PRACTICAL nETHODOLOGY Class _iiill2 Book ^ ij the semi- dieresis ( • ), the tilde (^), the cedilla ( >), the suspended bar (^). The teaching of the diacritical marks is work which belongs to reading and primary language and not to spelling. And the main purpose of such work is to give children the ability to use the dictionary intelligently and with facility in pronouncing and getting the mean- ing of words. If the analysis of words has been thoroughly done, the teaching of the diacritical marks offers little or no BASIS AND STEPS IN READING. 71 difficulty. This work is begun near the beginning of the third year and is continued until it is mastered. The methods of teaching reading discussed apply mainly to the preparatory stage of reading. Of these the analytic word method combined with the sentence method is the most pedagogical. The Second Stage of Reading. — In the first stage of reading the emphasis is placed upon oral expression. The greatest effort is made to get the learner started in correct habits of oral expression. The pieces of dis- course dealt with are not, as a rule, important because of the value of the thought they symbolize. In the second stage of reading the emphasis is placed upon the interpretation of the discourse; that is, the greatest effort is made to give the learner skill in getting the thought and feeling the discourse symbolizes. And the discourse dealt with in the main is important because of the value of the thought and feeling it ex- presses. Symbolic and Didactic Discourse. — In the second stage of reading both symbolic and didactic discourse are dealt with, and thus their nature is to be studied in method in reading. Didactic discourse, also called scientific discourse, sets forth truth directly. For instance, if one should say that that man is irritable, ferocious, and cruel, the characteristics of the man are set forth directly and the sentence is a little example of didactic discourse. But if one should say that that man is a tiger, the charac- teristics of the man are set forth indirectly by means 72 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. of a type, and the sentence is a small example of sym- bolic discourse. The tiger is the symbol, or type. Symbolic discourse, also called literary discourse, is that kind of discourse which sets forth truth indi- rectly by means of a symbol, or type. The following will illustrate the two kinds: Whenever a person desires anything very much in- deed but finds out certainly he can not have it, he im- mediately begins to see the undesirable characteristics of it. He begins to under-estimate it. This is the human soul's way of recovery after disappointment. The above is purely didactic. Once upon a time a fox saw some ripe luscious grapes growing upon a vine, and he jumped towards them again and again with the exertion of all his strength in his effort to get them. At length tired out with his useless labor, he said, as he was departing, ' ' they are sour anyhow and I would not pick them up if I should find them in the road." The above is purely symbolic. ''Excelsior," ''Evangeline," "The Great Stone Face," and "The Golden Touch" are other examples of symbolic discourse. Steps in Symbolic Discourse. — In mastering a piece of symbolic discourse as a reading lesson evidently the first thing the learner meets with is the language, whose mastery is the first step. The language directly reveals the picture, or symbol, the mastery of which is the second step. The symbol suggests the leading thought, or theme, whose mastery is the third step. A fourth step is the mastery of the adaptation of the symbol to the BASIS AND STEPS IN READING. 73 theme. And the last step is the oral reading of the selection. Thus every reading lesson which deals with symbolic discourse is like every other one in that the mind takes the following steps in mastering it : 1. The mastery of the language. 2. The mastery of the symbol, or picture. 3. The mastery of the leading thought. 4. The mastery of the adaptation of the symbol to the leading thought. 5. The adequate oral expression of the thought and feeling in the author's own words. The language is mastered in two ways: first, the meaning of the different words in the selection; sec- ondly, the pronunciation of the different words in the selection are to be got in mind. The second step, the mastery of the symbol, means that the details of the picture directly presented by the language are accurately and vividly held in mind. There are several terms used as synonyms for symbol. The terms, picture, type, embodiment, and conception, are thus all more or less in use. This second step is an important one in teaching reading. If the children are ever to learn to read care- fully so as to get what there is in a piece of discourse without going over it again and again, they must be held conscientiously to mastering the details of the picture or sjrtnbol. Many teachers fail sadly in teach- ing this second step well. Every selection which is organized and is well worth spending one's time on as a reading lesson has some leading thought around which all the subordinate 74 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. thoughts cluster. This leading thought is the most im- portant thing in the selection. It is the end and all the rest of the selection is means. It is the message the selection bears to humanity, and the understanding of it is absolutely necessary to the correct interpretation of the selection. It is the key to the interpretation. Therefore, the mastery of the theme in teaching or learning a selection is a very important step, too. The adaptation of the symbol to the theme is its fitness to suggest the theme. Thus the various parts of the picture are chosen because they are good to suggest the theme and make it strong. For illustration, if one says a man is a donkey, he means that the donkey, the symbol, is well adapted to symbolize the stubbornness of the man, the leading thought. Again, if one wished to say very strongly that a certain man is deceitful, and thus should say that man is a hog, the symbol, hog, would not be adapted at all to the leading thought. In leading the learner in mastering the adaptation of the symbol to the theme opportunities present themselves in abundance for rare skill, tact, and artistic teaching. After the four steps studied above have been well taken the learner has well in mind the thought and feel- ing of the selection, and is thus in the proper attitude of mind to read well the selection orally. This he does as the last step. Steps in Didactic Discourse. — The steps the mind takes in mastering a piece of didactic discourse are not quite the same as those it takes in mastering a selection of symbolic discourse. Didactic discourse has no type, or symbol ; and since this is true, steps two and four in BASIS AND STEPS IN READING. 75 dealing with symbolic discourse are absent in dealing with didactic discourse. And step three is not quite the same, for many pieces of didactic discourse do not have a central thought in any such true sense as sym- bolic discourse. Thus the third step is more the mastery of the thought in general than the mastery of a central thought. The mind thus in mastering selections of didactic discourse takes the following steps: 1. The mastery of the language. 2. The mastery of the thought. 3. The oral expression of the thought and feeling in the author's words. Summary. — The following will in general summar- ize the steps in teaching reading, the method employed in the first stage being the analytic word method : I. First Stage. 1^. A mastery of a vocabulary of words as sym- bols of their ideas. 1". Steps with each word. 1^. The advance of the learner's mind in rethinking the old idea. 2^. The advance of the learner's mind in adjusting itself to the written or printed symbol. 3^. The advance of the learner's mind in associating the symbol and the idea. 2\ The interpretation and oral reading of small pieces of discourse made up from the words which the learner has in his vocabulary. 3\ A line of analysis work. 1-. Steps with each word. 76 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 1^. The advance of the learner's mind in rethinking the oral word. 2^. The advance of the learner's mind in analyzing the oral word into its sounds. 3^. The advance of the learner's mind in analyzing the written word into the symbols of the sounds. 4^. The advance of the learner's mind in associating the sounds with their symbols. 4}. Teaching the names of the letters of the alphabet. 5^. Teaching the diacritical marks. II. Second Stage. 1^. The mastery of selections of sjrmbolic dis- course. IK Steps. 1^. Mastery of the language. 2^. Mastery of the type, or picture. 3^. Mastery of the theme, or central thought. 4^. Mastery of the adaptation of the type to the theme. 5^. The adequate oral expression of the thought and feeling the discourse embodies in the words of the author. 2^. The mastery of selections of didactic dis- course. V. Steps. 1^. Mastery of the language. 2^. Mastery of the thought. 3^. The adequate oral reading. CHAPTER V. ILLUSTRATIONS. Advantages. — Good teaching always demands a variety of concrete illustrations, and teaching not abounding in concrete illustrations is always found to lack much in forcefulness and effectiveness. Concrete illustrations make the thoughts stand out in clear relief and bring the desired thruths before the mind with such force and vividness that they are easily retained and reproduced. Therefore, for the help that comes from the study some concrete illustrations will be con- sidered in this chapter. EXCELSIOR. The shades of night were falling fast, As through an Alpine village passed A youth, who bore, mid snow and ice, A banner with the strange device. Excelsior! His brow was sad; his eye beneath Flashed like a falchion from its sheath, And like a silver clarion rung The accents of that unknown tongue, Excelsior! In happy homes he saw the light Of household fires gleam warm and bright; 78 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. Above, the spectral glaciers shone, And from his lips escaped a groan, Excelsior! "Try not the Pass!" the old man said; "Dark lowers the tempest overhead. The roaring torrent is deep and wide!" And loud that clarion voice replied, Excelsior! ^'Oh stay," the maiden said, "and rest Thy weary head upon this breast!" A tear stood in his bright blue eye. But still he answered with a sigh. Excelsior! ^'Beware the pinetree's withered branch! Beware the awful avalanche!" This was the peasant's last Good-night, A voice replied, far up the height. Excelsior! At break of day, as heavenward, The pious monks of Saint Bernard Uttered the oft-repeated prayer, A voice cried through the startled air, Excelsior! A traveler, by the faithful hound, Half-buried in the snow was found. Still grasping in his hand of ice That banner with the strange device, Excelsior! There in the twilight cold and gray. Lifeless, but beautiful he lay, And from the sky, serene and far, A voice fell, like a falling star. Excelsior! ILLUSTRATIONS. 79 The mind, if left to pursue its own course in mas- tering this selection will in general do two things ; first, it will read the selection through as a whole to get a general idea of it; secondly, it will study it through in detail taking the five steps before indicated in master- ing a selection of symbolic discourse. In the mastery of the language the meaning of the w^ords, Alpine, Excelsior, falchion, clarion, spectral, glaciers, lowers, avalanche, monks. Saint Bernard, etc., will be learned; also, the words, passed. Excelsior, Alpine, beneath, falchion, glaciers, pass, lowers, blue, etc., will be mastered as to pronunciation. In the mastery of the picture, or type, the youth with his various attributes, the mountains, the Alpine village, the banner, the happy homes, the glaciers, the old man, the tempest, the roaring torrent, the maiden, the pine-tree's withered branch, the avalanche, the peasant, the monks of Saint Bernard, etc., will be got well in mind in their proper relation. In the mastery of the theme the real meaning of this whole picture will be worked out. What is said in the selection is in all probability not literally true, but it points to a truth beyond the literal meaning. Longfellow is not simply telling about a rash young man who lost his life in climbing the Alps mountains. The selection bears a message to humanity and the picture, or type, suggests this message. Understanding and appreciating this message is what is meant by mas- tering the theme. In the mastery of the adaptation of the picture to the theme the reason for choosing a youth, for starting 80 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. him through the village at night fall, for having him climb a mountain, and for having him lose his life will be shown. Also, the significance of the banner, the village, the maiden, the old man, the pass, the glacier, the torrent, the awful avalanche, the peasant, the monks, the falling voice, etc., will be shown as suggesting and emphasizing the theme. The oral reading of the selection is the last step and should be done carefully and conscientiously. If the other four steps have been well done the learner will be in the best possible attitude of mind for the practice in oral expression. The following is an assignment of such a character in general as to lead the learner in working through Excelsior as a reading lesson: 1. Read the selection through as a whole very carefully and try to get a general idea of its meaning. 2. Master the meaning and pronunciation of any unfamiliar words in the selection. 3. Get in mind accurately the details of the pic- ture presented in this selection. 4. What is the leading thought suggested in this selection? Give good reasons for your opinions. 5. Why is a youth chosen? 6. Enumerate the characteristics of the youth and tell why each is given. 7. What is the significance of the happy homes? of the maiden? 8. What is the significance of the lowering temp- est, roaring torrents, spectral glaciers, pine-tree's with- ered branch, and the awful avalanche? ILLUSTRATIONS. 81 9. Why must the youth lose his life? 10. What is the meaning of a voice that fell, like a falling star? 11. Read orally the selection so as to express the meaning as you understand it. ERASTUS WREN'S VIRTUE. Erastus Wren was virtuous, in spirit and in letter, Was very virtuous and good, and daily growing better; And so immaculate was he, his neighbors, men and maids. They daily looked to see the wings sprout from his shoulder blades. He wouldn't eat rice; he wouldn't drink tea no more than he'd drink rum, For they were grown by heathen hands in darkest heathen- dom; He'd have no fellowship, he said, with men who thus behaved, Nor boom the industries of men so totally depraved. So he lived devoid of coffee and of cocoanuts and spice, And when his folks had lemon pie he never touched a slice; And he'd never taste of pudding; nay, unless, beyond a doubt, The cook deposed and guaranteed all nutmeg was left out. He wouldn't wear cotton shirts at all, because he was afraid The girls who work in cotton mills are sometimes under- paid; And once he thought he'd wear no wool, it gave him such a shock When he was told that one black sheep was found in every flock. 82 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. And he never read the papers, and he never would begin, He said they reeked with wickedness, iniquity and sin; He wouldn't consult the dictionary, nor turn a leaf, not he, Because he said it held bad words no good man ought to see. There was no food for him to eat, no clothes for him to wear, No mental sustenance at all to suit him anywhere; And so he died, — ^the thing to do to round out his perfec- tion, — And not a living man arose to make the least objection.. Assignment. — The following is a general assign- ment adapted to lead the learner in mastering the above selection as a reading lesson : 1. Read the selection carefully as a whole so as to get a general idea of it. 2. Master any unfamiliar words in it both as to meaning and pronunciation. 3. Get carefully in mind the characteristics of Erastus Wren. 4. What is the leading thought of the selection? Give reasons for your opinion. 5. Show the fitness of the picture to suggest the leading thought. 6. Read the selection well orally. THE GOLDEN TOUCH. King Midas loved money very much, but not quite as well as he loved his little child, Mary. He thought yellow gold was the most beautiful thing he had ever seen, and he wanted to get as much of it as he could. Yet King Midas ILLUSTRATIONS. 83 was a very rich man. He had boxes of this yellow money, and every day he looked at it for a long time. Once when he was looking at his gold, and thinking how beautiful it was, he saw a man standing by his side. "You are very rich. King Midas," said the man. "Well, yes; I have some money," said the King. "Do you care for more?" said the man. "Oh, yes," said King Midas, "I have only a very little, after all." "Well," said the man, "I shall be glad to help you. You make any wish you like, and I will grant it to you." King Midas thought a long time about this wish. What could he wish that would give him all the gold he wanted? At last he had a happy thought. He would wish that everything he should touch might turn to gold. Then he told the man his wish. How he laughed to hear that this rich old king still wanted so much more money! "At sunrise to-morrow morning," said the man, "your wish shall be granted. Then every- thing you touch shall turn to gold. I will give you the Golden Touch." The old king slept very little that night. As soon as the sun rose in the morning, he put his hand on his bed. His wish had been granted. There was his bed turning into yellow gold. When he put on his clothes, they, too, were gold. He took up a book on the table, and its cover became yellow, and he saw it had golden leaves. He went around the room and touched everything. Each turned to gold, and he thought his room was very beautiful. The King was very happy when he called little Mary to come and sit down and eat. As soon as the King touched his cup, it was gold. When he took a bite of fish, it, too, turned into gold, and he could not eat it. Then he tried to eat his egg and bread, but he could not. They were hard, yellow gold. Poor King Midas was very hun- gry! Everything was so beautiful, he was so rich, and yet he could not eat a bite! "What is the matter, father? Why don't you eat?" said little Mary. And she came and stood by his side. The King kissed her and said, "My 84 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. dear little girl, go and eat your bread and milk." But what was the matter? The sweet, rosy face was now yel- low, and the soft, pretty curls were hard. The little girl he had loved so well. King Midas had turned into gold. "What have I done?" cried the poor king. "My dear little child! My Mary!" Just then he saw the same man standing at his side who had given him the Golden Touch. "Well, King Midas, how do you like the Golden Touch?" said the man. "I am so unhappy!" said the King, still looking at his little daughter. "Unhappy!" said the man. "Did I not do as I said I would? Do you wish more gold still?" "Oh, no, no!" said Midas. "I have lost what I loved more than gold, — my little child, Mary! Give her back to me alive and well!" "Ah," said the man, "which is better, the gift of the Golden Touch or a cup of cold water?" "The cup of water," said Midas. "And which is the better, the Golden Touch or your own little Mary as she used to be?" "My child, my dear child!" cried the king. "I would not give one of her little soft curls for all the gold you might give me!" "Tell me. King Midas," said the man, "shall I take away the Golden Touch?" "Oh, yes, indeed!" said the king. "You are a better man than you were yester- day, King Midas, and I will take away the gift of the Golden Touch, if you wish. Go to the brook just back of the garden and wash, and bring a cup of the same water back with you." The King lost no time in going to the brook. He jumped into the water, saying, "I do hope this will wash away the Golden Touch. Why did I ever want it I should like to know?" He filled the cup, and walked back to the house very fast. The first thing he did was to put water on his little Mary. Then the old rosy color came back, she laughed, and was his own loving child again. Then he went about the house and made everything as it was before he had turned it into gold. The old King never wished again for the Golden Touch. ILLUSTRATIONS. 85 The above selection is a piece of symbolic dis- course, though it is not poetry. The steps in teaching it are the same in general as they are in teaching any other piece of symbolic discourse. With children of the third or fourth year these steps would have to be worked out slowly, many ques- tions being given by the teacher in bringing out each point. The following assignment is in general adapted to third or fourth grade pupils: 1. Read the whole lesson through and tell me what you learned about it. 2. Make a list of any new words or old ones whose meaning or pronunciation you do not know. Work out the pronunciation of as many as you can by hunting for old words or parts of old words in them. Make a list of old words which you think will help in pronouncing the new ones. 3. How many persons are spoken of? What are their names? Tell all that is said about each one. 4. Do you believe this story? Why? Does it tell us anything true ? What ? 5. Why does this story have a king in it? Why gold? Why a man who could give the king the Golden Touch? Why a little girl? 6. Read it orally so as to bring out the meaning as you understand it. ORCHARD LIFE. An orchard is an excellent place for Nature Study. Here live many kinds of tiny creatures, each kind with its own peculiar mode of life. Some have comparatively sim- 86 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. pie life histories, merely eating and growing and finally laying eggs for another generation; but others undergo wonderful transformations, and still others exhibit an in- stinct that seems much like reason. And even those that appear to live the most humdrum existence are well worthy of careful study, for their lives are never as simple as they seem at first sight. By a study of orchard life there may be learned also much that is of immediate practical importance; some of the most dreaded insect pests infest fruit trees. A thor- ough knowledge of the ways of these depredators enables us to plan successfully methods of destroying them, and thus to prevent their ravages. In the mastery of the above selection there are in general three steps which the mind will take: 1. The mastery of the language. 2. The mastery of the thought. 3. The oral expression of the thought in the words of the author. There are but these three steps because the selection is purely didactic. A question arises as to the nature of the discourse which should compose the text-book in reading. It is probably true that such books should be made up largely of literary, or symbolic discourse, and some even say that no other kind of discourse properly has a place in text-books on reading. But if it be true that the selections the learner reads in school are to be^ of the kinds he will read throughout his life, in order to fit him for all kinds of reading, a reading book must con- tain selections of both symbolic and didactic discourse. Sight Beading. — There is a proper place in teach- ing reading for what is called sight reading; that is, the reading of selections orally without having studied them beforehand. Work of this kind makes the learner ILLUSTRATIONS. 87 ready in interpretation and in adequate oral communi- cation. A goodly quantity of this work may be done profitably in successful work in teaching reading. ABOU BEN ADHEIM. The selection following is a fine selection of sym- bolic discourse suitable to seventh or eighth year pupils : Abou Ben Adhem — may his tribe increase! Awoke one night from a deep dream of peace, And saw within the moonlight in his room, Making it rich and like a lily in bloom, An angel writing in a book of gold. Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold; And to the presence in the room he said, "What writest thou?" The vision raised its head. And with a look made of all sweet accord, Answered, "The names of those who love the Lord." "And is mine one?" said Abou. "Nay, not so," Replied the angel. Abou spoke more low. But cheerly still; and said, "I pray thee, then. Write me as one that loves his fellow-men." The angel wrote and vanished. The next night It came again, with a great wakening light, And showed the names whom love of God had blessed; And, lo! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest. CHAPTER VI. COMMON ERRORS IN TEACHING READING. Opportunities for. — While reading has been in the school curriculum as long as any subject, and is as gen- erally taught as any school subject, contrary to the popular opinion, it is by no means an easy subject to teach well. The opportunities for errors are many, and because of this reading is generally taught much more poorly than is commonly supposed. The following are some of the most common errors : 1. The use of the alphabet method in the first stage of reading. 2. A lack of phonetic work. 3. Insufficient interpretation. 4. Too much aimless oral expression. 5. Indefinite, general as&ignments. 6. Not sufficiently differentiating reading from other school subjects. Each of these will be studied briefly for the help that comes from the study. The Use of the Alphabet Method. — It seems that at the present stage of educational advancement it should be needless to call attention to the fact that to begin to teach reading by having the children to learn the names of the letters of the alphabet by rote is exceedingly bad teaching and unpedagogical in the extreme. There COMMON ERRORS IN TEACHING READING. 89 are, however, many teachers still teaching in this way, and many people who believe in it; also, many who do not even know there is a more natural, more interesting and better way. The objections to the alphabet method have been stated before, and though they should be rethought, they need not be repeated here. Lack of Sufficient Phonetic Work. — Neglect of car- rying forward a systematic line of work in analyzing oral words into their sounds, and of associating these sounds with their symbols is productive of the following bad results in teaching reading : 1. It leaves children helpless in the pronunciation of new words. 2. It leaves with children poor enunciation and bad habits of pronunciation. 3. It makes the language of children in speaking and reading inartistic, slovenly, and difficult to under- stand. 4. It makes the teaching of diacritical marks more difficult, and the use of the dictionary much less effec- tive. That this line of work is sadly neglected in the teaching of reading as commonly done in the schools of to-day is certainly true; and it is just as true that it is very much to be deplored. Insufficient Interpretation. — It is ever to be remem- bered that the main thing reading as a school subject is to do for the learner is to give him skill in interpreta- tion. Notwithstanding, it is often customary in teach- ing reading to go over a rather large amount of dis- course by having the children go through with it by 90 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. pronouncing the words. This is called oral reading even when the learner does not get the thought himself, to say nothing of communicating it to some one else. This error gives the learner the wrong idea of the nature of reading as well as bad habits of reading. The criterion of success in learning to read is not the large quantity of discourse gone through. That which constitutes the criterion of success in learning to read is the power of ready, accurate interpretation and the ability of adequate oral communication in the author's words. And these may come from dealing with comparatively few pieces of discourse rightly taught, while they certainly will not come from a large number of selections poorly taught. Commonly teachers have no systematic plan of leading students into the interpretation of a selection. A few scattering questions are often asked and answered and this is deemed sufficient interpretation. The stud- ent usually or often gains no power from such work which he can take with him as a help in interpreting the next selection. Everyone can call to mind instances of such scattering, haphazard, half-hearted, aimless at- tempts at interpretation. Interpretation must be searching, systematic, and thorough, if the learner is ever to attain skill to any high degree in it. Good interpretation is fundamental to good oral reading. Pupils can not communicate thought and feeling when they do not have it to com- municate. A lack of thorough interpretation on the part of the learner before an attempt is made to read orally COMMON ERRORS IN TEACHING READING. 91 is at the root the cause of most of the errors that occur in oral reading. Aimless Oral Expression. — Frequently the main exer- cise in the recitation in reading as commonly taught is a sort of aimless oral expression. In this work the chil- dren often do not enunciate distinctly, do not pronounce correctly, do not show an understanding of what they are reading, and race through in a most agonizing way to one who has in mind any proper standard of what reading should be. The exercise in oral reading should give the chil- dren the habit of disti7ict enunciation, correct pronun- ciation, and comprehensive oral expression. How often it sadly fails in all these as too frequently conducted. Bad Assignments. — An indefinite, general assign- ment is as a rule a bad error in teaching any subject. But this truth applies with unusual force to teachers of reading as the work is usually done. It is quite usual for teachers to say in assigning a lesson, *'Take the next lesson." With such an assignment students do not know how to take it, when to take it, nor where to take it, and are usually no better after taking than before taking. Students taught in this way usually read over the lesson, which does not take more than ten or fifteen minutes usually, and think they have it prepared for recitation. This, of course, leads to the almost universal complaint by teachers that they can not get their stud- ents sufficiently to study their lessons. The main cause of this trouble, it is seen, lies with the teacher, and is to be found in the poor assignments given. 92 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. If the teacher will see to it that every assignment given in reading presents definite problems to be mas- tered, and conscientiously holds the children to the mastery of these problems, the difficulty in getting them to study their reading lessons sufficiently will dis- appear. Undifferentiated Work in Reading. — Many teachers have not clearly in mind just how reading is like and different from other school subjects. Because of this, spelling, literature, history, geography, biography, science, etc., are mixed with the reading recitation. To bring in more history, geography, etc., than is neces- sary to the interpretation of the selection under con- sideration is not only unnecessary, but scattering teach- ing. A teacher may wear out a selection in this way without doing very good teaching. Some unskillful teachers demand of their children a great deal of written work in connection with the reading lessons. This is usually done either to keep the children busy or to teach them to write. While some written work might possibly be justified in con- nection with the reading lesson, the vast amount re- quired in some schools, is physically, morally, and intel- lectually degenerating to the child. It requires no skill on the part of the teacher to set children to copying their reading lessons. Any ignoramus can do so much. In a similar way much committing to memory of selections is required of the children. This kind of work carried too far is not only unprofitable, but injur- ious to the child. The committing of some gems within the comprehension of the child is no doubt valuable. COMMON ERRORS IN TEACHING READING. 93 But to demand such work of children just to keep them busy is very bad. There are three things to be kept in mind when asking children to commit to memory selec- tions. First, it must be certain that the selection is worth committing ; secondly, only a moderate amount of such work is of value. If too much is attempted, noth- ing will be well remembered; thirdly, this work must not be made a burden to the child. CHAPTER VII. NATURE AND ORIGIN OF NUMBER. Nature of Number. — ^We shall assume for the pres- ent in our studies in method in number that number is a spiritual, or mental, thing, and try hereafter to be consistent with this assumption; also, to find out whether this assumption is correct. In making this as- sumption three views of what number is must be con- sidered for the purpose of clearness. These views are as follows: 1. There is the view that number is an inherent property of objects. 2. There is the view that number is the mind's idea of the times one magnitude is applied in measuring another. 3. And lastly, there is the view that the symbol of the mind 's idea of the times one magnitude is applied in measuring another is number. This view regards the figures the numbers. The first view, that number is an inherent property of objects, is that number, like weight, color, size, or form belongs to an object by nature and has always belonged to it from the beginning of its existence. Ac- cording to this view the child gets the number one from the observation of one object; the number two from the observation of two objects, etc. Number in this NATURE AND ORIGIN OF NUMBER. 95 sense is qualitative, for it is the qualities of the object which constitute its oneness, twoness, etc. The second view of number, the mind's idea of the times one quantity is applied to another in measuring it, is that number grows out of measurement. According to this view two is the mind's idea that some quantity has been applied now, then again, to some other quan- tity in measuring it. Thus twenty feet means that the quantity one foot has been applied to a larger quantity twenty times in measuring it. The thirii view is that the figure, the word, or the letters; that is, the symbol is the number. Thus, twenty, XX, or 20 is the number according to this view. The Genesis of Numher. — ^By genesis of number is meant the mental process by which number originated. There is a time in the life of each person when he has no number ideas. His mind goes through a certain process in originating his number ideas and this process is the genesis of number. It is conceivable that what is true of each person in his infancy in this respect was true of the race in its infancy. So the process of the mind of the race in originating number ideas is also to be seen as the genesis of number. The steps in the genesis of number are as follows: 1. The mind grasps a magnitude as a vague whole. 2. The mind brings into consciousness a smaller magnitude of the same kind. 3. The mind applies the smaller magnitude to the larger in measuring. 4. The mind grasps the times the smaller magni- 96 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. tude was applied to the larger in measuring it; that is, the mind grasps the number. Illustration. — If there Avere on a table before one a pile of sugar, cone shaped, eighteen inches high, the mind, first, because of its qualities could grasp it as a vague whole. The mind could see where the sugar and air, the sugar and the table meet, because the quality of the sugar is different from the quality of the table and the air. Not being satisfied with this vagueness, the mind proceeds to measure by bringing into conscious- ness a smaller quantity of the same kind, a pound. It then applies this to the larger quantity so many times^ and gets an idea of the times to which, say, for example, is given the name forty. It then has the definite idea forty pounds. Again suppose the number is 8 ft. The mean- ing is, a larger magnitude 8 ft. has been grasped as a vague whole; then the smaller magnitude 1 ft. has. come into consciousness, and has been applied eight times in the measurement of the larger magnitude. Or suppose the number is 5 boys. The meaning is the larger magnitude 5 boys as a whole has been grasped; then the smaller magnitude 1 boy has been grasped, and this magnitude has been applied five times times in the measurement of the larger magnitude. **The idea of number is not impressed upon the mind by objects even when these are presented under the most favorable circumstances. Number is a product of the way in which the mind deals with objects in the operation of making a vague whole definite.'^ Definition of Number. — From the above study the NATURE AND ORIGIN OF NUMBER. 97 definition of number considered from the viewpoint of the psychology of number is obtained. This definition is as follows: Number is the mind's idea of the times one magni- tude is applied in measuring another. This seems the most helpful view of number whether one looks at it from the standpoint of the genesis of number or from the standpoint of the way the mind uses its number ideas in the practical affairs of life. It is, to say the least, the best working definition of number for one in the study of the method of teach- ing number. ^'Number is the product of the mere repetition of a unit of measurement." Number is the abstract ratio of one quantity to an- other quantity of the same kind. — Newton. ** Number is the ratio of one quantity to another quantity taken as a unit." Origin of Number Genesis. — In the study of the genesis of number the mind's natural mode of forming number ideas was seen. But the question here for study is. Why does the mind perform these activities? There is some necessity for the mind's performing the activities in the genesis of number or it would not do so. It is this necessity which is here to be discovered. The study of limitation gives some light upon the problem. Limitation. — ''If every human being could use at his pleasure all the land he wanted, it is probable that no one would ever measure land with mathematical ex- actness. There might be, of course — Crusoe like — a 98 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. crude estimate of the quantity required for a given pur- pose; but there would be no definite numerical valua- tion in acres, rods, yards, feet. There would be no need for such accuracy. If food could be had without trouble or care, and in sufficiency for every-body, we should never put our berries in quart measures, count off eggs and oranges by the dozen, and weigh out flour by the pound. If everything that ministers to human wants could be had by every-body just when wanted, we should never have to concern ourselves about quantity. If everything with which human activity is in any way concerned were unlimited, there would of course be no need to inquire respecting anything whatever: What are its limits? How much is there of it? Even if a thing were not actually unlimited, if there were always enough of it to be had with little or no expenditure of energy, it would be practically unlimited, and hence would never be measured. It is because we have to put forth effort, because we have to take trouble to get things, that they are limited for us, and that it becomes worth while to determine their limits, to find out the quantity of anything with which human energy has to do." Limitation is the abstract idea that things do not exist in boundless quantities. It is fundamental to the mind's idea of magnitude. If there were no limitations upon things, magnitudes could not be measured, neither would there be any necessity for measurement. And if there was no necessity for measurement, there would be no need for number. Means and End. — The origin of number may be NATURE AND ORIGIN OF NUMBER. 99 worked out also by considering the relation between means and end. "If all our aims were reached at the moment of forming them, without any delays, post- ponement, or countervening occurrences — if to realize an end we had only to conceive it — the necessity for measurement w^ould not exist, and there would be no such thing as number in the strictly mathematical sense. ' ' But the end to be realized is often difficult and complex so that distance in space, remoteness in time, and various hindering circumstances must be overcome. In adjusting the proper means to the end quantity, or magnitude, must be measured, and from this the need of number arises. ''The conscious adjusting of means to end, par- ticularly such an adjusting as requires comparison of different means to pick out the fittest, is the source of all quantitative ideas." "Number arises in the process of the exact meas- urement of a given quantity with a view to instituting a balance, the need of this balance, or accurate adjust- ment of means to end, being some limitation." Quantity, or Magnitude. — The term quantity, or magnitude, as used in these studies means anything that can be measured. It may be space, time, and force, giving such units as miles, years, and tons. Conclusions. — From this study on the origin of number the following conclusions are reached: 1. There is a limitation upon all things man de- sires. 2. There is the necessity of adapting means to end in the affairs of man's life. 100 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 3. Out of these conditions there arises the neces- sity of measurement. 4. The necessity for accurate ideas of measure- ment is the origin of number. Note. — The quotations in this chapter are from The Psychology of Number, by McLelland and Dewey. CHAPTER VIII. STEPS IN NUMBER. Meaning of Steps. — It wiU be remembered that steps in any subject mean the mental activities which correspond to the various points of knowledge to be mastered in that subject; that steps are mental things, and that steps may be traced out in any subject as a whole or in any one lesson. Thus the steps in number are the mental activities employed in learning the var- ious truths of number. For instance, the mentality cor- responding to three, nine, and one hundred constitutes three steps. Points to Be Kept in Mind. — In studying the steps in method in number there are some fundamental truths to be kept constantly in mind because of the guidance they furnish. Some of these truths are as follows: 1. Limitation transforms things into quantity, giving them a certain undefined magnitude, as size, weight, time. 2. Vague wholes of quantity are changed into definite wholes of quantity by the process of measure- ment. 3. The process of measurement takes place by means of units of quantity, the units being applied to the vague whole to be measured. 4. Number arises in the mind from this process of measurement. 102 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 5. Number is the mind 's idea of the times one quan- tity is applied in measuring another. Methods in Teaching Number. — The teacher who has been trying to keep up with educational progress for the last few decades has perhaps heard of the fol- lowing so-called methods of teaching number : 1. The method of symbols. 2. The fixed unit method; also called the method of things. 3. The Grube method. 4. The Speer method. All these methods are more or less widely used in various places even now and so are worthy of some study. The Method of Symbols. — This method is based upon the incorrect view that the symbols are the num- bers. It may be understood from the following descrip- tion of its plan of procedure: The teacher places a number of objects before the children and teaches them to count, one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, etc. Next the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, etc., are taught by counting. When these are learned, little formal problems of addition, such as 4-f-5, 2+3+4, 1+3+3, are taught; also, the rule for addition, more complex problems of addition, some writing numbers, and enumeration; little problems of formal subtraction, the rule for subtraction, and more complex problems of subtraction; and so with the formal processes of multi- plication and division ; and in a similar way on through number work. This method *'is illustrated in the old-fashioned STEPS IN NUMBER. 103 ways — not yet quite obsolete — of teaching addition, subtraction, etc., as something to be done with 'figures,' and giving elaborate rules which might guide the doer to certain results called ' answers. ' It is little more than blind manipulation of number symbols." According to this method number is made "the science of figures and the art of memorizing and the rules for manipulating them." ' ' While the method of symbols is still far too widely used in practice, no educationist defends it; all con- demn it. It is not then necessary to dwell upon it longer than to point out in the light of the previous discussion why it should be condemned. It treats num- ber as an independent entity — as something apart from the mental activity which produces it ; the natural gene- sis and use of number are ignored, and, as a result, the method is mechanical and artificial." Objections to the Method of Symbols. — The follow- ing are pointed objections to this method : 1. It teaches form before meaning; the symbol before the thing sym- bolized. 2. It is entirelj^ abstract. 3. It gives the learner a fundamentally wrong idea of number. 4. It subordinates meaning to form. Naturally the mind learns meaning, then the syra- bol of the meaning. This is always the order of develop- ment. Thus the idea, then the word; the thought, then the sentence ; the niunber, then the figure, the symbol, is nature's order. The method of sjonbols is unnatural in that it reverses this order. Number originated in connection with objects, in the process of measuring them. The method of symbols 104 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. ignores this truth and is unnatural by its abstractness. By the method of symbols the learner gets the idea that the figures are the numbers, if he gets any definite idea of number at all. Many a child has studied this way for years without ever having had the right idea of number. The constant manipulation of symbols leads the learner into the habit of thinking of symbols as all im- portant in number work. This dwarfs his power to grow in reasoning. He learns how to manipulate the figures, but he does not learn how to think for him- self. The Fixed Unit Method. — This method, also called the method of things, is founded upon the incorrect idea that number is an inherent property of objects. ^^The method of things — of observing objects and taking vague percepts for definite numerical concepts — treats number as if it were an inherent property of things in themselves simply waiting for the mind to grasp it, to 'abstract' it from the things. But we have seen that number is in reality a mode of measuring value, and that it does not belong to things in them- selves, but arises in the economical adaptation of things to some use or purpose." If the teacher places before the children objects and teaches them: to call the first, one; the next, two; the next, three, etc., then gives little problems based upon such work, she is employing the fixed unit method. All work which deals concretely with objects in teach- ing number but fails to impress the children with the idea that number grows out of measurement is by the STEPS IN NUMBER. 105 fixed unit method. Such little problems as the follow- ing, succeeding the ideas got as above indicated are ac- cording to the fixed unit method. 1. Put two cubes in one place on the table and three in another place; put them together and tell the story. 2. Put four counters in a pile; take away three and tell the story. 3. Two counters and two counters and one counter are how many counters? Objections. — The following will appear as objec- tions to the fixed unit method: 1. It ignores the mind's natural activity in the genesis of number. 2. It gives the learner a wrong notion of what number is. 3. It usually is scattering and lacks definiteness and organ- ization. In the genesis of number the mind uses one quan- tity in measuring another. The quantity thus chosen is the unit of measureuDcnt and may be almost anything. It is a unit, but variable; not fixed. It may be a foot, a boy, a dozen eggs, a book, a second, a century, etc. This notion of the measuring unit as relative is entirely ignored by the fixed unit method. The fixed unit method gives the learner the notion that number is an inherent property of things, some- thing to be abstracted from them, such as weight or form. Such an erroneous idea of number is a constant hindrance to the learner through his entire work. Much of the work done throughout the country by the fixed unit method has been so fragmentary, hap- hazard, and purposeless that this in itself should con- demn it. The fixed unit method with its defects is however 106 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. superior to the method of sjnnbols in that it is con- crete. That is to say, the work is done in connection with objects. The Gruhe Method.— "The Grube Method is a method of teaching Primary Arithmetic, extensively use in Germany, The principle of this method is, that it makes each individual number, instead of the opera- tions, the basis of instruction ; and combines in each les- son, from the start, the four fundamental operations. Thus, in treating the number 2, 'all the operations pos- sible within the limit of this number' are performed in the same lesson. Thus the child is taught that 1-|-1=2, 2X1=2, 2—1=1, 2^1=2, 2-^2=1, etc. In teaching the number 4, the lesson is 1+1+1+1=4, 4 — 1=3, 4X1=4, 4-^1=4; 2+2=4, 2X2=4, 4—2=^2, 4^2=2, 3+1=4, 4—3=1, 3X1+1=4, 4-f-3=l, and 1 remain- ing, etc. The whole circle of operations is exhibited and taught in treating each individual number." The above sets forth pretty clearly the essential idea in the Grube Method. This idea is that each num- her is to he exhausted hefore the learner is even led to suspect that there are higher numhers, to say nothing of his learning something of their uses. Thus, if the number 6 is being taught, everything possible to be done with 6 is done before 7 is introduced. The Grube Method is concrete; that is, it is done in connection with objects. The children are led to handle cubes, spheres, counters, grains of corn, etc., in discovering the relations in the numbers. The Grube Method is very systematic and definite. In America it has been customary to deal with the STEPS IN NUMBER. 107 numbers from 1 to 10, inclusive, as indicated above, the first year ; with the numbers from 11 to 20, inclusive, the second year; with the numbers from 21 to 100, in- clusive, the third year, and as much as possible of the rest of number during the remainder of the child's school life. Such a plan was so definite and systematic that the teacher knew exactly what to do at all times. The Grube Method does not deal with the unit as variable, but as fixed. It does not show number as arising out of the process of measurement. "We thus see the fundamental fallacy of the Grube Method in another light. Just as, upon the whole, it proceeds from the mere observation of objects instead of from the constructive use of them, so it works with fixed units instead of with a whole quantity which is measured by the application of a unit of meas- urement. The superiority of the Grube Method to some of the other methods, both in the way of introducing objects instead of dealing with numerical symbols, and in the way of systematic and definite instead of hap- hazard and vague work, has tended to blind educators to its fundamentally bad character, psychologically speaking. ' ' "According to the Grube Method unity is one thing and that is the end of it. ' ' "Avoid the interest-killing monotony of the Grube grind on the three hundred and odd combinations of half a dozen numbers, which thus substitutes sheer me- chanical action for the spontaneous activity that simul- taneously develops numerical ideas and the power to retain them." 108 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. Objections to the Gruhe Method. — The following are pointed objections to this method: 1. It works with fixed units instead of with a whole quantity to be measured. 2. It is monotonous and so, uninteresting. 3. It dwarfs the learner's power to learn numbers. 4. It is unnatural. Any method which fails to lead the learner to see that number grows out of measurement is a fixed unit method. And such a method never fails to give the learner erroneous ideas of the nature of number. Dwelling upon one number so long is monotonous and tiresome. The mind likes change and can be inter- ested continuously only in that which manifests change. To do all with any number possible before working with a higher number is dwarfing to the mathematical ability of the learner. It restrains the mind unduly to work in a stage of development not strong enough to call forth its full power. Work of such a kind always re- sults in stunted growth and loss of possibility. The demands of life before the learner comes to school and also after he leaves school are not that he will need to know all there is to be known of one number before learning anything of a higher number. On the other hand he will need to know much of many numbers before he needs to exhaust any one. Thus to exhaust one number before taking up a higher is un- natural. The Speer Method. — ' ' The Speer Method in number is one that considers number as a ratio, and not as 'how many' in the usual meaning of that term. In the de- STEPS IN NUMBER. 109 velopment of the Speer Method there are three stages: (1) The discovery of qualitative relations of miagnitude, i. e., that one magnitude is longer or shorter, larger or smaller, heavier or lighter, etc., than another. (2) The discovery of the quantitative relations of magnitude as expressed by their ratioes, i. e., how many times one magnitude is longer or shorter, larger or smaller, heavier or lighter, etc., than another. (3) The determination of the plan of procedure in the solution of problems from the ratios of the magnitude involved." The Speer Method considers number a ratio; that is, the idea of the relation between two magnitudes. In teaching in the first stage of the Speer method sense training is aimed at largely ; that is, skill in seeing the qualities of things. This is done that the learner may readily grasp quantities as vague w^holes ; for quan- tities as wholes can be grasped only by discrimination of qualities. The following illustrates work in this stage : "Pin or paste squares of standard red and orange where they can be seen. Pin the red above the orange. 1. Find things in the room of the same color as the red square. What things can you recall that are red? 2. Look at the orange square. Find the same color elsewhere in the room. Recall objects that have this color. 3. Close your eyes, and picture, or image the red square. Now the orange square. 4. Which square is above? Which below? Name the two colors. 5. To-morrow bring something that is red and some- thing that is orange. Also tell the names of orange or red objects that you see in going to and from school. Pin or paste a square of yellow below the orange. 110 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 1. Look at the yellow. Find the same color in the room. Recall objects having this color. 2. Look at the red, then the orange, then the yel- low. Close the eyes and picture the colors one after an- other in the same order. Cover the squares. 3. Which is at the top? At the bottom? In the middle? 4. Name the three, beginning at the top. Name from the bottom. 5. Which color is third from the top? Second from the top? Third from the bottom? 6. To-morrow bring something that is yellow and tell me the names of things that you have seen that are yellow. Add a square of green. 1. Find green. Recall objects that are green. 2. Try to see the green square with the eyes closed. 3. Look at the four colors. 4. Think of the four, one after another, with the eyes closed." In teaching in the second stage of the Speer Method the work is held closely to the idea that all number work must deal with the comparison of magnitudes. Thus the comparison of magnitudes is made the organiz- ing idea of the work in this stage. The nature of the elementary parts of the work in this stage may be seen from the following : "1. Cut a rectangle into two equal parts. After cut- ting, place the two parts together to see if they are equal. Practice cutting and comparing the two parts. 2. Cut rectangles into three equal parts. Compare the parts. Are they equal? Practice. Drawing. — 1. Draw a line. Place a point in the middle of the line. Measure to see if the parts are equal. STEPS IN NUMBER. Ill Try again. Measure. Is one of the parts longer than the other? Are they equal? What is meant by equal? Show me one of the two equal parts. Show me the other. 2. Draw a line. Separate it into four equal parts. Measure. Are the parts equal? Show me one of the four equal parts. Show me three of the four equal parts. Show me the four equal parts. 3. Draw a line. Separate it into three equal parts. Measure. Are the parts equal? 4. Show me where the line should be drawn to separate the blackboard into two equal parts. Point to the equal parts of the board. 5. Can you see the two equal parts of the floor? Of the top of your desk? Show me two equal parts of other things in the room." "Relations of Quart and Pint. — Show pupils the pint and quart measure. Have them find the number of pints to a quart by measuring. 1. After measuring, tell all you can about the quart and the pint. 2. What is sold by the pint and by the quart? 3. A quart is how many times as large as a pint? 4. What part of a quart is as large, or as much, as a pint? 5. A quart is how much more than a pint? 6. A pint is how much less than a quart? 7. A quart and a pint equal how many pints? 8. Show me 1 ^^ quarts. What have you shown me? 9. IVz quarts equal how many pints? 10. If we call a pint one, what ought we to call a quart? Why? 11. If we call a quart 2, what ought we to call the sum of a quart and a pint? 12. If a quart is 1, what is a pint?" In the third stage of the Speer Method practical problems of all kinds are taught, it being presumed that 112 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. the children have obtained correct ideas of number in the two preceding stages. It is also presumed that from the work in the first two stages a substantial and ade- quate foundation is laid for the third stage, A Practical Method. — From the various methods in use in teaching number the teacher must select a line of procedure possessed of the three following characteris- tics: 1. The method must be usable by the teacher of average intelligence and average professional prepara- tion, 2. It must be systematic — well organized and definite. 3. It must to a large extent be in harmony with the mind's natural mode of action in the development of number ideas and number processes. The Speer method is hardly in harmony with the first and second of these points; the Grube method vio- lates the third ; the Fixed unit method violates the third ; and the method of Symbols violates both the second and third. With these three thoughts for guidance a further study of the method of procedure in teaching number should prove profitable. The following quotations will give some idea of the correct way to begin number teaching : "The first lessons in arithmetic should be based on the practice of measuring in its varied application." — W. T. Harris. ''Number grows out of the idea of measurement. This should never be forgotten. It is the abstract char- STEPS IN NUMBER. 113 acter of so much of the number work that makes it un- interesting and unprofitable." The Two Stages of Number Work. — For the pur- pose of studying its method number work may be di- vided into two stages. In a very general way the first stage consists of about the first three years of work in number which the child is accustomed to do in school. This is appropriately called the primary stage of num- ber work. The second stage embraces the remainder of the learner's work in arithmetic in school, and is ap- propriately called the advanced stage of number work. Characteristic of the Primary Stage, — The follow- ing points characterize the number work in this stage: 1. The work is mjuch more elementary, or simple, than that in the advanced stage. 2. The work in this stage is to be done best with- out placing any text-books in the hands of the pupils. 3. The work in this stage is much narrower in scope than that in the advanced stage. 4. The work in the first stage is much more con- crete than that in the advanced stage ; that is, the work is done more by means of objects. Scope of the Work in the Primary Stage. — It has been customary in most parts of the country to confine the number work in school for the first three years mainly to the numbers from one to one hundred, inclu- sive. Evidence of this general scope of the work in the primary stage of number teaching is found in the State courses of study. The State courses of study for In- diana and Illinois indicate in a general way what is done in this stage of the work. A study of these shows that 114 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. the first year's work in number is spent mainly on the number from 1 to 10, inclusive; that the second year's work is spent mainly on the numbers from 11 to 20 in- clusive; and that the third year's work is spent mainly on the numbers from 21 to 100, inclusive. And since these State Courses of Study are prepared by repre- sentative educators of these states, they indicate the uniformity of educational opinion more or less approxi- mately. The object in making the dividing line between the first year 's work and the second year 's work at the num- ber 10, and between the second year 's work and the third year's work at the number 20, and between the third year's work and the fourth year's work at 100 is ar- bitrary, no doubt. There is certainly no very good reason for not going further in the first year, or further in the second year, or further in the third year, if the ability of the students, length of the school year, and progress of the students demand it. To make these divisions ironclad is unwarranted either in reason or experience. Much just criticism has been given to such a division of the number work. However arbitrary this division of the number work is, it has, nevertheless, served a useful purpose. And this purpose is that it has systematized and made definite the work of these years. This has been useful to both teachers and students. It has prevented aimless, frag- mentary, disconnected work. Indeed the thought which gave rise to this division of the number work was that work might thus be made systematic, definite, and clear. If the work on the numbers from 1 to 100, inclusive. STEPS IN NUMBER. 115 is to be emiphasized in the primary stage, the next ques- tion is, What is to be done with any individual number, for instance 9? Or what, for instance, is to be done with the number 4 in this stage of the work? In order to answer this question it is necessary to study what can be known of a number, and to this we turn. What Can Be Known of a Number. — A careful study will show that the following may be known of a number : 1^ The number as a whole. 2^. The relations in the number. These are as follows : 1^. Integral, as follows: 1^. Any two unequal numbers that make the number, as in the following problems : If a boy has five marbles and finds four more, how many has he? If a book costs four dollars and a trunk five doUars, what do both cost? 2^. Any two equal numbers that make the number, as in the following problem: John earns three dollars in a day, and James earns the same; what do both earn? 3^. Any two unequal mimbers into which the number may be separated, as in the following problems : John had six pennies and spent two; how many had he left? A man spent six of his ten dollars for provisions; how many had he left ? 4^. Any two equal numbers into which the number may be separated, as in the following problem : 116 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. A farmer has eight horses and sells four ; how many has he left? 5^. The number of equal numbers that make the number, as in the following problems : A man gives two marbles to each of four boys ; how many marbles does he give? A boy leaves two pints of milk at each of five houses; how many pints does he leave? 6^. The number of equal numbers that are in the number, as in the following problems: A man has eight pints of milk; how many quarts has he ? A teacher wishes to give ten problems to his boys, two to each boy ; to how many boys can he give ? 7^. The equal parts of a number, as in the fol- lowing problemist A man divides eight oranges equally among four boys; how many does he give to each? A stationer distributes nine tablets equally among three girls; how many does each receive? 2^. Fractional, as follows: 1^. The equal parts of a number, as in the following problems : A boy had eight marbles and lost four; what part did he lose? A boy had eight apples and gave six of them away ; What part did he give away? What part did he have left? 3^. The applications of the number. 1^. Denominate; as, four pecks in a bushel, or four gills in a pint. STEPS EST NUMBER. 117 2^. General; as, when teaching the number 4, little problems involving four books, four boys, four birds, etc., are solved. 4^. The notation of the number. The notation of number is the systematic represen- tation of number by means of symbols. The symbol of the number mjay be (1) the word or Avords, as eight; (2) the figure, as 8; (3) the Roman Letters, as VIII. That is to say, the notation of number is of three kinds, words, figures or letters. Summary : This may be summed up by saying the following may be known of a number : 1\ The number as a whole. 2\ The relations in it. 1^. Integral. 2^. Fractional. 3\ Its applications. 1^. Denominate. 2^. General. 4^. Its notation. 1\ Word. 2^. Arabic. 3^. Roman. What Is to Be Done with a Number. — From the foregoing study it is seen that a number, for instance 4, is to be taught (1) as a whole; (2) as to the relations in it, both integral and fractional ; ( 3 ) as to its applica- tions, both denominate and general, and (4) as to its notation. This work is to be done with each number, and the numbers to be emphasized the first year are those from 1 to 10, inclusive; those to be emphasized the 118 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. second year are the numbers from 11 to 20, inclusive; and those to be emphasized the third year, the numbers from 21 to 100, inclusive. Each of these points will repay further study. The Number as a Whole. — When does the learner know a number as a whole and how best proceed in teaching it? The answer to the first part of this ques- tion is, the learner knows a number as a whole when he knows it as made up of so many ones, or again, he knows it as a whole when he knows it as made up of the next number below it and one. Thus the learner knows the number 4 as a whole when he knows it as made up of four ones, or when he knows it as made up of three and one. And in answer to the second part of the question, one term in the above needs to be studied, and this is the term, one. The Meaning of One. — One in number is not a fixed quantity, it is relative. It arises from the application of some measuring unit once to some unmeasured whole. Thus one may be anything — one inch, one mile, one week, one century, one ounce, one ton, one tree, one boy, one book, one flower — employed as a unit of measure. The perennial dispute as to whether one is a num- ber or not seems absurd when the right idea of number is held. One is a number in just as true a sense as ten. This idea of what one is furnishes guidance in teaching a niunber as a whole; that is, it indicates that the teaching must be done so as to lead the child to see that the ones are so many applications of the measuring unit. This may be done as follows : If the number to be taught is four, draw a line on STEPS IN NUMBER. 119 the board four feet long; give the child a foot measure and have him measure off three feet, then one more foot, and ask him how long the line is. If he does not know the name of the new number it is good teaching to give it to him. Or give the child a pint cup and have him measure three pints of water and put them in a bucket, then one more pint, and ask how many- pints of water are in the bucket. Then ask him to show fours of things in the room, or on the table, or tell fours of things he has seen at home or on the road to school. Repeat this kind of work until the learner has the idea of four as a whole well in mind. The work with any of the other numbers as a whole is of a similar kind. The Relations in the Number. — From the study of the nature of number, and from the study of the mean- ing of one, knowledge valuable for guidance in teaching the relations in a number is obtained. These studies in- dicate that the relations should be taught in such a way as to lead the learner to see that number is always the result of measurement. The measuring idea must al- ways be made prominent. In order to make clear the meaning of the integral relations in a number, the relations in the number 4 may be arranged, as follows: 1. Three and one. 2. One and three. 3. Four minus one. 4. Four minus three. 5. Two and two. 6. Four minus two. 120 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 7. Four divided by two. 8. Two twos. 9. Four minus four. 10. Four divided by one. 11. Four divided by four. 12. Four ones. It readily appears that these relations may readily be divided into synthetic and analytic groups. The synthetic are: 1. Three and one. 2. One and three. 3. Two and two. 4. Two twos. 5. Four ones. The analytic are : 1. Four minus one. 2. Four minus three. 3. Four minues two. 4. Four minus four. 5. Four divided by two. 6. Four divided by one. 7. Four divided by four. It is also evident that addition, subtraction, multi- plication, and division are all employed in working out the relations in any number. Since these processes are to be taught, the question, What shall be the order of teaching them? arises. The following quotation states the truth on this question: ^'The psychological order as determined by the demand on conscious attention is the old-time arrangement — Addition and Subtraction, Multiplication and Division. STEPS IN NUMBER. 121 It is the order in which numerical ideas and pro- cesses appear in the evolution of number as the instru- mjent of measurement; the order in which they appear in the reflective consciousness of the child; the order of increasing growth in psychological complexity." From the foregoing study it is seen that in teaching the relations in a number, the teacher holds in mind a given relation, and so manipulates the objects or has the children so manipulate them as to lead them to grasp the relation and state it. In this work the idea of measurement is made prominent, and the order of the process is, first, addition and subtraction ; secondly, mul- tiplication and division. Help will probably come to some one from arrang- ing the fractional relations of some number, as of the number 4. They are as foUows: 1. Three fourth of four and one fourth of four. 2. One fourth of four and three fourths of four. 3. Four minus three fourths of four. 4. Four minus one fourth of four. 5. Two fourths of four and two fourths of four. 6. Four minus two fourths of four. 7. Four divided by two fourths of four. 8. Two two fourths of four. 9. Four minus four fourths of four. 10. Four divided by one fourth of four. 11. Four divided by four fourths of four. 12. Four one fourths of four. The Applications of a Number. — There are two kinds of applications of a number to be studied, as follows : 122 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 1. The applications of a number in the tables; that is, the denominate applications. 2. The general applications of a number; that is, in the little practical problems of life. Under the denominate applications the children are to be taught concretely in connection with any number all the units of the tables, which consist of that number ; as, Four inches are one hand. Four gills are one pint. Four pecks are one bushel. The denominate applications of numbers from 1 to 10 are: 1. One cent. 2. Two one-cents are two cents. Two pints are one quart. Two reams are one bundle. A sheet folded into two leaves is a folio. 3. Three feet are one yard. Three feet are one pace. Three miles are one league. Three one-cents are three cents. 4. Four quarters are one yard. Four quarters are one dollar. Four inches are one hand. Four gills are one pint. Four pecks are one bushel. STEPS IN NUMBER. 123 Four quarts are one gallon. Four weeks are one month. Four farthings are one penny. A sheet folded into four leaves is a quarto. 5. Five one-cents are five cents. 6. Six feet are one fathom. 7. Seven days are one week. 8. Eight quarts are one peck. Eight cord feet are one cord. A sheet folded into eight leaves is an actavo. 9. Nine square feet are one square yard. 10. Ten cents are one dime. Ten dimes are one dollar. Ten dollars are one eagle. Under general applications of a number, the pupils are required to solve, and to form and solve miscella- neous problems; as, If a boy buys three apples at one store and one at another, how many does he buy? If a man has eight oranges, to how many boys can he give two each? Notation of the Number. — ^Notation is the science and art of representing number by symbols. The sym- bols used are words, letters, and figures. Thus the num- ber 4 may be symbolized by (1) four; (2) by IV; and 124 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. (3) by 4. The first kind of notation is called word nota- tion; the second is called Roman notation; and the third, the Arabic notation. At some time during the first three years the nota- tion of numbers from 1 to 100 is taught. CHAPTER IX. STEPS IN NUMBER CONTINUED. The Primary Stage. — In a general way it may be said that in the primary stage of number work, the numbers from 1 to 100, inclusive, are to be taught, each (1) as a whole; (2) as to the integral and fractional relations in it; (3) as to its general and denominate applications; and (4) as to its notation. This how- ever must be understood to mean that most of the work falls within this scope, but that it is not of necessity limited to this scope. Time of Beginning. — It is generally conceded best not to start the child on the number work proper at the beginning of the first year, and that the number work for the first month or two should be incidental. The following is what one fine thinker says on this point: **The work during a period of about three months in so far as number is concerned is incidental. The main idea is to train the mind by a considera- tion of form, as sphere, cube, cylinder, prism, square, triangle, points, etc. In doing this work number is, of necessity, inci- dentally introduced and learned." The work in this period of the first stage of number work is the same as was explained in the first stage of the Speer method and is founded upon the same thought. 126 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. This thought is that the learner most needs at this stage of his development to attain skill in detecting qualities of things. That is to say, he needs sense training. In connection with this number is incidentally learned. In pursuance of this thought lessons are given on colors, fruits, plants, animals, form, magnitudes — ^the cube, the cylinder, the square, the oblong, the triangle, the circle, the line, the cone, the prism, etc., the teacher constantly emphasizing sense training and the compari- son of magnitudes. The Number as a Whole. — It will be recalled that the learner knows a number as a whole when he knows it as made up of so many ones, or as made up of the first number below it and one. Thus when the learner has been led to see this he has been taught the number as a whole. Illustration. — If the child is to be taught the num- ber 7 as a whole, it is assumed that he knows the number 6. Then we may give him a number of cubes and have him to put six in one place and one in another place; then put them all together, and tell the story. If he does not know the name of the new number it is to be given to him. Next he may put six counters in one place and one in another place, then put them all to- gether and tell the story. The story is six counters and one counter are seven counters. The story is a term which the child is to be taught to understand from the first, just as a matter of con- venience in teaching. The child will learn it at first by imitation, but will soon understand it and use it ration- ally. STEPS IN NUMBER — CONTINUED. 127 Further Illustration. — More in accord with the idea that numher results from measurement is the following : Draw a line on the board. Give the child a foot rule and tell him to measure off six feet, then another foot. Ask him how many feet he measured off. Have him tell the story. It is, six feet and one foot are seven feet. Or have the child cut a paper slip six inches long, then another one inch longer. Ask him how long the second one is. The Relations in a Number. — In teaching the rela- tions in a number the integral relations should be taught first and then those involving fractions. These must be taught concretely; that is, by means of objects, at first. There are, though, really three stages in teaching each relation. And these stages are as follows: 1. The teaching of the relation in the presence of the objects. This is called the sense-perception stage. 2. The teaching of the relation in connection with objects, though the objects are not present. This is called the imagination stage. 3. The teaching of the relation without objects; that is, abstractly. This is called the abstract stage. Illustration. — Suppose the relation is 4 and 3 are 7. The teacher has the children to measure off four inches of a line, then three more, and tell the story; or she has them to put four counters in one place and three in another, then all together and tell the story. This is concrete teaching in the sense-perception stage. The sensuous m,aterial is handled by the children as a means in leading them to see the relations in the number. After having taught the relation, 4 and 3 are 7, in 128 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. this way, the teacher might give the following: Three birds are sitting on the fence and four in a tree, if those on the fence should fly into the tree, how many would there be in the tree? Or, a farmer has four bushels of corn in a box and three bushels in a barrel; how many bushels has he in both the box and the barrel ? In these cases the objects are not present, but the child pictures them in his imagination. This is teaching the relation in the imagination stage. But suppose the teacher says to the children 4 and 3 are how many? or, 3 and 4 are how many? the work is purely abstract, and such teaching is in the abstract stage. Importance of Each. — The work is important in each of these three stages of teaching the relations in primary number, and should be intelligently and sys- tematically done. The first is important because it is impressive, it appeals to the learner's senses, it is interesting, and lays a sure foundation for the other two kinds of teaching. But the child must learn to think when not in the presence of the objects about which he is thinking. If one were able to think only in the presence of objects he would be a slave to his environment ; he would belong more to the world of things around him than to himself. So the child needs the work in the imaginative stage that he may learn to picture the conditions of problems to be solved in life. And this he needs to learn to do well. The learner needs work in the abstract stage in order to become skillful in thinking number relations. STEPS IN NUMBER — CONTINUED. 129 When 4 and 3 are presented to the mind it is desirable that 7 come into consciousness as nearly instantly as pos- sible. And a similar thing is desirable concerning other numbers. In order that the learner may become skillful in seizing the relations in numbers thus, he must have much of this abstract work. Thoroughness of Work. — In working with any num- ber, as with 6, it is not only not necessary to exhaust the number before taking up the relations in the next number, but not even desirable. To exhaust one num- ber before beginning with the next is to deal with the numbers in the number series as isolated to too great an extent. Such teaching does not sufficiently emphasize the relations between the numbers. It further is un- natural and keeps the learner upon one thing until it becomes monotonous and uninteresting to him. But the work must he thorough. In dealing with the most important relations in numbers from 1 to 100^ the work must he varied sufficiently to maintain inter- est, hut must he repeated often enough for the child sa thoroughly to fix them in mind that they will come into consciousness at once when needed. Nothing is more annoying than for the learner to have to stop and count his fingers, or dots, or some other objects in order to know, for instance, how many 8 and 9 are. Fractional Relations . — The work in teaching the fractional relations should keep pace approximately with the work in teaching the integral relations. That is to say, if, for instance, the integral relations in the number 4 are being taught, before leaving the number 130 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. the fractional relations are to be presented through the three stages — the sense-perception stage, the imagina- tion stage, and the abstract stage — as in teaching the integral relations. Illustration, — In starting this work an apple or some such object may be separated by a pupil or the teacher into two equal parts, the children being led to see that the parts are equal. Then they are given the name for the parts, if they do not already know it. After they learn the nam,e, one-half, the children are led to see the following: One-half and one-half are one. One less one-half is one-half. Two one-halves are one. In one there are two one-halves. One-half of one is one-half. In teaching the fractional relations of the number 3 there are two stages : 1. The teaching the idea, one-third. 2. The teaching the thirds of three. The idea, one-third, is to be taught as follows: Give a child a paper three inches long and tell him to cut it into three equal parts. Then teach him that each part is called one-third; then as follows : One-third and two-thirds are one. Two-thirds and one-third are one. One less two-thirds is one-third. One less one-third is two-thirds. Three one-thirds are one. In one there are three one-thirds. STEPS IN NUMBER — CONTINUED. 131 One-third of one is one-third. Two-thirds of one is two-thirds. In teaching the thirds of three the procedure is as follows : Give the learner three cubes and ask him to show you one-third of them. Then have him tell the story. It is, one-third of three cubes is one cube. Then he is to be led to see : One-third of three is one one. Two-thirds of three is two ones. Three-thirds of three is three ones. One is one-third of three. Two are two-thirds of three. Three are three-thirds of three. The procedure in teaching the fractional relations of other numbers is similar to that in teaching these relations of 3 ; that is, the stages, and the steps are in general the same. Important and Unimportant Relations. — There are numbers of which the relations, both integral and frac- tional, are of much less practical importance than those of some other numbers. Thus 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, and 47 are some of these numbers, while 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 24, and 36 are among the more important. In teaching these less important numbers it would not be necessary nor desirable to teach all the possible relations in them. It would not be desirable, for in- stance, to spend much time on ^/g, ^/g, V4, ^/g, ^/e, ^A, ^/sj Vo? Vio> Viij and V12 ^^ 13> biit the thirteenths 132 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. of 13 should be taught. Likewise in teaching 16, it would not be desirable to teach the thirds, fifths, sixths, sevenths, ninths, tenths, elevenths, twelfths, thirteenths, fourteenths and fifteenths of 16, but it would be desir- able to teach the halves, the fourths, the eighths and sixteenths of 16. The Measuring Idea. — By way of emphasis justi- fication is claimed in repeating that every reasonable effort should be made to keep before the learner's mind the idea that number is the result of measurement. So in teaching the relations in numbers this idea should emphatically pervade the whole work. The Denominate Applications. — Denominate ap- plications are the applications of numbers as used in the tables, as 8 quarts are one peck, or 4 gills are one pint. These are to be taught concretely in connection with the various numbers in the number series. Illustration. — Thus in teaching the number 2, one denominate application to be taught is, two pints are one quart. In preparing to teach this concretely the teacher secures a quart measure, a pint measure, and something to nieasure. She has a child to take the pint measure and fill the quart measure, noting how many pints it requires. Then the quart measure is filled and emptied into the pint measure, the child noting how many times it fills the pint. In each case the story is asked for. In the first case the story is, two pints of water are one quart. In the second case the story is, in one quart of water there are two pints. This is on the assumption that water is measured. STEPS IN NUMBER — CONTINUED. 133 The other denominate applications of two and of the other numbers are to be taught in a similar way, when at all possible. All are to be made concrete. Further Illustration, — In preparing to teach the denominate application, 4 pecks are one bushel, the teacher secures a peck measure, a bushel measure, and something to measure, as oats. She then has the learner to measure with the peck and fill the bushel, and tell the story. It is, four pecks of oats are one hushel. The bushel measure is filled and as many pecks taken from it as can be, then the story told. It is, in one hushel of oats there are four pecks. The General Applications. — General applications are simply those in the solution of problems found in life. There is no more important part of number work than these problems in general applications. A teacher's success in teaching number will depend very largely upon her ability to give her pupils many good problems — problems not too hard and not too easy; problems that are well graded, those that will constantly lead the learner to a little stronger thinking. In connection with every number many of these little problems should be solved by the students. In this work there is rare opportunity for the teacher to show her skill in leading the pupils to think for them- selves. And the learner's growth in applying number to the solution of the problems arising in practical life depends almost wholly upon how well the teacher does this work in general applications. It is often a very heavy task upon teachers to ar- 134 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. range these problems originally for their pupils. This task may be made much lighter on teachers by their securing some good teacher's manuals on number, or primary arithmetic. These contain large numbers of problems from which teachers may draw. A list of such books is given at the end of this chapter. Illustrations. — Suppose the number under consider- ation is 21. The following are some problems suitable to children in the average class in this stage of the work : 1. Some birds were in a tree; 7, which was ^/g of them, flew away. How many were there at first? 2. A man sold 14 sheep, which were ^/g of what he had at first. How many had he at first ? 3. A gardener takes 21 bushels of apples to mar- ket, and sells ^/^ of them. How many does he sell? How many has he left ? 4. A man gave 3 children 7 apples each; how many did he give to all? 5. A little girl has 21 picture cards to give to her playmlates. To how many can she give them, if she gives 3 to each ? 6. Vt of 21 are how many? 7. ^/a of 21 are how many? 8. Vs and -/^ of 21 are how many? Picturing Problems. — This is work to be done by the children at their seats or at the board. The following will illustrate : 1. How many 4 spheres in 16 spheres? STEPS IN NUMBER — CONTINUED. 135 2. I have 20 cents to spend for picture cards; if I pay 4 cents a piece, how mlany can I buy ? OOOQQOpOqop This is valuable to children in helping them to see the relations in their problems in the earlier stages of their work. It should not be too long continued though. The learner should reach a place as soon as possible where he can solve the little problems without pictures. To carry this work too far would not foster rapidity of thought. As a device, though, properly used it is very helpful to children, and it lightens the work of the teacher. Notation. — Notation is the science and art of repre- senting numbers by means of symbols. There are three 136 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. kinds: (1) the word notation; (2) the Roman nota- tion; and (3) the Arabic notation. These are all in use to some extent, but the Arabic is used almost ex- clusively in teaching number and arithmetic. There is a question concerning the best time to teach notation worthy of some study. Some say that notation should be taught as soon as the learner has number ideas. And by this it is meant that figures are to be taught as soon as number work begins. Others would not teach notation before the beginning of the second year of the child's work in number. One good authority says: "The fundamental defect in dealing with arithmetic is that expression is treated instead of number. This m;anifests itself in various ways: 1. In the failure to teach the ideas and oral terms of numbers for a considerable time before beginning the work on written symbols. In reading, the child has been dealing with ideas and oral terms for six or more years before he begins work upon the written word. ' * This author, a most excellent thinker, would not have the figures taught before the beginning of the second year of number work. The main objection against teaching the Roman, and Arabic notation during the first year is as follows: It tends strongly toward giving the learner the wrong idea of number — the idea that the figures are the numbers. The point in favor of teaching the Roman, and Arabic notation the first year is as follows: STEPS IN NUMBER — CONTINUED. 137 It is convenient in teaching to have the child know the figures the first year, and since he must know them some time, it seems just as well to teach them as soon as he gets the number ideas. It is a great misfortune to the learner for him to get the notion that the figures are the numbers, and all reasonable precaution should be taken to prevent such an error. So it is probably better to postpone teaching notation at any rate till the learner is well founded in correct number ideas, or during most of the first year of number work. Two Stages. — There are two stages in teaching nota- tion to children: The first consists of teaching the notation of the numbers from 1 to 9, inclusive. The second consists of teaching the notation of the numbers from 10 on, as far as desirable. The First Stage. — The first stage is very simple and offers very little difficulty in teaching. The follow- ing is a good way to proceed : Draw a line on the board. Have the child measure off six inches. Tell him you are going to put on the board what makes you think six. Write the figure 6 on the board. Tell him to measure one more inch, and you will write what stands for it. Write the figure 7. Or tell him to erase one inch and you will write what stands for what is left. Point to the figure 6 and have the child measure off the number, or point to 5 or 7 and let him measure. Again measure off six inches and let him find the 138 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. figure; or measure off five inches, or seven inches and have him find the figures. It is evident that this process is much like teaching words as standing for their ideas in reading, and the steps are in general the same. They are as follows: 1. The advance of the learner's mind in rethink- ing the old number. 2. The advance of the learner's mind in adjusting itself to the figure. 3. The advance of the learner's mind in making the association between the number and the figure. The following device will help the learner in under- standing and remembering this stage of notation: 00 000 0000 00000 000000 0000000 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 00000000 000000000 8 9 ' 00 000 0000 00000 000000 0000000 one two three four five six seven I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 00000000 000000000 eight nine VIII. IX 8 9 The Second Stage. — This is the stage which offers the most difficulty in teaching, and the teaching well of the work in this stage is of the highest importance. In order to have a good basis to build upon in the work in this stage of notation, the notation of ten, eleven, and twelve must be taught in the same way as STEPS IN NUMBER — CONTINUED. 139 the notation of the numbers from 1 to 9 was taught. Then the following principles of notation can be taught : 1. The one ten resembles the one one in being a one, but it differs from it in value. 2. Therefore its symbol is like that for one one yet different from it. 3. The same symbol is used, but it is different from it in being held in the second place by some figure to its right. 4. The difference in value expressed by a figure is because of position. 5. The first is one 's, or unit 's place, and the second is ten's place. The following indicates how to proceed in teaching : Give the child twelve counters. Ask him how many ones in twelve. Tell him to show you how many tens in twelve and how many ones over. Ask him to write 12 on the board. Ask him what the 2 is ; what the 1 is. He should readily see that the 2 is two ones, and that the 1 is one ten. Teach eleven in the same way, using eleven coun- ters. Have the child write 10 on the board. Ask him what the 1 is ; what the means ; why it is used. Ask him if he can tell you now where one's place is in writing number; where ten's place is. From this work well done the learner will be able to write 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19. Work out 20 concretely with him, that is, with the 140 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. counters. Then have him write 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, and 90. The next point of difficulty will be the notation of 100 and numbers above it. One hundred may be worked out concretely as follows: Give the child 100 counters. Have him divide them into tens by putting little rubber bands around each ten. Have him make them into one hundred by putting a rubber band around the ten tens. Have him tell how many tens and ones he has to write. Ask him what to put in ten's place; what in one's place. Have the learner then write 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, etc. Importance of the Early Mastery of Notation. — The notation of numbers in both the science and art aspects simply must be mastered in the primary stage of number work. To fail to have the learner do so is inexcusable. The teacher can make no more fundamen- tal error in teaching number than to fail to have stud- ents thoroughly to understand notation in the early number work. It is an impossihility to teach students well the formal processes of addition, subtraction, mul- tiplication, and division, if they do not understand well notation. Let the student have well in mind notation, and the teaching of the formal processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division rationally be- comes easy. The importance of notation is not likely to be overestimated. Enumeration. — Enumeration is the process of read- ing number symbols. Children are to be taught to read number symbols in connection with the work in nota- STEPS IN NUMBER — CONTINUED. 141 tion. The two go hand in hand and may best be taught together. The Multiplication Table. — The question, When and how to teach best the multiplication table? is one worthy of consideration. Many have felt that the old- time way of memorizing it by rote is a very poor way to learn it, and it certainly is an interest-killing, and time and energy wasting process. It is evident that if, at the end of the third year, the child has mastered the relations in the numbers up to and including one hundred, he has mastered the mul- plication table. For instance, in dealing with four, he learns that 2X2 are 4; in dealing with six, he learns that 2X3 are 6; in dealing with eight, he learns that 2X4 are 8; in dealing with ten, that 2X5 are 10; in dealing with twelve, that 2X6 are 12, and so on. In a similar way he learns in dealing with six, that 3X2 are 6; in dealing with nine, that 3X3 are 9 ; in dealing with twelve, that 3X4 are 12; in dealing with fifteen, that 3X5 are 15, and so on. And thus with the various numbers. For example, in dealing with nine, he learns that 1X9 is 9; in dealing with eighteen, that 2X9 are 18; in dealing with twenty-seven, that 3X9 are 27; in dealing with thirty-six, that 4X9 are 36, and so on. From this study it appears that the multiplication table may be taught in connection with the various num- bers throughout the entire first three years of number work. This does not mean that the multiplication table is to he taught incidentally ; for to teach a thing inci- 142 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. dentally usually means to make it of secondary impor- tance and, therefore, to slight it. The multiplication table must not be slighted. The teacher may set about to teach it systematically as follows : In teaching, for instance, twelve, the table of twos should be learned to twelve; the table of threes, the table of fours, and the table of sixes also should be learned to twelve. In teaching twenty-four, the table of twos, the tables of threes, the table of fours, the table of sixes, and the table of eights should be learned. In teaching thirty-six, the table of threes, the table of fours, the table of sixes, and the table of nines should be learned. In teaching fifty-six, the table of sevens, and the table of eights should be learned. Enough numbers have been mentioned to show the nature of the work. All other numbers involving the tables should be taught in the same manner. The advantages in teaching the multiplication table in this way are as follows : 1. The opportunities for reviewing the tables are so frequent that the learner will almost surely learn them thoroughly. 2. There is a gradual growth which makes the burden of memorizing light. Much drill must be given in order that the associa- tion be not successive. It is very annoying if, for in- stance, when the child encounters 7X7, he must repeat STEPS IN NUMBER — CONTINUED. 143 the table of sevens up to that place to get the niimher 49. It is desirable for 49 to come into consciousness instantly when he wants the product of 7X7. The following device is helpful in this work: The seven in the center of the circle may be changed to 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, or 9. Teacher's Helps. — The following are helpful books for teachers on the subject of primary number: 1. Went worth and Reed's Primary Arithmetic, Ginn and Co., Chicago. 2. Cook and Cropsey's Eelementary Arithmetic, Parts I. and II., Silver, Burdett and Co., Chicago. 3. Speer's Primary Arithmetic, Parts I. and II., Ginn and Co., Chicago. 4. Pierce's First Steps in Arithmetic, Silver, Bur- dett and Co., Chicago. 5. The Werner Arithmetic, Book I., The Werner Co., Chicago. CHAPTER X. STEPS IN NUMBER — CONCLUDED. General Scope. — In this stage of number work is included all the work the learner does in school in arith- metic beyond the work in what has been called the primary stage. In this stage are to be taught the formal processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. An intensive study of denominate num- bers is made. Fractions, both common and decimal, percentage, in its applications, ratio, proportion, etc., are also taught. It is the purpose to study here the method of only the elementary parts of this work. The method of the advanced parts of arithmetic, however valuable, is be- yond the scope of the present studies. The Formal Process of Addition. — The learner has been dealing with addition for almost three years now, but not with the formal process of addition. This will not be difficult for him now. There are two stages in teaching it, as follows: 1. The teaching of those problems in which the sum of the addends in any order does not equal ten. 2. The teaching of those problems in which the sum of the addends in any order equals or exceeds ten. STEPS IN NUMBER — CONCLUDED. 145 123-[-2344-522 illustrates with a problem in the first stage, and 2896+8637+231 illustrates with a problem in the second stage. The First Stage. — This stage is quite simple and is easily taught, because it does not involve the idea of reduction. The procedure in teaching it is as follows: Send the learner to the board and tell him to write twenty-five; then tell him to write thirty-two under the twenty-five. Ask him to add the two and the five. Ask him what his two is, and what his five is ; then what his seven is. Tell him to write the seven where he thinks it belongs. If he does not get it in the right place, show him where it is customary to write it. Now lead him by questions to see that the two and three are tens. Have him add them, and ask him if he knows where to write the five and why. Then ask him how many twenty-five and thirty-two are. If the child understands this problem, he will solve the next one without help. Give him a goodly number to fix well in mind the form of such problems. The Second Stage. — This stage is more complex and offers more difficulty in teaching, because it involves the idea of reduction. The procedure in teaching it is as follows : Tell the learner to write on the board, or slate, or note-book fifty-six. Tell him to add to it thirty-four. Lead him by questions to see that the six and the four are ones; then that their sum is ten ones. Then lead him to see that his one is one ten and must be put in 146 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. ten's place, and that lie has only naught to put in one's place. Let him write the one in ten's place and the naught in one's place. Lead him by questions to see that the five and the three are tens ; and that their sum is eight tens. Let him write it in ten's place. Then show him that for convenience the one ten is not written but held in mind and added to the three and five tens and the sum of all of them written. From this start problems gradually increasing in length and difiiculty are given and solved, the reason for each step being obtained from the students by the questions of the teacher. A degree of development will soon be reached which will make it desirable to give the names and work out the meaning of the term — addend and sum — used in ad- dition; also the principle that only like numbers can he added. These, if taught in the best way possible, will be taught inductively. It is to be noticed that the old erroneous notion of * ' carrying to the next higher order ' ' is entirely unneces- sary, and easily avoided when addition is rightly taught. The Formal Process of Subtraction. — The learner has been solving problems in subtraction for about three years already, but not problems in the formal process of subtraction. Having also learned notation well, he now has a good basis for the work in subtraction as a formal process. As in addition, there are two stages in teaching this process, as follows: STEPS IN NUMBER CONCLUDED. 147 1. The stage in which those problems in the sub- trahend of which the number in any order is smaller than the number in the minuend in the same order, are taught. 2. The stage in which those problems of which the minuend has a number in any order smaller than the number in the same order of the subtrahend, are taught. 4867 — 2534 illustrates with a problem in the first stage, and 2365 — 1758 illustrates with a problem in the second stage. The First Stage. — This stage offers little or no dif- ficulty in teaching because of its simplicity. The pro- cedure in teaching it is as follows: Have the learner write on the board, for instance, 875 and under it 352 and tell him to take one from the other and write the result where it should be written. From what he has learned in notation and addition he will almost surely catch the idea in the first problem. Then all that is necessary is to give him a number of problems gradually increasing in difiiculty. The Second Stage. — In this stage the learner will encounter a real difficulty, because it is made somewhat complex by the reduction involved. The procedure in teaching should be somewhat as follows: Tell the learner to place 34 on the board and subtract 18 from it. He will know that 18 may be taken from 34, but he comes face to face with a diffi- culty at the start; namely, he can not take 8 from 4. The teacher now leads the learner to see what to do, 148 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. concretely. Give him 34 counters, and tell him to make them into tens. He makes them into 3 tens and places a rubber band around each ten. Lead him to see that the 34 is the symbol of 3 tens and 4 ones. Now ask him to take away 8 one-counters. In order to do this he must change 1 ten-counters into ones. Then ask him how many tens he has and how many ones. Have him remx)ve the eight ones, and write on the board the num- ber of ones he has left. Ask him how many tens he has left. Tell him to take away one ten and write on the board the number of tens he has left. In this concrete way the learner is led to see that when the number in any order in the minuend is smaller than the number of the same order in the subtrahend the subtraction is performed by first reducing one unit of the next higher order to units of this lower order, and then taking away the number in the subtrahend from all the units of that order. If necessary, other problems should be solved in this concrete way. Then the further work will consist in having the pupil to solve problems gradually increasing in length and difficulty, and in teaching him the mean- ing of the terms employed in subtraction. These terms may be taught inductively and will be so taught in work of the best kind. It should be noted that, if subtraction be taught in this rational way, there arises no necessity for intro- ducing the fiction of ''borrowing one from the next higher order and paying back." STEPS IN NUMBER CONCLUDED. 149 The Formal Process of Multiplication. — As in the formal process of addition, and of subtraction, the pupil should now be well prepared for multiplication as a formal process, since he has been solving little problems in multiplication for some years. There are in this work also two stages, as follows: 1. That stage in which the problems solved have multipliers consisting of but one order; as, 358X6. 2. That stage in which the problems solved have multipliers consisting of more than one order; as, 358X64 or 3860X238. The First Stage. — This offers very little, if any, trouble in teaching, if the work up to this place has been reasonably well done. The following is a very good way to proceed in teaching it: Ask the learner to write 125 on the board and write 7 ones under it and draw a line beneath. Ask him how many 7X5 are, and have him write the result in the proper order. Then have him write the result of 7X2 in the proper order; then, the result of 7X1 in the proper order. At this stage of the work the form is: 125 7 35 140 700 Now ask how the result may be written so as to appear as one number. If the learner can not see, he 150 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. will have to be shown, since the form is purely a matter of convenience. Further work on more difficult problems is then to be given. The learner mlist also be taught that a problem of this kind is a problem in multiplication. The Second Stage, — This stage offers some points of difficulty in teaching, but the learner will readily- master them if the work as indicated in these studies has been done moderately well up to this place. The procedure in teaching is as follows : Ask the learner to multiply, for instance, 236 by 24. He will probably not see how to multiply by so large a number. Lead him to see that he can multiply by 4. This he will readily do since it is like the work he has been doing in the first stage of multiplication. Next he is led to see how to multiply by the 2 tens. He knows that 2X6=12, but he must be led to see that it is 12 tens. This he will see when he is led to see that 2 tens times 6 ones is 12 tens. He is told to write the 12 tens where it belongs. Have him fill out one's place with a naught. The next step is to lead him to see that 3 tens multiplied by 2 tens gives 6 hundreds. Let him write the product where it belongs and fill out the places with naughts. And, lastly, he must be led to see that 2 hundreds multiplied by 2 tens gives 4 thous- ands. Let him again write the result where it belongs and fill out with naughts. Now he is to be led to see that to get the numbers all together in the product he must add. The form of the above solution is as follows : STEPS IN NUMBER — CONCLUDED. 151 236 24 944 120 600 4000 5664 The next step is to lead the learner to see how to shorten the form by writing as one number 120,600, and 4000, and that in this case it is not necessary to write the naught in one's place, since we can tell what the 2 is by its being under 4 tens. So the form is shortened to the following : 236 24 944 472 5664 The learner will frequently catch the idea from the first problem. If he should not do so, other problems must be worked out in the same way. Then the further work consists of the solution of problems of various numbers gradually increasing in difficulty. From the above the teacher should see how to teach such problems as 876X40 and 8002X402. No new principles are in- volved. 152 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. Next the meaning of the terms, multiplicand, mul- tiplier, and product should be taught. The Formal Process of Division. — There are also two stages in teaching the formal process of division: 1. What is commonly called long division. 2. What is commonly called short division. The Order of the Stages. — There is some difference of opinion as to which should be taught first, long division or short division. There are, no doubt, success- ful teachers who teach short division first and equally successful ones who teach long division first. It prob- ably does not make any vital difference which is taught first. Any abridged form is usually more difficult to understand than the full form in any process. Short division is an abridged form and should therefore prop- erly come after the full form is known. To teach short division first is said to make long division more diffi- cult for the learner. The First Stage. — After the learner has had the work up to this place as indicated in these studies he should be in such an attitude of mind that he would want to see the reason for each step in any problem. The formal process of division should be taught in har- mony with this idea ; that is, rationally. The procedure in teaching it is as follows : Place on the board, for instance, 456 and place the divisor 3 in its position, and tell the pupil you want to find how many threes in 456. Ask how many threes in 4. When the learner says one, tell him you will place STEPS IN NUMBER CONCLUDED. 153 it where it belongs, and put it there. Now he must be led to see that 4 is four hundreds and so the 1 is one hundred. Ask him to put naughts so as to show that the 1 is one hundred. Then he will have to be shown that the 3 is multiplied by 100 and the product written under 456, and then subtracted from it. The teacher now asks the learner if there are any 100 threes in 156. The next step is to lead the learner to give the number of threes in 15, and to see that the 5 is 5 tens. Then multiply across and subtract. Next lead him to see that the threes in 6 are 2 of one's order. The form now stands as follows: 3)456(100 300 50 2 156 150 6 6 Now ask the learner how many threes in 456, and lead him to see how the quotient may be written as one number. Have him to understand that such a problem is a problem in division. Now give him a small problem to solve, for instance, 32-^2. Lead him to give reasons for each step. Have him solve many problems gradually increasing in diffi- culty. When he begins to get skillful to some degree show him how the form is further shortened by, instead of writing the two naughts at the right of the 3, writing 154 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. merely the 3 under hundreds ; also, that a similar thing is true of 15, and that the 5 and 6 are brought down only as needed. The shortened form is then as follows: 3)456(152 3 15 15 6 6 Now give the learner problems gradually increas- ing in difficulty to solve according to the shorter form. The Second Stage. — The teaching of short division will now be very easy. It is evident that it is only a further shortening of the form. Using the same prob- blem, for instance, show the learner how the form may be shortened into short division in the case of easy prob- lems. Then give him plenty of suitable problems to solve by the shortest form, and all will be well. Conclusion. — ^After having mastered the four funda- mental processes, the learner is ready to study the var- ious applications of these in the arithmetic work proper. It is beyond the scope of these studies to investigate the method of teaching these various applications. If the work so far has been done as advocated in these studies, the learner will be able to take care of himself in the further work, to a large degree. CHAPTER XI. SUBJECT-MATTER, PURPOSE AND BASIS OF NUMBER. General Nature. — It will be remembered that the subject-matter of any subject or lesson is the material of study in that subject or lesson; also, that it consists of (1) the facts in the subject, and (2) the relations of the facts peculiar to that subject alone. Accordingly it may be said that the subject-matter of number is, in general, the facts a pupil must learn, to know number, together with the proper relations of these facts. A closer examination will show ( 1 ) what these facts of number are, and (2) what the relations in which they are to be considered are. The facts to be mastered in number study are the facts of the number continuum, or number series. That is to say, the facts to be mas- tered in the study of number are the facts of the num- bers from one to infinity. The number continuum, or the number series, consists of the numbers from one on, including one, of course. And the relations in which these numbers are to be studied are those indicated in our previous study. They are: 1. The numbers as wholes. 2. The numbers as to what they are made up of and what they may be separated into. 156 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 3. The numbers as to their notation. 4. The numbers as to their denominate and general applications. From the above the following definite statement for the subject-matter of number is obtained: The subject- matter of number is the number continuum, each num- ber (1) as a whole; (2) as to its flotation; (3) as to what it is made up of and what it may be separated into and (4) as to its denominate and general applica- tions. The Purpose of Number. — It is to be remembered that the purpose of any subject is to be determined by the effect the pursuit of that subject has on the life of the one studying it. Now the study of number as a subject, like the study of any other subject, affects the mind in two general ways, as follows : 1. By the study of number the learner gets knowl- edge valuable for guidance in living. This is called the knowledge-giving purpose. 2. The learner's mind gets exercise, and by means of this exercise his mind grows in ability to think read- ily and accurately. This is called the disciplinary pur- pose. The Knowledge-Giving Purpose. — Some subjects hold their places in the school curriculum because of their knowledge- giving value mainly, while others hold their places in the school curriculum because of their disciplinary value mainly. Contrary to popular opinion number should hold its place in the school curriculum mainly because of the useful knowledge the study of it PURPOSE AND BASIS OF NUMBER. 157 gives. This knowledge is such that it gives the learner the ability to grasp definitely the world of quantity which would otherwise remain only vague wholes to him. Thus the learner needs and uses his knowledge of number wherever the mind has occasion to think any kind of quantity. Occasions for thinking quantity arise whenever the mind has to do with time, distance, re- sistance, or value, in any specific way whatever. Guidance in Industrial Life. — A knowledge of num- ber is valuable in every aspect of life, but is most ob- trusively valuable in the industrial life of a people. It helps to miake this point clear to classify what people who are engaged in industrial life mainly do. There will be found to be mainly the following three lines ; 1. The production of commodities. 2. The preparation of commodities. 3. The distribution of commodities. By the production of commodities is meant the pro- duction of corn, wheat, oats, barley, hay, cattle, hogs, poultry, wool, flax, hemJp, fruit, cotton, coal, stone, iron, silk, etc. By preparation of commodities is meant their change from conditions in which they can not be used to conditions fit for use, as manufacturing, etc. Distribution of commodities means the process of sending them from place to place, to the points of con- sumption. Commodities could be but poorly produced without a knowledge of number. Land must be measured, time 158 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. must be measured, feed must be measured, fertilizers must be mieasured, sprays, medicines, resistance, and hundreds of things that come up in connection with these things directly demand a knowledge of number. And indirectly machinery, sheds, tools, houses, harness, etc., required in the production of commodities demand a knowledge of number for making and keeping. In short, commodities could be produced in only the most extremely primitive way without a knowledge of nimi- ber. The preparation of commodities in adequate degrees would simply be an impossibility without the guidance which a knowledge of number furnishes. In preparing products constant need of measurement arises. The machinery manufactured, the food products made, the medicines, the paints, fillers, varnishes, glass, earthen ware, china ware, carpets, rugs, dress goods, etc., could never be made without the measurement of quantity, and no accurate measurements could be made without number. A knowledge of number is thus of absolute value in the preparation of commodities. In the distribution of commodities a knowledge of number is very necessary for guidance. Things can not be distributed without involving the necessity of ex- change. And in exchange the need for measurement of quantity is constant. There can be no traffic, no buying or selling without measurement of quantity. The knowl- edge of number is necessary in all kinds of exchange. The distribution of commodities requires railroads and their equipments^ steamboats, steamships, the dredg- PURPOSE AND BASIS OF NUMBER. 159 ing of rivers, docks, canals, locks, etc., none of which can be made without the guidance the knowledge of number gives in measuring quantity. Guidance in Sciences. — In the sciences of astron- omy, physics, chemistry, geology, geography, etc., a knowledge of number is constantly needed. It is a safe assertion to say that the natural sciences could never have reached the degree of development to which they have attained without having been supplemented by a knowledge of number. This study realizes to us that, when it is said that the main purpose of number is to give the learner knowledge which will enable him to make a vague whole of quantity definite in his effort to think the external world, the statement is much more comprehensive than one would at first suppose. The Disciplinary Purpose. — While the disciplinary value of the study of number is important, it is now believed by some most excellent thinkers that it has com- monly been overestimated. The following quotation from Dr. W. T. Harris in- dicates something of this thought: "The true psycho- logical theory of number is the panacea for that exag- geration of the importance of arithmetic which prevails in our elementary schools. As if it were not enough that the science of number is indispensable for the con- quest of Nature in time and space, these qualitative- unit teachers make the mistake of supposing that arith- metic deals with spiritual being as much as with mat- ter; they confound quality with quantity, and conse- 160 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. quently mathematics with metaphysics. Mental arith- metic becomes in their psychology * the discipline of pure reason.' " The study of number exercises nearly all the men- tal faculties to some extent, but it is usually said to be most excellent for cultivating reasoning. Now it is true that the study of number develops the reasoning powers, but inquiry should be made con- cerning what kind of reasoning powers it develops. Number develops mathematical, or necessary, reasoning. The thing dealt with is fixed, definite, and necessary. There are no questions as to how the mathematical prob- lem will act in response to stimuli or in an effort to adapt itself to its environment. The questions which have to do with the great problems of human life, its emotions, passions, hopes, vicissitudes, disappointments, in brief, its struggle in its various and multiform as- pects, are not directly dealt with in mathematics. And since such subjects are not reasoned about, such reason- ing power is not developed. In short the power of reasoning developed in mathematics is not the power of reasoning which most persons need most in life. One's observation does not have to be very acute to observe persons who are acute reasoners in mathematics but who are not even mediocre in history, politics, religion, ethics, sociology, those lines of human endeavor so in- timately connected with life. A systematic analysis of the purposes of number in the school course will certainly show that its highest PURPOSE AND BASIS OF NUMBER. 161 value is in the knowledge it gives; and that the value of mathematics is and has been overestimated. Conclusion. — An unprejudiced analysis of the pur- pose of number leads to the following conclusions: 1. The knowledge-giving purpose is the main pur- pose of number study. 2. The knowledge-giving purpose of studying num- ber is to gain knowledge which will give guidance in making vague wholes of quantity definite in the effort to think definitely Nature in time and space. 3. That this in itself is an entirely sufficient reason for studying number. 4. That, while the study of number gives mental dispicline, its value from this point of view is quite com- monly overestimated. Basis. — The learner's basis for studying number when he comes to school consists in the main of three things : 1. He knows many qualities of objects; such as, hard, soft, rough, smooth, sweet, sour, white, yellow, black, light, heavy, etc. Some of these he knows pretty definitely, and some of them only vaguely. But they enable him to limit objects in time and space. This he must do in order to get any kind of start in measuring. 2. He has ideas of quantity as vague wholes, as indicated by the use of such terms as far, near, heavier, lighter, larger, smaller, etc. 3. He can usually count to some extent. If he 162 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. can not count it is probably a good thing to teach him to count as a part of the basis for real number work. But the mistake of thinking that since he can count he necessarily knows number must not be made. CHAPTER XII. ERRORS IN TEACHING NUMBER. Prevalence of. — ^Number teaching presents to the teacher many an opportunity for error. And since so many of the teachers in the primary schools teach with- out having studied current approved methods in num- ber, many mischievous errors are made. A second cause of these errors is that many teachers hold the unreason- able notion that all that is necessary in way of prepara- tion to teach number well is a knowledge of number. The following is a list of common errors: 1. Symbols, figures, are taught instead of number. 2. Teaching so that the learner gets the wrong conception of number. 3. Teaching in an unorganized, unsystematic, pur- poseless way. 4. The teaching the formal processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division too early, and unrationally. 5. Too much drill upon one number in the effort to exhaust it before taking up other numbers. 6. Failure to bring out and emphasize the rela- tions sufficiently among the various topics taught. 7. Too much emphasis on complexity and not enough on accuracy. Symbols Instead of Numbers. — One good authority 164 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. says the following on this point: ''The fundamental defect in dealing with arithmetic is that expression is treated instead of number. Symbol is taught instead of substance." Dealing with figures instead of with numbers is formal and meaningless and places the mind's emphasis upon the symbol without the meaning which should be symbolized. It is like learning to repeat words without knowing their meaning. It is the kind of work which fails wholly to call forth the mind's natural activity in learning number. It is the kind of work which ar- rests the development of the number faculty of the mind, the kind of mental food which gives mental in- digestion. Wrong Number Concepts. — It perhaps does not put it too strong to say that three-fourths of the persons who have been dealing with number for years either have no very definite idea of what number is or have a wrong idea of what number is. Perhaps the two wrong notions of number most generally held are as follows: 1. The notion that number is an inherent property of objects, such as form or weight. 2. The notion that the symbols of number, the fig- ures, are the numbers. These two wrong concepts of number result from bad teaching in the number work. The first idea of number makes number a qualita- tive thing instead of quantitative and grows out of such teaching as follows : the teacher has the child to observe an object and tells him it is one; then another, and ERRORS IN TEACHING NUMBER. 165 tells him it is two; a third, three; another, fow^, etc. Then she proceeds to work with the numbers as if he knew them actually. The second idea of number makes the symbol, the figure, the number, and it grows out of the usual way of teaching number. Figures are introduced and dealt with from the start. Little problems are given to be solved on the board, note-book or slate. The learner reaches a certain degree of skill in manipulating figures. They are so important a part of the work that he very naturally grows into thinking that they are actually the numbers. Unsystematic Number Teaching. — Much number teaching in the past and a good deal of it at present is poor because of its unsystematic, fragmentary char- acter. Teachers have often not known what the aver- age child can do in number, what he knows of number when he comes to school, nor when and why he should begin the number work: in short, they have thought through no systematic plan of teaching number. This condition of things must be more or less com- mon so long as so many teachers attempt to teach num- ber without having been students of special method in it. The mischief such unsystematic work does is (1) the learner makes progress too slowly ; that is, it wastes his time and energy; (2) it does not discriminate be- tween the important and the unimportant in number; (3) it is uninteresting and gives the learner undesirable habits of thought. Formal Teaching of Fundamental Processes. — The 166 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. formal processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are rational. That is to say, the form of these processes is founded on thought, but so often as usually taught to the learner the form is entirely with- out reason. Children who are sufficiently developed to study these formal processes at all may be led to see the reason for each step, and they should by all means be taught so they may do so. The merely formal teach- ing of these processes is responsible for the senseless jargon of ''carrying to the next higher order" in ad- dition, and of ''borrowing one from the next higher order" in subtraction. The meaningless manner of teaching the form of these fundamental processes is one of the most wide- spread as well as most inexcusable sins against the learner in number teaching. Exhausting the Number. — The custom which still prevails in some schools of taking up one number, for instance 6, and doing all possible to be done with it before beginning any work with any succeeding num- bers, is to be condemned in very strong terms. To keep the learner so long on one number is not only uninter- esting and monotonous but positively injurious to him. 1. It arrests development. 2. It is in violation of the mind's natural action in learning number. 3. It deadens the learner's native interest in num- ber and tends to a dislike for the subject. Relations Among Topics. — Many teachers teach the various topics, as division, ratio, fractions, addition and ERRORS IN TEACHING NUMBER. 167 subtraction of simple numbers, addition and subtraction of denominate numbers, etc., as isolated. This is a grave error, for thinking mathematically is only com- paring numbers and processes and discovering their likenesses and differences; that is, tracing out relations. Nothing else so well reveals the nature of the various topics in number work as to compare them, and trace out the relations among them. A failure to do this re- sults in the learner's failure to see number as an organic whole. He rather gets the idea that the various topics are not essentially related. Complexity and Accuracy. — The highest end to be aimed at in number work is absolute accuracy in the ap- plication of ideas of number to the realities of life. It is to be hoped that there is a growth away from the time-honored custom of making the chief aim of number work the ability to 'work knotty problems." Absolute accuracy in addition, subtraction, multiplication, divi- sion and other simple number processes is a much more important consideration. And after accuracy in im- portance comes rapidity. These two things, accuracy and rapidity make up skill, and skill in the solution of the problems of life in so far as the conquest of Nature in time is concerned is the cardinal idea in all number work. Thus to slight accuracy and rapidity in the sim- ple number processes and devote the time largely to the solution of problems involving to a high degree com- plexity of relations and processes is an error. CHAPTER XIII. THE PURPOSE OF GRAMMAR. The Traditional Purpose. — There was a time in the history of our schools when the curriculum consisted of only spelling, reading, writing and arithmetic. But in time it was felt that the children in communicating their thoughts and feelings did not use as good English as they should. It was also seen that there was no sub- ject in the school curriculum that had as its specific aim to give the children a knowledge of how to do this. As this thought and feeling grew in the minds of the peo- ple, there became a real felt need for some subject in the school curriculum the study of which would give the children a knowledge of how to use good English in expressing their thoughts and feelings. And this is the thing which brought grammar as a subject into the school curriculum. It was thought that if the children knew Jiow to use good English, they would do so in speaking and writing. So it was said that the purpose of grammar was to teach how to speak and write cor- rectly. This was thought to mean the same as to give the habit of speaking and writing correctly. This idea of the purpose of grammar was handed down from one generation to the succeeding, and accepted as correct for a long time, and for this reason is called the tradi- tional purpose of grammar. That is to say, the purpose THE PURPOSE OF GRAMMAR. 169 handed down from one generation to another. So now we say the traditional purpose of grammar is, that its study is to teach us how to speak and write correctly. It does not seem to have been considered for a long time whether the study of grammar had more than one purpose; and, of course, it was not seen that it has a primary purpose of great importance and a subordinate purpose of much less importance. How Purpose Is Determined. — The purpose of any subject in the school curriculum or of any lesson is de- termined from the effect the pursuit of that subject or lesson produces on the life of the learner. There is ab- solutely no other way of getting at it. Illustration. — If one studies the following selection from Browning, he gets the thought that progress is the characteristic which distinguishes man from God on one hand, and from the beasts on the other. So, if he seeks the purpose of the selection, he must determine it from the effect on his life, and say its purpose is to set before us the message that progress distinguishes man from both God and the beasts : "Progress, man's distinctive mark alone, Not God's, and not the beasts'; God is, they are, Man partly is, and wholly hopes to be." Thus, if it is held that the purpose of a study is one thing, and the study actually accomplishes an en- tirely different thing in one's life, there is a contradic- tion. This being the condition of things, people will sooner or later think that the purpose is not what it has been held to be. And if the thing accomplished is 170 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. a desirable thing, it will come to be regarded as the purpose of the pursuit of the subject. The Actual Purpose of Grammar. — It will be re- membered from previous study that the pursuit of any subject gives in general two things: knowledge and mental discipline. Thus the pursuit of grammar will give these two things, and will have in general these two purposes. That is to say, grammar has a knowledge- giving purpose and a disciplinary purpose. The question whether the knowledge-giving or dis- ciplinary purpose of grammar is more important im- mediately suggests itself. Keeping in mind how the purpose of any school subject is determined, we may profitably study this question. Effect of the Study of Grammar. — The study of grammar does mainly the three following things for the one who pursues the subject : 1. It gives excellent mental discipline. 2. It gives knowledge which guides to some extent in speaking and writing correctly. 3. It gives knowledge which forms a basis for other work in language subjects. The extent to which grammar does these three things respectively must be taken into consideration, as well as the value to be derived from each one, in a sys- tematic study of the value of the pursuit of grammar to the learner. Mental Discipline Furnished hy the Study of Gram- mar. — Mental discipline is mental exercise in thinking, feeling and willing for the following ends: THE PURPOSE OF GRAMMAR. 171 1. Developing accurate and ready thinkers. 2. Developing love of truth, beauty, and right- eousness. 3. Developing habits of self-control and self- direction. Mental discipline is based upon the principle that the mind learns to do hy doing. So the question for study here is. What does the mind get exercise in, in studying grammar? The answer to this question leads into the study of three topics in psychology, concep- tion, judgment and reasoning. Conception. — Our ideas of the various things ex- pressed by common nouns are our concepts of these things. Thus the words, tree, ham, hoy, flower, and hird express concepts. These words each expresses the attributes common to all the objects of the class which each names. That is to say, each word names a class. The terms, concept, general idea, and general notion all mean the same thing. Thus conception is the mind's process of getting its general notions, or ideas. And a general idea is an idea made up of the common truths of a class of objects. The following is the formal defi- nition for conception: Conception is the mind's process of forming an idea made up of the common attrihutes of a class of ohjects. The Mind's Natural Way of Forming Concepts. — The mind naturally gets its general ideas from the study of particular objects. In this way the child got his idea, man; his idea, dog ; his idea, tree; his idea, flower; his idea, horse; his idea, hoolc, and so on. 172 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. Suppose the first barn a child sees is a square one painted red, with a roof sloping one way, containing only hay and corn. From this particular object his idea of a barn will contain square form, red color, this spe- cial kind of roof, and filled with hay and corn. Say the next barn he sees has all these attributes but square form. From the study of these two particular barns, his idea of a barn will contain red color, roof sloping one way, filled with hay and corn. To be brief, the child from examining particular barns, goes on correct- ing his idea of a barn by dropping out attributes, and possibly adding some, until his idea contains just those attributes which barns possess in common. This is the way the mind naturally gets its concepts in life. When it examines the first particular object, it forms a ten- tative or trial, concept. But it goes on and examines other particular objects to correct this tentative concept. The logical steps in an act of conception are as follows : 1. The mind has an activity corresponding to some particular object. 2. The mind repeats this activity with other simi- lar objects. 3. The mind compares and contrasts these objects. 4. The mind abstracts by holding in consciousness the common attributes and dropping from consciousness more or less the others. 5. The mind generalizes by extending the common attributes of the particular objects examined out to all the objects of the class. THE PURPOSE OF GRAMMAR. 173 6. The mind thinks the name of the class. The first two steps are frequently put together, thus making five steps, as follows : 1. Examination of particulars. 2. Comparison and contrast. 3. Abstraction. 4. Generalization. 5. Denomination. The two following points in the study of conception in connection with method in grammar are worthy of emphasis : 1. Naturally the mind in getting concepts comes in actual contact with objects, the material of study, and learns about them first hand. 2. In learning grammar many concepts are to be acquired; concepts of the sentence, the noun, the pro- noun, mode, tense, person, gender, a modifier, a phrase, a clause, and so on, a great stock of concepts. Thus learning grammar calls into activity in many places the mind's process of conception. Judgment. — The concept, as learned, is expressed by the common noun, and similarly the judgment is ex- pressed by the sentence. It is usually said that the sentence expresses the thought, and correctly so, for the thought and the judgment mean the same thing. The mind at some time in its past experience got the idea, trees; also, the idea, grow. Now it grasps the relation between these two ideas and asserts it, and thinks trees grow. When the mind does this it is judg- ing, and the result of judging is the judgment. 174 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. It should be seen that in judging there are three activities involved, as follows: 1. The mind reacts the old idea, trees. 2. The mind reacts the old idea, grow. 3. The mind asserts the relation between them. The following is the formal definition for a judg- ment: A judgment is the mental product which the mind reaches hy asserting the relation between two ideas. Opportunity is offered at every step in learning grammar for exercising the judgment. No definition can be made, no classifications, no principles worked out, no steps in parsing or analyzing taken without ex- ercising the judgment at each step. Grammar thus fur- nishes fine opportunities for cultivating the judgment. Reasoning. — In judging the mind grasps the rela- tion between ideas, and in reasoning it in a somewhat similar way grasps the relation between judgments. But in reasoning there are three judgments involved, and they are so related that the last one is reached because of its relation to the two preceding. The following will illustrate it : This object has voluntary motion. This object is an animal. This object has voluntary motion. The sentence, "Animals have voluntary motion, '* expresses one judgment; the sentence, "This object is an animal," expresses another judgment; and the sen- tence, "This object has voluntary motion," is reached by the mind because of its relation to the two preceding THE PURPOSE OF GRAMMAR. 175 judgments. The formal definition for it is as follows: Reasoning is the mind's process of reaching a judg- ment because of its relation to two preceding judgments. From one point of view there are three classes of reasoning: 1. Deduction. 2. Identification. 3. Induc- tion. The following will illustrate: Deduction. Animals have voluntary motion. This object is an animal. This object has voluntary motion. Identification. Animals have voluntary "motion. This object has voluntary motion. This object is an animal. Induction. This object is animal. This object has voluntary motion. Animals have voluntary motion. These three kinds of reasoning may best be known from the description of the third judgment in each one. In deduction the third judgment has for its subject the idea of some particular object about which the idea of some attribute is asserted. In identification the third judgment has for its sub- ject the idea of some particular object of which the idea of some class is asserted. In induction the third judgment has for its sub- ject the idea of some class about which the idea of some atrribute is asserted. The mind's ability to think readily and accurately STEPS IN LANGUAGE LESSONS. 315 soon as possible after the error do not hold, the follow- ing reasons for doing so suggest themselves: 1. It is the only way to make the correction effec- tive enough. 2. It avoids looseness of criticism. 3. It tends to subordinate the language to the thought. In order that the correction may be as effective as possible it should be made so that the correct language form could be united in the same experience with the thought to be expressed while the thought is intense. If the correct form is not given the incorrect form will be united with the thought in its greatest intensity, and thus most strongly welded with it. After the thought has lost its initial intensity no form either correct or in- correct can be so strongly welded to it. It is much like striking the iron when it is hot. For this reason there should not be delay of correction longer than is unavoid- able. Postponement of correction almost inevitably leads to looseness of criticism. The error passes from the teacher's mind in the absorption of the recitation and is forgotten. This is unavoidable to some degree if cor- rection is left for the end of the recitation. One of the difficulties of primary language teaching is that the learner learns poorly to use language cor- rectly by studying the language. Everything possible should be done to have him acquire a good language habit indirectly; that is, with his mind focused on the thought and not on the language. To wait for the end 316 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. of the recitation and then call his attention to the form is to focus his attention on the language, but to get him into the habit of picking up the correct form in the midst of his thought tends towards the mastery of the language while he is mentally absorbed in the thought he wishes to express. In the most skillful teaching the corrections in oral primary language work will be made as nearly immediately after the error occurs as possible. In the written work some time must of necessity elapse before the errors can be corrected. The criticisms in written language must be very carefully and very conscientiously made, however. They must be made in such a way that the learner's attention will surely be called to them. It is sometimes a good plan to call for a second writing, or even a third, of the production, with a view to improvement in the language. This will call attention to all corrections. A place should be reached in the work which will warrant never permit- ting an error in language to go by without having it corrected. To criticise in a helpful way is an art. Teachers frequently fail in their language and composition work because of weakness in criticism. There are cases in school of students who have such bad language habits that almost every other word is an error. These are neglected cases, of course. To correct every error such students make would be overwhelming. In such cases it is best to study their errors, classify them, and begin on a few of the worst. After these STEPS IN LANGUAGE LESSONS. 317 have been eliminated to some degree, others should grad- ually be taken up till a place is reached which will warrant the teacher's having every one corrected. And let it be remembered that nothing short of everlastingly keeping at it will bring large success. Most teachers are appallingly negligent of their children's language in all recitations except the language recita- tion. This point of bad pedagogy can be and should be gotten rid of in all school work from the kindergarten to the university. Points to Be Kept in Mind in Language Teaching, — The study up to the present place may be summar- ized in the following points, which are worth keeping in mind: 1. The main distinctive purpose of language les- sons is to lead the learner to form the habit of using correct, clear, elegant and energetic language in com- municating his thought and feeling. 2. A secondary distinctive purpose of language lessons is to give the learner an adequate basis for the grammar work to be done later. 3. Language lessons in common with other sub- jects have it as their purpose to give the learner knowl- edge valuable for guidance in right living. 4. Language lessons in common with other sub- jects also have it as their purpose to furnish the learner mental discipline to the end of accurate and ready thinking. 5. Language lessons should be in harmony with the following principles deduced from an analysis of 318 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. the mind^s natural way of learning language and of using it: a. The language lesson must correlate with the learner's life. b. The learner best acquires a mastery of lan- guage by dealing with it with his mind focused, in so far as possible, on the object of thought. c. There is a distinctive language period in the learner's life in which he learns language as readily as he learns to walk. This period is, in general, from the time he begins to talk up to the age of thirteen or fourteen. If the learner does not acquire, to a large extent, the use of good language in this period, he either never will do so or will do so at great cost and with much difficulty. 6. Eternal vigilance in kindly correcting the learner's language is the price of good language habits. 7. In general in all language teaching the steps are as follows: a. Developing thought and feeling. b. Stimulating to the communication of this thought and feeling. c. Correcting kindly and sympathetically aJl errors. Concrete Illustrations. — Under this heading some illustrations of what language lessons should be, in the light of the previous study, will be studied. The Blue Violet. — This lesson is adapted to chil- dren of the second or third school year, and is based upon Nature Study work. The time of year is the STEPS IN LANGUAGE LESSONS. 319 last of March or first of April in this latitude. The lesson is entirely oral. The questions by the teacher are to bring out the discussion concerning the life of the blue violet. The children have been stimulated to watch for the coming of violets. What kind of home has your little violet? Does it live in dry ground or wet ground? Is its home in the sunshine or in the shade ? Does it live in the woods or in the field ? Have you seen any blue violets in other places ? How did you know where to look for little violet? Was it there all winter? Could you see it in the win- ter? Why could you not? Did Jack Frost kill all of the plant ? Why could he not kill the root ? How could the soil, leaves, and snow keep the frost from killing little violet? What part of little violet could you see first this spring? Why should the leaves come up first? The teacher here tells the children that the leaves protect the flowers. They stand up around the flowers like a row of little soldiers. They are, also, the kitchen where the food is prepared for the whole plant, flowers and all. Where does the little violet get its food? How do the roots get it from the ground? Do the little roots have mouths? Can you see the mouths of the little roots ? The teacher here may show how roots eat by show- 320 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY, ing how they could take up salt, soda, or sugar dis- solved in water. How does little violet get the food up to the leaves ? How could the stem and leaves draw it up? What do the stem and leaves- draw it up for ? What must be done with food in the kitchen before it is good to eat? Where do the leaves get heat to cook the food which they have drawn up from the roots? Could the little leaves get along without the sun ? Why could they not? When your mother cooks what do you see rise from the cooking food? What makes the steam rise? Here the teacher may explain to the children how the steam rises from the leaves when they are preparing food. This may be shown by putting a plant under an inverted glass tumbler, and showing the moisture which collects. How did the moisture get out of the leaves? Can you see the little windows? The teacher here tells the pupils that air goes through these tiny windows and mixes with the food before it is good to eat. While the roots and leaves were working away, what was the little flower doing? How did it look when you first saw it? What happened to the little green cloak before you could see Violet's dress? Would you like to know what name the pieces of her dress have? Can you remember that they are called petals? How many petals has Violet's dress? See if the petals are all of the same size and shape. Who can find a pocket in one ? STEPS IN LANGUAGE LESSONS. 321 What is in the pocket? Taste it and see. Honey? It is called nectar. What do you think the nectar is there for? Can you think of anything that would like to eat it? Bees? Butterflies? At this place the teacher may explain that the bees come to the violet to get the nectar, and that the bee thrusts its long mouth down into the pocket of the petal in doing so. In doing this he gets flower dust (poUen) on his head and long mouth. This pollen is to feed the tiny seeds so they will grow. The home of the seeds may be examined and explained and the process by which the pollen comes into contact with them. This work must be done with the flowers in the hands of the children.* Enough has already been suggested for several les- sons for second year pupils, but the work may thus be carried on through the entire life history of the violet. The questions only are here given, but the infer- ence is easily made as to the nature of the work on the children's part. They engage in a free, open^ interest- ing and spirited talk. The adaptation of this lesson to do the three follow- ing things is evident : 1. The development of thought and feeling. 2. The inducing of the children to express this thought and feeling. 3. Opportunities for quietly and kindly giving cor- rect language forms, since the children in such inter- esting discussions are likely to make errors of language. This lesson has the following to commend it: 322 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 1. It correlates with the learner's use of language in life both before and after his school days. 2. He is learning to use good language with his mind engrossed with the object of thought. 3. He is fixing the habit of using correct, clear, elegant and energetic language in expressing his thought and feeling. 4. It gives good exercise in systematic thinking to the end that the learner may become an accurate and ready thinker — mental discipline. 5. It gives the learner knowledge valuable to him in life. The lesson is oral throughout and so does not aim directly at correct habits in written language. Neither does it aim distinctively at laying a basis for the study of grammar. Indian Corn. — This lesson on Indian corn is adapted to fifth or sixth year pupils, and could best be taught near the beginning of the fall term of school. The corn plant is before the children for observation, and in re- sponse to the teacher's questions, they give, for illustra- tion, we will say the following answers, which the teacher writes on the board. On the plant as a whole: 1. This corn stalk looks like a big stalk of grass. 2. It is seven and one-fourth feet high. 3. There is a central axis from one and one-half inches in diameter to less than half an inch. 4. It has a bushy-looking brush at the top which is called the tassel. STEPS IN LANGUAGE LESSONS. 323 5. The central axis is called the stem or culm. 6. It has a bunch of roots at the lower end of the culm. 7. The tassel crowns the culm. 8. The culm has streamer like blades on opposite sides of it. 9. This plant has eleven leaves or blades. 10. The whole plant is green tinged with yellow in places. 11. This plant has two ears, one on each side of the culm. 12. Silk-like hairs stream out from the end of the ears. 13. The hairs and the tassel are the flowers of the corn. 14. The parts of this corn plant are the culm, the roots, the tassel, the leaves, the hairs and the fruit. On the culm: 1. The culm is about seven feet long. 2. The culm is largest at the bottom and gradu- ally grows smaller toward the top. 3. The culm stands upright. 4. It is the supporting part of the plant. 5. The culm is nearly cylindrical in form. 6. At distances of from five to seven inches on the culm there are nodes. 7. The nodes are thicker parts and denser parts of the culm. 8. The culm is pithy within. 9. There is a thin woody layer around the pithy in- 324 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. side. This woody layer is very dense and hard. It gives strength and firmness to the culm, 10. The parts of the culm between the nodes are called internodes. 11. The internodes have semicircular grooves, one for each node. 12. The grooves are on alternate sides of the inter- nodes. On the roots : 1. The roots are cylindrical in form. 2. They are of two kinds — fibrous and coarse. 3. They grow out from the nodes. 4. They are arranged in circles around the bottom of the culm. 5. They have two uses; one is to take food from the soil, and the other is to anchor the plant. 6. The roots of the highest circle are large, strong, and form bench-like braces to hold the plant upright. 7. There are twelve in the upper circle. 8. The circles below do not have so many. 9. There are five distinct circles on this plant. 10. They are almost white. Enough has been given to indicate the nature of this kind of language work. But in the actual language teaching, the tassel, the leaves, the flower and the fruit would be treated in a way similar to the treatment of the plant as a whole, the culm and the roots. As much may be done each day as the time of the recitation will permit. As the students give the points the teacher writes them on the board. Then the stu- STEPS IN LANGUAGE LESSONS. 325 dents copy them neatly in note books. After dealing with the whole plant in this way, the students are shown that what they have ( 1 ) on the plant as a whole ; (2) on the culm; (3) on the roots; (4) on the leaves, etc., is not in a readable form. They then are asked to put it into a form so it will read smoothly. That on one of the points, the culm for instance is usually enough for one lesson. The work as the students have it is read in the class, carefully corrected by the teacher and returned to the students, and kept by them. After having gone through the points thus, the students are asked to write out the whole, noting carefully the cor- rections previously made on each part. The following points should be seen in this kind of language work: 1. It teaches the learner how to make his language coherent, how to compose. 2. It teaches in a natural way how to paragraph, this lesson naturally falling into seven paragraphs: (1) the plant as a whole; (2) the culm; (3) the roots; (4) the tassel; (5) the leaves; (6) the flower; (7) the fruit. 3. It is a description, for it deals with a particular object as to its co-existent attributes and parts. 4. It is in harmony with all of the principles of language lessons previously studied. 5. It helps to carry out all the purposes of lan- guage lessons except that of laying a basis for the study of grammar. 326 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 6. There is material indicated here for fifteen good language lessons. Language lessons of this kind have been given to children with striking success. Thus such lessons have both theory and experience to attest their value. There are no better primary language lessons possible. Imaginative Lesson. — The following kind of lessons is valuable to vary the work and is in harmony with the principles of language lessons for the most part: Two boys and a little girl were picking white clover flowers along a road. They came to an open gate which led to a beautiful lawn where there were many clovers. The children went in and were gathering the clover blossoms when there rushed at them a great, savage dog. Finish the story by telling what you think hap- pened. Once a boy about twelve years old, with his dog Jack, went fishing. As they were coming home across a large pasture field, the father of a flock of sheep chased the boy and butted him down. Each time the boy would try to get up, the sheep would knock him down. Jack, who was lingering along behind, saw his master's plight, and came rushing up. Finish the story. Laying a Basis for Grammar. — Another kind of language lesson which has for its distinctive purpose to lay a basis for grammar work is the following : It came in on the train yesterday. Just what do you know about the thing which ' * It " makes you think of in this sentence? What enables you to know this about it? STEPS IN LANGUAGE LESSONS. 327 The five horses were in the field eating their break- fast. Just what do you know about the number of horses mentioned in this sentence? What in the sentence en- ables you to know that? These are assignments given to the class before reci- tation. In the recitation in the second case the children should see, or be led to see that there are more than one horse, and that is all that is known by the form of the word ''horses." ''Were," also shows the same point. The same thing is also shown by "their." "Five" shows that more than one is spoken of, but also shows just how many. Such lessons as these have the following points of merit : 1. It gives the children something to think about so as to develop thought and feeling. 2. They use oral language under the stress of thought and feeling, and thus give opportunities for correcting errors. 3. They are learning to discover the exact shades of meaning, or relation, of a term in the sentence, which is the best basis for grammar work they can possess. * The lesson on the Blue Violet is adapted to some ex- tent from McMurry's Special Method in Science. CHAPTER XXIV. ERRORS IN TEACHING PRIMARY LANGUAGE. Prevalence of. — Primary language teaching is yet very poorly done in most of the schools. Thus errors in the work are very common. The following is a list of the more common and flagrant ones : 1. Making language lessons a kind of primary grammar work. 2. The teaching largely of principles in the light of which the learner is expected to use good language. 3. Insufficient development of thought and feeling before asking for expression. 4. Bad selections of objects for study. 5. Negligence in criticisms. In the nature of things primary language lessons which are nothing but a sort of granmaar work can not do much toward giving the learner good language habits. The work is too abstract and difficult for the learner to learn enough grammar to apply grammatical principles to his speaking and writing while he is in the language period. But even if he could learn gram- mar it would help him very little in acquiring good language habits. The reasons why this is true have previously been discussed. Primary grammar lessons are all but worthless as an exercise for fixing with the learner habits of good language. ERRORS IN TEACHING PRIMARY LANGUAGE. 329 No child ever naturally learned language by rule. In the development of a language in the life of a race, the language itself precedes the grammar of the lan- guage by many thousand years. The order is, first the language then much later the rules. So it is in the learner's life; first, the language then the rules. This is nature's order. Thus to attempt to teach the learner rules and principles is to attempt to violate nature's order, which is as a rule very bad pedagogy. In pri- mary language teaching it is so bad that not only the desired result will not be attained, the habit of good language, but some unfortunate ones will accrue. Some of these are arrested development and antipathy for the work. Perhaps the most common error in primary lan- guage teaching is insufficient development of thought and feeling. Almost everywhere teachers may be found asking children to talk on this subject and that subject in the absence of any thought and feeling in their minds to express. They are likewise asked to write on subject after subject when they have no thought to express, and of course can not produce coherent language. It is not only absurd, but positively idiotic to ask children to talk or write on a subject without seeing to it that they have some knowledge to express and which they desire to express. All language lessons are sure to be failures unless faithful care is given to the development of thought and feeling. Objects of study for language lessons may be poor in several ways. First, they may not be of themselves 330 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. interesting to the class. Secondly, they may be too hard or too easy for the ability of the class. Thirdly, they may not be worth studying. If the objects studied are not directly interesting, there is danger that the lesson will drag and become a bore to both teacher and pupils. Such work is dis- agreeable and likely to be profitless. If the object of study is too easy the children will have the feeling that it is trifling. If it is too difficult the children will not be able to do much with it and will have the feeling of discouragement. This will para- lyze endeavor. If the object is not worth studying there will be a waste of time and energy. And the lesson may degen- erate into mere juggling of language terms in which the student learns to talk without saying anything. Negligence in criticism is an error in language teaching far-reaching in its effects, and a common one. Instead of most teachers holding their students to good language in the various school subjects, most do little or nothing in that direction outside of the language reci- tation. One can go into the recitation rooms of the university, the normal school, the high school or the common school almost anywhere and find work on the board abounding in errors of language to which no at- tention has been given. One can go into the recitations; in the university, the high school or the primary school almost anywhere and hear errors in the oral recitation work which pass by unnoticed by either teacher or learner, apparently. ERRORS IN TEACHING PRIMARY LANGUAGE. 331 Such teachers frequently, when attention is called to this negligence will say they are not teaching lan- guage and that they have no time for such things. But such reasons are not valid and show something radically wrong with the teacher's thinking as well as with his teaching. It is a certainty that the teacher who knows what education is, who has the best interests of his students at heart, who is careful, and who is con- scientious will constantly watch up his children's lan- guage. Not to do so is to neglect one of each teacher's highest duties to those whom he teaches. CHAPTER XXV. THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. Nature of History. — One's idea of the nature of a thing always determines his attitude of mind toward that thing. And his attitude of mind determines to a large degree how one acts toward anjrthing. Thus one's idea of the nature of history will determine largely how he will teach history. Thus it is of first importance to the student of method in history that he have a cor- rect idea of the nature of history ; that he have a correct idea of what history actually is. One's general idea of history is his concept of his- tory. It may contain part of the elements that go to make up the right idea of history and may exclude part. It may contain elements that should be included in the concept of history and no more; that is, one's concept of history may be right, partly right or wholly wrong. The student of method in history is in much need from the very start of having the most helpful concept of history. It will serve as a guide to him all through his future study of method of history. Different Views of History. — There have been dif- ferent views of what history is held from the time of Herodotus, the father of history, down to the present time. Those held at present may for our purpose here be put as follows: THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 333 1. There is a view that history is the record of events. 2. There is a view that history is the events them- selves. 3. There is the view that history is the ceaseless change in the life of a people. The Record of Events. — The first view, that history is a record of events, is too superficial for much help either to the student of history or to the student of method in history. It is the view of the unthinking, undoubtedly. According to this view a people whose records are all destroyed would have no history, or a people who left no records would have no history. Or again if the records of a people are destroyed its history is de- stroyed. All the records left to us of the Mound-builders are the mounds and a few utensils and ornaments scattered over different parts of the country. According to this concept of history these mounds, utensils and ornaments constitute the history of the Mound-builders. There certainly was and is something in the life of every people which may better be thought of as history than the records, and the study of which will prove more helpful to the learner than the study of records. In truth only a small part of the ceaseless change in the life of a people is ever embodied in records. Those students are to be pitied whose teacher has no more comprehensive and helpful concept of history than that it is a record of events. 334 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. The Events, the History. — The concept of history, that the events themselves are the history, is better than the concept previously studied, but is not satisfying to the mental hunger of the thinker. It, too, is more or less superficial. Events, from ex, out and venio, I come are those things which come out. Thus the events of man come out of something, and it is that from which they come which is more fundamental than the events. There is change, movement, progress in the life of a people and this change is first in time and first in im- portance a mental, or spiritual, change. Events are the physical or external manifestations of this spiritual change in the life of a people. This spiritual change always precedes the events and in his- tory is much more fundamental than the events; and no event can be well understood except as it is seen in its relation to the spiritual movement in the life of the people. The concept of history, that the. events are the history, is too narrow and emphasizes the less important, the events, thus tending to cause its possessor to lose sight of the thing of utmost importance, the spiritual progress in the life of the people. This is thus not an adequate concept of history either for the student of history or for the student of method in history. History, a Ceaseless Change in the Life of a People. — The concept, that history is a ceaseless change in the life of a people, is the concept of the student and the THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 335 thinker. It is wide in scope, including all there is to be known in the life of a people. It is deep in intensity, leading the learner into the fountain sources and the mainsprings of all human endeavor. This concept includes both the events and the spir- itual change in the people's lives, for the ceaseless change in a people's life is both spiritual and physical. This is the only concept of history satisfying to the mental hunger of the one possessed of the passion for historical truth. It is the only largely helpful concept of history, and the only one which should be held by the student of history, and especially by the student of method in history. Definition of History. — The ceaseless change in the life of a people is always a conflict, or struggle, for higher life. It may be the struggle for material wealth, an economic struggle; it may be the struggle for more knowledge, an intellectual struggle ; it may be the strug- gle to satisfy the hunger for the beautiful, an aesthetic struggle; it may be for the betterment of social condi- tions in the family, church, state, and school, a social struggle; it may be a moral struggle or a religious one. But it is always a struggle in some form for more life, for higher life; that is, a life fuller of the possibilities of life, a life fruitful and intensive in all that gives integral self-satisfaction, the highest degree of happi- ness. This struggle of the race is shown by events to some degree and in part known from records. The events grow out of and manifest the spiritual part of the strug- 336 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. gle, but the struggle is both spiritual and physical. Since an event is a change which has pretty definite limits, it would hardly be accurate to say the events manifest the physical part of the struggle. The events are the physical part of the struggle. Only a small part of the struggle of the human race for higher life has ever been or can ever be re- corded. But part of it may be known from records, using the term, record, in its broadest sense as includ- ing ruins, architecture, paintings, sculptural works, writings, etc. Most of the hopes, aspirations, sorrows, disappointments, anguish and tragic events as well as the every-day, commonplace affairs in the struggle of a people are lost to us and can only be inferred or imagined. The conclusion from the foregoing discussion on the nature of history gives the following definition of history : History is the struggle of a people for higher life as manifested hy events to some degree and in part known hy records. * History is the accumulated experience of the race. ' ' — Judson. ^^The change y the movement ^ the progress which occurs in the life of a people is that people's history." — Kemp. ''History is the evolution of civilization through institutional forms in a nation's life." — Hoover. Historic Forces. — A historic force is anything^ which in any way affects the struggle of a people for THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 337 higher life. It may intensify the struggle; it may les- sen its intensity; it may retard the struggle or it may accelerate it; it may postpone it or it may hasten it. And it may shift the intensity from one phase to another. It does not matter in what way the thing affects the struggle; if it affects it at all it is a historic force. Classes of Historic Forces. — Historic forces are of two classes : 1. Spiritual forces. 2. Physical forces. The following are spiritual historic forces: 1. The instinct to progress. 2. Traditions. 3. Ideals. 4. Songs. 5. Scientific truths. 6. Laws. 7. Creeds. 8. Isms. The following are physical historic forces: 1. Cli- mate. 2 Soil. 3. Coast line. 4. Mountains. 5. Rivers. 6. Natural productions. 7. Canals. 8. Railroads. Instinct to Progress. — It is inborn in man to want to better his condition. He is unwilling to live no better than his ancestors did. If this had not been true we would have had no science and philosophy; no religion and art; no constitutions and laws; no steamboat, no railroad, no telegraph, no telephone, no bicycle, nor no automobile. This desire for progress is man's most deep-seated and characteristic trait. It differentiates him from God and the animals. , "Progress, man's distinctive mark alone, Not God's, and not the beasts'; God is, they are, Man partly is and wholly hopes to be." No other historic force is so largely influential in making history as this one, the instinct to progress. Traditions. — Tradition is from trado^ I hand down. 338 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. Those customs, precepts, proverbs, and superstitions which have been handed down from one generation to another are traditions and are historical forces. The lives of people are influenced by tradition in every way to such a large extent that one is astonished to learn for the first time how little new each generation adds. Nearly the whole body of language is tradition. Re- ligion is almost wholly tradition. In the United States the Monroe Doctrine is a tradition. Ideals. — An ideal is anything which has no actual existence except in the mind as an idea. A government in which all who live there could obey all the laws and be happy is an ideal. It has no actual existence except in the mind as an idea. An independent country in which all are free to do right, and are equal in opportunity was an ideal to the colonists of the United States. This is what they struggled for in the American Revolution. That it was a potent historic force is evident. Songs. — A song may be a historic force. Especially is this true of national songs and songs which have be- come the symbols of some thought around which clings strong feeling. There is something about such songs which inspires, quickens the step, and prompts to reso- lution and deeds of valor and heroism. Of such are Dixie, America, Fatherland, God Save the Queen, Star- Spangled Banner and Yankee Doodle. Scientific Truths. — Scientific truths frequently change in many ways the struggle in the life of a peo- ple. The scientific truth that tuberculosis is a disease THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 339 caused by a germ and is contagious is a truth which has had much to do with laws for its prevention, the building of sanitaria and hospitals. The scientific truth that gold ore of a low grade could be worked at a large profit by the cyanide of potassium process has a very close connection with the money question not only in the United States but in the world as a whole. Laws. — As an illustration of a law which was a potent historical force the Fugitive Slave Law is good. It is closely connected with the secession of the south- ern states, the Civil War, Lincoln, Emancipation Pro- clamation, etc. Other illustrations are the Stamp Act, and the Tea Tax, which so intensified the spiritual struggle in the lives of the colonists. Creeds. — The belief in a personal God, and that he created and providentially governs the world for man combined with current thought on this subject is a creed. As illustrations of creeds which are historical forces those of the Presbyterian and Methodist churches are good. Isms. — Any traditions regarding the origin, pur- pose and destiny of man combined with current thought on these questions is an ism. Good illustrations of isms which have been historical forces are Puritanism, Hedon- ism, and Epicureanism. Climate. — Climate is the condition of any place with regard to heat and moisture. The climate of the 340 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. south was such that cotton was a profitable product, and such that the Negro thrived there. These two things and others made slavery profitable in the south. The slave question was an issue over which the struggle grew intense both spiritually and physically between the northern section of our country and the southern. Soil. — Soil is in general the "thin layer of surface earth that, like some great blanket, is tucked around the wrinkled and age-beaten form of our earth." The soil of the Mississippi valley is so fertile that a portion of this region is called the granary of North America. Here great cities spring up and here will be the home eventually of the most populous societies in the United States. In these cities will be found the great rushing, throbbing, struggling masses of human- ity. Here the hardest problems of government, schools, churches and business are to be worked out. Coast Lines. — The coast line of a country influences the history of a country. If the coast line be regular, there will be few harbors and places for the landing of boats and steamships. Commerce will be less, coast cities will be few, international intercourse will be lack- ing and the growth of the civilization of the people much slower. Thus coast line affects the struggle of a people for better life and this makes it a historic force. Mountains. — Mountains are barriers to commerce and travel, and commerce and travel are part of the ceaseless movement in the life of a people. Mountains thus hinder this movement and are historical forces. THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 341 For a long time in the history of the United States the Appalachian Mountains walled back immigration to the Ohio, and Mississippi valleys, and kept the growth of civilization confined chiefly to the Atlantic states. Rivers. — Rivers furnish routes of commerce and travel; they furnish power for manufacturing and other industries, and water for irrigation; also, outlets for drainage. These things contribute largely to the ceaseless movement in the life of a people. They affect the economic aspect of the struggle — the production, the preparation, and the distribution of material wealth. Natural Productions. — Natural productions are grains, fruits, vegetables, game, fish, timber, stone, coal, lead, copper, silver, gold, etc. Where these are found or may be produced in considerable quantities, societies, villages, towns and cities spring up. These bring churches, schools, newspapers, libraries, museums, parks and all other institutions of civilized life. Here every aspect of the complex struggle of a people for higher life will surge full and strong. Natural productions are thus among the most potent of historical forces. Canals. — Canals, like rivers, facilitate commerce, travel, sanitation and irrigation. All these help people in their efforts to live better lives. Among noted examples in the United States are the Chicago Drainage Canal and the Erie Canal. The first connects the Great Lakes with the Mississippi River, and the latter was the means by which the produce from the Great Lakes region and the rich Mohawk valley was transported to the sea. 342 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. Railroads. — Railroads are the greatest means of commerce and travel possessed by a people. Where they go civilization is sure to follow, if the climate and soil will support a civilization. Through the agency of the railroads material wealth is exchanged. The pro- ducts of one part of the country when produced in excess are transported to another where they are con- sumed. Thus the economic struggle of a people is changed from a simple one to a complex one by rail- roads. Large inland cities could hardly arise without rail- roads. They could hardly do so, for the necessities of life could not without great difficulty be obtained. Elements of the Historical Concept. — The ceaseless struggle of a people for higher life has been seen to be the history of that people. An analysis of this concept of history will reveal the following points: 1. The spiritual growth in the life of a people. 2. Events. 3. The events as manifestation of this growth. 4. The events as the cause of this growth. 5. The events as the effect of this growth. The spiritual struggle of the people has always resulted in growth in some way. Of course there have been retrograde movements in history spiritually and physically. The march of progress has been zigzag. But even in the zigzag movements of the struggle growth in some way is always discernible, and in the end the hu- man race has advanced spiritually. Events have before been seen to be those physical THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 343 changes with more or less definite limits, which come out of the spiritual struggle. Thus the Boston Tea Party, and the sinking of the Maine were events in history. There is no way for one to know the growth in the life of a people except by the events. Thus events are the manifestation of the growth in the life of a people. The growth in the minds of the people of the idea of equality is manifested in the Declaration of Inde- pendence, the election of Lincoln, the Emancipation Proclamation, the victory of the North at Appomattox, and the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amend- ments to the Constitution. Events in history cause growth in the life of the people. The persecution of the Quakers in Massachu- setts caused the growth of religious tolerance. The in- vention of the cotton gin caused a growth in the senti- ment of the people regarding slavery. The Boston Tea Party caused a gro^vth in the determination of the colonists to resist what they regarded as the unjust attitude of England toward them. The events are also the effect of the growth in the spiritual struggle of the people. The Declaration of Independence was an effect of the thought and feeling in the minds of the people that so long as they re- mained subjects of the mother country freedom for the enjoyment of equal opportunity would be restricted. The Emancipation Proclamation was an effect of the growth of the thought and feeling against slavery in our country. 344 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. Suhject-Matter. — It is to be remembered that the subject-matter of any subject or lesson is the material of study in that subject or lesson; also, that every subject-matter consists of two things: (1) some facts; (2) some relations of these facts. The facts to be studied in history are ( 1 ) the events ; (2) the spiritual struggle in the life of the people. These two things are the obtrusive facts in the life of every people, and no people ever has existed as a people without these two things having constituted the con- crete realities of their individual and national existences. The relation in which these facts are to be studied or taught in history is threefold: 1. As manifestation. 2. As cause. 3. As effect. The events manifest the spiritual struggle in the life of a people. Without events there would be no way for us to know the spiritual struggle through which the race has gone. But by learning the events we are able to infer ivhat the spiritual struggle lying back of them must have been. Thus the spiritual struggle is known to our minds; that is, manifested to them. The events are the cause of the spiritual struggle, too. They cause conflicting opinions, feelings and men- tal efforts not only in the minds of individuals but between the minds of different individuals acting singly or in groups. Thus events in history have a second his- torical relation. Again the events are the effects of the spiritual struggle in the life of a people. Any struggle in the spiritual life of a people which becomes intense enough THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 345 will burst forth in events sooner or later. These events are the effect of the struggle in the mind of the people. Thus events in history have a third historical relation. From this study the following statement of the sub- ject-matter of history is reached : The subject-matter of history is the events of man as manifestation, cause and effect of his spiritual strug- gle for higher life. This statement for the subject-matter of history shows that one who learns history must master (1) the events of man; (2) the spiritual growth of the race; (3) the triple relation existing between these two. An Organizing Principle. — Every subject in the school curriculum which may rightly be called a sepa- rate subject has some central truth in it which organizes it. The facts in the subject cling around this central truth like the grape berries of a bunch cling to the stem. Each fact of the subject instances the organizing principle of the subject, and can be fully understood only when it is seen to do so. The organizing prin- ciple gives order, system and continuity to the subject. Without it facts are almost worthless, since they, iso- lated and disconnected, are unusable. The organizing principle of any subject is a rela- tion. It is the relation of the facts in the subject- matter. This may be seen from the following : the facts of the revolution of the earth around the sun might be studied in either of the two subjects, astronomy or geography, but not in the same relation. If they were studied in relation to the movements of the solar system 346 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. as a whole, the study would be a lesson in astronomy. But if they were studied in relation to their effect on the distribution of relief forms, climate and life upon the earth's surface, the study would be a lesson in geography. This would be because the organizing prin- ciples of astronomy and geography are different. History has its relation in its subject-matter and so has its organizing principle. It is the triple relation between the events in history and the spiritual struggle of the race for higher life. The following is the formal statement for it : The organizing principle of history is the triple relation of manifestation^ cause and effect be- tween the events of man and his spiritual struggle for higher life. Value of the Organizing Principle. — The value of the organizing principle of any subject to the teacher and the learner can not well be overestimated. It does the following desirable things: 1. It gives the right viewpoint in the subject. 2. It enables one to grasp the subject as an orderly whole, and to see the end from the beginning. 3. It tends to systematic, logical habits of thought, 4. It enables one to remember facts in a perfectly natural and rational way. 5. It stimulates to interest, and economizes time and energy. 6. It makes work definite and specific, and pre- vents scattering, superficial work. The Functions of the Organizing Principle. — In history the organizing principle has at any rate four THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 347 functions, as follows: 1. A selective function. 2. An interpreting function. 3. An emphasizing function. 4. A dividing function. The Selective Function. — The current of human history flows so wide and deep that no one in a life time can master it in full. There is too much of it. Thus there must be a selection of the material of study in history. The organizing principle of history enables the teacher or learner to do this rationally. In the light of the organizing principle of history, those things will he selected for study which mmiifest, causey and are the effect of the spiritual struggle of a people for higher life. Usually in the past the selection of historical ma- terial for study has been determined by the text-book. That is to say, teachers have not been self-directive enough in this subject to select even from the text-book the historical material which ought to be used and omit that which is not fit for use. That the text-books them- selves do not always contain the best historical ma- terial is evident. In a text-book at hand a good deal of space is given to the Mound-builders; also a good deal to the story of Pocahontas, but the attitude of the governor of Virginia toward free schools is not even mentioned. The latter is evidently of great historical importance, while each of the former is of little or no historical impor- tance. Thus the value of the selective function of the or- ganizing principle of history is, that it makes the teacher 348 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. and learner self-directive in choosing material for study of real historical worth. The Interpreting Function. — The interpreting func- tion of the organizing principle of history enables the teacher and student to place an interpretation upon his- torical events. According to this principle an event in history has been interpreted when the spiritual struggle which it manifests is seen, when the causes which lead to it are seen, and when the things which grow out of it as a cause are seen. Thus to interpret an historical event is to think it in its coexistent historical relations, its past historical relations, and in its future historical relations. For illustration, the Emancipation Proclamation is interpreted when one understands the spiritual struggle which it at that time revealed, or manifested; when one understands the causes, both spiritual and physical, which led to it; and when one sees the spiritual and physical movements flowing from it and of which it was a cause. Too often in history teaching the event only is learned, no interpretation being placed upon it what- ever. Such history teaching and learning, of course, fails in almost everything which makes history a valu- able subject in school. The History Habit. — If the child in beginning the study of history is taught in a small way at any rate to place a historical interpretation upon historical events, and is gradually led to do this more and more as he progresses in his historical work, a place will be reached THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 349 where his mind will be dissatisfied to learn mere his- torical events. It will want to see events in their his- torical relations, and will dislike not to do so. When the mind has attained to this attitude toward history, it has formed the history hahit, and is on the high road to success in the study of history. This history habit of mind is constantly to be aimed at by the teacher or learner in history. It, plus effort and perseverance, insures one success in the study of history against any fear of failure. The Emphasizing Function. — The emphasizing function of the organizing principle of history enables the teacher to distinguish between the important and the unimportant and to emphasize the important and to pass by lightly the unimportant. According to this function in connection with the selective and interpret- ing functions those events in history which manifest the struggle of the race for more life to a high degree; which an intense or long-continued spiritual struggle has caused ; and which affect this struggle to the largest degree are the most important events in history. And since they are the most important, they should be most emphasized. The ability of the teacher of history to select the essentials in his subject and emphasize them, and to pass by lightly the nonessentials, is a mark of a fine teacher. It also is a mark which is rare in teachers of history, geography, grammar and so on. Too often it is the case that the teacher teaches with 350 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. about equal emphasis in history all which is found in the particular text-book he is using. The emphasizing function of the organizing princi- ple of history makes the teacher self -directive in the selection and emphasis of essential things in history, and thus makes him a better teacher of history. The Dividing Function. — The dividing function of the organizing principle of history enables the teacher or learner to divide history into periods or epochs. It is necessary to make divisions in history in order to systematize the study. History divides itself into periods on the basis of the predominant movement in the struggle for higher life. Thus for a time in the history of our country the predominant movement was that of discovery; then came the movement of the planting of local institutions ; next the growth of local institutions; then the growth toward union ; next the formation of the union, and last the period of national life. The organizing principle by enabling the student or teacher to see the nature of historical movements and growth, enables him to see these natural divisions of his- tory. Thus the fourth function of the organizing prin- ciple of history is the dividing function. Method in History. — It will be remembered that method is the triple process in the teaching act by which the learner is induced to take st^ps from his actual condition to another held up as an ideal. This notion applied to history gives the following: Method in history is the triple process in teaching THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 351 history by which the learner is induced to learn and feel the spiritual struggle of the race for higher life as manifested by events; as caused by events; and as caus- ing events, in the life of a people. It, too, should be remembered that there are five elements in the teacher's method in teaching any sub- ject or lesson; namely, (1) thinking the subject-matter; (2) thinking the purpose; (3) thinking the basis; (4) thinking the steps and (5) thinking the devices. Since this is true, the study of method in history consists of the study of these five things; that is, (1) the subject- matter of history; (2) the purpose of history; (3) the basis of history; (4) the steps in history; and (5) the devices in history. And the teacher who knows method in history knows these five things. The Forms of History. — The inherent self-urgency in each individual life and in the life of a whole people stimulates to development into what may be called his- torical forms. Such development is analogous to that of the lily or oak tree, in which force manifests itself according to the form inherent in the acorn or lily seed. Thus in the struggle of a people for higher life there arise certain institutional forms into, and in which history develops. Of these institutional forms, or in- stitutions, the following five are the most fundamental: 1. The family. 2. The church. 3. The school. 4. The business world. 5. The state. The Family. — This is the most fundamental institu- tion of society. It, as the life of the race as a whole, has not always been what it now is. From a mere 352 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. mating arrangement of a few month's duration up through polygyny and polyandry to the monogamous family, more or less stable, of the present has the fam- ily in its development passed. The controlling idea of the family is love; love be- tween the husband and wife, between parents and chil- dren, between sister and sister, brother and brother, and brother and sister; sexual love, paternal love, filial love, and fraternal love. Love was not only the origi- nator, but is the continuer and savior of the family. The contributions of the family in the education of the children of a people are many, one of which of the highest importance is obedience; obedience through love, if possible, but obedience without fail. This is one of the first hard lessons for the child, the future citizen, to learn. In tracing the threads of growth in the spiritual struggle of a people for higher life in studying history the value and interest of family life should receive just appreciation. Too often children learn almost nothing of this aspect of the struggle in studying the history of a people. The Church. — From the small degree of power, w^isdom, and love which man finds himself possessing he catches a glimpse in ideal of a being who possesses these characteristics in an infinite degree. What this being, God, would have him do is to him absolutely right, and only by doing this can he attain to spiritual perfection. The spiritual struggle for higher life working itself THE SUBJECT-MATTER OP HISTORY. 353 out in this way produced the church as an institutional form in history. The controlling idea of the church is righteousness. This idea it attempts to carry out by bringing its mem- bers in right relations with God; to get them in such an attitude of mind and heart that they will do and love to do what they think their God desires them to do. Tracing the growth in the development of the spir- itual struggle in the church is a valuable part of the history work; both valuable and delicate. The School. — The young of the human species is actually at birth about the least prepared for living and caring for itself of any living creature; also, its period of infancy and childhood is longer than that of any other animal. But by growth it becomes infinitely more than any other living creature, and this is what the child lives for, and for this alone. Thus the whole business of the child as such is to grow. The school is the institution which the spiritual struggle of the race has produced to guide, watch and stimulate this growth, or development. Thus the con- trolling idea of the school is growth, or development. To trace through the spiritual struggle of the race as it manifested itself in the development of the school is an interesting and profitable part of all school work. It too frequently is not done at all or but poorly done. The Business World. — In the childhood of the race individuals owned very little property, but the instinct of ownership existed, and the development of the strug- gle along this line, that of ownership, has produced the 354 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. extremely complex system of ownership and exchange which we know as the Business World. This development has reached a degree so great that every one of us is dependent upon others much more than he can at first thought appreciate. I am dependent upon my fellow for my house, my clothes, my convey- ance, my fuel, my light, much of my food and drink, my books, my medicines, and my professional help ; and he is no more independent in these things than I am. Thus the controlling idea of the business world is interdependence of man upon man. No history work should fail to trace out this phase of the struggle of the race for higher life. It is gener- ally not well enough done in history teaching. The State. — In the most primitive human life the principle, might makes right, has full sway. The stronger overcomes the weaker by the preponderance of physical strength and hinders his opportunity of life and happiness; robs him of his possessions and en- slaves him possibly. That equality of opportunity may be furnished to every one and that justice may be the reward of each one in his struggle for higher life, the state as an insti- tution of society came into existence. Thus the controlling idea of the state is justice, but the state carries on many other functions for the wel- fare of its members. Unlike the growth in the struggle in most of the institutional forms of history the struggle in the state has been much emphasized in school work. In fact in THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 355 the average text-book in history and in the average history class in the public schools it is almost the only growth traced out, if an effort be made to see growth and development at all. The state is the institution most emphasized in history teaching almost everywhere, notwithstanding that it is the part of history of least interest to children and least suited to their stage of development. To trace the development of civilization in the state is of great importance in history work, but it is work suited better to higher stages of development than that of the students of the primary schools. Other Historical Forms. — There are many other in- stitutions of society besides the five fundamental ones, which are also historical forms. These are generally of two classes : 1. Those which are affiliated with one of the five fundamental institutions. 2. Those which are not affiliated with any of the fundamental institu- tions, but which have a more distinctly separate exist- ence. Of the first class are banks, organized book com- panies, building and loan companies, organized manu- facturing companies, etc., affiliated with the business world; the Christian Endeavor, the Young Men's Chris- tian Association, etc., affiliated with the church; library associations, art associations, and museum associations, affiliated with the school. Of the second class are the Masons, the Knights of Pythias, the Oddfellows, etc. Threads of the historical struggle develop in such 356 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. institutions as these but they are much less obtrusive than in the fundamental institutions, except occasion- ally. CHAPTER XXVI. THE PURPOSE OF HISTORY. Meaning of. — By the mastery of history as a sub- ject of study the learner's life will be largely changed. The ideas and thoughts he gets, the judging and reason- ing he does, the feelings he experiences and the resolu- tions he forms all sink into his life to some degree and make it both temporarily and permanently different from what it would otherwise have been. This is the effect of the study of history on the life of the learner and this effect when history is rightly taught is the purpose of history. Thus in general the purpose of his- tory is the change wrought in the learner's life by the proper pursuit of history. Aspects of Purpose. — In general the learner's life is affected in two ways by the study of history. First, he will acquire much knowledge valuable to him for guidance in right living. This is, of course, an impor- tant part of the purpose of history. It may appropri- ately be called the knowledge-giving purpose. Secondly, in addition to the useful knowledge the learner gets from the study of history, he may get right habits of thinking, feeling and willing. Mental exercise to the end of becoming an accurate and ready thinker; of becoming the possessor of rightly cultivated feelings; 358 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGTY. and of becoming possessed of well organized habits of acting righteously is called mental discipline. History is very valuable to the learner from this point of view. This second purpose 6i history is called the disciplinary purpose. The Knowledge-giving Purpose. — Of the valuable knowledge which it is the purpose of history to give the following are important points : 1. The important historical facts of the leading nations of the earth. 2. The important truth that nations as well as individuals become what they are through a process of ceaseless, intense struggle and growth. 3. The truth that national and individual igno- rance and prejudice have always brought pain, misery and sorrow to the children of men. 4. The truth that knowledge and openness to truth and conviction have always in the broad sweep of human affairs brought happiness ultimately to the children of men. 5. The truth that there are in the affairs of men and nations a seed-time, a period of growth and a fruitage; that they must sow if they would reap and that in general they are likely to reap what they sow. 6. The truth that the race has been guided in its struggle for higher life not much less frequently by myth, superstition and error than by truth. The Disciplinary Purpose. — Of the disciplinary purpose of the study of history the following are im- portant points: THE PURPOSE OF HISTORY. 359 1. It cultivates the kind of reasoning one must use most in life. 2. It cultivates the moral judgment to an extent probably not done by any other school subject. 3. It cultivates both the reproductive and the creative imagination. 4. It cultivates memory in the way which is the most helpful. 5. It fosters the spirit of free inquiry and free investigation; that is, the scientific spirit. 6. It broadens the learner's sympathies, develops tolerance and produces the spirit of charity; that is, it socializes the learner. Historical Facts of Leading Nations. — That it is the purpose of history to give the learner the historical facts of the leading nations of the earth seems evident. Life demands that the learner shall know pretty well what the race has done in its struggle for higher life. Such knowledge is of immense value to one in every aspect of life. It enables one to order his own life so much better physically, intellectually, aesthetically, so- cially, morally, and religiously. No one can rightly claim to be educated who is ignorant of the achievements of the race in its zigzag march upward. Such knowl- edge is entirely necessary for broadness of intellectual outlook, for the enlargement of one's mental horizon. But the field is so broad that only the leading nations of the earth can be studied in a lifetime. There would no doubt come value from the study of the history of all the nations of the earth, but those which have contrib- 360 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. uted largely to the stream of civilization furnish the large values. Also, more worth is found in an intensive knowledge of the nations which have poured bountifully into the current of civilization than in a superficial knowledge of all the nations of the earth. Therefore, just the important historical facts of the leading nations of the earth are to be aimed at. Life is too short for more. The Ceaseless Struggle. — History is the subject pre- eminent to teach the learner that all life is a struggle; that this is a truth of individual life and also a truth of national life. In the individual life there is the struggle for food, the incessant, imperative struggle of all living beings; a struggle that begins at birth and ends only with death ; a struggle intensive to the degree that at times all other struggles wane before it. It is the bread-and-butter problem of the ages. There is his struggle against the cold, against the heat, against the flood, against the lightning, against fire and against the storm. There is the struggle against disease, tuberculosis, pneumonia, diphtheria, malaria, etc. There is the struggle against enemies, insects, rep- tiles, other animals, poisonous plants and against one's fellow-man. History better than any other subject makes real to the learner that life is a struggle. In the life of the race all the aspects of the strug- gle exist just as truly as they exist in the life of the individual. THE PURPOSE OP HISTORY. 361 But out of all this struggle comes growth. There are periods in history when a nation not only does not seem to be growing, but actually seems to be losing to some degree what it has already attained. It, however, recovers and is found to have gained strength in some way from the time of adversity. Growth usually runs a zigzag course. Results of Ignorance and Prejudice. — In the world's history there are many instances of the pain, misery and sorrow which result from ignorance and prejudice. In the United States notorious examples of it were the Salem Witchcraft, a result of the most shameless and appalling ignorance; and the persecution of the Quak- ers, a hideous instance of religious prejudice. Many illustrations of it may be found in the lives of individuals in history, too, as well as in the life of a whole people. Much of the misery of the Civil War in the United States could have been avoided, had the people of the two sections known each other better. Lives have been lost by thousands, homes broken up, the innocent tortured and subjected to every misery and humiliation which the demoniacal ingenuity of the prejudiced and ignorant could invent. And all this because of ignorance and prejudice. To have the learner to see this truth clearly, and feel it, too, is certainly a part of the purpose of history. Knowledge and Openness to Conviction. — Knowl- edge had its genesis in the demand for better living, and in the long struggle of human development knowledge 362 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. has pointed the way to higher life and away from the lower. Ejiowledge has as its whole purpose to guide the human race to happiness. Knowledge has liberated the human race from the bondage of superstition. Knowledge has tunnelled mountains, bridged rivers and spanned continents. Knowledge has harnessed waterfalls. Knowledge has utilized the phenomena of lightning to minister to man's wants. Knowledge prevents plagues, stamps out dis- eases, and makes the desert bloom like the rose. Knowledge has largely enfranchised the human race physically, intellectually, aesthetically, socially, morally, and religiously. And these are the things which bring happiness to the children of men. The full meed of knowledge can come only from openness to truth and conviction. Any other attitude of mind not only hinders and stunts the development of knowledge but misguides its possessor. Only openness to truth and conviction contribute to happiness. A Seed-time and a Harvest. — The evil and good that come to men and nations are not accidental, but are the results of perfectly natural causes. The historical evidence of this truth is to be found in abundance in the lives of both individual men and nations. Good in- stances in the lives of individual men are the lives of Benedict Arnold and Aaron Burr on one hand, and the lives of George Washington and Abraham Lincoln on the other. Good instances of it in the lives of nations were England's colonial policy resulting in the loss of THE PURPOSE OF HISTORY. 363 her American colonies, and the physical, intellectual and moral impoverishment of Spain through the Spanish in- quisiton. Guidance of Truth and Error. — In the struggle of the race for higher life truth has, of course, guided. But error has also guided, and almost as often as truth. The Greeks believed that their gods were immortal beings possessed of human passions and frailties, and that they were constantly taking part in the affairs of men and women. Zeus, or Jupiter, was the father of gods and men and Juno was his wife. Pallas, or Min- erva, was the goddess of wisdom ; Venus, the goddess of love, and so on. They dwelt on Blount Olympus ; they had their prejudices, loved, quarreled, and were miser- able and happy after the fashion of human beings. How far these myths and errors influenced the lives of the Greek people only the careful student of Greek life can to any very large degree appreciate. The Crusades were guided almost wholly by error and superstition. In our own country the Salem Witchcraft and the persecution of the Quakers, and many other religious and moral movements are instances of events which were guided by error and superstition. Cidtivation of Reasoning. — One needs to reason only that he may live better. And each civilized person naturally must live in society. So the reasoning which helps one most to live in society will be the most useful kind of reasoning. Such reasoning is the kind which deals with the vicissitudes of human life both individ- 364 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. ually and in groups; the kind of reasoning which has to do with the desires, the passions, the sorrows, the joys, the hopes, the aspirations, the disappointments, the triumphs and failures of men and women in the proba- ble and complex endeavor of human life individually and institutionally. To be able to take an event in history and to trace it out in both its cause and effect relation proximately and ultimately requires a higher degree of reasoning in human probabilities than can ever be attained by any amount of study of methematics. » History rightly studied is a more valuable study to cultivate reasoning for the majority of students in the schools of the present by far than any branch of mathe- matics, the popular opinion to the contrary, notwith- standing. Cultivation of Moral Judgment. — Early in the child's life he has no actual moral judgment, only the power to acquire one. This possibility will develop only by his exercising it in judging the right and wrong in human action, and by his being led to approve of the right and to condemn the wrong. There is no other subject in the school curriculum which furnishes such large opportunity to exercise the learner in doing these things, forming judgments of the right and wrong in human action, approving of the right and condemning the wrong, as does history. The cultivation of the learner's moral judgment is thus a large purpose of history in the school curriculum. Cultivation of Imagination. — Imagination is the THE PURPOSE OP HISTORY. 365 mind's power of embodying ideas in particular forms, or images. If the image corresponds very nearly with some actually existing thing which the mind has known, the imagination is the reproductive kind; but if the mind adapts, or fashions, images and builds up complex images from them, the imagination is the creative kind. In picturing the historical events in their setting about which the learner has been studying in his his- tory work the reproductive imagination is exercised largely. This kind of imagination is used to a very large degree in history study. In looking forward to events which would have resulted from various historical contingencies the free play of the creative imagination is called into exercise largely. For instance, if the learner pictures the condi- tions which might have existed in America, if the French instead of the English had triumphed in the French and Indian War, he uses his creative imagination. There is almost as much opportunity for exercise of the creative imagination in the study of history as for exer- cise of the reproductive imagination. In educational councils history is usually ranked next to geography as a subject good for the cultivation of imagination. Geography is usually given first place as an imaginative subject of those in the primary school course. The Cultivation of Memory. — The cultivation of memory consists wholly of building up systems of asso- ciation, and there is no such thing as cultivating mem- ory i7i general by studying any one subject. Nor is it 366 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. true that all exercise of the memory is a benefit to the mind. Remembering by mere repetition or by intense application may be more harmful than beneficial to the mind. But history may be taught so as to cultivate memory in the most helpful way. An examination of the way in which one remembers will show that one can remem- ber a thing only because it has been associated with some other known thing. So the cultivation of memory consists in associating the unknown with what is already known. History may and should be taught so that the learner may see each event in history as an instance of the organizing principle of history, and thus associate it with this organizing principle. The proper cultivation of memory in history con- sists of two things : 1. Firmly fixing in the mind of the learner the organizing principle of history. 2. Teach- ing the learner to see that each event in history is an instance of this organizing principle. If history be studied in this way, it will prove an excellent subject to cultivate memory. The Scientific Spirit. — The scientific spirit is the spirit of free inquiry and free investigation. History furnishes most excellent opportunities for leading the learner to be an honest searcher for truth; for leading him to see that he must lay down prejudice, must give up pet theories, must feel free to inquire for, and inves- tigate all truth and all that passes for truth. No other subject in the school curriculum shows so well the neces- THE PURPOSE OF HISTORY. 367 sity of a mind open to receive, to welcome, to utilize and to enjoy the unadorned truth ; a willingness to know, to listen and be convinced ; a spirit of candor and honesty of intellect ; a hate for the immorality of the intellect which withholds, distorts, minimizes, or refuses to accept the truth. Such a mind is a mind possessed of the scientific spirit. Socializing the Learner. — To socialize the learner is to prepare him to live well in the society of his fellows. The learner is naturally selfish, unsympathetic, un- charitable and intolerant. It is a part of the purpose of historical study to tone down this selfishness, to make the learner sympathetic, charitable and tolerant. The instances in history of selfishness, lack of sym- pathy, lack of charity, and intolerance are many, and the learner may be led to condemn them and to ap- prove of the opposite so frequently that a socializing effect will be wrought in his life. "The student who has followed the historic stream from its early springs down to the present time, and observed the order of its flowing, will be full of the lessons of order, courage, patience, self-sacrifice, patriot- ism and liberty which it has taught; the past will no longer be a dead past, but a living present, ceaselessly streaming forwardf determining the life of the future/' — Kemp. CHAPTER XXVII. BASIS IN HISTORY. Meaning of Basis. — It is to be remembered that basis in any subject is just those points of knowledge which the learner has when he comes to school upon which the teacher can build in teaching that subject; also, that the educational principle underlying basis in teaching is the following: The mind in learning naturally goes to the unknown from the nearest related know7i. The basis in history is the known which is most closely related to the unknown to be taught. Aspects of Basis in History. — In history the child is to learn about folks; about their struggles for more life; about their hopes, aspirations, sympathies, antip- athies, joys, sorrows, successes, failures, victories, de- feats, triumphs, passions, etc. But these aspects of human life manifest themselves in institutional forms, the chief of which are the family, the church, the school, business life, and the state. The average child when he comes to school at the age of six knows something about each of these institutions of society, and this knowledge is his basis for beginning the study of his- tory. Thus there are at any rate five aspects of the learner's basis for history. 1. His knowledge of the family. 2. His knowledge of the church. BASIS IN HISTORY. 369 3. His knowledge of the school. 4. His knowledge of business. 5. His knowledge of the state. The Learner's Knowledge of the Family. — Some of the child's knowledge of the family is vague and some is definite. It, of course, is made up of bits and frag- ments of truth, but along with this truth will be found error and myth. He will know that the family is made up of father, mother and children; that father works for mother, that mother works for father and that both work for the children; that the members of the family are more closely connected with each other than those who are not members of one family. He will know something of birthdays and possibly something of marriage. He will know something of the family habits concerning food, clothing, sleep, meeting, separating, the spending of evenings, Sundays, and week days. He will know some- thing of the furniture the family uses, the food eaten, the stove, lamps, chairs, carpets or rugs, books, pictures, musical instruments, tables, chairs, bureaus, beds, etc. ; also, something of the family amusements, what the children play, what the parents play, walks, drives, etc. All of this knowledge constitutes the learner's basis for studying the struggle in a people's life in the insti- tution, the family. The Learner's Knowledge of the Church. — The learner's idea of the church when he comes to school at the age of six is complex, consisting of truth, error and superstition, as a rule. 370 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. He has some idea of God, probably that God is a great, kind, benevolent, fatherly man — some idea of Christ as the son of God ; some idea of Satan, the Holy Spirit, heaven, hell and angels. He knows there is a preacher, something of prayer, religious hymns, the sac- rament, the Sunday School, the scripture, and some ideas of religious duties. On these ideas as a basis is the history of the re- ligious struggle of a people to be founded. The Learner's Knowledge of the School. — Before entering the school the child's knowledge of school is pretty vague. But he may have been to kindergarten, and in that case he knows something of what the school is like. He is likely to know there is a place called school to which children go and where they learn to read and write. He knows something of books and that they are in some way connected with the school. He has heard people read and he has seen them write. He has heard of a teacher in connection with the boys and girls of the school. These ideas, usually rather vague, constitute the basis for the history of the struggle of the race in the school. The Learner's Knowledge of Business. — It is this aspect of the learner's basis for history which is usually the most definite and elaborate. He has ideas of money, probably having bought something, and in many cases having saved some pen- nies. He knows something of railroads, cars, automo- BASIS IN HISTORY. 371 biles, bicycles, wagons, horses, and possibly steamboats; also, something of lumber, brick, stone, iron, wood, coal, meats, milk and butter. He knows something of leather, coats, dresses, trousers, boots, shoes, hats, caps, and so on ; also, something of sugar, coffee, tea, bread, bananas, oranges, apples, berries and other fruits. He knows something of the occupations of his parents and neigh- bors. He knows that food, clothing and other commod- ities are to be had largely from other persons than his parents by exchange, and that many of them are pro- duced in other places than places near his home. He also knows that many of them must go through a process of preparation before they can be used. That is to say, he knows something of the pi^oduction, prep- aration and distrihutio7i of material wealth. This knowledge is the learner's basis for tracing out the business struggle of a people for higher life. The Learner's Knoiuledge of the State. — The child who comes to school at the age of six has some ideas of the state, but like some of his other ideas, they are very indefinite. He has heard of some of the officers of the state, the police, sheriff, constable, judge, something of holidays. Thanksgiving, Fourth of July, Christmas, etc. He has in some instances heard of the courthouse, jail and peni- tentiary. Doubtless his ideas of the significance of all these are pretty hazy, but they constitute the basis which the learner brings to school for tracing the struggle in the institution, the state. 372 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. A review of what the average child has for basis to begin the study of history when he comes to school at the age of six shows that he is in possession of an ample basis, broad enough in extent and comprehensive enough in intent. Thus if the learner is not started in history in the first year of his school life, a lack of basis can not be given as a justifiable reason. CHAPTER XXVIII. STEPS IN HISTORY. Meaning of Steps. — It is to be remembered that steps in teaching are mental things and are in the mind of the learner. There are many separate things to be got in learning history and the mental activities corre- sponding to these separate things respectively are the steps in history. Thus the mentality corresponding to the Kansas-Nebraska Bill is one large step in history, and so is the mentality corresponding to any other point in history a step. Classes of Steps. — There are those steps which are arranged in the order of time, the chronological steps. Thus, if one seeks what points should be taught in history first, secondly, thirdly, and so on throughout the first year, the second year, the third year, etc., through the school course, he seeks the chronological steps in history. But if one seeks what one must learn as the ele- ments of all history regardless of any specific time, he seeks the logical steps in history. The Logical Steps in History. — These are the move- ments of the mind in the mastery of those elements which make up the history of any people; that is, the common elements of the history of a people. They are as follows: 374 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 1. The advance of the learner's mind in learning the events of history. 2. The advance in the learner's mind in learning the spiritual struggle in the life of a people. 3. The advance of the learner's mind in seeing the events as the manifestation of the spiritual struggle in the life of a people. 4. The advance of the learner's mind in seeing the events as the cause of the spiritual struggle in the life of a people. 5. The advance of the learner's mind in seeing the events as the effect of the spiritual struggle in the life of a people. Any one who knows these five things in the life of a people, knows the history of that people. Thus these five things are in general the five logical steps in the mastery of the history of any people. The Chronological Steps in History. — These are the steps in the order of time. That is to say, the steps in succession throughout the history work of the learner in school. The most important problem concerning the chron- ological steps in history is the best order of taking them. The question is, What is best to do first, secondly, thirdly, and so on in teaching history? Here is a vast lot of historical material, and the problem is the best order in which to teach the separate points. There are in general two orders of steps proposed by educators and teachers, as follows: 1. There is the order of beginning back with the STEPS IN HISTORY. 375 infancy of the race and tracing the race's development down to the present time. According to this order the learner is led to study in general the Aryans, first; next, the Persians and Hebrews ; next, the Greeks ; next, the Romans; next, the Saxons; then, the English; and lastly, the Americans and other modern nations. This order is intended to enable the learner to trace out the stream of civilization from its source down to the present time as it appears in the white race. 2. There is the order which begins nearer home in both time and place, and reaches forward and backward from this starting point. This order of steps is not uniformly taken in different places in the schools of the United States, and it quite generally lacks organization. The following from a Uniform Course of Study for one of the Central states will illustrate: * * FIRST YEAR. First Part. — Primitive Life (Indian Stories). Second Part. — Pioneer Life. SECOND YEAR. First Part. — Great Americans. Second Part. — Norse Life. Third Part. — Norse Life. THIRD YEAR. First Part. — Hebrew Life. Second Part. — Greek Life. Third Part. — Great Greeks. 376 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. FOURTH YEAR. Stories from Roman History, using 'The City of the Seven Hills.' FIFTH YEAR. Gordy's 'American Leaders and Heroes.' First Part. — The Period of Discovery, Exploration and Settlement. Second Part. — The French War and the Revolution. Third Part. — Expansion, Inventions and Slavery. SIXTH YEAR. Mowry's 'First Steps in the History of England.' SEVENTH YEAR. United States History. EIGHTH YEAR. The eighth year history should cover the period of National History to the present time." It is to be observed that according to the second order of taking the steps there is a good deal of brows- ing around over the historical field. In fact, the chief characteristic of the second order of the chronological steps in history seems to be the freedom which it gives to browse. The First Order. — According to this order the learner is led to see that the history of a people is a stream, starting at its source a tiny streamlet but in- creasing in width and depth as tributary after tribu- tary flows into it till it surges a mighty river. The STEPS IN HISTORY. 377 Persians, the Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Saxons, the English and the Americans are seen one by one to pour their contributions into this stream of civili- zation as it widens and deepens in the life of the race. First, Aryan life, by grouping the work around some Aryan child, is studied; then Persian and Hebrew life, by grouping the work around Persian and Hebrew children ; and so on with Greek, Roman, Saxon, English and American life. Their family life, church life, school life, business life and state life are studied, the events from the first having placed upon them an historical interpretation in a small way. As the children advance in their work they will be led more and more to place a truly historical interpretation upon the facts which they learn. In this way they begin to grow little by little into the history habit of mind. For instance, in the study of Aryan life, the work is usually grouped around the Aryan boy, Kablu. Around this little boy's life cling those things of the home which are taught to the children; things about the religion, about the education, about business and about government in so far as there was any. This work is given orally by the teacher at the first lesson ; then the children talk about it in a second lesson, and a little higher in the course they may be led to write about it. Thus the work may be made to cor- relate with primary language lessons, spelling, writing and reading lessons. This work would be based upon some book or books dealing with the life of these peoples. The book most 378 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. widely used for this work is one called ''Ten Boys Who Lived on the Road from Long- Ago till Now." It traces the civilization of these peoples by grouping it around child life. The Second Order. — According to this order the topics as previously indicated in the first year; that is, stories of Indian life and pioneer stories, are taught to the children. The work is oral in the main. It is made to correlate with primary language, and possibly with reading, writing and spelling. The work of the other years is done in a very similar way to that of the first year till a place is reached where the text-book can be put into the hands of the learner. After that the his- tory work is based upon the text-book. Work hy Years. — The work for the first year is as follows : 1. The study of Aryan civilization grouping the work around child life. The work is almost wholly oral and is to correlate with primary language, reading, spelling and possibly writing, — or — 2. Stories of Indian children and pioneer life. The work is almost wholly oral and is made to correlate with primary language, reading, spelling and possibly writing. The work of the second year is as follows: 1. The study of Persian and Hebrew civilization grouped around child life. The work is largely oral and is correlated with language lessons, reading, spell- ing and writing, STEPS IN HISTORY. 379 or 2. Pioneer life and Great Americans. The work is largely oral and is correlated with language lessons, spelling, reading and writing. The work of the third year is as follows : 1. The study of Greek civilization grouped around child life. The work is largely oral and is correlated with primary language lessons, reading, spelling and writing, or 2. American biographical and historical stories. The work is oral in the main and is correlated with pri- mary language, reading, writing and spelling. The work of the fourth year is as follows: 1. The study of Roman civilization grouped around child life. The work should still be mainly oral and is correlated with primary language, reading, spell- ing and writing, or 2. Stories of the settlements and colonial life in America. The work should be mainly oral, and is cor- related with primary language, reading, spelling and writing. The work of the fifth year is as follows : 1. The study of Saxon and early English civiliza- tion grouped around child life. The work should yet be largely oral, and is correlated with primary language lessons, reading, spelling and writing, or 2. '^ American Leaders and Heroes," by Gordy. 380 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. The text-book is to be placed in the hands of the chil- dren. The work of the sixth year is as follows: "First Steps in History of England/' by Mowry. The text-book is placed in the hands of the learner. The work of the seventh year is as follows: The History of the United States up to the adoption of the Constitution. The work of the eighth year is as follows : The history of the United States from the adoption of the Constitution to the present time. Comparison of the Two Orders of Steps. — It is evi- dent that there are some marked differences in the character of these two orders of chronological steps. To designate them in the discussion the first may be called the development order, and the other, the promis- cuous order. The following compares them: 1. The development order is systematic and well organized; the promiscuous order is unsystematic and poorly organized. 2. The development order is in harmony with the nature of history; that is, that history is an evolution in the life of a people. The promiscuous order is not in harmony with the nature of history. 3. The development order leads rapidly toward the formation of the history habit; the promiscuous order, slowly, if at all. 4. The development order is based upon the thought that the child in his growth and development STEPS IN HISTORY. 381 repeats the history of the race; the promiscuous order does not recognize this thought. 5. The development order makes the work easier to remember than the promiscuous order because it observes a natural sequence of events. 6. The promiscuous order is probably easier for poorly qualified teachers. Oral Teaching. — In oral teaching in history the teacher, first, places the lesson before the class in story form as interesting and entertaining as possible; secondly, she, by questions, has the children reproduce it orally; then, if the stage of development of the chil- dren warrant it, it may be reproduced in a written language lesson. As the work progresses, frequent oral reviews must be given to fix the work in mind. The first few years of history work must of neces- sity be presented orally. The children in these years can not read history. Their development is not suffi- cient for them to do so. The following difficulties in presenting the work orally can be overcome by most teachers: 1. It is difficult for most teachers to tell a story well. 2. In oral teaching close attention of all the mem- bers of the class is sometimes difficult to maintain. 3. It is difficult to get teachers to organize each lesson into topics. The tendency is to ramble. 4. Teachers do not know history well enough and often do not have material at hand for proper prepara- tion. 382 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 5. In many schools teachers do not think they have time for oral lessons. Almost any earnest teacher, though, can see her way through these difficulties in oral teaching in his- tory. CHAPTER XXIX. DEVICES IN HISTORY TEACHING. Meaning and Importance of. — Devices, it will be remembered, are the external means used by the teacher and learner in the teaching act. The manipulation of these constitutes the physical method in teaching. They are important in teaching any school subject, because the growth in the learner's life depends upon the experiences he has, and the experiences he has de- pends upon the means used to arouse these experiences. Enumeratioyi of. — The following are a list of im- portant devices in teaching history: 1. Assignments. 2. Class discussions. 3. Text-books. 4. Maps. 5. Public documents. 6. Pictures. 7. Reference books. 8. Out- lines. Assignments. — It is difficult to tell whether assign- ments or class discussions are the more important de- vices in teaching history. They seem to be of almost equal importance. But good history teaching can not exist when the assignments are poor. Good assign- ments in history must possess the following character- istics : 1. They must be pointed, specific and definite. 2. They must lead the learner to acquire the right concept of history. 384 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 3. They must tend toward the formation of the history habit. 4. They must emphasize the important and pass by more quickly the unimportant. History assignments should, as a rule, be written, if the best results are to be hoped for. The teacher who constantly gives studied, thoughtful, definite writ- ten assignments in history is almost sure to secure very satisfactory results. Class Discussions. — This device of almost equal importance with assignments may be used very effec- tively by the teacher in teaching history. The teacher's greatest tact and skill will manifest themselves in the way he directs class discussions. The teacher in his class discussions has opportunity to do the following things for the learner in history : 1. To test him on his understanding and prepara- tion of the lesson. 2. To supplement the knowledge of the lesson which the learner has gained in its preparation. 3. To give the learner right habits of studying history. 4. To approve, stimulate, encourage and inspire him in his work. The teacher who uses the opportunity to do these things by class discussions makes them a very important device in teaching history. Text-hooks. — One might possibly be able to teach history without a text-book in the hands of the learner, and should do so of course in the lower stages of the DEVICES IN HISTORY TEACHING. 385 work, but in the higher stages of the work the book is needed. A good text-book is a great convenience for both teacher and learner. Text-books in history, though, are not the history; they are relegated to their proper position of impor- tance when they are considered a mere device. The text-book in history should not trace the strug- gle of a people merely in one institution, the state, but in all institutions; in the family, in the church, in the school, in business and in the state. Maps. — Maps are a useful device in teaching his- tory and should be used much more than they generally are. They make clear the position of coast lines, moun- tains, rivers, boundary lines, cities, plains, passes, roads, canals, and other relief forms that affect the history of the people. A good history teacher will find much use for good maps in his work. Public Documents. — Public documents are a valu- able device in all research work in history. The student of history who wants to study any subject in history intensively studies public documents most carefully. For instance, any one who wants to make an intensive study of our pension system, or the waste of war, would find almost all the means of research in public documents. Thus in the higher phases of history study public documents are an important device. Pictures. — Every one likes pictures of important historical scenes, huildifigs, and events. They are liked 386 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. especially by children, of course, and thus are a means in the hands of the teacher to arouse interest and to stimulate to study in history. Most of us can remem- ber, perhaps, that we have wanted to know more about things in history of which we first learned by pictures. They also make history work more vivid, and im- pressive, and thus enhance the opportunity of remem- bering accurately. Reference Books. — The text-book and the teacher's work in history study should be supplemented by a good reference library in history. No large knowledge of his- tory can usually be attained to from the teacher and text-book merely. To catch the historical spirit, to have a broad historical horizon one must read widely in his- tory. The good history teacher always wants a good reference library and wants his students to make free use of it. Outlines. — Outlines are valuable organizers in his- tory teaching. But many teachers in teaching history fail to use the outline to its full worth. The historical outline is of some help in teaching history, if made by the teacher, but of very much more help if made by the learner. Thus to get most good from the outline in history the learner should be led to make it for him- self. The value of outlines in history teaching lies in their help in systematizing the work and thus enabling the learner to see it as an organized whole. But that DEVICES IN HISTORY TEACHING. 387 the outline may do this most helpfully it must be made by the learner, not by the teacher. Other Devices. — There are other devices in teaching history than those studied above. It is meant here that the ones studied above are only some of the most im- portant ones. CHAPTER XXX. ERRORS IN TEACHING HISTORY. Prevalence of. — There are a great many errors made in teaching history as it is usually done in our schools. And there are at any rate two reasons why this is the case : 1. Contrary to popular opinion, history is a sub- ject difficult to teach well. 2. Many teachers have little more than the vaguest ideas of the true nature of history. Enumeration of. — The following are common errors in teaching history: 1. Teaching history as a record of events. 2. Teaching events as isolated to too large an extent. 3. Failure to interpret events. 4. Failure to differentiate the important from the unimportant. 5. Tracing struggle only in the state. 6. Bad order of steps. History as a Record of Events. — There are many teachers yet who regard history as the record of events and teach it as such. Such teaching necessarily degen- erates into a verbal memory drill. The spirit of history is likely to be entirely lost in the effort required to re- member the form of the record. History so taught loses ERRORS IN TEACHING HISTORY. 389 its human interest, is most difficult to remember, fails to develop the moral judgment, and the accurate reason- ing resulting from the proper history study. It gives the learner the wrong idea of what history is, underestimates its educational worth, and, in many cases, gives the learner a permanent dislike for history as a subject. No teacher, be he who he may, who regards history as merely a record of events can teach history well. Teaching Events as Isolated. — Every event in his- tory has its roots deeply buried in the past and pro- jects its influence far into the future. Only when the movements in history which have led up to the event are understood can any event be understood. Move- ments can be grasped and comprehended by children as can any series of connected changes, and any event will be placed naturally in the series. But to teach the event as isolated is to fail to give it the connections in the mind of the learner which would enable him to fix it in mind. To remember events in history isolated to any large degree one must depend upon intense ap- plication and numerous repetitions. But to rely upon these ways of remembering is injurious to the judg- ment and reasoning in history. The evolution of a people toward higher life can never be seen by studying events as isolated. Only when events in their relations are traced out can the growth of people in civilization be seen. Failure to Interpret Events. — It is a most common error for the teacher to fail to lead the learner to inter- 390 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. pret events in history. An event in history is inter- preted only when it is traced out in its historical rela- tions. These are the relations of the event to the spirit- ual and physical growth of the people in their struggle for higher life. The event must be seen to be the effect of the struggle in the life of the people in the past, both spiritual and physical ; it must be seen to be a cause of the struggle in the life of the people, both spiritual and physical; and in all cases it must be seen to mani- fest what is in the spiritual life of the people. Unless this is done in history the learner is never likely to catch the spirit of history, enjoy it, and be a real student of history. That is, he is never likely to get the historic attitude of mind — the history habit. In the lower grades of the work this can be done only in a small way, but as the learner advances in development, he should be led more and more into the habit of placing a strictly historical interpretation upon historical facts. Too often in history facts are taught as mere facts to be learned and stowed away in the memory. Lack of Differentiation of Important and Unim- portant. — It is evident that not all events are of equal historical importance, but it is not uncommon for the teacher of history to teach, with about equal emphasis, everything he comes upon in the text-book which he happens to be using. It requires a good knowledge of a subject to be able to distinguish between the important and the unimportant in teaching, and this is especially true of history. Certain events in history are mile- ERRORS IN TEACHING HISTORY. 391 stones which mark important places in the evolution of the life of a people. These must be seen to be so im- portant that nothing is to be left undone to fix them firmly in the life of the learner. They also become instruments of thought in his- tory study by means of which history may be inter- preted. It is upon these important events in history that the stress should be placed. To emphasize all equally in history is, first, to waste time and energy; secondly, to give the wrong attitude of mind toward history. Tracing Struggle only in State. — In almost all text- books in history the struggle of a people for higher life is traced out very much in only one of the institutions of civilization, the state. And since most teachers of history are guided by the text-book in teaching, the learner is usually led to trace the struggle in only one institution, the state, if he be led to trace it at all. This is, of course, an important part of the history work, but no student will ever catch the spirit of history or become proficient in history by studying merely the development of the state. The Ordinance of 1787, the Omnibus Bill, and the Dred Scott Decision are of great interest to the ad- vanced student of history, but not so to the elementary student of history. In teaching the events in the evo- lution of the state in history the teacher is usually teaching the most uninteresting part of history to the average elementary history student. What occurred in the family life, in the schools, in the church, and in 392 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. business life, in the evolution of a people's civilization appeals to the boy and girl in history in a much greater degree than what occurred in the state as an institu- tion. Thus the most interesting parts of history to boys and girls are frequently omitted from history teaching while they are being drilled upon the dry events of the state. To trace the development in the state alone does the following undesirable things: 1. It takes much of the interest out of history. 2. It frequently gives the learner a permanent dislike for history. 3. It gives an erroneous notion of what history actually is. Bad Order of Steps. — The order of development in studying anything is always the most natural and most economical. For this reason the order of development should be followed in teaching history. The order of development in history is from the simple to the com- plex, from the childhood of a people to its maturity. To begin the learner with the history of the United States in the Period of Voyage and Discovery is to begin in the middle of the life of various peoples, and is not best. Surely, in the best history teaching the learner must be led in general at any rate up through Aryan, Greek, Roman, Spanish, French and English history to the history of the United States. This in most cases is not done as history is usually taught. But the need of it is very great. CHAPTER XXXI. NATURE AND SUBJECT-MATTER OP GEOGRAPHY. Nature of. — The idea which the teacher holds of the nature of any subject will determine to a large degree how he will teach that subject. While this is true of all school subjects, it is true to a larger degree with respect to the subject of geography than with most other sub- jects. For instance, if the teacher believe that geography is not a separate science of itself, but a conglomeration of fragments of sciences, of botany, of zoology, of geol- ogy, of astronomy, etc., he is almost certain to teach it in an unsystematic, unorganized way. But if he believe that it is a separate, dignified science, he is likely to teach it in a systematized, organized way. Views of Geography. — There are to be found in the minds of people engaged in school work three rather definite views of what geography is, as follows: 1. There is, first, what may be called the popular y or unscientific, view. 2. There is, secondly, the view that geography is the study of the earth as the home of man. This may be called the anthropological view. 3. And lastly there is the view that geography is, in short, the science of distributions. This may be called the scientific view. 394 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. This question may be studied in two ways: first, it may be studied by finding out what scientists who are good authority have to say on the nature of geography ; secondly, it may be studied by the exercise of one's own thought upon it ; that is, by one 's own thinking. First, we will see what those who know have to say about what geography is. The International Geographical Congress, which met at Venice in 1881, says: First, 'Hhe scientific object of geography compre- hends the study of the superficial forms of the earth; it extends also to the reciprocal relations of the differ- ent branches of the organic world." Secondly, ''that which eminently distinguishes geography from the auxiliary sciences is that it local- izes objects ; that is to say, it indicates in a positive and constant manner the distribution of beings, organic and inorganic upon the earth." Professor Hettner of the University of Leipsic said, in 1895: "The geography of to-day starts from the point of view of diversity in space, and aims at a scientific ex- planation of the nature of regions inclusive of their inhabitants. ' ' Professor Neumann of the University of Freiburg says: "General geography deals with the general laws of distribution of every class of phonomena on the earth's surface. ' ' Professor Davis of Harvard University says : NATURE AND SUBJECT-MATTER OF GEOGRAPHY. 395 ''Geography treats of al terrestrial phenomena in mutual dependence." Other authority says: ''Geography is the science of distribution." "Geography is the science which deals with the mutual relations in space of relief, cli- mate and life." It appears from these opinions of such eminent authority that the cardinal idea of greography is ex- pressed by the word distribution. This idea is the nu- cleus of every thought here quoted concerning the na- ture of geography. It is the idea of distribution which predominates in every quotation. Thus in the opinion of these authors distribution is the distinguishing char- acteristic of geography. The Popidar View. — It is doubtless entirely cor- rect to say that a large majority of people at the present time hold either consciously or unconsciously the popu- lar view of geography. They think of geography as be- ing composed of truths of astronomy, geology, miner- alogy, physics, chemistry, mechanics, zoology, botany, ethnology, anthropology, sociology, history, civics and economics, not organized into a separate science, but as fragments of various sciences. Evidence of this truth is found in the way the sub- ject is treated in the average text-book of geography and in the way the subject is most usually taught by teachers everywhere. The average text in geography treats of a little of the truth of almost every science, and in a way not at all different from the way truth is treated in the respective 396 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. sciences. And most teachers, since their ideas of geog- raphy are molded by the text-book, teach a little of almost all sciences and call it geography. Such a view of geography is very unscientific and unsatisfactory to a mind desirous of accuracy and defi- niteness. With such a view of geography the teacher can literally scatter all over creation in teaching and still keep within the limits of his subject. Thus it is not a helpful view of the subject. Again, according to the popular view of geography there is nothing about the subject to distinguish it from the allied sciences, geology, astronomy, zoology, etc. This view is the view of the unthinking, slovenly teacher or author. There is no geographer if importance to-day who holds such a view. The Anthropological View. — The anthropological view of geography is that it is the science which deals with the truths of the earth as the home of man. Ac- cording to this view all phenomena of the earth are to be thought of in relation to their fitness or unfitness for man's home. This view is based upon the very unscientific as- sumption that all things were created and are provi- dentially governed for the welfare of man ; the assump- tion that every flower, every pebble, every mountain, every dewdrop, every ocean, every mosquito, every bug or beetle, every insect of any kind, every thunderbolt, every storm, etc., is the manifestation of a thought to contribute to the welfare of man. NATURE AND SUBJECT-MATTER OF GEOGRAPHY. 397 This assumption violates in toto the greatest of all scientific truths, the truth of universal evolution. Thus this view of geography is in contradiction to the greatest of all scientific truths, and is therefore very- unscientific, too. It is a narrow view of geography. It is a bigoted, intolerant, selfish view of geography. It leads away from the truth as taught by the best scien- tists in all countries at present. If there ever was a time when such a view of geog- raphy should have been taught, it certainly has long since gone by. No up-to-date geography would hold such a view at the present time. The Scientific View. — This is the view that geog- raphy is a science separate and distinct from other sciences; dignified, worthy and exalted in the family of sciences. It holds that geography has an organization of its own; that it has an organizing truth peculiar to itself. It holds that, while geography deals with many trutlis w^hich are dealt with in other sciences, as in geology, astronomy, botany, zoology, etc., it deals with them in a relation characteristic of geography, but not characteristic of those sciences. That is to say, geog- graphy has its own organizing truth, or organizing prin- ciple. In this view geography deals with the phenomena of the earth as to their distribution. The phenomena of the earth are climate, relief forms, plant life, animal life and human life, on the surface of the earth. Climate means heat, light, moisture and winds. Relief forms means mountains, valleys, plains, plateaus, rivers, lakes, 398 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. gulfs, bays, oceans, islands, etc. Animal life means quadrupeds, fishes, birds, reptiles, insects, worms, mol- lusks, etc. Human life means all sorts of men, women and children as those terms are commonly understood. Each of these things is cause of the distribution of the others ; and each of these things is also the effect of the others as to its distribution. Thus climate is the cause of the distribution of plant life, because plants can grow only where there is a supply of heat, light and moisture. But plants, especially forests, affect the heat and moisture of regions and thus are cause of distribu- tion of climate in turn. Again, plant life is the cause of distribution of ani- mal life, for animal life can exist to any large extent only where there is plant life. And animal life helps in the dissemination of the seeds of plant life and thus is in turn the cause of the distribution of plant life. The phenomena of the earth thus have to one an- other a mutual relation of distribution on the earth's surface. This view will be found upon study to be in har- mony with the views of the eminent geographers pre- viously quoted in this chapter. From the previous study the following is the scien- tific definition of geography: Geography is that science which treats of the phe- nomena of the earth as to their mutual relation of dis- tribution. The three essential ideas of this notion of geog- raphy are: NATURE AND SUBJECT-MATTER OF GEOGRAPHY. 399 1. Geography is a science. 2. Geography treats of the phenomena of the earth. 3. The phenomena of the earth are to each other mutually cause and effect as to distribution. Geography is a science because it consists of a body of truth organized around a central idea. It is a sepa- rate science because the truths in geography are organ- ized around a central idea different from the central idea of any other science. The truths of geography are truths of climate, re- lief forms, minerals, plant life, animal life and human life. These, climate, relief forms, minerals, plant life, animal life and human life are the phenomena of the earth. Thus geography treats of the phenomena of the earth. The phenomena of the earth are widely distributed over the earth's surface, and this distribution is in har- mony with the laws of evolution. The most fundamental distribution being that of heat. The distribution of heat is the cause of the distribution of moisture and relief forms. And the distribution of moisture and relief forms is the cause of the distribution of heat. And this relation of distribution obtains among the various phenomena of the earth, in some instances to a smsll degree and in some to a large degree, but in all instances to some degree. Geography is the science and the only science which traces out this distribution. Hence the definition, "Geography is the science of distributions." And from this discussion the definition of geog- 400 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. raphy can be elaborated into the following: Geography is that science which treats of climate, relief forms, minerals, plant life, animal life and human life as to their mutual relation of distribution over the earth's surface. The Concept, Geography. — The concept, geography- is one's general idea of geography. That is to say, the idea of geography made up of those elements found in all geography. In the scientific view of geography the following elements are found in the concept: 1. A science. 2. The phenomena of the earth. 3. The wide distribution of the phenomena. 4. The distribution of phenomena, the cause of the distribution of phenomena. 5. The distribution of phenomena, the effect of the dis- tribution of phenomena. This is the concept of geography consistent with the universal truths of science, and the only one con- sistent with the great law of evolutionary development in both the organic and inorganic worlds. It is the most helpful working concept of geography, too. The Subject-matter of Geography. — It is to be re- called again that a subject-matter in any subject or les- son is the material of study; also, that every subject- matter consists of two things: (1) the facts to be studied or taught, and (2) the relation in which these facts are to be studied or taught. The facts to be understood in geography are the phenomena of the earth, and the relation in which they are to be taught is as to distribution on the earth's sur- face. This has before been seen to be a mutual rela- NATURE AND SUBJECT-MATTER OF GEOGRAPHY. 401 tion. So the subject-matter of geography may be stated as follows: The subject-matter of geography is the phenomena of the earth as to their mutual relation of distribution on the earth^s surface. This statement means that in the subject of geog- raphy the learner is to be led to learn the facts of the phenomena of the earth, to see their distribution, to see the causes which produced this distribution, and to see the effects of this distribution. Only when he has done this, has he studied a fact of the earth geographically. For instance, the narrow strip of sandy soil along the eastern shore of Lake Michigan is one of the fruit gardens of the world and is commonly known as the peach belt. Now, the learner has learned this region geographic- ally only when he sees that the soil was formed by the glacial deposit and the throwing up of the sand by the water of Lake Michigan, and then by its recession ; when he learns that the climate, on an average ten degrees or so warmer in the winter than the climate of the region a hundred miles south, is tempered by the waters of the lake ; when he understands that the average rain- fall is more than forty inches annually, and that these conditions are conducive to fruit growing. Secondly, when he understands that the jdeld of peaches, pears, plums, cherries and berries and melons has made inten- sive farming a necessity; has made farms small, has caused the growth of cities; has established commercial routes and commerce; has caused nurseries to spring 402 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. up; has established schools and churches and factories, and furnishes food supplies to almost all parts of the world. The Organizing Principle of Geography. — Geog- raphy, like history, has a distinct organizing principle of its own. It is the relation in the subject-matter, and is the thing which sets geography off from the allied sciences of astronomy, geology, botany, zoology, etc. It is a two-fold relation, cause and effect, mutually, which exists among the phenomena of the earth. It organizes geography as a science, and gives the subject its dis- tinctive character. The following is the formal state- ment for the organizing principle of geography : The organizing principle of geography is the mutual cause and effect relation between the phenomena of the earth as to their distribution on the earth^s surface. No other science has the same organizing principle as geography. Several sciences deal with the same facts as geography, in part, at any rate. Astronomy deals with the Solar System and so does geography; geology deals with the formation of soils and so does geog- raphy; botany and zoology deal with plants and ani- mals and so does geography. But geography is not astronomy, geology, botany nor zoology. These allied sciences deal with their facts in different relations from the relation in which geography deals with these same facts. Thus the sciences allied to geography differ from geography in that they (1) deal with facts in part different from the facts of geography; (2) have differ- NATURE AND SUBJECT-MATTER OF GEOGRAPHY. 403 ent organizing principles from the organizing principle of geography. Geographical Facts and Relations. — A geographical fact is any fact which has any inJfluence upon the distri- bution of terrestrial phenomena. As such are the height of mountains, depth of valleys, amount of rainfall, a city, a canal, a railroad, etc. A geographical relation is a causal relation or an effect relation between any two terrestrial phenomena or groups of phenomena as to their distribution. Functions of the Organizing Principle of Geog- raphy. — As in history the organizing principle of geog- raphy has four functions: 1. Selective. 2. Interpret- ing. 3. Emphasizing. 4. Dividing. In general, this means that the teacher who knows the organizing prin- ciple of geography knows better what to select to teach, how to interpret it, what to emphasize and how to divide the subject than without such knowledge. The Selective Function. — In every subject taught in school the field from which the material is obtained is so broad that not all of it can be taught. A selection of material must be made. And in no other subject is the necessity for a selection greater than it is in the subject of geography, for in no other subject is there such a vast amount of material from which choice is to be made. One might study the phenomena of the earth a lifetime and still be able to master only a very little of geographical truth. As great as the need for selection from this vast field of geographical material is, not less great is the 404 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. need for wise selection, the selection of those things which will be most worth studying as such, and which will furnish the greatest added power for the attack of new problems. This is often a difficult task, and since there is so much to choose from, the difficulty of the task is thus made greater. Teachers in the past have not troubled themselves to any very large extent with this problem. They have depended upon the text-book to select material for geog- raphy study and have followed the text usually pretty closely. As a result much scattering, fruitless teaching has been done in geography, because a worse selection of material could hardly be made than found in many texts. Usually a multitude of things are presented to study, but a mere pittance of truth stated about each. Geography becomes a mere memory drill, the student learning a little of almost everything and nothing much of anything. In this matter of the selection of material it is most desirable that the teacher be self -directive, that he may free himself from the text-book, be able to rise above it and select such material as should be used and reject such as should not. And this is just what is meant by the selective func- tion of the organizing principle of geography. It in- dicates to the teacher that those things are to be studied in geography which are large factors in the distri- bution of the earth's phenomena, and that those things which have little or nothing to do with distribution should be passed by. Adherence to this NATURE AND SUBJECT-MATTER OF GEOGRAPHY. 405 function of the organizing principle of geography would correct to some degree the scattering, vague work so prevalent in geography. The Interpreting Function. — Facts of the phe- nomena of the earth as such belong no more to geog- raphy than they do to a half dozen other sciences. They are a part of the subject-matter of geography only when a geographical interpretation is placed upon them. In leading the learner to do this the teacher has opportu- nity to show his greatest skill in geography teaching and opportunity for doing the learner the greatest good in geography teaching. And to fail entirely to do this is to fail distressingly in geography teaching. The interpreting function of the organizing prin- ciple points the way properly to interpret a geograph- ical fact. It indicates that a geographical phenomenon is interpreted first, when the distribution which caused it to be located where it is, is traced out; and, secondly, when the distribution of which it is the cause is traced out. That is to say, a geographical phenomenon is an effect and a cause of distribution, and according to the organizing principle of geography it is interpreted by understanding that of which it is an effect and that of which it is a cause as to distribution. For instance, there is in South America a narrow verdant strip of country in Chili in which is located the city of Valparaiso. It has an equable and delight- ful climate with clear days and brilliant nights. Its summer is from November to March. It grows Indian corn, wheat, barley, oats, beans, beets, fruit, tobacco 406 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. and silk. Large numbers of cattle, horses, mules, sheep and goats are reared. It is situated between the Andes Mountains and the coast. Now, according to the organizing principle of geog- raphy this bit of geographical truth is interpreted, first, when the causes which have located these phenomena here are faithfully traced out and understood; and, secondly, when the effect on the distribution of other terrestrial phenomena which the location of these phe- nomena has caused is traced out and understood. The attitude of mind of teacher or learner which leads to a tendency for him habitually to place such an interpretation upon terrestrial phenomena is what is called the geography habit. It is that which the teacher should strive to establish in the mind of every geog- raphy student. The Emphasizing Function. — It is a rare teacher who is able to distinguish between the important and the unimportant to a large degree in his subject and emphasize the important and pass by lightly the unim- portant. The organizing principle of geography guides the teacher in doing this and this is what is meant by its emphasizing function. The emphasizing function of the organizing prin- ciple of geography shows that from the vast number of terrestrial phenomena those which are large factors in distribution should be studied intensively, that is, em- phasized; and that most of those which do not influence distribution largely are not to be dealt with at all in NATURE AND SUBJECT-MATTER OF GEOGRAPHY. 407 the geography of elementary schools, since time is lack- ing for the mastery of those which do. Thus in the geography of Illinois Chicago is of great geographical value, Springfield much less, and Kankakee still less, because of its being a much smaller factor in distribution. The Dividing Function. — In the proper organiza- tion of any subject divisions in its subject-matter are necessary. They enable the mind better to grasp the subject. And in making divisions bases of division must be sought. The organizing principle of geography guides the mind of the teacher and learner in making helpful divisions in geography, and this is what is meant by the dividing function of the organizing prin- ciple. The dividing function shows that certain groups of phenomena influence distribtuion in one way and other groups influence distribution other ways. Thus on the basis of the way forces influence distribution divisions of geography should be made. The divisions of geography into Mathematical, Physical, Political, Commercial, etc., are arbitrary to a considerable degree. Geography is geography and any attempt to divorce Mathematical, Physical, Political, etc., militates against proper interpretation. In concluding this chapter, it is safe to say that the scientific conception of geography is held by very few teachers, and most would not know what one means by an organizing principle in geography. And that the scientific conception, including a definite idea of the 408 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. organizing principle, of geography can hardly be over- estimated in value to the teacher of geography. CHAPTER XXXII. THE PURPOSE OF GEOGRAPHY. Meaning of. — Purpose in any subject, it will be re- membered, is the effect the mastery of the subject pro- duces in the life of the learner. Thus then, in general, the purpose of geography is the effect that geography studied under favorable conditions will produce in the life of the learner. Classes of Purpose. — Geography will in a large sense do two things for the one who studies it. It will, first, give a store of knowledge valuable to the learner for guidance in living; secondly, it will furnish mental training, power of thought valuable to the learner in thinking out the problems of life as he comes to them. These two purposes are, respectively, the knowledge- giving purpose, and disciplinary purpose. The Knowledge-giving Purpose. — From the valu- able knowledge point of view it is the purpose of geog- raphy to give the following to the learner : 1. A definite knowledge of the geography of his home life and immediate geographical environment. 2. A good definite knowledge of the most impor- tant geographical centers of the world. 3. A clear and positive knowledge that all phe- nomena of the earth are in entire accord with nature's laws and that these laws are uniform. 410 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 4. A positive knowledge that the phenomena of the earth are, as to their distribution, both cause and effect. 5. Knowledge which will furnish an adequate basis for the pursuit of the other natural sciences. The Disciplinary Purpose. — From the disciplinary point of view it is the purpose of geography to do the following for the learner: 1. To give the learner a fervent, many-sided, en- during, drawing interest in the objects of nature. 2. To correct superstitions by leading the learner into the habit of explaining phenomena by their causal relations to known facts. 3. To give the learner good habits of observing nature around him. 4. To cultivate sense-perception, memory, imagina- tion and reasoning. 5. To give the learner the spirit of free inquiry and free investigation ; that is, the scientific spirit. Home Geography. — It certainly is an important part of the purpose of geography to give the learner a definite knowledge of the region immediately sur- rounding his home; a knowledge of the rainfall, the snow, the average temperature, the length of day and night, the constellations and the planets which may be seen, the hills, creeks, rivers, valleys, marshes, etc., the animals, the common plants, the natural products, routes of commerce, roads and many other things which children may be led to learn first-hand. Such knowledge THE PURPOSE OF GEOGRAPHY. 411 with the exercise required to get it would be a pretty good education in itself. The suggestion here is that it seems unaccountable that teachers as a rule can find nothing in such a wealth of material for lessons in home geography. At present it is not the rule to do this part of geography work even poorly either in city or country schools. Knowledge of Important Geographical Centers. — It must be evident that geography is to teach the learner the location and geographical importance of the centers of distribution of the leading countries of the world. Everyone tries in some sort of way to do this. But the difficulty is that in trying to do so there come up so many things to be taught that there is a great tendency to scatter too much in the work. And as a result the learner gets a small knowledge of a great many things but a good definite knowledge of no important geo- graphical centers. His geography work becomes a mat- ter of memory of many things most of which he soon forgets. So the purpose in this instance is to give the learner a good, definite knowledge of the most important geographical centers of the countries of the world. Not all geographical centers are to be attempted; only the most important, to as large a number as time and development will permit. Uniformity of Nature's Laws. — Geography is one of the best subjects in school to teach the learner that nature's laws are uniform and that all the earth's phe- 412 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. nomena are in accord with them. This is constantly impressed upon him by tracing the causes which lead up to phenomena. Nothing appears the result of chance. Nothing appears to be special dispensations of Provi- dence. Niagara Falls are just where they are because of perfectly natural conditions. Chicago is not an acci- dent, but the causes which have produced Chicago are entirely and clearly comprehensible from a perfectly natural viewpoint. This becomes a habit of mind with the learner, and he knows it as well as he can know anything inductively. And this point of knowledge is a valuable part of the purpose of geography from the knowledge-giving viewpoint. Knowledge that Phenomena are Both Cause and Effect. — It is worth while for the learner to know that every phenomenon of the earth looks in two directions, forward and backward. In so far as its influence looks forward it is a cause of the distribution of something in some way. In so far as it looks backward it has been influenced in some way as to distribution, that is, it is an effect. The learner should know this; it helps him to un- derstand the world in which he lives; it helps him to think of nature in the right way. Thus to give the learner as positive knowledge that the phenomena of the earth are as to their distribution both cause and effect is a part of the knowledge-giving purpose of geography. A Basis for the Study of Other Sciences. — Geog- raphy is preeminently adapted to give the learner a THE PURPOSE OP GEOGRAPHY. 413 knowledge which furnishes a basis for the study of other sciences. In his geography work he learns something of the solar system, the stars, the comets, and meteors. His knowledge of these things forms a basis for his beginning the study of astronomy. In his geography study he learns something of rock formation, coal deposits, canons, the glacial drift, the ice age, the formation of soils, fossils, and so on, and this knowledge forms the basis for his beginning the study of geology and mineralogy. He also in his geography learns many truths of plant life, many truths of animal life, truths of chem- istry, truths of solids, liquids, fluids, light, electricity and these truths become basis for the subjects of botany, zoology, chemistry and physics. Thus geography in the school curriculum forms the child's natural introduction to the natural sciences and lays a good basis for their pursuit. And to do this is one purpose the teacher should hold in mind in teaching geography. Interest in Nature. — In the earlier stages of geog- raphy the work should be mainly the concrete study of natural objects in their natural environment. Such work tends toward a strong interest in nature, for such work always proves very attractive to the learner. If well done the learner becomes intensely interested in the objects of nature; that is, his interest becomes fervent. Again, if this work is adequately done, the learner will become interested in flowers, weeds, mosses, lichens, mushrooms, trees, corn, wheat and so on; in worms, 414 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. bugs, beetles, grasshoppers, flies, moths, butterflies, bees, birds, toads, squirrels, and so on; in rocks, soils, fossils, stars, constellations, planets, etc. That is to say, his in- terest becomes many-sided. And lastly, in doing such geography work such an interest is acquired as will take the learner to the field, forest, and stream; to the planets, animals, soils, rocks, and other of nature's won- derful and beautiful things, and once acquired it will stay with him through life. That is, the interest will become drawing and enduring. Thus from a disciplinary point of view, it is. one of the purposes of geography to give the learner a fervent, many-sided, enduring, drawing interest in the objects of nature. Correcting Superstitions. — A superstition has been defined as attributing some occurrence to some other oc- currence as a cause when actually the antecedent occur- rence had no causal connection with the succeeding. There are a great many popular superstitions which geography may break down by giving the learner the mental habit of actually recognizing causal relations. He thus becomes analytic in thought and no longer believes in the influence of the moon on potatoes, stones in a meadow or shingles on a roof. Neither will he be- lieve in the influence of the stars and planets as fating any one's life to this or that destiny. Thus it is a part of the disciplinary purpose of geography to break down superstitious habits of thought. Habits of Observation. — Since the elementary parts of geography work are the concrete study of natural THE PURPOSE OF GEOGRAPHY. 415 objects in their natural environment and what is known as field work in geography, the subject gives the learner good habits of observation. He unconsciously acquires the habit of watching the birds, the trees, beetles, flow- ers and weeds, rocks, toads, snakes, butterflies, soils, fruits, and relief forms, and so on. He comes to have eyes with which he sees and ears with which he hears. He observes the departure and return of the birds, their love affairs, their disappointments and the trage- dies in their lives; their food, their friends and their enemies. He observes the form, growth, leaves, flowers and fruit of trees, weeds, and plants friendly to man, and many, many other things in nature around him. The value of such a mental habit can not well be over-estimated, and it is a part of the disciplinary pur- pose of geography to give it. The Cultivation of Sense-perception, Memory, Im- aginatio7i and Reasoning. — The first-hand study of natural objects and the home geography including field work are eminently fitted to cultivate sense-perception. There is material in this kind of geography work to cultivate sense-perception through sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste, for these aspects of sense-perception are often brought into exercise, and it is through exercise that cultivation is brought about. Geography is popularly placed first among the sub- jects in the school curriculum as suited to cultivate imagination. And it is a certainty that almost every lesson calls into activity the imagination. In forming mental pictures of mountains, plains, valleys, plateaus. 416 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. rivers, forests, springs, lakes, cornfields, wheatfields, cottonfields, peoples, cities and hundreds of other things the child must use largely his imagination. A point to be recognized in this connection though is, that the imaginative pictures are always formed out of the elements of one's experience and that, for this reason, no proper cultivation of the imagination can be induced in the learner whose mind is characterized by a poverty of first-hand contact with geographical material. This means that in the absence of the concrete work in home geography and field w^ork, geography can not be largely valuable in cultivating imagination. If the foundation be well laid in contact with nature in the home geography and in field work, geog- raphy may be made one of the most valuable subjects for cultivating the imagination; otherwise, it can not. There is much exercise of the memory in learning geography. As it is frequently taught the memory drill is almost the whole exercise. But not all exercise of the memory is valuable by any means. Memory may be exercised in such a way as to break down the ability to think. Students may acquire the habit of depending upon their memories almost wholly. Such students frequently do not learn to think very well for them- selves. But geography so taught that the learner shall fix firmly in mind the organizing truth of the subject and see the various phenomena to be remembered as so many instances of this organizing truth cultivates memory in THE PURPOSE OF GEOGRAPHY. 417 the very best way possible. Thus taught geography cul- tivates the memory largely. Geography is perhaps not usually thought of as a subject good to cultivate reasoning. But, if an inter- pretation be placed upon geographical phenomena, geography becomes a good subject to cultivate reasoning. Laws of distribution are discovered inductively; geo- graphical concepts are formed inductively, and laws are applied to particular instances of distribution deduc- tively. Geography used to be thought of as merely an ele- mentary school subject, but now it is regarded as a university subject, in which as high degree of thinking is required as in any other university subject. When geography once is appreciated it will be regarded as one of the best of school subjects to cultivate reasoning. The Scientific Spirit. — The scientific spirit is the spirit of free inquiry and free investigation. Its watch- words are experiment, observe and think. It is the atti- tude of mind in which nothing short of truth satisfies. It is the result of quickening the intellectual hunger of the mind, the soul's passion for knowledge. It is the characteristic of the mind ''open to receive, and wel- come, and utilize, and enjoy the beauty of unadorned truth and the truth of simple beauty." The scientific spirit hates the 'immorality of the intellect which withholds, distorts, minimizes, or refuses to acknowledge, the truth.' The constant exercise in geography in searching for truth leads the learner into the scinentific spirit, and 418 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. to do this is a part of the purpose of geography from the disciplinary point of view. Large Value of Geography. — The above study shows geography to be possessed of much larger educational value than is popularly attributed to it. Geography is a fine subject; wide in extensity and deep in intensity, dignified, scientific and worthy of the highest regard by teachers everywhere. CHAPTER XXXIII. THE BASIS OF GEOGRAPHY. Meaning of Basis. — It will be remembered that basis is the knowledge possessed by the learner upon which the teacher can build in teaching any subject or any lesson. The principle of mind underlying basis is that the mind in learning naturally goes to the unknown from the nearest related knoivn. The nearest related known is the basis. It is presumed that, when the child comes to school at about the age of six, he will have some points of knowledge from which the teacher can lead him to the unknown. These points of knowledge are his basis for studying geography. Aspects of Basis. — The learner in the pursuit of geography will study climate, relief forms, minerals, plant life, animal life, and human life. He knows something of each one of these when he comes to school. Thus there will be six aspects of the learner's basis; (1) his basis for studying climate; (2) his basis for studying relief forms; (3) his basis for the study of minerals; (4) his basis for the study of plant life; (5) his basis for the study of animal life, and (6) his basis for the study of human life. Basis for Climate. — Children's knowledge of cli- 420 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. mate before they come to school will vary to a consid- erable degree, but all know something about it. Their knowledge of climate will be what is called ordinary knowledge in distinction from scientific knowl- edge. This ordinary knowledge will in part be vague and in part be definite; it will be incomplete, unsys- tematic; and will have error mixed with the truth in it. The learner will possibly know that there is a winter, a summer, a spring and a fall; that it is colder in winter than in summer; that it rains or snows at some times and at other times it is dry; that some days are sunshiny and others are cloudy; that at some times the wind blows and at other times it is calm. He may know that heat comes from the sun. He may have heard that the moon influences the weather, and will likely know something of dew. His ideas of all these things constitute his basis for the study of climate. Basis for Relief Forms. — The child's knowledge of relief when he comes to school will be ordinary knowl- edge, too. He will probably know something of hills, brooks, creeks, lakes, rivers, ponds, level land, rolling land, springs, soils, islands, and in many cases other things, such as mountains, gorges, passes, etc. His ideas of these things constitute his basis for the study of relief forms. Basis for Minerals. — The learner's basis for the study of minerals consists of his ordinary knowledge of perchance coal, the kinds of coal, iron, copper, lead, THE BASIS OF GEOGRAPHY. 421 zinc, tin, silver and gold. He probably knows coal comes out of the ground, and some will have seen a coal mine. He has seen rocks, has picked up pretty ones and has played with them and has learned something about them. He will know something of the uses of iron, coal, copper, stone, lead, tin, silver and gold. All of this is his foundation for the study of min- erals. Basis for Plants. — What the learner has learned from experience of plants will constitute his basis here. All will likely know something of trees; something of grasses; something of weeds; something of flowers; something of apples, pears, cherries, peaches, bananas, oranges, grapes and berries. Many will know that oranges and bananas do not grow in cold countries; that apples, cherries, pears, peaches and grapes do grow in cold countries. Many will know walnuts, hickory nuts, hazel nuts, and something of where and how they grow. All of this empirical knowledge and any other of a similar kind constitutes the learner's basis for the study of the distribution of plants. Basis for Animal Life. — The child in most cases when he comes to school at the age of six will have quite a good deal of knowledge of animal life. He will know something of domestic animals. He will likely know the dog, some of the different kinds, their uses, food and habits; the cat, something of its habits, its food and uses; the horse, its food, care and uses; the cow, milk, butter, the food, and other uses of the cow; 422 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. chickens, their habits, their food, homes, nests, eggs and young ; hogs, their habits, food and uses ; birds, and their habits; insects of various kinds, and something of their habits. Many of them have been to public parks, and shows. All have seen pictures of animals in picture books and in papers and have obtained some sort of idea of them in this way. These points of knowledge and any additional simi- lar ones make up the child 's basis for the study of the distribution of animal life. Basis for the Study of the Distribution of Human Life. — The child will know more about human life when he comes to school for the first time than about any of the other five points in the learner's basis for studying geography, because he will have had more experience with people than with the others. He will know something of the distribution of peo- ple in the country and something in a general way of their occupations; that many live in cities, and some- thing of their occupations; that there are differently colored people, some white, some black, and some yel- low, and that these live in other parts of the world in the main. He will know something about human in- dustries and about the division of labor; some keep store, some are engaged in railroading; some, in bank- ing, some, in mining and some, in farming. He will know their habits, homes, food, amusements, and distribution of institutions, church, school, and so on. THE BASIS OF GEOGRAPHY. 423 What is enumerated here and much more along the same line some of the children will know as a basis for the study of the distribution of human life on the earth's surface. Adequate Basis. — A view of the basis which the child will have as a rule when he comes to school the first time shows that he has an abundance of material for an adequate basis for beginning the study of geog- raphy the first year in school. Thus those who do not teach geography to the child early in his school life can not rightly urge lack of basis as a reason. Failure to teach it early must be explained in some other way. CHAPTER XXXIV. STEPS IN GEOGRAPHY. Meaning of. — Steps in geography mean the more or less definite divisions of mental activity in learning geography. They are spiritual things and are in the life of the learner. Thus the mental activity the learner's mind goes through in learning Niagara Falls is one large step in geography. This step could be analyzed into many smaller steps, of course. Classes of Steps. — There are two points of view re- garding steps in geography. One may look at steps as those activities which the mind has in mastering any part of geography, as the mastery of waterfalls, or the mastery of canals as geographical phenomena. Such steps are the logical steps in geography. These steps the mind must take in studying any geographical phe- nomena whatever. They are a necessity to the mastery of any entire geographical point. Then again, one may study what step the mind should take first, secondly, thirdly, and so on through the subject of geography. That is to say, what the steps are in the order of time. These steps are the chronological steps in geography. The Logical Steps. — As said, these steps are a necessity to the geographical mastery of any entire geo- graphical point. STEPS IN GEOGRAPHY. 425 To grasp a point in geography as a geographical point the mind (1) must think it as a phenomenon of the earth; (2) must think it as to its location; (3) must think it as the effect of distribution; (4) must think it as the cause of distribution. Thus the logical steps in geography are as follows: 1. The advance of the learner's mind in learning the phenomena of the earth. 2. The advance of the learner ^s mind in learning the location of the phenomena of the earth. 3. The advance of the learner's mind in learning the phenomena as cause of the distribution of other phenomena on the earth's surface. 4. The advance of the learner's mind in learning phenomena as the effect of the distribution of other phenomena on the earth's surface. To see the logical steps in geography is helpful to the teacher in that it enables him to see what it means to teach phenomena of the earth geographically, and what it means for the learner to know phenomena of the earth geographically. It guides in geographical interpretation. Chronological Steps. — These as indicated are the steps in geography from the point of view of order in time. The question here is, What should be done first in teaching geography, what next, and next, and so on through the subject? The order of the steps here is, of course, the im- portant point in the study of the chronological steps in geography. Much depends upon what is attempted first. 426 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. secondly, thirdly, next and next and so on through the subject of geography. In deciding the order of the chronological steps help may be obtained from a study of the stages in the geography work in school, and to these we will devote some time. Stages of Geography Learning. — In learning geog- raphy the approach of the mind to the subject is differ- ent from that of the mind in many subjects. The ulti- mate unit of geography is the earth as a whole, and the learner can not understand geography well till he sees the phenomena of the earth in relation to the earth as a whole. Naturally, the mind in studying a thing, first, attempts to get an idea of it as a whole; then, it proceeds to analyze it into its larger parts first ; study these ; then analyze it into its next smaller parts, and so on. But the child can not well do this in the study of the earth. The whole is too large for him in the early stages of school work. In this case it is more natural for the child to learn the geographical phenomena in his near-by environment in the early stages of school work, and reach out a little further and further as he de- velops, until a stage is reached to warrant his studying the earth as a whole. Thus, from this point of view there are two stages of geography work. 1. The synthetic stage. 2. The analytic stage. The Synthetic Stage. — In this stage the learner puts together his ideas of geographical phenomena as his geographical horizon widens. At first he knows but STEPS IN GEOGRAPHY. 427 a few things of the phenomena of the earth about his home; then, of the immediate neighborhood; then, of township, county, state, and country, and so on. It is clear that his process of mind in this work is synthetic; that is, it is predominantly a process of building up a larger whole out of smaller parts. The concrete work with natural objects in their natural environment and the home geography work, upon which so much depends for success in teaching geography come in the synthetic stage of learning geography. The Analytic Stage. — Eventually the learner reaches a stage of development which warrants his learning an idea of the earth as a whole. He learns its form, its size, its relation to the sun, its motion around the sun, its rotation upon its axis, the phenomena of day and night, the phenomena of the seasons. He learns the meaning of parallels, meridians, zones, zenith, horizon, etc. He learns divisions, continents, islands, countries, states, analyzing into smaller and smaller geographical wholes. This process of learning is clearly one of analysis in the main; that is, a process of separating a whole into smaller and smaller parts, and the study of these parts in relation to the whole. Most of the work of advanced geography is in the analytic stage. There is some ground for looking at the stages in geography teaching from a different point of view from 428 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. that just studied above, from a kind of development point of view. There is a time in the earliest part of the child's school life in which it has been found better to do a line of work preparatory to the real geography work to come later. In this stage the learner would learn some geography, but the stage would be more as a prepara- tion for the real geography work later. Then there is a second period in the teaching of geography in which the child studies geography work proper, but the work is not so abstract, not analytical as later on. This in general is what has popularly been called the primary geography work. And lastly there is a stage of geography work which is analytical, and difficult, if carried out very far. In a rather broad general way it is what is called advanced geography. Thus from this general point of view of develop- ment in teaching geography there are the three follow- ing stages in geography teaching : 1. The preparatory stage. 2. The primary stage. 3. The advanced stage. The Preparatory Stage. — Approximately this may be made to cover about the first two years of the learner's school life. It is the stage in which the child is led to study the natural objects around him in their natural environment. It is concrete, first-hand work with the animals, plants, rocks, soils, ponds, hills, brooks, and so on in the community where he lives. The work in this stage is not to be differentiated at all from the nature study work of these same years. STEPS IN GEOGRAPHY. 429 The child is learning the things of nature, and to use his eyes and ears and hands in becoming acquainted with some of the thousands of wonderful, beautiful, and good things in touch with his life. As the name of the stage signifies, the work is pre- paratory to geography work proper, and is the best preparation possible for real geography work. In this work no strict geographical interpretation is placed upon the phenomena learned. The things are learned as phenomena merely. The Primary Stage. — This stage covers about three years in the learner's school life, the third, fourth and fifth. The scope of the stage will vary with changing conditions, depending upon the progress of the learner, the length of the school year and so on, but in a general way it should cover the years indicated. The work of these three years consists of what is called home geography, mastery of general ideas of geographical elements, and type studies. In the home geography, lessons are given first on food supplies and connected occupations; that is, on gardening, farming, fruit growing, dairying, poultry raising and stock raising. Secondly, on building ma- terial and connected occupations. Thirdly, on clothing material and connected occupations. Fourthly, on local relief forms. Fifthly, on local commerce. Sixthly, on local government. And seventhly, on local trade and manufacturing. This work is to be made quite largely field work; 430 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. that is, the children should study these things first-hand as much as possible. In the mastery of the general ideas of the geo- graphical elements, the child learns the ideas, mountain, hill, plateau, island, volcano, river, lake, gulf, penin- sula, etc. This work is to be done inductively in so far as posible. For instance, if the idea, island, is to be taught, the teacher should find a miniature island somewhere near the school if possible, and visit it with the children. She should direct them in looking at it so they can see the essential truths about it. Then the children should make an island on the sand board. Then they should visit some islands by imaginary journeys. The teacher next has the children to make lists of the truths they found out about each island, one list for each, and then drop out all the truths except those which every island possesses. The lesson is finished by having the children make a statement for what an island is. The other general ideas of the geographical ele- ments are to be taught in the same way; that is, induc- tively. In the type studies, types of geographical phe- nomena are studied intensively. For instance, the Wa- bash River might be studied intensively as a type of river; Peoria, as a type of city, etc. This work is better done without any regular text- book in the hands of the learner. The Advanced Stage. — This stage includes the rest STEPS IN GEOGRAPHY. 431 of the learner's geography work in school. The text- book is placed in the learner's hand, and he is taught the earth as a whole; its form, size, revolution around the sun, rotation upon its axis, the phenomena of the seasons, the phenomena of day and night, divisions, islands, continents, countries, states, etc. This work is analytic, and a strictly geographical interpretation is placed upon the phenomena studied. The Chronological Order. — In the light of the pre- vious study the nature of the geography course through- out the eight years of primary school work may be pretty well mapped out. The following could be profit- ably done: FIRST YEAR. A line of concrete study of the natural objects around the child in their natural environment. The lesson should be first-hand study, conducted orally, and correlated with primary language. SECOND YEAR. A continuation of the first year's work. The work should be correlated with primary language, spelling, reading and writing. THIRD YEAR. A line of home geography work, the study of food supplies and connected occupations; farming, garden- ing, flower growing, fruit growing, poultry raising, dairying, and stock raising. A study of the general ideas, river^ lake, mountain, 432 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. hill and pond. The imaginary journeys go along with this line of work. No text is placed in the hands of the learner. The work is conducted by oral teaching, and field work, and is correlated with primary language, reading, writing and spelling. A geographical interpretation is placed to some extent upon the phenomena studied. FOURTH YEAR. A line of home geography work; (1) the study of building materials of the community and connected oc- cupations; (2) the study of clothing materials and con- nected occupations; (3) further study of food supplies and connected occupations. A study of the general ideas, volcano, plain, pla- teau, gulf, hay, peninsula, and isthmus. The imagi- nary journey work is to be done in connection with teaching these general ideas inductively. No text is placed in the hands of the learner this year. Oral teaching is used, field work is done, and the work is correlated with primary language, reading, spelling and writing, A geographical interpretation is placed upon the phenomena studied to a somewhat larger extent than in the preceding year's work. FIFTH YEAR. A line of home geography, (1) the study of the surface structure of the community; (2) a study of the minerals of the community and connected occupations; STEPS IN GEOGRAPHY. 433 (3) a study of the manufacturing of the community; (4) a study of the trades of the community; (5) a study of local commerce. No specific text is placed in the hands of the learner. Field work and oral teaching are followed out, and the lessons are correlated with language lessons, spelling, reading and writing. The teacher now begins to lead the learner to inter- pret geographically the phenomena studied, in so far as ability and time will warrant. SIXTH, SEVENTH AND EIGHTH YEARS. The work of these years falls in the Analytic Stage of geography learning. The text-book is placed in the hands of the learner, and such divisions of the work are made as the conditions under which the teacher is teach- ing warrant. Of course, the learner is first to be taught the earth as a whole, and its movements in the Solar Sys- tem. Then he proceeds in the analytic work. A strictly geographical interpretation is placed upon the phenomena studied in these three years. With the work of the five preceding years done even fairly well after the plan indicated in these studies, the learner's progress will be rapid, positive and pleasant. Comment. — It is not the intention to say that the order of chronological steps explained in these studies is the only pedagogical order, but it is the intention to say that the order indicated is a good one. Neither 434 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. is it supposed that conditions are such that every teacher can teach as indicated here, but something to- ward such work can be done by every teacher, and much can be done by many, and it is worth the effort. Nature Studies. — In the first two years of the geography work natural objects are to be studied first- hand. This work is not differentiated from the Nature Study in the curriculum. So the way of dealing with the objects studied will be the same in the two subjects. This will be explained at length under "Steps" in the method of nature study. For this the reader is referred to page 468. Oral Teaching. — Throughout the first five years' work the teaching is largely oral. The manner of it is as follows : first, the teacher and children study some nature object first-hand for maybe several days. Then an oral recitation is conducted by the teacher's asking such questions as will bring forth the truths which the teacher has been striving to have the learner see. The learner answers orally. No books are used by the chil- dren. Secondly, in the imaginary journey work in teach- ing the general ideas of the geographical elements, the teacher gives the journey in as realistic a way as pos- sible in story form. The children recite on it later orally, or in writing, if the teacher desires. Thirdly, in the field work, students and teacher study the phenomena first-hand. Then oral or written recita- tions or both are conducted on it. STEPS IN GEOGRAPHY. 435 Such work is called oral work and it possesses many points of advantage over book work. Imaginary Journeys. — The imaginary journeys are given orally by the teacher in story form in teaching the general ideas of the geographical elements. They enable the student to study particular cases in learning the general ideas of the geographical elements induc- tively. The student also gets many ideas of the great- ness of the earth, the diversity of its phenomena, and the distribution of its people in the work of the imagi- nary journeys. Type Studies. — The study of types is a great econo- mizer of time and energy in geography work. When the learner has studied intensively one type, New Orleans, for instance, he has learned the essential truths of all similar cities and a basis of comparison, which has become to him an instrument of thought. Thus type studies enable the learner to interpret geograph- ical phenomena. Type studies have the following advantages : 1. They save time and energy. 2. They form bases of comparison. 3. They enable the learner to interpret geograph- ical phenomena. 4. They form centers of study around which geo- graphical phenomena cluster. 5. They prevent to some degree the scattering geography work so common in the schools at present. Field Work. — Geography without field work lacks the best thing there is for the learner in geography, the 436 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. vitalizing relation which should exist between the phe- nomena of the earth and the learner. Without field work the learner will never catch the spirit of geog- raphy. The study of the book, the chart, the map or the globe is all but dead to him. There are thousands and tens of thousands of teachers talking loud and long about phenomena of the earth in their classes who would not know said phenomena if they should meet them face to face in the road — mere babblers from books. The geography class should be taken to see all sorts of geographical phenomena to be found in the neigh- borhood, and there are many in every neighborhood, then the data gathered should be made basis for both oral and written lessons in geography. The teacher who can not get interested in this work and who can not do some of it is certainly an object of commiseration. CHAPTER XXXV. DEVICES IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. Meaning of. — Devices in any subject are the exter- nal means used in the process by which the learner is led to learn the subject; that is, in the teaching act. They are external to the mind of both teacher and learner and thus are always physical in nature. The following is a list of the main ones used in teaching geography: 1. Assignments. 2. Class discus- sions. 3. Field work. 4. Text-book. 5. Maps, globes, etc. 6. Map drawing. 7. Reference library. 8. Sand Table. 9. Outlines. 10. Imaginary journeys. Assignments. — Assignments are in many respects the most important device in teaching. It is difficult to say which is more important, assignments or class discussions. These belong to a preeminent order of importance. The nature and quality of the recitation, the pro- gress the learner makes, his habits of study and his atti- tude toward the subject of geography are determined largely by the assignments the teacher gives. Each assignment should have the following charac- teristics, in geography: (1) it should be pointed and definite; (2) it should place specific problems before the learner to be solved; (3) it should put these problems 438 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. before the learner so that he can solve them; (4) it should lead the learner to solve the problems in the right way; it should usually tend toward the geog- raphy habit of mind. With such assignments success in teaching geog- raphy will further depend almost wholly on the class discussions. Class Discussions. — Class discussions are the most important device in teaching geography with the pos- sible exception of assignments. It is in the class dis- cussion that the teacher holds the learner to the re- sponsibility of working out the assignment. Class dis- cussions in geography enable the teacher (1) to test the learner on his preparation and understanding of problems given him; (2) to supplement the knowledge he got in the preparation of the assignment ; ( 3 ) to lead the learner to place a geographical interpretation upon the phenomena he studies; (4) to give the learner right habits of studying geography. In the use of class discussions the teacher has the greatest opportunity for the display of skill and tact in artistic teaching. Here he will manifest what strength as a teacher he has, or never. Thus class discussions prove to be a device of great importance in teaching geography. Field Work. — By the field work is meant, of course, studying geographical phenomena first-hand out in their natural environment; the study of the actual hill, brook, creek, tree, rock, spring, lake, animal, etc., in its natural surroundings. The value of going into the DEVICES IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY, 439 field and doing such work can hardly be overestimated as a device in geography teaching. It does the follow- ing desirable things for the learner: 1. It develops and fosters the vitalizing relation which should exist between the learned and nature. 2. It tends to give the learner the spirit of geog- raphy. 3. It quickens the senses and sharpens the wits of the learner. 4. It lays a sure, concrete basis for the geography of the analytic stage. 5. It is the best device to help the learner to form the geography habit. Text-hook. — The text-book is a mere device in geog- raphy teaching, but a very important one. Much of the information concerning the phenomena of the earth can most conveniently be obtained by the learner from the text-book in geography. Most text-books in geography, though, treat of too many things and have too little to say about the im- portant things. That is to say, they are too extensive but not sufficiently intensive. And no text-book in geography is entirely adequate. In good teaching the text-book must be supplemented frequently, and much in almost any text may be omitted and in many cases should be omitted. Maps, Globes, etc. — Maps of various kinds are a valuable device in teaching geography. By their means the learner is able (1) to get the relative location of phenomena; (2) judge distances; (3) trace commercial 440 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. routes; (4) better to remember geographical facts; (5) better to interpret geographically the phenomena of the earth. It would be much more difficult to learn geography than it now is were there no maps, and much more difficult to teach it, too. But however valuable they are found to be, still they are a mere device. A knowledge of the map is not a knowledge of geography, nor is a knowledge of the map even a guarantee of a knowledge of geography. Globes, etc., have in general similar uses to those of the map and are valuable devices. Map Drawing. — Drawing maps may be a useful de- vice in teaching geography or it may be all but useless. If the learner be led to study locations in the field work in geography then map the region studied origin- ally, if this be what is meant by map drawing, it is a very useful device. And this is the very kind of map drawing which should be done in. the synthetic stage of geography teaching. A good deal of it should be done in the early geography work to the end that the learner may grow into an appreciation of the real meaning of the map ; that is, that he may learn correctly to interpret the map. But if map drawing be made to mean merely copy- ing maps from the book or some other place either with the map to be copied before the learner or from memory, then map drawing is worth very little as a device in teaching geography. The time spent on such work is largely wasted. DEVICES IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 441 Reference Library. — A good reference library is in- dispensable to the best geography teaching. In the type studies it is desirable to study each type inten- sively, and to do so it is necessary to have other sources of information than the regular text-book. When it is desirable to have the learner study any topic in geog- raphy intensively, he needs the reference library as a source of information. Sand Table. — The sand table is a very useful de- vice in teaching primary geography. The learner may be sent to it with much profit and pleasure to work out his idea of river, hill, plain, mountain, island, penin- sula, etc. Its value is in the opportunity it gives the learner to concrete his ideas, and create geographical phenomena in miniature. This, of course, makes the ideas vivid and easily remembered. Outlines. — Outlines are a valuable device in geog- raphy teaching if made by the learner. They are valu- able as organizers. They introduce order and system into the work, and if made by the learner, lessen the effort of memory largely. But if made by the teacher, they lose very largely their value in geography teaching ; they are still though of some value to the learner as organ- izers. Imaginary Journeys. — Imaginary journeys are a valuable device in the primary stage of geography work. They find their value in the following two things: 1. They are a means by which the teacher may lead the learner to study particular cases of the geo- 442 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. graphical elements in teaching the general ideas of these elements inductively. 2. They give the learner good general ideas of the greatness of the earth and its people, and the variety of climate, relief forms, plant life, animal life, and human life on the earth's surface. The imaginary journey should be made realistic to the learner to as large a degree as possible, if best re- sults are to be obtained. CHAPTER XXXVI. COMMON ERRORS IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. Prevalence of Errors. — To the student of psychol- ogy and methodology there seem to be many errors common in geography teaching as currently done. Among the most flagrant of these are the following: 1. Teaching geography unscientifically. 2. Scattering over the subject too much. 3. Failure to teach home geography. 4. Lack of field work. 5. Making geog- raphy work" a mere memory drill. 6. Failure to place a geographical interpretation upon the phenomena of the earth. Unscientific Geography Teaching. — Unscientific geography teaching grows first out of the view that geography is not a separate science in itself, but is a composite of a number of sciences; and secondly, out of the view that geography is the study of the earth as the home of man. That is to say, it grows out of the popular and anthropological views. The first view leads to unorganized work. Scraps and fragments of geography are taught too much iso- lated. As one educator puts it, it is taught as *'hash" made up from the different sciences. No organizing principle is seen in the subject; the remembering of the facts depends upon intense application, and the wrong mental attitude toward geography is acquired. 444 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. The second view is inadequate and leads the learner to the idea that all phenomena of the earth are to be interpreted as providentially occurring for man's bene- fit. The results of these errors are (1) the learner gets wrong ideas of what geography is; (2) he gets only a disorganized knowledge of geography; (3) he fails to grasp the subject so as to remember it well; (4) he acquires unscientific habits of mind. Scattering Too Much. — Scattering in teaching geog- raphy is a widely extended error. It is the besetting sin in the teacher's work in geography almost everywhere. It grows out of following too closely text-books in geog- raphy. A large number of things are learned in a very vague way by the learner from the text and remembered long enough for him to recite in the recitation. Almost nothing is woven into his fabric of knowledge in a per- manent way. He learns a little of a large number of things in geography, but not very much of any one thing. Indeed in such work it can truthfully be said that the teacher scatters all over creation. Such work has two undesirable results: 1. It gives the learner knowledge so scattering and vague that it is of little worth to him. 2. It gives the learner a very bad atti- tude of mind and undesirable habits of study. Failure to Teach Home Geography. — In very few schools is there a systematic line of home geography work done. In consequence the learner grows up igno- rant of the geography of his home region. He knows only in the most general and vaguest sort of way the COMMON ERRORS IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 445 distribution of relief forms, the trees, the flowers, weeds, fungi; the fruit, vegetables, cereals, grasses; birds, frogs, snakes, beetles, bugs; rocks, clays, sand, soil, and other minerals, etc., of the immediate region in which he is reared. And a knowledge of these things is the only adequate basis which the learner can pos- sibly have for studying the geography of other regions. And a knowledge of these things studied in home geography is the most practical sort of knowledge the learner can acquire, valuable for the guidance it gives him in living and valuable for the happiness he gets from the intimate acquaintance with the perennially interesting natural phenomena. To neglect such work robs the learner of so much opportunity to attain the possibilities of life that it is a great error. Lack of Field Work. — No first class geography teaching ever has, or ever can be done without bringing the learner into actual touch with nature. And the only way to do this is by field work. Work in the lab- oratory is concrete and is superior to the more abstract work, but even it will not suffice. It has an element of unnaturalness in it. Nothing short of studying natural phenomena in their natural environment will give the learner the first-hand knowledge, a supply of which is entirely necessary to all good geography teaching. To neglect the field work in geography leaves a sort of haziness, an insufficiency in the mind of the learner 446 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. which no amount of other kind of teaching can over- come. This error is wide-spread in geography teaching, for few teachers do field work in their teaching. Making Geography a Memory Drill. — Much of the geography work done in school at the present is hardly more than a mere memory drill. Children remember rivers as crooked lines, cities as little circles or checkered places on the map, capitals as little stars, etc. They are asked to remember hundreds and thousands of these, and made to think that they are studying geography. Some children were reciting their geography lesson on the New England states. A visitor asked permis- sion to ask them a question. It was granted. He said, ''If your teacher should lie down with her feet at the southern boundary of Massachusetts, where would her head be?" The various children in the class had her head all the way from the St. Lawrence River to the North Pole. So geography frequently degenerates into not only a memory drill, but into a very formal memory drill, an exercise in remembering words. Goegraphy taught in this way loses most, if not all, of its educational value. And not only that, but such work is likely to be educationally degenerating to the learner. Lack of Interpretation. — A common kind of geog- raphy teaching is that in which facts of geography are taught without having the learner to place a geograph- ical interpretation upon these facts. For instance, Chi- COMMON ERRORS IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 447 cago is said to be located in Illinois at the southern end of Lake Michigan, its population given and passed by at that. What distribution of terrestrial phenomena caused Chicago to be the size it is, and to be located where it is, is not worked out, nor is the distribution which Chicago is the cause of worked out either. That is to say, no geographical in- terpretation is placed upon Chicago as a geographical fact. And in general what is true of Chicago is true of other geographical phenomena; that is, they are left uninterpreted. Such teaching ( 1 ) makes geography a subject worth very little to the learner; (2) gives the learner the wrong idea of the subject; and (3) is unscientific. CHAPTER XXXVII. THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF NATURE STUDY. Nature of. — Nature Study deals with natural ob- jects. It not only deals with natural objects, but essen- tially deals with natural objects in their natural en- vironments. It is concrete, first-hand study of these objects, too. The study of a sawmill, of a locomotive or of a dwelling house might be valuable study for the learner, but it would not be nature study; for the sawmill, the locomotive and the dwelling house are not natural ob- jects. They are artificial. The study of natural objects in the laboratory or museum is not adequate for a working concept of nature study. Much of nature study can not be studied at all in the laboratory nor museum. In fact very little of nature study can. Objects of nature are unnatural in the laboratory or museum in most instances. For in- stance, bird life and habits can not be studied in the laboratory nor museum at all. It degenerates into a study of bird death. Thus in the concept of nature study is the element of natural environment. And again the abstract, second, third or fourth- hand study of natural objects in their natural environ- ment is not the full idea of nature study. The idea is THE SUBJECT-MATTER OP NATURE STUDY. 449 contact study; knowledge got first-hand. The seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and touching those objects which appeal to the senses of the learner is an element in the idea of nature study. From these various elements the following defini- tion of nature study is reached: Nature Study is the concrete, first-hand study of natural objects in their natural environment. Nature Study and the Sciences. — Nature study has been defined as ''Primary science." The point of view in these studies is that nature study is not science, pri- mary or any other kind, in the sense in which science is usually understood. Any science is a body of truth systematized; that is, organized around some organizing principle. Thus, the truths of plant life organized around a principle constitute botany; the truths of ani- mal life organized around a principle constitute zoology; the truths of chemicals organized around a principle constitute chemistry, etc. In nature study the learner studies truths of plants, but he does not organize them so as to make botany; he learns truths of animals, but he does not organize them so as to make zoology; he learns truths of chemicals, but he does not organize them so as to make chemistry. Thus nature study is not primary botany, primary zoology, primary astronomy, etc. It is just nature study. The definition that makes nature study elementary science is a source of mischief in nature study work. It influences teachers really to try to make nature study 450 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. teaching a kind of science teaching, which has been found time after time to be all but a failure. The Development of the Race and Nature. — In the long struggle of the race up to savagery and from savagery through barbaric life to civilization, Nature has unquestionably been its greatest teacher. To pro- cure food for the self and for the offspring, and to pro- tect the self and the offspring have been the main cares of the human species upon the earth for all time. In this there has constantly been a hand to hand conflict with Nature. She must yield food to the human species. The human species must protect itself against Nature. This has led to constant struggle, and the strength born of this struggle has been the greatest educating force the race has ever had. The individuals of the race who learned how to do these two things, (1) procure food for the self and young; (2) protect the self and the young, survived in the struggle and those who could not learn these two lessons perished. Thus Nature teaches. It thus appears that Nature in teaching the race bore fundamentally an economic relation to the race, the relation of food and protection, and as a means to this an intellectual relation. The intellectual develop- ment resulting from Nature's teaching enabled the race better to solve the problems of food and protection. While under Nature's teaching the human species developed physically and intellectually, the develop- ment was not limited to these two aspects of life. Under THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF NATURE STUDY. 451 the influence of Nature, the human species has become aesthetic, social, moral, and religious. The response to harmony, variety and unity, and rhythm in nature has made the human race aesthetic. The necessity of cooperation in obtaining food and in protection has made man social, and growing out of his social life social influence together with nature's influence has made man moral and religious. So let it be repeated that Nature has always been the great teacher of the human race. "And Nature, the old nurse, took The child upon her knee. Saying, 'Here is a story book Thy Father has written for thee.' " It thus appears that Nature has influenced the race first and largely economically, then intellectually as a means to the economic ; then aesthetically, socially, morally and religiously, in its development up to sav- agery, through savagery and barbarism to civilized life. The Child. — In a very much fuller sense than the popular mind knows the child in his growth and de- velopment repeats the history of the race. He passes through the same stages in his physical development that the species which became human passed through, and he passes through the same stages in general socio- logically which the race passed through. Thus the child in his growth and development is an epitome of the growth and development of the race. Since this is true, and since nature played such an important role in the education of the race, it seems 452 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. that nature study should occupy a very important place in the education of the child ; also, that he should study nature in about the relation it bore to the race in the race's development. The Suhject-Matter of Nature Study. — It is to be remembered again that a subject-matter is the material of study and that each subject-matter consists of two things, a set of facts and the relation of these facts. The facts to be studied in nature study are natural objects in their natural environments and the relation in which they are to be studied is the relation which natural objects bore to the race in its growth, as nearly as can be determined. The following is the formal state- ment for it: The subject-matter of nature study is natural ob- jects in their natural environments in the relation which natural objects have borne to the human race in its growth. It was shown above that the relation which natural objects have borne to the race has been primarily economic and intellectual^ but also aesthetic^ social, moral and religious. The Organizing Principle. — The organizing princi- ple of nature study is the relation in which the truths of natural objects as facts are to be studied. It is this organizing principle which makes nature study differ- ent from the sciences. It may be stated as follows: The organizing principle of nature study is the rela- tion between the objects of 7iature and the economic, THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF NATURE STUDY. 453 intellectual, aesthetic, social, moral and religious aspects of man's life. Functions of the Organizing Principle. — The or- ganizing principle of nature study is helpful to the student of nature study in various ways, the chief of which are three, selective, interpreting and emphasiz- ing. The Selective Function. — The field of natural ob- jects is almost unlimited; so large is it that compara- tively only a few things can be studied in a lifetime. Since this is true a selection of natural objects for study must be made, and the organizing principle of nature study helps the student of natural objects to do this. It indicates to the student to select those natural objects which affect largely man's life economically and intellectually, aesthetically, socially, morally or relig- iously, or in all these aspects. It indicates that things in nature which hardly affect man's life at all would not be selected for nature study work. If plants, they might be studied in botany; if animals, they might be studied in zoology, but not in nature study. They have not had much to do with the race's development. The Intei'preting Function. — The learner has in- terpreted the truths of any object in nature only when he has traced out their relation to the various aspects of man's life. For instance, if the May beetle were studied through its life history, the learner would simply know the May beetle as a fact, but to place a nature study 454 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. interpretation upon it is to learn its relation to man. It has a very important economic relation to man. Thus the organizing principle of nature study indi- cates to the student the interpretation to place upon nature study objects, and this is its interpreting func- tion. The Emphasizing Function. — Not all the objects of nature selected are of equal importance in nature study. Some are very much more important than others and should be emphasized much more than others. The organizing principle of nature study indicates that those objects of nature which have had large in- fluence on the life of the race should be emphasized largely and that those which have had less influence should be emphasized less. For instance, the Codling moth should be dwelt upon till the learner knows it most thoroughly as an object of nature, and also till he knows its large eco- nomic relation to man. To indicate to the student of nature study the degree of emphasis to place upon the natural object studied is the emphasizing function of the organizing principle of nature study. CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE PURPOSE OF NATURE STUDY. Meaning of. — The purpose of nature study is the effect on the life of the learner which the proper pur- suit of nature study produces. This effect will in general be of two kinds. The learner, first, in the pur- suit of nature study will acquire a large stock of very useful knowledge; and, secondly, he will get a mental training unsurpassed by any subject to be studied in school. The two purposes are (1) a knowledge-giving purpose; and (2) a disciplinary purpose. The Knowledge-Giving Purpose. — Of the valuable knowledge which it is the purpose of nature study to give the following are important points: 1. A first-hand knowledge of much of the animal life in the child's environment, both friendly and un- friendly to man. 2. A first-hand knowledge of much of the plant life in the vicinity of the child's home, both friendly and unfriendly to man. 3. A first-hand knowledge of the soils in the vicin- ity of the child's home. 4. A first-hand knowledge of the climate of the region about the child's home. 456 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 5. A first-hand knowledge of the surface structure of the earth in the region of the child's home. 6. A knowledge of the heavenly bodies visible to the learner in the region of his home. Knowledge of Ayiimal Life. — The race's early rela- tion with nature was mainly biologic ; that is, connection with animal and plant life ; at first predominantly with animals, then later, with plants. The race's early relation with nature was also eco- nomic, the struggle for food and clothing, and protec- tion for self and offspring; and the race's most funda- mental relation to nature to-day and always is economic, the struggle for food, clothing and protection. The knowledge of animal life which it is the pur- pose of nature study to give is thus economic and fundamental, and has always been so, and will always be so. Such knowledge is practical knowledge, and practical knowledge is the only kind of knowledge worth striv- ing to obtain. It is in this aspect of nature study that the learner learns much about the horse, the cow, the hog, the sheep, the goat, the dog, the cat, the rabbit, the squirrel, the rat, the mouse, the mole, etc. ; much about the robin, the oriole, the bluebird, the various kinds of blackbirds, the crow, the jay, the sparrows, the wood- peckers, the hawks, the owls, poultry, the threshers and other birds; much about toads, snakes, turtles, lizards, etc.; much about flies, mosquitoes, bugs, beetles, moths. THE PURPOSE OF NATURE STUDY. 457 butterflies, etc. ; something about worms, and other kinds of animals. What knowledge could be of more value to the learner from the economic point of view than the knowl- edge of this animal-human relation is inconceivable. So this purpose of nature study is so important that it can not well be over-estimated. A Knowledge of Plant Life. — The race's relation to plant life in the past and at present is mainly economic, though not entirely so. Plant life and animal life, too, have aesthetic, social, moral and religious relations to mankind. But to minister to man's physical needs has been the great use of plants to man for all time. The intellect of the race has been developed, of course, in getting a knowledge of plants, but the knowledge has always pointed largely to economic ends, a supply of food, clothing and shelter. In this aspect of nature study the learner should learn much about corn, wheat, oats, domestic grasses, and other forage plants; apples, plums, pears, peaches, cherries, quinces, and grapes; strawberries, blackberries, raspberries, gooseberries and currants ; potatoes, cabbage, asparagus, tomatoes, celery, beets and other vegetable foods. He should learn much about trees, the elms, oaks, hickories, linden, walnuts, maples, beeches, etc. ; much about weeds, poisonous plants, flowers, domestic and wild; something of bacteria and other fungi. This knowledge obtained in nature study work is first-hand knowledge, practical and concrete. 458 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. It is evident that such knowledge is highly valuable and that to give the learner such knowledge is an im- portant purpose of nature study. A Knowledge of Soils. — The learner in nature study should learn something of the soils; clay soil, loam soil, sandy soil and muck soil ; their physical composition and their adaptability to plants. This is a part of the nature study work. A Knowledge of Climate. — In the nature study work something of climate should be learned in relation to man's economic interests. This work should be chiefly observations of weather conditions. A Knowledge of Surface Structure. — It is a part of the purpose of nature study to teach the learner some- thing of the surface structure of the region where he lives. He should be led to see the depth of the soil, clays, gravel; how near rock is to the surface; in short, what he would find if he should go straight down ; also, the creeks, ponds, lakes, swamps, etc., in the neighbor- hood. Knowledge of Heavenly Bodies. — The heavenly bodies have always been objects of wonder and speculation to the race, and have always been thought by a large part of humanity to have some very close connection with the life of man. Something of what is known of these should be taught in nature study; a few of the constellations, Orion, Great Bear, Little Bear, Cassiopeia and a few others. The Disciplinary Purpose. — Of the disciplinary THE PURPOSE OF NATURE STUDY. 459 purpose of nature study the following are important points : 1. To maintain and give the learner a fervent, many-sided, permanent interest in the objects of nature. 2. To teach the learner how to use his eyes, ears, nose, mouth and hands in getting a knowledge of na- ture ; that is, to give him good habits of observation. 3. To instill into the learner a love of nature. 4. To cultivate sense-perception, memory, judg- ment and reasoning. 5. To give the learner the spirit of free inquiry and free investigation; that is, the scientific spirit. Interest in Nature. — The learner before he comes to school has a native interest in nature, but usually after he comes to school this native interest is starved and lost. He is drilled on book work to the exclusion of any work which would keep alive this interest in nature which he has when he comes to school. To maintain what interest the learner has in nature when he enters school is a part of the purpose of nature study in school. Everyone knows that he finds time to do that in which he is most interested. So it may be safely as- sumed that the learner will learn many of the things which he should know about nature, if he has a strong enough interest in nature. To give the learner this fervent interest in many objects of nature so that nature will attract him, and to make it permanent in his life is certainly a purpose of nature study. 460 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. Habits of Observation. — Most people have lamen- table habits of observation of nature around them. They have eyes but they do not see, they have ears but they do not hear. They get only a small part of the knowl- edge and pleasure out of life which natural objects could furnish them. Most people do not so much as recognize at sight the common birds, the common weeds nor the common trees of the region in which they were reared. Such dense ignorance is not correctly to be at- tributed to lack of opportunity, but to a lack of habits of observation. To give the learner the habit of using his eyes, ears and other senses to the end that he may improve his opportunities to acquaint himself with the wonder- ful and valuable things of nature around him is a pur- pose of nature study. A Love of Nature. — The one who loves nature gets much more out of life than the one who does not. He always sees something to admire, to attract, to look for- ward to, and to hope for. He gets happiness from win- ter; with glad expectancy he awaits the coming of spring; he gets life from the summer sunshine and de- veloping nature, and sees with joy the maturity of autumn. "To him who in the love of Nature holds Communion with her visible forms, she speaks A various language." Fortunate is the child who early learns to Jove fer- vently nature. It will prove one of his greatest bless- ings. THE PURPOSE OF NATURE STUDY. 461 It is one of the purposes of nature study to teach the learner ^a love of nature, and he is likely to grow into such a love in his first-hand work with the objects of nature. Cultivation of Sense-Perception, Memory, Judg- ment and Reasoning. — Any faculty of mind is cultivated by normal exercise. And no other school subject is quite so well adapted to furnish normal, healthy exer- cise to sense-perception. Every lesson is an exercise of sense-perception. Contact with the objects of nature calls forth, strengthens, and quickens sense-perception to a degree not possible in any other kind of school work. All cultivation of memory consists in building up complex systems of association. In nature study a nature study system is built up. It consists of many things woven into a system by correlations, repetitions, feeling and attention. But weaving knowledge into sys- tems in this way is to cultivate memory as effectively as is possible. Tracing out the animal-human relations and plant- human relations in nature study is a most excellent exer- cise for the cultivation of judgment and reasoning. It is noticable that those who are good nature study stu- dents are as a rule good thinkers. But to be a good thinker means to have good judgment and be a good reasoner. Nature study gives the learner exercise in the kind of reasoning he needs so largely in life, the kind of reasoning that enables him to adapt himself to his natural environment and his natural environment to 462 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. himself. In no other kind of reasoning does the learner need to be more skillful. Thus it is quite a large part of the purpose of nature study to cultivate sense-perception, memory, judgment and reasoning. The Scientific Spirit. — The scientific spirit is the spirit of search for the truth; the spirit that is not afraid to search for truth; the spirit of investigation that the truth may be found. It is the attitude of mind that makes anything short of the truth hateful ; that believes in the sufficiency of truth ; that be- lieves in the ultimate triumph of truth. It is the spirit of free inquiry and free investigation and its watch- words are experiment, observe, think. Nature study leads the learner gradually into this attitude of mind by leading him to deal with truth con- stantly obtained first-hand. And to do this very desir- able thing is a part of the purpose of nature study. CHAPTER XXXIX. BASIS AND STEPS IN NATURE STUDY. Meaning of Basis. — Basis in nature study is what of nature the child knows when he comes to school upon which the new work can be founded. Since the nature study work is to be mainly bio- logic, the learner's knowledge of animals and plants, which he brings to school is mainly his basis for nature study. Of these, animals and plants, different children will have widely different degrees of knowledge, and differ- ent ideas of the relations of those they do know to man. Their knowledge will be of the popular kind con- taining fragments of truth mixed with error and super- stition which passes for truth. Many children have a dislike for the common toad because of the superstition that "he makes warts on one's hands," but they must not kill him because "that will make your cows give bloody milk." Thus one superstition may negative another. The dragon fly, "snake doctor" doctors the snakes; the hawks and owls are all bad, because they catch chickens, and the woodpeckers peck holes in the trees and kill them. These and other popular errors con- cerning nature many children bring to school with them. 464 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. In this web of truth, error and superstition the teacher is to find the learner's basis for nature study. Meaning of Steps in Nature Study. — Steps in na- ture study are those movements of the learner's mind in learning the various nature study objects. They are movements forward; mental advances. For instance, the advance of the learner's mind in learning the life of the robin is a step in nature study. Such a large step as this can be analyzed into many smaller steps of course. Classes of Steps. — The steps in nature study which refer to the various topics to be studied in the nature study course from the standpoint of time are the chron- ological steps in nature study. They have reference to the sequence of the topics studied in the different years. When one knows the chronological steps in nature study he knows what to have children study in the first year, in the second year, and so on through the course. The chronological steps determine the extensiveness of the nature study course. What to do with each topic studied in the nature study work is a question of the logical steps in nature study. The logical steps indicate what to have the learner to do with each nature topic studied; that is, how treat the topic. The logical steps in nature study determine the intensiveness of the work. There are thus two classes of steps in nature study : 1. The chronological. 2. The logical. Chronological Steps. — It is probable that no two persons in making out a course of study in nature study BASIS AND STEPS IN NATURE STUDY. 465 to be followed through school would agree on the various topics to be included. The reason for this is that the field from which choice is to be made is so large that material might be chosen from it for a hundred courses, all good, yet differing in many respects. For this rea- son, no specific course of topics will be selected in this study. The individuality of the teacher, the local con- ditions and so on should determine to some degree what topics to study. But since the race 's relation to nature was so largely economic, and since the economic relation is so largely valuable, the economic aspect of nature study should be emphasized strongly. "And sure good is first in feeding people, then in dressing people, then in lodging people, and lastly in rightly- pleasing people, with arts, or sciences, or any other subject of thought." — Ruskin. And since the race's early relation to nature was mainly biological, relations to plants and animals, the topics of the nature study course should be mainly bio- logical, animals and plants. Animals and plants also possess the greatest direct interest to children. Thus the nature study course should be mainly made up of animal studies and plant studies, though not entirely, and the economic aspect should be strongly emphasized, though not to the entire exclusion of the aesthetic, social, moral and religious. Consistent with these truths the nature study work should be chosen largely from the following topics: 466 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 1. Domestic animals: the dog, horse, cat, cow, sheep, pig, goat and rabbit. 2. Tame birds: hen, duck, goose, pigeon, canary, parrot, turkey, peafowl. 3. Household insects: flies, mosquitoes, clothes moths, carpet beetles, fleas, lice, bedbugs, cockroaches, and ants. 4. Harmful garden and field insects: curculio, codling moth, peach tree borer, rose beetle, tent cater- pillar, canker worm, fall webworm, cutworm, grass- hoppers, aphids, rose slug, pear slug, grape-berry moth, sphinx, San Jose scale, mealy bugs, other scales, Colo- rado potato beetle, cucumber beetle, currant and goose- berry worms, cabbage butterfly, army worm, squash bug, strawberry saw fly, strawberry leaf roller, chinch bug and Hessian fly. 5. Beneficial garden and field insects: honey bee, bumblebee, hornet, ichneumon flies, braconids, chalcis ilies, syrphus flies, tachina flies, lady bugs, dragon flies, damsel flies, and aphis lion. 6. Beautiful and interesting insects: monarch butterfly, swallowtail butterfly, other butterflies, Cecro- pia moth, Luna moth, Polyphemus moth, and mud wasp, and walking stick. 7. Beneficial plants: corn, wheat, oats, rye, timothy, clover, buckwheat, potato, cabbage, tomato, celery, asparagus, bean, pea, onion, radish, rhubarb, beet and parsnip. 8. Injurious plants: weeds, poison ivy, poison sumac, larkspur, cockle, snow on the mountain, jimson BASIS AND STEPS IN NATURE STUDY. 467 weed, poison hemlock, pokeweed, poison oak, buckeye and horsechestnut, laurels. Death-cup mushrooms and night shade. 9. Fruits: apple, cherry, peach, pear, quince, plum, orange, lemon, strawberry, raspberry, blackberry, mulberry, gooseberry, currant, grape, squash, pumpkin, watermelon, muskmelon and cucumber. 10. Flowers : rose, tulip, crocus, narcissus, canna, gladiolus, phlox, centaurea, calliopsis, cosmos, dahlia, hydrangea, nasturtium, lilies, lilac, etc., etc. ; also wild flowers. 11. Birds: robin, bluebird, thresher, thrushes, woodpeckers, sparrows, chickadees, cuckoos, flycatchers, catbird, orioles, bobolink, purple grackle, cowbird, red- birds, shrikes, heron, wrens, larks, kildeer, crow, hawks, quail, dove, swallows, owls, etc. 12. Insectivorous animals: toad, bat, frogs, newts, moles, water dog and salamander. 13. Forest trees: oaks, elms, maples, hickory, wal- nuts, tuliptree, beeches, ashes, cedars, pines, locusts, magnolia, linden, mulberry, hackberry, wild cherry, gum, sycamore, poplars, etc. 14. Miscellaneous: centipede, millipede, sowbug, crayfish, slugs, earthworms, clam; ferns, algae, mush- rooms, molds, mildew and bacteria. 15. Heavenly bodies : Sun, planets, stars, con- stellations. Material for a nature study course for any school may be chosen from such a large field as here indi- 468 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. cated. Conditions must determine to a considerable de- gree the selections made. The Logical Steps. — The question for study here is, How best treat the topic chosen for selection? Two considerations must guide the teacher in this work. First, the best way to bring out the essential facts of the object studied; secondly, the best way to show its human relation; that is, its economic, intel- lectual, aesthetic, social, moral and religious relations. Since nature study work deals mainly with life, living topics will be treated first. The business of any living thing in nature is ( 1 ) to care for itself; (2) to care for its young. In caring for itself it, (1) must get food; (2) must protect itself, and it must do the same in many cases for its young. All that is worth knowing about any animal or plant as such, points towards these four points. Having traced these points out and having shown the human relation, the essential facts in the life of the being have been learned, and they have been given a nature study interpretation. The following will indicate the logical steps in dealing with any object in nature study: ANIMAL OR PLANT. I. General appearance. 1. Male and female. 2. Business in life. a. To care for itself. BASIS AND STEPS IN NATURE STUDY. 469 1'. Food, a'. Organs for securing. 1". Sense organs, a". Of sight, b". Of hearing, e". Of touch, d". Of smell and taste. 2". Feet, claws, beak, etc. b'. Organs for preparing. v. Mouth, teeth, etc. c'. Manner of securing, d'. Food habits friendly or unfriendly to man. 2'. Protection. a'. Defensive, b'. Offensive. c'. Running away, concealment, feign- ing, etc. d'. Habitation. 1". Fixed or transient, e'. Color adaptation, b. To care for young. 1'. Production of. a'. Brought forth alive. V. Hatched from egg. c'. By division of parent, e'. Stages of growth. 1". Mode of life in each. 2". Appearance in each stage. 3". Food in each stage. 470 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. II. How protect, multiply, or combat. As many of these steps may be taken as conditions warrant in studying any object of nature. The stage of development of the children may make it best to omit some. But, if the teacher will adhere reasonably closely to these steps, the children can be led to work out the essential truths of any object of nature in a very help- ful way, too. The step, ' ' Food habits friendly or hostile to man, ' ' and the step, "How protect, multiply, or combat," bring out the human relation of the nature object. Teachers in nature study are usually distressed in two things: (1) they do not know what to teach; that is they do not know what to select and do not know enough about anything they do select to teach it; (2) they do not know how to study and learn and teach any object of nature. This may be said in this way : teachers do not know nature study themselves and are not self -directive in studying it as they teach. With the vast array of material indicated in these studies to select from, with the good manuals of nature study now published to help teachers and with the method of treating an animate nature study object indi- cated above, any ambitious teacher can help himself in both of these distressing difficulties. In applying the logical steps in nature study to any plant such steps as only apply to animals, of course, must be omitted. Otherwise the general plan is the same. BASIS AND STEPS IN NATURE STUDY. 471 In tracing through the toad, for instance, the step, **Food habits friendly or hostile to man," would be dwelt upon largely, and emphasized because of its great economic relation to man. And the step, ''How protect, multiply, or combat," probably needs strong emphasis on only ''How protect." Again, in tracing through the peach tree, for in- stance, the step "How protect, and multiply" should bring out the protection of the peach tree from mice, rabbits, peach tree borers, curl leaf, brown rot, cold winters and stock. It should also, bring out how to grow a seedling peach, how bud it, how train it, and general care. Similar points should be brought out about the apple, pear, cherry, and other fruits. The social and ethical side of the human relation of these points can be and should be impressed upon children. For instance, if I let contagious or infectious diseases exist, and injurious insects breed on my prem- ises they may spread to my neighbor's premises and cause him injury and loss. Thus to permit an old blighted pear tree to stand in my orchard as a center of infection to the neighborhood is an unsocial and im- moral act. Inanimate Nature Study Objects. — The method of dealing with objects of nature which do not possess life is simply to lead the learner to learn in so far as possible the essential facts of the object, then trace out its human relations. It is evident that nature study work as indicated 472 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. above correlates with oral primary language lessons, written primary language lessons, reading, spelling and writing. CHAPTER XL. DEVICES AND ERRORS IN NATURE STUDY. Devices. — Devices are the physical means used in teaching nature study. They are more numerous and varied in nature study work than in most other sub- jects. A volume could be written on devices alone in nature study. All that will be attempted here is the enumeration and brief discussion of some of the most important. The following may be considered devices in nature study : 1. Assignments. 2. Class discussions. 3. Text-books. 4. Teacher's manuals. 5. Apparatus. 6. Government bulletins. 7. Reports of agricultural schools. 8. Periodicals and catalogues. Assignment Sf Class Discussions and Text-hooks. — Assignments and class discussions hold about the same relation to the nature study lesson that they hold to les- sons in other subjects. These have been treated before, and while they should be rethought, it is not necessary to re-discuss them in this connection. Text-books are not likely to be very valuable devices in the hands of the learner, unless the first-hand work with natural objects is made the chief line of work and the text be employed as a guide or reference book. A text-book even in the hands of the teacher fre- 474 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. quently proves a hindrance rather than a help in nature study. So far as the writer knows, there is no text-book extant in nature study good to put in the hands of the children for class work. Teacher's Manuals. — At the present stage of nature study teaching in our schools, teacher's manuals consti- tute an extremely important device in nature study work. They enable the teacher to find out what to lead the learner to look for in studying; that is, they are guides to the teacher who has only a very limited knowl- edge of the topics he wishes to teach. There are published now some most excellent ones, helpful as to subject-matter and fertile in suggestion. The following are all worthy of high commendation; fresh, vigorous, and sound pedagogically : 1. Hodge's Nature Study and Life. 2. Insect Life, An Introduction to Nature Study, Comstock. 3. Manual for the Study of Insects, Comstock. 4. Dennis's Nature Study. 5. Bird Guide, Numbers 1 and 2, Chas. K. Reed, Worcester, Mass. With the help of such manuals as these, the teacher who desires to do so can help himself largely on the subject-matter of nature study. Apparatus. — The apparatus for nature study are so various that no attempt will be made to enumerate and describe all of them. They are opera glasses, micro- scopes, hand lenses, insect nets, cyanide bottles, mount- DEVICES AND ERRORS IN NATURE STUDY. 475 ing cases, pins, breeding cages, flower pots, aquaria, vivaria, etc. These are described in teacher's manuals and direc- tions for use and for making many are given. Some of them are very helpful in nature study work, almost indispensable. Most, unless it be a microscope, are ob- tainable by any thoughtful teacher. A microscope is not indispensable, although valuable in some nature study work. Government Bulletins. — The government bulletins on various aspects of nature study and agriculture sent out by the Department of Agriculture are very valuable helps to the teacher of nature study. Most of them are sent out free of charge and are obtainable for the ask- ing. Every one interested in nature study should write to the Department of Agriculture and have his name placed upon the permanent mailing list that he may receive all bulletins sent out. They contain the very latest discovered information on many nature study topics. Eeports of Agricultural Schools. — Congress pro- vided a good many years ago for an Agricultural Col- lege in each State. These send out bulletins and re- ports, too. They are valuable. Each teacher should have his name put on the permanent mailing list. Periodicals and Catalogues. — Some periodicals are very valuable to teachers of nature study. Such a one is The National Fruit Grower, St. Joseph, Mich., pub- lished and sent out twelve times per year. Florists' and Nurserymen's catalogues are helpful 476 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. to teachers of nature study. Each teacher should write Vaughan and Co., Chicago, and Storrs and Harrison Co., Painesville, Ohio, and have his name placed on the permanent mailing list for these beautiful and useful catalogues. They send them free of charge. Other firms will doubtless do the same. Errors in Teaching Nature Study. — Nature study is one of the new subjects in the curriculum of the Ameri- can schools. As in all new subjects the work has been frequently, and at present is in many places in the experimental stage of development. Teachers are grop- ing to a considerable degree. As a result errors abound. These in a general way grow out of two things: 1. Teachers do not know the subject; that is, they are lacking in knowledge of natural objects. 2. They do not know the method of nature study; that is, they do not know how to deal with any object of nature in the nature study work. The following is a list of common errors made con- cerning nature study in our schools. 1. The gross neg- lect of nature study in education. 2. Teaching books instead of nature. 3. Making nature study a kind of elementary science. Neglect of Nature Study. — The study of Nature, the greatest teacher of the race, is grossly neglected in most schools of America to-day. Children go through the twelve years' course of study in many schools, coun- try, village, town and city schools, without ever having had a single lesson of first-hand study of natural objects in their natural environment under school incentives. DEVICES AND ERRORS IN NATURE STUDY. 477 If they get such lessons, it is not under school direction. Such an error is fundamental, far-reaching, dwarf- ing, and degenerating in the life of a people. It leaves the senses uncultivated; observation of nature dwarfed; love of nature undeveloped, and the rising generations lamentably ignorant of their natural environment. In no other thing are the American schools so inefficient as in this important matter. **The education of the senses neglected, all after education partakes of a drowsiness, a haziness, an in- sufficiency, which it is impossible to cure." '' To-day most men are shut off from the pleasures the naturalist experiences in the woods because having eyes we see not, and having ears we hear not, and having minds we comprehend not the messages nature would be continually giving us." *^The omission of soil lore from a system of educa- tion of the young is suggestive of relapse to barbarism. To allow a child to grow up without planting a seed or rearing a plant is a crime against civilized society, and our armies of tramps and hordes of hoodlums are among the first fruits of an educational system that slights this important matter." Books Instead of Nature. — It is a common error of teachers in first attempting to teach nature study to read to the children from some book on nature study, have the children recite orally what they remember of it as a second lesson, and frequently as a third lesson to write out what they remember of what was read to them and what they recited on orally. 478 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. And another aspect much like the first in result is for the teacher to study the book, tell in story form what she has learned, then have the oral and written lessons to follow. This is called nature study in good faith and actu- ally it seems that some teachers who do this think they are teaching nature study. The writer has personally known so good a book as Hodge's Nature Study and Life used in this way. And when the children did not get enthusiastic over the work, nature study was called a failure, soon dropped and that most inspiring book discredited. Nature study had as well not be attempted as to attempt it by leaving all nature out and teaching books. Such work fails in every important educational value which the study of nature first-hand gives. Such teachers are mere book babblers and much of the time would not know the thing about which they talk, if they should meet it face to face in its natural environment. Making Nature Study Science. — Attempts have been made to make nature study elementary science. Such work has usually resulted in failure. Science is a modern thing. It is a product of the race in the later stages of its development, and as such is adapted to a greater degree of maturity of mind than possessed by the child when he should be learning his nature study work. Modern sciences as taught in the schools to-day are special interests of mature minds. Zoology and botany in the universities, colleges, and DEVICES AND ERRORS IN NATURE STUDY. 479 high schools of the present do not teach the children what they should learn in nature study in the way they should learn it in nature study. The sciences have different organizing principles from nature study, and are and should be taught differ- ently from nature study. To attempt to teach nature study as elementary science usually kills the subject. APPENDIX. SUPPLEMENTARY READING. Nature of Supplementary Beading. — In connection with the reading material found in the text-book other reading material should be placed in the hands of the children for them to read. Much of this kind of ma- terial may be used profitably in what is called sight reading; that is, reading by the children without their having made previous preparation on the selection. This kind of work is what is called supplementary reading, and the selections are called material for supplementary reading. Need and Value of. — There is much need for sup- plementary work in teaching reading. It is needed in teaching reading for the following reasons: 1. To put more life and interest in the reading work, and thus make it easier for both the pupils and the teacher. 2. To give the learner speed in interpretation and skill in oral expression. 3. To lead the learner to love good literature, and thus into the habit of reading good literature. Difficulties. — Most teachers recognize the value of supplementary reading and the desirability of doing such work, but have two difficulties: 1. Many do not SUPPLEMENTARY READING. 481 have suitable material. 2. Many do not know what suitable material is nor how to get it. In order to help teachers in obtaining suitable ma- terial a list of books and selections for each of the grades of the primary schools has been arranged. The lists are made up of the names of books and selections approved by the judgment of the best educators in our country. It is not expected that any teacher will be able to secure all of these books and selections. It is not at all necessary. But some of them will doubtless be avail- able to any earnest teacher. FIRST YEAR. '"] 1. Classic Stories for Little Ones, McMurry, Public School Publishing Co., Blooming- ton, 111 $ .40 2. Twilight Stories, Foulke, Silver, Burdette and Co., Chicago 35 3. Cyr's Primer, Ginn and Co., Chicago 30 4. The "Werner Primer, The Werner School Book Co., Chicago 25 5. Our Little Book for Little Folk, American Book Co., Chicago 40 6. Cyr's First Reader, Ginn and Co., Chicago. . .35 7. Fables and Rhymes for Beginners, Ginn and Co., Chicago 30 8. Hodskin's Little People's Reader, Ginn and Co., Chicago 30 9. Baldwin's First Reader, American Book Co., Chicago 25 482 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 10. Stories for Kindergartens and Primary Schools, Wiltse, Ginn and Co., Chicago.. .35 SECOND YEAR. 1. Robinson Crusoe, for Boys and Girls, McMurry, Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111 $ .25 2. Grimm's Fairy Tales, Wiltse, Ginn and Co., Chicago 35 3. Stories Mother Nature Told Her Children, Ginn and Co., Chicago 50 4. Easy Steps for Little Feet, American Book Co., Chicago 25 5. Verse and Prose for Beginners, Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 25 6. First Year Nature Reader, Werner School Book Co., Chicago 40 7. The Riverside Reader and Primer, Hough- ton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago, 205 pages. . .30 8. Johonnot's Book of Cats and Dogs, American Book Co., Chicago 17 9. The Hiawatha Primer, 147 pages, Hough- ton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 40 10. Cooke's Nature Mj^hs, A. Flanagan, Chi- cago 40 THIRD YEAR. 1. Scudder's Fables and Folk Stories, 200 pages, Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago $ .40 2. Stories of Indian Children, Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111 50 3. Cyr's Third Reader, Ginn and Co., Chicago .45 SUPPLEMENTARY READING. 483 4. Stickney's Esop's Fables, Ginn and Co., Chi- cago 40 5. Short Stories of Our Shy Neighbors, Ameri- can Book Co., Chicago 50 6. Golden Book of Choice Reading, American Book Co., Chicago 30 7. Book of Tales, American Book Co., Chicago .50 8. Peabody's Old Greek Folk Stories, Hough- ton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 25 9. Myths of Old Greece, Pratt, Ginn and Co., Chicago 60 10. Heart of Oak No. II., D. C. Heath and Co., Chicago 40 FOURTH YEAR. 1. Hawi;horne's Wonder Book, Houghton, Mif- flin and Co., Chicago $ .40 2. Hawthorne's Tanglewood Tales, Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 40 3. Kingsley's Water Babies, Ginn and Co., Chicago 45 4. Francillon's Gods and Heroes, Ginn and Co., Chicago 50 5. Baldwin's Old Stories of the East, American Book Co., Chicago 45 6. Stories from Arabian Nights, Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 40 7. Ruskin's King of the Golden River, etc., Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 25 8. Black Beauty, A. Flanagan, Chicago 35 9. Pioneer History Stories, McMurry, Public 484 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111. .50 10. Stories of Great Americans, American Book Co., Chicago 40 FIFTH YEAR. 1. Anderson's Fairy Tales, Second Series, Ginn and Co., Chicago $ .45 2. Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, by Montgom- ery, Ginn and Co., Chicago 35 3. Stories of Our Country, American Book Co., Chicago 40 4. Lays of Ancient Rome, Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 25 5. The Voyage to Lilliput and Brobdingnag, Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 40 6. Polly Oliver's Problem, Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 60 7. The Children's Life of Lincoln, McClurg and Co., Chicago 1.25 8. First Book in American History, Eggleston, American Book Co., Chicago 60 9. Heroes of Asgard, MacMillan Co., Chicago. . .50 10. Lads and Lassies of Other Days, McClurg and Co., Chicago 50 SIXTH YEAR. 1. Fry's Brooks and Brook Basins, Ginn and Co., Chicago $ .70 2. Ten Boys on the Road from Long Ago to Now, Ginn and Co., Chicago 60 3. Burrough's Birds and Bees, Houghton, Mif- flin and Co., Chicago 60 SUPPLEMENTARY READING. 485 4. Franklin's Autobiography, by Montgomery, Ginn and Co., Chicago 50 5. Longfellow's Evangeline, Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 25 6. Irving 's Sketch Book, A. Flanagan, Chicago .50 7. Arabian Nights, by Hale, Ginn and Co., Chi- cago 55 8. Hughs 's Tom Brown at Rugby, Ginn and Co., Chicago 60 9. Lamb's Tales of Shakespeare, Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 50 10. Scudder's George Washington, Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 40 SEVENTH YEAR. 1. Scott's Lady of the Lake, Ginn and Co., Chi- cago $ .45 2. Swift's Gulliver's Travels, Ginn and Co., Chicago 40 3. Dana's Two Years Before the Mast, Hough- ton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 60 4. Hawthorne's Tales of White Hills, Hough- ton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 40 5. Washington's Rules of Conduct, Diary, Let- ters and Addresses, Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 25 6. Wiltse's Jean Valjean, Ginn and Co., Chi- cago 1.05 7. Wiggins' The Story of Patsy, Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago (Fine) 60 8. Ball's Star-land, Ginn and Co., Chicago 1.10 486 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 9. Wyss' Swiss Family Robinson, Ginn and Co., Chicago 55 10^ Hawthorne's Biographical Stories, Hough- ton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 25 EIGHTH YEAR. 1. Lowell's Vision of Sir Launfal, and Other Poems, Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Chi- cago $ .25 2. Two Great Retreats of History, Ginn and Co., Chicago 60 3. Scott's Talisman, Ginn and Co., Chicago. . . .60 4. Lamb's Adventures of Ulysses, Ginn and Co. .35 5. Starr's American Indians, McClurg and Co., Chicago 1.00 6. Plutarch's Lives, Ginn and Co., Chicago 55 7. Spyri's Heidi, Ginn and Co., Chicago 60 8. Long's Ways of Wood Folks, Ginn and Co., Chicago 60 9. Stories from English History, by Blaisdell, Ginn and Co., Chicago 50 10. Hawthorne's House of Seven Gables, Hough- ton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 70 INDEX. Alphabet Method 47 Analytic Word Method 55 Abou Ben Adhem 87 Applications of a Number 121 Advantages of Inductive Method 202 Attribute 226 Assignments 91. 255 Analysis 262 Abuse of Parsing and Diagrams 270 Aspects of Purpose of History 357 Aspects of Basis in History 366 Anthropological View of Geography 396 Aspects of Basis in Geography 419 Adequate Basis 206 Analytic Stage of Geography 427 Advanced Stage of Geography 430 Apparatus 474 Appendix 480 Basis of Reading 45 Basis of Number 161 Basis for Other Language Studies 179 Basis in Grammar 205 Basis for the Sentence 205 Bad Methods of Teaching Definitions 266 Blue Violet 318 Bad Selection of Objects for Study 328 Basis in History 368 Bad Order of Steps 392 Basis for the Study of Other Sciences 412 488 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. Basis of Geography 419 Basis for Climate 419 for Relief Forms 420 for Minerals 420 for Animal Life 421 for Plant Life 421 for Distribution of Human Life 422 Basis in Nature Study 463 Books Instead of Nature 477 Classes of Method 11 of Purpose in Reading 33 Complexity and Accuracy 167 Classification 190 Correct Way to Teach Definitions 198 Classes of Sentences 239, 241 Comparison of Noun and Pronoun 193 Class Discussions 258 Communication of Thought and Feeling 305, 309 Ceaseless Change in the Life of a People 334 Concept, History 342 Ceaseless Struggle 335 Cultivation of Reasoning 363 of Moral Judgment 364 of Imagination 364 of Memory 365 Comparison of Two Orders 380 Concept, Geography 400 Cultivation in Geography of Sense-perception 415 of Memory 415 of Imagination 415 of Reasoning 415 INDEX. 489 Correcting Superstitions 414 Chronological Order 374 Comment 433 Child 451 Cultivation in Nature Study of Sense-perception 461 of Memory 461 of Judgment 461 of Reasoning 461 Classes of Steps in Nature Study 464 Definition of Reading 41 Definite Procedure 56 Didactic Discourse 71 Definition of Number 96 Disciplinary Purpose 159, 170, 461, 415, 363 Definition 186 Diagrams 263 Distinctive Purpose 280 Development of Thought and Feeling 288 Definition of History 335 Devices in Grammar 255 in History 383 in Geography 437 in Nature Study 473 Dividing Function in History 350 in Geography 407 Disciplinary Purpose in History 363 in Geography 415 in Nature Study 458 Development of the Race, and Nature 450 Excelsior 77 Erastus Wren's Virtue 81 490 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. Errors in Teaching Reading 88 in Teaching Number 163 in Teaching Primary Language 328 in Teaching Grammar 265 in Teaching History 388 in Teaching Geography 443 in Teaching Nature Study 476 Exhausting the Number 166 Effect of Study of Grammar 170 Essential Elements of the Sentence 245 Emphasizing Form 268 Expanding and Substituting 271 Events in History 334 Emphasizing Function 454, 349, 406 Factors Determining Method 29 First Stage 149, 147, 145, 137, 113 Formal Process of Addition 144 of Subtraction 146 of Multiplication 149 of Division 152 Former View 182 Forms of History 351 First Order 376 Failure to Interpret Events 389 Functions of Organizing Principle 346, 403, 453 Field Work 438 Failure to Teach Home Geography 444 General Method 9 Golden Touch 82 Genesis of Number 95 Gender 248 Geographical Facts and Relations 400 Government Bulletins 475 INDEX. 491 History of Language Lessons 277 Help on the Problem 212 Historic Forces 33^ Historical Events 334 History as a Record of Events 333 Home Geography 429' Habits of Observation 460 Indefinite Assignments 91 Inductive Method 195 Idea 230 Indefinite Purpose 266 Indian Corn 322 Imagination Lessons 32& Insufficient Development of Thought 329 Interpreting Function 348, 405, 453 Imaginary Journeys 441 Interest in Nature 459^ Inanimate Nature Study Objects 471 Index 487, 492 Knowledge-Giving Purpose 18 Knowledge of Use of Language 176 of Animal Life 456 of Plant Life 457 of Soils 458 of Climate 458 of Surface Structure 458 of Heavenly Bodies 45& Kinds of Devices in Grammar 255 Language Period 288 Laying Basis for Grammar 282, 283 Language Lessons, a Kind of Grammar 328 Learner's Knowledge of the Family 368 of the Church 368. 492 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. Of the School 369 of Business 369 of the State 369 Logical Steps 468, 424, 373 Lack of Differentiation 92 of Field Work 445 of Interpretation 446 Love of Nature 460 Methods of Teaching 21 Methods in Use in Number 102 Method of Symbols 102 Mental Discipline Furnished 170 Mind's Natural Way of Defining 197 Mind's Natural Attitude 213 Method of History 350 Meaning of Purpose 17 Meaning of Basis in History 368 Steps in History 373 Devices in History 383 Maps 439 Meaning of Purpose in Geography 409 Basis in Geography 419 Steps in Geography 424 Devices in Geography 437 Map Drawing 440 Making Geography a Memory Drill 446 Making Nature Study Science 478 Nature of Method as a Subject 10 Nature of Number 94 Number as a Whole 118 Notation of Number^ 135, 123 Nature 186 INDEX. 493 Noun and Pronoun 199 Negligence in Criticism 330 Nature of History 332 Nature of Geography 393 Nature Studies 448 Nature Study and the Sciences 449 Neglect of Nature Study 476 Orcharc* Life 85 Oral Expression and Interpretation 36 Origin of Number 97 Order of Steps 211 Object 223 Origin of Primary Language 275 Organizing Principle of History 345 of Geography 402 of Nature Study 452 Oral Teaching 381 Outlines 386 Phonic Method 49 Phonetic Work 64 Practical Method 112 Primary Stage of Number 113 Purpose of Reading 32 of Number 156 of Grammar 168 of Primary Language 275 of History 357 of Geography 409 of Nature Study 455 Poor Assignments 268 Poor Analysis 270 Parsing 260 Public Documents 385 494 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. Pictures 385 Popular View of Geography 395 Preparatory Stage of Geography 4 28 Primary Stage of Geography 429 Periodicals and Catalogues 475 Reading and Literature 37 Relations in Number 119 Relations Among Topics 166 Recent View 182 Relation 191 Relation of Primary Language to Other Subjects 300 Record of Events 333 Results of Ignorance and Prejudice 361 Reference Books 441 Reports of Agricultural Schools 475 Special Method 32 School Curriculum 39 Subject-Matter of Reading 39 of Number 156 of Grammar 182, 185 of Primary Language 294 of History 344 of Geography 400 of Nature Study 452 Stages of Reading 43 Sentence Method 53 Symbolic Discourse 71 Speer Method 108 Symbols Instead of Number 163 Seed Time and Harvest 362 Scientific Spirit 417, 366 Socializing the Learner 367 Steps in Reading 43 INDEX. 495 in Number •. 101 in Grammar 211 in Primary Language 305 in History 373 in Geography 424 in Nature Study 464 Synthetic Stage 4 26 Stages of Geography Learning 426 Selective Function 453, 403, 347 Scattering Too Much 444 Teaching Act 9 Two Views of Method 26 Thought 236 Text-books 259 Teaching Grammar Too Early 273 Teaching Principles 201 Type Studies 435 Unsystematic Number Teaching 165 Uniformity of Nature's Laws 411 Unscientific Geography Teaching 443 Violations of Basis 208 Views of Geography 393 Wrong Number Concepts 16 4 Work in Harmony with Basis 209 Work by Years 431 Word 233 Word Method 55 Ward Method 60 MAR 30 1909