.379 V 1 ) I THE STATE OF NEW YORK. PHYSICAL FEATURES. Location, Extent, and Outline. In what part of the United States is Ntnv York situatfd ? AVliat states border it on tlie east ; the south ; the west? What country is north! What lakes, rivers, and other bodies of water form parts of its boundaries? Where is its most southern point ? Near what de- gree of latitude is this point? Near what deg'ree of latitude is its most northern point 1 With the scale of miles, find the length of the state from east to west. Find its width from the southern point of Staten Island to the Canada line. The land surface of the state is 47,620 square miles, and its water sui'f ace is 1550 square miles. What is its total area? How does this area compare with that of Penn- sylvania ; of Texas ; of Rhode Is- land ? What two gi-eat lances border New York on the north and northwest ? What long,narro w lake on the north- east ? What body of water between Long Island and Connecticut ? What part of the state is Vjordered by the ocean ? What and where is the largest island in the state ? How many mdes long is this island? What islands are at the mouth. of the Hudson River ? Find several smaller islands belonging to the state, and tell where each one is. What is the general shape of Long Island? How does it terminate at its eastern extremity? What bays and what islands lie between the two terminal peninsulas ? The southern peninsula terminates in Montauk Point, once the home of the Montauk Indians. On this in-omoutory is a well-kno^\^l lighthouse, with a flashing light of the first order, over 168 feet above the level of the sea. What strait separares Long Island from Staten Island '/ What four coimties are included in Long Island ? Surface. By reference to the map of the United States on page 48, find in what higliland region the greater part of New York lies. What part of the state is in the Atlantic plain ? In what general dii-ection do the mountain ranges extend? What mountains in the noi-theastern part of the state ? What mountains farther south ? What river vaUey be- tween these two gi'oups of highlands? Ill distinctness and variety of geographic features the surface of New York is very remarkal)le. The principal forms are due to the geological uplift caused by forces working under the earth's crust ; to the laying bare and weathering of the rooks by wind, rain, frost, running water, etc., called denudation ; to the removal by these agencies of loosened material from place to place; and to glacial action. The effects of glaeiation are especially marked in the lake region, in the river beds and gorges, and iu the backljone of Long Island, toj^ped by the terminal moraine. The average elevation of the surface of the state is aljout 900 feet. Its highest points are among the Adirondack Copyright, 1S9S, by American Book Company. Mountains in the northeast. Mount Marc}^ the loftiest peak, has an altitude of 51)79 feet. Trending northeast in a series of short, broken, almost parallel ridges, the Adirondacks terminate abruptly lu^ar Lake Champlain or beyond of Canada, ranges are The Adirondack Mountains Lake Placid. the borders Their granit clothed with forests of pine, hemlock, spruce, and other trees. In the valleys are hundreds of lakes, some of which lie in chains along the narrow intervals and some deep set in mountain walls. Ausable Chasm, near Keese- ville, is a noted gorge. The Catskill Mountains are famed for their beauti- ful scenery and bracing air. Slide Mountain, 4205 feet high, is the loftiest summit. This .system includes the Helderberg and Hellibark mountains, ex- tending north, and the Sliawaugunk (Shoii gum) ilountains on the south. Farther south are the Highlands of the Hudson, belonging to the Taconic range. The Shawangunk Mountains and the Highlands are continuations of ranges from Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Westward from the Catskills extends the Alleghany plateau, occupying about one third of the state and con- tinuing into Pennsylvania. Worn and cut by streams, it is a vast maze of ridges and valleys, gorges, and hills. This dissected plateau stretches to the western boundary of the state. It approaches within about 5 mUes of Lake Erie, and less than 30 miles of Lake Ontario. The southern part is drained by numerous branches of the Delaware, Susque- hanna, and Allegheny i-ivers, and the northern by streams flowing into Lake Ontario. The aver- age elevation is 1000 feet or more. South of the di\'ide it is most hilly. Many of the uplands rise from 1500 to 2000 feet, and some iu Allegany and Cattaraugus counties still higher. North of the divide the country is roU- Ausable Chasm. CV/NIAGARA TALliS WlXrlpo^t J^ ScaJe, 1 .4 Mil** lo ll.» Intb. Longitude Westi ^ j Greenwich NEW YOEK f-T- VO SCALE OF MILES 5 W 3u 30 ST 5U 00 ELEVATIONS ' r moo fid •II to MOO /eel -iJiiO to ;)om feet WOO to 1000 feet Sta Level to lOOO/eet V? 7 \ I N^ TJ O N \^''^ ^ Oj 41 JC^nffii M ^ K \ "STORM '., U N D A S ,>Y GREENVILLE \ >tVV<\ -T" ,(/ U \ ''/XX R 'e IP NO|RYnUM BE R \ T.- Bi ya^ /.o' .-(► =)S o^re lo\'\_ Neycatlli -^ i'url iiopi ifthag l^vt:;-^;; - ly^-i' X/-^?*45;5^i|«'-C«WutiJgeS)r5X:MisUs 5[0 «>»! . ^ V iUi,\ E' uilingtob WORTH i^^fcE^"^^' '""' • L I ^ ^"^^^orol^, ^-iwv=v° 'j ffiyi » >■ Pitt tr._..J). ^ tic aT^ ■■-^^1 ■%.r-\,i "' Sand, fJ^e^J^^^y c,\! >reni I Ai»^ 1 — w n J fcoi(sta|jleliine ^p, iXTJ^T^- -iJ/C kC 'I A O Eoches CattdetiS WJ5 \A Jtbjney -. C- E N_E S E E^ Lll, too ft. ^ t> .«••''' f'' /^^TrIive, '""f TlV\ ^ \A//A/ r\ lu iI^i^W I ,1^**^ h .\Ay U<-\{Hiidi.'e ^1 7 !/ y^ , /. [ ^,»» ''*^ Dsnklrl^ ^"^if'^^ffiO N T A'P I OVn^'A^S /=X"''f' 1\\ ^^'■^ ^ ro,WMMc>\,, .rWSVlfc Z^n.liJtl ■*■ f - .aui // ■ rAiifiito . v^,. ^ „ -X ^pA-TVTARAljCn^S WHS'-' ^ Inf/li 1 . .' \ SW wiL^- I ""J"^' I ) ?> L^ G A N Y/i !t)iT ill n : ,^F^baca >:. ] / E\XU B' 3^..,l«l I Athi^ V.\. ■;^AV3lR , - NEW YORK. ing', and descends in a series of broad terraces, rimning (>ast and west, to the plains bordeiing Lake Ontario. The plateau ends with an iiTcsrular but well-deflued escai'pment on its northern face. What important river valley extends more than half way across the eastei'u end of the state? Wliat other river valley unites witli this on the west? lu that part of the state drained by the Susquehanna, extending from Steuben county to Orange count_v, is a lowland region wliich embraces rich t'ariiiiiig lands, witii The Mohawk valley is 100 many fertile valleys and llouiishing cities and towns. Hudson River — The Highlands miles long, but nowhere very wide. In connection with the Hudson valley it affords the lowest passage, south of Lake Chainplain, through the Appalachian highlan( from the Atlantic seaboard to the Great Lakes. The Hudson valley is also (piite narrow, but its sniicrb scenery, agricultural wealth, manifold industries, and his- torical associations, all com- bine to make it one of tile most famous val- leys in the world. The surface of Long Island is mostly level, or slightly roHing, but is broken in tlus north by low morainic hills. On the north shore are tine harbons, while sum- mei- residences occupy the bluffs. Along sandy beaches of the south- ern shore are numer- ous summer resorts, of which the most noted is Coney Island. At the entrance to the Narrows, between Long and Staten islands, stands Fort Hamilton. Fort Lafayette, on the Narrows, was a famous military prison during the civil war. Staten Island, in New York Bay, is about 14 miles long, and has an area of nearly GO square miles. It comprises the borough of Richmond (a part of New York city). "What waters separate it from New Jersey! The surface, especi- ally in the northern part, is hilly. Forts Wadsworth and Tompkins occupy an euiiiienee commanding the Narrows, opposite forts Hamilton and Lafayette. Manhattan Island, at the head of New York Bay, is lIJi miles long, and about '2i miles in extreme width. At its southern extremity the surface is low, but towards the north it rises in rocky ridges culminating in Washington Heights, 238 feet above sea level. Its area of aljoiit 22 square miles is occupied l)y tlie borough of Manhattan, the oldest and most poiiukms part of New York city. Of the neighboring small islands, Hart, Randalls, Wards, and Black- wells, in the East River, belong to the city, and on them are some of its benevolent, reformatoi-j-, and penal institutions. Governors, Ellis, and Bedloe (or Liberty) islands, in New York Bay, are the property of the United States Government. The islands of the Atlantic region contain almost half the popidation of the state. Drainage. Name the two longest rivers wholly within the state. What parts of the state do they drain? Into what do theii- waters finally flow ? What other important rivers which take then- rise in New York are parts of the Atlantic system ? What part of the state is drained by rivers of the St. Lawrence system? What river is a part of the Mississippi system ? In what state does this river rise ? Describe its course in New York. From New Y'ork Bay the Hudson River is mivigable for large steamers to Troy, 150 miles. Its total length is about 300 miles, but above its junction 'with the Scene at Coney Island ;\Iolitiwk it is quite small. The t'amoiis beauty of its .scenery cul- minates in the grandeur of the Highland goi-ge and the stateli- ness of the Palisades. It is one of the great commercial water way^i of the world. Below Al- bany its width varies from 300 to 700 yards and more, while its fall in the last hundred mUes of its com'se is not more than 5 feet. Each winter great harvests of ice are gathered into the icehouses on its banks. What is the chief tributary of the Hudson? In what county does it rise ? At what city does it empty into the Hudson 1 The total length of this river is about 175 miles; V)ut it is olistructed by falls and shallows, and is not naviga))le. Wliiit river forms part of tlie boundary between New York and Penn- sylvania ? What river derives a part of its waters from Otsego and Schuyler lakes ? At what point does it finally pass into Pennsylvania ? What tributary does it receive from the west just below this point ? What part of the state is drained by the rivers last mentioned? What part of the state is ib-ained by the Allegheny? Wliat lake has outlet through one of its tributaries? What river connects lakes Erie and Ontario ? In what direction does it flow? Where is the source of the Genesee River, and into what does it flow 1 What other important rivers flow into the same body of water? Beginning at the western boundary of Chautauqua county, trace the NEW YORK. watershed of the St. Lawrence sys- tem. About how much of the state is drained by sti-eams belonging to this system 1 Waterfalls. The immor- oiis watorfalls of New York are striking features of its natural beauty. Tliej^ also furnish great motive power. A luimber of them are widely uoteil, and those of Niagara are tlio most celebrated in the worhl. The drainage of the (ireat Lakes west of Ontario, flow- ing down the Niagara River over a rocky bed, at length descends 40 feet in half a mile. At the rapids thus caused the river becomes a broad and tui'bulcnt flood. Divided by Uoat Island, it plunges in two mighty falls to the abyss below. On the east sid(^ is the American Fall, ](i7 feet, and on the west the Canadian or Horseshoe Fall, l.J8 feet, in per- pendicular height. Electric power generated liy means of the falls is distributed to vari- ous points. There aro several remarkable waterfalls in the Genesee River, the head waters of which are 2500 feet above sea level. Ti-enton Falls, near Utica, are in West Canada Creek. In Watkius Glen, at the head of Seneca Lake, are several cascades. Taughannock Falls, near the west shore of Cayuga Lake, and at its head Ithaca Falls ; Kaaterskill Falls, in the CatskUl Jlountains ; Glens Falls, in the upper Hudson ; Cohoes Falls, in the Moliawk — these and others, also noteworthy, add to the picturesque beaut}' of the state. Lakes. What three border lakes belong to the St. Lawrence system? Which of these is of the greatest importance, commercially, to New York ? Why ? Which has the most exteiLsive coast line within the state '? As tlie international bdundary between the Unitfd States and Canada passes along the middle of lakes Erie and Ontario, porti(ms of them lie within this state. Thej^ are navigaljle for large vessels, and hence are of great com- mercial importance. The boimdary between New York and Vermont follows the middle of the deepest channel of Lake C'hamplain. This lake is remarkable for its beauty and its historic interest. More than 3.50 miles of the shores of the lakes above mentioned ai-e in New York. In the Adirondack region are the picturescpie Saranac and Placid lakes, and Lake (ieorge, a favorite resort, noted for its fine scenery. All have outlets into L.ake Chamjilain. What lakes lie in the plateau region south of Lake Ontario ? From their shapes and rela- tive positions, these lakes are sometimes called the Finger Lakes. What important rivers fonn outlets for these lakes"? The Finger Lakes ai'e among the most l)eautiful in the state. They are striking features of a country rich in scenery and soil, and excelling in industry and thrift. On their waters hundreds of vessels sail ; immeasm*- alile water power is furnished by their inlets iind outlets, falling from level to level ; tiio land- sca[)es they adorn are types of beauty found nowhere else in our country. ClKnttau(pia Lake, in Chantantpia county, bout 1300 feet above sea level, is 8 miles south of Lake Erie. On its shores the ( 'lia,utuii continual supply of timtier. Animals. INfost of the large wild animals, once so nu- m I 'I'l )us, ha \e disappeared. Black 1 )ears, ] tai 1 1 hers, and wild- cats are still sometimes found in the mountains. Under the ])rotection of game laws, deer in the Adirondar-ks have increased. In some of the forests small game of many kinds is abundant. Watkins Glen. 6 NEW YORK. Salt Works at Syracuse. RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES. Agriculture. Except in the upper mouutaiii districts aud the forest lands of tlie north, no parts of the state are unfit for cultivation. More than half its area is improved land, much of which is naturally fertile. About 400,000 people, or one fiftli of tlie working population, are engaged in agriculture. In the value of live stock and dairy products, the state ranks high. Excellent pasture in the highland country supports many cattle and sheep. The wool clip is large. Great quantities of cheese are made in the factories of the Mohawk valley. Delaware county is noted for its butter. In the valley of the Mohawk, hops, broom corn, and alfalfa are valuable crops. Cereals — corn, oats, wheat, rye, barley are gro^^^l in different sections, but especially on the rich terraces aud lowlauds of the west. Grapes and other fruits are cultivated in the cen- tral and western lake regions, in the Hudson valley, and on Long Island. Other impoi-tant products are hay, tobacco, buckwheat, potatoes, beans, and maple sugar. No other state excels New York in the number of its nurseries. Seed farms, the cxdtivation of small fruits and garden vege- tables, and the supply of milk for cities give employment to many persons. Mining, Quarrying, etc. Rich deposits of iron ore have been found in different parts of the state. Those in the Lake Champlain districts are the most esteusive. The hard Potsdam sandstone is widely used for paving and building. Limestone is abundant in almost every section. Gypsum is quai-ried in some of the central and western counties; marble, in Westchester county; flagstone, in many of the southern counties. Cement and a variety of l)uilding stones and clays are found in various places. Petroleum wells in Allegany aud Cattaraugus counties yield much oil. Natural gas is obtained in several western counties. Jlineral springs are found throughout the state. The salt springs of Onondaga, Wyoming, and Genesee counties are among the most valuable in the world. In several of the western counties rock salt is mined. New York is the greatest salt-producing state in the Union. Manufactures. New York is the leading state in manu- factures. The distribution of water power, and the facili- ties for transportation by lake and liver, railway and canal, make most favorable conditions for the growth and permanence of these industries. Among the principal manufactures are clothing, machinery, agriciU- tural implements, flour aud meal, cotton and woolen goods, tobacco and cigars, leather, boots aud shoes, railway cars, wagons and carriages, liquors, sugar and molasses, iron and steel, silk goods, lumber and wood- work, hardware, pottery, bricks, refined petroleum, furrriturc, and paper. An enormous industry is that of printing aud publishing. Shipbuilding is carried on extensively. Fisheries. Tlie fisheries of the lakes, rivers, and coast afford eiu})k»yment to many men, and are important sources of food supply. By means of hatcheries, under state care, the streams and lakes are kept stocked. Fishing is regulated by law. Shad are taken from the Hirdson ; whitefish, from Lake Oirtario ; blue- fish, mackerel, oysters, etc., from the bays of Long Island and neighbor- ing waters. At the eastern end of Long Island are the headquarters of the menliadeu fishery. These fish are nnich used in the mauirfacture of oil aud fertilizers. In Great South Bay of Long Island are found the favorite oysters known as Blue Points (so called from Blue Point on that bay), and also excellent clams. Commerce. The commercial supremacy of New York is undisputed. It has only one important seaport. Tint the An Oil Refinery, Hew York. A Priutmg Establishmeut, New York. NEW YORK. situation of the state between the Atlantic and the Great Lakes has made its river valleys the main rontes, and its metropolis the principal gateway of our country's com- merce. Among- the chief agencies of New York's conunerce are the canals and railroads. These have unequaled advan- tages owing to the low valleys which cross this part of the Appalachian highland and give easy access to the stat(\s lying west, and to Canada. Oecup_\-Lug the Hudson aud ]\Ioliawk valleys, aud the lowlands border- ing: lakes Erie and Ontario, is tlie most complete system of canals in the United States. They eouuecl the Hudson with lakes Erie, Ontario, and Champlain, and witli the principal interior lakes. They form a trreat circuit of water ways, wilh Ijranehes reaching to many centers of popu- lation and industry. Most of them were built and are maintained and managed liy the state. Their navigation is free. The Erie Canal, con- necting the Hudson at Albany with Lake Erie at Buffalo, is over 350 miles long. The same physical conditions wliicli liavc made possible the great canal system have also favored tlie building of railroads. Two trunk lines — the New York Central and Hudson Kiver, and the West Shore — follow the valleys of the Mohawk and the Hud- son to tlu! sea. A thi rd — the Erie — passes from tlie low- landseastoftheSliawangunk Mountains, thi-ough the val- leys of the Dela^Vare, Sus- (piehanna. ('hemung. and Genesee ri\'ers to 15nffalo. Most of the principal railroads of New England, New Jersey, Penn- sylvania, and Maryland lead, as do the great lines of this state, to New York city, and cuntribute to the commerce of that port. The first railroad in New York, 17 miles long, between Alliany and Schenectady, was opened in 1831. There are now over SOOO miles of railroad in the state, an average of about one mile to six square miles of area. HISTORY. The first Europejin known to have entered the territory now New York, was the French explorei' Sanmel de Cliam- Y>lain, who in 1GU9 discovertMl the lake since called by his name. Explorations l)y Cliamplain and otliers were made a basis for the French chiim to a large p;irt of the teri'itory — a claim maintained foi' l."JO years. In September, 1609, Henry Hudson, an Fngiish navigatoi' in the service of the Dutch East India, Coni]tany, entered New York Bay, and ascende(l the Hudson River to the present site of Albany. The Dutch soon began to occupy the country, which they called New Netherhmds. They claimed tlie region from Connecticut Ri vei- to the Delaware. In 1614 they established a trading post at the south enil of Manhattan I.sland, and built a fort on tht» Hudson just below Albany. The Dutch West India Comi)nny sent out emigrants in 1623, who settled at Orange (All)any), Breucke- len (Brooklyn), aud New Amsterdam (New York). For Locks in the Erie Canal at Lockport. about 40 years the chief administrative officer was a di rector-general. There was a privileged class of landholder called patroons. Slavery in the colony began as early u~ 1629. In 1664 the English, who also claimed the countiy, sent a fleet to New Amsterdam, and demanded the suljmissiou of the colony. Peter Stuyvesant, the director-general, stoutly resisted, l»ut tlu^ people made willing sin-render. The territory hail lieen granted l)y ('liarles U. of England to his brother, the Duke of York and All)a!iy. So the )ianie of Eort (Jrange was changed to Albany, aud New Amsterdam was called New York. The latter name was soon given to the whole of New Netherlands. In lliS."), when the Duke of Y'ork became king of England as James II., the colony was made a royal province. During more than a century of English rule, the colo- nists were dissatisfied with their governors and wearied with the wars against the Fi-eiich, in wliich New York was frequently a l)attle ground. The last of those wars, the French and Indian, broke out in 1754. It ended in 176.3 with the surrender of Canada to Great Britain. Twelve years later Ijegan the Revolution. Again New York liecame the theater of many important actions. 1)1 177.') Crown Point and Ti- conderoga were captured from the British by Ethan Allen and Bene- dict Arnold. The battle of Long Island, and tlie storming of Fort Washington, in 1770, gave the British possession of New York city, which they held initil near the close of 1783. In October, 1770, a British squadron on Lake Champlain destroyed the first American fleet, and ojiened the way for Burgoyne's invasion from Canada iu the following summer. This move- ment was most threatening to the American cause, but Burgoyne was defeated in several engagements, and siu-rendered to General Gates at Saratoga, October 17, 1777. West Point was now made the strongest fortress in the land. Stony Point was captured by General Wayne iu 1779. The next year Arnold souglit to Ix^tray West Point, but failed through the capture of Jlajor Andre, a British officer with whom he had conspired. The American army was dislianded at Newburgh, June '23, 1783. New York city was evacuated by the British, Novemlier 25 of the same year. The legislature met first at Kingston, next at Pough- keepsie, aud afterwards at New York. Albany became the capital in 1797. New York city was th(^ first capital of the United States, and there in 1789 Washington was inaugurateil as President. After the Revolution the population of the state rajiidly increased. In 1807 Fulton ascended the Hudson in his steamboat tlu- Ckrmoid. The Erie Canal was ojiened iu 1825, and a long advance was made toward a new era of industi-y and commerce. This progress was soon furthered by the building of the railroads. In the war of 1S12 New York was once more the scene of exciting events. Notable conflicts occurreil »\ Ogdens- l)urg, Sacketts Harbor, and other places. Ruffiilo and several other towns were burned by the British. 8 NEW YORK. Many slaves had already been fi-eed in the state when slavery -svas finally abolished there in 1S27. In the civil wav — 1861-65 — New York contributed to the cause of the Union millions of money and almost 500,000 men. The population of New York in 1698 was about 18,000. In 1800 it was 589,051, and in 1880, 5,082,871. By tlie state enumeration of 1892 it was 6,513,343. Because it is the first among the states in population, wealth, and com- merce, New York is called the Empire State. GOVERNMENT. The state constitution was adojitcil in 1777, and revised constitutions in 1S22, 1846, and 1894. The legislature consists of a senate of 50 members, elected for two years, and an assembly of 150 meml)ers, elected for one year. The leg- islature meets annu- ally on the first Wed- nesday in Januai'v. The executive power is vested in a gover- nor, lieutenant gover- nor, secretary of state, comptroller, treasurer, attorney-general, and state engineerand sur- veyor, all elected by the peojile for two years. Monument to the Captors of Major Andre. i EDUCATION. For over a century New Yoi-k has maintained a liberal and efficient public school system. The University of the State of New York, established in 1784, is governed by a board of 23 regents, of whom 19 are elected for life by the legis- lature, while the governor, lieu- tenant-governor, secretary of state, and the superintendent of pul)lic instruction are ex officio regents. This board has super- vision of all incorporated col- legers, universities, and technical and professional schools in the state, and of incorporated or admitted high schools, acade- mies, acadtMuic departments of union free scliools, museums, li- bi'aries, the university extension Tne state superintend- Washington's Headquarters, Hewburgh. ent of public instruction is elected by the legislatm-e for 3 years. The governor, by and with the advice of the senate, appoints many administrative officers. Among them are the superintendents of public works, banks, and state prisons, commissioners of agriculture and civil service, and those constituting the boards of health, charities, and the like. The Judicial powen- is vested in a court of appeals, con- sisting of 7 judges, and a supreme court with 76 justices, all elected for 14 years. Each county has a judge (Kings county has two), elected for 6 years. There are also sur- rogates, justices of the peace, police magistrates, and other minor judicial officers. The state contains 61 counties, and each county (except New York, Kings, (Queens, and Richmond) is subdivided into towns. The towns contain many inllages, of which about 400 are inci>r[)()rated. Cities are classified by the constitution. Those having 250,000 or more inhabitants are of the first class; over 50,000 but under 250,000, of the second; all others, of the third. New York and Buf- falo are the only cities of the first class. The chief executive of a city is a mayor. In most of the cities the mayor and the aldermen constitute the main representative and legis- lative ))ody, called the common council. The government of the city of New York differs in some important respects from that of any other. The cities of the state contain about two thirds of its population. New York has 2 senators and 34 representatives in Congress, and 36 votes in the electoral college. Sea Battery, West Point. centei's, and various other institutions or agencies of edu- cation. The regents meet several times a year at AUiany. At West Point is the United States Militar.y Academy, founded and maintained by the Federal government. In 1705 the legislatiu'e passed an " act for the encouragement of schools," whicli may be regarded as the foundation of the public school system of the state. The Department of Public Instruction was created in 1854. Its chief administrative officer is tlie state superintendent, who has many assistants, appointed by himself. There are boards of education in cities and in union free school dis- tricts; city superintendents and .scliool commissioners are elected to supervise the schools in districts designated by the county supervisors. In the towns of the state there are over 11,000 school districts. More than 30,000 licensed teachers are employed, and instruction is provided for about 1,500,000 children. There are several hundred union free schools. They have larger functions than district schools. At Albany is the State Normal College. State normal schools are lo- cated at Brockport, Buffalo, Cortland, Fredonia, Geneseo, New Paltz, New York city (Jamaica), Oueonta, Oswego, Plattsburg, and Potsdam. NEW YORK. Nfw Yuik The Lower Part of Manhattan as seen from the Harbor. CITIES. NEW YORK. Wliere is the city of Xew York 1 Give reasons why a great coimiiercial city would naturally spring up at that place. Tell why manufactures would flourish there. New York city is the metropolis of the American coii- tiueiit, and, except London, is the largest city in the world. It is noted for the advantages and beauties of its situation on New York Bay and neighboring waters. It comprises the whole of the counties of New York, Kings, Queens, and Richmond. The extreme length of the city from north to south is aljoitt 37 miles, and its greatest width nearly 25 miles. It has an area of about 360 square miles. The city is divided into five boroughs — the borough of Manhattan, which includes Manhattan Island and the smaller islands in the East River and New York Bay ; the borough of Brooklyn, coextensive with the county of Kings; the borough of the Bronx, which embraces that part of the city north of Manhattan and Queens; the borough of Queens, coextensive with Queens county, and including all that part of the city on Long Island oittside of the borough of Brooklyn; and the borough of Rich- mond, which comprises the whole of Staten Island. No other city in the world is in every way more advan- tageously situated for commerce. Its harbor facilities are unsurpassed. New York Bay consists of two parts — the Lower Bay and the Upper Bay. The former, which is tri- angular in shape, has an area of 88 square miles, and affords safe anchorage for ships. It is connected with the Upper Bay by the Narrows, a grand water way one mile wide. This channel is the principal route of ocean vessels to the wharfage front of the city. The LTpper Bay is of an oval shape, and has an area of 30 square miles. East River connects the harbor with Long Island Sound, and is na\-i- gable for large vessels. On this river, in the borough of Brooklyn, is located the chief navy yard of the United States. On the opposite side of Manhattan Island the harbor receives the waters of the Hudson, here one mile wide, and deep enough for ocean steamships. It affords several square miles of good anchorage. The water front of the city available for vessels has a total length of about 75 miles. New York has water communication not only with all seaports, but, through Hudson River and Erie Canal, with the ports of the Great Lakes, and through the Hudson and Champlain Canal witli Lake Cliamplaiu and the ports of the St. Lawrence. Radiating from the city are numer- ous railroads which connect it with every place of ini- l)ortance in North America, making the whole country, in a commercial sense, tributary to it. Its commercial superiority, and the convenience with which raw materials may be brought in, and maiutfac- tured articles sent out, have given to the city tmexcelled advantages as a manufacturing centei-. In no other place in our country are things made in such great \-ariety oi-, in the aggregate, of so much value. The articles most largely manufactured are clothing, books, food stuffs, cigars and tol)acco, musical instruments, and machinery. Immense amounts of money are requii'ed for the transaction of the city's varied business. Nowhere else bi the world, except in Loudon, is there such a combination of banking capital, accumulated wealth, and speculative activity. Here is situated the subtreasury of the LTnited States, where 2000 millions of dollars in actiial cash are handled within a single year ; here is the New York Clearing House, where the average operations of a day involve the exchange of nearly 200 millions of dol- lars ; and here are more than 200 banks and Isankiug institutions, and the headquarters of many great insurance and ttnancial trust companies. A city which is at once the commercial, manufacturing, and financial center of a great continent must have a large poi:)ulation, constanth' increased by the intlux of jieople from all quarters. The estimated population of New York city is al)Out 3,500,000. Almost every nationality is repre- sented. New York is jitstly famous for the number and char- acter of its educational institutions. Among the best known are Coluntbia University, New York UniA^ersity, the College of the City of New York, the College of St. Francis Xavier, and Bellevue Hospital Meortant commei-cial city. The falls of the Genesee furnish vast water power. Population of the city in 1892, 144,831 ; in 1898, estimated at about 175,000. Rochester is a great railroad center, and the Erie ('anal ])asses through the cit}'. The surrounding country is a rich agricultural district, and here are the largest fruit and ornamental tree nur.series in the United States. The manufactures include foundry and machine shop products, clothing, flour, beer, tobacco and cigars, shoes, carriages, and furniture. This city is the seat of the University of Rochester, the State Indus- trial School, and the Rochester State Hospital for the insane. Alhauji, the county seat of Albany county, is the capi- tal of the state. Its situation on the Hudson, and the rail- roads and canals which center here, give it great commer- cial advantages. The population in 1892 was 97,120. Albany has a large trade in lundier and grain, and nianufactui-es of iron products, carriages, boots and shoes, and a great variety of other articles. Besides the State Normal College, here are located the State Library, the Dudley Observatory, and the Ge- ological and Ag-ricultural Hall. Si/racuse, the county seat of Onon- daga county, is an important railroad and canal center. It was long noted for its salt works. It has many large manufactures, including u'on and steel, agi'ieultural implements, ma- chinery, shoes, wagons and carriages, bicycles, soda, and i>aper. Here is the location of Syra- cuse University, and of the Syracuse State In- Business Block, Buffalo. stitution for Feeble-minded Children. Population in 1892, 01.994; estimated in 1898 at moi-e than 135,000. Trui/, the county seat of Rensselaer county, is on the Hudson, at the head of tide-water and steamboat naviga- tion, 6 miles altove Albany. It is also at the southern terminus of Champlain Canal. It has great commercial facilities by railroad and canal. Among its numerous manufactories are immense iron and steel works, and the city is noted for the nuinufaeture of shirts, collars, and cuffs. In 1892 the population was 64,986 ; in 1898, eslinuited at 67,000. Troy is the seat of the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Utica, the county seat of Oneichi county, has a fine ele- vated situation on the Mohawk River. It is an important railroad and canal center, is surrounded by one of the richest agricidtui-al regions of the country, and is a lead- ing mai'ket for dair\- products. NEW YORK. 11 Here are large manufactures of cotton and woolen goods, l)oots and shoes, fur- naces, and guns. This city is the seat of tlie Utica State Hospital for the insane, aud of a large masonic home. Bhii/li<(iiiUii/, tlii^ couiity seat of Broome county, is a vail road center, at the junction of the >Sus(iuehanna and Clienaugo rivers. It has a large trade in coal, flour, and lumber, and among its numerous raanufac- tm-es are cigars, clothing, boots and shoes, engines, machinei-y, and furniture. It is the seat of Binghamton State Hospital for the insane. Yonkers, in Westchester county, adjoins New York city on its north- ern 1)order. It is beautifully situ- ated opposite the Palisades, and has many fine residences. Here is a large sugar refinery, and the man- ufactures include carpets, hats, rib- bons, elevators, aud proprietary medicines. Ehiiira, the county seat of Che- mung county, is a railroad center, with aluuidant water power, and many industries. It has rolling mills, Hour mills, tanneries, breweries, and other manufactories. It is the seat of Elmira Fe- male College, and of the New York State Eeforma- tory. Aitbiim is the county seat of Cayuga county. Owasco Lake, supplies abtuidaiit water power, and the city Genesee Falls, Rochester. manufacturt agricultural implements, silk and woolen goods, boots and shoes, and numerous other products. Aul)urn is the seat of a state prison. Newhurgh is situated in Orange county, on the west Ijank of the Hudson. It is an important railroad cen- ter, and has a large trade and various niain;factures. The house here which was Washington's headquarters attracts many visitors. CoJioes, in Albany county, at the junction of the Mo- hawk with the Hudson, has immense water power, and great manufactures of hosier}^ and knit goods. Here are also foundries, rolling mills, and machine shops. Poa(ihkccps'u\ the county seat of Dutchess coiinty, has a large trade, and a diversity of manufactures. It is the seat of Vassar College and other excellent educational in- stitutions, and of the Hudson River State Hospital for tlie insane. A fine railroad bridge here crosses the Hudson. Oswcffo, the county seat of Os- wego county, has a good ha,rl)or on Lake Oiitai'io, and a. great coni- nierce. Large quantities of coal arc! exported. Here are starch fac;- toi'ies, iron works, and woolen mills. Kinf/ston is the county seat of Ulster county. Its advantages of situation on iho Hudson, on various railroad lin<'s, and as tht^ tei'iiiinus of an inqiortant canal, giv<3 it a, large traffic in coal, ice, and other commodities. It has also varied manufactures. Scheuectadi/, the county seat of Schenec- tady county, is ou the south bank of the Mo- hawk. It has locomotive works, broom fac- tories, electrical works, knitting mills, and a large raanufactm'e of agricultural imple- ments. Here is the seat of Union University. Jaiiiestoini, in (Jhautauqua county, is sur- rounded by a rich agricultural region, and has foimdries, machine shops, and manufac- tures o£ woolen goods, furniture, boots and shoes, and other articles. Ainslenlam is in Montgomery county, and ou the Mohawk River. It manufactures knit goods, carpets, Ijrooms, furniture, linseed oil, steel springs, furniture, and bicycles. Wateriown, the county seat of Jefferson county, is the center of a dairying district. It has abundant water power, and manufactui'es paper, carnages and wagons, and agTicultural implements. Lockport, the county seat of Ni- agara county, is on the Erie Canal, which here descends about 60 feet by five double locks, furnishing water power for numerous manu- factories. Sto'ne for building an