to found a civil state in which their children might be 
 free. They wished to be free not only from political, but also from 
 religious domination. 
 
 Give an account of the Walloons. 
 
 Most of these Pilgrim emigrants came from England and settled 
 in the Northern States, but some went to places farther south. 
 There was one company of Protestants that had been driven from 
 Flanders into Holland just as the Puritans had gone there from 
 England; and this party, too, after remaining for some time in 
 Amsterdam, determined to emigrate to America, though they went 
 to the Hudson, and joined the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam. 
 They were called Walloons. They were almost the first part}^ of 
 emigrants from Holland that came with their wives and children 
 to New Amsterdam with the design to live, and die there. Indeed, 
 the pilgrims generally were the first who came to America with the 
 design of making the new country their permanent home. Those 
 who had come before had only intended to remain for a time in 
 the New World, till they had made their fortunes by buying furs 
 of the Indians, or by the gold and silver which they hoped to find. 
 
60 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 
 
 LANDING OF THE "WALLOONS. 
 
 It is supposed that the Walloons took their name from their living 
 originally in a low country near the sea, where the water was 
 kept out by the dike or wall. 
 
 What is the present condition of the Plymouth Rock, and how 
 is it regarded f 
 
 The Plymouth Eock, where the May-Flower company landed, has 
 been since greatly venerated by all the people of New England. 
 It lay, of course, originally in a low position, and very near the 
 water, and, in process of time, wharves were built out opposite to 
 it, and the land was filled in, so that now it lies in the middle of 
 a street at some distance from the watec. A large fragment of it 
 has, however, been taken off, and carried up to a public place in 
 the town of Plymouth, where it is inclosed within an iron railing 
 
SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 
 
 61 
 
 FRAGMENT OF THE PLYMOUTH ROCK. 
 
 to protect it from injury. It is inscribed with tlie date of the year 
 1620, which was the year when the Pilgrims landed upon it. The 
 rest of the stone remains in its original place, though that is now 
 one of the streets of the town. The engraving represents a view 
 
 THE PLYMOUTH ROCK. 
 
 of the street, with the surface of the stone just showing itself above 
 the ground. Great numbers of people go every year to visit the 
 
6^ THE COLONIAL GOVEENMENT. 
 
 spot, and to look upon this venerable memento of the hardships 
 and sufferings of their forefathers. 
 
 What became of the Indian population as the settlements ex- 
 tended f 
 
 The settlers of New England had difficulties from time to time 
 with the Indians, and in the earlier years of the several settlements 
 the colonists suffered a great deal from exposure and cold, and 
 sometimes from pestilence and famine. The settlements still, 
 however, increased and multiplied, and in the course of one hund' 
 red years the original Indian population was almost entirely dis- 
 placed, and the whole country all along the seaboard, and for hund- 
 reds of miles into the interior, was occupied almost entirely with 
 the farms and villages of white men. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE COLONIAL GOVEENMENT. 
 
 Houo long did the American colonies remah'. under the En^^ 
 glish government f 
 
 The settlements in America remained under the government and 
 control of England, from the time when they were first formed to 
 that in which they established an independent government of their 
 own, about one hundred and fifty years. This is called the colo- 
 nial period of American history. 
 
 Wliat was the general system of the colonial government f 
 
 There were several different kinds of colonial governments, but 
 in all cases the power was exercised in England. Some of the 
 settlements were considered as belonging to the king, others to 
 companies of merchants, and others to individual proprietors. 
 Whoever it was that owned the colonies, he or they, and not the 
 people, appointed the governor and regulated the making of the 
 laws. At first, indeed, the people of New England were some- 
 
THE COLONIAL GOVEENMENT. 
 
 63 
 
 wliat independent, and cliose their own governors ; but as soon as 
 they began to be populous and powerful, the English government 
 contrived to get the power into their own hands, and governors for 
 these colonies were appointed and sent out from Great Britain, as 
 well as for the rest. 
 
 What sort of men imre the governors thus sent out f 
 These governors and the people of the colonies did not agree 
 very well together. The governors were usually n^en who enter- 
 tained high ideas of their own powers and importance, and as they 
 only came to America with a view of making a fortune and then 
 going home again, they felt no real sympathy or community of in- 
 terest with the permanent residents. They were constantly en- 
 deavoring to increase their own power and importance. They 
 lived in handsome houses, built expressly for them by the gov- 
 ernment. They maintained a great deal of state, as if they were 
 kings on a small scale. 
 
 Describe the Province House in Boston. 
 
 The house in Boston which was built and occupied by the 
 
 governors of Massachusetts 
 in colony times yet remains, 
 and is still known as the 
 Province House. It was 
 originally quite out of town, 
 but it is now entirely sur- 
 rounded and hemmed in by 
 other buildings. There is a 
 row of brick stores between 
 it and the street, so that the 
 visitor is obliged to go in 
 through an archway to see 
 it. A view of it is given in the above engraving. For the times 
 when it was built, it was a large and veiy splendid mansion, and 
 was placed in a retired and rural situation. 
 
 THE GOVERNOR'S HOUSE. 
 
64 THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 What- were the means that the governors possessed for sustain- 
 ing their influence and power ? 
 
 In the contests tliat often arose between the governors and the 
 people of the colonies, the governors were by no means left alone. 
 Great numbers of persons adhered to their cause. Some did this 
 from hope of receiving offices ; others because they probably 
 thought it was better, for the colonies that they should be under 
 a strong control from the government in England. Then, besides 
 the parties in America that adhered to them, they had soldiers un- 
 der their command. Some of these soldiers were stationed in forts 
 at the mouths of rivers or harbors, and others lived in barracks in 
 the towns ; but they were all under the command of the governors 
 of the several provinces, and it was partly by means of them that 
 the people of the colonies were, held in subjection. 
 
 Give an account of the origin and com7nenceme7it of the war 
 ivith Canada. 
 
 In process of time, a war broke out between France and En- 
 gland, and as Canada had been settled by the French, and was 
 now a French colony, the English government concluded to organ- 
 ize an army in their colonies in America to attack it. This was 
 accordingly done. Armies were raised, the several colonies con- 
 tributing their portions of troops, and the English generals, taking 
 command of them, led them against the French possessions. 
 
 Why were English generals appointed to take command of 
 these colonial troops f 
 
 It was always the usage of the English government to put all 
 their colonial troops as much as possible under the command of offi- 
 cers sent out from England. . One motive for this was to keep the 
 troops more completely under subjection to. the government, and 
 another was that they desired the offices as places for the younger 
 sons of the nobility, and the other genteel classes of society at 
 home. These young men would have considered themselves de- 
 meaned by being engaged in any useful industrial occupation. 
 
THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 65 
 
 What were the difficulties that the troops encountered in these 
 campaigns ? 
 
 In these campaigns the troops were obliged to make long and 
 dreary marclies in storms and rain, and through the most wild 
 
 COLONIAL TROOPS ON A MARCH. 
 
 and unfrequented regions, in which they encountered almost every 
 conceivable hardship and difficulty. The chief command in these 
 expeditions was always conferred upon officers sent out from En- 
 gland, while the colonists were only allowed to fill very subordi- 
 nate places. The English officers were, of course, not acquainted 
 with the country, or with the peculiar difficulties and dangers of 
 marching through forests filled with Indians ; and as they were 
 generally too proud to take advice from those who were beneath 
 them in rank, they often met with very serious disasters. 
 
 What part did the Indians take in this war f 
 The French contrived to engage the Indians, in many cases, to 
 fight on their side ; and the Indians, being very skillful in strata- 
 gems of all kinds, would lay in ambush till some detachment of 
 the army came along, and then would break out upon them so sud- 
 denly as to put them all to flight. The soldiers would retreat 
 
 3 R 
 
66 
 
 THE COLONIAL t^OVERNMENT. 
 
 THE TROOPS SURPRISED 
 
 from the ground as they best could, while the wagoners would cut 
 the traces of their harness, and then mount the horses and ride 
 away, abandoning every thing to the enemy. 
 
 What was the result of the luar f 
 
 Notwithstanding these occasional disasters, the English still 
 persevered. They fitted out three grand expeditions to marc 
 through the woods into Canada, and in the end succeeded in con- 
 quering the country. Ever since that time, all the old French col- 
 onies that lie to the north of the United States have been subject 
 to British power.. 
 
 What effect did the loar have on the disposition of the English 
 government in resjpect to the colonies^ and on the disjposition of 
 the colonies f 
 
 One might, perhaps, have supposed that being engaged togeth- 
 er in such a war as this, and bringing it to a successful end by 
 their joint and common exertions, would have tended to promote 
 an excellent understanding between the English government and 
 the people of the colonies ; but, instead of this, quite the contrary 
 effect was really produced. The government at home, finding 
 
THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 67 
 
 how great and powerful the colonies were becoming, were more de- 
 sirous than ever to have them completely in subjection to their 
 own power. The people in America, on the other hand, for pre- 
 cisely the same reason, wished to become more and more inde- 
 pendent. 
 
 How were the Legislatures chosen^ and what were their duties ? 
 
 There was in each colony a Legislature chosen by the people. 
 These various Legislatures were accustomed to meet in the prin- 
 cipal towns, and enact laws for the internal management of the 
 colonies, and for raising money by taxes to pay the necessary pub- 
 lic expenses. The members, being chosen by the people, of course 
 acted for them and in their behalf. The governors and the coun- 
 cils, on the other hand, being appointed by the King of England 
 or by his ministry at home, represented the English government 
 and acted for them. 
 
 How did the Legislatures and governors agree together ? 
 
 The Legislatures were all the time endeavoring to increase and 
 strengthen their own power, which was the power of the people. 
 The governors, in the same way, manoeuvred incessantly to in- 
 crease their power, which was that of the king and his govern- 
 ment at home. This antagonism was continually breaking out 
 into the most serious disputes. 
 
 What measure did the several colonies at last proj)ose as a 
 means of increasing their strength^ and what prevented its being 
 carried into effect f 
 
 The colonies at one time proposed to form a confederation, by 
 the Legislatures, wdth a view of banding the people of the whole 
 country together. This the governors opposed. They thought 
 any union of that kind would gi'eatly increase the strength of the 
 people, and proportionably weaken their own. They proposed 
 instead that there should be a combination formed by the govern- 
 ors, and that the people themselves should remain distinct. This 
 the people would not consent to, and the question gave rise to new 
 
68 
 
 THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 difficulties and disputes, and the result was that no extended or 
 general union of the colonies was effected in either form. 
 
 Give an account of the post-office system^ and of Doctor 
 FranklhfCs tour. 
 
 There was one object which the colonies combined to accom- 
 plish, and that was the establishment of a post-office system for 
 the whole country. The celebrated Benjamin Franklin was one 
 of the first post-masters-general. At one time he made an extend- 
 ed tour through nearly all the colonies to mature arid perfect the 
 system. He traveled in a chaise, which he drove himself. His 
 daughter Sally accompanied him. He had a spare horse with him. 
 
 THE POST-MASTER-GENERAL. 
 
 His daughter rode sometimes upon the horse, and sometimes in 
 the chaise by the side of her father. Traveling in this way, Frank- 
 lin was five months in making this tour. Such a tour would be 
 accomplished now, by rail-roads and steam-boats, in five days. 
 
 How did the English at last atternpt to tax the colonies by 
 means of duties f 
 
 As the colonies increased, the disputes between the people and 
 the home government in regard to the question how far they were 
 
THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 69 
 
 to be allowed to govern themselves, and how far they must sub- 
 mit to be governed by the English ministry and the Parliament, 
 grew more and more serious. The English government had had 
 the power from the beginning of making all laws in respect to com- 
 merce, and they were accustomed to tax the colonies indirectly by 
 requiring them to pay duties on the merchandise imported from 
 England. In order to compel them to buy this merchandise, they 
 made laws forbidding them to establish any manufactories in 
 America. The Americans complained of this, but still they sub- 
 mitted. They could not resist the payment of duties very well, 
 for the governors had command of the soldiers in the forts by the 
 harbors, and they would not allow the ships to come in unless the 
 merchant to whom the goods belonged would first pay the duty. 
 Then he would add the duty to the price of the goods, and his 
 customers were obliged to pay all together. 
 
 Did they loish also to assess direct taxes f 
 
 After a time the English government, not satisfied with what 
 was obtained from these duties on the external commerce of the 
 country, determined to commence the system of laying internal 
 taxes directly upon the people. They knew that the people would 
 be strongly disposed to resist this attempt, and that they must 
 therefore begin in a very cautious manner. So they devised an 
 exceedingly ingenious plan for the commencement. 
 
 What ingenious jplan did they contrive for this purpose? 
 
 They made a law that no documents used in business in Amer- 
 ica, such as deeds, notes, receipts, and the like, should be of any 
 binding force in law unless they were written on papers for which 
 a tax had been paid in England. In order to carry the law into 
 effect, the government had paper prepared suitable for writing such 
 documents upon, and a stamp put upon every sheet. These 
 stamps were of different kinds, according to the kind of document 
 they were intended for. There was so much to be paid for a pa- 
 per to write a deed upon, so much for a receipt, and so with all 
 
70 THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 the other different kinds. These were to be sent out to America 
 and offered for sale. Of course, whoever bought them must pay 
 the tax as well as the price of the paper ; and if people did not buj 
 them, but wrote their notes, for example, on common paper, the 
 notes would be of no force. The men who signed them might pay 
 them or not, as they pleased. The judges in the courts could not 
 compel them to pay unless the note was written on stamped paper. 
 
 Why were the Americans not willing to pay this tax f 
 
 The amount of the tax was not very great. It would be, per- 
 haps, only a few cents for a receipt for fifty dollars. The En- 
 glish government thought that the merchants would prefer to pay 
 this small sum rather than put to risk so large a one. But the 
 Americans were determined to do no such thing. They were re- 
 solved that the government should not be allowed to begin to tax 
 them, for, if they were once permitted to begin, no one could tell 
 when and where they would end. 
 
 What measures did they adopt to 7'esist the payment of them f 
 
 They had meetings, and passed resolutions binding themselves 
 not to use the stamped paper when it came, no matter how much 
 trouble and inconvenience it might occasion them. These resolves 
 they carried fully into effect. The stamped papers came, but no- 
 body would buy them. 
 
 What ivas the residt of the coiitest f 
 
 The affair led to a great deal of difficulty, and produced an in- 
 tense excitement throughout the country ; but, finally, the govern- 
 ment, finding that the Americans were fully determined not to 
 yield, repealed the law. They, however, when they repealed it, 
 passed a vote asserting that they had a perfect right to tax the 
 colonies in any way they thought fit, and they intended to tax 
 them on some future occasion. 
 
 Describe the second attempt that the English government made 
 to tax the colonies^ and how they reasoned on the subject. 
 
 It was not long before the occasion came. The English gov- 
 
THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 71 
 
 ernment resolved to try the experiment again. They made a law 
 laying duties on several articles which it was customary to im- 
 port from England into America in those days. They chose the 
 articles which they supposed it would be most difficult for the 
 Americans to do without. The articles were glass, paper, colors 
 to be used in paint, and tea. " They managed to get along with- 
 out using the stamped paper," thought the government, " but they 
 will have to pay these taxes, or else go without any glass or paint 
 for their houses, or any paper to write or print upon, and the 
 women can have no tea." 
 
 What measures did they adopt to enforce the law, and what 
 was the effect of them f 
 
 When the law was passed, in order to intimidate the Americans 
 and make sure of enforcing it, they sent some ships of war to Bos- 
 ton, where the spirit of resistance seemed to be the strongest. 
 They landed a large number of troops from these ships and gar- 
 risoned the forts with them. These measures, however, instead 
 of intimidating the Bostonians, only exasperated them, and made 
 them still more determined that they would not submit. 
 
 What measures did thejyeople of the colonies adopt to oppose 
 them f 
 
 The Massachusetts Legislature sent remonstrances to England, 
 expressing in the strongest terms their opposition to these laws, 
 and public meetings were held in all parts of the country, in which 
 resolutions were passed taking the same ground. In these meet- 
 ings the people resolved that they would not use any of the ar- 
 ticles that were taxed in this way, and denounced every merchant 
 who should import them, and offer them for sale, as an enemy to 
 his country. 
 
 What was done in respect to the merchants who would import 
 the taxed goods f 
 
 Still, some merchants would persist in importing them, and the 
 people were greatly incensed against them for so doing. The very 
 
72 THE COLONIAL GOVEENMENT. 
 
 boys caught the general spirit, and they used to make effigies ox 
 these merchants, and after carrying them about the town, and hold- 
 ing them up to the scorn and derision of the crowd, would burn 
 them in the streets. 
 
 Give an account of the shooting of the hoy in Boston, 
 
 At one time the boys became involved in an affray with one of 
 the men who was thus obnoxious to them, and followed him to 
 his house. The man went in, and thus escaped out of their hands. 
 The boys then began to throw snowballs and pieces of ice at the 
 house. The man became exasperated with them, and, thinking 
 that he had a right to protect his dwelling from such an attack, 
 brought a gun to the window and fired, and killed one of the boys. 
 
 What effect did this occurrence produce f 
 
 This occurrence produced an intense excitement throughout the 
 town. The funeral of the boy was attended by an immense con- 
 course of people. For some days nothing else was talked of, and 
 every where were heard the most violent denunciations and threats 
 of vengeance. 
 
 Give an account of the soldiers shooting into the crowd in State 
 Street, Boston, 
 
 After this, disputes and collisions between the people on the one 
 hand, and the soldiers, and the government officers, and all who 
 were supposed to favor the British side, on the other, grew more 
 and more frequent and alarming. When blood begins to be shed 
 in such contentions, the effect is always to exasperate the parties 
 more and more against each other, instead of intimidating them. 
 At length, on one occasion, a very serious collision took place in 
 Boston between the troops and the citizens, which increased the 
 general excitement to a higher degree than ever. One night — ^it 
 was in the evening of the fifth of March, 1770 — some young men 
 threw snowballs at a sentinel who was on guard at the Custom- 
 house. He probably repelled the assault somewhat rudely, and 
 this led to a disturbance. Soon a crowd collected, and there were 
 
 I 
 
THE COLONIAL GOVEENMENT. 
 
 7b 
 
 indications ot a riot. The captain of the guard, hearing of this 
 difficulty, sent a sergeant and six men to the spot. He thought 
 the appearance of the soldiers would intimidate the crowd and drive 
 them away, but it seemed only to increase their excitement and 
 exasperation. At last the command was given to fire. The sol- 
 diers obeyed. Three of the crowd were kille4 on the spot, and 
 two more were mortally wounded. This occurrence produced a 
 prodigious sensation, and aroused the people almost to phrensy. 
 They called it a massacre. 
 
 THE BOSTON MASSACRE. 
 
 What course did the governors at last recommend to the En- 
 glish ministers, and what did the ministers decide to do f 
 
 At length, the governors of the provinces, seeing how great the 
 excitement was becoming, wrote to the ministers in England that 
 if they persisted in enforcing the law which they had passed, the 
 colonists would soon come to open rebellion, and recommended to 
 them to give way a little, if it was only for a time. The govern- 
 ment, after takinj^ the case into full consideration, finally decided 
 
74 THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 that they would take off all the taxes except the one on tea. 
 That, they insisted, must stand. 
 
 Give an account of the controversy about the tea in Boston. 
 
 The Bostonians were determined that it should not stand. They 
 all resolved that they would not buy any of the tea when it should 
 come. More than this, as soon as the ship which brought the first 
 cargo of tea arrived, a company of men went on board late in the 
 evening, and took possession of the ship, hoisted up the tea-chests 
 out of the lipid, and threw it all over into the water. There were 
 
 ^.X^w "^t^^TO 
 
 THROWING THE TEA OVERBOARD. 
 
 two hundred and forty chests and one hundred half-chests that 
 were thus destroyed. There were about thirty men in the party. 
 They were disguised as Indians. We see some of them in the 
 boat alongside the ship. They disguised themselves in this way 
 in order that it might not be known who they were by the people 
 on board the ship. 
 
THE AMERICAN CONGRESS. 75 
 
 What measures did the English government now adojpt to 
 punish the Bostonians f 
 
 The English government were greatly enraged at this transac- 
 tion. They immediately passed a law to shut up the port of Bos- 
 ton, so that no ships could pass either in or out. This destroyed, 
 for a time, the commerce of the town, and produced great distress 
 and suffering. 
 
 What effect did this severity produce on the Bostonians, and 
 on the people of the other colonies f 
 
 This measure only strengthened the determination of the Bos- 
 tonians not to submit to these encroachments of a distant govern- 
 ment, which, not contented with the large share of power which it 
 had always hitherto enjoyed over the colonies, now grasped at the 
 whole. Indeed, many of the leaders among the Americans began 
 to ask seriously whether the time had not come when they ought 
 to throw off the foreign dominion entirely, and thenceforth man- 
 age their own affairs in their own way, as an independent nation. 
 AIL the other colonies sympathized strongly with the Massachu- 
 setts colony and the Bostonians, and were prepared to join them 
 in taking any stand which they might finally decide upon. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE AMERICAN CONGRESS. 
 
 What means did the colonies contrive to enable them to keep 
 up a communication with each other f 
 
 Although the Legislatures of the different colonies had been 
 prevented from organizing any thing like a regular confederation, 
 still they kept up a constant communication with each other by 
 means of committees of correspondence. Through these commit- 
 tees the people of Boston and of Massachusetts received assurances 
 of sympathy and promises of aid from almost all the other colonies. 
 
76 THE AMERICAN CONGEESS. 
 
 What was done hy the Legislature of Virginia f 
 Virginia came nobly to her aid. The Legislature appointed a 
 day of fasting and prayer in consideration of " the hostile invasion," 
 as they expressed it, "of the city of Boston, in our sister colony 
 of Massachusetts," thus showing that they intended to make com- 
 mon cause with her. They called upon the people to pray devout- 
 ly to God to make them all of one heart and one mind, firmly to 
 oppose by all just and proper means every invasion of American 
 rights. 
 
 What was the effect of this action of Virginia on the other col- 
 onies and on the British government f 
 
 This decided stand by the Virginia Legislature had great influ- 
 ence throughout the country. Virginia was altogether the leading 
 colony south of New England. The other Southern colonies took 
 substantially the same ground. The British government saw that 
 the whole country was likely to be united against them, and they 
 began in earnest to prepare for war. They ordered more ships of 
 war to Boston, and strengthened the forts there, and sent out re-en- 
 forcements of soldiers. The Legislatures of the colonies, on the 
 other hand, began to pass acts for raising and equipping troops in 
 America. 
 
 What "measures were adopted for forming a confederation? 
 They also began to take measures for having a confederation of 
 some kind formed to unite the several colonies together. They 
 appeinted delegates, a certain number from each colony, who were 
 to meet at Philadelphia, which was a convenient place, being in a 
 central situation between the JSTorthern and Southern colonies. 
 How was the Congress constituted^ and what coidd it do f 
 These delegates, at their meeting in Philadelphia, were to form 
 a body called a Congress. This Congress would Have, it is true, 
 no absolute power, but they could consult in respect to the meas- 
 ures best for the colonies to pursue, and recommend them for adop- 
 tion, and thus enable the colonies to act in concert. 
 
THE AMERICAN CONGRESS. 7V 
 
 Holo did the governor of Massachusetts attempt to prevent the 
 election of delegates to the Congress f 
 
 The governors of the colonies did all they could to prevent the 
 Legislatures from adopting these measures. When the governor of 
 Massachusetts heard that the Legislature of that colony were going 
 to choose delegates to the Congress, he sent in great haste to dis- 
 solve the assembly. This he had a legal right to do, for it had 
 been provided in the Constitution of the colony that the governor, 
 though he could not control the action of the Legislature while it 
 was in session, might adjourn or dissolve it at his pleasure, and 
 thus put an end to its action at any time. 
 
 How did his plan succeed? 
 
 The Legislature learned in some way that the governor's mes- 
 senger was coming to dissolve the body just as they were proceed- 
 ing to choose delegates to the Congress ; so they locked the doors, 
 and would not let any body in, and then went on choosing the 
 delegates. The messenger knocked long at the door, but nobody 
 opened it ; so he read the proclamation dissolving the assembly on 
 the stairs, and then went away. When the assembly had finish- 
 ed the business of choosing the delegates to Congress, they opened 
 the doors, and then they heard that the proclamation had been 
 read to dissolve them ; so they closed the session, and the mem- 
 bers went to their several homes, having accomplished all that 
 they desired. 
 
 Why could not the Legislature be punished for this? 
 
 In this proceeding they did nothing for which any of them could 
 be legally punished ; for although there was a law requiring them 
 to leave off doing business and separate as soon as they should re- 
 ceive a message from the governor dissolving the meeting, still they 
 were not obliged to separate before they actually received the mes- 
 sage, and in the mean time there was no law against their locking 
 their doors whenever they pleased. Thus they accomplished their 
 object of choosing the delegates without any violation of law. 
 
78 
 
 THE AMERICAN CONGRESS. 
 
 What was the character and influence of the Congress when 
 it was convened f 
 
 Soon after this the delegates met at Philadelphia, and organized 
 themselves into a permanent body, which was called the American 
 Congress. The establishment of this Congress was a very im- 
 portant event. It very soon acquired great influence, and, in the 
 end, took the general direction of aifairs, and with the co-operation 
 and help of the people of the colonies, carried the revolution through 
 to a successful end. The building in Philadelphia in which the 
 Congress held its meetings is represented in the engraving. It is 
 still standing, and is an object of great veneration. It is known 
 
 INDEPENDENCE HALL. 
 
COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR. 79 
 
 by the name of Independence Hall, for it was in that building that 
 the Declaration of Independence was made. 
 
 What course did affairs take after the Congress assemhled ? 
 
 After the Congress assembled there was no longer any reason- 
 able hope of settling the difficulty amicably, and so both sides be- 
 gan to prepare vigorously for war. The people of the different col- 
 onies began to make collections of arms and ammunition, and to en- 
 roll soldiers. In some places they built forts, or seized those that 
 had before been in the hands of the governors. The Congress, too, 
 in their sessions at Philadelphia, adopted a great many important 
 measures. 
 
 What were some of the measures that Congress adopted f 
 
 They drew up a declaration of the rights of the people of Amer- 
 ica, and published it to the world. They recommended to the peo- 
 ple of the colonies to resolve not to purchase any English goods 
 whatever till the oppressive laws which were made against them 
 should be repealed. They expressed their determination to resist 
 these laws to the last extremity. They sent memorials, too, to 
 the West India Islands and to Canada, to invite the people of those 
 colonies to join the confederacy. After adopting this and other 
 preliminary measures, they adjourned, with the intention of meet- 
 ing again when the results of this action should be known. 
 
 CHAPTER YIIL 
 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR. 
 
 When did the war break out ? 
 
 The transactions described in the last chapter occurred in the 
 fall of 1774, and, during the whole of the winter following, the 
 excitement gf the country increased, and the preparations on both 
 sides for the coming contest went on. At length, in the month 
 of April, 1775, the crisis arrived. 
 
80 COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR. 
 
 Who was General Gage, and ivhat was the object of the expe- 
 dition which was sent to Concord? 
 
 The first battle was fought at Lexington, a town about twenty- 
 miles frori Boston, on the way to Concord. Concord was quite 
 a considerable town even in those early days, and the people had 
 collected there a large supply of arms and ammunition, which they 
 intended to use against the British in case war should break out. 
 General Gage was the commander of the government troops in 
 Boston at that time, and he determined to go out to Concord and 
 seize these stores. 
 
 Give an account of the plan of the expedition, and the progress 
 of.it as far as to Lexington. 
 
 He organized a secret expedition of eight hundred men, and in 
 the night sent them in boats across the water which separates the 
 peninsula of Boston from the main land. There are many bridges 
 there - now, but there were none then. The troops marched all 
 night. The officers had taken every possible precaution to keep 
 the expedition profoundly secret, in otder that they might surprise 
 the keepers of the stores at Concord, and so seize and destroy the 
 ammunition without any conflict. They supposed that they had 
 succeeded in this, and confidently expected to accomplish the ob- 
 ject of their enterprise in the morning without any serious resist- 
 ance ; when all at once, on entering the town of Lexington, they 
 found a band of armed men drawn up across the road, evidently 
 prepared to resist them. 
 
 How did it hajypen .that there was a force ready at Lexington 
 to oppose the expedition ? 
 
 The explanation of this was, that some Americans, who had seen 
 the troops soon after they landed from the boats and had com- 
 menced their march, took measures immediately for spreading the 
 alarm. They sent horsemen from town to town, to ring the bells 
 and call out the people. The people rose from their beds, dressed 
 and armed themselves in haste, and went off in small bands, as 
 
COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR. 81 
 
 they chanced to come together, toward the road which they sup- 
 posed the troops would take in going to Concord. The force which 
 the British detachment encountered at Lexington was the first of 
 these bands that they met. 
 
 What took jylccce at Lexington f 
 
 There were about seventy of the Americans ; but seventy men, 
 of course, could not hope successfully to resist eight hundred. 
 They fought a short time, until quite a number of them were kill- 
 ed, and then retreated. 
 
 Hoio did the expedition end? 
 
 The British detachment then w^ent on. They found another 
 band of Americans at Concord, and another brief contest took place 
 there. They succeeded, however, in taking and destroying the 
 stores, and then they made good their retreat to Boston, though 
 they were pursued and harassed all the way, and nearly two hund- 
 red of them were killed or wounded. 
 
 What was the e^ect which this battle produced on the country ? 
 
 The news of this encounter spread like wildfire throughout the 
 country, and aroused the people to the highest pitch of excitement. 
 Every body was at once ready for war. 
 
 Describe what took place in respect to Boston, 
 
 Great numbers of men enlisted as volunteers, and marched to- 
 ward Boston. In a short time, so large a force was thus assem- 
 bled that the town was hemmed in on every side, and the British 
 troops were shut up in it as if they were besieged. There were 
 then no bridges leading from Boston to the main land. The only 
 access, except by boats, was over the Neck. The British took 
 possession of the Neck and fortified it, so as to prevent the Amer- 
 icans from coming in. Of course, almost all communication be- 
 tween the town and the country was cut off, and the town itself 
 was filled with excitement and terror, the soldiery taking complete 
 possession of it, and treating the inhabitants, as usual in such ca- 
 ses, with great severity. 
 
82 COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR. 
 
 Who was the British corriinander in Boston^ and what plaii^ 
 did he now form f 
 
 The name of the officer who commanded the British troops, it 
 has already been stated, was General Gage. His plan was to for- 
 tify himself in Boston until more ships and more troops should ar- 
 rive from England, and then to march out into the country, and 
 attack and disperse the American armies that had assembled there. 
 The plan of the Americans, on the other hand, was to increase 
 and concentrate their troops, and, as soon as they were strong- 
 enough, attack the British in Boston and drive them away. 
 
 What was the residt i?i the end? 
 
 The Americans succeeded, though not immediately. The Brit- 
 ish remained in Boston nearly a year before they could be expelled. 
 The first attempt that the Americans made to expel them failed, 
 and quite a long time elapsed afterward before they were ready 
 to make another. 
 
 Give an account of the situation of the hills about Boston. 
 
 The attempt that failed happened thus : Boston is situated on 
 a peninsula that lies in the middle of a bay. There are, however, 
 on the north, and also on the south, pretty high hills that overlook 
 this bay. The hills on the north are in Charlestown. The prin- 
 cipal one is Bunker Hill. Those on the south are in Dorchester, 
 and are called Dorchester Heights. 
 
 What was the first plan formed by the Americans for ex^yel- 
 ling the British troops from Boston? 
 
 The first plan of the Americans to drive the British out of Bos- 
 ton was to go secretly in the night to Bunker Hill, and build what 
 is called a redoubt there. A redoubt is a broad and high bank of 
 earth, with openings in it here and there for the mouths of cannon. 
 The Americans thought that if they could get the redoubt so far 
 finished in one night that it would shelter the men behind it, the 
 next day, from the cannons on board the ships in the harbor and 
 in the forts of the town, they could then bring their own cannons 
 
COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR. 83 
 
 to it, and fire upon the town or the ships themselves, and so drive 
 the British troops away. 
 
 Give an account of the jjroceedings of the Americans in build- 
 ing the redoubt. 
 
 The party that were sent to make the redoubt assembled in 
 Cambridge in the evening. There were quite a number of troops, 
 and two hundred workmen from Concord. The workmen carried 
 pickaxes and shovels with them, and provisions to last them twen- 
 ty-four hours. They set out as soon as it was dark. Two men 
 led the way with dark lanterns. It was a very warm summer's 
 night. The men were charged to march along as silently as pos- 
 sible, and not to speak a word. As soon as they reached the 
 ground, the officers marked out the lines for the redoubt, while the 
 men laid down their packs, and stacked their arms, and got their 
 tools ready. ' As soon as the lines were drawn they began to dig. 
 They could see the lights in Boston, at a short distance from them, 
 and also on board the men-of-war in the harbor. They were 
 afraid to make the least noise at their work, for fear of alarming 
 the sentinels on board the ships, in which case they would soon 
 have seen the flashes of the guns from the sides of them lighting 
 up the night, each one followed by a heavy shot or shell, which 
 would come tearing its way into their intrenchments. 
 
 Hoio were they discovered^ and what followed f 
 
 They succeeded in keeping secret what they were doing until the 
 morning, and then, as soon as it was light, they were of course dis- 
 covered. The ships in the harbor and the forts in the town imme- 
 diately opened fire upon them ; but the embankment was now com- 
 pleted, and it protected them so well that the shots did no harm. 
 
 Describe the state of things among the jpeojjle of Boston the 
 next inoryiing. 
 
 All the people of Boston were thrown into the greatest state of 
 excitement on hearing this cannonading. They were waked up 
 by it in the morning. They knew by the sound of the guns that 
 
84 COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR. 
 
 they were sliotted, and tliey were sure, therefore, that something 
 very serious had occurred. They went up to the tops of the 
 houses to look. There they could see the new redoubt that had 
 sprung up so mysteriously in the night on Bunker Hill, and they 
 could see the balls flying toward it through the air from the can- 
 non of the ships and forts. Some were terrified at the spectacle ; 
 others were pleased to find that their countrymen had gained so 
 strong a position. The whole town was filled with the wildest 
 excitement. All this time the men on Bunker Hill went on stead- 
 ily with their work, notwithstanding the firing, and about noon 
 they finished it. 
 
 What measures did General Gage adopt for dispossessing the 
 Ame7'icans, and what was the residt f - 
 
 General Gage determined immediately that he must dislodge 
 the xlmericans from their redoubt at once, at all hazards. " If we 
 do not drive them away from that hill," said he to himself, "they 
 will very soon drive us away from Boston." So he ordered out 
 a detachment of soldiers, and made ready to cross the water to 
 Charlestown. The detachment consisted of over two thousand men. 
 There were twenty-eight barges and boats prepared to take them 
 over. They landed on the shore at some distance from the hill, 
 and waited there a short time for another body of troops from the 
 ships. When all were ready, they marched up the hill and attack- 
 ed the redoubt. There was a long and obstinate conflict, but at 
 last the Americans were beaten and compelled to retreat. 
 
 What is there specially remarkable in respect to the battle of 
 Bunker Hill ? 
 
 Notwithstanding that the British really, in the end, gained the 
 day, this battle of Bunker Hill has always been regarded in his- 
 tory as an American triumph, and the people of this country have 
 gloried in it as one of the greatest achievements of the Eevolution. 
 There were only one thousand five hundred Americans engaged, 
 while of the English there were four thousand. The Americans 
 
COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAK. 
 
 85 
 
 were aided by their redoubt, but then the British, on the other 
 hand, were supported by the firing from a fort in Boston, and by 
 shot and shells from the ships of war ; and yet twice did the Amer- 
 icans drive back the assailants down the hill. It was not till the 
 third attack that they succeeded, and then because the American 
 supplies of ammunition gave out, so that they could no longer 
 continue their fire. 
 
 W/iat was the effect of the battle 07i the country ? 
 This, it is true, was only a limited and partial success, but it 
 ,ji^ animated the soldiers in all the American camps in a won- 
 ^^^^ derful manner. The news of the battle spread rapidly all 
 over the land, and it exerted a very powerful influence in 
 arousing the people in every quarter of the coun- 
 try, and advancing the cause of the Revolution. 
 Thus, on the whole, considering the results which 
 l: followed, the day was a triumphant one for the 
 American cause, and a very lofty and imposing 
 monument of granite has been erected to com- 
 memorate the spot which was the scene of this 
 ^ battle. 
 
 What were the arrangements which Con- 
 ^^ gress made for carrying on the war ? 
 
 As soon as Congress met, they adopted 
 
 ^^^ 'Tiore systematic and decisive measures than 
 
 ^ ^ -^ — , ever for carrying on the warfare. 
 
 ^~^ They made 
 
 arrange- 
 ments for 
 the 
 
 MONUMENT ON BUNKER HILL 
 
86 
 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR. 
 
 tion of a large army. They appointed General Washing- 
 ton commander-in-chief of it. He proceeded to Cam- 
 brid2:e and took the command. He established his head- ., 
 
 o 
 
 quarters at a large house four or five miles from Boston. "^^ 
 This house is still standing, and is considered one of 
 the most interesting relics of Hevolutionary times. 
 
 Describe the situation that Washington 
 was in at Cambridge, and the duties ^^^^^^F/ 
 which devolved upon him. 
 
 Large bodies 
 of volunteers 
 hastened to 
 
 Cambridge 
 to join the 
 standard 
 of Was 
 
 mgton, 
 
 WASHINGTON S HEAD-QUAKTERS AT CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 and by 
 their 
 means he 
 was enabled 
 to occupy all 
 
 the country around Boston, so that the British forces were com- 
 pletely shut in, as if they were besieged. W^ashington was con- 
 stantly engaged all summer in organizing his army, providing them 
 with food, clothing, and ammunition, and in teaching the soldiers 
 their duty. They were, of course, very destitute in respect to all 
 the usual requisites for war, as they were generally young farmers 
 or mechanics, just from the work-shop or the field, and were arm- 
 ed with such chance weapons as came most readily to hand. 
 
 Why coidd not Washington at once attach the British ? 
 
 With the means at his command he could not attack the British 
 in Boston with any hope of success. He had very little artillery ; 
 
COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR. 
 
 87 
 
 lie had no Loats in which to convey his troops to the town across 
 the water, and the only approach Ly land was fortified in such a 
 manner as to make it impossible to force the lines without cannon. 
 
 IIoiD VMS it that at last a vxiy seemed to he oj^ened to him f 
 
 The summer passed away and the winter came. The frost 
 bridged the waters of the bay, and seemed to open a passage for 
 the troops, and Washington seriously contemplated making an at- 
 tack upon the town over the ice. On mature deliberation, this 
 plan was found too doubtful of success, and it was abandoned. 
 
 Give an account of the second serious jjlan formed for dis- 
 lodging the British, and of the work of the men in executing it. 
 
 Early in the spring, however, the second great effort was made 
 by the Americans to dislodge the British from Boston, and it suc- 
 ceeded triumphantly. It was a repetition of the attempted ma- 
 noeuvre of Bunker Hill. One night in March, a body of troops 
 were sent up to the heights of Dorchester and set to work, throw- 
 
 VIEW OF BOSTON FEOM DORCHESTER HEIGHTS. 
 
88 COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAE. 
 
 ing up intrenchments there just as they had done on Bunker Hill. 
 But this undertaking was managed on a much more extensive 
 scale than the other. Six times as many workmen were employed 
 in digging the trench and throwing up the embankment as were 
 sent to Bunker Hill, and there was a large body of troops detached 
 to accompany and protect them. The hill was higher too, and so 
 was much more safe from an attack. The men worked hard all 
 night, and by morning the work was wellnigh completed. 
 
 Describe what took2:)lace the next morning in Bosto7i. 
 
 As soon as it was light, the sentinels on board the men-of-war 
 were amazed at seeing a strong fortress, that had grown up in the 
 night, frowning upon them from a hill so near as to place them in 
 imminent danger. The commander of the ships sent word to Lord 
 Howe, who was now the general-in-chief on shore, that unless he 
 dislodged those men from their post on the Heights, he should be 
 obliged to leave the harbor immediately with all his ships, "for 
 the Americans could fire," he said, "directly down upon him as 
 soon as they should get their guns in position." Lord Howe im- 
 mediately fitted out an expedition to go in boats and storm the 
 redoubts, as the troops had done before at Bunker Hill. 
 
 What was the result of the expedition sent to dislodge the 
 Americans f 
 
 The men embarked and set sail, and every body expected a ter- 
 rible battle ; but a storm came on suddenly, and threw them all 
 into confusion. Some were upset, some driven on the shore, and 
 the whole fleet was so scattered and broken up, that before they 
 could be collected again, and repaired, and made ready for another 
 attempt, the Americans had completed their works, and made them 
 so strong that the British were afraid to attack them. 
 
 Wliat proposal did General Howe now make to General 
 Washington f 
 
 General Howe sent word to General Washington that if he 
 would allow them to embark on board their ships in peace, they 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 89 
 
 would all go away. " But if you fire upon us from your intrench- 
 ments on the Heights," said he, "while we are going on board, 
 then we will burn the town." 
 
 What was the result f 
 
 General Washington wished to save the town, and so he made 
 an agreement with Lord Howe, that if he would go away and leave 
 every thing as it was, they would allow him to go in peace. The 
 British, accordingly, embarked in the ships and sailed out of the 
 harbor. For some time nobody knew where they were going.' 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 WTiat were the designs and intentions of the colonists at the 
 commencement of the loar f 
 
 The Declaration of Independence was made on the 4th of July, 
 1776. This was not until more than a year after the war broke 
 out. During all this time, the people of the colonies, though de- 
 termined that they would not submit to being taxed by a govern- 
 ipaent three thousand miles away, had yet not resolved to separate 
 entirely from the mother country. They professed to be loyal and 
 obedient in spirit still, as subjects of the English king, but they 
 insisted on enjoying the same rights and privileges that were 
 claimed and enjoyed by all other British subjects. 
 
 What was really the claim of the colonists in. respect to tax- 
 ation f 
 
 It must be distinctly borne in mind, in order to understand the 
 merits of this dispute, that the colonists did not by any means 
 claim that they ought not to be taxed at all, but only that, like 
 the people of England themselves, they should have the control 
 of the subject of taxation in their own Legislatures. They were 
 not willing to be taxed by the English Legislature^ 
 
90 THE DECLAEATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 How did they reason on the subject f 
 
 The Parliament was the Legislature of the people of England. 
 Without the act of Parliament, neither the king nor the govern- 
 ment could lay any tax whatever on the people at home. Now 
 the colonies had their Legislatures too, and the people of the col- 
 onies maintained that it was those Legislatures, and not the Leg- 
 islature of the people at home, that should control the subject of 
 taxation in x^merica. There was no justice or right whatever that 
 the" Legislature of one portion of the king's dominions should reg- 
 ulate the taxes for the people of another portion. It would be al- 
 most as reasonable, they maintained, to expect that the Legislatures 
 of America should regulate the taxation of the people of England, 
 as that the Legislature of England should do it for the people of 
 America. Thus all that the Americans claimed was that, while 
 they were willing to remain loyal and faithful subjects of the Brit- 
 ish king, they should be protected in the enjoyment of the same 
 rights and privileges in their own country that the people of En- 
 gland enjoyed in theirs. 
 
 What change took ])lace in the views of the colonists as the 
 war went on f 
 
 As the war went on, however, during the year after it first brokg 
 out, the Americans became gradually more and more alienated from 
 the mother country, and thus the breach grew wider and wider. 
 All attempts to compromise and settle the dispute failed. The 
 English government would make no terms with the Americans 
 short of exacting from them a complete and absolute surrender lo 
 their authority. 
 
 To what conclusion did the leaders finally come f 
 
 At length many leading Americans began to think that the time 
 was come when it would be best for the colonists to renounce their 
 allegiance to England altogether. " Let us proclaim our independ- 
 ence," said they, "and take our stand boldly among the nations 
 of the earth," • 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 91 
 
 W/iat loere at first the vieivs of the mass of the people on this 
 subject f 
 
 This proposal was received at first, by many persons, witli great 
 alarm. There was still remaining, too, in the minds of a large por- 
 tion of the people, a lingering attachment to the mother country. 
 "Besides," said they, "we can not hope to contend successfully 
 against so great a power. So long as our resistance is confined to 
 opposing a single unjust and oppressive law, England will not make 
 any very great efibrts to subdue us, and will finally give up the 
 contest and grant us our rights ; but if we go to so great an ex- 
 treme as wholl}^ to renounce the authority of the mother country, 
 and attempt to make ourselves independent altogether, then the 
 spirit of the government will be thoroughly aroused, and they will 
 come upon us with all the strength and all the resources of the 
 empire, rather than yield." 
 
 Sow did the leaders rej^ly to these arguments f 
 
 To this, those who were in favor of independence replied, that 
 doubtless the English government would make every possible ef- 
 fort to reconquer the colonies and bring them back, if they should 
 attempt to break entirely away from the mother country ; and they 
 admitted that the contest would be very unequal between the 
 mighty British empire, with its great and powerful ships of war, 
 and its immense armies of well-equipped and well-trained troops 
 on the one hand, and, on the other, the thinly-peopled and scatter- 
 ed population of the colonies, with no troops but hastily-collected 
 volunteers, coming, half armed, and destitute of any knowledge of 
 war, from the work-shops and fields. 
 
 From ivhat quarter did they hojje that they might receive aid? 
 
 " But then," said they, " we shall not be alone in the contest. 
 England has enemies in Europe who will be glad to join us when 
 they find that we have fully committed ourselves to the struggle. 
 There are France, and Spain, and Holland. They are the nat- 
 ural enemies of England. They have been at war with England 
 
92 THE DECLAEATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 half of the time for centuries. They are always ready to take 
 advantage of any favorable opportunity to make war upon her. 
 And though they will not help us now, while we only rebel against 
 a tax, and are ready to submit to the English dominion again as 
 soon as the tax is repealed, they would willingly, and even gladly, 
 join us if we would separate from her entirely, and declare our- 
 selves a free and independent nation." 
 
 What general change of opinion on the subject of government 
 took place at this time among the jpeojilef • - 
 
 In the mean time, while discussions like these were going on 
 among the statesmen and the members of Congress, a strong love 
 of liberty and independence was rapidly extending among all 
 classes of the people. They began to believe that in government, 
 as in every thing else, men were competent to manage their own 
 affairs, and they were right in this opinion. 
 
 How have kings and nobles usually reasoned on this subject f 
 
 It has been a great point with despots and aristocrats, in all 
 ages and in all countries, to try to convince the world that men 
 are not capable of managing their own affairs, but that somebody 
 must be exalted over them to govern them. " The wise and the 
 good," they say, " must rule over the masses, who are ignorant 
 and bad." 
 
 In what way does this reasoning fail? 
 
 Under pretense of conforming to this necessity, they themselves 
 take the command, and keep the people under subjection to them, 
 though, instead of being the wise and the good, they are only cun- 
 ning and wicked. It is not possible for the imagination to con- 
 ceive of characters more selfish, profligate, and vile, than the line 
 of English kings, with two or three doubtful exceptions, have uni- 
 formly exhibited from the earliest periods to the present day. 
 
 What is geyierally the character of hereditary legislators f 
 
 It is the same with the kings of France and of all other coun- 
 tries. Nobles, where a class of nobles exist, are no better. The 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 93 
 
 class of aristocrats that have governed England for the last cen- 
 tury are proverbial all over the world for their idleness, their con- 
 tempt for every thing gaod and useful, their heartlessness, and the 
 vile, lawless, and profligate character which they maintain in pri- 
 vate life. There are some distinguished exceptions, it is true, but 
 this is the general rule. Nor are the English aristocracy peculiar 
 in this. It is so, and always has been so, with every aristocracy 
 that the world has produced. It always must be so. 
 
 How has the plan of putting government into the hands of the 
 ■wise and good alioays resulted ? 
 
 The plan of putting the government of a people into the hands 
 of a few, in the hope that they will be the wise and the good, al- 
 ways has resulted, and probably always will result, in exalting to 
 power the cunning and the bad, that they may monopolize the en- 
 joyments and honors of wealth, while they keep down the masses 
 who produce it in abject and perpetual poverty. 
 
 To what decision did the colonies finally come, and hoio was 
 this decision expressed? 
 
 The people of the different colonies pondered on these things. 
 They talked about them during the long and dismal winter. At 
 the meeting of the Legislatures of the several colonies the ques- 
 tion was discussed. Some of these Legislatures passed resolves 
 recommending independence. At length, when the members of 
 the Congress thought that the people of the country had come to 
 the conclusion that it would be best for them to separate from En- 
 gland, they prepared to take measures for carrying the determina- 
 tion into effect. Accordingly, about the middle of June, a resolu- 
 tion on the subject was introduced. 
 
 What was the resolution that was proposed in Congress f 
 
 Resolved, That these United States are, and of right ought to 
 be, free and independent states ; and that all political connection 
 between us and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, to- 
 tally dissolved. 
 
94 THE DECLAEATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 What were the thoughts of the memhers of Congress when the 
 resolution came before them f 
 
 This resolution was moved by a member from Virginia, and 
 seconded by a member from Massachusetts. It was listened to 
 with profound and solemn attention. To pass it would subject 
 every man who should vote for it, or sustain it in any way, to the 
 penalty of death, in case the attempt to establish the resolution 
 should fail. To be called upon to act, therefore, on such a ques- 
 tion, imposed a very heavy responsibility upon the assembly. . It 
 was a question of salvation or ruin for the country, and of life 
 and death for every man in the Congress who should dare to vote 
 upon it. 
 
 What were the proceedings of Congress in regard to the res- 
 olution f 
 
 The Congress voted to postpone the consideration of the ques- 
 tion for three days. • At the end of the three days they postponed 
 the final decision for a fortnight longer; and, in the mean time, 
 as it was becoming more and more clear every day that the reso- 
 lution would then be adopted, a committee was appointed to draw 
 up the form of a declaration to announce to the world the de- 
 cision which the colonies had formed, and to explain the reasons 
 for it. 
 
 Give some account of the committee that was appointed to draw 
 up the Declaration of Independence. 
 
 This committee consisted of five persons : their names were 
 Adams, Sherman, Livingston, Jefierson, and Franklin. In the en- 
 graving you see excellent portraits of these men. They all im- 
 mortalized themselves by the courage they displayed in daring to 
 draw up the Declaration of Independence, which they knew would 
 bring upon them the most inveterate and implacable hostility of 
 the English government. Adams and Jefferson afterward became 
 presidents of the United States. Franklin was sent as an em- 
 bassador to France, as we shall see by-and-by. Sherman and Liv- 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, 
 
 95 
 
 ADAMS, SHERMAN, LIVINGSTON, JEFFERSON, FRANKLIN. 
 
 ingston also subsequently attained to great distinction. The cen- 
 tre figure, standing more conspicuously to view than the rest, is 
 Jefferson. The artist has given him the most prominent place, 
 because he was appointed by the committee to write the declara- 
 tion. The one on the extreme left is John Adams. Franklin is 
 on the extreme riglit. He has his spectacles in kis hand. Sher- 
 man stands a little behind, next to Adams, and Livingston still 
 farther beyond. 
 
 How did the committee proceed in drawing wp and consider- 
 ing the Declaration f 
 
 In the next engraving you will see another view of the commit- 
 tee, representing them in the act of listening to the declaration 
 which Jefferson had written. By comparing the faces in the two 
 engravings, the reader will easily identify the several members in 
 the latter. The members of the committee heard the declaration 
 which Jefferson had drawn up, and approved it. Observe the se- 
 rious but satisfied expression of their countenances as they listen. 
 They made some slight alterations in it, and then reported it to 
 Congress. After a very careful and solemn consideration of t\\{t 
 
96 
 
 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 JEFFEKSON HEADING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 subject, Congress finally decided to adopt it by a unanimous vote, 
 
 and it was immediately proclaimed to the world. 
 How was the Declaration received by the coimtryf 
 Tlie whole country was filled with the highest animation and 
 
 joy. Bells were rung, cannons were fired, and illuminations and 
 
 bonfires were kindled all over the land. The whole country was 
 
PEOGRESS OF THE WAR. 97 
 
 filled with rejoicing at the thought that in name, at least, the peo- 
 ple were independent and free. But alas ! between assuming the 
 name of independence and freedom and establishing the reality, 
 a long and weary road of privation, danger, and suifering was to 
 be traveled, and Congress and the country now had to set them- 
 selves at work in earnest to prepare for the terrible journey. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 
 
 What was the general state of the country at this time f 
 During the time while the contest had been going on in and 
 around Boston, a great many other collisions had taken place be- 
 tween the colonies and the British authorities in all parts of the 
 country. The people had risen against the government in a great 
 many different cities and towns. Various military expeditions 
 had been organized. Governors had been driven away from their 
 provinces, and forts had been taken. In a word, the British rule 
 had been entirely overthrown almost from one extreme of the 
 country to another, and the ministry in England saw that a very 
 systematic, extended, and costly plan of operations would be re- 
 quired to recover it again. 
 
 What measures were adojpted hy the British government f 
 The government determined that they would recover it again, let 
 the cost be what it might. So they induced the Parliament to 
 make large grants of money to pay the expense, and then raised 
 a numerous army and equipped a powerful fleet, and sent them to 
 America, with orders to prosecute the war on the most extended 
 scale and in the most vigorous manner, unless they found that the 
 Americans, when they saw how formidable the preparations were 
 which had been made against thepj, would give up the hopeless 
 contest and submit. 
 
 3 G- 
 
98 * PEOGEESS OF THE WAE. 
 
 What was the alternative that they determined to offer to the 
 Americans f 
 
 " Make them first a fair offer," said the ministers to the com- 
 manders of the army and of the fleet, "that if they will give up 
 the rebellion and submit, they shall be pardoned — all except the 
 leaders. If they will not accept this offer, then force your way 
 into the country at all points, and march through it in every di- 
 rection with fire and sword." 
 
 Who was the commander-in-chief of the British armies^ and 
 where was he at the present time ? 
 
 The general command of the army was given to Lord Howe, 
 who had been expelled from Boston as related in a preceding chap- 
 ter. He came to Staten Island, near New York. He brought 
 with him there the forces that he had withdrawn from Boston, and 
 also the large re-enforcements that had been sent from England. 
 These, united, formed a large army. 
 
 What loere his three plans? Did you find all the routes re- 
 ferred to on the map f 
 
 His plan was first to offer the rebels pardon if they would sub- 
 mit and give up the leaders to punishment, and then, if they re- 
 fused to do so, to invade the country by three distinct and inde- 
 pendent expeditions. One was to land at New York, and conquer 
 the cities of New York and Philadelphia, and overrun the Middle 
 States. The second was to come down from Canada by the way 
 of Lake Champlain and the River Hudson, so as to take possession 
 of a broad belt of territory extending from north to south through 
 the very heart of the country, and thus cut off New England from 
 all communication with the middle and southern colonies. The 
 third plan was to invade the southern colonies, and, after taking- 
 possession of Charleston, overrun and conquer all the region 
 around it.* 
 
 * The pupil should by all means look out these proposed routes on a map of North 
 America. 
 
PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 99 
 
 Give an account of the offers of pardon that Howe made, and 
 of the replies made by the Amei'icans, 
 
 The plan of bringing the Americans to submission by offering 
 them pardon did not succeed at all. As soon as General Howe 
 landed on Staten Island, he sent a letter to General Washington, 
 and afterward the Congress at Philadelphia sent a committee to 
 him to learn what were the proposals he had to make. But these 
 negotiations led to no result. All the power that Lord Howe had 
 been invested with was to pardon the Americans if they would 
 admit that they were rebellious subjects of the King of England, 
 and return to their allegiance. The Americans, in reply, said that 
 they were not the subjects of the King of England at all. They 
 said, moreover, that they had been guilty of no crime, and would 
 accept of no pardon. They were a free and independent people, 
 and if Lord Howe was prepared to treat with them as such, they 
 were ready to listen to what he had to say, but they would not 
 receive any communication whatever that was addressed to them 
 as subjects of the King of England in a state of rebellion. So 
 Lord Howe found that the plan of pardoning the revolutionary ar- 
 mies would not succeed, and he began to prepare vigorously for 
 war. 
 
 What was the idea of the Americans m respect to the conduct 
 of the war f 
 
 Of course the Americans knew very well that no force which 
 they could bring into the field would be strong enough to conquer 
 the English armies. They knew that they must at first retreat 
 before them, but they hoped in the end to wear them out by the 
 stubbornness and pertinacity of their resistance. 
 
 Give an account of the commander-in-chief of the army, and 
 of his situation when chosen to the command. 
 
 General Washington was a calm and quiet, but very determined 
 man. He was about forty-five years old at the time when he was 
 chosen commander of the American armies. He was a gentleman 
 
100 PEOGEESS OF THE WAE. 
 
 of Virginia, living in quiet retirement at the time with his wife and 
 family. In the opposite engraving is a portrait of him as he ap- 
 peared a short time before his appointment. His fortune was 
 large, and he was surrounded with every means of comfort and en- 
 joyment. But, though he had thus so much to lose, and, person- 
 ally, so little to gain by undertaking the very dangerous service re- 
 quired of him, he accepted the appointment without any hesitation, 
 and immediately proceeded to Cambridge, as we have already seen, 
 to take the command. He said, moreover, that he would not re- 
 ceive any compensation for his services. He would keep an exact 
 account of his expenses, and that account Congress might pay, 
 but nothing more. 
 
 Describe the difficulties that Washington had to encounter. 
 
 Washington had immense difficulties to encounter in managing 
 his armies. The soldiers were almost altogether what are called 
 raw recruits — that is, they were young men from work-shops and 
 farms, who came to the camp as volunteers, bringing with them 
 any sort of swords or guns that they could obtain. They knew 
 nothing about war, and, though at first they were full of zeal, they 
 soon became wearied and discouraged when things went against 
 them. In the winters they suffered extremely from cold, and 
 sometimes from hunger. . Congress was unable to furnish them 
 with suitable supplies. The English soldiers, on the other hand, 
 were provided with the very best of arms and accoutrements, and 
 with abundance of comfortable clothing. 
 
 Describe the com^parative condition of the British and Amer- 
 ican armies in respect to shelter. 
 
 The English armies, in the course of the war, being generally 
 strongest wherever they went, took possession of the cities and 
 large towns, where, especially in the cold and stormy seasons of 
 the year, they lived sumptuously in elegant mansions, and even the 
 soldiers were well and comfortably housed, while the Americans 
 were suffering cold, and hunger, and nakedness in such miserable 
 
PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 
 
 101 
 
 WASHINGTON BEFORE HE WAS APPOINTED TO THE COMMAND. 
 
 huts as they could build in the woods, or under worn-out and 
 leaky tents, which were wholly insufficient to exclude either the 
 snow, tlie wind, or the rain. 
 
 What aid did the American soldiers receive from their friends 
 at home f 
 
 Their friends at home did all in their power to supply their 
 wants and relieve their sufferings. Mothers and sisters worked 
 late in the winter nights to make warm clothing for them ; and 
 
102 PEOGEESS OF THE WAE. 
 
 boys, too young and tender to be exposed to such dangers, were 
 sent to carry them to the camp. People made contributions to 
 procure arms, and ammunition, and supplies of food, and the Leg- 
 islatures of the different colonies devised the best measures they 
 could to provide for the wants of the army, and assist them to 
 keep the field against the invaders. 
 
 Wliat was the course of the war in the neighborhood of New 
 York? 
 
 Still, in spite of all that could be done, the American army was 
 for a long time too weak to resist its enemies. They were first 
 driven out of New York. Then the forts which they had built on 
 the Hudson E,iver above New York were taken, and Washington 
 was forced to retire farther and farther into the interior. Some- 
 times he found some small country house which he could make his 
 
 WASHINGTON'S HEAD-QUARTERS AT TAPPAN. 
 
 head-quarters for a time, and thus, for a brief period, be under the 
 shelter of a roof. All the houses which he thus occupied are now 
 greatly honored, and are visited every year by many strangers, who 
 regard them with feelings of the deepest interest, and love to 
 linger near them, thinking of the days when the Father of his Coun- 
 
PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 103 
 
 try bore within those humble walls his heavy burden of anxiety 
 and care. 
 
 Describe Washington's tent, and why did he have occasion 
 for it ? 
 
 It was not always that Washington could have a roof of any 
 kind to shelter him. He lived often in a tent, in the midst of his 
 soldiers, and exposed to continual alarms. The tent that he used 
 has been preserved to the present day. It is packed in two great 
 leather coverings, the same in which it used to be packed when it 
 was in service in the war. The poles by which it was supported 
 lie in a bundle by the side of it. 
 
 WASHINGTON'S TENT. 
 
 How was such a tent set up f 
 
 The central part of the tent was supported by the poles, which 
 were set in the ground, and framed or lashed together above. Then 
 the tent-cloth was spread over these poles, and the sides were drawn 
 out by means of strong cords, and fastened to stakes driven into 
 the ground. It was necessary to make these cords and stakes very 
 strong, and to secure aU the fastenings very carefully, or there 
 would be danger, in case of a wind suddenly arising in the night, 
 that the tent might be blown away, in which case the inmates 
 would be left wholly exposed to the wind and rain. Indeed, this is 
 an accident that not unfrequently occurs in military encampments. 
 
104 
 
 PEOGRESS OF THE WAE. 
 
 How was he provided with cooking utensils? 
 
 The cooking utensils which were used in the camp are still 
 
 preserved, together 
 with the chest in which 
 they were carried from 
 one place to another in 
 the course of the cam- 
 paigns. 
 
 Describe the cam- 
 paign in New Jersey, 
 One of the worst pe- 
 riods of privation and 
 suffering that the Amer- 
 ican army endured was 
 while the British sol- 
 
 THE CAMP-CHEST. 
 
 diers were driving them 
 through New Jersey in the fall and early in the winter after they 
 took possession of New York. General Washington was obliged 
 to retreat, for his army was so inferior to that of his enemies that 
 to fight them would have been certain destruction. He was driv- 
 en, therefore, from river to river, and from town to town, his army 
 growing more and more destitute and wretched every day, until 
 they were all reduced to the extremity of suffering and despair. 
 The English came on, following them every where triumphant. 
 The inhabitants of that part of the country became entirely dis- 
 couraged. It was useless, they said, to contend against so power- 
 ful a foe, and many of them signified to General Howe their will- 
 ingness to submit. 
 
 What occurred when Washington reached the Delaware f ' 
 At last Washington reached the banks of the Delaware at 
 Trenton.* He made all haste to get across the river. So narrow 
 was his escape that the van of the English army began to enter 
 
 * Let the pupil not fail to look out all these localities on a map of the United States. 
 
PROGEESS OF THE WAR. 105 
 
 the town before the rear of Washington's army had entirely left 
 it. The English, being satisfied for the present with this success, 
 took possession of Trenton, and quartered themselves comfortably 
 in the houses, to rest for a time, while Washington, with his half- 
 frozen and half-famished followers, were driven into the woods and 
 fields across the river, to seek such shelter from the cold December 
 storms as tents and huts could aftbrd them. 
 
 What effect did the news of these events produce iii Congress f 
 
 Congress was greatly alarmed. They expected that the British 
 would now cross the Delaware themselves, and come down upon 
 them at Philadelphia. There was nobody that could protect them. 
 But these fears proved groundless, for the aspect of things was all 
 at once changed by a most unexpected and extraordinary feat per- 
 formed by Washington and his army, which has since been great- 
 ly distinguished in history as one of the most remarkable events 
 of the Kevolution. 
 
 Why did not the British immediately joursiie the Americans 
 across the Delaware f 
 
 It was in the month of December when the Americans were 
 driven across the Delaware, and the British concluded, as has al- 
 ready been said, that they would wait a little while before they 
 pursued them. The ice was beginning to form in the river, and 
 it was dangerous to attempt 4o cross it with a large body of men. 
 They concluded to wait, therefore, until the river should be frozen 
 entirely, and then they thought they could march over on the ice. 
 In the mean time, they thought that the American army would be 
 gradually wasting away by hunger, cold, and exposure, while they 
 themselves were all resting 'from their fatigues in the warm and 
 comfortable houses of Trenton, and of other towns not far distant. 
 
 How long did Washington wait, aiid what design did he then 
 form ? 
 
 Washington waited a fortnight, and then he conceived the daring 
 design of secretly crossing the river in the night with all his army, 
 
IOC PEOGEESS OF THE WAE. 
 
 and surprising that part of the British army that had remained in 
 Trenton. This plan he carried most successfully into eifect. 
 
 Give an account of Ms exploit of recrossing the Delaware. 
 
 He chose the night of Christmas for the time, thinking that the 
 British officers and soldiers would be engaged that night in festiv- 
 ities and carousals, and that they would be, therefore, the more 
 easily and completely surprised. Accordingly, on Christmas day, 
 he took all the men that he could muster, and twenty pieces of 
 cannon, and marched up the river about eight miles to a place 
 where he thought he could cross without being observed by any 
 of the British sentinels or scouts. It was a cold and gloomy night, 
 the river was full of floating ice, and they anticipated great diffi- 
 culty in making the passage. 
 
 Why could they not cross where they were, without taking so 
 long a viarch up the river f 
 
 They could not cross where they were, because they knew that, 
 if they attempted it, the British troops would take the alarm, and 
 come out in great force on the bank of the river to stop them. 
 They would have brought cannons down to the bank, and would 
 have fired such heavy shot across the water that the boats would 
 all have been sunk and the men drowned. 
 
 ^Vere the British watching at all, at this time, for the coming 
 of the Americans ? * 
 
 The British had sentinels all along on the bank of the river op- 
 posite to Trenton, and these sentinels were commanded to watch 
 closely, and if they observed any signs that the Americans were 
 coming, to give the alarm. They also sent men called scouts up 
 and down the river, as far as they thought there was any proba- 
 bility that the Americans would go ; but they did not suppose 
 that they would go so far as eight miles, and so the Americans 
 crossed in safety, and then marched down to Trenton. The en- 
 graving on the opposite page represents the scene, showing prin- 
 cipally the boat which conveyed the officers. 
 
PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 
 
 107 
 
 WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE. 
 
 f 
 
108 
 
 PEOGEESS OF THE WAE. 
 
 Give an account of the battle at Trenton. 
 
 They arrived at Trenton very early in the morning, and took 
 the British entirely by surprise. A terrible combat ensued in the 
 streets and in the outskirts of the town. The Americans gained 
 
 BATTLE OF TRENTON. 
 
 a complete victory. The officer who had been left in command 
 at Trenton was killed, and almost all his men were taken prison- 
 ers. That evening Washington went back again across the riv- 
 er, carrying all his prisoners with him, and thus reached a place 
 of safety before the British had time to bring up the rest of their 
 troops, which had been quartered at different towns in the vicinity. 
 
 What other ojperations did Washington undertake ? 
 
 Almost immediately afterward, too, the British were attacked 
 by Washington in a similar manner in* several other unexpected 
 
THE EXPEDITION OF BUEGOYNE. 109 
 
 quarters ; and so successful were these bold operations, that the 
 tide of victory was entirely turned against them, and in the end 
 they were driven back again to New York, and their plan of reach- 
 ing and taking possession of Philadelphia in this way was entirely 
 defeated. 
 
 What effect did these events produce throughout the country f 
 The British officers were thunderstruck at this sudden change 
 
 o 
 
 in the aspect of affairs. The news of these successes spread every 
 where throughout the country, and produced the gTcatest excite- 
 ment. Bells were rung, cannons were fired, and all the towns and 
 villages of the land were enlivened with bonfires and illuminations. 
 The people were awakened to new enthusiasm in the cause of the 
 Eevolution. It was possible to conquer, after all, they found ; 
 and great multitudes of new men came to join the army. 
 
 Did these victories lead to the immediate and final success of 
 the Americans f 
 
 The American army, however, passed through many periods of 
 great discouragement and suffering after this, and many long and 
 weary years passed before they gained the final victory. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 THE EXPEDITION OF BURGOYNE. 
 
 What was the plan of the British ministry that was intrusted 
 to Burgoyne f 
 
 It was related in the last chapter that one of the plans of the 
 English ministry for overrunning and completely subjugating the 
 territory of the American colonies was to send an army from Can- 
 ada, to come down through the heart of the country, by the way of 
 Lake Champlain and the Hudson Eiver, to New York, thus cut- 
 ting the country, as it were, in two. The officer who was appoint- 
 ed to take charge of this expedition was General Burgoyne. He 
 
110 THE EXPEDITION OF BUEGOYNE. 
 
 attempted to execute the plan, but he did not succeed. Instead 
 of conquering and taking possession of the country as he advanced, 
 he found himself getting deeper and deeper into difficulty the far- 
 ther he came, until at last his whole army was surrounded and 
 hemmed in, and, in the end, he himself and all his troops were 
 seized and made prisoners. 
 
 Give an account of the setting out of the expedition^ and of the 
 general plan of it. 
 
 At the commencement, the prospects of the campaign were very 
 bright and cheering. Burgoyne set out from Canada with an army 
 of about seven thousand men. This was a very large force for 
 such an expedition, and they all felt entirely confident of success. 
 The plan was for Burgoyne to come down from Canada by the 
 north, while, at the same time. General Howe was to go up the 
 Hudson River from New York and meet him at Albany. 
 
 What course of procedure did Burgoyne adopt in resjyect to 
 the Indians, and what loere his own vieios on the subject f 
 
 One of the first measures which Burgoyne adopted after he com- 
 menced his march was to gather together the chieftains of the prin- 
 cipal Indian tribes that lived in that part of the country, and en- 
 gage them to join him with their warriors and become his allies in 
 the war. He himself was averse to this plan, but he was ordered 
 to adopt it by the British government, and he did not dare to dis- 
 obey. He thought it w^rong for a civilized nation to employ such 
 cruel and bloodthirsty savages against men of their own race and 
 kindred ; but the government insisted that he should do it. 
 
 How did the government reason on the subject f 
 
 "If we do not employ the Indians to fight on our side," said 
 they, " the Americans will engage them on theirs, and we may 
 as well have the benefit of their assistance as they." 
 
 What arrangement did Burgoyne make with the Indians, and 
 lohat instructions did he give them ? 
 
 So Burgoyne convened the Indian chieftains, and by means of 
 
THE EXPEDITION OF BURGOYNE. 
 
 Ill 
 
 BURGOYNE AND THE INDIAN CHIEFS. 
 
 various promises, induced them to agree that they would send a 
 horde of their savage followers to accompany his army in their 
 march down the country, and figlit with them against the Amer- 
 icans. He, however, charged them very strictly to give up their 
 cruel mode of warfare, and especially forbade them ever to kill any 
 women or children, or even any man except when he was actually 
 fighting against them. The Indians promised to obey these in- 
 junctions, but any one might have known that they would n^ver 
 keep their promises. 
 
 Describe the proclamation that he issued. 
 
 Although Burgoyne thus charged the Indians to be merciful in 
 the war, still he thought there would be no harm in availing him- 
 self of their alliance for the purpose of frightening the people a little 
 
112 THE EXPEDITION OF BUEGOYNE. 
 
 in advance. He accordingly issued a terrible proclamation, say- 
 ing that lie was coming down through the country with a large 
 army of his own, and with troops of Indians as allies ; and that, 
 if the inliabitants would at once submit to his authority, he would 
 protect them ; if not, he led them to expect that he should not 
 only resort to the most severe measures against them with his own 
 troops, but that he would let loose the savages upon them, and 
 that they would devastate the country with fire and sword, and 
 inflict the most horrid cruelties upon the inhabitants. 
 
 W/iat was the effect of the proclaQnation ? 
 
 General Burgoyne was greatly censured for issuing such a proc- 
 lamation as this, even by the English themselves. He said, how- 
 ever, that all he intended by it was to frighten the Americans, and 
 thus induce them to submit without bloodshed. But it did not 
 frighten them, nor induce them to submit. On the contrary, it 
 had exactly the opposite tendency. It aroused the whole coun- 
 try to a state of extreme exasperation, and the' people came in 
 great numbers to join the army that was sent to meet and resist 
 the invaders. General Gates had the command of this army* 
 
 Did Burgoyne meet with any effectual opposition at the com- 
 mencement of his march ? 
 
 Burgoyne, however, came on for some weeks without meeting 
 any serious opposition. He came to some forts on the shores of 
 Lake Champlain, but the garrisons were not strong enough to de- 
 fend them, and so they retreated. Burgoyne sent detachments of 
 his army to pursue these troops, while he himself pressed on with 
 the great body of his army. 
 
 ^hat were his antici]pations in respect to the result f 
 
 He was filled with exultation at this success, and was confident 
 that he should have no difficulty in fully accomplishing the object 
 of the expedition. " Indeed," said he, " we shall soon have the 
 American army between two fires ; for the force which General 
 Howe is sending up from New York is coming on from the south 
 
THE EXPEDITION OF BURGOYNE. 113 
 
 as I am advancing from the north, and we shall soon get General 
 Gates between us, and so have him entirely in our power." 
 
 A.t lohat point did the difficulties of the expedition begin, and 
 what were the difficulties f 
 
 Burgoyne said this and thought this about the time that he had 
 arrived at the southern end of Lake Champlain.* Up to that time 
 every thing had gone prosperously and well with him. But now 
 his difficulties began. He was obliged, liere, to leave the water, 
 and advance wholly by a march on the land. But he found the 
 road all broken up. The Americans had been upon the road, and 
 had made it utterly impassable. They had broken down the 
 bridges, and felled great trees across the way, and rolled mon- 
 strous stones down, wherever there were stones to be found on the 
 heights above, and piled in brush and tree-tops, in great heaps, 
 here and there, to such an extent that Burgoyne's army could not 
 move at all until they had cleared all these obstructions away. 
 This took so much time that the troops could not advance more 
 than a mile in a day. 
 
 How was he situated iii respect to provisions f 
 
 Another difficulty which Burgoyne soon experienced was the 
 want of provisions for his men and his horses. It requires an 
 immense quantity of provisions, of course, every day to supply 
 the wants of seven thousand men, and a vast' amount of hay and 
 grain besides, for the long train of horses that are always re- 
 quired to draw the baggage and the artillery of such an army. 
 It is not possible to carry provisions for such a multitude suffi- 
 cient for more than a very few days. The generals always de- 
 pend upon obtaining a large portion of their supplies from the 
 country itself as they march along. 
 
 What had been his expectations in respect to provisions ? 
 
 General Burgoyne had depended upon doing this. He sup- 
 posed that the inhabitants of the country generally were not much 
 
 * Do not fail to look out the route of the expedition on a map of the United States. 
 
 3 H 
 
114 THE EXPEDITION OF BURGOYNE. 
 
 interested in the Revolution, and that when they saw that the 
 rebel army, as he called it, was defeated and driven away, and 
 that he was advancing with so overwhelming a force, they would 
 all come over to his side, and would supply him abundantly with 
 all that his army would need. 
 
 How were these ex^pectations fulfilled f 
 
 The event plainly proved that he was entirely mistaken in 
 these calculations. He found the inhabitants, wherever he came, 
 immovably fixed and determined to resist and oppose his progress 
 by every means in their power. Instead of aiding him to procure 
 supplies of food, they threw every possible obstacle in his way. 
 They drove off their cattle, and moved away their grain and flour, 
 and left the country every where empty and destitute. The army 
 soon began to be seriously in danger of suffering for want of food. 
 
 Give an account of the exjpedition of General Baum, and of 
 the result of it. 
 
 The frontiers of the State of Vermont were not very far to the 
 eastward of the part of the country where the British army now 
 were, and Burgoyne was about this time informed that the people 
 of that colony were not hostile to him, and that if he would send 
 a detachment of his troops there, the inhabitants would no doubt 
 meet them in a friendly spirit, and furnish them with, or at least 
 allow them to procure, a supply of food. Accordingly, Burgoyne 
 sent out a strong detachment, under the command of an officer 
 named General Baum. Baum had not, however, gone far into 
 Vermont before he found, instead of a welcome, a large body of 
 Vermonters drawn up in battle array, ready to fight him. He 
 found that they were stronger than he was, and so he took post 
 on a hill, intrenched himself there, and sent back to Burgoyne 
 for help. Burgoyne sent forward a strong re-enforcement ; but, 
 before the re-enforcement came up, the Americans had conquered 
 Baum's army, and made them nearly all prisoners, and when the 
 other troops arrived they attacked them too, defeated them, and 
 
THE EXPEDITION OF BURGOYNE. 115 
 
 compelled them to retreat in confusion and dismay back to Bur- 
 goyne's camp, leaving all their cannon behind them. The British 
 army lost by this expedition about seven hundred men, 
 
 W/iat evil 7'esults for the expedition came from the defeat of 
 Baum ? 
 
 This was a terrible blow to the expedition. The army not only 
 failed in obtaining supplies of food, but it was greatly weaken- 
 ed in force by the loss of the men. Besides,. th^ moral eifect of 
 the disaster was very injurious upon the portipn of the army that 
 remained. The soldiers began to despair. The Indians, too, 
 iinding that the expedition was not likely to succeed, and that 
 Burgoyne would not, or could not give them enough to eat, when 
 he had promised them the greatest plenty of every thing, grew 
 tired of the service, and parties of them were continually leaving 
 the camp and going home. In a word, the expedition was grad- 
 ually getting into very serious difficulty. 
 
 Give an account of the plan formed for bringing Jane M'-Crea 
 to the British camp. 
 
 The disposition of the Indians to abandon the enterprise was 
 greatly increased by a very tragical and dreadful occurrence that 
 took place about this time. It seems that one of the officers of » 
 the British army, whose name was Captain Jones, was engaged 
 to a young girl named Jane M'Crea, who was then living with 
 her aunt near a fort not very far from the place where Burgoyne's 
 army was now encam.ped. Captain Jones conceived a desire to 
 bring her to the camp, where he could take her under his protec- 
 tion. He did not venture to go for her himself, but he sent a par- 
 ty of Indians for her. He told the Indians that if they would 
 make their way to her aunt's, see her, and propose to her to come, 
 and then bring her safely to the camp to him, he would give them 
 a reward. The reward that he offered them was a barrel of rum I 
 
 What was the result of this undertaking ? 
 
 The Indians went. They traveled across the country in a 
 
116 THE EXPEDITION OF BURGOYNE. 
 
 stealthy manner, and when they arrived at the house, they watch- 
 ed their opportunity when the rest of the family were gone out, 
 and seizing Jane and her aunt, they hurried them away. They 
 were immediately pursued, but it was impossible to overtake them. 
 The Indians, however, separated on the way. One party arrived 
 at the camp with the aunt, but the others, when they came in, in- 
 stead of Jane herself, alive and well, brought only her scalp. Her 
 aunt knew it by th« long black and glossy hair. 
 
 What effect did this occurrence produce on the army f 
 
 The whole army was horror-struck at this atrocity. The In- 
 dians said that Jane was shot by a bullet fired by white men who 
 were pursuing them, but it was generally believed that they kill- 
 ed her themselves. The story went all over the land, and the 
 greatest indignation was excited every where against the British 
 for employing such brutal monsters to fight against their brethren. 
 Indeed, the British themselves began to be thoroughly ashamed 
 of, and to abhor their confederates, and they instinctively evinced 
 this feeling so plainly that the Indians became alienated from them, 
 and went off more and more. 
 
 Who luas the American commander ojyposed to Burgoyne^ and 
 ^ahat was now his condition f 
 
 In the mean time, the forces of General Gates were constantly 
 increasing, and he went on concentrating them every day, so that 
 soon Burgoyne was entirely surrounded. He had now no hope 
 except in the arrival of General Howe's army from the south. 
 But it did not come. 
 
 Wliat was the situation of Burgoyne at his encampment on 
 Hudson River f 
 
 The opposite engraving represents the situation of Burgoyne's 
 camp on the banks of the Hudson Eiver at one time while he was 
 thus hemmed in on all sides. The camp is on the western bank, 
 so that in the view we are looking down the river. The Ameri- 
 can army is a short distance below. We can see the line of Bur- 
 
THE EXPEDITION OF BURGOYNE. 
 
 117 
 
 URGOYiNE S EMCAWi'i.li-AT OM THli HUUriON. 
 
 goyne's intrenchments for defense against the Americans running 
 from the bank of the river up the hill-side, and at some distance 
 beyond a row of American tents on the brow of the declivity. 
 Being thus established south of him, the Americans cut off his 
 progress down the river, and by taking possession of all the roads, 
 and bridges, and narrow passes among the hills, they prevented 
 his retreat in any other direction. He finally was so closely 
 hemmed in that he could not even send away or receive a messen- 
 ger, and thus not only could procure no supplies, but he could not 
 even communicate with General Howe, to learn when he might 
 expect help. Thus he was placed in a situation which was ex- 
 ceedingly critical, and which filled him witk the deepest anxiety. 
 
118 THE FKENCH ALLIANCE. 
 
 How did the ex/pedition end f 
 
 At length, when his provisions were entirely exhausted, and no 
 hope of relief from any quarter appeared, he concluded to give up 
 the contest and surrender. So he sent word to General Gates, 
 and articles of surrender were drawn up and agreed to. Burgoyne 
 himself gave up his sword, and his soldiers marched out of their 
 camp to a place by the river side, and there laid down their arms 
 in piles, where the Americans could take them. It was agreed 
 that they themselves should not be kept prisoners, but should be 
 allowed to go back again to England on condition "that they would 
 not come again to fight against the Americans during the war. 
 
 What were the fruits of this victory on the part of the Amer- 
 icans f 
 
 The number of men that thus gave themselves up was between 
 five and six thousand ; and besides the muskets, there were thirty- 
 five brass field-pieces taken, and a great quantity of ammunition. 
 The tidings that this formidable expedition was thus brought to 
 an end spread rapidly through the country, and awakened univer- 
 sal and unbounded exultation, and gave a new and very powerful 
 impulse to the American cause. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE FRENCH ALLIANCE. 
 
 In what way had the America7is hoped to receive help in gain- 
 ing their independence ? 
 
 It has already been stated that when the American Congress 
 declared the independence of the country, they hoped to have help 
 from some European nation, and especially from France, in carry- 
 ing on the war, and they had sent out commissioners some time 
 before this period to propose to the French government that they 
 should form a treaty of alliance with them. 
 
THE FRENCH ALLIANCE. ' 11&* 
 
 How did the Fre^ich government receive the commissioners that 
 were sent out^ and what did they at first decide to do f 
 
 The celebrated Benjamin Franklin was one of these commission- 
 ers. The French government received them privately in a very 
 friendly manner, but for a time would not publicly recognize them 
 as the agents of an independent nation. They had first to con- 
 sider whether it would be prudent to acknowledge the independ- 
 ence of the American colonies or not. If they were to do so, and 
 if, by their assistance, the colonies were to establish their inde- 
 pendence, and separate themselves finally from the British empire, 
 their old enemies, the English, would be humbled and weakened 
 by it very much, and this was, of course, greatly desired ; but then, 
 if they were to take sides with the Americans in the contest, and 
 the Americans should not succeed after all, then they would have 
 only brought upon themselves the terrible anger of the English, 
 without accomplishing any purpose at all ; so that they thought 
 it prudent to wait a little, and see how the Americans were likely 
 to succeed, before they ventured to join them. 
 
 What effect did Washington's victory on the Delaware have 
 on the negotiations at Paris f 
 
 When the news came of Washington's driving the British ar- 
 mies back from the Delaware to New York, they were encouraged. 
 Still they were not yet sure that the Americans would be able, 
 even with their aid, to succeed in the end. They, however, treat- 
 ed the commissioners with more attention, and even furnished them 
 secretly with considerable help. They did, indeed, all that they 
 could do without exciting the suspicions of the English. They 
 would not, however, openly treat with the commissioners, or re- 
 ceive them at court, or acknowledge them in any way as the agents 
 of an independent nation. They were obliged to be extremely 
 cautious, for there was an English embassador in Paris, as usual 
 at this time, and he was watching all their doings with the closest 
 scrutiny. 
 
120 -THE FRENCH ALLIANCE. 
 
 What attemjpt at communication with the English embassador 
 did the American commissioners make, and what was the result 
 ofitf 
 
 The American commissioners sent a note at one time to this 
 embassador on some subject relating to an exchange of prisoners, 
 but he would not receive it. They sent it a second time. He 
 then sent back a note to them, saying that " his majesty's em- 
 bassador receives no communications from rebels unless they come 
 to implore his majesty's mercy." The commissioners sent back 
 the note, saying that, " having received that indecent paper from 
 him, they returned it to him for his more mature consideration." 
 
 What effect did the capture of Burgoyne ^produce in Paris f 
 
 At length, when the news of the capture of Burgoyne arrived 
 in France, the government was decided. They acknowledged the 
 independence of the United States, and formed a treaty of com- 
 merce with them, and immediately afterward Franklin and the 
 other commissioners were publicly presented at court. The scene 
 is represented in the engraving on the opposite page. 
 
 What effect did itjproduce in England f 
 
 The eifect of the capture of Burgoyne was as marked in En- 
 gland as it had been in America and in France. When the gov- 
 ernment learned the news, and especially when they heard that 
 the French government had acknowledged the independence of the 
 United States, they were seriously alarmed. They began to re- 
 gret that they had ever undertaken the war. 
 
 How did the English government now reason in resjpect to the 
 war, and what conclusion did they come to ? 
 
 It would have been better, they were now convinced, to have 
 allowed the Americans the privilege they claimed — the same priv- 
 ilege which all other British subjects enjoyed — namely, that of 
 having all questions of taxes passed upon by Legislatures chosen 
 by the people themselves who would have the taxes to pay. This 
 was all that the Americans at first asked. If the English govern- 
 
THE FRENCH ALLIANCE. 
 
 121 
 
 'i'l\ ".- TTcT 
 
 FRANKLIN AT THE FRENCH COURT. 
 
 ment had allowed these claims at the beginning, there would have 
 been no war. And now, seeing that they had carried on the war 
 for some years without making any progress whatever, and observ- 
 ing what a serious turn affairs were taking, they came to the con- 
 clusion to yield. 
 
122 THE FRENCH ALLIANCE. 
 
 What measures did they adopt fo7' making peace ? 
 
 They appointed commissioners, and sent them out to America, 
 to say to Congress that they were willing to make peace, and grant 
 them what they had demanded. They sent these commissioners 
 out with all haste, in order that they might get to America and 
 make peace with the colonies before the news should reach them 
 that France had acknowledged their independence. 
 
 How were the proposals received? 
 
 The commissioners arrived, and laid their offers before Con- 
 gress, but the proposals were immediately rejected. It was too 
 late. " That was," said Congress, " what we demanded at first, 
 and if you had acknowledged our right at the outset all this trouble 
 would have been saved; but you refused, and compelled us to 
 combine together, and establish an independent national govern- 
 ment, in order that we might defend ourselves, and now we can 
 not go back. We are willing to treat with you for peace when 
 you are ready to acknowledge our independence, and withdraw 
 your fleets and armies from the country, but not before." 
 
 How did the commissioners then attempt to induce Congress 
 to accede to their proposals? 
 
 The commissioners, when they found that these open and pub- 
 lic proposals were rejected, made secret attempts to bribe Con- 
 gress. They made communications privately to some of the lead- 
 ing members, offering them large sums of money and high offices 
 under the king if they would give their votes in Congress, and 
 use their influence to induce the country to return again under 
 the dominion of the king. The members, however, rejected these 
 offers with scorn, and published an account of the attempts made 
 to bribe them in the newspapers. 
 
 What induced the British army now to leave Philadelphia ? 
 
 Very soon after this the British withdrew from Philadelphia, 
 which they had taken some time before, and retreated through 
 New Jersey to New York. They left Philadelphia for fear that. 
 
THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 123 
 
 if the French were to send out a fleet to assist the Americans, it 
 would go up the Delaware Eiver, and shut their army in. Thus 
 the Middle States came again into the power of the Americans. 
 What effect did the arrival of the French fleet produce f 
 In a short time a French fleet did appear, and the hearts of 
 the Americans were at once greatly encouraged, and their cause 
 strengthened by the presence and assistance of their powerful al- 
 lies. The French continued to assist them after this, both by 
 land and sea, to the end of the war. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 
 
 Who ivas Benedict Arnold, and for what is he celebrated? 
 
 One of the most extraordinary events that occurred during the 
 history of the Revolution was the attempt of one of the American 
 generals to betray a fort on the Hudson River into the hands of 
 the British. The name of the general who was guilty of this 
 •reason was Benedict Arnold. His plot was discovered just in 
 season to prevent him from carrying it into effect, but not soon 
 enough to prevent his securing his own safety by making his es- 
 cape. If he had been taken he would have been hung. 
 
 What was the nature of the crime of which Arnold was guilty? 
 
 The crime was treason. He accepted a trust from the American 
 government under the pretense that he was a friend to the Amer- 
 ican cause, and the trust which was thus committed to him he be- 
 trayed to the enemy. The crime of thus betraying one's own coun- 
 try is treason, and the man who is guilty of it is called a traitor. 
 
 What was Arnold^ s character and position ? 
 
 Arnold was an intriguing and unprincipled man, but he was 
 possessed of talents and of a certain kind of influence, and he had 
 been employed in various ways by the American Congress, both 
 
124 
 
 THE TEEASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 
 
 X>x 
 
 BENEDICT ARNOLD 
 
 in civil and military services. 
 In the course of these employ- 
 ments he quarreled with the gov- 
 ernment, and also with the other 
 officers of the army, and in the 
 end, partly from revenge, and 
 partly from a hope of making 
 his own fortune by the rewards 
 which he expected to gain, he re- 
 solved to betray the American 
 cause in some way to the Brit- 
 ish. He had lived very extrav- 
 agantly, and was greatly in debt, 
 and he hoped, by the money 
 which he should obtain for his 
 treason, to extricate himself from all his difficulties. 
 
 Describe the situation of the Highlands a7id of West Point, 
 The Americans were in possession at this time of a strongly 
 fortified post about fifty miles up the Hudson River, in the midst 
 
 of the Highlands at West Point, 
 where the celebrated military acad- 
 emy of the United States now 
 stands. The river at this part of 
 its course flows through a very 
 narrow channel, winding its way, 
 with many sudden curves and turn- 
 ings, among the wildest scenery, 
 with lofty mountains close to its 
 banks, whose precipitous sides descend to the very margin of the 
 water. In a word, the situation of West Point was such that it 
 commanded what might be considered a mountain pass, and was, 
 in some sense, the key to the whole interior of the country* Thus 
 it was an exceedingly important position. 
 
 N THE HIGHLANDS 
 
THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 125 
 
 What tuas the plan that Arnold formed f 
 
 Arnold, after having formed a secret .understanding with the 
 British general-in-chief at New York that he was to be the means 
 of procuring for him some great advantage over the Americans, 
 for which he was afterward to be properly rewarded, contrived, 
 by a great deal of manoeuvring, to get himself appointed to the 
 command of this post. His command included West Point, and 
 several other posts connected with it and depending upon it. His 
 plan was to betray the whole into the hands of the British gen- 
 eral*. 
 
 Why did he suppose that the British woidd he particularhj 
 pleased to have that post betrayed to them? 
 
 It would, of course, be a great prize to them, for it would give 
 them possession of the whole river. Besides, there was a very 
 large amount of stores and ammunition deposited at West Point, 
 and these would, of course, fall into the hands of the British when 
 the fort was surrendered to them. The possession of these forts, 
 and the consequent command of the river, would enable the British 
 to divide the New England states from the rest of the country. 
 
 Describe the relative position of the British and American ar- 
 mies at this time, and the arrangements on the fro7itier. 
 
 The name of the British general who commanded at New York 
 was Sir Henry Clinton. He not only had possession of New York 
 itself at this time, but he also held a considerable portion of the 
 country up the river on both sides. Along the northern bound- 
 ary of the land which the British forces thus held they had guards 
 stationed to prevent people from passing to and fro, and to give 
 notice in case the Americans were approaching. This frontier 
 was called the British lines. In the same manner, the southern 
 border of the land which the Americans held was protected by a 
 guard, and was called the American lines. Between the American 
 and British lines was a tract of country, not very wide, which be- 
 longed to neither side. This was called the Neutral Ground. 
 
126 THE TEEASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 
 
 What was the difficulty in the way of Arnold's communicating 
 with the British general f 
 
 Of course, in carrying on liis correspondence with Sir Henry 
 Clinton in New York, Arnold was obliged to get liis letters con- 
 veyed in some way or other across both the American and British 
 lines, and also over the Neutral Ground, or else send them down 
 the river. 
 
 Who was Beverly Bohinson, and where did he originally live? 
 
 The way in which he managed to pass these letters without 
 suspicion was through a man named Colonel Beverly Kobinson. 
 E-obinson had lived before this time in a pleasant country house 
 nearly opposite to West Point, on the eastern side of the river ; 
 but when the Revolution broke out he had joined the British, and 
 had gone to New York, and his house had been confiscated. 
 The engraving below represents a view of this residence. Arnold 
 
 Robinson's house. 
 
 made this place his head-quarters. It was just across the river 
 from West Point, and it was, moreover, very central and conven- 
 ient of access to the other places that were under Arnold's com- 
 mand. 
 
 JIow didBohinson contrive to convey the letters hack and forth f 
 One way in which Arnold contrived to pass his letters to and 
 
THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 127 
 
 fro between himself and Robinson was under pretense that he was 
 negotiating with him in respect to the restoration of liis property, 
 which Robinson contended had been unjustly confiscated. 
 
 What other wai/ was there of conveying the letters f 
 
 Another way by which the letters were sometimes passed was 
 by means of a sloop-of-war, which Clinton sent up the river as high 
 as she dared to go, for this very purpose. The name of this sloop 
 was the Vulture. The Vulture ascended until she came to a nar- 
 row place not very far from the entrance to the Highlands, oppo- 
 site to a point on the eastern bank of the river called Teller's Point. 
 She remained there some days, and many of the negotiations were 
 carried on through her aid. 
 
 Describe the relative situation of these places. 
 
 The relative situation of all these places may be plainly seen 
 by referring to the map over the leaf. West Point is near the 
 upper margin of the map, on the western bank of the river. The 
 fort there was on an eminence above the river. It was called 
 Fort Putnam. The ruins of it still remain. The situation of 
 Robinson's house is shown too, on the opposite bank of the river, 
 a little below West Point. 
 
 Where did the Vulture lay when she was sent up the river ? 
 Wliat did the Americayis do when they saw her f 
 
 About fifteen miles farther down is seen the place where the 
 Vulture lay at anchor when she was sent up the river. It was 
 in the narrows opposite Teller's Point. The Americans wondered 
 what she came up there for, and they began to make preparations 
 to bring a cannon to Teller's Point, and drive her away. 
 
 How was the correspondence managed? 
 
 The correspondence which Arnold carried on with Sir Henry 
 Clinton through the Vulture and through Robinson was, of course, 
 very brief indeed, and very vague and indefinite in its terms. It 
 would have been exceedingly dangerous to have written a fiiU ac- 
 count of his plan, for all attempts to communicate across the lines 
 
128 
 
 THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 
 
 were watched very closely, and Arnold knew perfectly well that 
 if he were detected in these plots there would not be any mercy 
 shown him, but that he would immediately be hung. 
 
 What arrangement teas Tnade between Aymold and the British 
 general for a full and final communication with each other? 
 
 Arnold would not, therefore, enter at all into details in respect 
 to his plan in his letters, but said that Sir Henry Clinton must 
 send one of his officers up the river to confer with him in person. 
 He would appoint a secret place of meeting, he said, and so com- 
 municate verbally the precise proposals he had to make. The 
 British general acceded to this plan, and appointed a young offi- 
 cer named Major Andre to go up the river to the Vulture, in ex^ 
 pectation that Arnold would meet him there. 
 
 MAJOR ANDRE. 
 
 Why could not the meeting take place on land f 
 It would be an extremely hazardous thing for Andre to land, 
 dnce, by the laws of war, any officer of an army who goes within 
 
THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 
 
 129 
 
 MAP OF THE SCENE OF ARNOLD'S TREASON. 
 
 the enemy's lines under any pretext whatever, unless he obtains 
 permission beforehand, and is protected by a flag of truce, is con- 
 sidered a spy, and is always hung. 
 
 What were Andre'' s ideas and expectations in going up the 
 river f 
 
 Major Andre, who was a very ardent and enthusiastic young 
 man, was very ready to go into any danger that it might be neces- 
 sary to incur in order to accomplish the object. So he set out 
 
 3 I 
 
130 
 
 THE TKEASON OF BENEDICT AKNOLD. 
 
 for the Vulture. He went by land up to Dobbs's Ferry, which 
 may be seen represented on the map, and then proceeded by a boat 
 to the sloop-of-war. Arnold had obscurely promised that a boat 
 should come down from him to the Vulture that night, and Andre 
 supposed that Arnold himself would come in her, and thus that 
 the interview would take place on board the Vulture. 
 
 What was really thej)lan that Arnold had formed f 
 
 But this was not Arnold's plan. Instead of hazarding his own 
 life by going on board the Vulture, he preferred that Andre should 
 incur the danger by coming to meet him on the land. 
 
 Describe the situation of Smith's house. 
 
 Arnold left West Point in the evening, and went down the river 
 to the house of a certain Joshua Smith, who was an accomplice 
 of his, or else his duj)e^ it is not certainly known which. The en- 
 graving below represents a view of Smith's house, and the situation 
 
 SMITH b HOLbE 
 
 of it, on the banks of the river, will be seen by reference to the 
 map. It is on the west side of the river, a little below a place 
 called Stony Point, where there is a ferry across to Verplanck's 
 Point. Smith's house, too, you will see, is not a great way above 
 the place where the Vulture was lying. It would seem, from tlie 
 
THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 131 
 
 scale laid clown in the corner of the map, that it might be about 
 five miles. 
 
 What took place at Smith's house ? Where was Smith to 
 bring Andre f 
 
 According to the plan which he had formed for bringing Andre 
 to the shore, Arnold, at the appointed time, came down to Smith's 
 house, and made an agreement with Smith to go down in the night 
 to the Vulture, and " bring a gentleman, whom he wished to see, 
 ashore from the sloop." The place where he was to bring him 
 was agreed upon. It was at the bank of the river, nearly oppo- 
 site to where the Vulture lay, but yet a mile or two distant. The 
 place is marked on the map. There was a little inlet from the 
 I'iver there, where the boat could put in and be concealed. In- 
 deed, the place was in all respects as retired and solitary a spot 
 as could be desired. Arnold was himself to go down there by 
 land in the night, at the same time that Smith went in his boat 
 on the water. 
 
 Give an account of Smith's progress down the river. 
 
 The plan succeeded perfectly well. Smith had some trouble 
 to find oarsmen for his boat that he could rely upon, who were 
 willing to go down the river with him in the night on so mysteri- 
 ous and possibly dangerous an expedition ; but at last he succeed- 
 ed, and as soon as night came on and the moon w^ent down, he set 
 out. It was a starlight night, and very still. Smith muffled the 
 oars, and glided as noiselessly as possible out of the bay where his 
 boat had been lying, and then turned down the river. 
 
 ^V^hat did Arnold do ? 
 - Arnold went down along the bank of the river by land. He 
 rode on horseback, and took a spare horse with him. 
 
 Give an account of lohat took place when the boat reached the 
 Yulture. 
 
 The sentinels on board the Vulture had been instructed that, if 
 they saw a boat coming and making a certain signal — one which 
 
132 THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 
 
 Arnold had previously indicated — they were to allow her to come 
 alongside. Smith made the signal, and the boat was accordingly 
 permitted to come directly up to the vessel. Smith ascended the 
 side, and went on board. The oarsmen remained in the boat. 
 After having been gone a few minutes, Smith came back, bringing 
 Andre with him. 
 
 How was Andre dressed^ and why was it that his dress was a 
 matter of im/portanee f 
 
 Andre wore the regular scarlet uniform of the British officers, 
 but the uniform was all covered and concealed by a long blue sur- 
 tout buttoned up to the chin. His wearing this uniform is an im- 
 portant circumstance to be noted ; for when a person belonging to 
 the army on one side, in a war, is found within the lines on the 
 other side, the question of his being disguised or not is a very im- 
 portant one in deciding whether he is to be hung as a spy. If 
 he wears his proper uniform openly, that would seem to denote 
 that he was not a ^py, but that he came on some fair and honest 
 business. 
 
 How was it with Andre f 
 
 Andre, in point of fact, was not disguised, nor did he, on the 
 other hand, wear his proper uniform openly. He wore it, it is 
 true, but he had covered it up with the long blue surtout. 
 
 What followed after Andre and Smith had got into the boat f 
 
 He followed Smith into the boat, and the men pushed off, and 
 turned the head of the boat toward the shore. They rowed for 
 about half an hour in the starlight, and then began gradually to 
 approach the land. A man at the bows watched the dark and 
 shadowy mass of trees and foliage that fringed the bank, as they 
 glided silently along, until he found the entrance to the little cove, 
 and then the boat turned in. 
 
 Describe the first interview between Arnold and Andre. 
 
 Smith and Andre landed. Arnold was watching near, conceal- 
 ed in a thicket. Smith led Andre in, and said, " Here is Mr. 
 
THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 133 
 
 Anderson, sir." Anderson was the feigned name that Andre had 
 used in all the correspondence which he had with Arnold. He- 
 adopted a false name for the purpose of greater secresy. 
 
 What did /Smith do after he had brought Andre and Arnold 
 together f 
 
 As soon as Smith had brought Andre and Arnold together, he 
 went back to the boat, and left them to themselves. It was now 
 considerably past midnight. Smith waited an hour or more, and 
 then he crept softly back to the thicket, and told Arnold that it 
 was time to take Mr. Anderson back to the sloop. " It will soon 
 be morning," said he, " and then we can not go back at all. There 
 is a guard watch on the bank of the river aU day, and if they see 
 us going to the Vulture in a boat, they will shoot us." 
 
 Whij did not Arnold accede to Smithes jproposalf 
 
 Arnx)ld said that they had not nearly finished making their ar- 
 rangements, and for a moment they were perplexed to know what 
 to do. At length Arnold proposed that Andre should put off go- 
 ing back to the sloop-of-war till the next night. 
 
 What did they finally determine to do f 
 
 "Go up the river with me," said he, "to Mr. Smith's house, 
 and stay there to-day. That will give us plenty of time to ar- 
 range our plans completely. Then to-night, as soon as it is dark, 
 I will send you back to the vessel." Andre at last consented to 
 this, though he knew that he exposed himself to great danger by 
 so doing. Look at the map again now, and see the place where 
 Andre landed, and follow up the bank of the river with your eye 
 to Smith's house. Compare the distance with the scale in the 
 corner, and you will see that it was about four miles that they 
 had to go. 
 
 How did they go ujo the river, and what occurred on the way ? 
 
 Arnold had his two horses with him, and he and Anderson 
 mounted them and rode up the river to Smith's house. At one 
 time they passed a sentinel. Arnold gave the pass-word, and the 
 
134 THE TEEASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 
 
 sentinel allowed them to go by. "Now," said Andre to himself, 
 " I am fairly within the American lines. If I am detected, I 
 shall be hanged as a spy. But it is too late to go back." 
 
 What sounds did they hear when they reached Smithes house? 
 
 Very soon after they reached the house, they heard the firing 
 of heavy cannon down the river near where the Vulture was lying. 
 They were quite alarmed, and wondered what was the matter. It 
 proved, in the end, that a company of men who lived on the east- 
 ern bank of the river had brought a cannon to Teller's Point — 
 which you will see by the map is directly opposite where the Vul- 
 ture was lying — and had begun to fire upon her, to drive her away. 
 
 What did the Yulture do to escape the danger f 
 
 The Vulture, not liking these shots, and not knowing what had 
 become of Andre to prevent his returning at the appointed time, 
 weighed anchor, and dropped down the river to a safer place.- You 
 will see by the map that the Vulture was in sight from Smith's 
 house where she lay at first in the narrows ; but now, when she 
 had gone down below^ she was concealed from view. 
 
 Describe the situation that Andre was left in at Smith''s house. 
 
 Arnold and Andre continued their consultation at Smith's house 
 during the forenoon, and at noon they had arranged all their plans. 
 Then Arnold went away up the river to West Point, to complete 
 the preparations there for surrendering the post, and left Andre in 
 Smith's care, to be taken back down the river that night. But, 
 when night came. Smith said they could not go down in a boat ; 
 it was too far. Andre urged him very earnestly to go, but he re- 
 fused. 
 
 What plari did Andre finally adopt for getting hack to the 
 Yulture f 
 
 He said that he would take him across the river by the King's 
 Ferry, and go down with him by land, on the eastern side, till 
 they got opposite to the Vulture, and that then he could easily get 
 on board. This plan was carried into effect. You will see the 
 
THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 135 
 
 ferry where they crossed on the map. It leads from Stony Point 
 to Verplanck's Point, a short distance above Smith's house. 
 
 How was he stopped on the way ? 
 
 Andre met with a great variety of adventures on his way, but 
 he succeeded in getting down the river almost to Tarrytown, and 
 there he was stopped by some men who were watching the road. 
 He thought that they' were on the British side, for he was now 
 near the British lines, so he very inadvertently told them at once 
 that he was a British officer, and that they must let him pass. 
 They immediately seized him and searched him. They found 
 papers in his boot, that Arnold had given him, which exposed the 
 whole plot. They immediately sent him a prisoner to the Amer- 
 ican camp. 
 
 Relate the circumstances of Arnold's learning that the plot was 
 discovered, and of his flight. 
 
 Arnold heard that his plot was discovered while he was at 
 breakfast with two other generals that had unexpectedly come 
 that morning. He learned the news in a letter that was sent him. 
 He ran into his wife's room, and with a face of consternation and 
 despair told her that he must fly for his life, and perhaps she 
 would never see him again. His wife was so terrified that she 
 fainted. He could not, however, stop to aid her, but kissed his 
 little child, who was then sleeping in the room, and rushed out of 
 the house. He hurried down to a small landing that Eobinson 
 had near his house, and, jumping into a boat there, he rowed off 
 as fast as he could down the river, and finaUy succeeded in reach- 
 ing the Vulture in safety. 
 
 What was Arnold's subsequent history f 
 
 The British government rewarded him very generously for his 
 intended treason, though it did not succeed. They voted him 
 about fifty thousand dollars in money, and made him an officer in 
 their army ; and he afterward fought against the Americans with 
 great fury until peace was made. But the British, though they 
 
136 THE SURRENDEE OF CORNWALLIS. 
 
 paid him for his treason, despised him for being guilty of it. The 
 officers of the army shunned him, and were unwilling to serve with 
 him, or to keep company with him in any way. At length he died, 
 and his memory is held in universal execration by all mankind. 
 
 What became of Andre f 
 
 Poor Andre was hung as a spy. Every body sympathized 
 with him, and wished to save him, but, in spite of every effort, 
 he fell a sacrifice to the merciless rules of war. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 
 
 For how many years did the war continue f 
 
 The war of the American Revolution continued more than seven 
 years. It began in the spring of 1775, and it ended in the fall 
 of 1782. 
 
 What was the great event which finally brought the war to a 
 close ? 
 
 The event which produced the most decided effect in finally 
 leading the English government to give up the contest, and to ac- 
 knowledge the independence of the American States, was the cap- 
 ture of a large British army in 1781 by the combined forces of 
 the Americans and their allies, the French. 
 
 Who was the English general, and where was he captured f 
 
 The English general who commanded the army was Lord Corn- 
 wallis. The Americans and the French gradually surrounded 
 Cornwallis, and shut him up closely in a place called Yorktown, 
 in Virginia, and, after a time, compelled him to surrender. The 
 event is consequently called in history the surrender of Cornwal- 
 lis. The circumstances of the case were very remarkable. 
 
 How and when did Cornwallis commence his camjpaign f 
 
 Lord Cornwallis had been engaged in conducting a campaign 
 
THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 
 
 137 
 
 LORD CORNWALLIS 
 
 in North Carolina, and during the summer he had been quite suc- 
 cessful. Near the beginning of September he marched northward, 
 and entered Virginia, conquering and devastating the country as 
 he came. 
 
 What were the situations of Washington and Clinton at this 
 time, and lohat orders did Clinton send to Cornwallis ? 
 
 Washington was at this time on the Hudson Eiver, forming 
 plans for attacking Sir Henry Clinton in New York. Clinton was 
 closely shut up in the city, and was apprehensive of an attack 
 from Washington. He was the general-in-chief of the British 
 armies in America. Cornwallis was under his command. Ac- 
 cordingly, when he heard that Cornwallis had come into Virginia, 
 he wrote to him immediately to put a large number of his troops 
 on board some vessels, and send them round to New York by sea, 
 for a re-enforcement to New York, in order to defend that city 
 from Washington. 
 
IBS THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 
 
 Why did not Cornivallis proceed to Neio York in obedience 
 to this order f 
 
 Cornwallis had got his men on hoard the ships, and they were 
 about ready to sail, when suddenly another letter came, counter- 
 manding the order. Clinton informed Cornwallis that he had re- 
 ceived a large re-enforcement from England and Germany — for 
 the English government had adopted the plan of employing sol- 
 diers from Germany to fight for them in this war — and that it 
 was now not necessary to send the re-enforcement. 
 What further orders did Clinton give? 
 
 Clinton further said that he wished Cornwallis to select some 
 strong position in Virginia, and fortify himself in it as securely as 
 possible, so that it might form a central point from which to make 
 incursions into the surrounding country in the course of the ensu- 
 ing fall and winter. So Cornwallis landed his men again, and 
 prepared to carry these orders into effect. 
 
 Describe the situation of Yorktown^ and of Cornwalliis en- 
 campment there. 
 
 After examining several places, he finally made choice of the 
 village of Yorktown for his camp. This was a village on the 
 south side of the York River, which is one of the rivers that flow 
 from the westward into the southern part of Chesapeake Bay. 
 The land is generally level in all this part of Virginia, and but 
 little raised above the surface of the rivers. The situation of 
 Yorktown was, however, somewhat higher, and it was so defend- 
 ed by the river on one side, and by small streams and ravines on 
 
 REMAINS OF THE INTRENCHMENTS AT YORKTOWN. 
 
THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLTS. 139 
 
 the other sides, that it was very easily fortified. •Cornwallis threw 
 up intrenchments, consisting of banks of earth, along all the un- 
 guarded points around the village, and planted cannon behind 
 them, so as to command every approach. The remains of some 
 of these intrenchments are seen very distinctly on the ground to 
 the present day. 
 
 What forces loere in the neighborhood to oppose him? 
 
 In this camp Cornwallis established himself with his army, 
 which consisted of about seven thousand men, and began to form 
 plans for making incursions into the surrounding country. He 
 was obliged to be somewhat wary in his movements, for General 
 Greene, an American commander, had an army in the vicinity, 
 which, though not as large as that of Cornwallis, was still some- 
 what formidable. There was also a considerable French force 
 near, under the command of General La Fayette. 
 
 What re-enforcements did he expect f 
 
 Cornwallis, moreover, hoped very soon to receive such an acces- 
 sion to his force that he should be able to accomplish any thing 
 he might desire. There was an English fleet in the West Indies 
 which was now expected in the Chesapeake. As soon as that 
 fleet should arrive, he would become at once, he thought, complete 
 master of the country. So he remained quiet in Yorktown, keep- 
 ing a good look-out all the time down the river and bay for the 
 arrival of the ships. 
 
 What fleet was it that actually came ? 
 
 At length, toward the latter end of August, a fleet was seen 
 coming up the bay, but, to Cornwallis's infinite disappointment 
 and chagrin, the ships proved to be French instead of English. 
 It was a squadron commanded by Count de Grasse, and it came 
 from the West Indies. 
 
 What plam did La Fayette and the Count now form f ^ 
 
 General La Fayette sent a man out in a boat from Cape Henry 
 to this fleet, when it first appeared, to inform the admiral of the 
 
140 THE SURKENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 
 
 situation of affairs. "We have got Cornwallis hemmed in by 
 land," said he, '' and if yon can send up some ships to the mouth 
 of the York River, and so shut him up by sea, we can take his 
 whole army prisoners." This Count de Grasse resolved to do. 
 He sent up four ships of the line and several frigates. 
 
 W/iat course did Washingto7i now determme to pursue ? 
 
 In the mean time, when Washington, at his camp on the Hud- 
 son, found that Clinton had received a large re-enforcement in 
 New York, so that he could not hope to reconquer that city, he 
 determined to leave that region and march south into Virginia, and 
 assist, if possible, in capturing Cornwallis. He accordingly moved 
 in detachments out of his camp, and commenced his march. 
 
 What did Clinton think of this movement f 
 
 Clinton might have come out of New York and followed him ; 
 and perhaps he might have entirely prevented his proceeding, but 
 he did not imagine that Washington could be really intending to 
 go to Virginia. He supposed that his sending off so many men 
 from his camp was only a stratagem to conceal some design that 
 he might be forming against New York ; so he remained in the 
 city, waiting for the expected attack. 
 
 HoiJb long did it take Washington's army to march to Virginia f 
 
 From the River Hudson to Virginia is a long distance, and it 
 required some time to accomplish the march. An army, loaded 
 as the soldiers are with their arms and knapsacks, and with so 
 much baggage in their train, moves slowly. It was a fortnight 
 before Washington arrived. He immediately went on board the 
 flag-ship of Count de Grasse, in the bay, and the two command- 
 ers settled together their plan of operations. 
 
 What was now Cornwallis'' s situation, and what were his 
 hopes ? 
 
 -The armies of the Americans and the French united now 
 amounted to twelve thousand men, while that of Cornwallis corf- 
 sisted of only seven thousand. Cornwallis, of course, could not 
 
THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 141 
 
 meet his enemies in the field. His only hope was that he might 
 be able to defend himself in Yorktown, and hold out there until 
 General Chnton could send him relief from New York. There 
 was, however, not much hope of this, for the French fleet, which 
 had been increased by a nev/ arrival since de Grasse came, was 
 now very strong, and they had full possession of the harbor and 
 the bay. Had it liot been for this fleet, Cornwallis might, per- 
 haps, have made his escape by water; but, with their armies on 
 land and their fleet on the sea, the Americans and the French had 
 shut him in on all sides, and they watched him continually with 
 the closest vigiLince. 
 
 How did the Americans obtain information of what passed in 
 the e7iemy's camp f 
 
 The Americans all this time knew every thing that passed in 
 the British camp. They obtained their information through a spy 
 who was employed by General La Fayette to go into Yorktown. 
 He was an American soldier from ^ew Jersey named Morgan. 
 He went into Yorktown pretending to be a deserter, and there en- 
 listed in Cornwallis's army. From time to time he communicated 
 to La Fayette and to the Americans all that it was necessary for 
 them to know in respect to the condition of the British army, and 
 to what took place in their camp. If he had been detected he 
 would have been hung.* 
 
 Give cm accou7it of the progress of the siege. 
 
 As soon as Washington arrived, the American and French ar- 
 mies regularly invested the place, and commenced the operations 
 of the siege. In the night, strong parties would be formed to 
 draw as near as possible to the British lines, and throw up in- 
 trenchments there, and place heavy guns behind them, with which 
 
 * When the campaign was ended and Cornwallis had surrendered, the Americans 
 offered this man a reward for his services, but he would not receive it. They then 
 proposed to make him an officer, but he declined the honor. " He knew he was a 
 good soldier," he said, "but it was not by any means certain that he should make a 
 good officer." 
 
142 THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 
 
 to cannonade the works the next day. Sometimes these batteries 
 were established in one quarter and sometimes in another ; and 
 all day, and sometimes all night long, bombs and red-hot balls 
 were seen marking their fiery track through the air, and descend- 
 ing with dreadful effect upon the ill-fated town. As the siege 
 proceeded, these works advanced nearer and nearer, until, at 
 length, Cornwallis saw that he must either fdVm some desperate 
 plan for making his escape from the place, or else he must sur- 
 render. 
 
 What plan did Cornwallis devise for escape? 
 
 He decided to attempt to escape. His plan was to leave all 
 his guns, and ammunition, and baggage, as well as all the sick 
 and wounded men, in the camp; and then, with the active and 
 able-bodied troops, to make his way in boats, in the night, across 
 the river to the north side. He would surprise some small por- 
 tions of the American army that were stationed there, and seize 
 their horses. By means of these, and such other horses as he 
 could capture on the road, he hoped to force his way through the 
 country to New York. This was, it is true, a very desperate un- 
 dertaking ; but then, even if only half his army should succeed in 
 getting there, while the other half were killed or taken prisoners 
 on the way, that would be better than to remain in Yorktown and 
 lose all. 
 
 How wa^ this plan defeated? 
 
 Unfortunately for Cornwallis, this scheme was entirely defeated 
 at the very commencement of the attempt to put it in execution. 
 The night fixed for the embarkation was the 16th of October. 
 The boats were got ready, and all the arrangements were made, 
 every thing having been done so secretly that the Americans did 
 not suspect the design. At ten o'clock one detachment of the 
 troops was sent across the river. But then there suddenly came 
 on a very violent tempest of wind and rain, which made it impos- 
 sible to proceed with the undertaking. Cornwallis succeeded in 
 
THE SUEEENDER OF COENWALLIS. 143 
 
 the course of tlie night in bringing back the few that had been 
 sent over, but that was all he could do. 
 
 What was now the condition in which Cornwallis was jplaced^ 
 and tuhat did he at length detevTixine to do ? , 
 
 All hope of escape was now necessarily abandoned, and Corn- 
 wallis saw there was no alternative left but to surrender. He 
 spent the following day in an agony of suspense and anxiety. 
 His works were ruined. The enemy was getting every hour 
 nearer and nearer. Shot and shells were descending upon the 
 wretched town in an incessant storm, and there was nowhere any 
 shelter from them or place of refuge. Accordingly, Cornwallis 
 sent out an officer with a flag of truce to ask the Americans to 
 cease firing, and promising to surrender. Orders were according- 
 ly given that the firing should cease, and a conference was held to 
 agree upon the terms of capitulation. The terms were settled 
 that day, and on the following day the British army were to march 
 out of Yorktown, and lay down their arms. 
 
 Give an account of the arrangements made for the surrender. 
 
 The surrender of an army of seven thousand men is a very im- 
 posing ceremony. On the morning of the appointed day, the 
 American and French armies were drawn up on the sides of a road 
 leading from Yorktown. The French were on one side and the 
 Americans on the other. The lines extended for more than a 
 mile. The British troops were to march out between them. An 
 immense concourse of people assembled from all the surrounding 
 country to witness the scene. 
 
 What was the cause of the great exultation of the Americans 
 at this result ? 
 
 Lord Cornwallis had made himself the dread of the whole south- 
 ern country by the devastations he had made, and he had come 
 into Virginia with the design of continuing there his career of ter- 
 ror and destruction. . The people, of course, exulted with double 
 joy in the dreadful retribution that had now overtaken him. 
 
144 
 
 THE SUREENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 
 
 Describe the ceremony by vjhich the act of surrender was final- 
 ly jjerformed. 
 
 The assembled multitude, however, did not have an opportunity 
 to see their great enemy himself. He was sick when the morn- 
 ing came, or pretended to be sick, and so did not appear. Indeed, 
 he was so overwhelmed with vexation and despair that he was 
 perhaps really unable to leave his room ; so he sent one of his 
 generals in his stead, to carry his sword, and deliver it up to Gen- 
 eral Washington, this being an essential part of the ceremony ob- 
 served on all such occasions. The engraving below represents the 
 
 THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS 
 
 surrender. In the foreground is seen the officer sent by Cornwal- 
 lis in the act of giving up the sword. In the background are the 
 
THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 145 
 
 British troops, disarmed, and standing between the French and 
 American lines. In the distance we see the French ships lying 
 at anchor in the river. 
 
 What had been the general condition of the country during 
 the jyTogress of the luar f 
 
 The surrender of this army virtually put an end to the war. 
 During the seven years that had elapsed since hostilities com- 
 menced at Lexington and Bunker Hill, the country had been in- 
 creasing in wealth and population, notwithstanding all the waste 
 and destruction the war had occasioned, and was now stronger 
 "than ever before. This was the second large British army that 
 had been captured, and comparatively few troops now remained 
 in the country. Even those few were closely shut up in places 
 distant from each other, so that they were isolated and helpless. 
 
 How was it that th6 government was finally induced to give 
 ujp the war f 
 
 In view of these facts, it was evident that the struggle was be- 
 coming more and more hopeless every day, and thus the people of 
 England began to be tired of the war, and to wish to have it aban- 
 doned. The government was thus at last compelled to submit. 
 They were exceedingly reluctant to come to this conclusion, but 
 they found that come to it they must, and accordingly a treaty of 
 peace was signed, in which the independence and freedom of the 
 United States of America was fully acknowledged by the govern- 
 ment of Great Britain. 
 
 When and where was the treaty of peace made, and what was 
 the residt of it f 
 
 This treaty is generally called the treaty of Paris. It was made 
 in the fall of 1783. Treaties between nations are very often named 
 after the place at which they were formed. This treaty was made 
 at Paris. The representatives of the American colonies went there 
 and met the representatives of the British government, and to- 
 gether they drew up the treaty of peace. A treaty is, in fact, a 
 
146 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 
 
 contract between two nations. After the terms of this treaty had 
 been discussed and settled upon by the commissioners, it was ex- 
 ecuted by them on behalf of their respective governments. Thus 
 peace and the independence of the United States were at last es- 
 tablished. 
 
 CHAPTEE XV. 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 
 
 What question at once arose among the American jpeojple when 
 jpeace had bee7i w^ade f 
 
 As soon as peace between England and America was establish- 
 ed by the treaty of 1783, and the independence of the nation was 
 acknowledged by the mother country, the question at once arose 
 what arrangements should be made for the future government; of 
 the United States. There had been no time to think much on 
 this subject during the continuance of the war. A great many 
 difficulties had been experienced for want of some well-organized 
 general government, but there was no opportunity to attempt to 
 provide any remedy for them until peace was declared. The sub- 
 ject was then taken up at once in serious earnest. 
 
 What was the nature of the powers that Congress had exer- 
 cised during the war ? 
 
 In order to understand the case fully, we must remember that 
 hitherto the Congress, though they exercised a sort of general 
 superintendence over the aifairs of the war, were, after all, not a 
 government. They were only, as it were, a committee. Their 
 functions were almost precisely those of a joint committee chosen 
 by a number of different powers to transact certain business of 
 common interest to all. In respect to measures involving the ac- 
 tion of the different states, they had no actual powers whatever. 
 They could only recommend. It devolved on the several states 
 
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 147 
 
 to determine, each for itself, liow far tliey would comply with 
 these recommendations, after they were made. The patriotism 
 and the public spirit of the country produced, it is true, a great 
 deal of unanimity in the states while the war continued, so that 
 the evils resulting from the want of a general organization, em- 
 powered to act as well as to advise, though serious, were not fatal. 
 It was very evident, however, that in a long-continued time of 
 peace so inefficient a system as that would not answer at all. 
 How many plans of government were i^Toposedf 
 The question was what was to be done. Two plans of gov- 
 ernment suggested themselves at once in such circumstances. 
 What imis the first jplan^ and what were the advantages of it? 
 
 1. To consider each one of the several states as entirely sov- 
 ereign and independent ; and to organize for each one a separate 
 government, so that each should be distinct from all the rest, just 
 as the different nations of Europe are distinct from each other. 
 There were good reasons for this plan, for the states extended 
 over a region widely diversified in climate and soil, as well as in 
 the pursuits, and manners, and customs of the inhabitants, and a 
 system of government and laws that would be adapted to one por- 
 tion of the country would not be suitable to another. For those 
 reasons, it seemed desirable that each state should have a govern- 
 ment of its own. 
 
 What was the second plan^ and what were the advantages of it? 
 
 2. To abolish the distinction of states altogether, and form one 
 great and united nation, with one government to rule over all. 
 This would be doing substantially what has been done in the 
 British empire. In former times, England, Scotland, and Ireland 
 were three separate states, each having its own independent gov- 
 ernment ; but they have, in modern times, been merged into one, 
 and the distinctions exist now chiefly in name. There were good 
 reasons for this plan too. One great nation is much more power- 
 ful in defending itself from enemies in time of war than a number ' 
 
148 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDEEAL CONSTITUTION. 
 
 of small ones. It was plain, too, that there were several other de- 
 partments of government, besides that of military defense, that 
 could be more conveniently managed in one system covering the 
 whole country, such as dealing with the tribes of Indians, buy- 
 ing and settling the lands in the interior of the country, regulating 
 commerce with foreign nations, and organizing and working the 
 post-office. 
 
 What were the comparative advantages of the two plans f 
 
 Thus, for general purposes, it seemed best to have one gener- 
 al government uniting the whole country; but for the conven- 
 ience and satisfaction of the mass of the people in the ordinary ar- 
 rangements of daily life, it was best to have separate governments, 
 so that each state might manage its affairs in its own way. And 
 in the same manner, so far as dealings with foreign nations were 
 concerned, it would be better to have a union of the whole coun- 
 try under one government, but so far as related to internal reg- 
 ulations and laws, affecting the private concerns of the people, it 
 would be better to have a separate government for each individ- 
 ual state. 
 
 What is the nature of a league or federation? 
 
 In several cases that had previously existed in the history of 
 the world, where a number of small states were situated near each 
 other, which possessed general interests common to them all, the 
 plan of a league or federation had been adopted ;* that is, the 
 several small states maintained each a distinct and independent 
 government, and then tliese governments leagued themselves to- 
 gether for the common defense, and for other purposes of interest 
 to them all; but this plan had never succeeded very well, and 
 such leagues have never proved strong or permanent. 
 
 What were proved to he the difficulties in the operation of such 
 a government f 
 
 * The word federation means a league. Federal means that which pertains to a 
 league. A confederation is a leaguing together. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 149 
 
 In the operation of the system, it was found that the separate 
 governments would send their delegates to the general assembly, 
 and votes would be passed there ; but then, if any particular state 
 did not approve of a vote, they would not comply with it, and 
 there was no way of compelling them to comply but by sending 
 an armed force, and making war upon them. This made a great 
 deal of trouble. Indeed, such federations were continually getting 
 involved in difficulties of all kinds, arising from the governments 
 of the individual states neglecting or refusing to carry out the 
 measures which the confederation had agreed upon. 
 
 What ivas the real source of the difficulty in these cases f 
 
 The difficulty was that the confederation had no power to carry 
 its measures into execution itself, but was obliged to depend upon 
 the action of the several states in executing them. This made 
 the confederation weak; and, in cases where the states seriously 
 disagreed, it became utterly powerless. 
 
 What was the nature of the scheme that the Americans de- 
 vised f 
 
 The Americans devised a scheme to meet these difficulties 
 which was entirely new. Nothing like it had ever been before 
 tried in the history of the world. The plan was to create two in- 
 dependent systems of government — a system of general govern- 
 ment for all business of general and common interest, and a sys- 
 tem of state governments for business of local interest. Thus they 
 divided the business ; and for one branch of it they made the 
 whole country one nation, wliile for another branch of it they di- 
 vided the country into a large number of distinct and independent 
 hations. 
 
 In resjpect to what portions of the public business is the coun- 
 try one f 
 
 In respect to peace, and war, and foreign commerce, and dealing 
 with the Indians, and the post-office, the country is one country : 
 it has one Legislature, one population, and one set of executive 
 
150 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 
 
 officers, who have power to go every where, and execute the laws 
 themselves which relate to the departments of business that be- 
 long to them, without calling upon the state governments at all. 
 
 In respect to what portions of the public business is the coun- 
 try divided f 
 
 On the other hand, so far as the laws which govern the trans- 
 action of business, the punishment of ordinary crimes, the charter- 
 ing of companies, the inheritance of property, and all other such 
 subjects, are concerned, the country is not one. In respect to 
 these things there is no union at all. There is not even a feder- 
 ation. The states are independent in these, and the government 
 of each is supreme within its own boundaries. 
 
 Does either government exercise any dominion over the other f 
 
 Young persons sometimes imagine that the general government 
 is, in some sense, a government above the state governments, and 
 that it exercises a sort of superintendence over them ; but this is 
 not so in any sense whatever. The general government extends 
 its jurisdiction over a imder field than the state governments, it 
 is true, but it does not rise to any higher elevation in respect to 
 sovereignty and power. It is supreme in respect to the business 
 intrusted to it, and so are the state governments supreme in re- 
 spect to the business intrusted to them. 
 
 What example is there of the exercise of the power of the state 
 government hi Yirginia ? 
 
 The government of Virginia, for example, has founded a univer- 
 sity in the heart of the state for the education of young men. 
 That is a business that belongs to the state. Now neither the 
 President of the United States, nor the Congress, nor both com- 
 bined, can touch that institution at all, no matter how well or how 
 badly the government of Yirginia may manage it. The educa- 
 tion of the people ofYirginia is a subject that belongs to the state. 
 In respect to that business the state is supreme, and the general 
 government of the United States has no more power to touch 'it 
 
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 151 
 
 than has the government of France, or England, or that of any 
 other country. 
 
 What exavvple is there of the exercise of the power of the gen- 
 eral government in Virginia f 
 
 On the other hand, at Gosport, near Norfolk, in Virginia, is a 
 navy-yard, established and maintained by the government of the 
 United States. Every thing that pertains to the navy belongs to 
 the departments of national defense and foreign commerce, and 
 those things are the business of the general government. The 
 general government accordingly bought the land for that navy- 
 yard, and built the docks and piers, and hired the workmen, and, 
 although the ground is within the limits of the State of Virginia, 
 neither the governor of Virginia, nor the Legislature, nor both to- 
 gether, can touch the navy-yard at all, no matter how well or how 
 badly the general government may manage it. 
 
 How 7nany systems of government^ then^ have the people of the 
 United States established ? 
 
 In other words, the people of the United States, having a va- 
 riety of public business to perform, have divided the business into 
 two great branches, and have adopted one system of government 
 for one, and another system for the other. In respect to certain 
 great subjects of general interest, they have formed themselves 
 into one nation, and they have constituted one general government 
 to attend to that business. In respect to another great branch of 
 business, they deem it more convenient to have it transacted in 
 a different way. In respect to this, they are not one nation in any 
 sense, but are divided into a great many independent states, each 
 of which has supreme and sovereign control within its jurisdic- 
 tion. 
 
 What are some of the principal public establishments which 
 belong to the general government f 
 
 The general government, besides the public edifices at Washing- 
 ton, possess navy-yards in different parts of the country for build- 
 
152 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 
 
 ing, equipping, and repairing ships of war, and armories for the 
 manufacture of arms, and foundries for casting cannon, and a great 
 number of strong fortifications for defending the frontiers of the 
 country. 
 
 W/iat are sofne of the hinds of public establishments that he- 
 long to the state governments f 
 
 The state governments found asylums for the poor and infirm, 
 and build court-houses for the administration of justice between 
 man and man, and establish seminaries of learning of various kinds, 
 and other such institutions as pertain to the internal welfare of 
 the community. 
 
 What differences of opinion prevailed at the time that the Con- 
 stitution was under discussion f 
 
 There was a great deal of discussion and debate concerning the 
 plan of the government, and it was a long time before the system 
 finally adopted was matured, and was fully comprehended by the 
 country at large. In many quarters, indeed, there was great op- 
 position to it. Some thought that the general government would 
 be weak and inefficient, and they wished to have more power con- 
 fided to it, and less reserved for the states. Others thought* that 
 the general government would prove to be too strong, and that the 
 rights and powers of the states would be overwhelmed by it. The 
 new Constitution was, however, finally adopted, though it was not 
 until five years after the war was ended, and the independence of 
 the country acknowledged, that this grand result was attained, and 
 the new government established. 
 
 Give a7i account of the inauguration of the first jpresident 
 
 General Washington was chosen the first president by a unan-- 
 imous vote. At the close of the war he took leave of the army, 
 resigned his commission, and retired to his own estate in Virginia, 
 happy in having been the means in bringing the long and weary 
 war to a successful end. His residence was at ]\Iount Vernon, a 
 beautiful place on the* banks of the Potomac, not far below the 
 
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 
 
 153 
 
 City of Washington, the seat of government at the present time. 
 New York, however, was the temporary seat of government then, 
 the permanent place for- the capital not having been yet chosen, 
 Washington accordingly left his home at Mount Vernon to pro- 
 
 MOUNT VERNON. 
 
 ceed to New York when the time for liis inauguration arrived ; 
 and as he traveled through the region in which he had been ex- 
 posed to so many dangers, and had passed so many long and 
 weary years of toil and suffering during the war, the people throng- 
 ed from all quarters to greet him as he passed, and to hail him 
 as the Father of his Country. 
 
154 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 
 
 What has been the progress of the country since that time ? 
 
 Since that time the country has advanced in population, wealth, 
 and power with a rapidity which is entirely unparalleled in the 
 history of the human race. The extent of its territory has been 
 greatly enlarged, and many new states have been successively 
 formed and added to the confederation, so that the new republic 
 is rapidly rising to a very exalted rank among the nations of the 
 earth, and is destined, perhaps, at no distant day, to surpass all 
 the political organizations that have preceded her in population 
 and power, and to exert a vast influence upon the future destinies 
 of the great human family. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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