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A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
A NEW BASIS FOR 
 SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM CHARLES WHITE 
 
 AND 
 
 LOUIS JAY HEATH 
 
 BOSTON AND NEW YORK 
 
 HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY 
 
 1917 
 

 COPYRIGHT, 191 7, BY WILLIAM CHARLES WHITE 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
 
 Published December iqij 
 
 >r 
 
 0£C 13 1917 
 
 ©CI.A481001 
 
TO 
 
 SIR WILLIAM OSLER 
 
 AND 
 
 RICHARD BEATTY MELLON 
 
PREFACE 
 
 In 1915 the Board of Trustees of the University of 
 Pittsburgh, in order to produce a better and more 
 properly functioning institution in the local environ- 
 ment, instituted a survey. This investigation ex- 
 tended in time over a period of nearly two years and 
 led those engaged in the undertaking, as any attempt 
 at analysis of an organization so large and so com- 
 plex as that of our modern American university 
 must inevitably lead, into many fields. The varied 
 histories of our educational institutions of higher 
 learning, their struggles, their reverses, their failures, 
 their successes, and their present differences in de- 
 gree of accomplishment, demonstrate the common 
 comprehensiveness of the riddles which all are en- 
 deavoring to solve, and make clear the relationship 
 which the problems confronting the local university 
 bear to the general educational problem. 
 
 During the past few years all parts of our educa- 
 tional equipment have been subjected to both sound 
 and unsound criticism. Our universities especially 
 have been weighed in many balances furnished for 
 measurement and have fallen far short both in or- 
 ganization and accomplishment of the weight de- 
 sired. Simultaneously with this discovery, the con- 
 
viii PREFACE 
 
 viction has been growing that quite regardless of the 
 conditions obtaining at present among our universi- 
 ties and equally regardless of their histories, they are 
 facing a future fraught with opportunities, if only 
 those who are responsible for their destinies can be 
 made to see their potentialities for service. It is this 
 conviction, developed by study and investigation 
 and strengthened by research, that has, in spite of 
 the innumerable obstacles encountered in conduct- 
 ing the survey, stimulated those responsible for this 
 volume to publication. While much of that which 
 follows was originally projected that a single better 
 and more serviceable university might be produced, 
 study has bred the belief that the principles promul- 
 gated admit of the widest application. Even in the 
 Supplement, while an attempt has been made to 
 suggest ways and means of applying these principles 
 to a special field, the suggestions are in essence, we 
 hope, neither local nor provincial. Familiarity with 
 the local conditions alone determined our choice of a 
 community. 
 
 Needless to say, it is not purposed herein to dis- 
 cuss the history and growth of education. Neither 
 is it purposed to engage in any part of the warfare 
 which has been carried on during the past decade by 
 vocationalists and culturalists. Yet the importance 
 of the effects of the vocational-cultural controversy 
 renders a statement of the point of view necessary. 
 
PREFACE ix 
 
 As the struggle has continued, it has become evident 
 that the ranks of both belligerents are filled with en- 
 thusiasts. A survey of the literature published dur- 
 ing the last ten years dealing with education and the 
 educational problems in America, of the minutes of 
 the meetings of various state and sectional organiza- 
 tions, cannot fail to impress even the most casual 
 that antagonists and protagonists fall into three 
 roughly classified camps: at one extreme the cul- 
 turalists, at the other the vocationalists, and be- 
 tween and exposed to the ceaseless fire of both the 
 bewildered parents, who are concerned with the 
 problem primarily as it touches the education of 
 their own children, and who, confused by the amount 
 of ammunition expended by the opposing forces, 
 have been compelled to draw the small solace possi- 
 ble from an ancient stalemate, that "Much may be 
 said for both sides," and have blindly trusted prece- 
 dent with an historical faith in the traditional good 
 lying somewhere in the thing called "education." 
 The tide of battle has ebbed and flowed, the ad- 
 vantage of ammunition and popular support being 
 now with one, now with the other; and the plight of 
 the bewildered yet vitally concerned non-combatant 
 has remained virtually the same. 
 
 The writers believe that culturalists and vocation- 
 alists both represent extremes; that somewhere, as be- 
 tween all extremes, there lies a norm; that any move- 
 
X PREFACE 
 
 ment, regardless of how praiseworthy it be in pur- 
 pose, suffers in proportion to the extremes to which 
 its enthusiasts and extremists proceed; and that 
 while both culturalists and vocationalists do, as the 
 layman believes, marshal much that is good about 
 their banners, neither of them command all that is 
 best. This study, however, is not primarily pre- 
 sented as a further contribution to the literature of 
 warfare, but rather as an earnest attempt at the 
 solution of an age-old problem. 
 
 Criticisms of the principles promulgated herein, 
 which have been as freely invited as offered, have 
 dwelt most with the novelty of the plan proposed. 
 Conservatism must ever play its part. Yet in other 
 fields of activity in America novelty has scarcely 
 been an insurmountable barrier to progress. If our 
 proposal be a novelty, as it has been heralded by 
 those educators who have been approached for criti- 
 cism, it is novel only in the field of education. The 
 principles are ancient ones, long operative in every 
 branch of scientific research. The newness lies, not 
 in the principles, but in the application of those 
 principles. 
 
 In conclusion, we wish gratefully to acknowledge 
 our indebtedness to all those who have given of their 
 time and attention and have stimulated by oral crit- 
 icism and frank expression of opinion, and to all 
 who in any way assisted the survey organization in 
 
PREFACE xi 
 
 carrying on its work at the University of Pittsburgh. 
 Especially are we under obligations to Prof essor Rob- 
 ert Palfrey Utter, of Amherst College, for his inter- 
 est in and his criticism of the manuscript, to Dean 
 Le Baron R. Briggs, of Harvard University, and to 
 Professor Malcolm McLeod, of the Carnegie Insti- 
 tute of Technology, for their helpful suggestions and 
 kindly assistance in technical difficulties. 
 
 William Charles White. 
 Louis Jay Heath. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 I. The Building Unit of Internationalism . . 1 
 II. The Present General Trend of Education . 11 
 
 III. Some Present-Day Influences affecting Edu- 
 
 cation 25 
 
 IV. The Purpose in Education 37 
 
 V. Analysis of Ultimates — The Basis of Educa- 
 tional Reform 47 
 
 VI. A Modifying Factor — Regional Variances 
 
 AND THE Bents of Communities .... 58 
 
 VII. The Unit Plan — A Unit Equipment for a 
 
 Unit of Population 64 
 
 VIII. The Wider Application of the Unit Plan . 73 
 
 IX. Correlation — The University Unit, its Struc- 
 ture and Governance 86 
 
 X. The Municipal Foundation for the Study and 
 
 Advancement of Coinimunity Education . 104 
 
 XI. Delineation of Courses 123 
 
 XII. Departmentalization 135 
 
 XIII. Conclusion 149 
 
xiv CONTENTS 
 
 SUPPLEMENT 
 
 XIV. The Pittsburgh Community 165 
 
 XV. The Demands of the Pittsburgh Community 180 
 XVI. The Opportunity for the University . . 199 
 
 XVII. General Recommendations 211 
 
 Bibliography 217 
 
 Index 223 
 
A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
A NEW BASIS 
 FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE BUILDING UNIT OF INTERNATIONALISM 
 
 What is the proper unit of population to be en- 
 trusted with autonomy as the building unit, first, 
 of a nation, and second, of an international world? 
 Internationalism is the great commanding move- 
 ment of modern times. Given new impetus by the 
 world war, that which only a few years ago was the 
 dream of theorists and visionaries is coming to be 
 considered, by practical statesmen the world over, 
 the surest guarantee to all peoples of the inalien- 
 able rights of man and of a lasting peace on earth. 
 Present developments indicate that we are moving 
 toward such an era. But our passage toward inter- 
 nationalism can only be a drift until we have an- 
 swered this first and fundamental question which 
 internationalism raises. 
 
 The answer to this question is not to be found by 
 turning the pages of history. The size of the unit 
 to which autonomy has been granted in the past 
 has varied with the demands of the period and the 
 
2 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 growth of knowledge. Neither is it possible to eradi- 
 cate the divisions of the past and build anew with 
 fresh and unused materials. The fact must be faced 
 that, no matter what the size of the autonomic unit 
 determined upon, communities everywhere must 
 be taken as they exist and all effort expended to 
 establish within these already present communi- 
 ties the soundest principles which will project far 
 on into the future the laws which will make for each 
 the ultimate best that combined vision and knowl- 
 edge can foresee. 
 
 While the drift toward internationalism raises 
 new questions, more important still, it focuses at- 
 tention upon present problems of government which 
 have been multiplying in intricacy and difficulty 
 with the increase in population and the diffusion 
 of knowledge. So great has the task of making ade- 
 quate and uniform provision for great aggregations 
 of people become that solutions have been sought 
 from many angles. 
 
 ' Steadily the realization has been growing that 
 the voice of a nation resides chiefly in its munici- 
 palities. From the past comes the history of such 
 independent cities as Milan and Venice; cities 
 which led in the cultural progress of their age. Ad- 
 vancement came then, and has come since then, 
 with the development of autonomy in communities 
 and has been largely dependent upon the degree 
 
UNIT OF INTERNATIONALISM 3 
 
 of autonomic privilege allowed in business and 
 cultural ways. From out the mass of partially suc- 
 cessful experiments, of gropings and strivings, 
 there has emerged evidence that warrants the be- 
 lief that the soundest principle of government yet 
 suggested is the unit principle; that the unit plan 
 has most to offer in the way of solution for all our 
 problems and can alone give definite guidance to 
 international drift. 
 
 Cities in modern times have grown to enormous 
 size. The soundness of a proposal must be meas- 
 ured by its inclusiveness and capacity to reckon 
 with expansion. Herein lies the strength of the unit 
 plan. For the principles of this ordain that, as 
 population increases to a number beyond that 
 which can be efficiently handled, the whole com- 
 munity must be divided into smaller, independent 
 units with duplication of equipment provided in 
 order that each may be allowed the degree of 
 autonomy which shall bring forth the best possible 
 results of uniform growth and progress for those 
 residing in the territory assigned to each unit. 
 
 The acceptance of this principle would be but the 
 recognition that the aim of government, of nation- 
 alism and internationalism, is, above all else, to 
 provide uniformly fair opportunities for all with 
 due regard to the bent and demands of nations, 
 municipalities, and individuals. Let us but solve 
 
4 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 the problem presented by municipalities and we 
 shall have laid the foundations of a nation and of 
 an international world, for they are but epitomes 
 of larger groups. 
 
 Whatever the flaws in the structure of the Ger- 
 man nation may be, its unprecedented growth and 
 its municipal development, based upon city au- 
 tonomy as outlined, after the Napoleonic Wars, by 
 Baron von Stein, who sought to transplant into 
 Germany the free spirit of English public life and 
 institutions, is the best example we have of the ap- 
 plication of some of these principles. 
 
 In 1808 Stein wrote to Hardenberg: — 
 
 I regard it as important to break the fetters by which 
 the bureaucracy obstructs all human movement, to de- 
 stroy the spirit of avarice and pernicious self-interest, and 
 the attachment to mechanical forms which dominate this 
 form of government. The nation must be enabled to 
 manage its own affairs and to emerge from the condi- 
 tion of tutelage in which an ever restless and vigilant 
 Government seeks to keep it. 
 
 ; In a later memorandum he says: — 
 
 The citizens are charged with the undivided adminis- 
 tration of their communal affairs. The influence of the 
 State is entirely restricted to supervision, with a view to 
 seeing that nothing is done contrary to the purpose of 
 the State and that the existing laws are observed. 
 
 Says Harbutt Dawson: — 
 
 The idea which underlay all Stein's plans was a large 
 decentralization of State authority, which was to add 
 
UNIT OF INTERNATIONALISM 5 
 
 weight and importance to civic life without organically 
 weakening the central power. 
 
 The purpose of the Municipal Ordinance was ... to 
 give to the towns a more independent and efficient con- 
 stitution, to create for them in the civil parish a firm 
 point of union, to give to them active influence upon the 
 government of the community, and by such participation 
 in local government to stimulate and preserve public 
 spirit. 
 
 For, as the old Germanic rhyme runs, — 
 
 " Niemands Herr und Niemands Knecht, 
 Das ist des BUrgerstandes Recht.'* 
 
 In America the growth of the same principle is 
 to be seen also in the autonomy which has been 
 allowed some of our cities, especially those in the 
 State of Ohio. But progress in this direction has 
 been retarded, and largely by the structure of the 
 Nation. The Federal Government has been chary 
 of granting new and additional rights to States. 
 States, ever jealous of the rights which they possess, 
 have been equally reluctant to relinquish any of 
 them to municipalities. And when municipalities 
 have wrung autonomic privileges from conserva- 
 tive State Governments, they have been equally 
 loath to admit any decentralization of their au- 
 thority by investing institutions and departments 
 with autonomic power. And this jealousy, coupled 
 with the failure of institutions, has obscured the 
 fact that among the privileges of the larger units 
 of population which make for community power. 
 
6 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 national greatness, and for ultimate international- 
 ism, none stand forth more brilliantly than does 
 education. And among educational institutions, 
 regardless of their inability to guide and direct the 
 thought of America in the past, the most poten- 
 tially powerful aggregation of all is that which we 
 know as the university. 
 
 After all, it is not surprising that American uni- 
 versities have not exerted the influence upon na- 
 tional thought that has been exerted by the insti- 
 tutions of Continental Europe. Our universities 
 have been forced to cope with the difficulties pre- 
 sented by a new, growing country too young to 
 possess either national or educational traditions, 
 and to meet the situation they have imported Euro- 
 pean ideas and have endeavored regardless of their 
 suitability to transplant these in the New World. 
 The adoption of Germanic principles of university 
 education which resulted in Germanizing the cur- 
 ricula of our older American colleges was not the 
 first evidence of such importation, and since that 
 time the curricula, not only of the universities, but 
 also of the secondary and primary schools, and es- 
 pecially of the kindergartens, have been influenced 
 in innumerable ways by Old- World ideas and Old- 
 World knowledge. Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Mon- 
 tessori are names as familiar in the nomenclature 
 of American education as in European. 
 
UNIT OF INTERNATIONALISM 7 
 
 The only tradition influencing education in this 
 country which can, in any sense, be termed "Ameri- 
 can," is, if it may be so characterized, the "minis- 
 terial." In the beginning, with the single exception 
 of the Uuiversity of Pennsylvania, the ministerial 
 influence dominated the American colleges. This 
 influence, as the founding of Harvard, of Yale, and 
 later of Princeton and innumerable smaller colleges 
 throughout New England and the Eastern section 
 evidences, has always been a conservative one, cling- 
 ing to the tenets of the past and receding gradually 
 and grudgingly into new sections to found new in- 
 stitutions for the preservation of the old traditions. 
 American institutions as a whole, save those which 
 have sprung forth full-grown overnight, as it were, 
 have never been entirely free of this influence. Par- 
 ticularly is this true of the colleges. These smaller 
 units or parts of larger organizations have usually 
 reached a period in their development marked as the 
 parting of two ways, and they have taken one or 
 the other as the ministerial tradition has weakened 
 or strengthened. They have either held true to the 
 principles promulgated by their founders and, turn- 
 ing away from a future, have remained small and 
 unimportant save in a denominational way, or have 
 broken to a limited degree with traditional principles 
 to become for a time the storm centers of denomina- 
 tional upheaval and protest, and finally, have devel- 
 
8 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 oped specialized units born in a newer age, facing the 
 future more freely, it is true, but still loaded with the 
 ball and chain of institutional tradition. 
 
 The government and administration of our uni- 
 versities has, however, been less affected by tradi- 
 tional European organization than has the curricu- 
 lum. Changes in American university governance 
 have been frequent, but they have, to a greater ex- 
 tent, been brought about by influences outside of 
 what may be termed the "university world" and 
 have been made necessary by the insistent demands 
 of rapidly expanding communities, increased muni- 
 cipal wealth, the disappearance of apprenticeship, 
 and the requirements of new and enormous indus- 
 tries. Numerous experiments have been tried, but 
 here as elsewhere conservatism has played its part in 
 retarding the development. American institutions 
 have failed to keep pace in organization with the 
 growth and development of corporate organization 
 in other fields. Isolation also has had its influence. 
 And the meagerness of the remuneration for admin- 
 istrative and academic service has assisted in forc- 
 ing men qualified by inheritance, by nature, and by 
 training to administer into occupations more lucra- 
 tive. 
 
 i In the main, our universities have followed rather 
 than led in our national journey. Yet here and there 
 at intervals, some have caught a gleam of their true 
 
UNIT OF INTERNATIONALISM 9 
 
 function and have endearored with the light which 
 they possess to seize their opportunities. The his- 
 tory of Johns Hopkins University exemphfies the 
 point and suggests the ijifluence which an educa- 
 tional institution may exert communistically, nation- 
 ally, and internationally. A study of the brilliant 
 example of this university under President Oilman, 
 an institution which is in our time the only one built 
 and established on a post-graduate basis, will amply 
 repay all who wish to carry on research in this field. 
 The effects upon the whole community of Baltimore 
 that have followed the growth of Johns Hopkins in 
 that city are among the most hopeful of portents 
 and indicate what may be done in other communi- 
 ties. Yet despite this example, the greatness of the 
 mass of our educational institutions has remained 
 potential and will continue so to remain until in 
 some community there shall appear men with the 
 destinies of a university in charge, wise enough to 
 see that this most powerful single arm of service can 
 in no wise be developed as an independency, but 
 only as a correlated part of the whole governmen- 
 tal and educational system. 
 
 The road to internationalism lies through the au- 
 tonomic unit. The development of the autonomic 
 unit is dependent upon education, and the most 
 powerful factor in education is a guiding principle. 
 The position of our universities makes it imperative 
 
10 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 that they should assume the guidance and lead in 
 rather than follow progressive thought. The build- 
 ing unit of internationalism is the university unit 
 encompassing smaller units created for specific pur- 
 poses, — units for common-school education, units 
 for welfare and health for such common necessi- 
 ties as infant feeding, maternity, tuberculosis, and 
 charity aid. The architect, the world war, is show- 
 ing us the elevation of the structure to be built, but 
 the building stones must be furnished by autonomic 
 units of population and must be shaped and fitted 
 by the master mason, Education. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 THE PRESENT GENERAL TREND OP EDUCATION 
 
 However preconceived opinions may be, and how- 
 ever much they may be colored by early educational 
 influences, no conclusions regarding the extrica- 
 tion of a people from governmental and educational 
 difficulties can be drawn before a scrutiny is made 
 of the modern general trend in education. So sig- 
 nificant are present-day movings and stirrings that 
 they must be reckoned with before any detailed 
 suggestions pointing toward reconstruction can be 
 offered. 
 
 America, during the past few years, has witnessed 
 much individual activity and the drafting of un- 
 counted committees to study the educational prob- 
 lem. Most important among these are such bodies 
 as the General Education Board, founded by Mr. 
 Rockefeller, the Russell Sage Foundation, the Car- 
 negie Foundation, the Royal Commission of Canada, 
 as well as many agents of the Federal Government 
 and of individual States and communities. These 
 movements and the surveys which have been inaug- 
 urated and conducted in various institutions are 
 most significant of the general movement leading 
 to an analysis of the problem by a scrutiny of the 
 
12 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 causes which have brought about present unsatis- 
 factory conditions. The surveys — of education in 
 the State of Vermont and of Medical and Legal 
 Education in America — under the auspices of the 
 Carnegie Foundation exemplify the truth of this. 
 . The fact has become obvious that the social 
 philosophy of the American people has been con- 
 tinuously and persistently changing. These wide- 
 spread movements toward analysis and critical 
 study have been bred by the failure of the American 
 educational system to meet adequately the demands 
 of this evolving social philosophy. 
 
 One of the first great tests of the system came 
 when education was made compulsory. This action 
 created a demand, — a demand for primary schools, 
 — and following this and forced by the graduation 
 of children from these schools, demand for second- 
 ary equipment. In this way compulsory education 
 for eight grades created demands which extended 
 through to the equipment which attempted to 
 meet the demands of the secondary schools. The 
 struggles of all parts of the system to face this test 
 have continued for years. 
 
 Another result of compulsory education, not so 
 immediate, but no less important, was its effect upon 
 apprenticeship. Compulsory education coupled 
 with other causes, such as increased community 
 wealth, the invention of machinery to do the work 
 
PRESENT TREND OF EDUCATION 13 
 
 formerly done by hand labor, and the amalgamation 
 of small trades, ultimately effected the declination 
 of the whole apprentice system. In the beginning, 
 trade unions in America were largely made up of 
 ignorant, uneducated, yet in the main good work- 
 men. Compulsory education forced the children of 
 these workmen into schools. Then, as the effects of 
 this schooling became apparent, parents gradually 
 became desirous that their children should have one 
 or two extra years of education. Then, as to-day, 
 the majority of workmen, as a rule, were desirous 
 that their children remain longer in the schools than 
 circumstances or inclination permitted their parents. 
 As one immediate consequence of this, the boys and 
 girls no longer wished to follow the calling of their 
 parents. Young children, upon arriving at the time 
 when they would have been bound out as appren- 
 tices in various trades, were compelled to remain in 
 school. 
 
 This decline of apprenticeship, coming as a re- 
 mote result of compulsory education, was another 
 social change which tested the competency of the 
 educational system. When the apprentice methods 
 of training became no longer feasible, a new and 
 heavy burden was thrown suddenly upon the edu- 
 cational system. Smug in its pharisaical position 
 of superiority, dealing only with the gifted and the 
 pre-professional, this system found its security sud- 
 
14 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 denly invaded by hordes of those students who had 
 formerly filled the ranks of the apprentices and who 
 demanded now that it find for them occupations 
 in the world. And although it is true that the 
 school has aided a few to find such occupations, it 
 has, through the selective standards of traditional 
 school life, functioned but crudely. 
 
 Dr. Henry Suzzallo, President of the University of 
 Washington, has succinctly stated the case against 
 the former system. He says in part : — 
 
 The whole system of schooling from the primary school 
 through the college was pre-professional. The old-time 
 teacher gave little thought to those who did not register 
 at the school, — those who were not prosperous enough 
 to take the leisure and pay the rate, those who were not 
 interested in languages and books and abstract thoughts, 
 those who were so handicapped in body and mind that 
 conventional schooling promised little. . . . The school's 
 selection, instruction, and protection, whether exercised 
 consciously or unconsciously, favored the talented few. 
 
 The difficulties with this traditionally restricted 
 service of the schools is summarized as follows : -— 
 
 The educational system sends into professional life 
 more persons than are required. It gives little or no atten- 
 tion to the education and distribution of men among the 
 very necessary and very numerous non-professional occu- 
 pations. In consequence the professional suffers from 
 overcrowding and from the type of economic competition 
 that interferes with the idealism of professional service. 
 But the other occupations fare worse, for they suffer 
 from that all round incompetency which follows the com- 
 
PRESENT TREND OF EDUCATION 15 
 
 plete want of an appropriate choosing and training of 
 men for tasks. Into the ranks of industry, agriculture, 
 commerce, and personal service enter the men and women 
 whose school experience has directly or subtly convinced 
 them that they are partial or total intellectual failures, 
 for the traditional school has unjustly measured the 
 mental competencies of every type of youth by its high 
 but narrow standards of pre-professional training. 
 
 The old type of education has been aptly de- 
 scribed again by the committee which, in 1910, 
 reported on the Newton school system : — 
 
 It selected, retained and educated those who were fitted 
 by natural endowment and interest to profit by what the 
 school thought fit to offer. Others were eliminated all 
 along the way, but with little concern for the precious 
 material thus forced to waste. It stood for uniformity in 
 materials of education, in methods and in product. 
 
 The countless hordes of those members of a com- 
 munity who have found their occupation solely by 
 chance having been cast forth as unfitted for a pro- 
 fessional career and therefore only fitted for a posi- 
 tion of secondary importance, are sad evidence of the 
 truth of this. 
 
 Other natural results of such a system are the 
 bread lines, the soup kitchens, and much of the social 
 phenomena which unemployment has brought. The 
 findings published in the report of the Royal Com- 
 mission on the Poor Laws and Relief of Distress, 
 London, 1909, might, in all truth, have been written 
 of America. 
 
16 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 We cannot believe [write the Commissioners] that the 
 nation can long persist in ignoring the fact that the un- 
 employed are thus being daily created under our eyes out 
 of bright young lives, capable of better things, for whose 
 training we make no provision. It is, unfortunately, only 
 too clear that the mass of unemployment is continually 
 being recruited by a stream of young men from industries 
 which rely upon unskilled boy labor, and turn it adrift 
 at manhood without any general special industrial quali- 
 fications, and that it will never be diminished till this 
 stream is arrested. 
 
 With the march of time, however, there has grad- 
 ually dawned a realization of the fact that the line of 
 demarkation between the professional and the non- 
 professional is a surprisingly indistinguishable one. 
 Herein is to be found the cause for the activities of 
 the various committees and boards. An analysis of 
 the reports of these groups and individuals discloses 
 that running through all the strivings are certain 
 fixed principles which force this conclusion. A study 
 of recent systems — English, German, and French, 
 and those of the various American States — yields 
 evidence of the same single desire; namely, to estab- 
 lish an educational plan that shall prepare at each 
 given period, from those human individuals entering 
 it, groups fitted for a special function in life, and when 
 adequate specialized education has been furnished for 
 each group, to add as much of the cultural as is com- 
 mensurate with the number of years allowed each 
 individual for the preparation for his life's work. 
 
PRESENT TREND OF EDUCATION 17 
 
 The schools of America have been slow to recog- 
 nize the obligation which the passing of apprentice- 
 ship and the diminution of the traditional barriers 
 between professional and non-professional occupa- 
 tions has placed upon them. The popular concep- 
 tion of education has changed slowly, it is true, but 
 surely, none the less. A new group has seen that 
 the larger contribution' to individual happiness and 
 social efficiency can be made only by aiding all 
 rather than a chosen few to make the "transit from 
 the period of education to that of responsible work- 
 manship in the world." 
 
 In various communities there have appeared 
 different expressions of the same tendency, each 
 modified by the bent and demand of the community 
 in which the educational system is to operate. The 
 accompanying chart (p. 19) will perhaps indicate 
 something of this trend of modern education dur- 
 ing the past quarter of a century. The variations 
 are many, dependent as they are upon the physical 
 characteristics of individual communities and af- 
 fected also by differing laws of differing Common- 
 wealths. For the present purpose, however, this 
 general chart will adequately serve to illustrate. 
 
 While the rural school or district school, as it is 
 sometimes called, does not appear on the chart, its 
 position in the educational scheme, important as 
 it is, does not make for marked variation in the 
 
18 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 system. Neither does the chart include the pri- 
 vate schools and so-called "finishing" schools. The 
 former occupy a place somewhat analogous to that 
 of the high schools or upper primary schools. The 
 latter, with their student bodies composed of those 
 members of society not primarily interested in either 
 early vocational or higher vocational postions in 
 life, may be considered as appurtenances rather 
 than organic parts of the system. 
 
 From this it will be seen that communities are all 
 agreed on but six years of education — that period 
 lying between the entrance to the kindergarten or to 
 the primary school and the beginning of the second- 
 ary school. After this six-year period, in some com- 
 munities, the junior high school has made its appear- 
 ance. This school includes a year or two from the 
 primary and a year or two from the high school and 
 segregates within its walls certain subjects which 
 will lead its pupils to definite functions in life or to 
 higher educational institutions. Following this is a 
 series of secondary schools of which the prototype 
 is the secondary or high or grammar school of the 
 past. At this point the delineation of courses be- 
 comes more marked, and we have the academic 
 high schools, commercial high schools, vocational 
 high schools of various kinds, and in addition, spe- 
 cial courses in each of these individual institutions. 
 These, all more or less at variance with the concepts 
 
PRESENT TREND OF EDUCATION 
 
 19 
 
 Age 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 Bankers 
 Brokers 
 Editors 
 Reporters, 
 Etc. 
 
 Teachers 
 Farmers 
 
 Shop Keeper^' '' 
 
 Farmers^ > — 
 
 Etc. J, 6 
 
 Higher types 
 
 of Artisans ' ' ^ 
 Clerks ' 
 
 Conductors 
 Motormen 
 Mill Workers, 
 Etc. 
 
 12 
 I I 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 Law 
 
 School 
 
 J unior 
 College 
 
 College 
 
 Normal 
 School 
 
 Academic High 
 
 Schools 
 
 16% 
 
 1. Graduate School 
 
 2. Medical School 
 
 3. Medical School 
 
 4. Theological School 
 
 5. Higher Vocational 
 
 School of 
 Engineer'g 
 
 Junior 
 College 
 
 Technical High 
 Schools 
 
 Junior High Schools 
 
 7th -9th Grade 
 
 Secondary 
 
 Vocational 
 University 
 
 Commercial 
 High Schools 
 
 industrial 
 High Schools 
 
 Education 
 
 Compulsory Education for 
 all children to 8th grade or to 
 about fourteen years of age. 
 
 Ag9 
 
 25 
 24 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 Primary Schools 
 Elementary Education 
 
 Engineers 
 Constructing 
 Electrical 
 Railway 
 Mechanical, 
 Etc. 
 20f Architects 
 _lDraughtsnen 
 igJDesigners, 
 I Etc. 
 Bookkeepers 
 Stenographers 
 Accountants 
 ' Inspectors 
 Sales People 
 .Clerks 
 
 Expert 
 
 Artisans 
 < Supervisors 
 Electricians, 
 . Etc. 
 
 Artisans 
 Carpenters 
 Mill Workers 
 News Boys 
 Messengers 
 Laborers^ 
 . Etc. 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 I I 
 
 10 
 
 Kindergarten 
 
20 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 of antiquity, evidence the trend. The provision of 
 certain fixed types of education and such specializa- 
 tion, by a careful delineation of courses, as will lead 
 to an ultimate, is the educational ideal which has 
 evolved. The ultimate continues to lie within the 
 choice of the individual student, assisted, of course, 
 by parent and teacher guides early in his educa- 
 tional life. 
 
 This development has been inspired and directed 
 by the idea that, "It is the function of the school to 
 educate every boy and every girl, to eliminate none 
 and accept all. It fits work and method to individual 
 needs, and strives to send children out of school just 
 as individually diverse as nature designed them to 
 be, and as the diversity of service which awaits 
 them requires." 
 
 While this has been a recent growth in America, 
 sufficient time has passed to prove that a delinea- 
 tion of courses starting at the end of the six compul- 
 sory years, in order to secure in the time prescribed 
 for study any definite result in preparing for a life's 
 vocation, must continue more or less indefinitely 
 through the whole period of education. The second- 
 ary schools have begun to delineate for those forced 
 by circumstances to leave the system at an early 
 date. The parts of the equipment which attempts 
 to train men for vocations requiring longer prepara- 
 tion, however, have seemingly been unable to profit 
 
PRESENT TREND OF EDUCATION 21 
 
 by the lesson furnished them by the endeavors of 
 the lower schools to solve the problem for the early 
 vocations. We have not yet come to realize, despite 
 the activities of the new group in the early vocational 
 field, that if delineation of courses is essential for the 
 filling of early vocations, it must be equally essen- 
 tial for the filling of higher vocations. The attempts 
 made by universities to grasp the truth of this idea 
 have resulted not in delineation so much as in divi- 
 sion and wasteful duplications. Our universities 
 have split into Schools of Education, Schools of 
 Economics, Schools of Mines, Schools of Business 
 Administration, Schools of Journalism, and so on, 
 with the result that the idea of delineation has, to a 
 large extent, been lost sight of in the inter-school 
 competition which has arisen. 
 
 With this delineation and attempted delineation 
 has come a broadening of the concept of vocational- 
 ism itself, little recognized as yet. For a long time 
 we have been laboring under the delusion that medi- 
 cine, theology, and law are not only professions but 
 also higher professions. As a matter of fact voca- 
 tion and profession are synonymous terms. Further- 
 more, the word "higher" applied to vocations can 
 only carry temporal significance. It may be used 
 solely inadequately to differentiate those vocations 
 which require, of those entering them, a long period 
 for preparation, from those which require a shorter 
 
22 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 period of time. "Early" and "late," as applied to 
 vocations, would possibly better serve the purpose. 
 
 The error arising from the failure to recognize that 
 "higher " has no other value than this, has continued 
 to find residence in the popular conception. This con- 
 ception has insisted that "higher" denotes special 
 exalted qualifications, possessions necessary for an 
 individual's entrance into any one of the three so- 
 called "professions." This has continued to persist 
 in disregard of the fact that into these late voca- 
 tions are admitted, even by State license, individuals 
 possessing widely divergent characteristics. Into 
 the ranks of medicine are admitted types ranging 
 from the low producer of illegal abortions to an 
 Oliver Wendell Holmes; into the law, from the fee- 
 splitting pettifogger to a John Marshall; into the 
 ministry, from the hypocritical, frock- wearing fre- 
 quenter of the brothel to a Ralph Waldo Emerson 
 or a Phillips Brooks. Even in the so-called "voca- 
 tions," we find, at one extreme, a Josiah Wedg- 
 wood, and at the other, the most lowly workman in 
 the potteries. 
 
 WTio, then, shall say that there is a line of demar- 
 kation between high and low, between profession and 
 vocation.^ All are vocations of the living, cosmopoli- 
 tan body which the educational system purposes to 
 care for. All may fittingly, and without disgrace to 
 any, be labeled simply " vocations of life." It is safe 
 
PRESENT TREND OF EDUCATION 23 
 
 to believe that at no far distant date the ultimate 
 recognition of the application of the term "voca- 
 tional" to all earning professions will come. And 
 when that time arrives, the knowledge that the same 
 fundamental laws permeate the entire system will 
 break upon the minds of all gladiators in the present 
 vocational and classical combat. 
 
 It is these tendencies, together with the failure of 
 educators generally to realize the broad applicability 
 of the word "vocational," which have divided those 
 who are interested in education into two groups, each 
 warring with, and often abusing, the other. The so- 
 called "cultural" group which has come through the 
 ministerial institutions of the past has endeavored 
 not only to retain the ancient classical traditions, but 
 also to resist even the truths presented by the present 
 vociferous group in education known as the "voca- 
 tionalists." The latter spends most of its argumen- 
 tative power in decrying the cultural which now 
 resides comfortably housed within the walls of the 
 colleges and those unspecialized institutions which 
 feed them. Across innumerable pages of recent educa- 
 tional history these two warring factions have rioted 
 waist-deep in ink, and as yet no neutral has appeared 
 either strong enough to compel arbitration or clear- 
 visioned enough to see that absolute victory for 
 either party would mean the ultimate loss of much 
 that is good in both. The impetus of the revolution 
 
24 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 has so obfuscated the truth that but one fact now re- 
 mains clear for non-partisans — and that is, that the 
 time has come for a careful readjustment. The way 
 must be chosen and carefully picked between these 
 warring groups, and a complete realignment of our 
 whole educational system must be undertaken in 
 order that that system may meet the present de- 
 mands of each community so that it may take its 
 proper place and fulfill its proper function in the 
 Nation. Nothing can be accomplished by crying 
 down the cultural, nor can any valuable results be se- 
 cured by abusing those whose keen desire is for prog- 
 ress even though the conception of this progress 
 may be colored by unbalanced and biased enthusi- 
 asm. Vocational education is bound to claim its 
 proper place in the educational system of the com- 
 munity, and this means that its place is one involv- 
 ing the sum total of happiness and efficiency of 
 approximately ninety per cent of the population. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 SOME PRESENT-DAY INFLUENCES AFFECTING 
 EDUCATION 
 
 Cultural and vocational warfare, with its attend- 
 ant conservatism and radicalism, is but one among 
 many influences coloring our present-day system of 
 education and making readjustment difficult. Others 
 there are of equal importance, and all raise questions 
 which demand definite answers before the larger, 
 inclusive problem can be solved. 
 
 Perhaps the most serious among these influences, 
 and one which is at present vitiating many attempts 
 at honest reconstruction, is the political. This octo- 
 pus, which has thrown its sucking arms about so many 
 of our American universities, has found their pecul- 
 iar sustenance highly conducive to its own growth. 
 Politicians, eager for office and consequently desirous 
 of pleasing their constituency, have not scrupled at 
 the effect which the gratification of private desires 
 might produce upon the educational system. Senato- 
 rial scholarships have furnished for the politicians a 
 ready and not insignificant avenue of approach to the 
 coveted position of influence and have aided not a 
 little in placing the cross in a particular circle on 
 the ballot. Nor are scholarships meted out only to 
 
26 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 Senators. Almost any member of the State's political 
 brood may share in the allotment. Rarely have the 
 standards of measurement been true ones, and, when 
 evil results have followed, legislative patronage, the 
 fear of jeopardizing personal positions by offending 
 any part of a constituency, has rendered politicians 
 unwilling to make any efforts toward reform even 
 though the evidence of the necessity for such reform 
 has been furnished in abundance. Reforms from 
 within the institutions themselves have likewise not 
 been forthcoming because of the subservience to 
 groups of none too well-educated and none too ethi- 
 cal legislators. The American university has become 
 a powerful political factor, and the larger the institu- 
 tion, the greater the power exercised. An increase 
 in the size of the university, therefore, has corre- 
 spondingly increased the strength of this arm for 
 political service. 
 
 It has, therefore, developed that in those com- 
 munities where institutional maintenance is largely 
 dependent on State appropriations, the weightiest 
 argument for State aid, so called, has come to be 
 numbers of students. The rapid growth of State 
 universities has given evidence of this, and, in most 
 instances, the enrollment in such institutions has been 
 swelled by competition for the supply which should 
 have been cared for in part by other institutions 
 of special character. These, because of their special 
 
SOME PRESENT-DAY INFLUENCES 27 
 
 nature, have been constitutionally unfitted to exert 
 strong influence upon legislators and have, therefore, 
 been unattractive as a field for political exploitation. 
 
 Scripturally sound as the policy of the State has 
 been in ordering that to those institutions that have 
 shall be given, it has been educationally unfortunate 
 for those members of society caught in the drag-net 
 of such institutions as have for their policy quan- 
 tity rather than quality. So from this situation has 
 arisen the first of our questions — one which must 
 be answered by the trustees of every American uni- 
 versity; namely, How much shall the organization 
 exert itself to increase its numbers to the sacrifice of 
 intensive work in the fundamental fields of knowl- 
 edge? 
 
 Associated with this problem is the serious physi- 
 cal diflSculty in the relation of the existing physi- 
 cal structures to a population which increases too 
 rapidly for housing. In the case of many universi- 
 ties, which, owing to political influence and conse- 
 quent State aid, have abnormally expanded, the 
 physical plant has failed to keep pace in growth with 
 the increase in numbers, and ochlesis and injustice to 
 students from lack of facilities have been entailed. 
 In a country where universal education is the rule, 
 it is not surprising to find the university organization 
 falling far below that point of eflSciency which rap- 
 idly increasing numbers make imperative. The mis- 
 
28 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 use of space and the failure to utilize space and time 
 have inevitably followed as one of the minor, but 
 nevertheless important, results of unprecedented 
 growth. Coupled with this, the weight of priority of 
 position and occupancy has been an influence no less 
 marked in lowering institutional standards, and has 
 crippled eflSciency for years. For example, the School 
 of Mines in the University of Pittsburgh has per- 
 sisted with meager equipment and high operative 
 expenses, although there has grown up in the com- 
 munity not only a very eflSciently equipped technical 
 school, but also a nearly completed Federal Bureau of 
 Mines. The School of Mines makes as its sole claim 
 for preemption of subjects, priority of existence. As 
 a counter-example, the fate of the Library School of 
 Drexel Institute may be cited. This school, which 
 had outlived its greatest usefulness, the authorities 
 dissolved. Such praiseworthy action as that of the 
 trustees of Drexel unfortunately stands out, however, 
 as an exceptional example of wisdom. ' '*^ 
 
 The experiments in Gary and in New York called 
 attention to the evils in that ordinance of antiquity 
 which decreed that buildings should be used only 
 from nine o'clock in the morning until three or four 
 o'clock in the afternoon, with an hour and a half in- 
 termission, and proved the feasibility of working the 
 educational plant for night school and social center 
 activities for many more hours. Such utilization of 
 
SOME PRESENT-DAY INFLUENCES 29 
 
 space to the maximum is important, not only in its 
 effect upon cost of operation touching primarily the 
 taxpayers of the community, but also upon the stu- 
 dents and the nature of the work itself. 
 
 Of greater importance than the saving of space and 
 time were the changes which made the utilization 
 possible, namely, the delineation of courses leading 
 to definite ultimates. This aspect, which has pre- 
 sented itself as yet only in this small yet significant 
 way, has scarcely been clearly recognized. It does, 
 however, offer the second question which demands 
 an answer; namely. What must form the basis of a 
 proper delineation so that the interests of the commu- 
 nity as a whole may in no way suffer from extremists 
 who would lift efficiency to the point of fetishism? 
 
 The third question grows out of the one preced- 
 ing. The providing of teachers for vocational groups 
 would appear to be a duty and function of the State. 
 The providing of teachers for those institutions 
 which lead toward the advanced fields of education 
 would appear, at least in the light of present knowl- 
 edge, to be the function of the university. As al- 
 ways happens, however, in the development of a 
 rapidly multiplying race, certain demands are created 
 quickly. Voluntary agents take up the work of sup- 
 plying these demands only to create the necessity, 
 at some future time, for dissociation and for co- 
 operation by those institutions supported by the 
 
no A Ni:W lUSIS FOR SOCIAL PRO(^.Ri:SS 
 
 (lovcniincnl, lliosi^ wliicli -should have hiul llic 
 forosi;^di1, In llu* firsi i)lax*(% io j)r()vi(Io n supply for 
 tlir (Icmaiul. The (pirslloii is, ilicn, How shall we 
 arrive al, a corrclalion of the (llircrciit educational 
 inslilulions sorvin;^ a givon coniniunity in order that 
 the delinealion of courses may exist throughout the 
 whole system? And also. How may we a|)portion to 
 each ins! Il ution t he part of vocational work properly 
 belonging to il? The discovery of a definite answer 
 to I his question of dissociation and cooperation will 
 nndouhtedly lift us out of many of our educational 
 <liflienllies. 
 
 Another significant influence affecting education 
 nt the i)res<Mil lime, and raising another im|)ortant 
 question, has grown out of the advances made in 
 biological study. W(* find fre(pient evidences of 
 S(Miliinenlal and nnlrained attempts i)ermeating 
 whole <*(hieational systx^ms before any one is con- 
 scious of what has happiMied. Tliis has been, to some 
 extent, the case in the importance which has been 
 j)laced upon the study of degenerate and backward 
 ehildriMi. IJtH'ausc* ciM'tain j)rogress has been made 
 with backward children, by special methods, the 
 whole educational system has bin'ome sudiK^nly filled 
 with Iheories concerning the education of all ehil- 
 <lren, bas(Ml upon th(\se, despite the fact that there 
 is no satisfaclory evidenc(» that methods of training 
 children of arrested development necessarily apply 
 
SOME PRESENT-DAY INFLUENCES 31 
 
 in the training of normal children. The unrestrained 
 enthusiasm which has greeted the efforts of Froe- 
 bel and Montessori is a striking example of this. 
 Studies have been made in play schools and have 
 been carried on by those who possess small knowledge 
 of biology, chemistry, anatomy, or physics, and yet 
 these subjects must be recognized as of basic impor- 
 tance in the study of the human. 
 
 In all these experiments certain preconceived no- 
 tions have been put in operation for small children. 
 F'ew institutions in America have escaped the blight 
 of this form of educational quackery, and none, it 
 would seem, have fully realized that to devise meth- 
 ods for adequately furthering the educational inter- 
 ests of the brightest children is as necessary for the , 
 progress of the race as is the provision of means for 
 lifting backward children. These sporadic attempts, 
 which have already been made, have not only failed 
 to answer the question as to what is the best method 
 of training the child, but they have also unneces- 
 sarily complicated the problem of realignment. 
 
 It may be said, in all truth, that the best way of 
 educating children has not yet been discovered. Also 
 it is true that so much of education is a personal 
 quality on the part of the teacher, that perhaps no 
 hard-and-fast law can ever he laid down for all educators 
 to follow. It is not likely that the great problems 
 facing the community will be solved until suitable 
 
S2 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 teachers with adequate knowledge of the fundamen- 
 tal physical sciences are forthcoming. 
 
 Research in biology and in chemistry during the 
 past quarter of a century has bred a consciousness 
 that many of the mental states of children are due to 
 the secretions of internal glands, to food, ventilation, 
 and freedom from disease. Perhaps, at no far distant 
 date, we shall find that the thoughts we have, the 
 imaginations we express, the fears we harbor — even 
 our susceptibility to outside influences and our at- 
 tention — can be explained only by the chemical pro- 
 duction of our glandular factories. 
 
 It is too early to speak with any authority on this 
 point, but several late discoveries contain enough of 
 positive fact to suggest that, in view of what may 
 come in the future, caution should be exercised in 
 adopting any theoretical, methodistical form of edu- 
 cation. The results — of treatment in such condi- 
 tions as cretinism, hyperpituitarism, and adenoids, 
 of the betterment of the food and the air supply — 
 stand as evidences of the variations of mental apti- 
 tude which arise from these sources and intimate the 
 folly of modifying education for the entire human 
 race on theoretical suggestion. Delineation of stud- 
 ies for groups, sifted from the less ready, chosen on 
 the basis of aptitude, probably contains a better 
 solution at the present time. 
 
 Again, knowledge of the influence on the human 
 
SOME PRESENT-DAY INFLUENCES 33 
 
 family of extra-corporeal parasites, such as the Tu- 
 bercle bacillus. Trichina spiralis, Plasmodium ma- 
 larioBy tapeworm, and hookworm, which manifest 
 themselves in various communities, has also forced 
 a modification of views concerning low mentality in 
 communities where such diseases exist. While it is 
 not necessary to decry the attempts which are being 
 made in play schools, it is nevertheless important 
 to advise prudence. These problems should receive 
 attention only after the fundamentals of health and 
 education are fully provided for. 
 
 As important as are these recent influences affect- 
 ing education, equally influential is another heritage 
 which has been bequeathed by antiquity. This tradi- 
 tion has persistently insisted that balance of power 
 in boards of trustees shall be held by members of the 
 ministerial profession, and this has been the pecul- 
 iar patrimony of universities and those institutions 
 which provide so-called "higher education." Those 
 institutions which have broken away from the dom- 
 ination of this decree have usually gone to another 
 extreme no less unfortunate. Consequently, to-day 
 our university boards of trustees are composed either 
 of a majority of ministers holding firmly to tradi- 
 tional views concerning education, or of a majority 
 of capitalists possessing little time to devote to their 
 extra-occupational trust. In either case the boards 
 have remained autocratic. 
 
34 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 When the balance of power in boards of trustees 
 has remained with the members of the ministerial 
 profession, perhaps the heaviest autocratic rule has 
 been imposed. The autocracy has been the more 
 complete because the president of the institution to 
 whom such a board delegates some authority has 
 also all too frequently been an autocrat and of min- 
 isterial training. 
 
 Wlien the other condition has obtained, the trus- 
 tees, possessing widely divergent views and little 
 knowledge concerning education, while still occupy- 
 ing an autocratic position (the court of last appeal), 
 have usually delegated their authority to two agents, 
 first, to a smaller executive body formed from among 
 their own members, and second, to the president of 
 the institution. Here again, although power is cen- 
 tered in two places, the autocracy has been none the 
 less complete. The president has become supreme 
 over his faculty. The executive body has become 
 supreme over the policy of the institution and the 
 budget which bases that policy. The president so 
 situated has exercised his autocratic power to secure 
 his own interests against faculty legislation which 
 might jeopardize them. At the same time he has 
 been fronted with the constant necessity of congeal- 
 ing the opinions of the members of his board. Suc- 
 cess accrues to the autocratic president in proportion 
 as he interprets the ideas and views of his superior 
 
SOME PRESENT-DAY INFLUENCES 35 
 
 autocratic body. And these bodies, when composed 
 of men not primarily interested in educational prob- 
 lems, are dominated by ideas which were prevalent at 
 the time when they were passing through the formal 
 educational mill. By their well-nigh absolute mone- 
 tary power, they are able to force their limited views 
 and preconceived notions even upon those institu- 
 tions which contain experts in all fields of knowledge, 
 and consequently are able to suppress development 
 and retard progress. So when harmony obtains be- 
 tween these forces, the president of the institution 
 remains the supreme autocrat, interpreting the re- 
 stricted views of the monetarily powerful group 
 and, as such, is a constant menace to progressive 
 thought. 
 
 When the autocratic president and the autocratic 
 executive body have come into friction and the presi- 
 dent has not been able to mould opinion, another 
 type of failure has resulted. In such cases the execu- 
 tive body has frequently resolved itself into a kind 
 of debating club upon which the wisdom in Macau- 
 lay's statement, "Armies have won victories under 
 bad generals, but no army ever won a victory under 
 a debating society," has been wasted. Dissensions, 
 suspicions, and general unsettled conditions with 
 their evil consequences have followed. So it has hap- 
 pened, that in America, epitomized as "The Home 
 of Democracy," we find our universities, in strik- 
 
36 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 ing contrast to the spirit under which the American 
 Nation has been developed, in the grip of autocracy. 
 
 Truly the situation is a puzzling one. If the ten- 
 ets of democracy be sound, — and there are few 
 Americans who believe that they are not, — it would 
 appear that the application of democratic principles 
 should be made in our educational institutions — 
 our training-schools for citizenship. The spectacle of 
 autocratic institutions training citizens for a democ- 
 racy is paradoxical enough to be ridiculous. The fifth 
 question arising, then, from this is. How can Ameri- 
 can universities be reorganized that they may con- 
 tribute most effectively to the national experiment 
 in democracy? 
 
 It must not be inferred that the five influences 
 mentioned above are the only ones which we con- 
 ceive as operative in the general educational field. 
 Nor are the five attendant questions the sole queries 
 demanding answers before the solution of the whole 
 problem can be found. There are, of course, many 
 influences and innumerable interrogations all impor- 
 tant enough in themselves. But we believe that these 
 are so correlated that by satisfactorily answering the 
 five questions herein proposed they too will be an- 
 swered. Before this can be done, however, we must 
 pause for a moment to ascertain the nature of, and 
 the purpose in, education. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 THE PURPOSE IN EDUCATION 
 
 From time to time numerable definitions of educa- 
 tion have appeared. Each has been colored by the 
 age in which it was born and by the conditions 
 which the state of society then existent imposed 
 upon the race. And it is true that whenever and 
 wherever statements of the purpose or aim in edu- 
 cation have been set forth, a clearer conception of 
 the ideals toward which humanity is struggling has 
 preceded. 
 
 Two races in two ages have given to the world two 
 ideals. Wherever the human species is found, the 
 aims of all members are alike, namely, to compass 
 one or the other or both of these. Lesser ideals have 
 appeared — countless numbers of them — as man 
 has pushed his way farther and farther into the un- 
 explored, yet all are but smaller parts of the greater 
 and, when followed through to their ultimates, lead 
 inevitably to these. 
 
 All man's endeavors, all his searchings and strug- 
 glings either in the eastern lands of Confucianism 
 or in the western world of Christianity, are toward 
 these. The Hebraic ideal of duty and the Hellenic 
 ideal of beauty must continue to remain the all- 
 
38 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 embracing goals of human endeavor. And in pro- 
 portion as man succeeds in following the two, so he 
 succeeds in gaining happiness. 
 
 Education, then, if containing aught of value, 
 must perforce be appraised on the basis of its contri- 
 bution to the guidance of the members of the human 
 family nearer to the ultimate conception of both 
 ideals and to a realization of the consequent hap- 
 piness. 
 
 The monks, who in the early centuries sealed them- 
 selves within their cloister walls, saw only the ideal 
 of duty through the dark glasses of a dark age. The 
 road to the attainment of this ideal led, for them, 
 through celibacy and the doing of the difficult and 
 the unpleasant task. The knights, who broke their 
 lances in the tourneys and held as their choicest boon 
 the smile of the mistress whose colors they wore, 
 who poured their blood on the thirsty sands of the 
 Holy Land and found their happiness in the rigors of 
 physical combat, were in no less degree striving to 
 attain their ideal. Followers of the light of beauty, 
 their ancestors dreamed in the streets of ancient 
 Athens and trained their children on the plains of 
 Sparta. For the monk, education was the means to 
 the end, for the knight in no less degree. 
 
 In those days the mental was at one extreme, the 
 physical was at the other, and these ideals of educa- 
 tion continued to be so placed until the two extremes 
 
THE PURPOSE IN EDUCATION 39 
 
 were joined by the promulgation of the doctrine that 
 the aim in education was to produce a sound mind in 
 a sound body. With each new age since then a closer 
 union of the two has come until at last we are able to 
 see, beyond the immediate and beyond the complex- 
 ities and confusions of ultimates, that the aim in ed- 
 ucation is to produce neither the perfect body alone 
 nor the perfect mind alone, but rather to lead man 
 and the race to that happiness which can only be 
 born by encompassing the all-inclusive ideals of duty 
 and of beauty, that the two are inseparable and per- 
 fection cannot be attained by following either one or 
 the other alone. 
 
 Perhaps it was John Milton who, by his widening 
 of the application of the principles which Quintilian 
 earlier advocated solely for public speakers to in- 
 clude all men, first joined the two ideals. Milton 
 declared that the aim in education was to fit a man 
 to perform justly, wisely, and magnanimously all 
 the offices, both public and private, of peace and 
 war. 
 
 Since Milton's time other ramifications have come. 
 The aim in education is " to lead men's souls to higher 
 things," "to train the hand as well as the head," "to 
 make man a better individual, a better neighbor and 
 a better citizen," "to increase man's efficiency and 
 capacity for social service," — these are some of the 
 definitions which have evolved. All may be true in 
 
40 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 toto, or in any part, but none of them include the all. 
 The aim in education is to bring man nearer to the 
 compassing of duty and of beauty and by so doing 
 to increase the sum total of human happiness. 
 
 The goal of human endeavor has not changed. 
 Man's conception of the relationship which courses 
 of action bear to the acquirement of the ultimate has 
 alone expanded. The difficulties lying in the way 
 of attainment have multiplied, and with this multi- 
 plication has come an increase in the number of 
 open roads luring the traveler to follow. 
 
 "There is no royal road to happiness," reads the 
 platitude. There are few unmistakable blazings of 
 duty and of beauty along the trail to point man's 
 steps unerringly and unfalteringly to the greater hap- 
 piness. Members of the human family have ever 
 been partial to the "short cuts" and have followed 
 many of these only to find themselves led far afield 
 and forced to return again and again to begin the 
 struggle afresh. All evolution has testified to this, 
 but it has also borne evidence that, as a thing be- 
 comes useful, so also it becomes increasingly beau- 
 tiful and so also does its simplicity become more 
 marked. Therefore, it is safe to believe that the edu- 
 cational system which, in the future, will increasingly 
 provide the means for the race to attain its end will 
 be a simple one, and, as simplicity is achieved in 
 the means to the end, man's conception of beauty 
 
THE PURPOSE IN EDUCATION 41 
 
 and of duty will inevitably become increasingly 
 clearer. 
 
 As time has unrolled the parchment of world- 
 history, man, in spite of his wanderings and his 
 yielding to the temptation offered by the short roads, 
 has advanced, and, as he has neared the seemingly 
 unattainable, new concepts of beauty and of duty 
 and of what constitutes the greater happiness have 
 come. *'Social evolution," "changing social philos- 
 ophy," "the recognition of civic responsibility," 
 under whatever different names it temporarily mas- 
 querades, it is but the expanding of the human mind 
 and the broadening of the human vision to see nearer 
 and more clearly to this one ideal. 
 
 It is a far cry, perhaps, from the beauty of the 
 frieze of the Parthenon to the beauty in a public 
 health contrivance, but the progress from the one 
 conception to the other, toilsome and wearisome as 
 it has been, has also been inevitable. The human 
 mind which, in its search for beauty, found little of the 
 beautiful in life, and that only in what it chose to call 
 the higher arts, now finds difficulty in discovering 
 that which is only ugly. The definition of the beauti- 
 ful has expanded to include all those products of man 
 and of nature which make for the happiness of the 
 human. No longer is that only beautiful which alone 
 delights the eye. That which is useful, serviceable, 
 and instrumental in bringing happiness to the greater 
 
42 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 number has also come to be included. There is no 
 reason to doubt that, in the ages to come, this con- 
 cept will expand farther and still farther. Yet with 
 all, we may believe that whatever our progress toward 
 the realization of our ideal, whatever our advance- 
 ment toward a state of universal happiness, man's 
 reach will continue to exceed his grasp. 
 
 Viewed thus, the end of classicism and vocational- 
 ism, utilitarianism, and even commercialism, is the 
 same. The difference between classicists and voca- 
 tionalists is a difference of opinion regarding the 
 means to the end, not in the end to be achieved. 
 Only in the means of attainment, the methods of 
 accomplishment of the purpose, lie the perplexities. 
 There can be no higher aim in education than this — 
 to increase the sum total of human happiness. And 
 no educational system which falls short of a sub- 
 stantial contribution to this end can be considered 
 adequate. 
 
 There was a time, in the history of man, when food, 
 clothing, and shelter, the primal necessaries of life, 
 appeared to be the goal. And while it is true that the 
 provision of these still remains as essential as for- 
 merly, it is also true that the widening of the concept 
 has changed their position to the base, and while the 
 difficulties in insuring them to the added members of 
 the human family have multiplied, this has long since 
 ceased to be the compassing aim in education. No 
 
THE PURPOSE IN EDUCATION 43 
 
 system which holds to the provision of these as its 
 ultimate can now be adequate. The stage of mental 
 development which once so ordained has now thank- 
 fully been passed. 
 
 The question which must be faced then is, What 
 system of education can be evolved which will con- 
 tribute most substantially to the increase of the sum 
 total of human happiness? Already we have seen 
 that this total cannot be increased solely by enlarg- 
 ing the capacity of the individual; that if we are to 
 succeed, we must progress by opening the way for 
 all. Progress itself is measured by its lowest bound- 
 ary as well as by its highest. 
 
 Throughout America, of late, has gone up the cry 
 that the present system of education is in no way 
 adequate, that the products of the system are only 
 insufficiently equipped to take their places in the 
 world. This truth applies not only to those who have 
 been compelled by force of circumstances to leave at 
 the lower points of departure, but also to those fa- 
 vored ones who have been allowed to continue in the 
 system even as far as the graduate and the profes- 
 sional schools. The system has endeavored to meet 
 this difficulty by forming combinations between the 
 educational systems and the industries. By such 
 combinations, known as "cooperative courses," stu- 
 dents pass from mill to school and back again during 
 the progress of their passage through the school. 
 
44 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 That this plan has not fully coped with the diffi- 
 culties is attested by the development within our 
 industries of special courses of training into which 
 graduates of our technical schools and universities 
 must go for a period of from two to four years before 
 they can be considered properly equipped to assume 
 any position of responsibility within the industrial 
 organization. The evil in this is apparent. The pro- 
 cedure not only constitutes an exploitation of the 
 university product by the industries, but also is a 
 serious indictment of the whole educational system. 
 
 There can be no doubt that the sum total of hu- 
 man happiness would be tremendously increased if 
 the products of our educational system came out at 
 given points, determined always by the capacity and 
 resources of the individual and the demand of the 
 community, adequately equipped with sufficient 
 knowledge to enter at once into whatever field of 
 activity the student has elected as an ultimate, at 
 some time earlier, in his educational career. Nor does 
 it seem excessive to charge that it is the duty of the 
 educational system to furnish its products with the 
 equipment necessary for a taking of the proper place 
 in the community, to fit its students to be self-sup- 
 porting and desirable citizens, to wed both the voca- 
 tional and the cultural, in order that those who come 
 forth may be able to provide a living for themselves 
 and for those ultimately becoming dependent upon 
 
THE PURPOSE IN EDUCATION 45 
 
 them, and at the same time to school the individual 
 in the duties of citizenship; or, in other words, to 
 make a man who shall be a vocational specialist and 
 at the same time a latitudinarian. A vocational 
 speciahst that he may earn; a latitudinarian that he 
 may richly live. Only in this way can the sum total 
 of human happiness be substantially increased and 
 the aim in education be realized. 
 
 The promulgation of a new theory for educational 
 advancement must ostensibly have its primal cause 
 in the inadequacy of the present system. The dan- 
 gers in attempting to change any historically estab- 
 lished plan must not be minimized. The gravity of 
 attempting to alter the educational system which 
 effects so widely must not be underrated. Too 
 many experimenters have already forced their theo- 
 retical ideas upon the trusting public. And while the 
 failure of these attempts stimulates to action, the 
 magnitude of the possible effects of change advises 
 caution. It is, therefore, the hope that the plan 
 proposed in the pages following may assist in extri- 
 cating us from our difficulties, and the faith in the 
 simplicity of the scheme and the soundness of the 
 principles upon which it is based, that have urged 
 this production. The largeness of the results ob- 
 tained would, of course, be dependent upon the de- 
 gree of success of the plan, but the nature of those 
 results, whether they be great or small, would, we 
 
46 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS * 
 
 are confident, be only beneficial. Furthermore, the 
 preclusion of evil results also gives us courage to 
 raise still another voice in the wilderness of educa- 
 tional endeavor. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 ANALYSIS OF ULTIMATES — THE BASIS OF 
 EDUCATIONAL REFORM 
 
 If the aim in education, defined in broadest terms, 
 is to increase the sum total of human happiness, 
 analysis to determine first the nature and second the 
 factors of happiness would appear to be the only 
 safe process to employ preliminary to the establish- 
 ment of any educational system. Furthermore, if 
 the passing of time disclosed the fact that a system 
 thus established functioned but indifferently in fur- 
 thering the purpose in education, re-analysis to dis- 
 cover the source of error would again seem to be the 
 practicable procedure. Chemistry, that greatest of 
 all sciences, has taught us that reconstruction by 
 synthesis to trustworthy resultants must be pre- 
 ceded by painstaking analysis. 
 
 Man in the primitive state, an isolated individual 
 dependent on his own resourcefulness, attains fullest 
 independence. Discovering by analysis the requi- 
 sites for happiness of such a being, in such a condi- 
 tion, was not a difficult task. Food and usually shel- 
 ter and later clothing expressed his demands and 
 most of his desires, and the provision of these placed 
 small burden upon any educational system. 
 
48 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 History has, however, demonstrated that man 
 was not destined to remain in his primitive state of 
 independence. The tendency has always been for 
 individuals to gather into communities, and these 
 in turn to grow larger and larger. The effects of this 
 evolution upon man have been marked. Men have 
 become first interdependent and finally almost com- 
 pletely dependent upon the factors in communal 
 life. Governmental restrictions and the demands of 
 one's neighbors have become most important in lim- 
 iting personal independence. An individual's happi- 
 ness has thus become increasingly dependent upon 
 the happiness of the community, and the requisites 
 for the individual's happiness have in like measure 
 been modified and augmented by communal require- 
 ments. 
 
 The world has long been familiar with the simple 
 demands of simple communities. The individual 
 living in such a community must give from his own 
 time a sufficient amount for the performance of the 
 various duties imposed by communal life. So few 
 may be these duties that the training of the indi- 
 vidual to perform them places small demand upon 
 the educational system. In fact, so small and simple 
 may be the community that little or no educational 
 system may be required. 
 
 Size ever makes for complexity. As communities 
 enlarge, therefore, the more complex become their 
 
ANALYSIS OF ULTIMATES 49 
 
 structure and their demands, until the most com- 
 plex educational equipment is required to meet the 
 demands of the largest communities. 
 
 As the demands of an enlarging community be- 
 come more complex, the demands upon the indi- 
 vidual residents increase. In like ratio also the 
 requisites for the happiness of the individuals mul- 
 tiply. The educational system forms an essential 
 part of the equipment necessary to any given com- 
 munity to promote the happiness of its indwellers. 
 In proportion as it meets the increasingly complex 
 demands does the system prove its adequacy or 
 inadequacy. Here lies the test of our present system. 
 
 In America, during the past fifty years, municipal- 
 ities have grown too rapidly to be either natural or 
 orderly. As a result they have outstripped in their 
 demands the supply of educational equipment re- 
 quired to provide happiness for the individuals con- 
 stituting their body politic. Indeed, in all candor 
 it may be said that the present system has not, in 
 any satisfactorily organized way, taken cognizance 
 of the demands of rapidly enlarging communities. 
 Despite this, such demands form the market for the 
 products of our schools, and the laws of supply and 
 demand which govern and shape the development 
 of our industries must, in the end, be seen to apply 
 equally to this greatest of all industries — the sup- 
 plying of men and women properly trained and 
 
50 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 equipped to take their various places in the com- 
 munity. 
 
 No systematic attempt has ever been made, in 
 America, either to analyze the complete demands of 
 a community or to take steps to prevent the glutting 
 of certain fields of the market. Industries, it is true, 
 have unconsciously analyzed some of the require- 
 ments for limited vocational groups, and have been 
 partially successful in forcing this knowledge upon 
 the resisting schools, but farther than this there has 
 been little progress. One has only to examine the 
 alumni records of our schools of engineering to see 
 how many trained for engineering work have passed 
 into other fields of endeavor. In fact, one exagger- 
 ating cynic has pointedly remarked that about as 
 many engineers continue to pursue engineering work 
 after their graduation as class poets continue to 
 specialize in the field of poetry. "What has become 
 of our class poets?" facetiously asked this recent 
 questioner. "Wliat becomes of the graduates of 
 our various schools of higher vocational training?" 
 might be asked with equal pertinence and far 
 greater seriousness. The alumni records tell but a 
 small part of the story. And what is true in this 
 particular higher vocation is equally true in others. 
 Again it would seem, therefore, that if the aim in 
 educating is to increase the sum total of human 
 happiness, an analysis of the demands of a commu- 
 
ANALYSIS OF ULTIMATES 51 
 
 nity must form the soundest basis upon which to 
 build an educational system within any given area. 
 
 The varying occupations which constitute the 
 demands of a community, when discussed in terms 
 of the individual forming a part of that community, 
 we choose to term "individual ultimates." Again 
 speaking in terms of the individual, it is evident that 
 happiness can first be substantially increased by 
 directing the individual's choice of an ultimate to 
 such a one as actually exists as a demand of the 
 community. In other words, an analysis of the de- 
 mands of the community, while of first importance 
 to a sound system of education, does not constitute 
 the complete task, and would not, in itself, be suffi- 
 cient to insure the greater happiness to the greater 
 number. Coupled with such an analysis, there must 
 also be a tabulation in order that the public, to be 
 educated, may know what the market conditions in 
 given occupations are. 
 
 In addition, at some time early in the educational 
 career of each individual careful supervision must 
 be exercised over his choice of an ultimate in order 
 that when he emitted from the system at any given 
 point, he may be able to find awaiting him the 
 first essential for his happiness, namely, a position. 
 The individual having made such a declaration as to 
 his ultimate guided by the knowledge obtained by 
 making a tabulation of the community's demands. 
 
52 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 it would then become the function of the educational 
 system to provide him with those essentials that 
 would command the highest market value immedi- 
 ately at the time of his issuance. Viewed in this 
 way, the immediate object in sending the individual 
 through the system would be to equip him for his 
 function in life. This function includes the under- 
 standing of his individual, his family, his group. 
 State and international relationships, and in pro- 
 portion as a man understands and fulfills his func- 
 tion, will the larger contribution to the sum total of 
 human happiness be made. 
 
 To repeat, the first purpose of an analysis such as 
 has been suggested would be to determine the req- 
 uisites for community or group life. These, when 
 ascertained, must be analyzed more and more care- 
 fully, until a knowledge has been obtained suflacient 
 to direct an intelligent beginning of a realignment 
 of the educational system to produce a system that 
 will lead each one of those who enter it out at the 
 given point that the member elects — provided 
 always the demand exists for that particular ulti- 
 mate — fully equipped for his life's work. 
 
 After requisites have been provided for, there 
 should follow a careful analysis of other needs 
 which are not, strictly speaking, requisites, but 
 which are nevertheless added in greater and greater 
 numbers as human knowledge increases, and which, 
 
ANALYSIS OF ULTIMATES 53 
 
 in varying degree, contribute to the gross happiness. 
 Following this backward, step by step through the 
 demands, should come an analysis to ascertain what 
 constitutes the essential equipment of the individual 
 and later what constitutes beneficial equipment not 
 primarily essential. 
 
 The complexities which a proposal such as this 
 suggests are not as serious as they would appear on a 
 superficial approach to the subject. Those that fill 
 the mind with awe, as it contemplates our huge, 
 unwieldy, and overgrown municipalities of the pres- 
 ent time, fall away when thoughts revert to the 
 smaller communities of which the larger ones are 
 but multiples. 
 
 As has been seen, an analysis of the composition 
 of communities leads finally to the individual mem- 
 bers. Synthetically speaking, these members are 
 associated in smaller groups or families located in 
 homes or institutions, rearranged daily by occupa- 
 tions and spread out again later into groups possess- 
 ing similar educational functions and characteristics. 
 Where those groups are segregated and separated 
 by intervening distances, an analysis of ultimates 
 would be an extremely simple process. Likewise, if 
 partitionment were to precede the process of analy- 
 sis in the larger communities, the main mass of 
 difficulty would soon disappear. In other words, if 
 the work of analysis of the ultimates of the larger 
 
54 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 aggregations of people be reduced to a study of 
 small individual groups, the analysis of the whole 
 might be accomplished quickly and thoroughly. 
 Then, by tabulating the findings in the smaller units 
 and by gradually correlating these for larger and 
 larger bodies formed by the uniting of the lesser 
 components, knowledge would be obtained of the 
 complete demands which any community, no mat- 
 ter how large, presents for supply to the educational 
 system which purposes to take care of it. Only be- 
 cause we have not followed, in our methods of organ- 
 ization, our highest intelligence in the arrangement 
 of the machinery with which we attempt to provide 
 for the demands of our large communities, does the 
 problem at first glance appear to be so complex; 
 
 The success of divisional autonomy and respon- 
 sibility throughout military and large business organ- 
 izations should long ago have suggested that this 
 was probably the best form of government for hu- 
 man control. Had we recognized this, and had we, 
 in our large municipalities, retained the knowledge 
 that there was a unit of population easily govern- 
 able, and had then multiplied this local autonomy, 
 we should never have fallen into the severe straits 
 in which we find ourselves to-day. Also, had this 
 course been followed, it would have been easy in 
 each small unit to obtain a tabulation of the ulti- 
 mate demands of any community and to use this 
 
ANALYSIS OF ULTIMATES 55 
 
 knowledge in providing the equipment which would 
 produce for such a community a supply of ade- 
 quately fitted human individuals. What, in a more 
 or less careless way, we attempt to do on a small 
 scale, to-day, in compiling such meager statistics 
 on various subjects as are asked for by special organ- 
 izations is a step in the direction, but we have never 
 yet, it would seem, seen the applicability of the 
 principle to our large communities. 
 
 Exceptions to this are to be found only in experi- 
 ments which have been conducted in special, and 
 consequently restricted, fields, and these have been 
 made conspicuous as much by their isolation as by 
 their success. Most of these endeavors at unit 
 analysis have been carried on in the furtherance of 
 public health and welfare. 
 
 An organized, intelligent effort at the realignment 
 of the educational system from this point of view 
 would require a most carefully detailed study of all 
 the interdependent and dependent demands of the 
 individual dwellers in the community and the most 
 cautious application of the principles evolving from 
 the knowledge gained to the system of education. 
 The fact that markets have been so glutted, in the 
 past, by the present system, strengthens the belief 
 that such an analysis of the community would form 
 the only rational basis upon which to build a sound 
 foundation for an adequate educational system for 
 
56 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 any community in the future and should precede 
 any change in the educational equipment already 
 existent. 
 
 One of the chief difficulties, if not the main diffi- 
 culty, encountered in promoting such a plan would 
 be ignorance, for despite the fact that no marked 
 progress has been made in any of our modern sci- 
 ences prior to an analysis made by the human mind 
 of the greatest ultimate phenomena, we are only be- 
 ginning to sense the tremendous importance of the 
 principle involved. One need only to be a tyro in 
 chemistry — the most fruitful of all our sciences — 
 to appreciate that whenever contributions to prog- 
 ress have been made, they have been preceded 
 always by an analysis of ultimates. An analysis, for 
 instance, of the albumens, the living ultimates of 
 life, has formed the foundation of our present new 
 visions in the field of biological chemistry. In 
 short, this principle of analysis of ultimates has 
 been the inherent nature of progress in all ages, de- 
 spite our inabihty to apply it to other than special 
 fields. 
 
 In considering the proposal for such an analysis, 
 the fact also must not be lost sight of that ultimates 
 reside in all individuals comprising a community 
 and range from those held by the most brilliantly 
 intelligent members of the family to those of the 
 lowest criminal apd degenerate. The undesirable 
 
ANALYSIS OF ULTIMATES 57 
 
 lowest we would endeavor by our educational sys- 
 tem to eliminate. The desirable highest we would 
 strive to reproduce as rapidly as possible. The 
 analysis then would include the great mass, approx- 
 imately ninety per cent, who belong to the groups 
 asking only from eight to fourteen years of educa- 
 tion, as well as the remaining ten per cent with tre- 
 mendously varying ultimates who may ask for a 
 lifetime of education, as a preparation for and a 
 concomitant to the fulfillment of their functions in 
 the community. 
 
 In conclusion, then, we would suggest, first, that 
 the community which purposes to be in the fore- 
 front of the next generation should begin an imme- 
 diate reconstruction of its governmental equipment 
 in order to enable it to collect through certain feas- 
 ible units the information which would constitute 
 an analysis of the ultimates for the whole commu- 
 nity, and second, that these figures acquired in the 
 units be carefully tabulated and correlated for the 
 community, and that upon this knowledge the foun- 
 dation of its educational equipment be built and 
 modified. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 A MODIFYING FACTOR — REGIONAL VARIANCES 
 AND THE BENTS OF COMMUNITIES 
 
 To the mind which dwells upon the feasibility of such 
 a project as the analysis of a community's demands; 
 the tabulation of the findings; the shaping of indi- 
 vidual ultimates to form a supply for such demands, 
 and the analysis determining the equipment neces- 
 sary to fit the individual to function properly in his 
 ultimate capacity, one fact becomes immediately 
 apparent — namely, that throughout the Nation re- 
 gional variances exist, and that these would modify 
 any results obtained by such analysis. 
 
 The larger conglomerations of people in the 
 United States, or in any other country, when viewed 
 broadly, possess outstanding peculiar characteristics. 
 These are more or less known even to minds of small 
 compass the world over and serve to individualize a 
 region. In America, broadly speaking again, each 
 of its vaguely defined divisions possesses charac- 
 teristics more or less peculiar to itself. Each divi- 
 sion, in turn, splits into individualized sections, and 
 these again divide into individualized municipal 
 regions. 
 
A MODIFYING FACTOR 69 
 
 Occupational and industrial characteristics are 
 unquestionably most important agents in individu- 
 alizing communities. New York, Boston, New Or- 
 leans, San Francisco, St. Louis, Detroit, Chicago, 
 and Pittsburgh among our greater cities possess 
 reputations, each distinct. Travelers from foreign 
 lands, superficially viewing America only from the 
 rear platforms of observation coaches, have been 
 impressed by these regional variances perhaps more 
 forcibly than they impress the inhabitants. And 
 yet, generally speaking, even to the native, the 
 mere mention of a name is sufficient at once to call 
 to mind the gross characteristics. Pittsburgh, for 
 instance, standing as a center of the iron and steel 
 trade based upon its underlying resources of coal, 
 oil, and gas, has become known and characterized 
 the world over by these particular industries. Such 
 outstanding peculiarities of our American cities are 
 based largely, of course, upon natural resources and 
 geographical conditions. These factors are mainly 
 responsible for our regional variances. Such pecul- 
 iarities, for present purposes, we have chosen to 
 term "the bents of communities." 
 
 If we proceed farther to analyze any given com- 
 munity with its individual bent we find that each 
 unit constituting our municipalities has its own 
 peculiar characteristics. In the community of Pitts- 
 burgh again, for instance, with its distinctly indus- 
 
60 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 trial bent, we find Polish Lawrenceville, Italian 
 Hazelwood, and Negro and Jewish Herron Hill. 
 Pushing into the suburbs we discover that the indi- 
 vidual peculiarities of such outlying districts as 
 Homestead, McKees Rocks, and Etna are apparent 
 to all as the first gross cleavage of the larger area 
 known as the Pittsburgh cosmopolitan district. 
 The same conditions in varying degrees obtain in all 
 our municipalities the country over. In those areas 
 of gross cleavage we find the peculiar bent deter- 
 mined largely by the tendency of the human family 
 to congregate in groups having common interests, 
 sometimes occupational but more often social. 
 
 Such an analysis as has been suggested in the pre- 
 ceding chapter would increasingly disclose these 
 regional variances. Furthermore, if we analyze our 
 communities on the basis of their bents, we are 
 forced to conclude that any educational system, to 
 serve adequately the interests of the given commu- 
 nity, must perforce reckon with the special charac- 
 ter or bent of that community. Our educational 
 system of the past has consistently failed so to reckon 
 to any marked extent. 
 
 An examination of the curricula followed by the 
 public schools throughout the United States dis- 
 closes that despite marked regional variances, sim- 
 ilarity is their most outstanding characteristic. Ac- 
 cording to present views, in the large, those needs 
 
A MODIFYING FACTOR 61 
 
 which are considered necessary to train the mind and 
 lead the youthful Bostonian to the greater happi- 
 ness, are equally beneficial to the child who swings 
 his books along the corridors of the schools in Sacra- 
 mento. Our public school curricula, as they exist at 
 present, appear to be the only universal panacea 
 that the human mind has ever discovered. Nor 
 does this similarity cease with the primary and sec- 
 ondary schools. University and college catalogues 
 from East, West, North, and South exhibit few 
 fundamental differences either in courses of study 
 offered or in emphasis placed upon various branches. 
 Those who hold tenaciously to the cultural decry 
 this state of affairs. "This is an age of specialists," 
 they aver. "The nature and complexities of our 
 civilization demand speciaUsts," reply the vocation- 
 alists. And even the most ardent advocates of the 
 cultural concede that there is a grain of truth in the 
 statements of the latter. But with all this conces- 
 sion, our educational institutions which aim to train 
 either the cultural or vocational specialists have con- 
 sistently refused to become specialized themselves. 
 This situation is almost as paradoxical as that which 
 we have already noted in the government of our 
 universities, where we have autocratic organizations 
 training citizens for life in a democracy. 
 
 If the increasing dependency of the individual 
 upon his neighbors is making specialization a neces- 
 
62 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 sity, surely regional variances and the bents of com- 
 munities must be determining factors in this proc- 
 ess of specialization. 
 
 Our educational system should supply not only 
 the universal demands of the smaller units of which 
 our populace is made, but should also supply the 
 demands which exist for certain peculiar ultimates. 
 These, obviously, in all cases could not be provided 
 in each community, but each community could pro- 
 vide a supply for its peculiar demands. The func- 
 tion of a given unit would be to provide first for the 
 demand which that unit has in common with all 
 other units, and then to provide for as much of the 
 special demands as the equipment of the unit and the 
 unit itself could bear. For other special demands, 
 a unit would perforce cooperate with its neighboring 
 units, for just as the individual units of a commu- 
 nity vary, so do the demands of the larger cooperat- 
 ing units differ. Regional variances and community 
 bents, therefore, would not in themselves be the 
 insurmountable obstacles which they might appear 
 on first thought. Furthermore, it is conceivable 
 that were we to depart from geographical lines and 
 to congregate all communities on the basis of their 
 bents, realignment itself would not be a complex 
 process. Only when these smaller units of peculiar 
 bent were welded into larger units of population 
 would the delineation of the bent of the larger aggre- 
 
A MODIFYING FACTOR 6S 
 
 gallons require the most painstaking labor of those 
 engaged in making the analysis. 
 
 At the present time there is more variety in our 
 unity than there is unity in our variety, and while 
 this is recognized, we have nevertheless endeavored 
 to foster a uniform system of education which makes 
 no marked attempts to recognize the demands 
 which regional differences must place upon it. All 
 things considered, it seems the essence of truth to 
 maintain that the only uniformity possible in a 
 national educational system must be in the methods 
 of analysis employed: namely, the division of the 
 Nation into regional or community units, and the 
 subsequent subdivision of these into smaller units 
 both for purposes of obtaining the necessary statis- 
 tics concerning the community demands and for 
 assisting various other active agencies which must 
 operate in conjunction with the educational system, 
 each in its way in proportion to its success, increas- 
 ing the sum total of human happiness. Any uni- 
 formity other than this must, in the end, prove dis- 
 astrous. Unity in variety cannot be secured to any 
 marked degree until we thoroughly understand the 
 variances in our unity and provide the necessary 
 equipment for each regional imit and for each lesser 
 unit that the larger unity may be secured. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 THE UNIT PLAN — A UNIT EQUIPMENT FOR 
 A UNIT OF POPULATION 
 
 As has been previously pointed out, it would appear 
 that the perplexities in the problem of analyzing 
 the demands of a community would disappear were 
 attention focused upon the smaller units of which 
 the larger are but multiples. Among the first requi- 
 sites, then, would be the determination of what con- 
 stitutes the unit of population which can be most 
 efficiently handled in order that the equipment 
 necessary for the handling of such a unit might also 
 be ascertained. The moment this discovery is made, 
 the process of caring for the entire community 
 would be a simple one, inasmuch as it would neces- 
 sitate simply the duplication of equipment for the 
 given unit of population to be handled within the 
 given area. 
 
 The principle has been so long a part of industrial 
 progress that it is surprising that it has not gained a 
 greater influence in the general conduct of human 
 affairs. Yet, when we realize that less than one half 
 of the whole American Nation is under census study 
 for such important occurrences as birth, mortality. 
 
THE UNIT PLAN 65 
 
 and disease, we understand how slow has been the 
 progress of this simple economic precept even in the 
 restricted fields of public health and welfare. At 
 the same time it is equally true that only by the 
 correlation of its smaller units can a nation obtain 
 for itself the proper foundation upon which to recon- 
 struct its future. 
 
 Once the size of the regional unit is determined, 
 knowledge gained by an analysis of the ultimates 
 would determine the equipment which the unit of 
 population would demand. 
 
 Two requirements are immediately placed upon 
 this primordial unit of population. First, it must 
 measure up to a certain standard designated for 
 all communities — a standard, however, varying as 
 the progress of knowledge in the State of which the 
 unit is a part prescribes; and second, because the 
 given unit is one of the components of the larger, 
 it must fulfill State, national, and international 
 requirements. Furthermore, the unit should be 
 allowed complete autonomy to raise itself to meet 
 these requirements, and also to develop within itself . 
 all those features making for the fulfillment of the 
 highest desires of the populace residing within its 
 limits. This autonomy should extend to its under- 
 taking of a union of its interests for rarer and rarer 
 demands with its neighboring small units and for 
 the carrying of these to the point provided by State 
 
66 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 sanction. This might be furthered by a provision 
 by the State of uniform methods of procedure, but 
 here again uniformity should be tempered always 
 by the revelation of its effects. There should run 
 through the whole a saneness and an elasticity 
 which would permit new communities to progress 
 without too much domination and restriction by 
 higher formulae. Perhaps this form of organization 
 with its resultant elasticity contains the secret of 
 human welfare and is in reality but the application 
 to our whole welfare problem of that departmental- 
 ization which has furthered the development of large 
 business organizations. 
 
 One argument which has been advanced against 
 the success of such a proposal is that an inordinate 
 amount of trust in the members of the human family 
 would be required. There can be but one answer to 
 such an objection, and that is that if our educational 
 system is not to provide a populace worthy of trust, 
 since trust is essential to the greater happiness, the 
 system is in itself futile. Some restrictions would 
 of necessity have to be raised against unwarranted 
 developments in order not only that neighbors 
 might be protected from individuals, but also that 
 individual units might be safeguarded against the 
 encroachments of neighboring units. This could, 
 however, we believe, be easily accomplished by 
 prescribing certain fixed demands — standards to 
 
THE UNIT PLAN 67 
 
 which the individual units must rise in spite of all 
 the autonomy allowed them. 
 
 Having arrived by an analysis of ultimates at the 
 knowledge upon which to build a unit equipment 
 for a unit of population, it would become necessary 
 to proceed to the correlation of these smaller units 
 again into units of larger and larger type. This 
 process would inevitably carry beyond municipal 
 limits, and in many instances beyond State limits, 
 and ultimately even beyond national limits and 
 boundaries, — for just as one unit impinges upon 
 another, so one country impinges upon another; and 
 finally, we might, with the simplicity of department- 
 alization which is evident in the proposal for a 
 unit of population, arrive at a principle which would 
 operate even through a period of internationalism 
 which may be imminent. 
 
 It is conceivable that if we depart from geograph- 
 ical lines and congregate all the communities on the 
 basis of regional variances and community bent, a 
 realignment of the educational system and the pro- 
 viding of a unit equipment for a unit of population 
 would not be difficult. As we have seen, no realign- 
 ment could be justifiable unless a careful analysis of 
 ultimate demands, and an equally careful tabulation 
 of the analysis, preceded it. The resulting aggre- 
 gations, however, could, we believe, be adequately 
 cared for by putting into effect a reconstruction of 
 
68 A NEW BASIS FOE SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 the entire educational system based upon what we 
 have chosen to call "departmentalization." 
 
 Concerning departmentalization, since that pro- 
 posal is dealt with more fully in a later chapter, we 
 need only state here that by the term is meant not 
 only the division of human knowledge into fields 
 such as has been done to some extent already, but 
 also the abolition of those arbitrary lines drawn 
 across the educational system, without reference to 
 the capacity of the student, which now separate the 
 parts of the equipment which handle the instruction 
 in the various fields. Were this done, the depart- 
 ments would in consequence stand continuously and 
 without arbitrary time divisions from the lowest 
 point of the system to the highest. We believe that in 
 no other way can the requisite elasticity be gained. 
 The elasticity resulting from such departmentaliza- 
 tion would allow both complete freedom for the in- 
 dividual and for the bent of the larger and larger 
 aggregations which would be correlated for the pur- 
 poses of the community educational system. 
 
 A necessary part of the equipment for any given 
 regional unit of population would be, of course, a 
 university. And when one arrives at this part of the 
 educational equipment which proposes to furnish 
 the so-called "higher education" for the larger units 
 of population, one is faced with the most complicated 
 of all the problems of the educational plan. 
 
THE UNIT PLAN 69 
 
 The struggles to make our present university 
 equipment fit the demands of the time might be 
 amusing if the results were not so disastrous. The 
 secret of the modern university's failure is undoubt- 
 edly in most instances this, that in no place has 
 there been a realization of the fact that each edu- 
 cational institution is created for the purpose of 
 fulfilling a demand, and that a knowledge of the 
 knowledge demanded can only be found by a care- 
 ful analysis of the ultimates required by the human 
 family residing and fulfilling its life's function in the 
 community. Each university, especially since it is 
 the servant of the largest single unit of population in 
 the country, should have, first, the requisites pro- 
 vided for it, and second, a knowledge of the bent of 
 the community which it is to serve in order that its 
 relation to other universities of the nation in which 
 it is situated may be properly determined. 
 
 One objection which has been offered to this 
 proposal has been to the effect that the existing 
 institutions would be fearful concerning their own 
 present and future welfare, and would scarcely wel- 
 come any plan which would in any way curtail their 
 advancement. The reply to this criticism is that the 
 present educational equipment is still far from ade- 
 quate and the plan need, therefore, carry no fear 
 to any educational institution where adequate rea- 
 sons for its existence are found at present. The 
 
70 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 results upon the institutions would be a sharper 
 delineation of their regional functions in order that 
 they might advance more rapidly than they have 
 been advancing in the past. The staple community 
 demands would remain as now, or would multiply 
 in proportion as the population increased, and this 
 tax upon the institutions providing the supply 
 would continue as now. In addition, by following 
 a peculiar bent, institutions would not only supply 
 this staple community demand, but would supply 
 for the rarer and rarer demands of the Nation. 
 Their student bodies might, as to-day, be composed 
 of students drafted from all parts of the United 
 States and from all nations of the world. The princi- 
 pal difference would be, however, that the institu- 
 tions would stand definitely as individualized instru- 
 ments of supply for definite demands, rather than 
 as general factories of supply for general demands. 
 The gain to existing institutions would, therefore, 
 far outweigh any small peculiar loss. 
 
 As has been pointed out, the demands of a com- 
 munity, when considered in terms of the human 
 members, constitute individual ultimates. With all 
 these ultimates the educational system has to deal. 
 Each educational institution within the given unit 
 would form a part of the unit's equipment. Each part 
 of the unit of educational equipment for the unit of 
 population would fit for certain ultimates. As the 
 
THE UNIT PLAN 71 
 
 aggregation to be served increased in size, the ulti- 
 mates would increase in number and variety. This 
 increase in the demand for ultimates might be nat- 
 ural and gradual, or, as often happens at the present 
 time, rapid and unexpected. The founding of new 
 industries creates a sudden demand for certain ulti- 
 mates, which demand may not have formerly existed 
 to any large extent in that particular community. 
 Growth and demands alone could determine the 
 amount of equipment which any unit would require. 
 Increasing demands, whether gradual or rapid, 
 could alone determine the necessity for additional 
 equipment. Therefore, it would be impossible at 
 present even to tabulate for any institution within 
 any unit all the equipment required for the training 
 of the members of the unit adequately to encompass 
 their individual ultimates. Analysis alone could fur- 
 nish this information — an analysis of all ultimates 
 ranging from those possessed by individuals of low- 
 est mentality to those elected by individuals capable 
 of the highest mental achievement. 
 
 Neither can definite answer be made to the ques- 
 tion. What constitutes the highest mental achieve- 
 ment.^ Here we are again dealing with a variable. 
 A plebiscite of France has given the badge of honor 
 to Louis Pasteur, whose contributions to knowledge 
 ranged from those which resulted in the reconstruc- 
 tion of the silk and wine industries to those which 
 
n A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 protected animals from chicken cholera and humans 
 from rabies. Other groups would honor those emi- 
 nent in government, in generalship, or in philosophy. 
 The question is, of course, unanswerable. A retro- 
 spective examination of past achievements reveals 
 but variances in judicial opinion concerning the 
 value of each. But this does not in the least mili- 
 tate against the soundness of the principles proposed, 
 for hope of higher achievements must be the promise 
 of the future. It is to our happiness and advan- 
 tage that the highest mental achievement cannot be 
 defined. 
 
 The unit proposal — a unit equipment for a unit 
 of population — is, therefore, none the less practi- 
 cable because the farthest ultimates cannot be de- 
 fined. Since all functions which the individuals of 
 the human family perform, both in isolated and in 
 communal existence, must be dealt with by the edu- 
 cational system, the plan admits of the widest ap- 
 plication. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE WIDER APPLICATION OF THE UNIT PLAN 
 
 In various quarters in the past the unit plan has 
 received some attention. In the field of common 
 school education, especially, the application of the 
 principles has been attempted and the experiment 
 carried farthest. And while complete success has not 
 been attained, the results have shown the principles 
 to be both sound and cogent. 
 
 The reasons for the partial failure in application 
 here are easily discernible. In the first place, the full 
 potentialities of the plan have never been perceived. 
 Progress has, therefore, been more a groping toward 
 the light than a steady march under a clear guid- 
 ing idea. In the second place, the population to be 
 served has always been too large for the equipment 
 provided. And third, the existence of private in- 
 vaders in the field, which prevented the exercise of 
 arbitrary control, helped to balk the endeavor. 
 
 These private invaders were not necessarily hostile 
 to the unit plan. It must be remembered that the 
 idea itself was never clearly presented; also that the 
 situation was complicated and the issue clouded by 
 the seeming necessity for educating to some extent 
 on the basis of class distinction and segregation. The 
 
7i A NEW nVSTS FOR SOCIAL PROCRESS 
 
 rise of [\\c prlvalr scliools was due in largo measure 
 to I Ins jippareni necessity and to the more iin])()r- 
 tanl fael llial. the j)nl)Iie schools were not equipped 
 tofuneliona(le(|uately. Privaleseliools appeared be- 
 cause I he n(vd for I hem existed. They flourished and 
 waxed slrong aslon«^as the need j)ersisled. And they 
 began to decline when the need for them begjin to 
 <liuiiuish. Thai the luvd diuiinished and is si ill di- 
 minishiug has been due i)riniarily toevolulion rather 
 than lo any fault of the private schools. As a rule, 
 these insl itul ions have ui)held the traditions of the 
 educalional propaganda of which tluMr own incep- 
 tion was a i)a,rl. The causes for the decay are to be 
 found rather in the growth of the whole system of 
 compulsory education; in the discovery that only by 
 general taxation could the equipment required to 
 Jiandh* education be provided; and in our willingness 
 and ability to submit to such taxation. Thus have 
 public schools been improved, and thus have the pri- 
 vate schools been forced to take a lower and lower 
 position. They can no longer be considered as seri- 
 ous competitors for the leadership in education. 
 
 The private schools a])])eared before the unit plan 
 for education was seriously t>ronudgated or the prin- 
 ciples involved clearly gras])ed. They have failed to 
 maintain their position because, to a certain extent, 
 th(* way to cooperation with the regular forces in the 
 field who were struggling with the unit idea was not 
 
WIDER APPLICATION OF UNIT PLAN 75 
 
 made clear. Many of them are still failing to dis- 
 cover the position which yet, by riglit of function, 
 belongs to them, and are, by constant curtailment, 
 striving to postpone the day when bankruptcy shall 
 forever close their doors. Others, more progressive, 
 have attempted to attach themselves to universities 
 as preparatory institutions. The course pursued in 
 either case is largely determined by their inability 
 or al)ility to see that the complete application of the 
 unit plan — the idea which is growing — would not 
 necessarily spell doom for all private educational 
 institutions. Private schools may and probably will 
 continue to exist without injury to the educational 
 system or harm to the unit organization as long as 
 there is existent a universally applicable law of social 
 distinction creating demands to be supplied. The 
 way to new life leads through correlation and adjust- 
 ment; the way to death, through competition. The 
 private practitioners cannot compete with com- 
 munity provision beyond the seventh grade. 
 
 As we have said, the principles of the unit pro- 
 posal have been those applied in the developing of 
 common school organization, and despite the inabil- 
 ity of organizers to see the full potentialities in the 
 plan, the principles themselves have been proved 
 sound. Attempts made to widen the application, 
 however, to other parts of the educational system 
 have largely failed. And because of the failure, such 
 
76 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL rROGRESS 
 
 gross wastes as exist in many of our municipalities 
 at the present time have resulted. 
 
 In the higher fields of education stronger privately 
 endowed invaders have appeared, many of them 
 better equipped to carry on the work in certain 
 fields than the publicly endowed occupants. Usu- 
 ally when the application of the unit principle has 
 been attempted in such cases, it has been frustrated 
 by personal ambitions reinforced by traditional 
 opinion that priority of occupancy in any field of 
 educational endeavor, regardless of inferiority of 
 equipment, constitutes sufficient reason for refusal 
 to retract. 
 
 Particularly is this true in Pittsburgh, for example, 
 where such an influence has been most potent. Upon 
 one side of the street there exists a large endowed 
 institution which vies for students and competes 
 with a large semi-state university across the way. 
 Great waste here caused by duplication of courses 
 and equipment has been most apparent. Attempts 
 to apply the principles of the unit plan by adjust- 
 ment and correlation have been made, but have 
 tlius far proved futile. Even the most noteworthy 
 of these — the investigation carried on by Professor 
 C. R. Mann, a comparative study of the University 
 of Pittsburgh and the Carnegie Institute of Tech- 
 nology — came to naught. 
 
 In the report which Professor Mann made, par- 
 
WIDER APPLICATION OF UNIT PLAN 77 
 
 ticular emphasis was placed upon wasteful duplica- 
 tion. And since the situation is, in reality, general 
 rather than local, it seems advisable to quote a few 
 paragraphs from the *'Mann Report" as revised 
 May, 1915: — 
 
 A study of the lists of subjects of instruction at the two 
 institutions shows that the most serious dupHcation of 
 work at present occurs in the more advanced courses in 
 the engineering schools. Here both institutions give work 
 in highly technical subjects to relatively few students. 
 
 It is, however, evident that there is soon going to be 
 serious duplication in the teachers' courses in manual arts 
 and domestic arts. Both institutions are now engaged 
 in building up very similar courses in these subjects. 
 Both are also developing teachers' courses in fine arts and 
 music. ^ 
 
 And again on a later page : — 
 
 That there is considerable wasteful duplication at pres- 
 ent is shown by the fact that at the University last fall, 
 out of 66 courses being given in the engineering school 
 31 had less than 10 students each. At the Institute 
 this year there are 18 classes out of 186 with less than 10 
 students each, and 32 more with less than 15 students 
 each.^ 
 
 And Professor Mann concludes : — 
 
 The considerations thus far presented show clearly that 
 at present there is wasteful duplication of work in the last 
 three years of the engineering courses. These fields of 
 instruction now offer opportunities for useful cooperative 
 effort. 
 
 » Mann Report, 1015, p. 8. « Ihid., p. 17. 
 
78 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 Both institutions are now trying to develop teachers' 
 training courses in fine and manual arts, domestic arts, 
 music, dressmaking, and the like. 
 
 At present the University has a department of educa- 
 tion for this purpose, but very inadequate equipment and 
 facilities for practical work. The Institute, on the other 
 hand, has splendid equipment for practical work in these 
 subjects, but lacks a well-coordinated department of 
 education. Cooperation in these fields would therefore 
 seem to be particularly desirable before further waste- 
 ful duplication begins. Neither school has any practice 
 school of its own, but both give prospective teachers ex- 
 perience in the public schools of the vicinity. Under these 
 conditions it is diflficult to see how either school can make 
 any very serious contribution to the solution of the press- 
 ing problems of industrial education. . . . ^ 
 
 If the Institute and the University could, by friendly 
 consultation, bring their work in this field of activity into 
 helpful coordination, not only would it result in the imme- 
 diate strengthening of both and of the city school system, 
 but also Pittsburgh would soon become a center of edu- 
 cational investigation and enlightenment second to none 
 in this country.2 
 
 Painstaking as was Professor Mann's study, and 
 clearly set forth as were the evils in the few para- 
 graphs which we have quoted, little or no adjustment 
 or reconstruction resulted. And the two preceding 
 volumes of the report of the survey of the University 
 of Pittsburgh furnish ample proof that the waste 
 and duplication still go on at this later time. And 
 this condition is true in any number of other com- 
 
 » Mann Report, 1915, p. 18. « Ibid., pp. 20, 21. 
 
WIDER APPLICATION OF UNIT PLAN 79 
 
 munities in America and testifies to the need for 
 the fullest application of the unit plan. 
 
 In fact, the application of the principle of a unit of 
 equipment for a unit of population which has been 
 herein promulgated, if made consistently to the edu- 
 cational system, is applicable to all institutions 
 which have to do with the provision of education for 
 the individuals of any community in the Nation. 
 Furthermore, so great are the potentialities in the 
 idea that the same principle will apply in the solu- 
 tion of all problems which concern themselves with 
 human welfare, since welfare itself is dependent 
 largely upon the spreading of knowledge and the in- 
 creasing of the capacity of the race to understand 
 how living conditions and all factors which make 
 for the bettering of community health are conjoined 
 with the general development of the human mind. 
 Especially is this principle applicable where a pater- 
 nalism must be exercised by the State in protecting 
 individuals against their own ignorance and against 
 the mistakes and invasions of their neighbors. 
 
 A specific application of this in the field of pub- 
 lic health will perhaps more clearly explain what is 
 meant. 
 
 There are a number of maladies more or less gen- 
 erally affecting the human race. These vary some- 
 what with regions, size of community, poverty, and 
 state of civilization of the district. It may be that 
 
80 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 the whole group of infectious diseases, — common 
 colds, bronchitis, measles, mumps, scarlet fever, 
 whooping-cough, — the social diseases, — syphilis 
 and gonorrhea, — and other parasitic diseases, such 
 as tuberculosis and pneumonia, are common mala- 
 dies of the human family and necessitate attempts 
 for uniform care, inspection, and provision by a 
 government actuated largely by the spirit of pater- 
 nalism. The same provision is necessary also in deal- 
 ing with such biological problems as infant feeding 
 and maternity, care of the teeth and the eyes and 
 various physical defects. Responsibility for the care 
 of these has, in the past, been assumed, as a rule, 
 largely by voluntary organizations and has been 
 accepted by the Government only in a more or less 
 perfunctory way, drastically or leniently, according 
 to the character of the administration, with little 
 thought given to the equipment necessary. 
 
 The great evil in our system at present is unques- 
 tionably the maladaptation of the equipment to the 
 demands. The equipment has no elasticity and in no 
 satisfactory way meets the existing conditions. We 
 believe that in all these problems the application of 
 the law of a unit equipment for a unit of population 
 would dissipate most of the trials of modern govern- 
 ment. Especially would this be true, if a degree of 
 local autonomy were allowed the unit in the utiliza- 
 tion of its equipment. For instance, with the dis- 
 
WIDER APPLICATION OF UNIT PLAN 81 
 
 appearance of one malady, the equipment for that 
 might readily be used to supply any new demand 
 which might make its appearance. At present it is 
 not uncommon to see institutions struggling to keep 
 their heads above water long after the specific thing 
 for which they were created has ceased to require 
 their services. In one large city a beautiful smallpox 
 hospital lay idle without occupants because the de- 
 mand for the place for smallpox patients had, as a 
 result of preventive measures, ceased to exist. At the 
 same time there was the most pressing demand for 
 the buildings to house far advanced consumptives. 
 However, because the money which paid for the 
 erection of the hospital had been demanded for a 
 specific purpose, three years were required to impress 
 a stupid city government with the necessity for using 
 the smallpox hospital equipment for tuberculosis. 
 
 It is quite conceivable that the equipment for all 
 public service in connection with these infectious 
 diseases may, in the future, be closely associated with 
 and may be a part of the common-school equipment 
 for a given unit of population. The inauguration of 
 school physicians and school nurses, school provision 
 for food, bathing, and inspection of teeth, all point to 
 a future amalgamation of these two important equip- 
 ments. And, indeed, where the application of the 
 principle has become most significant in its opera- 
 tion it seems but a step to the complete aijialgama- 
 
82 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 tion of the service for family supervision and school 
 management. The smaller detail of provision of 
 physical equipment for the handling of this service 
 is a matter only of secondary consideration, since it 
 entails only the expenditure of moneys. Were this 
 amalgamation brought about, the necessity for more 
 than one statistical study of the district would be 
 obviated. WTiere child life and family sickness are 
 so intimately associated with such supervision as 
 occurs in school life, the necessity for such an amal- 
 gamation, aside from being the likely result, at times 
 presents itself as so pressing a demand that one 
 wonders why it has not before this become a uni- 
 versal expression of the intelligence of the Govern- 
 ment. If we were to apply the unit principle to all 
 matters of public health and welfare, we should pro- 
 vide, on exactly the same basis as we supply to-day 
 our common school for the universal education of 
 the children of the unit of population, an elastic or- 
 ganization which would provide efficiently and uni- 
 formly for the care of a given group of people 
 
 Perhaps the smallest unit of population in the 
 whole unit system would be formed for the purpose 
 of caring for such maladies as have been mentioned 
 above. The plan would necessitate the securing of 
 complete and efficient knowledge of every household 
 and room and their human contents throughout the 
 region over which supervision was exercised. This 
 
WIDER APPLICATION OF UNIT PLAN 83 
 
 unit would conceivably correspond in size more or 
 less to the common-school unit of the present time, 
 and as in those units, so in the case of public health 
 units also, there would exist a necessity for correla- 
 tion into larger and larger units for universal de- 
 mands. 
 
 Pursuing the thought a bit farther, we come to the 
 more or less rarer demands in the way of human sick- 
 ness. For example, cancer, chronic cardiac, arterial, 
 and nephritic diseases, various operative procedures 
 in the field of abdominal and pelvic surgery would 
 naturally require sparsely distributed equipment to 
 provide for them. It is conceivable that the equip- 
 ment might correspond to the high-school grouping. 
 And the still rarer demands which may be exempli- 
 fied by nutritional and metabolic disturbances and 
 rarer operative procedures might be fittingly pro- 
 vided for by an equipment analogous to our colleges 
 and universities. 
 
 Furthermore, wherever we touch the problem of 
 human welfare, we find that it is becoming naturally 
 more and more intimately associated with the edu- 
 cational and research activities of the community 
 and must, if we read the tendencies of modern times 
 aright, be a part of the general equipment necessary 
 for the protection and evolution of the human race. 
 Therefore, as part of the equipment provided for 
 this field of public welfare, there would be, first of all. 
 
84 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 a research institution maintained by the general 
 funds. To this could be entrusted the task of discov- 
 ering new knowledge. 
 
 While this principle is just as applicable to health 
 as it is to education, it is equally applicable to char- 
 ity, housing, family instruction, food inspection, and 
 many other endeavors for human betterment which 
 are struggling for expression in local, State, and na- 
 tional organizations. In short, we believe that the 
 plan, if applied, would prove to be the strongest 
 agent yet discovered for fitting communities to take 
 their place in national and international relation- 
 ships. 
 
 In conclusion, it must be said also that while a 
 number of local applications have been made in vari- 
 ous communities, the principle cannot be applied 
 on a very wide scale until it becomes a part of the 
 governmental control of communities. Such an ex- 
 periment, as has been outlined in the "First Survey 
 Report of the Dispensary Aid Society of the Tuber- 
 culosis League of Pittsburgh, — an Intensive Study 
 of Eight City Squares,*' published in 1916, gives 
 ample proof of this. Care must be taken also, 
 
 AS HAS NOT ALWAYS BEEN DONE IN THE PAST, TO 
 MAKE SURE FIRST OF ALL THAT THE UNIT TO BE 
 HANDLED BY A GIVEN AMOUNT OF EQUIPMENT IS 
 NOT TOO LARGE. WhERE UNIT EXPERIMENTS IN 
 PUBLIC HEALTH HAVE FAILED OR ARE FAILING, THE 
 
WIDER APPLICATION OF UNIT FLAN 85 
 
 CAUSE FOR FAILURE IS TO BE POUND IN THIS, THAT 
 THE UNIT CHOSEN TO BE SERVED BY THE GIVEN 
 EQUIPMENT IS NOT SMALL ENOUGH. The whole 
 
 matter, furthermore, is a principle inherent in the 
 broader principle of municipal autonomy. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 CORRELATION — THE UNIVERSITY UNIT, ITS 
 STRUCTURE AND GOVERNANCE 
 
 In attempting to suggest the practicability of a wide 
 application of the unit principle to fields which are 
 not primarily the concern of this study, we have 
 traveled a little aside from our main course. In 
 pointing out that, having arrived by an analysis of 
 ultimates at the knowledge upon which to build a 
 unit of equipment for a unit of population, it would 
 become necessary to proceed to the correlation of 
 smaller units into units of larger and larger size, we 
 have overleaped an important step in that course. 
 Therefore, it now becomes necessary for us to return 
 to our special field and to consider this omitted step. 
 Especially is this necessary because the means in large 
 measure determine the method, and before we can 
 proceed to argue methods of correlation, we must 
 carefully determine the agent to be employed, or, 
 in other words, before discussing methods we must 
 ascertain where the analysis of ultimates, in any 
 large community which undertakes to rebuild its 
 powerful educational system, should begin. 
 
 As has been pointed out, the ultimates of com- 
 munities differ materially as do the communities 
 
CORRELATION 87 
 
 themselves differ in their bents. These variances, 
 and the fact that furthermore the larger communi- 
 ties differ in their composite mental attitudes toward 
 various subjects which are proposed to them, com- 
 plicate the task of choosing the proper agent. In 
 a later chapter the suggestion is made that a Muni- 
 cipal Foundation for the Study and Advancement of 
 Community Education would be the fitting gover- 
 nor of the agent chosen. And also because of the 
 educational nature of the task which the agent must 
 perform, it would seem wise to suggest also that the 
 agent itself should, in most cases, be the university, 
 and that the foundation should find residence within 
 the institution. This arrangement would seem most 
 practicable because of the fact that within the univer- 
 sity the most complex ultimates are dealt with, and 
 also because of the position which the university 
 theoretically, if unfortunately not in fact, occupies. 
 It is fair to conclude that if a university possessed 
 a clean-cut conception of its function and took for 
 its object the increasing of the sum total of human 
 happiness of all members in its contributory com- 
 munity, and attempted under systematic leadership 
 only those things which pointed directly to future 
 betterment, preceding such attempts always by 
 cautious education following a most painstaking 
 analysis of ultimates, the community itself would in 
 time become the most perfect building unit not only 
 
88 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 of the future nation, but of a possible future inter- 
 national world. 
 
 While it is thus conceivable that the university 
 might be the agent in one community, it is also pos- 
 sible that in another the city government might be 
 best fitted to act in such a capacity, so greatly do 
 groups for service in different communities vary 
 because of the conception, outlook, and vision of 
 those in leadership at different times. In other 
 communities such an organization as the Chamber 
 of Commerce or one or another of the various social 
 organizations might be chosen as the agent of the 
 foundation. Regardless of residence, however, were 
 our agent to undertake the task of analysis partition- 
 •ment and correlation, the beginning must, perforce, 
 be an educational one. As time went on, the insti- 
 tution performing such a service might find it ad- 
 vantageous to turn over the function, which tem- 
 porarily it had assumed, to the Federal Government 
 or to the government of the community or commu- 
 nities which it purposed to serve. Whatever organi- 
 zation were selected for such a task capacity for 
 leadership would, however, inevitably be a determin- 
 ing factor. The assumption of educational repon- 
 sibility by any one group at any given time in the 
 past has adequately demonstrated this. Eventually 
 this function suggested might reside in that body 
 which has the autonomic power in any given region. 
 
CORRELATION 89 
 
 and this power would, of course, be delegated in 
 its fullest application to those smaller and smaller 
 communities forming larger and larger aggrega- 
 tions. 
 
 For present purposes, no matter which organiza- 
 tion undertook the task here outlined, the prin- 
 ciple would be found to work through the larger 
 and larger correlations for cooperative purposes 
 until the division of the nation into a number of 
 units would be reached. If again the university be 
 chosen as. the agent, these divisions might fittingly 
 be termed "University Units." It is conceivable 
 that perhaps our largest educational unit would be 
 the university unit so named. Applying this univer- 
 sity unit plan to the nation, we would then have the 
 United States finally composed of a given number of 
 university units adequate in number and equipment 
 to meet the demands of its population. The bound- 
 aries of these units would not be confined by any 
 present municipal or State lines, for upon each uni- 
 versity unit there would be a special demand which 
 would determine in large part the special character 
 of the institution. Each university unit would have 
 as its basis in the final analysis a group of building 
 units of population provided with an equipment 
 sufficient to meet the universal demands. The bent 
 of the community also, since it in a large measure 
 determines the demands or the ultimates, would 
 
90 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 also determine the character of the members of the 
 educational system operating within the unit. 
 
 The character of the entire educational system 
 would receive a certain bent. Not only this, but def- 
 inite bents which might not be generally applicable 
 to the whole system might be given to individual 
 departments. For example, tropical diseases might 
 furnish opportunities and might shape the bent of 
 medical departments in southern universities, but 
 would have no determining influence upon the bents 
 of university units located in other climates. 
 
 Confining our discussion to the problem of corre- 
 lation in a single university unit, we begin with the 
 consideration of a unit equipment for educational 
 purposes. Each university unit would have as its 
 foundation first of all an equipment adequate for 
 the provision of primary education necessary to sup- 
 ply fully the unit of population contained therein. 
 Each unit, which at the present time may be cur- 
 tailed by existing municipal, county, or State lines, 
 would eventually disregard any such arbitrary divi- 
 sions in order that uniform provision for the entire 
 population might be accomplished. Each of these 
 smaller units would have as its duty, in common 
 with the larger units with which it was correlated, 
 the attainment of prescribed standards below which 
 it might not fall. < . 
 
 In Chapter VII, it will be remembered that we 
 
CORRELATION 91 
 
 have already pointed out that one requirement 
 which would be immediately placed upon the pri- 
 mordial unit of population would be that it must 
 measure up to a certain standard designated for all 
 communities. But it must also be borne in mind 
 that this standard would vary as the progress of 
 knowledge in the State of which the unit was a part 
 prescribed. This prescription by the State has come 
 in modern times to be a prerequisite for an edu- 
 cational system, be that system correlated or dis- 
 sociated, and inasmuch as the success of the unit 
 plan would in large measure depend upon the 
 amount of correlation obtained, the establishment 
 of such a prescription and the filling of the same 
 would become necessary to the full application of 
 the principle itself. In other words, it would be 
 necessary for the State to determine a minimum 
 standard below which no educational institution 
 might fall. The degree of efficiency and progress 
 above this elemental standard of State prescription 
 which each smaller unit might attain would largely 
 be determined by its unit of equipment or the 
 amount of autonomy granted. Progress would be 
 marked from time to time by the gradual raising 
 of standards set. 
 
 In the future as in the past raising of standards 
 would be based upon the progress exhibited by the 
 best communities. We have already seen that the 
 
92 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 progressive community which resulted from the es- 
 tablishment in the town of Gary of an individual- 
 ized plan of education has already caused States and 
 communities to modify their standards in accord- 
 ance with the knowledge gained by this experiment 
 in an Indiana town. The model school experiment 
 actively under way at the present time in Teachers 
 College at Columbia University under the auspices 
 of the Rockefeller Foundation, if it should prove 
 successful, would facilitate still further changes in 
 standards, all of which would mark a point below 
 which no community in the future might fall. And 
 so we progress. As each community attained the 
 prescribed standard it would be necessary to begin 
 the application of autonomic privileges, the reckon- 
 ing with the influence of community bent and the 
 assumption of responsibility in the given area to 
 pursue in the best way the educational methods 
 best adapted to the population resident therein. 
 
 Having secured local autonomy in the matter of 
 primary education it would become necessary next 
 to approach the more diflScult problem of bringing 
 together individual units to form the first correla- 
 tion for secondary educational privileges and attain- 
 ments. By virtue of the State or Federal law under 
 which autonomy the primary building units would 
 operate, there would of necessity be what has been 
 referred to a number of times in the foregoing pages, 
 
CORRELATION 93 
 
 a careful analysis of the population to be served 
 by each educational unit and the provision of some 
 central office in the foundation to which the results 
 of such an analysis might be sent. 
 
 A tabulation of these various analyses would form 
 the first basis upon which our given units might 
 jointly operate. Those units would first of all be 
 correlated for communal secondary education whose 
 demands and bents showed the more striking re- 
 semblances. The building equipment would be de- 
 termined largely by the demands of those seeking 
 correlation. In the same way, by bringing together 
 a number of secondary-school units, the various 
 secondary-school regions would be correlated for 
 higher education, and so on until provision had been 
 made for the demands of the entire population 
 within the university unit — i.e., for all who leave 
 the educational system at different points, not 
 merely for that percentage of the population which 
 finally makes its way into the halls of the university 
 itself. Those leaving the system at any low point 
 would be prepared for the function which they had 
 chosen to fulfill. Those reaching higher parts in the 
 system would be drafted into them by a careful 
 study and tabulation of the demands in the entire 
 community. Furthering this correlation, we suggest 
 in later chapters a delineation of courses and de- 
 partmentalization . 
 
94 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 Were a nation divided into university units, the 
 government would early become a problem for con- 
 sideration, for government as well as structure is a 
 factor in correlation. Our national experiment in 
 democracy has taught us the necessity for providing 
 an impartial supreme judicial body forming a tri- 
 bunal before which vexatious partisan difficulties 
 may be tried and adjusted. And there is no reason 
 to be skeptical concerning the beneficial influence 
 which such a body might exert were one formed at 
 the apex of our educational structure. In fact, we 
 believe that the whole educational system for a 
 given university unit should have above its admin- 
 istrative machinery such a body, corresponding in 
 many characteristics to the supreme bench of our 
 judiciary, before which arguments concerning ques- 
 tions arising between administrative pronouncement 
 and individual community rights might be presented. 
 Such a protective body has always been the safe- 
 guard of democracy, and it is reasonable to suppose 
 that such a protective body might equally safeguard 
 the higher educational interests of communities. 
 
 The function which such a body would perform 
 has been filled at times in the past by trustees of 
 universities, but, alas, more often than not boards of 
 trustees have functioned not as courts of justice, but 
 as committees of interference, upholding injustice 
 and autocratic power. A supreme court such as is 
 
CORRELATION 95 
 
 here proposed, it must be clearly understood, would 
 have no administrative function whatever in con- 
 nection with the university or with the university 
 unit. It would merely be, to repeat, a supreme jury 
 before which arguments for justice might be pre- 
 sented and by which the evil of autocracy — per- 
 haps the greatest in modern university life, forbid- 
 ding as it does redress both for students and for 
 faculty — might be prevented. 
 
 The members of this body should be appointed for 
 a definite period of time. A seven-year tenure of 
 office with the impossibility of self-succession would 
 more nearly approach the successful expression of 
 man's judgment in this matter than either life ten- 
 ure or a shorter period with the possibility of self- 
 succession. The present traditional assumption by 
 college and university presidents that their tenure of 
 office extends for life, or until such a time as they 
 may be able to retire as beneficiaries of the Car- 
 negie Foundation, is an additional influence work- 
 ing against satisfactory progress. One might be un- 
 usually successful in the fulfillment of his office as a 
 member of a supreme judicial body, but if this were 
 the case, other opportunities would be open to pro- 
 vide for the expression of such usefulness after the 
 member's period of service had expired by periodical 
 termination of tenure. Only by such methods could 
 the judicial body be safeguarded against senility 
 
96 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 and that scarcely less degrading evil, degeneration, 
 the natural and inevitable resultant of inbreeding. 
 
 The .members of this supreme court of education 
 might be appointed by the active administrative 
 body of the university unit immediately below it in 
 grade. This matter of appointment, however, will 
 become clearer as the plan for the municipal founda- 
 tion is unfolded. This additional fact is evident, that 
 the judicial organization should be composed of not 
 more than seven members, two retiring at the end 
 of two years, two retiring at the end of four years, 
 and three retiring at the end of six years, and so on 
 thereafter. This method of retirement would pre- 
 clude the possibility of packing the court and would 
 retain it as a definite supreme body which would 
 have, in common with all supreme judiciaries, justice 
 as its stay. 
 
 The determination of an administrative body for 
 the university unit would be the next object for con- 
 sideration. And this process would undeniably be 
 fraught with extreme perils. Here, for guidance, let 
 us recur again to our analysis and ask frankly. What 
 groups have the right to representation in the gov- 
 ernment of a university unit? Here again also we 
 must recall that of all places for the exercise of 
 democracy, since education is a prerequisite for suc- 
 cessful democracy, a university unit of population 
 must be the place most fitted for the experiment. 
 
CORRELATION 97 
 
 Theoretically the laws of democracy ordain that 
 all the population may participate in sovereignty; 
 that all those affected by, living under, and sharing 
 in the benefits of, this form of government shall be 
 entitled, through representation, to participation in 
 the councils of government. Clearly, then, democ- 
 racy applied to the educational system would order 
 that all those affected by the system are entitled to 
 some representation in the democratic educational 
 councils. And the bodies so affected are, of course, 
 first of all the students under instruction in a given 
 university unit, second, the faculty offering instruc- 
 tion within the same division, and third, the parents 
 of the children. 
 
 We are at once faced with the truth that the stu- 
 dent body of a university unit merits consideration. 
 A student's right to representation is unquestion- 
 ably based upon two facts : first, that he is the party 
 most concerned, and second, that he is a member of 
 the majority. The student body has a right to con- 
 sideration, not alone because it constitutes the larg- 
 est single group within the walls of the university, 
 but because of the fact that the university unit itself 
 was constructed for its instruction. It would be im- 
 possible for any one to-day to say just what power 
 of representation should be given to this mass. This 
 fact, however, is evident, that student power, stim- 
 ulated by experiences gained through lower insti- 
 
98 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 tutions through which the students have passed, 
 has been growing apace and the right of students to 
 representation is becoming more and more apparent. 
 It may be even true that the day is near at hand 
 when the admission to the councils or government 
 in our educational system must be granted frankly 
 and freely to chosen representatives of the student 
 body. Nor is the admission of such representa- 
 tives fraught with any particular danger. Maturity 
 determines the right of franchise in other human 
 affairs. Maturity may not be a just basis for division 
 in educational affairs, but maturity has equal rights. 
 Nor is it at all certain that rights of representation 
 do not exist among those not yet arrived at matu- 
 rity. At best this problem is a complicated one 
 which only time and study can satisfactorily resolve. 
 
 Evident as are the rights of the members of the 
 student body to some representation in administra- 
 tive educational circles, even more clear are the 
 rights of the members of the faculty to representa- 
 tion. 
 
 President Schurman, of Cornell University, suc- 
 cinctly indicated this right and advocated the idea 
 of professional participation in government and con- 
 trol of the universities when he said : — 
 
 What is needed in American universities to-day is a 
 new application of the principle of representative govern- 
 ment. The faculty is essentially the university; yet in 
 
CORRELATION 99 
 
 the governing boards of American universities the faculty 
 is without representation. The only ultimately satis- 
 factory solution of the problem of the government of 
 American universities is the concession to the professori- 
 ate of representation in the board of trustees or regents, 
 and these representatives of the intellectual, which is the 
 real life of the University, must not be mere ornamental 
 figures; they should be granted an active share in the 
 routine administration of the institution.^ 
 
 As long ago as 1912 this recommendation was 
 made that Cornell should lead the way in the 
 further democratization of American universities. 
 And last year witnessed the election of three mem- 
 bers of the faculty of the Ithaca institution to the 
 board of trustees. In fact so much progress has been 
 made recently in the securing of faculty rights, and 
 so much momentum has been given to the successful 
 furthering of the campaign by this action of Cornell, 
 that we need only mention the conflict in passing. 
 Faculties have within their hands at the present 
 time, in many of the better informed institutions, 
 much that they have been struggling to secure, and 
 the need for more adequate faculty representation 
 on higher councils is increasingly gaining recogni- 
 tion. 
 
 The rights of the parents, who are also the tax- 
 payers in the community, to representation in 
 
 > The PresidenVs Report, 1915-1916. Cornell University Publications, 
 vol. VII, no. 17, p. C. (Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.) 
 
100 A NEW BASTS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 higlior councils luivc not, np to tlic present time, been 
 largely agitated. '^Flieir rights liave, to a cerlnin ex- 
 tent, been neglecled because of tlieir own failure to 
 insist upon any marked representation. In the mass 
 iliey are naturally not conversant with eillier the de- 
 tails of the system or the ])rol)lems which must be 
 solved. Present tendencies, liowever, indicate that 
 the day of the domination of the ])rofessional educa- 
 tor over the practitioner in fields of education is pass- 
 inj^. If the si^ns be read arif^ht, it is only a matter 
 of time before there will come a recognition on a 
 wide scale that the practitioners themselves are best 
 fitted to say what should be served up as education. 
 Not nnich longer may the theorists arbitrarily or- 
 dain that the practitioner nuist take this or that 
 or the olluM' dose. And as this conception of the 
 vital ri^hls of the practilioner grows, there will 
 come an increasing demand that the general public 
 of taxpayers, composed as it is of practitioners, is 
 entitled to important voice in the adnnnist ration of 
 the educational system. While this is certain, it is 
 also true in regard to the taxpaying ])ublic of prac- 
 titioners that the larger that public the more unable 
 it is as a body to administer, and it must trust for 
 actual administrative guidance to elected repre- 
 sentatives who are inlimalely associated with the 
 control of problems. Probably in its actual adminis- 
 tration the most just representation would be in the 
 
CORRETATION 101 
 
 nature of a proportion of the administrative body 
 which would return to tlie taxpayers tfiemselves the 
 information lielpful in the formation of their better 
 judgment. When the time arrives tfiat the voiee of 
 the practitioner is heard and heedec] to the extent of 
 sliapinf^ formal ecJucation to meet the demands, the 
 shaping of the system in itself will afford ample 
 justice to this long unrepresented body. 
 
 In dealing with the university itself, which forms 
 but a part of the proposed future ecJucational unit, 
 another group, which, in the past, has been most in- 
 fluential, must be reckoned with. We n^fer here to 
 that group which has previously received its educa- 
 tional training in the institutions of fiigher learning. 
 This body, now known as the alumni, is scarcely en- 
 titled to the un})ounded privileges which it now en- 
 joys. Th(^se privileges were born of the necessity for 
 saf(^guarding the interests of American colleges and 
 universities against the uneducated mass at a time 
 when education was not so widespread as it is at 
 present. Privileges of sovereignty were also the re- 
 wards for pecuniary assistance. So universally has 
 this been the case that it is small wonder that 
 alumni have come to look upon such sovereignty 
 n^muneration for monetary aid as an almost inalien- 
 able right. Nothing could be farthc^r from justice 
 than this. To-day the individual who gives is alone 
 favored by the privileges of giving. The recipient, 
 
102 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 by acceptance, honors rather than Is honored. Edu- 
 cation also has become more diffused and the masses 
 no longer constitute a menace to the welfare of edu- 
 cational institutions. Alumni domination based 
 upon protection afforded is no longer either neces- 
 sary or equitable since the necessity for protection 
 has been removed. In fact, it is even a moot ques- 
 tion if universities have not lost more than they 
 have gained by the security afforded. Certainly the 
 benefits have been doubtful ones. Under our present 
 system alumni control is a menace, and were the 
 unit plan adopted, alumni would be entitled to no 
 more representation in educational councils than 
 would any other members of the community. They 
 are, in reality, but a part of the greater public which 
 a university must serve. 
 
 The position of the university in the proposed 
 system would raise still another question necessi- 
 tating the further application of the principles of 
 democracy. For a university under the unit plan 
 would as now require a head, a president, or a chan- 
 cellor, as the case might be. In the past the selection 
 of this officer has been made by boards of trustees in 
 consultation with the alumni representatives of the 
 institution. It would seem, however, that the leader 
 of a university might properly and safely be elected 
 by heads of departments; not by heads of depart- 
 ments as departments exist at the present time. 
 
CORRELATION 103 
 
 but rather by heads of departments as departments 
 would exist if the whole educational system were 
 departmentalized in accordance with the highest 
 ideals of community education. A proposed plan of 
 departmentalization, which will be presented in a 
 later chapter of this volume, will clarify this method 
 of election by heads of departments. 
 
CILVrTER X 
 
 THE IVrXTNiriPAL FOUNDATION FOR THE STUDY 
 AND ADVANCEMENT OF COMMUNITY EDUCATION 
 
 TTNQUESTioNABiiY the proper agent to further the 
 cause of education by systematic analysis and re- 
 or»]janization of the edueaiional system wouUl be the 
 Feth^al Government. History lias, however, taught 
 that only as a project proves feasible is it accepted 
 and made the recipient of Govermnent patronage. 
 The Government, even if it would accept the task, 
 has been, l)ecause of the rights of States, largely de- 
 prived of its right of initiative in such matters. In- 
 dividual States, existing l)efore the Uuion, have, in 
 the matter of education, retained jurisdiction within 
 their own borders. The inaugurations of projects, 
 more or less experimental in nature, especially in the 
 field of public education, have therefore not been a 
 part of Government practice. In lieu, then, of the 
 proper agent, in order to carry out such a plan as is 
 suggested in this volume, it would become necessary 
 to turn to other quarters and to depend upon volun- 
 tary rather than upon governmental aid. 
 
 Because of possibly justifiable conservatism on 
 the part of the Government, the most feasible way 
 
THE MUNICIPAL FOUNDATION 105 
 
 of making a beginning at systematic reconstruction 
 would be through a competent, voluntary group of 
 men who would have, in addition to their apprecia- 
 tion of the significance of the task undertaken, the 
 funds with which to carry the project to fruition. 
 Such a group assuming such a trusteeship we have 
 chosen to name a Municipal Foundation for the 
 Study and Advancement of Community Education. 
 
 Thus far the suggestion is scarcely a novel one. 
 Precedent is not lacking both for individuals and 
 for groups. The Rockefeller Foundation, the Sage 
 Foundation, and the Carnegie Foundation all stand 
 as examples of monumental, individual, voluntary 
 acceptance of composite social responsibilities, and 
 the Cleveland Foundation for the Administration of 
 Charity is an excellent example of group acceptance 
 of the responsibility to further the interestsand 
 welfare of community life. 
 
 Meritorious as has been the work of these large 
 foundations in the field of general education, a care- 
 ful scrutiny of the publications describing their ac- 
 tivities has led to the conclusion that in all of them 
 vital weaknesses exist. They have endeavored and 
 are still endeavoring to operate on a national scale, 
 and although few years have passed since their in- 
 ception, so varied are the peculiarities which have 
 to be reckoned with, and the demands which have to 
 be provided for, in the vast number of communities 
 
106 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 composing this Nation, that they have already 
 become overburdened to such an extent that not 
 even their enormous wealth of resources enables 
 them more than to scratch the surface. However, 
 this additional fact is, we believe, true, that the 
 principle involved in the establishment of a foun- 
 dation, were it applied in such a way as to make 
 the task to be fulfilled bear a direct relation to the 
 funds and equipment available for that task, would 
 probably furnish the key to the secret of successful 
 accomplishment in chosen fields of endeavor. 
 
 Perhaps the vital contribution of foundations up 
 to the present time has been the introduction into 
 the educational field of the idea of experimentation 
 and the suggestion that progress in this most im- 
 portant realm of human endeavor is not impossible. 
 The most recent of foundation experiments, the new 
 model school founded by the Rockefeller Founda- 
 tion in Teachers College, Columbia University, has 
 already been mentioned in these pages. This experi- 
 ment, in common with many others, however, if one 
 may judge by the published material available at the 
 present time, contains great elements of weakness. 
 The two most significant of such would seem to be, 
 first, the lack of a control experiment, and, second, 
 the lack of carefully analyzed needs demanding ful- 
 fillment. A prerequisite for all experimentation in 
 laboratory work to-day is a control experiment. This 
 
THE MUNICIPAL FOUNDATION 107 
 
 is as essential as the experiment itself. This model 
 school experiment in the midst of a large community 
 such as New York, drafting its pupils from wide 
 areas, assembling them from all members of all com- 
 munities of widely varying bents, yet made without 
 reference to community life, may be largely invali- 
 dated by its susceptibility to criticisms which might 
 have been avoided if the simple principle of unit 
 autonomy, a unit of equipment for a unit of popu- 
 lation, were applied in the beginning. 
 
 The foundation which we would suggest, there- 
 fore, would be not a national one, but a municipal 
 one; that is, a group of men who would voluntarily 
 undertake the task of analyzing the demands or the 
 ultimates of a given community, gathering knowl- 
 edge as a preliminary to the establishment of a firm 
 foundation upon which to reconstruct the educa- 
 tional system. That is, we believe that the applica- 
 tion of the foundation idea to a community is in it- 
 self a suggestion worthy of immediate consideration. 
 In other words, we believe that the formation within 
 a community of a voluntary group who would under- 
 take the financing of the gross analysis of the ulti- 
 mates of the community in which the foundation 
 existed, and who would month after month and year 
 after year furnish the community with knowledge 
 upon which its educational system could be fittingly 
 remodeled, and who would consider all existing in- 
 
108 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 stitutions and the functions which they could best 
 perform for the community, and the final gross cor- 
 relation of all offices which in the large exist only for 
 the community which they serve and of which they 
 are a part, would mark the beginning of a new and 
 happier community existence. 
 
 Inasmuch as the most difficult problems which 
 would be presented to such an investigating body are 
 those which involve the products of the higher edu- 
 cational institutions in the community, the most 
 fitting place for the municipal foundation to begin 
 its work would be within a university. If the uni- 
 versity in any community were not fitted to receive 
 the foundation as an intramural correlating agency, 
 the first task of the foundation would be to exert all 
 its efforts to raise the university to a high plane. 
 This, because it has been apparent throughout the 
 progress made in education that a most impor- 
 tant single factor has been the improvement and 
 demands of higher instructional institutions operat- 
 ing upon lower educational groups that have been 
 forced by necessity to meet the requirements im- 
 posed from above. Because of this it is safe to be- 
 lieve that if the foundation could begin by enhanc- 
 ing the post-graduate opportunities in a community, 
 the whole educational system would rise to meet 
 new and higher standards. And within the post- 
 graduate school the foundation could fittingly find 
 
THE MUNICIPAL FOUNDATION lOD 
 
 residence and there receive in its labors the aid of 
 all students who had pushed on to this advanced 
 part of the system. 
 
 We believe that it may be said without question 
 that, starting in those fields of higher learning that 
 have been attained by individual endeavor, the in- 
 vestigators would find the proper place by analysis 
 to push aside obstacles which exist in the lower ed- 
 ucational strata and tend there to produce that 
 stagnation born of satisfaction so inherent in the 
 mass of the human family. While we believe also 
 that our analysis of conditions has led us to what is 
 the rule, we do not believe that it is the invariable 
 rule, for many instances of progressive organization 
 and advancement have occurred in communities 
 where men have become interested chiefly in pri- 
 mary and secondary education. Investigation would 
 tend to show, however, that these are largely excep- 
 tions, and that as a more or less constant rule pri- 
 mary and secondary schools rise to meet require- 
 ments of higher educational institutions imposed 
 from above rather than for the impetus of any force 
 generated from within. 
 
 Wherever the foundation found its home, its duty 
 would be to bring the institution in which it has re- 
 sided into such a position as would favor its render- 
 ing trustworthy service to the community. And then 
 day by day thereafter to seek, on the sure foundation 
 
110 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 of analysis of ultimates, to improve weak parts of 
 the educational system and correlate groups having 
 affinity for each other, to make elastic the whole 
 educational system, and finally to evolve for the 
 community served by the institution — which com- 
 munity would in the long run be a national unit — 
 a system of education elastic enough to keep pace 
 with the progress of knowledge and sane enough to 
 retract when the demands for any given ultimate 
 disappeared. 
 
 The performance of the task of the foundation 
 would not be one in which any great rapidity could 
 be gained. Patience and continual education of the 
 community would be required. Moreover, progress 
 toward success would require that the publica- 
 tions of the foundation be so thorough as to in- 
 spire trust in the undertaking by gaining immediate 
 recognition of their meritoriousness and that those 
 in charge ever keep before themselves the ideal 
 of elasticity. Furthermore, a foundation would be 
 required to remember that as it enlarged its field of 
 endeavor, it would come in contact with, and im- 
 pinge upon, its neighboring units, and that in addi- 
 tion to its community service it had a function, con- 
 jointly with all other foundations, existing for higher 
 fields of achievement than those of local university 
 interests, and that all would be busy with the one 
 task of forming a nation which might in the future 
 
THE MUNICIPx^L FOUNDATION 111 
 
 take a dominant part in a possible international 
 society. 
 
 Naturally, just as every aggregation of men pro- 
 posing to supply a demand faces, as a primal neces- 
 sity, the choice of a manager for the task which it has 
 at hand, one of the first needs of a foundation having 
 such an aim would be a leader. After the leader has 
 been secured, however, if all were stimulated by the 
 same vision and if sympathy furnished the impetus 
 to every endeavor, all would work together to pro- 
 vide the best for each community in which the opera- 
 tion was to take place. Were this to happen, we be- 
 lieve that, despite the tremendous difficulties which 
 would of necessity be at first encountered, com- 
 mon sympathy and able leadership would insure 
 progress. 
 
 In regard to progress it may be said that revolu- 
 tion is probably not a requisite, although progress 
 may at times have resulted from it. Always, how- 
 ever, revolution has carried in its wake the sad 
 results of the travail of many who have become in- 
 volved in its toils. The eradication of certain false 
 prophets, who have gained power because of the 
 common ignorance of the demands of the commu- 
 nity, could, we believe, be accomplished by other 
 than revolutionary methods. The withdrawal of 
 such agents from the field would be an early neces- 
 sity, for all those working for selfish ends, and often- 
 
112 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 times for theoretical ends not based upon an analy- 
 sis of demands, ever place experiments under a dis- 
 advantage. 
 
 In the case of this proposal, as in the case of all 
 new plans, many may be skeptical and fearful be- 
 cause the ramifications can be but vaguely outlined. 
 Obscurities are ever deterrents. Yet in the present 
 case, since the lines of progress are clearly and defi- 
 nitely apparent to all who will take the time to start 
 upon the journey and pursue it to the end, we be- 
 lieve there is small cause for fearfulness. A daily 
 disclosure of the details at present obscure, a daily 
 reduction to order and system as they appear in 
 increasingly stronger light, would soon clear away 
 the clouds which, at first, seem impenetrable. Cer- 
 tainly the end to be attained would make the strug- 
 gle, no matter how difficult, increasingly of worth. 
 No greater contribution could be given to human- 
 ity than the exemplification of the truth that the 
 greatness of a nation, the goodness and equitability 
 of its government, and the provision for the people 
 who form the building unit are wholly bound up 
 with the educational system of the communities 
 which form the nation. And the first step in this 
 direction would be the acceptance of the task by 
 such a small group as has been suggested; a body 
 making their function and duty the gathering of 
 knowledge of community ultimates, and by the in- 
 
THE MUNICIPAL FOUNDATION 113 
 
 sight thus gained, to point the way to future recon- 
 struction. 
 
 At its inception such a body as the proposed 
 municipal foundation organization would need no 
 administrative power. Later, however, the wisdom 
 with which each foundation carried out its purpose 
 would ultimately determine the amount of author- 
 ity which could be safely granted to it. It is con- 
 ceivable that in time a foundation might exercise 
 the power at present vested in numerous boards of 
 trustees. Unquestionably that body of men with 
 whom resided the most careful analysis of demands 
 and facilities for any given unit of population would 
 form the safest repository for the entrusting of ap- 
 pointments to all institutions operating within the 
 district. To this board, if authority were in the 
 future granted it, there would be elected represen- 
 tatives of all the interests resulting from the de- 
 partmentalization of the system of education of the 
 whole university unit. Service rather than power, 
 however, should be the ideal for the group. The 
 immediate necessity would be the gathering of 
 knowledge for the given unit by analysis and tabu- 
 lation of results obtained, and the doing well of the 
 work which to-day is attempted in a small and per- 
 functory way by many scattered governmental and 
 voluntary agents, of making intensive studies of 
 units of population which are to be directly served. 
 
114 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 The history of the past is indicative of the fact 
 that the careful study of the small group is often 
 accepted and made a powerful influence in determin- 
 ing the policy for a larger aggregation of which the 
 group under study was but a part. A survey of the 
 attempts of the Federal Bureau of Education and of 
 the endeavors of the various large foundations re- 
 veals the fact that in each instance each of these 
 organizations is striving to determine definitely 
 general principles on the basis of small studies. 
 The report of the Commissioner of Education is in 
 essence an analysis of local studies. The reports of 
 the special foundations likewise exhibit a similar 
 attempt to project principles on similar bases. It 
 may be that the hour has not yet arrived for the 
 acceptance and acknowledgment that intensive 
 study of units of population, carefully analyzed and 
 tabulated, must be at the foundation of any future 
 proposal of universal education. However this may 
 be, we believe that that time will sooner or later 
 arrive. And when the hour is ripe, we believe that 
 the feasible method to employ would be to select 
 university units scattered over the United States 
 which could, in the first rough partitionment and 
 until a sulficient amount of knowledge were forth- 
 coming to guide in the application of the principle, 
 rest upon the basis of State lines as they at present 
 exist. We have already intimated that it is^quite 
 
THE MUNICIPAL FOUNDATION 115 
 
 within reason to suppose that Government patron- 
 age would ultimately follow the successful operation 
 by municipal agents of the unit plan. It is unlikely, 
 however, that Government acceptance of the opera- 
 tion in those communities where education has pro- 
 ceeded farthest would be immediately forthcoming. 
 Yet the probability of tardiness on the part of the 
 Government need not be a bar. The mere accept- 
 ance of the task would furnish an opportunity for 
 investment of wealth in securities bringing returns 
 more rapidly and in larger percentage than any 
 others at present in the world-markets. And with 
 the increasing success of the undertaking, assuredly 
 governmental recognition would come. 
 
 As has been suggested, existing institutions might 
 fittingly be left until a sufficient amount of knowl- 
 edge could be gathered. Existing boards of trustees, 
 faculty organizations, and subordinate institutions 
 might all carry on their work as at present until such 
 a time as the findings of the foundation should dis- 
 close a sufficient knowledge of the changes to be 
 made. Having allowed existing institutions tem- 
 porarily to continue in their way, it would be the 
 function for the foundation of the university unit to 
 keep the knowledge which it was accumulating con- 
 stantly before the inhabitants of the unit. If this 
 were carefully and wisely done, the future of the 
 given unit would be assured and the foundation 
 
116 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 might ultimately be entrusted with the final selec- 
 tion for the given period of years of all administra- 
 tive heads in the various educational organizations 
 which in any way furnished a supply for any of the 
 demands of the given area. 
 
 The charter under which such a foundation would 
 operate would prescribe the future composition of 
 this body. In the inception, it would only be neces- 
 sary for a group to accept voluntarily the responsi- 
 bility and seek incorporation for the purposes sug- 
 gested, outlining those in its charter. In no other way 
 could the act be accomplished, and the fulfillment 
 of its mission would be the assurance of the founda- 
 tion's perpetuity. And again, if its trust were care- 
 fully carried out, its power would be commensurate 
 with its wisdom. For as the populace of any given 
 university unit became more and more educated, 
 the members would scrutinize with increasing care 
 the endeavors of the foundation to fulfill its func- 
 tion and, with confidence in its wisdom, would add 
 to its authority. 
 
 The most feasible way to an immediate beginning 
 of such a project would be for one individual to ex- 
 hibit an ultimate of leadership sufficient to call about 
 him such a group, and to propose to them that they 
 accept temporarily as their duty the gathering of the 
 knowledge for the community in which they reside, 
 and that furthermore they accept the responsibility 
 
THE MUNICIPAL FOUNDATION 117 
 
 for the expense incurred by such a venture, and next 
 that they proceed to appoint a man and instruct him 
 to begin the analysis and tabulation. If the original 
 voluntary group were of authority and standing in 
 the community all existing data possessed by various 
 municipal organizations would be open to the agent 
 of the foundation at once. This group, as we have 
 said, might either become incorporated immediately 
 or exist for a time simply as a voluntary organiza- 
 tion requiring frequent reports of the progress of the 
 work, and as soon as these reports assured the success 
 of the endeavor, incorporation for a specific purpose 
 could be accomplished. A weekly and monthly evo- 
 lution of the duties and functions of such an organi- 
 zation would soon establish the wisest course along 
 which to proceed. 
 
 It would not be necessary in the beginning to in- 
 clude among the members of such a body any of the 
 existing administrative oflScers in the various insti- 
 tutions feeding the community. In fact, it would 
 seem inadvisable to make such an inclusion, for it 
 has often been demonstrated that actual admin- 
 istrators are incapable, as a rule, of seeing beyond 
 the influence which any given movement might 
 have upon the institution of which they are a part, 
 and few, indeed, are those who rise to the height of 
 considering the population as a whole, confined as 
 they are by the necessity of earning a livelihood, by 
 
118 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 existing entanglements and promises, and by the in- 
 vasion of authority even in the actual promulgation 
 of their own thoughts. All these factors and many 
 more prevent administrators from encompassing 
 generally any vision for the group. Too often great 
 projects are brought to an untimely end because of 
 the narrow and restricted personal views of members 
 who form the individual board. Too often also the 
 active agents of projects hold within themselves the 
 fatality of the proposal which they are asked to 
 accept. 
 
 Furthermore, if the death of an institution is to 
 be prevented, definite provision also must be made 
 in the beginning concerning tenure of office. Meri- 
 torious ends are often defeated by a long contract 
 and this should be guarded against. 
 
 As an additional safeguard, also, the members 
 of the foundation should insist that frequent state- 
 ments be furnished them by their agent; statements 
 similar to the tonnage sheets in our large businesses 
 illustrating the progress of the work. By this means 
 the foundation could not only gauge the growth of 
 the project which it was furthering, but also would 
 evaluate the fitness of their chosen agent to perform 
 his task. 
 
 An early duty of the foundation would be to estab- 
 lish a bureau for the analysis of the demands of the 
 university unit. Then as the work progressed there 
 
THE MUNICIPAL FOUNDATION 119 
 
 would evolve, associated with this bureau of analy- 
 sis, a bureau of statistics in which the results of the 
 analysis would be tabulated and kept up to date. 
 And this would be followed ultimately by a bureau 
 of supply which would undertake the distribution of 
 equipment throughout the university unit. Through 
 these three bureaus the municipal foundation for 
 the study and advancement of community educa- 
 tion might attempt without dominance to under- 
 take modifications in the existing educational sys- 
 tem, to provide equipment in some institutions, to 
 further reconstruction and stop waste in others, and 
 to propose from time to time new ways of supply- 
 ing demands existing in the community. The foun- 
 dation might ultimately have as one of its most 
 powerful influences the business of subsidizing such 
 institutions as required assistance in the demands 
 which the community placed upon them and of fur- 
 nishing the equipment requisite for supplying the 
 students with the proper education for any vocation 
 crying for supply at a given time. Within the space 
 of a few years, perhaps within less than two, such 
 a foundation should be able to provide sound and 
 adequate knowledge upon which radical changes 
 and amicable rearrangements might be based. It 
 should be furnished means to secure full publicity, 
 so that those to be served and taxed might have a 
 knowledge of what was being accomplished, and in 
 
120 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 the end, slowly, it is true, in some localities, more 
 rapidly in others, provision could be made for a de- 
 lineation of courses running throughout the entire 
 system. The function of such a foundation would be 
 solely an educational function for the community, 
 fitting supply to demand, an analysis of demands 
 being a prerequisite for the equipment for supply 
 and a delineation of courses being a prerequisite for 
 utilization of equipment. 
 
 It is perhaps unwise to attempt to enter into the 
 details of the progress of such a foundation beyond 
 this primary course, because its future would be de- 
 termined largely by the character of the men form- 
 ing the group and would perforce differ for differing 
 communities even as the communities differ in their 
 bents. But this much can be safely said, that the 
 goal is clear — the furthering to the utmost of the 
 happiness of the populace under study. And it is 
 conceivable that in time, by a tactful presentation 
 of its own educational function in the community, 
 the foundation might exercise the most beneficial 
 influence upon the progress of organization of the 
 whole educational system of the unit from the low- 
 est common school through to the highest post- 
 graduate division. By keeping all informed continu- 
 ously of its analysis of demands and by publishing 
 its suggestions for supply, it should know just as 
 perfectly those fitted for office in training the youth 
 
THE MUNICIPAL FOUNDATION 121 
 
 for the demands as it should know the actual de- 
 mands in every occupation to be filled within the 
 limits of the unit. It would stand as an intermediary 
 between the supreme court of education and the act- 
 ual administrative body of the educational system. 
 It would in time, in its future life, have among its 
 members those who reached it by election, and the 
 tenure of office of those members would, of course, 
 be determined by its articles of incorporation. 
 
 The question of maintenance, ever an important 
 one, must of necessity be dealt with in advancing 
 such a proposition as that of the municipal foun- 
 dation. There would, of course, be many sources of 
 income open to such an organization. Probably, 
 owing to the disorganized condition existing at the 
 present time, the first requisite would be a gift. 
 However, as a foundation proved its serviceabil- 
 ity and value, allowance might be made from the 
 funds collected by general taxation in the given unit. 
 The foundation itself might even in time be fittingly 
 the arbiter in the expenditure of funds in any given 
 area. In fact, it is scarcely possible to conceive of 
 any limitation that might be placed upon a wisely 
 and judiciously administered foundation. Another 
 specific source of income might be furnished by the 
 evolution of such a vision as that held by the late 
 Dr. Robert Kennedy Duncan, which resulted in the 
 founding of the Mellon Institute for Industrial 
 
122 A NEW BASIS FOB SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 Research in the city of Pittsburgh. Under proper 
 organization the income which might honestly and 
 fittingly be derived from the contributions of this 
 type of institution to the industrial welfare of the 
 community having a peculiar industrial bent, would 
 be enormous. Yearly, by royalties from the indus- 
 tries, the foundation could have returned to it funds 
 which would enable it to augment weak elements 
 in the educational system necessary in order to re- 
 turn to the community those best fitted for service 
 within its territory. In this way not only would the 
 foundation feed the industries, but also the indus- 
 tries would, in turn, through royalties paid, feed the 
 foundation, and in this way would be established a 
 benign circle for the welfare of the entire univer- 
 sity unit. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 - DELINEATION OF COURSES 
 
 One result necessarily following an analysis of ul- 
 timates, and perhaps a result of equal importance in 
 the promulgation of the system of education herein 
 proposed, since it would be a most powerful force 
 working for correlation, would be a division, as has 
 already been hinted, of the fields of knowledge into 
 departments extending throughout the whole plan, 
 and a delineation of courses which might properly be 
 grouped in such departments. Essential to a com- 
 prehension of the subject-matter presented in the 
 following chapter dealing with departments and 
 departmentalization, is a grasp of the process sug- 
 gested as feasible to employ in securing the knowl- 
 edge requisite for a general and thorough delinea- 
 tion. 
 
 It will be readily seen that in order to lead the 
 pupil out of the educational system at any one of the 
 chosen vocations, a careful delineation of studies to 
 be pursued by him, from the time of his entrance 
 to the primary school to the time of his leaving the 
 educational system to undertake his work in the 
 world, would be required. 
 
 One important function of the municipal foun- 
 
124 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 dation for the study and advancement of community 
 education would be to ascertain by a canvass of the 
 various vocations, which we have termed ultimates, 
 what subjects furnish the necessary foundation for 
 any given occupation and what subjects relate them- 
 selves so closely to these necessities as to consti- 
 tute beneficial electives. Such a classification, based 
 upon information furnished by those practitioners 
 actually engaged in the occupations themselves, 
 would furnish the only groundwork for the educa- 
 tional system which would loose, at any given point, 
 human products adequately equipped successfully 
 to enter upon the work of the vocation which they 
 had chosen to elect. 
 
 That we may better understand what is meant, let 
 us choose an express example. Let us take a spe- 
 cific ultimate, surgery. At once, owing to the inad- 
 equacy of our present system of education, we en- 
 counter difiiculties. The question to be answered in 
 reference to this particular ultimate is. How is it pos- 
 sible to arrive at a delineation of courses that shall 
 fit a surgeon to perform his vocational function? 
 Yet, at the outset, we are plunged into the midst 
 of confusion because the term "surgery" encom- 
 passes within itself a number of ultimates, each more 
 or less definite, each requiring a marked specializa- 
 tion. We find that as time has gone on, this particu- 
 lar late vocation has split into parts, and that at the 
 
DELINEATION OF COURSES 125 
 
 present proficiency is gained only by concentrating 
 upon some special portion of the field. Furthermore, 
 present tendencies would seem to indicate that it is 
 not unreasonable to suppose that ultimately there 
 will be a demand for special surgeons for almost 
 every region of the human body. 
 
 Everywhere we find evidences of the passing of 
 the general surgeon and the coming of the special- 
 ized surgeon. An examination of the departments 
 of surgery in our more advanced medical schools re- 
 veals that there have been created sub-departments 
 governing each of these special fields. This develop- 
 ment has probably not been so much an outgrowth 
 of the wide variation required in the technic of sur- 
 gery itself, as an outgrowth of advancement made in 
 anatomy, physiology, and chemistry. The increased 
 medical knowledge born of progress in these fields 
 is making it increasingly difficult for any generalized 
 type of vocationalist to operate successfully on all 
 parts of the human body. We have, therefore, been 
 forced to recognize in the abdominal region, for in- 
 stance, four or five special operators, all of whom 
 have the right before their fellow practitioners to 
 enter the peritoneal cavity. In the pelvis, we must 
 concede the rights of as many more, and in that vital 
 part of the human body crowned by the calvarium, 
 we bow to special surgeons for every organ. And 
 at the moment we are seeing the beginnings of the 
 
12G A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL rROCUlKSS 
 
 development of special operators dealing with the 
 lun<j[s and the mediastinnni. 
 
 Such develoi)nieuls in tiie general field indicate 
 the trend toward si)ecialization. And yet, des]>ite 
 the number of specialized surgeons which we find 
 actively practicing at the present day, we are quite 
 safe in saying that no school of higher education has 
 yet taken cognizance of the demands in this field. 
 This fact is imj)ortant to us for the reason that any 
 attempts now made to delineate courses leading to 
 s])eciahzed surgical functions must suffer, because 
 of the inertia of our medical schools to ])rogress in 
 the process of demarkjition, and because of the 
 sovereignty of the l)clief that a certain period of 
 years must dominate the prospective surgeon's 
 higher vocational education as similar arl)itrary 
 time divisions have dominated his lower years of 
 education. Little provision has been made in our 
 medical schools to shape the course so that it shall 
 lead to a dclhiite ultinuite. 
 
 Already, so complicated has the situation become 
 that the reader might even now fittingly question 
 the adequacy of our chosen ultimate to exemplify 
 the process. But, as a matter of fact, the conditions 
 would have been the same had we taken as an ex- 
 ample engineering, or chemistry, or any one of the 
 late vocations. We have chosen surgery to exemplify 
 the i)roposal, not because the lines of demarkatiou 
 
DELINEATION OF COURSES 127 
 
 arc more vaguely defined in tin's field than in any 
 other, hut het.-ause the vagueness here is typieal of 
 the vagueness found in all fi(ilds and hcicause pr(\sent 
 conditions have indicated the tendency toward the 
 recognition of the necessity for demarkation to an 
 extreme degree in this particular branch. Vital 
 impetus has also been given to this movement, in 
 surgery, by the developments forced by the present 
 world war. Efficiency in handling the increased 
 numbers of those requiring surgical attention on the 
 European battle fronts has demanded the creation 
 of such a situation as is exemplified to-day in many 
 of the hospitals in France. Here surgeons operate 
 upon the same organ of the human body from morn- 
 ing until night on all cases referred to them from 
 the central distributing office, and this means, of 
 course, departmental organization on the basis of 
 regional surgery. Quite aside from this development 
 caused by the exigc^ncies of unnatural conditions, 
 there has been growing another department in more 
 highly developed educational institutions in this 
 country where a man becomes not primarily a re- 
 gional surgeon, but rather a functional surgeon. 
 Here again, the increase in knowh^lge in anatomy, 
 physiology, and chemistry and other vital, related 
 sciences, in regard to given groups of organs is re- 
 sponsible for this development. 
 
 While there is unquestionably truth in the state- 
 
128 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 merit that specialization precedes the degeneration 
 of the race, specialization must nevertheless be 
 looked upon as a principle requisite to individual 
 advancement in vocations. This, however, is but 
 a part of the truth. Specialization, by promoting 
 the individual's opportunities for accomplishment, 
 is unquestionably a great single factor in promot- 
 ing happiness. Nor does this fact invalidate the 
 counter-truth that the broader the education the 
 more likely the possibility of fulfillment of com- 
 munal requirements and the attainment of happi- 
 ness born of such fulfillment. 
 
 The educational system must ultimately recog- 
 nize both of these operating principles. There must 
 come a realization that in addition to providing a 
 man with the necessaries of life, probably with a 
 specialized vocation and instruction which fill the 
 demands of such functions, there must also be a 
 provision for the study of those contributory but not 
 necessary subjects which will enable the individual 
 to fulfill those demands of his communal existence 
 which are not primarily conjoined with the demands 
 of his specialized vocation. 
 
 Also another fact must gain recognition. Individ- 
 uals vary. Vocationalists and culturists and all in 
 the educational groups must acknowledge that it is 
 quite possible that there are in existence certain in- 
 dividuals without receptors for types of education 
 
DELINEATION OF COURSES 129 
 
 which all groups attempt to force upon them. A 
 general recognition of this one fact would eliminate, 
 as our suggestions for departmentalization if put in 
 practice would probably eliminate, a great stum- 
 bling-block in the progress of education generally. 
 It is conceivable further that the recognition of the 
 fact that as individuals differ in groups, they vary 
 not only in the kind and number of receptors for 
 various kinds of knowledge, but they widely differ 
 also in their ability to digest or assimilate or corre- 
 late within their own physical structures impres- 
 sions which come to them from the various outside 
 sources. 
 
 But let us return again to our question. How shall 
 we arrive at a delineation of courses for our special- 
 ized surgeon of the future? Our methods of analysis 
 in this field it is quite conceivable might in the be- 
 ginning be crude because we have not yet had suffi- 
 cient practice in such a procedure. We have sug- 
 gested that the one way out of the difficulty would 
 be to establish a municipal foundation having for 
 one of its functions the making of analyses. With 
 the establishment of a foundation it would become 
 possible to ask any given five hundred surgeons to 
 make a survey of the course of their education from 
 earliest childhood and to give to the foundation a 
 delineation of what they conceive would constitute 
 the proper course leading to such an ultimate. This 
 
130 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 would mean, let us suppose, that the foundation 
 would be presented with personal analyses from five 
 hundred sources. Out of this mass might come, let 
 us suppose, fifty per cent of courses upon which all 
 would agree as necessary. This information then 
 might form the foundation for the beginnings of a de- 
 lineation of the proper course for surgeons of special- 
 ized type. Upon twenty per cent of the balance of 
 courses perhaps ninety or eighty or seventy per cent 
 would be in agreement. These courses thus agreed 
 upon might be drafted in the delineation of courses 
 for specialized surgeons, either into the compulsory 
 field or into the elective field, and so on. The ques- 
 tionnaire would have to incorporate an indication 
 that the answer should encompass not only the 
 most specific functions in life, but also the com- 
 munal, national, and international function of the 
 surgeon. In this way a beginning might be made. 
 
 Changes most certainly would come in the course 
 of time. These changes, however, would be based, 
 always, upon the evolution of knowledge. Each 
 community would begin to work out for itself the 
 delineation of courses extending back to the earliest 
 primary departments. Gross mistakes would be 
 inevitable, if we attempted, now, without knowl- 
 edge, to prescribe any form of delineation. We are 
 quite sure, however, that the prescription of deline- 
 ation, which is based upon a theoretical foundation 
 
DELINEATION OF COURSES -131 
 
 such as is made to-day by theoretical teachers who 
 have never been practitioners of many of the func- 
 tions for which they attempt to delineate, is un- 
 sound. On the other hand, it is not to be denied 
 that among many of the vocations the practitioners 
 themselves are not fitted to assist very materially in 
 this delineation because they have been deprived of 
 education in the habits of thought which would en- 
 able them to utilize an influence which would be of 
 the utmost value in preparing them for their given 
 vocation. Nevertheless, it would not be long, if this 
 demand were created in the habit of thought, before 
 all practitioners in every field of endeavor would be 
 able to assist in making the necessary corrections in 
 the first delineation. 
 
 In the first delineation a certain amount of arbi- 
 trary determination would be necessary, especially 
 in the lower fields of education, because it might be 
 unsafe to take the advice of the more unintelli- 
 gent members of the human family in the matter of 
 what would be wisest to elect in making one's self 
 useful in any given community. At the top of the 
 human family, our analysis by individuals might be 
 a sound basis, but we should descend with less assur- 
 ance to the middle group. Below this group surety 
 of determination of advisable courses would grow 
 less and less until an unsafe area would undoubtedly 
 be reached in which it would be necessary to admit 
 
132 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 more and more paternalism, and possibly we should 
 arrive finally at a group where complete paternalism 
 over prescribed courses would, in the beginning, be 
 necessary. Probably, at the lower level the primary 
 desire might be for an education that would dispense 
 with work and allow only for pleasure. Here a 
 paternal authority would certainly be necessary to 
 demand that pleasure should only be a correlative 
 of labor. An analysis of the most highly developed 
 members would be a sound basis for a delineation 
 of courses throughout the system for a given group, 
 whereas an analysis of the lower grades of intelli- 
 gence would form a very uncertain foundation for a 
 delineation of courses for them. Therefore a deline- 
 ation would vary from the point where no paternal- 
 ism was necessary to the point where almost com- 
 plete paternalism would be necessary to draft, for 
 each member of the entering group, the compulsory 
 and the elective studies. This paternalism, exercised 
 upon those whose ultimates exist in the humbler 
 vocations, would insist that those who are sent out 
 for the more lowly tasks be taught the highest ulti- 
 mates of citizenship and saving and, in addition, 
 whatever beneficial and cultural subjects the limited 
 time allowed them would permit, to lead them to the 
 best conduction of themselves and their affairs while 
 doing even the smallest tasks required by the most 
 meager mental equipment. 
 
DELINEATION OF COURSES 133 
 
 It is easy to foresee a number of obstacles in the 
 way of such a delineation. Among those to be 
 reckoned with would be, of course, union domina- 
 tion of trade, the necessity for providing additions 
 to the family budget, the multitudinous institutions 
 providing similar equipment, the lack of a definite 
 policy for any unit of population, the dearth of 
 knowledge in regard to the relation of supply to 
 demand, and the want of properly trained student 
 guides. 
 
 With such obstacles hindering the progress of a 
 sound educational system, the question immediately 
 presents itself. What can be done to reduce the op- 
 position? The incontrovertible answer is that edu- 
 cation itself must be the agent in removing opposi- 
 tion. Each year, as a municipal foundation could, as 
 a result of its analyses, furnish the populace of the 
 given community with a sound equipment of knowl- 
 edge, each year, as a result of more careful guidance 
 of students, the families would be raised to higher 
 points of eflSciency, obstacles to the progress of 
 the system would disappear. And since the system 
 would in the long run, by fitting its products imme- 
 diately to assume their given vocations at the time 
 of their departure, increase the family budget, it 
 would in like measure raise the standard of living 
 and the consequent happiness of the householders 
 forming the community. Were this the case it is 
 
134 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 certainly within reason to suppose that the popu- 
 lation, as a whole, would come to see clearly the 
 value of such a system. The burden of the solu- 
 tion of the problem would rest in the hands of the 
 foundation itself. 
 
 A pursuance of this thought for no matter how 
 short a time will, we believe, be suflScient to indi- 
 cate how tremendous would be the saving to all 
 were a delineation of courses throughout the ed- 
 ucational system accomplished. We believe that 
 not only would a better practitioner be produced by 
 complete course delineation, but also that if, with 
 such complete delineation, there were, in addition, 
 put into operation a plan for departmentalization, 
 similar probably to that suggested in the following 
 chapter, to facilitate the emergence of all individu- 
 als entering the educational system, the best prac- 
 titioner might be produced in the shortest period 
 of time. If those results were to follow course 
 delineation and departmentalization, certainly no 
 small contribution to the sum total of human hap- 
 piness would be made. 
 
CHAPTER XH 
 
 DEPARTMENTALIZATION 
 
 There is no good and justifiable reason for the exist- 
 ence of such arbitrary time boundaries as at present 
 limit the activity and progress of individual mem- 
 bers of our groups who present themselves to the 
 educational system for training. We have long been 
 dominated by the apparent necessity of moving 
 groups of children over a given distance in a given 
 period of time. Our modern educational system is 
 built upon this idea, that such a group can only be 
 moved over such a given distance in such a given 
 time, regardless of the different ultimates of the 
 group and equally regardless of the varying mental 
 capacities of the individuals who compose it. Not 
 only do the restrictions of the present arbitrary time 
 boundaries wholly militate against the brighter ele- 
 ments of the entire group, but they reduce whole 
 classes to the level of the average student and by so 
 doing deprive the Nation of the increment which 
 its system of education should bring to it by facil- 
 itating the emergence of the brighter students. 
 
 As we are to-day organized, our common-school 
 equipment has apparently little or no elasticity 
 because subjects are grouped under individuals. 
 
136 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 Oftentimes these subjects are wholly unrelated and 
 our primary teachers are commonly supposed to 
 be equipped to handle any subject in the primary 
 schools. In fact, many teachers handle all subjects 
 that are presented to a group of children during a 
 given year. Nor docs this condition exist in rural 
 schools alone. Perhaps the simplest method of get- 
 ting away from this restricted form of organization 
 is immediately to understand the other factor which 
 would work for correlation in such a system as we 
 have proposed, i.e., the principle of departmen- 
 talization which has been so great an influence in 
 business life. 
 
 We have already intimated in a brief way what is 
 herein meant by departmentalization. Defined in 
 broadest terms, it is but the correlation of the whole 
 system within a given university unit. Inasmuch 
 as this proposal suggests changes which are radical 
 departures from the conditions at present obtaining, 
 it is necessary, for the time being, to put present 
 conditions out of mind and to allow our thoughts to 
 travel solely to the principles which have been oper- 
 ating in the most successful organization. The effect 
 of the application of these principles here convinces 
 us that they are the soundest to apply in the educa- 
 tional system in the gross university units. 
 
 The diagram which follows is an attempt to pre- 
 sent, in a form more graphic than words, what is 
 
n 
 

 .^ 
 
 TRiMAf^Y IBeOINNINQ 
 
 Secondary Continuation undergraduate Continuat* 
 

 
 CP 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 Tt 
 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 
 o 
 
 tn 
 
 m 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 
 d 
 
 <«J 
 
 r- 
 
 ^ 
 
 -H 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 QR.ADOATE AND LAT£ VOCATIONAL 
 
DEPARTMENTALIZATION 137 
 
 meant by departmentalization. It must be remem- 
 bered, however, that this chart does not claim for 
 itself completeness. Only a municipal foundation, 
 the duties of which have been broadly sketched in 
 preceding chapters, could fill in, with the necessary 
 degree of accuracy, the details lacking in the present 
 chart. But, after all, it is not the details that are of 
 primary importance. The general plan of depart- 
 mentalization will be, we believe, adequate to pre- 
 sent the principles despite the dearth of details. 
 
 From this chart it will be seen that, under our pro- 
 posed plan of departmentalization, certain depart- 
 ments would extend continuously from the lowest 
 point of the system to the highest, from the begin- 
 ning of education through to any point of emergence 
 into any given vocation. While, as we have said, no 
 attempt has been made to include all departments 
 which might ultimately be necessary, it is suffi- 
 ciently clear that the fundamental departments, 
 since we are dealing primarily with America, would 
 be English and citizenship. 
 
 What might be included under the general caption 
 of English is fairly well defined. Citizenship, how- 
 ever, is a more elastic term and would encompass 
 several departments, such as history, government, 
 geography, physiology, hygiene, and mathematics. 
 These departments would run throughout from the 
 primary division through the post-graduate school. 
 
138 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 Other departments would begin only in the second- 
 ary division — chemistry, physics, Romance lan- 
 guages, German, and biology, for example. Others 
 would begin in the undergraduate school and still 
 others in the graduate school. In the graduate 
 school would begin the study of various fields of 
 work which meet special late vocational demands 
 requiring both intensive and extensive preparation, 
 such specialization as is required for our late voca- 
 tions or present-day professions. The delineation 
 of these courses could be outlined again only after 
 the fundamental analysis of the demands of a com- 
 munity had been made. 
 
 The most immediate results of such departmen- 
 talization would, of course, manifest themselves as 
 effects upon students entering the system. Let us 
 now enter a group of children into an educational 
 system which has been departmentalized. In such 
 a group would be children of all mental equipment, 
 home influences, and variation of ultimates. The 
 first essential for the mass would be the provision of 
 an education for them in the irreducible minimum 
 which must form a foundation for all their future 
 education, i.e., there must be for all, regardless of 
 vocation, regardless of ultimates, an irreducible 
 minimum, in certain fields, which must be taken the 
 same for all. In this irreducible minimum the study 
 of the language which the individual must use, — 
 
DEPARTMENTALIZATION 139 
 
 that is, in America, English, — and such other sub- 
 jects as will train him to perform his duties as a citi- 
 zen, must find a place. The irreducible minimum 
 would be represented in our departmentalized sys- 
 tem by those departments which extend from the 
 lowest point to the highest. 
 
 The next necessity would be to allow children to 
 travel as rapidly through the system as their recep- 
 tivity would permit. Emphasis would be placed 
 solely upon the probable force that would drive any 
 individual in a given group any distance in any time, 
 and the rapidity of the progress and the distance 
 traveled would be dependent solely upon the ability 
 and the capacity of the traveler. Arbitrary time 
 divisions would be entirely eradicated and progres- 
 sion would of necessity be closely related to the 
 study of the individual children, through a depart- 
 ment established for that purpose, in order that 
 the capacity of students might be gauged and not 
 flooded to the point of injury. 
 
 The school physicians, the visiting nurses of the 
 school, who ascertain home conditions and the at- 
 titude of parents toward education in general, the 
 teacher who has charge of a given part of a depart- 
 ment, would all furnish information important to 
 the welfare of the student. The statistics gathered 
 by these agents would be carefully tabulated in one 
 department and the child advised and guided in 
 
140 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 the light of the knowledge thus gained. The progres- 
 sion of the student might be easily accomplished 
 when left in the hands of the department whose 
 sole duty it was to undertake student guidance and 
 arrange classes for students on the basis of the 
 knowledge it possessed. 
 
 It is conceivable that a percentage of our entering 
 group under adequate guidance would complete the 
 work of the primary grades in much less time than it 
 would take a similar group at present. On the other 
 hand, a small percentage might require a longer 
 period of time than is required at present. The 
 advantage, however, would be that the drones and 
 the backward students would not reduce whole 
 classes of varying capacity to the dead level of the 
 average. Another percentage would, of course, early 
 exhibit the fact that they were in no way fitted for 
 the educational system provided to take care of 
 normal children and they, perforce, would be ex- 
 creted at the earliest moment in order that other 
 methods applicable in the training of subnormal 
 children might be employed. Thus, even in the 
 primary school, a process of excretion would go on 
 through the department of student guidance. 
 
 As the first members of our group reached the 
 end of the provision made in the primary division of 
 any given subject, the necessity for continuing into 
 the secondary school special studies in which profi- 
 
DEPARTMENTALIZATION 141 
 
 ciency had been shown would present the first serious 
 difficulty. Under our present system the student 
 must have compassed the work of all departments in 
 which he has entered in the primary school before 
 passing on across the first arbitrary time division 
 into a secondary school. This, of course, is one of 
 the most serious obstacles in the way of the applica- 
 tion of the principles which we have attempted to 
 outline, existent in the present form of organiza- 
 tion. 
 
 It will readily be perceived that unless the deline- 
 ation of courses arrived at by the analysis of ulti- 
 mates be continued by departmentalization from the 
 lowest to the highest point in the system, the prin- 
 ciple itself could not be successfully put in operation. 
 All efforts at the present time are being expended to 
 discover the expedient which will obviate the ne- 
 cessity for accepting the fullest application of this 
 principle. Perhaps it is the practice of wisdom to 
 face directly the question and ask why the principle 
 of delineation of courses and departments should 
 not extend throughout the whole system and why 
 the very elastic principle of departmentalization 
 should not be extended through to the smallest 
 primary units. 
 
 What is proposed here is, that a student be al- 
 lowed to push forward as rapidly as possible in those 
 departments in which he has shown peculiar capa- 
 
142 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 bility . Those who first reached the end of the course, 
 in any department which the primary educational 
 equipment could give, would travel from those 
 classes in which they had finished to the second- 
 ary equipment for that unit. It might conceivably 
 happen, without any difficulty, that for certain 
 classes some members of our given group might be 
 carrying on work in the primary school simultane- 
 ously with advanced work in other classes in the 
 secondary school, always, of course, under proper 
 guidance. And so on the principle would operate 
 throughout the system. Furthermore, it is conceiv- 
 able that our group which was entered might be at 
 the end of ten years disseminated throughout the 
 whole educational system to different points of 
 departure, varying always with the capacity of the 
 student and the requirements of the ultimates which 
 the individual had elected to reach. The result of 
 this would be that a constant supply of individuals 
 properly equipped would be furnished, to take care 
 of the different demands existing in the community. 
 The only period at which group assembling would 
 occur then would be at the period of entrance and 
 until one student showed an accumulation of knowl- 
 edge sufficient to take the first step in progress. It is 
 also conceivable that a department of student guid- 
 ance would, through its agents, sit in class after class 
 and determine, by a survey, the bents of the individ- 
 
DEPARTMENTALIZATION 143 
 
 ual students in the room. This provision for the 
 super-normal would seem, to us, far more important 
 than provision for the average student and the 
 infra-normal. 
 
 It would be possible under such a system for any 
 group which presented itself for treatment to be 
 handled individually. Each member would be pre- 
 sented with opportunities for assimilation and 
 growth. A thorough grounding in the fundamentals 
 required by his particular department ultimate 
 would be furnished as rapidly as his capacity for 
 observation would admit, and in addition he would 
 be allowed to select with almost unrestricted free- 
 dom from any of the contributory fields of learning 
 which his natural capacities sought. He would fur- 
 thermore be allowed the privilege, which is after all 
 his right, of setting with his own brain the pace 
 which he was fitted to hold in the race. The domi- 
 nation of the mediocre and the average over the 
 able and the eager would be forever at an end. And 
 equally important, the individual, produced from a 
 system such as this, would present, at the time of his 
 departure, those individual characteristics which 
 nature has ordained shall be the most valuable pos- 
 session of man, our present educational system to 
 the contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 It will be seen from this that we believe that the 
 proposed solution of present educational entangle- 
 
144 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PHOGRESS 
 
 merits can be summed up in the one word "depart- 
 mentalization." But the end is not here. 
 
 The idea carries with it the application of election 
 in government to the whole system. The present 
 quarrels existing in the educational world between 
 colleges and secondary schools, between secondary 
 schools and primary schools, have their origin in the 
 same condition. Complaints of the domination of 
 upper groups are met by complaints of a lack of 
 sympathy on the part of lower groups, and so on it 
 goes throughout the entire organization. This would 
 be completely wiped away if the plan suggested were 
 put in operation. We should no longer be distressed 
 with the problem of conciliating those in authority 
 in the primary schools who object to the domination 
 of standards set by those in the secondary schools, 
 and in like manner, those in the secondary schools 
 who complain of the domination of standards set 
 by universities, colleges, and institutions of higher 
 learning. If this one result were secured, much 
 available energy which at the present time is being 
 wasted in useless controversy might be turned into 
 channels where it could be expended for the produc- 
 tion of good. This would be but the recognition of 
 the principle — a recognition which must, in the 
 course of time, become inevitable — that the educa- 
 tional system should be shaped not by the demands 
 of any one institution based upon its equipment, 
 
DEPARTMENTALIZATION 145 
 
 but rather by the demands of the population which 
 the various institutions are to serve. Here, once 
 again, it is apparent that demands can only be as- 
 certained by an analysis of the ultimates. 
 
 Here again also we must face the fact that if 
 democracy is sound, its principles should be applied 
 tooureducational system, and it now becomes neces- 
 sary to determine the go vernmental equipment best 
 suited to the furthering of such a system as is herein 
 proposed. And it would seem that the most repre- 
 sentative and democratic governing body would be 
 one which would contain among its members repre- 
 sentatives elected from each section of each depart- 
 ment. This body might be called, as we have indi- 
 cated on the chart, a central board of departments. 
 Knowledge has been growing rapidly with the 
 progress of organization, and those intimately con- 
 nected with the administration of affairs even in 
 the smallest department of organization must be 
 brought into direct relationship with those in other 
 departments in order that the work may be properly 
 correlated and that the best results for the entire 
 organization may be secured. In the proposed plan, 
 as we have said, each section of each department 
 would elect its representatives to the central board. 
 Those operating in the departmental fields would be 
 entitled by virtue of their position to be represented 
 in the various administrative groups with which 
 
146 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 they are concerned. The departments of the pri- 
 mary section would elect, the departments of the 
 secondary section would elect, of the undergradu- 
 ate and graduate sections also, and in this way the 
 various bodies all would be correlated. In this way, 
 too, would the diflSculties which now set primary 
 groups warring against secondary groups and sec- 
 ondary groups against college groups be, by repre- 
 sentation, obliterated and out of it all would come 
 the union of purposes, the resultant purpose being 
 to further the interests, in every possible way and 
 as expeditiously as capacity would admit, of every 
 individual from the time of his entrance into the 
 system to the time of his departure regardless of 
 how low or how high that point of departure be. 
 
 This central board of departments would, further- 
 more, also have local autonomy. The policy and 
 budget under which the administrative group would 
 operate would be determined in turn by the muni- 
 cipal foundation upon which the board of depart- 
 ments itself would, in time, have official represen- 
 tation. The board of departments in conjunction 
 with the municipal foundation would then have the 
 power of appointing to the supreme court of edu- 
 cation suggested in an early chapter. The policy 
 of the whole system would be determined by the 
 analysis which would take place in the foundation. 
 The local policies would also bear the influence 
 
DEPARTMENTALIZATION 147 
 
 which the analysis by the foundation would fur- 
 nish, but in each administrative unit the fullest 
 autonomy could be allowed for the fitting of the 
 equipment to the bent of the unit which it was to 
 serve. 
 
 This type of organization, so elastic and yet so 
 purposeful, would, we believe, help to secure for the 
 university unit the most efficient economy and the 
 most beneficial results. Details of an organization 
 such as this could be presented only as resultants of 
 the analysis which would be provided in the first 
 instance by the voluntary municipal foundation. 
 Here again lack of details is not important. The 
 important immediate necessity would seem to be 
 that the beginning be made under proper leadership. 
 By moving backward and forward between the 
 highest educational provision and the lowest build- 
 ing unit, to find our way by analysis downward or 
 by synthesis upward, and by so doing to cope with 
 the difficulties, one after another as they are encoun- 
 tered, it is quite within reason to suppose that it 
 might be possible to work out the proper solution 
 for the entire problem. Day by day thereafter, diffi- 
 culties would appear and disappear, and with the 
 disappearance of each, progress would be made not 
 only toward a delineation of the details of organiza- 
 tion, but also toward the ultimate welfare of the 
 community. All great evolutionary processes have 
 
148 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 come In a similar way and have, when held true to 
 their purpose and vision, gradually, step by step, 
 arrived at the ultimate toward which they were 
 aiming. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 There is magic in the distance where the sea line meets the sky. 
 It shall calljto singing seamen till the fount o' song b diy. 
 
 Alfbed Notes 
 
 The adequacy of a system of training must be 
 gauged by the progress of the society which fosters it 
 as well as by the fitness or unfitness of its products. 
 It would be flying in the face of truth to contend that 
 the American Nation has not progressed and that 
 this progress has not been due to the diffusion of 
 education and the dissemination of knowledge. It 
 would be equally futile to argue concerning what 
 advancements might have been made had we pos- 
 sessed, up to the present, a different system. It is 
 not purposed here to indulge in this species of 
 a-priori reasoning. 
 
 One fact is, however, clear and that is, that despite 
 the national progress made through education, the 
 tendency on the part of educators has ever been to 
 make old bottles accommodate new wine quite re- 
 gardless of either the size of the containers or of the 
 quantity of the vintage. Little can be gained, how- 
 ever, by attempting to measure the distance our 
 educational system has lagged behind those leading 
 and progressive institutions which have lifted this 
 
150 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 Nation to its present stage of development. Nor are 
 the causes of this sluggishness important save as 
 they indicate obstacles still to be surmounted; prob- 
 lems still to be solved. 
 
 In an early chapter of this study we suggested five 
 leading questions, the satisfactory answering of 
 which would, we believe, indicate the way out of our 
 present gross educational diflSculties. And our aim 
 in the subsequent pages, despite our wanderings, 
 has been ever toward the answering of these. 
 
 To epitomize, we believe that the chief cause for 
 the inadequacy of our present system of education 
 in America is the neglect on the part of all educa- 
 tional institutions to apply to themselves and to 
 the system as a whole the laws of supply and de- 
 mand. Coupled with this is their failure to give any 
 large amount of consideration to regional variances 
 and community bents, and their willingness, save 
 when pressure has been exerted by external force, 
 to allow the industries and business corporations to 
 exploit their products during the early years follow- 
 ing graduation. 
 
 Growth and innovations have both contributed to 
 the diflSculties encountered by the system in what- 
 ever endeavors it has made to lead rather than fol- 
 low in the onward pushing movements. The old 
 containers have become quite too small: the new 
 vintage quite too large. And so rapidly have the 
 
CONCLUSION 151 
 
 problems multiplied that our educators generally 
 have not been able to keep pace. Universities, 
 especially, have been singularly unable to prescribe 
 for themselves any satisfactory formulae for raising 
 the average graduate to a position of maximum indi- 
 viduality and usefulness. We have persisted in using 
 the forms with which we started. We have not gen- 
 erally admitted that those forms will no longer pro- 
 vide for the development which we have gained by 
 their use. 
 
 It would be foolish to maintain that uninterest- 
 ing and unfitted as is our average college graduate, 
 he would have been better had he not passed 
 through the educational mill. He is what he is both 
 because of and in spite of the system. It is only in 
 the exceptional case that a college education is a 
 doubtful asset or a liability, and even in these cases 
 the responsibility may rest jointly upon both the 
 individual and the system. 
 
 Our progress in education has truly been a curious 
 one. We have gone from the hard and arbitrary cur- 
 riculum, with its primary insistence upon training 
 the memory and the consequent devitalization of 
 valuable and beneficial subjects, to the free elective 
 system, with its wholesale invitations to follow the 
 paths of least resistance, back to a half-hearted com- 
 promise somewhere between the two extremes, and 
 we have arrived at what? Certainly at little more 
 
152 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 than an educational jumble. A maelstrom in which 
 the maximum amount of theory and the minimum 
 amount of practice whirl those who are thrown into 
 it round and round for definitely fixed periods of 
 time, to be cast out as flotsam for another period un- 
 til corporate business and industrial organizations 
 can accomplish that which could and should have 
 been done by general education. We have been 
 devoting our energies to the elevation of the degen- 
 erate and the child of arrested development. We 
 have, through our play schools, attempted to fit our 
 children to enjoy life by feeding them upon the pap 
 manufactured by theoretical educators possessing 
 little knowledge of the vital sciences of life. And 
 while this process has been going on and funds have 
 been diverted and directed into these less profitable 
 channels, those of the same generation, more fortu- 
 nate in their mental equipment and eager to learn 
 and to progress, have been chained to the dull and 
 to the average and have been allowed to proceed 
 only so fast as they were able to drag this burden 
 with them. Search where we will, with the single 
 exception possibly of Gary, there can be found few 
 organized endeavors to facilitate the progress and 
 early emergence of the brilliant students. So-called 
 ''trailer "sections which have been formed in some 
 classes in our various universities into which are 
 shunted the poorly equipped and less zealous stu- 
 
CONCLUSION 153 
 
 dents in order that the progress of the more intel- 
 ligent may not be hampered, while representing 
 attempts to grapple with the problem have ever 
 been looked upon with distrust. ** Consider what 
 the effect of placing a student in a trailer section in 
 any course would be upon that student," say the 
 educators. ** What incentive can there be for a boy 
 or girl so placed? " And here again the domination 
 of the average and of the weakling over the robust 
 and the exceptional is all too evident. **We are 
 wasting time in our educational system" is an 
 indictment which has rung forth in every educa- 
 tional meeting during the past decade. **We are 
 losing from between two to three years," declare 
 state superintendents and college and university 
 presidents. Yet what are we doing to remedy the 
 situation? 
 
 Probably the most popular remedy at the present 
 time in the higher institutions of learning is the so- 
 called ** junior college," just as a few years ago the 
 popular remedy was the so-called "junior high 
 school." These both are partial attempts at depart- 
 mentalization and delineation in a small section of 
 the system. At best both are but temporary make- 
 shifts which can produce no lasting beneficial results. 
 They may placate and palliate for the moment, but 
 they will not substantially alleviate. 
 
 Nothing short of complete delineation and com- 
 
154 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 prehensive departmentalization will solve the prob- 
 lem. And the soundest method of solution, we be- 
 lieve, is through a municipal foundation for the 
 study and advancement of community education. 
 
 We are convinced that the first steps toward the 
 correction of our system would be for a group of 
 influential men in a given community to organize 
 for the purpose of forming such a foundation, to en- 
 dow it with adequate funds with which to carry on 
 its work, to choose a leader quite regardless of polit- 
 ical affiliation, and to give him the utmost freedom 
 to carry on his investigation, stipulating only that 
 the members of the foundation be furnished from 
 time to time with adequate reports of the prog- 
 ress made. Then that the foundation as an early 
 duty determine upon the boundaries of the given 
 university unit and begin the collection of statistics 
 covering all those resident within its confines and 
 at the same time, for purposes of analysis, that it 
 partition this given unit into a number of smaller 
 units and that it ultimately correlate the results of 
 its findings in these smaller units for the larger uni- 
 versity units. In this way it could arrive at the de- 
 mands of the unit and then it could attempt a 
 realignment of the educational system for that unit, 
 in order that an adequate supply might be furnished 
 to meet the demands of the community. 
 
 Simultaneously with this analysis should come an 
 
CONCLUSION 155 
 
 analysis of the requisites for any given educational 
 ultimate obtained through a careful canvass of, let 
 us say, five hundred practitioners in each vocation. 
 These requisites, when ascertained, should be 
 drafted into the educational system in such a way 
 as to delineate courses for all given vocations for 
 which a demand exists. In addition to these requi- 
 sites, other beneficial subjects should be grouped as 
 electives in such a way as to be advantageously pur- 
 sued in conjunction with the required courses. 
 
 That further than this the foundation should at- 
 tempt, through its bureau of analysis and its bureau 
 of statistics, to furnish information whereby all in- 
 stitutions engaged in education within the given 
 unit might correlate their courses and unite in their 
 endeavors to eliminate loss, to further the institu- 
 tions and facilitate the emergence of all children 
 applying for education. In addition, as the founda- 
 tion increasingly proved its worth, this realignment 
 should take the form suggested, namely, that de- 
 partments should be made continuous throughout 
 the whole plan from the lowest point in the primary 
 school to the highest point in the graduate school. 
 That above these departments there should be 
 organized a central board of departments consist- 
 ing of representatives from each segment of each 
 department; that this central board should look for 
 the information to direct the educational policy of 
 
156 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 the university unit to the municipal foundation. 
 That above the municipal foundation and quite 
 independent of it should be organized a supreme 
 court of education for the purpose of dealing with 
 any diflSculties that might arise in the board of 
 departments and in the departments themselves. 
 Each segment — which would correspond to our 
 present primary, secondary, undergraduate, and 
 post-graduate schools — should be granted reason- 
 able autonomy through the central board, and this 
 autonomic, democratic, and representative govern- 
 ment should extend to the foundation and to the 
 supreme court. In short, that in the matter of con- 
 trol the broadest tested principles of democracy 
 should be applied. 
 
 It would be scarcely possible to place any limita- 
 tion upon the activities of a municipal foundation 
 since that organization would have for its purpose 
 and sole aim the furthering of the interests of the 
 entire community and the substantial increasing of 
 the sum total of human happiness within the given 
 university unit. The bureau of supply, which would 
 form the third department of such a foundation, 
 would, in the end, demonstrate the right of the 
 foundation to power. If properly administered, it 
 would prove most valuable and would furnish, by 
 its statistics, properly trained individuals for any 
 position within the given area. The bureau would 
 
CONCLUSION 157 
 
 be able to furnish any organization requiring knowl- 
 edge, complete statistics, at any time, covering the 
 unit. Such a census, kept up to the minute, would, 
 in itself, be a tremendous factor in furthering the 
 interests of the community and of the Nation. 
 
 The machinery required to operate such a system 
 would be neither complex nor expensive. Even were 
 this not the case, the results possible to be obtained 
 from such a bureau as the bureau of statistics would 
 alone be of such a character as to return to the com- 
 munity interest many fold on either the initial in- 
 vestment or the funds required for maintenance. In 
 fact, it is quite conceivable that the saving in waste 
 alone — that which now exists in any given com- 
 munity or university unit — would be sujQBcient to 
 maintain the machinery of the foundation for a con- 
 siderable period of time. The possibilities of the 
 whole unit plan and the foundation plan, solely as 
 economic measures, seem boundless. The effects 
 upon the institutions which would foster such foun- 
 dations can likewise scarcely be estimated. We be- 
 lieve that ultimately the institutions would come to 
 hold the most important positions in the community 
 and that the populace of the entire university unit 
 would turn to the foundation not only as a source of 
 information and guidance, but also as the active 
 agent, increasing their own individual welfares. 
 
 The educational equipment of our university unit 
 
158 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 would no longer be a thing detached, a thing dealing 
 with but a small part of the population. It would 
 hold within itself the future of the populace both 
 collectively and individually. It would supply nor- 
 mal demands, it would adjust diflBculties arising 
 through sudden congestions in certain supply. In 
 short, it would apply the principles of international- 
 ism itself in a given area, and if in time the entire 
 country came to be composed of such units as have 
 been suggested, by the fullest cooperation between 
 these units, supply could be transferred quickly and 
 readily wherever sudden and abnormal demands 
 existed. In times of peace its results would be these. 
 In times of war the statistics which the bureaus of 
 the various municipal foundations could furnish the 
 Federal Government would be invaluable and would 
 render the Nation the most efficiently organized in 
 the world. As a preparedness measure alone, the 
 plan commends itself to consideration, and yet, 
 unlike most preparedness measures, this would carry 
 no hampering of individuals' activities. 
 
 To direct the members of the Nation into such 
 fields of activity as actually exist in the demands, 
 while possibly forcing more to elect ultimates which, 
 in our present hit-or-miss plan, would not be elected, 
 is not placing an injurious restriction upon the free- 
 dom of the individual. Far better would it be for 
 such a one to know that no demand existed for his 
 
CONCLUSION 159 
 
 particular ultimate chosen, at the beginning of his 
 educational career, than to discover that fact only 
 after he had spent from fourteen to twenty-five 
 years in preparing himself to fill a mythical place. 
 
 The migratory element in our populace would not 
 in the least interfere with the application of the 
 principle. The doors of each university unit would 
 be open, but each university unit would stand, far 
 more than institutions stand at the present time, for 
 emphasis upon the certain particular fields of learn- 
 ing determined by the regional variances and the 
 bents of the communities. Warring factions in edu- 
 cation would be changed to cooperative forces and 
 the aim of all would be seen to be the same, standing 
 clear above individual difficulties and aspirations. 
 Education, were such a plan put into operation, 
 would become in truth an end in itself, rather than 
 merely the means to an end. 
 
 The University extension movement, which has 
 gained vogue in the past few years, an attempt to 
 bring universities, through a few of their profes- 
 sional members, to the doors of those far removed 
 from seats of learning, can never effectively solve 
 the problem. Educational extension, not merely 
 university extension is what is demanded — a prac- 
 tical system that will further the interests of all and 
 in increasing proportions as the individuals remain 
 within it. Theoretical lecturers, sent out by depart- 
 
160 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 ments of university extension to those dissatisfied 
 members of society who elect such courses, can never 
 substantially increase the sum total of human hap- 
 piness or greatly add even to the capacities of indi- 
 viduals. University extension courses, like courses 
 within the universities themselves, are, despite the 
 youth of the extension movement, already caked 
 with the crust of custom and tradition. Educational 
 extension, not university extension, is the solution; 
 and educational extension can be accomplished only 
 by striking out boldly into uncharted seas. 
 
 We must not content ourselves with any system 
 which falls short of rendering the maximum amount 
 of service to all who compose the Nation. Educa- 
 tion for all must be the foundation upon which the 
 sills of democracy rest. We must transcend petty 
 difficulties and schemes propounded by theoretical 
 exponents, schemes which redound only to their 
 own credit and which further only their own in- 
 terests. 
 
 That system of education will alone be satisfac- 
 tory which shall display the operations of the sound- 
 est principles of economy, and which shall command 
 for each part of the educational equipment the 
 utmost respect of all. That system alone will func- 
 tion to the fullest which shall take cognizance of the 
 needs of every member of society and which shall 
 place at the disposal of the populace all the inf orma- 
 
CONCLUSION 161 
 
 tion which can be utilized in furthering the interests 
 of each and every individual member. 
 
 We believe that the course which America in 
 company with other nations must pursue lies some- 
 where in the direction which we have endeavored 
 to indicate. We believe that immeasurable service 
 and that freedom which is the inalienable right of 
 man surely lies at the end of such a journey. The 
 voyage may be long, it is true, the tides high, and 
 the storms heavy, but the port is "well worth the 
 cruise." Courage alone is required — the courage 
 that defies convention and tradition, the courage 
 that is born of faith that must ever firm the naviga- 
 tor who pushes out into strange new waters and 
 makes 
 
 THE BEGINNING. 
 
SUPPLEMENT 
 
These are some hints towards what is in all education a chief necessity, 
 the right government, or, shall I not say, the right obedience to the 
 powers of the human soul. Itself is the dictator; the mind itself the 
 awful oracle. All our powers, all our happiness, consist in our reception 
 of its hints, which ever become clearer and grander as they are obeyed. 
 
 Ralph Waldo Emerson 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 THE PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY 
 
 As suggested earlier in this volume, the purpose of 
 its authors is not primarily to suggest means by 
 which the American Nation may be divided into 
 university units nor arbitrarily to set the boundaries 
 of any such divisions. It is rather to state the eco- 
 nomic principles which, we believe, could be applied 
 to all communities with equal beneficial results, and, 
 without professing accuracy to any marked degree, 
 
 — since it should be clear to all by now that accu- 
 racy, without accurate statistics, is impossible, and 
 accurate statistics, we have shown, are not available, 
 
 — to sketch, roughly and in broad outline, a plan 
 for the reconstruction and realignment of the whole 
 educational system and to make, so far as is possible, 
 an application to the particular community in which 
 this study had its inception. 
 
 Pittsburgh, because of the development of its in- 
 dustries and its disorderly growth during the past 
 quarter of a century, perhaps furnishes us with as 
 good an example as we could desire. 
 
 It has been said that Pittsburgh is composed of a 
 number of small towns, and in a measure this is true 
 
 — perhaps more true of Pittsburgh than of some 
 
166 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 other cities which have grown with less rapidity. 
 The Pittsburgh metropolitan district has been 
 roughly defined as that area extending from the 
 center of the city for a radius of approximately ten 
 miles. Within this comparatively small radius, we 
 find sixty-three more or less distinct communities; 
 Aspinwall, Avalon, Bellevue, Ben Avon, Braddock, 
 Bridgeville, Carnegie, Carrick, Cheswick, Clairton, 
 Coraopolis, Crafton, Dormont, Dravosburg, Du- 
 quesne, East McKeesport, East Pittsburgh, Edge- 
 wood, Edgeworth, Elizabeth, Emsworth, Etna, Fin- 
 leyville, Glassport, Glenfield, Greentree, Haysville, 
 Heidelberg, Homestead, Ingram, Knoxville, Leets- 
 dale, McKees Rocks, Millvale, Mount Oliver, Mun- 
 hall, North Braddock, Oakdale, Oakmont, Osborne, 
 Pitcairn, Port Vue, Rankin, St. Clair, Sewickley, 
 Sharpsburg, Spring Garden, Springdale, Swissvale, 
 Tarentum, Thornburg, Turtle Creek, Verona, Ver- 
 sailles, Wall, Warrendale, West Elizabeth, West 
 Homestead, Westview, Wexford, Whitaker, Wilkins- 
 burg, and Wilmerding, not to mention Allegheny 
 now incorporate as a part of Greater Pittsburgh, 
 and generally known as the " North Side." 
 
 Bordering this twenty -mile circle we find a score 
 of other communities differing little in bents and 
 exhibiting few regional variances from those in- 
 cluded within the circle; Woodlawn, Ambridge, 
 Aliquippa, Monessen, Donora, Beaver Falls, Roch- 
 
THE PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY 167 
 
 ester, New Brighton, New Kensington, and many 
 others, all because of the similarity of their bents 
 and their demands may be roughly termed the 
 * * Pittsburgh Community . ' ' 
 
 Were the unit plan put into operation, our uni- 
 versity unit which would center in the Pittsburgh 
 community would extend over a much larger area. 
 It is conceivable that, owing to the nature and char- 
 acter of the district, the Pittsburgh university unit 
 would include that portion of the country lying be- 
 tween latitudes 41° 25' and 39° 25' north and be- 
 tween longitudes 75° 25' and 83° east; that is, 
 roughly, extending from approximately the northern 
 boundary of Clearfield County, Pennsylvania, to the 
 southern boundary of Preston County, West Vir- 
 ginia, and from the northern boundary of Crawford 
 County, Ohio, to the southern boundary of Ross; 
 from the Alleghany Mountains on the east nearly 
 to Columbus on the west and as far south as Park- 
 ersburg. West Virginia. The parts of this district 
 present such strikingly similar characteristics that, 
 in the gross, we may say that the bent of the whole 
 area is the same. 
 
 Hereafter, then, when the Pittsburgh community 
 is mentioned, it must be remembered that not 
 merely metropolitan Pittsburgh is designated, but 
 rather all that territory lying within the suggested 
 boundaries of the proposed Pittsburgh university 
 
168 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 unit. By metropolitan Pittsburgh is meant that 
 district previously designated as lying within a ten- 
 mile radius of the city itself. Whenever the city of 
 Pittsburgh alone is named, the term applies only to 
 the area bounded by the present city limits. These 
 distinctions should be constantly kept in mind, 
 since, in the remaining chapters of this volume, all 
 three of these divisions are dealt with. 
 
 As we have said, all parts of the Pittsburgh com- 
 munity, including as it does portions of Pennsyl- 
 vania, Ohio, Maryland, and West Virginia, possess 
 to a large degree the same outstanding physical 
 characteristic. The natural resources underlying 
 most of its region being the same, the character of 
 the industries, largely dependent upon these natural 
 resources is, in the gross, uniform. The whole com- 
 munity, therefore, by virtue of its regional bent, pre- 
 sents certain large special demands to the educa- 
 tional system for supply. 
 
 Accurate statistics covering the population of the 
 Pittsburgh community are unfortunately not avail- 
 able. Those furnished by the last Government census 
 are seven years old and are, therefore, of little value. 
 It is probable that the population of this area num- 
 bers at present between five and seven million souls. 
 In locating our boundaries, as suggested, this fact 
 has received consideration. We believe that this 
 body populace would not be too large a one to form 
 
THE PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY 169 
 
 our first university unit and that the compilation of 
 statistics covering seven millions of people would 
 not tax beyond its capacity or point of maximum 
 efficiency the administrative equipment of a munici- 
 pal foundation. 
 
 Broadly speaking, the chief industries in this area 
 are the steel and iron trades. Associated with these 
 industries, because of similarity of materials, are 
 the tin plate, the fire brick, the air brake, the win- 
 dow glass, plate glass, electric machinery, table 
 ware, aluminum, white lead, and radium industries. 
 Next in importance possibly to the steel and iron are 
 the associated industries of coal, coke, oil, and gas 
 and numerous special industries in smaller numbers 
 which have sprung up because of these resources of 
 the region. The latest statistics available, those of 
 1909, furnished by the local Chamber of Commerce, 
 list these various small industries at 211. In addi- 
 tion to these there were in that year 391 bakeries, 
 248 tobacco manufacturers, 19 slaughtering and 
 meat-packing houses, 324 printing and publishing 
 establishments, 24 paint and varnish concerns, 20 
 manufacturers of confectionery, 42 steam laundries, 
 7 awning, tent, and sail manufacturing plants, 5 
 rattan and willow ware manufactories, 15 brass and 
 bronze, 41 brick and tile, 40 carriage and wagon, 3 
 engraving, 7 flavoring extracts, 15 flour-mill and 
 grist-mill products, 16 food preparations, 6 fur 
 
170 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 goods, 11 furniture and refrigerator, 3 galvanizing, 
 31 ice, 6 jewelry, 12 leather goods, 6 leather, tanning, 
 currying, and finishing, 8 distilled liquors, 28 malt 
 liquors, 86 lumber and timber products, 36 marble 
 and stone, 3 millinery and lace, 53 mineral and soda 
 waters, 13 models and patterns, 39 druggists' prep- 
 arations, 6 photo-engraving, 8 fire-clay products, 8 
 shipbuilding and boatbuilding, 11 soap, 11 statuary 
 and art goods, 9 surgical appliances and artificial 
 limbs, 5 wall plaster manufactories, and in addition 
 numerous pickHng and preserving plants, one of 
 which, the largest of its kind in the world, furnishes 
 employment for approximately four thousand peo- 
 ple. These few obsolete statistics culled from the 
 mass indicate the gross industrial characteristics of 
 metropolitan Pittsburgh. 
 
 To supply the demands of these industries and 
 the unmentioned others, Pittsburgh proper has, 
 according to the latest statistics available, 56 pri- 
 mary parochial schools, 125 primary public schools, 
 1 parochial secondary school, 2 industrial schools, 12 
 private schools, 11 commercial schools, 3 theological 
 seminaries, 1 college, 1 technical school, and 2 uni- 
 versities, a total of 219 more or less distinct pieces 
 of machinery forming the educational equipment 
 of the district. i 
 
 The absolute accuracy of these figures cannot be 
 vouched for. Repeated attempts at authentication 
 
THE PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY 171 
 
 failed to reveal any one place in the city of Pitts- 
 burgh or any one organization possessing full data 
 concerning the number of schools and the character 
 of the same. The local board of education did, of 
 course, promptly furnish figures covering the schools 
 immediately under its jurisdiction, and stated fur- 
 ther than this that, since it had no jurisdiction over 
 other schools, it had no knowledge of the kind or 
 number of those in existence. No better example of 
 the lack of coordination and cooperation could be 
 desired. Nor is this any more true in the case of 
 Pittsburgh than in the case of other cities. Boards 
 of education know nothing about that educational 
 equipment over which they exercise no authority, 
 and appear to care even less. As a result duplica- 
 tion and consequent waste through ignorance in- 
 evitably follow. 
 
 Impossible as it was to secure accurate statistics 
 concerning the educational equipment of the city of 
 Pittsburgh alone, even more impossible was it to 
 gather statistics covering the educational equip- 
 ment now existing within the roughly defined bound- 
 aries of our proposed university unit, the Pitts- 
 burgh community. 
 
 Such wholesale lack of accurate knowledge can 
 only indicate that the educational business is con- 
 ducted without any general stock-taking and with- 
 out any reckoning of either assets or liabilities. It is 
 
172 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 scarcely possible to imagine a business organization 
 operating in this way. If an enterprise undertook 
 to do so, however, it would in all probability operate 
 with no more success and with no greater economy 
 than does our present educational business. In short, 
 the educational system in our municipalities, of 
 which that operating in Pittsburgh is a fair example, 
 is a disorganized, uncorrelated jumble, all variety 
 and no unity, and as unlovely when contemplated 
 in this light as it is inefficient. 
 
 However, let us return once more to the gross 
 physical characteristics of our Pittsburgh commu- 
 nity, in order that we may ask, quite apart from any 
 question of organization, how has the educational 
 system reckoned with these? The answer is not 
 difficult to find. The curricula of the Pittsburgh 
 public schools show few variances, in fact, none of 
 importance from those operating in the public 
 schools of other communities not possessing an 
 industrial bent. Nor does further search reveal any 
 organized endeavor to shape by special emphasis 
 the output of the schools definitely to qualify for 
 specialized early vocational service. The truth is 
 forced that while the bent of the Pittsburgh com- 
 munity has been rapidly developing, the educational 
 system has virtually remained stationary. 
 
 But, argue the protagonists of the present system, 
 the bents of communities are constantly changing. 
 
THE PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY 173 
 
 Consider St. Louis, Chicago, and more to the imme- 
 diate point, Detroit. Surely no educational system 
 can properly function if it be continually changing 
 to keep pace with the flux and flow of industries. If 
 we admitted the soundness of this reasoning, which 
 as the preceding chapters in this volume attest we 
 by no means do, there would still remain this much 
 to be said in way of direct rebuttal. Granted that 
 communities do change in bent. The exhaustion of 
 natural resources compels this in some cases. In 
 others, the growth of new industries effects the mir- 
 acle. This does not vitiate our indictment of the 
 educational system. The system has been impervi- 
 ous to influences other than change. In fact, it has 
 constantly failed to reckon with either growth, 
 evolution, or existence of regional bent. 
 
 In recent years the automobile industries have 
 changed materially the character of many of our 
 Middle Western municipalities, particularly those 
 cities on or near the Great Lakes. However, so far 
 as can be ascertained, no marked changes have come 
 in the system of education as a result of this indus- 
 trial growth. Gary, of course, is an exception which 
 must be noted. But it is questionable if the causes 
 for the changes inaugurated in the school system of 
 Gary can be traced solely and directly to the de- 
 mands created with the establishment of the plants 
 of the Bethlehem Steel Corporation which built the 
 
174 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 municipality. Certainly there are certain grains of 
 truth in the statements of those who contend that 
 our primary and secondary systems of education 
 have not substantially furthered the progress of our 
 communities by training for specialized early voca- 
 tion. The vocational road which must be traveled 
 by approximately ninety per cent of our populace 
 in any municipality of size is strewn with innumer- 
 able wrecks, the natural products of carelessness 
 and ineflSciency in a system which takes little 
 thought of what is its only tenable aim, namely, to 
 produce an adequately equipped supply for a defi- 
 nitely known demand. 
 
 Consequently we cannot believe that to reckon 
 with community bents by analyzing the individual 
 ultimates represented in the communal demands, 
 to delineate courses which shall fit for these ulti- 
 miates, to departmentalize the educational system 
 that the demands of the community may be fully 
 supplied, to facilitate expansion to meet new de- 
 mands whenever such appear, and retraction when- 
 ever the market for certain supplies disappears, 
 would be placing flexibility above sound economic 
 eflSciency. Loss of years, energy, health, and lives 
 we shall some day come to realize can be pre- 
 vented only by reckoning with industrial flux and 
 flow. 
 
 Pittsburgh may be no worse off in respect to its 
 
THE PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY 175 
 
 system of education than any other municipahty of 
 equal size. Unbiased scrutiny, however, leads us to 
 believe that in some respects, at least, especially in 
 correlation and cooperation in its educational work, 
 the Pittsburgh metropolitan district, and likewise 
 the Pittsburgh community, has fallen behind other 
 progressive sections of the country. The results 
 obtained by such a survey as that of education in 
 the State of Vermont, conducted by the Carnegie 
 Foundation, and by the survey of public schools in 
 the city of Butte, Montana, lend weight to this 
 belief. 
 
 To remedy the evil in our formal system of educa- 
 tion, unions have been formed among workmen 
 themselves, to furnish the protection which the 
 educational system has failed to give. These unions 
 fix the years and the hours of labor and the char- 
 acter of the work which shall educate the individual 
 from his entrance as a novice to the time when he 
 shall become a skilled journeyman in his trade. In 
 other words, and especially is this true in the Pitts- 
 burgh community, to supply the many demands of 
 the industries, there has come into being, because 
 of the failure of the formal educational system, an 
 accessory educational system which takes the prod- 
 ucts of the compulsory governmental institutions 
 and forces upon them an additional period of instruc- 
 tion and guidance that they may be fitted properly 
 
176 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 to perform their tasks. This education is carried on 
 under the jurisdiction of practitioners within the 
 industries themselves. From this accessory, indus- 
 trial, educational system some are drafted back into 
 the academic system, and at various points in the 
 latter, individuals are drafted out again into the 
 industries, but here again little cooperation is in 
 evidence. The cooperative plan operating at present 
 in the University of Pittsburgh is, to be sure, an 
 attempt to correlate the two systems, and since it is 
 working in the right direction, it may be productive 
 of some good. But it falls far short of striking to the 
 roots of the difficulties, and it can never wholly 
 obtain all the results desired. The industrial system 
 takes little thought, as a rule, of the preparation 
 which the academic institutions give, and many of 
 the academic institutions regard with ill favor, if 
 they consider at all, the system which attempts to 
 do the work which it should have done. 
 
 No matter how far an individual has proceeded in 
 the training furnished by the primary and secondary 
 schools, he enters the industrial world usually at one 
 point and must fulfill the unionized requirements 
 before he can become a journeyman and a recognized 
 practitioner. In every community and particularly 
 in such an industrial community as Pittsburgh, this 
 forms one of the most serious problems which the 
 formal educational system has to face. If the aca- 
 
THE PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY 177 
 
 demic system could send to the industries men who 
 could compete in an economic way successfully with 
 those members of the unions possessing little formal 
 educational training, the effects upon the unions 
 themselves, to say nothing of the effects upon indi- 
 viduals excreted, would be worth all the effort and 
 the possible additional expenditure incurred by the 
 inauguration of such a system. 
 
 What is needed, of course, in the Pittsburgh com- 
 munity is an application to the educational system 
 of the fundamental principles of economics. As we 
 attempt to grope our way through all the maze of 
 difficulties and as we contemplate the waste of time, 
 of effort, and of men, and the various systems of 
 training such as are exemplified by those operative 
 in the United States Steel Corporation and the 
 Westinghouse plants, we come more and more surely 
 with each attempt to the belief that a governmental 
 educational system must, in order to be successful, 
 take cognizance of the demands within the indus- 
 tries for workmen of various kinds and must edu- 
 cate, in such a way as to supply these demands, the 
 children who come to it for instruction. If this were 
 done, slowly but surely as the supply was provided, 
 the unions would become more and more kindly dis- 
 posed to the system and would come in time to 
 accept its products. The realization would be forced 
 that this output could powerfully strengthen the 
 
178 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 unions themselves in their endeavors to make the 
 world a happier place in which to live. 
 
 In all fairness, it must be borne in mind that the 
 exploitation of the products of our schools, colleges, 
 and universities by the industries, which take the 
 form of such special courses given in manufacturing 
 establishments as we have mentioned, is not a will- 
 ful perversion. Exploitation has been forced by the 
 failure of the system. It is reasonable to suppose 
 that beneficial in a small way as these courses are, 
 the industries would welcome any educational sys- 
 tem which would make wholly unnecessary such 
 specialized industrial training courses as are con- 
 ducted by the industries at the present time. The 
 advantages accruing to the manufacturers from 
 securing men adequately equipped to assume at 
 once a position of responsibility would, we believe, 
 far outweigh any small monetary saving that is 
 accomplished, at the present time, by a system, 
 which constitutes, as it does, exploitation. The criti- 
 cism of these courses lies certainly not at the doors 
 of the industries, but goes back, as we have said 
 before, to the formal system of education. 
 
 The Pittsburgh community is primarily a com- 
 munity with a particular industrial bent, and the 
 Pittsburgh community needs a system of academic 
 education which will not only render exploitation 
 unnecessary, but will also actively apply sound 
 
THE PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY 179 
 
 economic principles. And until this happens, this 
 community, in common with other communities, 
 will continue to remain the same disorderly, wasteful, 
 and unwieldy monstrosity which it is at the present 
 time. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 THE DEMANDS OP THE PITTSBURGH 
 COMMUNITY 
 
 No gross analysis of the demands of the city of 
 Pittsburgh has ever been made, much less an analy- 
 sis of the demands of the Pittsburgh community. 
 The latest census of manufactures of the metro- 
 politan district, by specified industries, was tabu- 
 lated, as we have said, in 1912 and was taken in 1909. 
 And even the reliability of these figures published 
 by the local Chamber of Commerce may admit of 
 reasonable questioning. 
 
 The Chamber of Commerce, in its published re- 
 port, made no attempt to designate other than de- 
 mands in the large. For example, 102 individuals 
 were listed as salaried employees in brass and bronze 
 establishments, and 704 individuals were listed as 
 wage-earners in the same concerns; 121 and 833 
 respectively in confectionery manufacturing plants; 
 and so on throughout the long list of specified indus- 
 tries. Beyond this gross listing there has been, so 
 far as we can ascertain, no analysis made of the 
 diversified demands which even a manufacturing 
 concern engaged in the production of confectionery 
 would present to the educational system for supply. 
 
PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY DEMANDS 181 
 
 The flux and change of the demands of the commu- 
 nity have never been reckoned with, and undoubtedly 
 these demands have been modified each year during 
 the period following the taking of these statistics. 
 And the industries must in many ways have been 
 fronted with the necessity for training individuals 
 in new tasks, of the existence of which no educa- 
 tional system has yet taken cognizance. 
 
 We have already pointed out that the Pittsburgh 
 community, because of its bent, presents special 
 demands for men skilled in vocational work. How 
 large a proportion of the population is required to 
 supply these particular demands is at present un- 
 known, again because of the lack of statistics. But 
 in such a community as this, this specialized de- 
 mand must, perforce, be extremely large; perhaps 
 ninety per cent of the total population would be a 
 fair estimate. 
 
 We have further pointed out that the special de- 
 mands of the Pittsburgh community are deter- 
 mined by the outstanding features of its industries. 
 To-day and for generations to come, these features 
 of the industries will undoubtedly be those pre- 
 sented because of the contents of the earth under- 
 lying the community. Furthermore, it is quite 
 within reason to assume that the bent of this region 
 will remain practically the same for many years, at 
 least until change is necessitated by the exhaustion 
 
182 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 of these resources which have given to the area its 
 particular bent. 
 
 All communities in countries which have gained 
 civilization present certain demands to the educa- 
 tional system for supply. The number of these 
 demands increases or diminishes with the influx and 
 outflow of population, but since they never quite 
 disappear so long as the community persists, they 
 may be designated as "staple." Every community 
 presents staple demands for physicians, bankers, 
 merchants, teachers, lawyers, ministers, etc., as well 
 as for those who fill the earlier vocations. And while 
 the movements of peoples exercise the major influ- 
 ences upon these staples, regional variances also 
 have their effect. Even the staple demands are for a 
 regionally educated product. 
 
 In addition to these staple demands common to 
 all communities, there are in the community of Pitts- 
 burgh various other special demands determined 
 almost entirely by the bent of the district. For 
 example, the resources and industries of the region 
 make especially large demands for men trained in 
 chemistry, physics, electricity, and biology: for men 
 trained to care for the health and welfare of those 
 who work in and develop the industries as well as 
 for those trained to attack the various legal prob- 
 lems which a congregation of people with special 
 industrial interests presents. Of course, this is only 
 
PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY DEMANDS 18S 
 
 a rough general statement, yet the truth of it should 
 be evident to any one conversant with the charac- 
 teristics of the Pittsburgh district. 
 
 It now becomes necessary for us to select from 
 among the late vocations those which are most 
 pressingly demanded by the Pittsburgh community, 
 because of the character of its particular bent, and 
 to weigh each, that we may determine which are 
 worthy of attention by the University, and which 
 are important enough to monopolize that attention. 
 And here it may be said, should the classification 
 seem arbitrary, that judgment has been formed only 
 after long residence and more than two years of 
 intensive study. Nor has the fact been forgotten 
 that the designation of any one field as more im- 
 portant than another ever offers, to those fond of 
 arguments, an attractive opportunity for criticism. 
 Be that as it may, without in the least wishing to 
 engage in any discussion concerning the relative 
 importance of the various late vocations, we believe, 
 since the progress of any community depends, in 
 the end, upon the health and well-being of those 
 who form it, that still it can be said, in all truth, 
 that one of the first duties of a university is to fur- 
 nish an education for late vocationalists interested 
 in the promotion of human welfare, and primarily 
 in the furtherance of public health. 
 
 In any large community, and particularly in the 
 
184 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 community of Pittsburgh, a school of medicine, of 
 the first rank, is an essential. More than this, and in 
 line with the basic principles underlying our pro- 
 posal, we believe that a school of medicine, to func- 
 tion properly, must hold as its ideal service for 
 human welfare in its broadest conception. This con- 
 ception means that our medical schools should do 
 more than provide a large number of special practi- 
 tioners such as we may call, for the time being, 
 "visualizers." They should produce specialized 
 groups — special practitioners in the art of medicine, 
 specialized surgeons, specialized internalists, special- 
 ized laboratory workers and inspectors. And further- 
 more, and of vital importance, they should modify 
 their characters in accordance with the suggestion 
 made by the Carnegie Foundation; that is, each 
 school of medicine should build its character on the 
 peculiar opportunities opened to it by the nature of 
 the area which surrounds it, or, in other words, each 
 school should give the proper amount of considera- 
 tion to regional variances and community bents. 
 
 Tulane University of Louisiana, by placing major 
 emphasis upon the study of tropical diseases, has 
 already embarked upon such a course, as has the 
 Johns Hopkins Medical School in focusing upon the 
 provision of teachers in medicine. We are just at 
 the beginning of this movement, the growth and 
 development of which we believe to be inevitable — 
 
PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY DEMANDS 185 
 
 not only inevitable but also desirable. These changes 
 which we are witnessing are in reality but the appli- 
 cation in this special, late-vocational field of those 
 principles which we advocate applying in every field 
 of education. This being the case, it becomes neces- 
 sary to consider the peculiar character which the 
 regional variance and bent of the Pittsburgh com- 
 munity demand that its medical equipment, partic- 
 ularly the Medical School of the University of Pitts- 
 burgh, should assume. And here, to be brief, we 
 believe that adequate attention to the bent of the 
 local community can be given by the Medical School 
 of the University only by focusing upon that portion 
 of the human-welfare problem presented by the 
 occupational diseases attendant upon industries. 
 
 We would suggest, therefore, that the Medical 
 Department of the University of Pittsburgh accept, 
 as its community-given privilege and duty, the study 
 of occupational diseases; and that, in addition to 
 this, as an accessory feature of the Medical Depart- 
 ment, it emphasize development of medical and 
 nursing agents trained in a social sense. 
 
 Sickness in the broadest sense of the term always 
 invades such territories as are permeated by organi- 
 zations for the study of wage conditions, housing 
 conditions, internal conditions, and the incorpora- 
 tion of the foreign-born in the populace. And as a 
 result there has come in modern times this demand 
 
186 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 for doctors .and nurses possessing the socital sense. 
 This deniimd, while of conipanitively recent origin, 
 lias nevertheless developed with extreme rapidity. 
 As has so often happened before in emergencies, 
 voluntary agents have here accepted and taken up 
 tlie task of producing individuals so trained. Be- 
 cause of this, and because our medical schools have 
 quite neglected the field, the mass of such agents 
 thus produced has been woefully lacking in the 
 knowledge requisite for the satisfactory handling of 
 public-health problems. Quite fittingly, therefore, 
 the School of Medicine in the University of Pitts- 
 burgh, in addition to producing various practitioners 
 and research workers in the general field, might, in 
 order to render the maxinuim service to the com- 
 numity, add the training tJuit would inculcate in the 
 minds of its students knowledge of the great social 
 I)roblems with which they, as practitioners, will be 
 required to deal. 
 
 Most certainly, above all else, the health and 
 welfare of a comnumity should be provided for, and 
 adequate provision can be made only by placing the 
 proper amount of emphasis upon the proper kind of 
 medical and nursing instruction. To summarize, 
 then, the demands of the Pittsburgh community in 
 the field of medicine arc for a university medical 
 school with a definite bent; namely, for one which 
 shall devote the larger part of its attention to the 
 
PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY DEMANDS 187 
 
 study, prevention, and relief of occupational dis- 
 eases, and at the same time for one which shall, in 
 addition to giving its graduates special training in 
 these diseases, give them such instruction as will 
 produce that social sense without which their work 
 can count little for community progress. 
 
 Human welfare and public healLli, however, are 
 not alone promoted by our departments of medicine. 
 Associated with the contribution which these de- 
 partments may make, there is always the contribu- 
 tion which must be made by departments of law. 
 Exactly the same analysis applies in law as has been 
 applied in medicine. The production of those prop- 
 erly trained in jurisprudence is of extreme impor- 
 tance in a community with special industrial fea- 
 tures. 
 
 The community of Pittsburgh requires as a mat- 
 ter of course numbers of general legal practitioners. 
 But in addition to this and more to the point, it re- 
 quires lawyers of peculiar instruction for every field 
 of special work created by the special bent of the 
 community. It has a need for lawyers with a knowl- 
 edge of the problems associated with the rights of 
 industries to the contents of the earth underlying 
 the community. It requires practitioners instructed 
 in the affording of protection to the inventions 
 which are constantly born in an industrial commu- 
 nity. It requires those trained by special instruction 
 
188 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 in patent law. As a matter of fact, the demands 
 which the Pittsburgh community makes upon the 
 legal field are almost as diversified as those which it 
 makes in the medical. And furthermore, even in 
 such a special province as that of patent law, 
 it demands those who understand the problems 
 presented by new discoveries made by research in 
 chemistry, physics, electricity, and biology. 
 
 Possibly of equal importance with the demands 
 which the Pittsburgh community makes for men 
 trained in that phase of law which concerns itself 
 with scientific research and its products are the de- 
 mands which it makes for those trained in other 
 phases of legal education which have to do with 
 wages, with the relations of organized labor to the 
 industries, the relations of imported foreign popu- 
 laces to their home country and to the Federal Gov- 
 ernment, with the peculiar problems of living pre- 
 sented by the incorporation of the foreign-born, 
 with the protection of all immigrants from mal- 
 practitioners who make capital out of the new- 
 comer's lack of knowledge of conditions into which 
 he has been imported. These and many more form 
 a host of special problems, each of which presents its 
 demands to a legal research division in the organ- 
 ized department of law. Up to the present time no 
 adequate equipment has been provided in Pitts- 
 burgh to furnish a supply for such demands. The 
 
PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY DEMANDS 189 
 
 School of Law in the University which now attempts 
 to do this is little more than a low-rate institution. 
 Yet surely the provision of a supply of legally 
 trained specialists is a task worthy of the attention 
 of the University. 
 
 In addition to these special demands for men 
 trained in medicine and law, the Pittsburgh com- 
 munity presents still others of supreme importance. 
 These demands come largely from the industries 
 and are for higher vocationalists trained in those 
 sciences upon which the progress of the industries 
 themselves depends. The bent of the Pittsburgh 
 community forces these demands for those possess- 
 ing knowledge first of chemistry, then of physics, 
 then of electricity, and of biology. And basing these 
 requirements in the sciences there is the ever-increas- 
 ing demand for research and for research workers in 
 the scientific and industrial fields. In fact, so pro- 
 nounced is the bent of the region that these demands 
 may be fittingly termed "Pittsburgh staples." 
 
 Here we come at once to that great opportunity 
 which peculiarly belongs to the University. The 
 establishment of the Mellon Institute and School of 
 Specific Industries marked a long step in progress in 
 this direction. As a result, what is needed now is 
 not so much physical equipment as the spirit of re- 
 search — that spirit which should permeate any 
 institution founded with research for its primary 
 
190 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 purpose, that spirit which should insist that such 
 an institution project the highest ideals in chemistry 
 and yet be not prodigal of its own rights and re- 
 sources. This spirit, were it fostered in the Pitts- 
 burgh community equipped as it is with the Mellon 
 Institute, would insist that there should be made 
 from the industries a return to the institution of 
 funds to be utilized in pushing still farther into un- 
 known fields. And in this respect it may be said 
 that what is applicable to chemistry applies equally 
 in physics, in electricity, and in biology. Biology 
 to-day is after all but a department of chemistry, 
 and who at the present time is able to place any 
 limitation upon its province? It invades all depart- 
 ments of human study. 
 
 The analysis which we have suggested, while hav- 
 ing its greatest bearing upon the early vocationalists 
 or skilled laboring vocationalists, would have a most 
 significant local application in the chemical field. 
 One need only be mildly sensitive to industrial and 
 scientific requirements to know that the most vital 
 factor in the future of coal and oil and their by- 
 products, in iron, in steel, and in gas, lies within the 
 chemical room of each industrial plant. Industries 
 have been slow to accept the innovation, but with 
 the increasing knowledge of its necessity, the enthu- 
 siasm has now become so pronounced that the de- 
 mand for chemists has enormously increased. The 
 
PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY DEMANDS 191 
 
 industries are recognizing that analysis of deficien- 
 cies, synthesis for better products, and experimenta- 
 tion are most necessary to sustain industrial life. 
 
 An examination of the chemical literature reveals 
 how sound this judgment of the industries is. To- 
 day we approach life through general and physical 
 chemistry, radioactivity, electrochemistry, inorga- 
 nic chemistry, analytical, chemistry mineralogical 
 and geological chemistry, metallurgy and metal- 
 lography, organic chemistry, biological chemistry, 
 foods, water, sewage and sanitation, soils and fertil- 
 izers, fermented and distilled liquors, pharmaceuti- 
 cal chemistry, acids, alkalies, salts and sundries, 
 glass and ceramics, cement and other building ma- 
 terials, fuels, gas, tar and coke, petroleum, asphalt 
 and wood products, cellulose and paper, explosives 
 and explosions, dyes and textile chemistry, paints, 
 varnishes and resins, fats, fatty oils and soaps, sugar, 
 starch and gums, rubber and allied substances. It 
 will be noted that over fifty per cent of these sub- 
 jects for chemical research are necessary in the 
 sustaining of industrial life. 
 
 The community which is not alive, through both 
 its academic and industrial branches of its educa- 
 tional system, to the demands that are yearly being 
 created by research, cannot hope to compete with 
 other communities of like size. From every angle by 
 which we have approached the local educational 
 
192 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 system we have come ultimately to this conclusion, 
 that Pittsburgh has failed to father the research that 
 must precede progress. Its industries have pro- 
 gressed, it is true, but the expert chemists who have 
 contributed to this progress have been, in large part, 
 imported into the Pittsburgh community. 
 
 For men trained in medicine, in law, and in chem- 
 istry, then, the Pittsburgh community makes its 
 most urgent demands. In the provision of a supply 
 to meet such demands reside the greatest opportu- 
 nities for the University. 
 
 That we have not made special mention of either 
 mining, dentistry, or the domestic vocations may 
 seem an unpardonable oversight. The reason for 
 this omission, however, is that we believe the sup- 
 plying of demands in these vocations to be of second- 
 ary importance; the task relegated to that position 
 by the bent of the community and by the equipment 
 which already exists in the district for the produc- 
 tion of the supply. The demands in mining, for in- 
 stance, are well cared for by the Carnegie Institute 
 of Technology — in fact, far better cared for than the 
 University can ever hope to provide for them, with 
 the other greater problems demanding attention. 
 The Carnegie Institute, with its equipment and now 
 with its neighboring Federal Bureau of Mines, can 
 be trusted to supply demands in this particular 
 field. It would be fitting for the University to leave 
 
PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY DEMANDS 193 
 
 this work solely to these institutions. Dentistry 
 may be looked upon as a department necessarily 
 incorporated with a department of public welfare 
 and included with the departments of medicine, 
 nursing, and pharmacy. The training of students for 
 the various domestic vocations as for mining and 
 engineering should, we believe, be left to the Car- 
 negie Institute of Technology already far more 
 adequately equipped than the University for this 
 work. 
 
 The furnishing of a supply to meet the agricul- 
 tural demands of the Pittsburgh community might 
 well be the task of such institutions of special agri- 
 cultural bent as would exist within the boundaries 
 of the proposed university unit were those lines 
 drawn. 
 
 The great demand for administrators which is 
 made by the Pittsburgh community and which has 
 not been heretofore dealt with is entitled to special 
 consideration. The outstanding obstacle in the way 
 of providing administrators is the breadth of the 
 field. The administrative vocational field is as broad 
 as the whole field of education itself. Special equip- 
 ment for each special administrative position has 
 become a part of the modern requirements. Because 
 of this, we do not feel competent to dictate even in 
 mildly dogmatic terms what should be done with 
 the problem, but it seems plausible that the training 
 
194 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 of business administrators can best be accomplished 
 by making a thorough canvass of the practitioners 
 and by allowing those most efficient in various ad- 
 ministrative capacities to assist in the delineation of 
 courses. Surely the practitioners of efficient business 
 administration are, like the practitioners in the other 
 late vocations, best fitted materially to assist in such 
 a delineation. The determination of both requisites 
 and electives, here as elsewhere, we believe, should 
 be made by a majority vote of the practitioners. 
 Also it would seem that, in the reconstruction of 
 the educational system of any community, a special 
 department for the presentation of subjects common 
 to all administrative work would be a necessary 
 correlative of each department. 
 
 In many of our large industries the administrators 
 have come up from the ranks of the technicians and 
 the early vocationalists. Promotion has been mer- 
 ited by the peculiar ability for administration and 
 leadership which the individuals have displayed. 
 Those who take modern courses of business admin- 
 istration often fail and are shifted into other depart- 
 ments because of their lack of technical knowledge 
 required to accomplish the task which they have 
 undertaken. Some there are who even go so far as 
 to maintain that administrators are born, not made. 
 In part this may be true. The administrative fac- 
 ulty may be to some extent inherent, but it must 
 
PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY DEMANDS 195 
 
 also be true that education can be of service in de- 
 veloping and training that faculty. Indeed, the 
 problem is a complex one. And yet we believe that 
 the day has come to make a beginning at a delinea- 
 tion of courses by analysis, to cull information from 
 those who are prominent in the various administra- 
 tive fields, and to build our highway, which the feet 
 of those who elect an administrative ultimate must 
 follow, out of the material which those who have 
 passed before can furnish. 
 
 In the chapter dealing with delineation of courses, 
 we have already endeavored to show that with this 
 proposal there is no minimizing of the difficulties 
 which would be encountered because successful men 
 have not been asked to think in terms of educational 
 equipment. But here again, let it be said that we 
 still believe that were this process begun, it would 
 not be long until men began to think in such terms. 
 The practitioner has had little to say concerning the 
 training of his voice, but if given the opportunity 
 and urged to do so, it is quite within reason to be- 
 lieve that he would soon welcome the opportunity 
 to raise that voice both in defense and in condemna- 
 tion of certain methods of training. 
 
 It will be readily seen that we believe the oppor- 
 tunity presented to the University of Pittsburgh by 
 the demands of the Pittsburgh community is, first, 
 to choose those departments which are of distinctly 
 
196 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 university character and which bulk largest in the 
 demands, and devote its attention to these; second, 
 in the broadest spirit, to allow for, and further, the 
 development of those institutions of peculiar char- 
 acter which fulfill the function and provide for rare 
 demands; and third, to exert all its endeavors to 
 correlate, to avoid duplication, waste, and needless 
 competition. 
 
 The equipment which exists in the Pittsburgh 
 metropolitan district for the supplying of men 
 trained to meet such special late-vocational de- 
 mands as we have mentioned is far from adequate. 
 The Mellon Institute in which industrial research is 
 carried on was not founded primarily to train chem- 
 ists for broad fields of work, but was instituted 
 rather to aid the industries to become more efficient 
 by utilizing waste and perfecting products and by- 
 products. The Department of Chemistry in the 
 University of Pittsburgh has from its inception been 
 struggling against many odds. The lack of equip- 
 ment, the lack of space, in many instances the lack 
 of properly trained men, the latter lack the direct 
 result of small salaries, have all operated against the 
 growth of this department which should be one of 
 the most serviceable and powerful in the institu- 
 tion. The departments of chemistry maintained 
 by other institutions in the district, regardless of 
 how well organized they may be, exhibit no evidence 
 
PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY DEMANDS 197 
 
 that the proper amount of emphasis has been placed 
 upon this branch of education. 
 
 What is true in the case of chemistry is equally 
 true in the case of physics and the biological sci- 
 ences. In other words, nowhere in the Pittsburgh 
 metropolitan district is there a department of chem- 
 istry, biology, or physics outstanding enough to be 
 known to the members of the community or to a 
 wider circle. If we allow our minds to travel to the 
 city of Baltimore, what we are endeavoring to pre- 
 sent will at once be clear. The moment Baltimore is 
 mentioned, the work of Johns Hopkins University 
 in the field of medicine comes to mind. The de- 
 mands of Pittsburgh are of such a character that 
 were these demands adequately supplied by local 
 equipment, the mention of Pittsburgh would imme- 
 diately suggest the opportunities open here for the 
 study of chemistry and these other sciences. 
 
 Pittsburgh may mean to the world steel, iron, 
 coal, coke, oil, and gas, but the world recks not of 
 the Pittsburgh educational equipment. This equip- 
 ment should, however, mean to the world chemistry, 
 physics, biological sciences and law in the gross. It 
 should mean a community educational system based 
 upon an analysis of the demands and the individual 
 ultimates: a departmentalized educational system 
 by means of which waste has been eliminated: a 
 benign circle working, through a municipal founda- 
 
198 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 tion for the study and advancement of community 
 education, to the industries through its bureaus of 
 analysis, statistics, and supply: a source of informa- 
 tion and therefore a source of power to the Federal 
 Government. If this could be accomplished, in a 
 city possessing such great potentialities, the fame of 
 Pittsburgh's educational system would be as wide- 
 spread and as merited as is the fame of its industrial 
 accomplishments. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 THE OPPORTUNITY FOR THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 In the preceding chapters of this volume we have 
 attempted to indicate a simple plan for applying 
 the fundamental principles of economy to the edu- 
 cational system. We have endeavored to show that 
 such an application would result in a departmental- 
 ization of the entire system, and in a delineation of 
 courses running throughout it based upon an analy- 
 sis of ultimates with a due regard for the laws of 
 supply and demand, and the bent of the given com- 
 munity. We have suggested further that the proper 
 agents to employ in such an endeavor would be 
 municipal foundations for the study and advance- 
 ment of community education. We have raised the 
 questions as to where the work of such foundations 
 should begin and where such institutions should 
 reside, and have briefly answered them with the 
 assertion that the most fitting, and perhaps the only 
 reasonable, place of residence for activities so large 
 and so purposeful for service should be in the high- 
 est, or what should be the highest, educational insti- 
 tutions in the communities, namely, the universi- 
 ties. We have offered as a reason for this assertion 
 the fact that it is from these parts of our educational 
 
200 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 equipment that those who have elected the latest 
 ultimates in the demands of the community pass out 
 of the formal educational system. For this reason, if 
 for no other, our universities should be the abiding- 
 place of those institutions engaged in that research 
 which must precede all important advance made 
 by the community as a whole. Within these should 
 be developed new alignments, proved feasible by 
 research. From these should radiate a spirit of 
 kindness and helpfulness and information pointing 
 the way to the soundest line of progressive evolu- 
 tion for the race. 
 
 In the present chapter we will endeavor, so far as 
 is possible, to sketch some of the effects which the 
 application of these principles of economics would 
 have were this application made to the University 
 of Pittsburgh, arid, at the same time, consider 
 some of the opportunities which the furthering 
 of such a plan would open to that institution. It 
 is, of course, inconceivable that the University of 
 Pittsburgh or any other single university can edu- 
 cate for the world. On the other hand, it is quite 
 conceivable that the University of Pittsburgh can 
 educate the world by educating for its own com- 
 munity. 
 
 The examination of the conditions in the local 
 university made by the survey organization revealed 
 how inadequately is that institution functioning at 
 
OPPORTUNITY FOR THE UNIVERSITY 201 
 
 the present time. To summarize in this regard, let 
 us begin with that portion of equipment dedicated 
 to the fitting of those entering late vocations. Here 
 the Graduate School, far more formidable in the 
 printed catalogue than in reality, is able to keep 
 alive only with the utmost difficulty. The introduc- 
 tion into this field of an industrial department in 
 graduate work has so perplexed the cultural group 
 that, up to the present, they have been quite unable 
 to establish any sound working basis upon which to 
 build a graduate entity . More than this , the various 
 schools feeding the graduate body are so dissociated 
 that an individual, majoring in one subject, and 
 calling for advice and guidance in the work which he 
 must follow, finds himself tossed back and forth 
 between these uncorrelated and competing groups. 
 Proceeding to the next group of so-called 
 ** schools" within the University, Medicine, Law, 
 Dentistry, and now struggling to enter, the School 
 of Pharmacy, we find the same lack of coordination. 
 The survey, in its process of analysis here, made a 
 tabulation of the subjects taught within these 
 schools. This tabulation revealed, in the first in- 
 stance, gross extravagances: to wit, nearly all the 
 subjects taught in the primary years of medicine, 
 for example, are taught as well in the primary years 
 of dentistry. Histology, physiology, pathology, 
 chemistry, and others are duplicated. In pharmacy. 
 
202 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 we find again duplication in therapeutics, pharma- 
 cology, physiology, and chemistry. In fact, every- 
 where, duplication, lack of coordination and extrav- 
 agance were in evidence: extravagance that could 
 find no argument for its warrant save that of ease 
 of administration as long as the University flounders 
 under its present form of organization. 
 
 By pressing still farther in our analysis to those 
 schools which stand between the semi-graduate and 
 secondary schools of the local institutions, we arrive 
 at the conclusion that here attempts at departmen- 
 talization have proceeded farthest. Here conditions 
 within the University may be considered typical, in 
 the main, of those which obtain elsewhere. In the 
 University of Pittsburgh we have five so-called 
 ''undergraduate" schools — the College, the School 
 of Education, the School of Economics, the School 
 of Mines, and the School of Chemistry. These schools 
 are interdependent, yet each, in varying degrees, 
 duplicates the work of others. Each is filled with 
 suspicion and fear lest another encroach in some way 
 upon its own particular territory. The College feeds 
 all. For instance, in a meager department of biology 
 this school attempts to provide courses demanded 
 by all the remaining undergraduate schools as well 
 as those courses of special type demanded by the 
 higher schools, and those leading through to post- 
 graduate fields of endeavor. 
 
OPPORTUNITY FOR THE UNIVERSITY 203 
 
 Quite apart from the effects which this lack of 
 correlation, with its attendant duplication and 
 wastefulness, has upon the budget are its effects 
 upon legislation and progress. This is an aspect 
 which cannot remain unmentioned. No advances 
 can be made in these undergraduate schools without 
 proposals going through the hands of a group of 
 administrators in the school body, then through a 
 group of University administrators, then through a 
 board of trustees. Proposals for changes must follow 
 this course. Truly the legislative way is a long and 
 devious one, but the evil ends not here. It is as 
 inequitable as it is cumbersome, for the legislation 
 is at the mercy, first, of a biased, partisan group, 
 second, of a jealous, dissociated group, and third, 
 of a preoccupied, largely uninterested group. 
 
 However, it is not our purpose here to indulge 
 in criticisms. It is rather to call attention to the 
 opportunities open to the University of Pittsburgh. 
 Were departmentalization, such as has been sug- 
 gested, a reality at the present time rather than a 
 suggestion, many of the difficulties which have 
 arisen because of the dissociated organization of the 
 institution would be non-existent. Also with depart- 
 mentalization, that motley group which to-day we 
 call '* schools," each competing with the other, dupli- 
 cating equipment and creating immeasurable waste, 
 would be coordinated and the wastage and duplica- 
 
204. A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 tion prevented. In the graduate department alone, 
 the accomplishment of departmentalization and 
 reorganization, regardless of the amount of time 
 required to extend the departmentalization through 
 to the primary schools of the city and of the commu- 
 nity, would bring advantages well worth all the ex- 
 penditure of effort which might be demanded in 
 the endeavor. 
 
 By referring to the chart at page 137, we shall see 
 that each subject of sufficient importance would 
 form a department for the whole community and 
 that this department would have its administrative 
 head in the highest educational field. Under such 
 a system the student entering at the bottom would 
 find his emergence facilitated by the autonomy al- 
 lowed within each department. Once such a student 
 had placed himself in the hands of student guides, 
 possibly under the general direction of the Univer- 
 sity Registrar, his way would be made easy, at least 
 to the extent that he would not be forced to cope 
 with the unnecessary interference of the present 
 system. He would become a student of an educa- 
 tional system able to project him into a community 
 adequately fitted to undertake his work in life and 
 qualified to assume his communal responsibilities. 
 Not only would the difficulties at present arising 
 between the graduate and late-vocational or pro- 
 fessional schools, as they are now called, fall away 
 
OPPORTUNITY FOR THE UNIVERSITY 205 
 
 by departmentalization, but the extravagance 
 caused by duplication here would also disappear. 
 In the semi-graduate schools, if departmentaliza- 
 tion were a reality, this prodigality and duplication 
 would again be obviated. Those arguments, born 
 of jealousy and suspicion, which waste so much of 
 the time and thought of the present administrators 
 and by so doing frustrate constructive legislation, 
 would be abruptly closed. The time which is now 
 spent in wrangling over school encroachments and 
 school progress would be devoted to furthering the 
 interests of the student by clearly defining a course 
 for his pursuance from his entrance to his gradua- 
 tion which would fit him to undertake his chosen 
 task. 
 
 Were the municipal foundation for the study and 
 advancement of community education a reality and 
 actually in residence at the University of Pittsburgh 
 its early course in the local field would be clear. 
 One of its first tasks would be to stop such duplica- 
 tions as already exist as a result of the present faulty 
 system of administration. Such a work, because 
 of the hold which the establishment of so-called 
 ** schools" has obtained, would devolve upon the 
 foundation as an imperative duty. The duplication 
 already discovered in the course of this investiga- 
 tion and the further plans for duplication of depart- 
 ments which are known to be imminent are among 
 
206 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 the most serious menaces to the development of the 
 local University as a whole and to the development 
 of any adequate educational system for the com- 
 munity. And herein lies one great opportunity for 
 the University to place itself upon a sound basis of 
 business eflSciency first, and by so doing become in 
 its administrative departments a model of business 
 administration, that it may be able to command the 
 respect of well-conducted industrial organizations. 
 No institution which fails to apply the soundest 
 principles of organization can hope to command the 
 respect or greatly further the interests of a commu- 
 nity which demands, among other things, adminis- 
 trators trained in the principles of scientific admin- 
 istration and organization. Slipshod and slovenly 
 methods of administration, congested and disorderly 
 oflSces, and obvious evidences of waste and duplica- 
 tion may not greatly hinder the development of a 
 training school for clerks, provided the taxpaying 
 community can be kept in ignorance of how great are 
 the discrepancies between the theories taught and 
 the practices followed. But how much more power- 
 ful would such a school become were the principles 
 which the student must, in order to achieve success, 
 apply to that work for which he is being trained, 
 applied within the walls of the school itself : that is 
 to say, were the school placed on a sound economic 
 and eflScient administrative basis. Surely if the 
 
OPPORTUNITY FOR THE UNIVERSITY 207 
 
 function of the university is to educate, it must lead 
 rather than follow, and it can only lead by preaching 
 the best and by following its preachments. It must, 
 in its organization, present to the community a model 
 to which all members of the community interested in 
 organization can turn for suggestion and guidance. 
 Let us now consider for a moment the secondary 
 schools which feed these schools of the University. 
 Here the largest excretion of our populace takes 
 place and here, during the past few years, the reor- 
 ganizers have concerned themselves largely with 
 that proportion of the student body which is so 
 excreted. In an early chapter we have already dwelt 
 somewhat at length upon this trend and the greater 
 attention which has been given to the furthering of 
 the interests of those forced by circumstances or 
 inclination into training for an early vocation, en- 
 trance to which must be made through the second- 
 ary schools. This increased consideration given by 
 these schools to vocational guidance, however inade- 
 quately they may have coped with the problem, has 
 unquestionably been proper. On the other hand, it is 
 equally true that an important part of the duty of a 
 secondary school, perhaps the highest duty it has 
 to perform, is to hold to the same provision for the 
 smaller percentage — those who desire to reach 
 higher fields of learning; in other words, to facilitate 
 the emergence of this ambitious and more fortunate 
 
208 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 smaller percentage. The old, absolute, pre-profes- 
 sional ideal for the secondary schools was certainly 
 productive of evil. A new, absolute, vocational idea 
 would be equally disastrous. Both early vocational 
 and pre-late vocational ultimates must be reckoned 
 with. 
 
 Another fact is outstanding One need only glance 
 at the reports of the State Departments of Educa- 
 tion throughout the country, or more particularly, 
 for present purposes, the report of the Department 
 of Education of the Commonwealth of Pennsylva- 
 nia, to realize how numerous are the discrepancies 
 existing between the best and the poorest of the 
 secondary schools. And yet the University group of 
 undergraduate schools, despite this, is compelled 
 to accept, or rather from choice does accept, largely 
 without discrimination, the output from all the sec- 
 ondary schools no matter how poor in grade they be. 
 At times, it is true, discriminations have been made 
 against graduates of certain common schools, but 
 an examination of the records in the office of the 
 Registrar of the University showed that such were 
 rare occurrences. Despite this fact, many of the 
 secondary schools are distressed if the University 
 attempts to raise its standards, and the University, 
 at times, complains of the slowness with which the 
 secondary schools meet the demands of higher 
 standards. 
 
OPPORTUNITY FOR THE UNIVERSITY 209 
 
 Here, once more, were departmentalization ap- 
 plied throughout the educational system, such dis- 
 crepancies existing in high schools and such dissen- 
 sions between these schools and the higher institu- 
 tions, into which they feed that smaller proportion 
 of their products, would also disappear. And with 
 the passing of these would go the waste which ac- 
 companies the attempts of teachers to make the 
 training presented in schools blanket entire incom- 
 ing groups — groups which include among their 
 members those trained in the best schools and those 
 trained in the poorest. Courses not adapted to indi- 
 vidual students would not be compulsorily forced 
 upon a student, for his lack of receptors for these 
 particular courses would have been discovered 
 earlier and shortly after his entrance into those 
 departments. 
 
 At the risk of becoming monotonous by repeti- 
 tion, let it again be said that a delineation of courses 
 and departmentalization, if attempted eveli in the 
 graduate schools and higher parts of our educational 
 equipment, could not cease before it reached the 
 very foundation of the entire system. The plan is, 
 after all, but the application of the principles of 
 modern organization and human economy to the 
 educational system and is based upon economic laws 
 of supply and demand. 
 
 The opportunities open to the University of Pitts- 
 
210 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 burgh, were it to undertake such a venture, we are 
 convinced, would, because of the opportunity for 
 the broadest service, first, to the community itself 
 and, second, to the Nation, be greater than those 
 possessed by any other institution of learning in this 
 country. Any success obtained would accrue not 
 alone to the institution, for in proportion as was the 
 institution benefited, in like proportion would bene- 
 fits accrue to the community and to the Nation . The 
 Pittsburgh University unit is, we believe, the largest 
 single area east of the Mississippi still unsupplied 
 with an adequate equipment for higher education. 
 The demands of metropolitan Pittsburgh alone in 
 the special fields mentioned would be sufficient, we 
 believe, to furnish work for a powerful university. 
 What greater opportunities could be desired 
 for any university than these open to the Uni- 
 versity of Pittsburgh — opportunities to further 
 the welfare of all the members of the community; 
 to increase, by assisting all rather than a few, the 
 sum total of human happiness within the borders of 
 its unit; to undertake intelligently and sympatheti- 
 cally, first, the task of discovering how it can be of 
 service, and second, how it can, through its own en- 
 deavors, build its foundation on the specific needs 
 existing in the district which it purposes prima- 
 rily to serve! 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS 
 
 In concluding, the survey organization made the 
 following general recommendations : — 
 
 First : That a group of men, interested in further- 
 ing the welfare of the Pittsburgh community, take 
 upon themselves the duty of establishing a muni- 
 cipal foundation for the study and advancement of 
 community education. 
 
 Second: That, if possible, this foundation be 
 placed in residence at the University of Pitts- 
 burgh. 
 
 Third: That funds, adequate for beginning the 
 work of making an analysis of the demands of the 
 community, be provided. 
 
 Fourth : That simultaneously with this analysis, 
 a careful study of the present supply be made. 
 
 Fifth : That the results of these studies be tabu- 
 lated and published for the enlightenment of the 
 community. 
 
 Sixth: That a further analysis be made of the 
 requisites of ultimates present in the demands, and 
 that the results of this analysis be made public, in 
 order that proper assistance may be given all edu- 
 cational institutions operating within the area, to 
 
212 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 delineate courses which shall best fit for the ulti- 
 mates existing in the demand. 
 
 Seventh : That a study be made to delineate ad- 
 ditional courses which are beneficial, in order that 
 these may be grouped in such a way as to be advan- 
 tageously elected. 
 
 Eighth: That the foundation begin its work of 
 departmentalization within the University itself, 
 changing the present university organization and 
 placing it upon a departmentalized basis as rapidly 
 as can be accomplished without revolution and in- 
 jury. 
 
 Ninth : That through results obtained by depart- 
 mentalization here, the University endeavor to ex- 
 tend its departments through the secondary and 
 primary schools. 
 
 Tenth : That all effort be exerted to bring about 
 a thorough departmentalization with the establish- 
 ment ultimately of a board of departments and the 
 application of a democratic representative form of 
 government to the educational system of the unit. 
 
 Eleventh : That the foundation through its knowl- 
 edge gained develop a policy not only for the Uni- 
 versity, but also for the entire system, which shall 
 have for its primary consideration the supplying of 
 the demands made by the bent of the community. 
 
 Twelfth : That existing educational organizations 
 be left as they are at the present time until sufficient 
 
GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS 213 
 
 knowledge has been gained by the foundation in- 
 telligently to begin the work of realignment. 
 
 Thirteenth : That every effort be put forth to se- 
 cure the cooperation, not only of the local board of 
 education, but of all organizations and bodies which 
 have for their function the furthering of the inter- 
 ests of the community, especially the Carnegie Insti- 
 tute of Technology. 
 
 Finally, the survey urges the making of a begin- 
 ning, no matter how small that beginning be. Such • 
 a beginning would not partake of the nature of an 
 experiment, for the principles upon which the work 
 of a municipal foundation for the study and ad- 
 vancement of community education would be based 
 have been tested in other fields of endeavor and 
 found to be sound. The survey organization is not 
 minimizing the obstacles which would of necessity 
 be encountered. But it believes that, by steadily 
 pursuing the course outlined, such difficulties would, 
 one after another, be worn away, and that, in the 
 course of time, with the increasing success of the 
 foundation, the Pittsburgh community would come 
 to regard its educational equipment as its most val- 
 uable asset. Furthermore, each part of this equip- 
 ment would command the highest respect of all the 
 members of the community, not primarily because 
 of its power, but rather because of the service which 
 it would render. 
 
214 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 
 
 Provision for the health and welfare of the com- 
 munity is but a small part of the programme which 
 such a foundation would endeavor to carry out. Yet 
 a community that provides itself with agents pos- 
 sessing a social sense and trained to care for the 
 health and welfare of its populace, and in addition 
 provides preventive measures in the midst of pe- 
 culiar industrial conditions, will, by virtue of these 
 provisions alone, be the great community of the 
 future. We believe, furthermore, that in each com- 
 munity, were this example set by Pittsburgh, there 
 would ultimately appear a group of men of single 
 purpose whose intention would be to further the 
 interests of their own community in the same way : 
 a group which would recognize the fact that the 
 only foundation for an educational system of the 
 community is one which will stand any amount of 
 superstructure and, while fixed in principle, be yet 
 capable of expanding and retracting upon require- 
 ment. The time will certainly come whenever such 
 a group sees that the principles working through the 
 vocational group are those which apply throughout 
 the professional group as well, and that the line of 
 demarkation between professional and non-profes- 
 sional is, so far as fundamental principles are con- 
 cerned, an indistinguishable one. Surely there re- 
 sides in each community a group of men capable of 
 undertaking such a project and willing to embrace 
 
GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS 215 
 
 such an opportunity for service. It only remains for 
 one community to set the example and to prove by 
 the results obtained the feasibility of the plan. 
 
 We have already said, and let it be here reiterated, 
 that the community of Pittsburgh, because of its 
 almost unlimited resources, offers many advantages 
 — possibly more advantages than does many an- 
 other community — for the projection of such a 
 plan. Regardless, however, of which community 
 first makes the endeavor, that community which 
 does will in a short time be far in the lead of any 
 others which may come to embrace a similar oppor- 
 tunity later when the advantages become more 
 widely known. The road to complete success in 
 any community would, of necessity, be a long one, 
 but the distance to be traveled, in view of the 
 immediate beneficial results which would be ob- 
 tained, should not deter from the undertaking of 
 the journey. 
 
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 16. Cole, C. D. H. The World of Labor. A Discussion of the 
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218 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 17. Cubberley, Ellwood P. Public School Administration, 
 Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1916. xviii, 479 pp. 
 
 18. State and County Educational Reorganization, 
 
 Macmillan, New York, 1914, xx, 257 pp. 
 
 19. Dawson, William Harbutt. Municipal Life and Government 
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 20. DeGobineau, Arthur. The Inequality of Human Races. 
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 21. Dewey, John. Democracy and Education. Macmillan, New 
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 22. Eliot, Charles W. University Administration. Houghton 
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 23. "Establishment of a School of Hygiene and Public Health 
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 24. Fife, R. H. The German Empire Between Two Wars. Mac- 
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 25. Foght, Harold W. The Educational System of Rural Den- 
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 26. Froebel, Frederick. Education of Man. D. Appleton & Co., 
 New York, 1894. xxv, 332 pp. 
 
 27. Garner, James Wilford. Introduction to Political Science. 
 A Treatise on the Origin, Nature, Functions, and Organiza- 
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 1910. 
 
 28. Godfrey, HoUis. The Institutional Budget. Department of 
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 29. Hadley, Arthur T. Undercurrents in American Politics, 
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 30. Harrison, Elizabeth. The Montessori Method and the Kinder- 
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 31. Holcombe, Arthur N. State Government in the United States, 
 Macmillan, New York, 1916. xiii, 498 pp. 
 
 32. HoUister, Horace A. The Administration of Education in a 
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 383 pp. 
 
 33. Hughes, R. E. The MaJdng of Citizens. A Study in Compara- 
 tive Education. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1915. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 219 
 
 34. Jones, George Ellis. Training in Education, University of 
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 35. Kerschensteiner, Georg. Education for Citizenship. Rand 
 McNally & Co., Chicago, 1911. 133 pp. 
 
 36. A Comparison of Public Education in Germany and 
 
 in the United States, Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1913, 
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 37. Kingsley, Clarence D. College Entrance Requirements. 
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 38. Lyle, W. T. Economy in the Use of Class Rooms at Lafayette 
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 69. Economy in the Use of Class Rooms at Lafayette CoUegCy 
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 40. Macy, Jesse, and Gannaway, John W. Comparative Free 
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 41. Mann, C. R. Comparative Study of Carnegie Institute of 
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 42. McCann, Mathew B. The Fitchburg Plan of Cooperative 
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 43. Owen, William Baxter. The Humanities in the Education of 
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 44. Parker. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. Ginn & Com- 
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 45. Perry, Arthur Clarence. Modern Use of the School Plant. 
 Russell Sage Foundation, Survey Association, Inc., New 
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 46. Proceedings, Association of American Medical Colleges, 
 Twenty-fifth Annual Meeting, February 17, 1915. 116 pp. 
 
 47. Proceedings, Association of American Universities, Seven- 
 teenth Annual Conference. Published by the Association. 
 72 pp. 
 
 48. Quick, Robert Herbert. Essays on Educational Reforms, 
 D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1896. xxxiv, 568 pp. 
 
220 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 49. Report, Commissioner of Education, 1913, vol. i. Gov- 
 ernment Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1914. liv, 
 931 pp. 
 
 50. vol. II. Government Printing Office, Washington, 
 
 D.C., 1914. vi, 700 pp. 
 
 51. 1914, vol. I. Government Printing Office, Washing- 
 ton, D.C., 1915. xxxviii, 810 pp. 
 
 52. 1915, vol. I. Government Printing Office, Washing- 
 ton, D.C., 1915. XX, 780 pp. 
 
 53. Report of the Commissioners, Royal Commission on Indus- 
 trial Training and Technical Education, C. H. Parmelee, 
 Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 1913, parts i and ii. xvi, 
 437 pp. 
 
 54. part in, vol. i, xvii, pp. 443-1011. 
 
 55. part iii, vol. ii, xxiv, pp. 1011-1633. 
 
 56. part iv, xxv, pp. 1639-2354. 
 
 57. Report, The President's, 1915-16. Cornell University, 
 Official Publications, vol. vii, no. 17, Ithaca, New York, 
 September, 1916. 78 pp., pp. i-lxxxi. 
 
 58. Sanborn, Frank E. The Task for Teachers. Ohio State Uni- 
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 59. Snedden, David. " The Achievements and Shortcomings of 
 the American College." The School Review, vol. xviii, no. 6, 
 June, 1910, pp. 384-94. 
 
 60. — *'The College Man and Current Problems." III. 
 
 *'The New Education," Harvard Illustrated Magazine, Jan- 
 uary, 1913, vol. XIV, no. 4, pp. 2-7. 
 
 61. "Fundamental Distinctions Between Liberal and 
 
 Vocational Education." Proceedings, National Educational 
 Association, St. Paul, Minn., July, 1914, pp. 150-61. 
 
 62. Some Predictions as to the Future of Vocational Edu- 
 cation. Bulletin, National Society for the Promotion of 
 Industrial Education, no. 22, January, 1916, pp. 1-20. 
 
 63. Snyder, Morton. "Schools a Target for Critics." New York 
 Times, Sunday, September 24, 1916. 
 
 64. Stewart, A. E., and Simmonds, V. S. Tuberculosis and In- 
 fant Welfare. An Intensive Study of Eight City Squares. 
 Tuberculosis League of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, 1916. 65 
 pp. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 221 
 
 65. Stowell, Ellery C. Diplomacy of the War of 191^. The 
 Beginnings of the War. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 
 1915. xvii, 728 pp. 
 
 66. White, William Charles. A Unit Plan for Large Municipali- 
 ties. Third Pennsylvania Conference of Tuberculosis Work- 
 ers, Philadelphia, April 4, 1913. 3 pp. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Acids, 191. 
 
 Adenoids, Si. 
 
 Administrators, demand for, 193, 194, 195. 
 
 Air brakes, 169. 
 
 Albumins, 56. 
 
 Alkalies, 191. 
 
 Alleghany Mountains, 167. 
 
 Allegheny, 166. 
 
 Alumni, records, 50; not entitled to special 
 privileges, 101-02. 
 
 Aluminum, 169. 
 
 Ambridge, 166. 
 
 America, 35, 43, 49, 50, 58, 59, 161. 
 
 Analysis, of ultimates, 47-57, 145; of de- 
 mands, 50, 138, 155, 180, 190, 211; of 
 demands of a community, 51; purpose of, 
 62; leads to, 53; feasibility of, 58; of com- 
 munities, 59, 60, 63; methods of, 63; 
 perplexities of, overcome, 64, 67; im- 
 portance of, 71, 93. 
 
 Anatomy, 125, 127. 
 
 Apprenticeship, disappearance of, 8, 13, 17. 
 
 Art goods manufacturers, 170. 
 
 Artificial limbs, manufacturers of, 170. 
 
 Asphalt, 191. 
 
 Aspinwall, 166. 
 
 Athens, 38. 
 
 Autocracy, in boards of trustees, S3; in 
 presidents, 34-35; evils of, how pre- 
 vented, 95. 
 
 Automobile industries, 173. 
 
 Autonomy, municipal, 2, 3; in Germany, 
 4; in America, 5; divisional, 54; in unit, 
 65, 66, 67, 88, 107; local, and equipment, 
 80, 92; in board of departments, 146, 156; 
 in departments, 204. 
 
 Avalon, 166. 
 
 Awning manufacturers, 169. 
 
 Bakeries, 169. 
 
 Baltimore, 9. 
 
 Basis, of educational reform, 47; far edu- 
 cational system, 51; class distinction, 73; 
 upon units might jointly operate, 93. 
 
 Bathing, 81, 
 
 Beaver Falls, 166. 
 
 Bellevue, 166. 
 
 Ben Avon, 166. 
 
 Bent, of community, 17, 68-63; determined 
 by, 60; determining factor in specializa- 
 tion, 62, 67; and university, 69; differ- 
 ences, 87, 89, 90; reckoning with, 92, 150, 
 166; and curricula, 172; changing, 172, 
 173; and medical equipment, 185. 
 
 Bethlehem Steel Corporation, 173. 
 
 Bibliography, 217-21. 
 
 Biological chemistry, foundation of, 56. 
 
 Biology, 138, 189, 190, 197; advances in, 
 30, 31; research in, 32, 188; demands for 
 men trained in, 182. 
 
 Board of Departments, 145, 156, 212. 
 
 Board of Education, in Pittsburgh, 171. 
 
 Boards of trustees, composition of, 33; 
 autocracy of, 34; as debating clubs, 35; 
 function in past, 94; and municipal 
 foundation, 113, 115; in University of 
 Pittsburgh, 203. 
 
 Boston, 59. 
 
 Braddock, 166. 
 
 Brass manufactures, 169; wage-earners 
 in, 180. 
 
 Bread lines, 15. 
 
 Brick manufacturers, 169. 
 
 Bridgeville, 166. 
 
 Bronchitis, 80. 
 
 Bronze manufactures, 169; wage-earners 
 in, 180. 
 
 Brooks, Phillips, 22. 
 
 Bureau of Analysis, 118, 119, 155, 198. 
 
 Bureau of Education, Federal, 114. 
 
 Bureau of Statistics, 119, 155, 157, 198. 
 
 Bureau of Supply, 119-20, 156, 198. 
 
 Butte, Montana, 175. 
 
 Calvarium, 125. 
 
 Canada, Royal Commission of, 11. 
 
 Cancer, 83. 
 
 Carnegie, Pa., 166. 
 
 Carnegie Foundation, 11; surveys, con- 
 ducted by, 12, 175, 184. 
 
 Carnegie Institute of Technology, 76, 77, 
 78, 192, 193, 213. 
 
 Carrick, 166. 
 
 Cellulose, 191. 
 
 Cement, 191. 
 
 Census, 64, 157, 168, 180. 
 
224 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Ceramics, 191. 
 
 Chamber of Commerce, 88, 169, 180. 
 
 Charity aid, 10, 84. 
 
 Charter, for foundation, 116. 
 
 Chemical literature, 191. 
 
 Chemistry, 126, 138, 188, 189, 197, 201, 
 202; importance in study of human, 31; 
 research in, 32; lesson drawn from, 47, 
 66; effect of discoveries in, 125, 127; 
 demands for men trained in, 182; and 
 industries, 190. 
 
 Cheswick, 166. 
 
 Chicago, 69, 173. 
 
 Cholera, 72. 
 
 Christianity, 37. 
 
 Citizenship, 45, 61, 137, 139. 
 
 Clairton, 166. 
 
 Classicism, end of, 42. 
 
 Clearfield County, 167. 
 
 Clothing, 47. 
 
 Coal, 59, 169, 190, 197. 
 
 Coke, 169, 191, 197. 
 
 Colds, 80. 
 
 Columbia University, 92, 106. 
 
 Commercialism, end of, 42. 
 
 Commission, Royal, on the Poor Laws and 
 Relief of Distress, 15; quoted, 16. 
 
 Commissioner of Education, 114. 
 
 Communities, bent of, 17; formation of, 48; 
 demands of, 48-60, 65; requisites of life, 
 62, 63; analysis of, 65; reconstruction of 
 equipment, 67; demands, analysis of, 58; 
 agents in individualizing, 59; in Pitts- 
 burgh, 59-60; waste in, 78, 79; and unit 
 plan, 84; ultimates of, 86, 87; and prog- 
 ress, 91; [demands, how supplied, 142, 
 164; Pittsburgh, 167; staple demands in, 
 182; and research, 191, 192; of the future, 
 214, 215. 
 
 Competition in universities, 21; in private 
 schools, 75. 
 
 Confectionery manufactures, 169; wage- 
 earners in, 180, 
 
 Confucianism, 27. 
 
 Cooperative courses, 43, 176. 
 
 Coraopolis, 166. 
 
 Cornell University, 99. 
 
 Correlation, 64, 57, 66, 67, 68, 75, 86-103, 
 107, 108, 110, 123, 136, 154, 155; in 
 Pittsburgh, 175. 
 
 Counties, Clearfield, 167; Crawford, 167; 
 Preston, 167; Ross, 167. 
 
 Crafton, 166. 
 
 Crawford County, 167. 
 
 Cretinism, 32. 
 
 Criminal, 66. 
 
 Cultural group in education, 23; warfare 
 with vocational group, 24-26; wed with 
 vocational, 44, 46, 214; concessions of, 
 61. 
 
 Curricula, 60, 61, 151; of Pittsburgh's 
 schools, 172. 
 
 Dawson Harbutt, quoted, 4-5. 
 
 Degenerate, 66, 162. 
 
 Delineation of courses, 18, 20, 21. 29, 30, 
 32, 93, 120, 123-134, 163, 165, 194, 195, 
 199, 209, 211, 212. 
 
 Demand, laws of, 49, 199, 209; analysis of, 
 50, 67, 107; of community, 61-55, 68, 
 121, 177; provision for special, 62; 
 failure to recognize, 63, 174; staple, 70, 
 93; agricultural, 193. 
 
 Demands of Pittsburgh community, 180- 
 98. 
 
 Democracy, home of, 35; training citizens 
 for, 36; safeguard of, 94; education and, 
 96, 160; laws of, 97; soundness of prin- 
 ciples, 145. 
 
 Dentistry, 192, 193, 201. 
 
 Departmentalization, 66-68, 93, 103, 113, 
 129, 134, 135-48, 164, 174, 197, 199, 202, 
 204, 205, 209, 212. 
 
 Detroit, 69, 173. 
 
 Diseases, infectious, social, parasitic, 80, 
 81; cardiac, arterial, nephritic, 82; tropi- 
 cal, 90, 184; occupational, 185, 187. 
 
 Domestic vocations, 192, 193. 
 
 Donora, 166. 
 
 Dormont, 166, 
 
 Dravosburg, 166. 
 
 Drexel Institute, 28. 
 
 Duncan, Dr. Robert Kennedy, 121. 
 
 Duquesne, 166. 
 
 Dyes, 191. 
 
 East McKeesport, 166. 
 
 East Pittsburgh, 166. 
 
 Economy, 160. 
 
 Edgewood, 166. 
 
 Edgeworth, 166. 
 
 Education, 10, 159; present general trend 
 of, 11-24; specialized, 16; popular con- 
 ception of, 17; chart showing trend of, 
 19; present-day influences affecting, 25- 
 36; of backward children, 30; effect of 
 research in biology and chemistry on, 32; 
 purpose in, 36, 37-46; definition of, 37; 
 appraisal of, 38; ideals of, 38; John Mil- 
 ton on, 39; and democracy, 160; boards 
 of, 171; economy in, 177; and the ad- 
 ministrative faculty, 196. 
 
INDEX 
 
 225 
 
 Education, compulsory, 12; result of, 12; 
 effect of, 13, 20, 74. 
 
 Education, vocational, 24, 50, 174; for 
 surgery, 124, 125. 
 
 Educational system, failure of, 12, 14, 60, 
 149, 150; tests of, 12, 13, 49; results of, 
 15; English, German, French, American, 
 16; realignment of, 24, 55, 62; of the fu- 
 ture, 40 ; questioned, 43, 172; inadequacy 
 of, 43; combinations with industries, 43; 
 indictment of, 44, 172, 173, 178; duty of, 
 44, 62, 66, 72; gravity of attempting to 
 alter, 45; burdens, 47; community de- 
 mands on, 48, 49, 54; basis for, 51; func- 
 tion, 52; use in eliminating the undesir- 
 able, 57; uniformity in, 63; and the pri- 
 vate school, 73-75; bent of, 89-91; im- 
 portance of, 112; and specialization, 128; 
 and time boundaries, 135-36; and trade 
 unions, 175. 
 
 Educational unit, function, 62. 
 
 Electricity, 182, 188-90. 
 
 Elizabeth, 166. 
 
 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 22; quoted, 164. 
 
 Emsworth, 166. 
 
 Engineering, 50, 126, 193. 
 
 English, 137, 139. 
 
 Engraving, 169. 
 
 Equipment, 199; of individual, 53; com- 
 munity, 55; change, 56, 57, 63; for unit, 
 64, 67, 68, 82; of university, 69; neces- 
 sary amount of, how determined, 71; 
 maladaptation of, 80, 81; of university 
 unit, 89-92, 93, 158-59; and bureaus of 
 foundation, 119, 120; common school, 
 135; educational, in Pittsburgh, 170-72, 
 213. 
 
 Etna, 60, 166. 
 
 Explosives, 191. 
 
 Federal Bureau of Mines, 192. 
 
 Federal Government, 88, 158, 198; as agent 
 in education, 104; relation of foreigners 
 to, 188. 
 
 Fertilizers, 191. 
 
 Finleyville, 166. 
 
 Fire bricks, 169. 
 
 Fire-clay products, 170. 
 
 Flavoring extracts, manufacturers of, 169. 
 
 Flour mills, 169. 
 
 Food, 47, 81, 84; preparations, 169. 
 
 Foundation, Municipal, for Study and 
 Advancement of Community Education, 
 87, 96, 104-122; one function of, 123, 
 124, 129, 133, 134, 146, 147, 154, 156, 
 157. 169, 198, 199, 205, 211, 213-15. 
 
 Foundations, Carnegie, 11, 12, 105; bene- 
 ficiaries of, 95; Russell Sage, 11, 105; 
 Rockefeller, 92, 105, 106; Cleveland 
 Foundation, 105; contributions of, 
 106. 
 
 France, 71, 127. 
 
 Free elective system, 151. 
 
 Froebel, 6, 31. 
 
 Furniture manufacturers, 170. 
 
 Furriers, 169. 
 
 Galvanizing plants, 17C. 
 
 Gary, 28, 92, 152, 173. 
 
 Gas, 59, 169, 190, 191, 197. 
 
 General Education Board, 11. 
 
 Geography, 137. 
 
 German, 138. 
 
 Gilman, President, 9. 
 
 Glass, 169. 
 
 Glassport, 166. 
 
 Glenfield, 166. 
 
 Gonorrhea, 80. 
 
 Government, aim of, 3; of university unit, 
 
 94-103; subject of, 137; election in, 144; 
 
 of educational system, 144-48; Emerson 
 
 on, 164. 
 Great Lakes, 173. 
 Greentree, 166. 
 Gums, 191. 
 
 Happiness, how gained, 38, 39; short cuts 
 to, 40, 41; aim in education, 42, 43; sum 
 total increased, 44, 45, 156, 210; analysis 
 to determine nature of, 47; dependence 
 on group, 48, 49; how increased, 51, 52, 53, 
 63; and mental achievement, 72; and the 
 function of the university, 87; further- 
 ance of, 120, 128, 133, 134; and trade 
 unions, 178. 
 
 Harvard, 7. 
 
 Haysville, 166. 
 
 Hazelwood, 60. 
 
 Health, public, 41, 55, 64, 183, 214; appli- 
 cation of unit plan to field of, 79-85; de- 
 mands for men trained in, 182, 186; how 
 promoted, 187. 
 
 Heidelberg, 166. 
 
 Herron Hill, 60. 
 
 Histology, 201. 
 
 History, 137. 
 
 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 22. 
 
 Holy Land, 38. 
 
 Homestead, 60, 166. 
 
 Hookworm, 33. 
 
 Hygiene, 137. 
 
 Hyperpituitarism, 32. 
 
226 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Ice plants, 170. 
 
 Ideals, 37; of education, 38; of beauty and 
 duty, 39, 40, 41. 
 
 Inbreeding, in universities, 96. 
 
 Independence, of man, 47, 48; limiting, 48. 
 
 Industries, and educational system, 43; 
 special courses in, 44; exploitation of uni- 
 versity products by, 44, 150, 152, 178; 
 development of, 49; analysis for groups, 
 60; characterizing, of Pittsburgh, 69; 
 progress of, under unit plan, 64; effect of 
 foui^ding of new, 71; Louis Pasteur and, 
 71; value of Municipal Foundation to, 
 122; character of, in Pittsburgh, 166; 
 chief, of Pittsburgh, 169, 170; and edu- 
 cational system, 173, 175, 176; of Pitts- 
 burgh, effect on demand, 181; and 
 schools of medicine, 185; rights of, to 
 resources, 187; and chemistry, 190. 
 
 Infant feeding, 10, 80. 
 
 Ingram, 166. 
 
 Internationalism, building unit of, 1-10; 
 relationships, 52, 67, 88, 111, 158. 
 
 Iron, 68, 169, 190, 197. 
 
 Jewelry, manufacturers of, 170. 
 Johns Hopkins University, 9, 184. 
 Junior college, 153, 
 Junior high school, 18. 
 
 Knights, 38. 
 Knoxville, 166. 
 
 Labor, organized, and law, 188. 
 
 Lace manufacturers, 170. 
 
 Laundries, 169. 
 
 Law, 182, 187, 188; school of, in Pittsburgh, 
 
 189, 197, 201. 
 Lawrenceville, 60. 
 Laws, of supply and demand, 49, 64, 65, 
 
 199, 209; dearth of knowledge of, 133; 
 
 effect on educational system, 160, 161; 
 
 failure to reckon with, 174, 177. 
 Leather goods manufacturers, 170. 
 Leetsdale, 166. 
 Liquors, distilled, manufacturers of, 170, 
 
 191; malt, 170. 
 Literature, chemical, 191. 
 Lumber products, 170. 
 Lungs, 126. 
 
 Macaulay, Thomas B., quoted, 35. 
 
 Machinery, electric, 169. 
 
 McKees Rocks, 60, 166. 
 
 Mann, Prof. C. R., 76; report of, quoted, 
 
 77. 
 
 Marble and stone works, 170. 
 
 Marshall, John, 22. 
 
 Maryland, 168. 
 
 Mathematics, 137. 
 
 Measles, 80. 
 
 Meat packing houses, 169. 
 
 Mediastinum, 126. 
 
 Medicine, school of, 184; Johns Hopkins, 
 
 184; University of Pittsburgh, 185, 201. 
 Mellon Institute for Industrial Research, 
 
 121, 122, 189, 190, 196. 
 Metallography, 191. 
 Metallurgy, 191. 
 Milan, 2. 
 Millinery, 170. 
 Millvale, 166. 
 Milton, John, 39. 
 
 Mineral water manufacturers, 170. 
 Mining, 192. 
 
 Ministerial influence, 7, 33. 
 Models and patterns, manufacturers of, 
 
 170. 
 Monessen, 166. 
 Monks, 38. 
 Montana, 175. 
 Montessori, 6, 31. 
 Mount Oliver, 166. 
 Munhall, 166. 
 Municipalities, 2, 3, 4, 6, 68; growth of, 49; 
 
 and unit plan, 64; characteristics, 69, 60; 
 
 causes for waste in, 76, 179; educational 
 
 system of, 172; changing character of» 
 
 173. 
 Mumps, 80. 
 
 New Brighton, 167. 
 
 New Kensington, 167. 
 
 New Orleans, 59. 
 
 Newton School system, report on, quoted, 
 
 15. 
 New York, 28, 69, 107. 
 North Braddock, 166. 
 Noyes, Alfred, quoted, 149. 
 Nurses, school, 81, 139, 186. 
 
 Oakdale, 166. 
 Oakmont, 166. 
 Ohio, 167, 168. 
 Oil, 59, 169, 190, 197. 
 Osborne, 166. 
 
 Paint manufacturers, 169. 
 Panacea, 61. 
 Parkersburgh, 167. 
 Parthenon, 41. 
 Pasteur, Louis, 71. 
 
INDEX 
 
 227 
 
 Pathology, 201. 
 
 Pelvis, U5. 
 
 Pennsylvania, University of, 7. 
 
 Peritoneal cavity, 126. 
 
 Pestalozzi, 6. 
 
 Petroleum, 191. 
 
 Pharmacology, 202. 
 
 Pharmacy, 193, 201. 
 
 Philosophy, changing social, 41. 
 
 Physicians, school, 81, 139; demands for, 
 182, 186. 
 
 Physics, 138, 182, 188, 189, 190, 197. 
 
 Physiology, 125, 127, 137, 201, 202. 
 
 Pickling and preserving plants, 170. 
 
 Pitcairn, 166. 
 
 Pittsburgh, 59, 76; cosmopolitan district, 
 60; the community of, 165-79; metropol- 
 itan district defined, 166, 167, 168, 196; 
 chief industries of, 169, 170; board of ed- 
 ucation in, 171, 172; demands of com- 
 munity of, 180-98; as example, 214; 
 advantages of, 215. 
 
 Pittsburgh, University of, 28, 76, 77, 78, 
 122, 176, 183, 185, 186, 189, 192, 193, 
 195; Department of Chemistry in, 196; 
 opportunity for, 199-210; Graduate 
 School, 201; residence for foundation, 
 211. 
 
 Plasmodium malariee, 33. 
 
 Play schools, 31, 33, 162. 
 
 Plebiscite, 71. 
 
 Pneumonia, 80. 
 
 Poets, 50. 
 
 Politics, effect on educational institutions, 
 25, 26. 
 
 Population, of Pittsburgh community, 
 168. 
 
 Port Vue, 166. 
 
 Practitioners, 100, 124, 134, 156, 184, 186, 
 195; canvass of, 194. 
 
 Preparedness, 158. 
 
 Preston County, 167. 
 
 Princeton, 7. 
 
 Printing and publishing houses, 169. 
 
 Private schools, 18, 73, 74, 75. 
 
 Progress, how measured, 43; course of, 73; 
 how marked, 91; important factor in, 
 108; and revolution. 111; due to, 149; in 
 education, 151; of community dependent 
 upon, 183; long step in, 189; effect of 
 duplication on, 203; school, 205. 
 
 Public health, 41, 55, 64, 214; application 
 of unit plan to 6eld of, 79-85, 182, 183, 
 186; how promoted, 187. 
 
 QuintiliaD, 39. 
 
 Rabies, 72. 
 
 Radioactivity, 191. 
 
 Radium, 169. 
 
 Rankin, 166. 
 
 Rattan manufacturers, 169. 
 
 Realignment, 62, 67, 119, 120, 155, 166, 
 
 200, 213. 
 Receptors, 128. 
 
 Recommendations, general, 211-16. 
 Refrigerator manufacturers, 170. 
 Registrar, 204, 208. 
 Research, 84, 186, 188, 189, 200. 
 Resins, 191. 
 Resources, of Pittsburgh, 168; effects of 
 
 exhaustion of, 173, 181, 182; rights of 
 
 industries to, 187, 188. 
 Rochester, 166. 
 Rockefeller, John D., 11. 
 Romance Languages, 138. 
 Ross County, 167. 
 Rubber, 191. 
 Rural schools, 17, 18. 
 
 Sacramento, 61. 
 
 Sage Foundation, Russell, 11. 
 
 Sail manufacturers, 169. 
 
 Salts, 191. 
 
 San Francisco, 69. 
 
 Sanitation, 191. 
 
 Scarlet fever, 80. 
 
 Scholarships, abuses, 25, 26. 
 
 Schools, function of, 20. 
 
 Schools, junior high, 18, 153; rural, 17, 18; 
 private, 17, 18, 73-75, 170; engineering, 
 60; public. 74; of Pittsburgh, 170. 
 
 Schurman, President, quoted, 98, 99. 
 
 Sewage, 191. 
 
 Sewickley, 166. 
 
 Sharpsburg, 166. 
 
 Shelter, 47. 
 
 Shipbuilding, 170. 
 
 Slaughtering bouses, 169. 
 
 Soap, 191. 
 
 Soap manufacturers, 170. 
 
 Soda-water manufacturers, 170. 
 
 Soils, 191. 
 
 Soup kitchens, 15. 
 
 Space, utilization of, 28, 29. 
 
 Sparta, 38. 
 
 Specialists, 45; age of, 61, 184. 
 
 Specialization, 138, 174, 178; determining 
 factor in, 62; trend toward, 126, 128, 184. 
 
 Springdale, 166. 
 
 Spring garden, 168. 
 
 Starch, 191. 
 
 State aid, 27. 
 
228 
 
 INDEX 
 
 State Universities, political entanglements 
 of, 26. 
 
 Statistics. 51, 54, 57, 81, 93, 139, 156, 165, 
 168-171, 181, 201, 211. 
 
 Steel, 59, 169, 190, 197. 
 
 Stein, Baron von, 4; quoted, 4. 
 
 St. Clair, 166. 
 
 St. Louis, 59, 173. 
 
 Students, right to representation, 97. 
 
 Sugar, 191. 
 
 Supplement, 163-215. 
 
 Supply, laws of, 49, 54, 55, 199, 209; dearth 
 of knowledge of, 133; effect on educa- 
 tional system, 150, 151, 177. 
 
 Supreme Court of Education, 94-96, 121, 
 146, 156. 
 
 Surgery, 83, 124-27, 184. 
 
 Surgical appliances, manufacturers of, 170. 
 
 Surveys, educational, 11; of education in 
 State of Vermont, 12, 175; of Medical 
 and Legal education, 12; Mann, 76-78; 
 Report of Dispensary Aid Society, 
 Tuberculosis League of Pittsburgh, 84; 
 of public schools in Butte, 175; Univer- 
 sity of Pittsburgh, 200, 211. 
 
 Suzzallo, Dr. Henry, quoted, 14, 16. 
 
 Swissvale, 166. 
 
 Syphilis, 80. 
 
 Tableware, 169. 
 
 Tanneries, 170. 
 
 Tapeworm, 33. 
 
 Tarentum, 166. 
 
 Taxpayers, 29, 74, 99, 100, 101, 119, 206. 
 
 Tent manufacturers, 169, 
 
 Therapeutics, 202. 
 
 Thornburg, 166. 
 
 Tile manufacturers, 169. 
 
 Tin plate, 169. 
 
 Tobacco manufacturers, 169. 
 
 Trades, iron and steel, 59, 169. 
 
 Trade Unions, 13; domination of, 133, 175, 
 
 177, 178. 
 Trailer sections, 152, 153. 
 Travelers, 59. 
 Trichina spiralis, 33. 
 Tropical diseases, 184. 
 Tuberculosis, 10, 33, 80; and smallpox 
 
 hospital, 81. 
 Tulane University of Louisiana, 184. 
 Turtle Creek, 166. 
 
 Ultimates, choice of, 20, 39, 51; in educa- 
 tion, 43, 44; analysis of, 47-57, 86, 199; 
 individual, 51-54; of life, 56; varying, 57, 
 135; and the educational system, 70-72, 
 
 87; results following analysis of, 123, 124; 
 selection of, 158. 
 
 Unions, 13; domination of, 133; and educa- 
 tional system, 175, 177, 178. 
 
 United States, 58, 60, 114. 
 
 United States Steel Corporation, 177. 
 
 Unit plan, 3, 54, 63-72; one argument 
 against success of, 66; wider application 
 of, 73-85; attempts to apply in Rtts- 
 burgh, 76; need for application, 78-82, 
 89-103; and experiments, 105-06; in 
 Pittsburgh community, 167-68. 
 
 University extension, 159, 160. 
 
 University, influence upon national 
 thought, 6; government and administra- 
 tion, 8, 98, 99; failure of, 8, 69, 151; duty 
 of, 9, 10, 183; competition in, 21; politi- 
 cal factor, 26; function of, 29; autocracy 
 in, 34, 35, 61; how reorganized, 36; spe- 
 cialization in, 61; as part of unit equip- 
 ment, 68, 70; objections to unit plan, 69; 
 as a private invader, 76; residence for 
 Municipal Foundation, 87, 108; units, 
 89-92, 96. 
 
 University of Pennsylvania, 7. 
 
 University of Pittsburgh, 28, 76, 77, 78, 
 122, 176, 183, 185, 186, 189, 192, 193, 
 195; Department of Chemistry in, 196; 
 opportunity for, 199-210; Graduate 
 School, 201; residence for Foundation, 
 211. 
 
 University unit, structure and governance, 
 86-103, 114, 116, 154; of Pittsburgh, 
 167. 
 
 Utilitarianism, end of, 42. 
 
 Variances, regional, 58-63, 150, 166; not 
 obstacles, 62, 63, 67; in curricula, 172. 
 
 Varnish manufacturers, 169. 
 
 Venice, 2. 
 
 Verona, 166. 
 
 Versailles, 166. 
 
 Visualizers, 184. 
 
 Vocational groups in education, warfare 
 with cultural group, 24-25; provision of 
 teachers for, 29; wed with cultural, 44, 
 45, 128, 214; reply to culturalists, 61. 
 
 Vocationalism, broadening of concept of, 
 21, 22, 23, 30. 
 
 Vocational training, 50, 174, 178-207, 208; 
 for surgery, 124, 125; demands for, in 
 Pittsburgh, 181, 183, 189. 
 
 Wagon manufacturers, 169. 
 
 Wall, 166. 
 
 Wall plaster manufacturers, 170. 
 
INDEX 
 
 229 
 
 War, 1, 10; impetus given to surgery by, 
 127; and the Municipal Foundation, 158. 
 
 Warrendale, 166. 
 
 Waste, in municipalities, 75; by duplication 
 of courses, 76, 78; saved by bureau of 
 statistics, 157, 171; in education, 177; 
 in municipalities, 179; utilization of, 196; 
 elimination of, 197; in University of 
 Pittsburgh, 201, 202, 203, 208. 
 
 Water, 191. 
 
 Wedgwood, Josiah, 22. 
 
 Welfare public, 55, 157, 210; and census, 
 65, 66; and the unit plan, 79, 82, 83; 
 student, 139; demands for men trained 
 in, 182, 186; how promoted, 187; and 
 dentistry, 193. 
 
 West Elizabeth, 166. 
 
 West Homestead, 166. 
 
 Westinghouse Company, 177. 
 
 West View, 166. 
 
 West Virginia, 167, 168. 
 
 Wexford, 166. 
 
 Whitaker, 166. 
 
 White lead, 169. 
 
 Whooping cough, 80. 
 
 Wilkinsburg, 166. 
 
 Willow-ware manufacturers, 169. 
 
 Wilmerding, 166. 
 
 Woodlawn, 166. 
 
 Yale, 7. 
 
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