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Department of Education 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 United States Commission to the Paris Exposition of 1900 
 
 MONOGRAPHS ON EDUCATION 
 
 UNITKD STATKS 
 
 edited by 
 
 NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER 
 Professor of Philosophy and Education in Colu?nbia University, New York 
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 
 WILLIAM T. HARRIS 
 United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. 
 
 This Monograph is contributed to the United States' Educational Exhibit by the 
 
 State of New York. 
 

 Copyright by 
 J. B. LYON COMPANY 
 
 I 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Part I General survey of the school system of the United States 3 
 
 Part II Educational organization in the United States 18 
 
 Part III The course of study 30 
 
 Part IV Relation of the schools to the social and political forms of the 
 
 United States 37 
 
 Part V The historical beginnings of schools in the United States 41 
 
 Part VI Appendixes 50-63 
 
 I Table: pupils, public and private, all grades 50 
 
 II Pupils, common schools 52 
 
 III Common school statistics 54 
 
 IV Educational statistics by states 55 
 
 V Corporal punishment |7 
 
 VI Teachers' pensions 5& 
 
 VII Statistics of railroad-building 59 
 
 VIII Statistics of text-book regulations 59 
 
 IX Average amount of schooling per inhabitant 63 
 
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 
 PART I GENERAL SURVEY OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 In all the schools of the United States, public and private, 
 elementary, secondary and higher, there were enrolled in the 
 year 1898 about sixteen and one-half millions (16,687,643) 
 pupils. (Sec appendix I.) This number includes all who 
 attended at any time in the year for any period, however 
 short. But the actual average attendance for each pupil 
 in the public schools (supported by taxes) did not exceed 
 98 days, although the average length of the school session 
 was 1 43. 1 days. There were enrolled in the aggregate 
 of public and private schools out of each 100 of the popu- 
 lation between the ages of 5 and 18 years, 71 pupils. 
 
 Out of the entire number of sixteen and a half millions 
 of pupils deduct the pupils of private and parochial schools 
 of all kinds, elementary, secondary, higher, and schools for 
 art, industry and business, for defective classes and Indians, 
 there remain over 15,000,000 for the public school enroll- 
 ment, or nearly 91 per cent of the whole. (See appendix I.) 
 In the 28 years since 1870 the attendance on the public 
 schools has increased from less than 7,000,000 to 15,000,000. 
 (Appendix II.) The expenditures have increased some- 
 what more, namely, from 63,000,000 to 199,000,000 of dol- 
 lars per annum, an increase from $1.64 per capita of popu- 
 lation to $2.67. To account for this pro rata increase of 
 61 per cent in the cost of the common schools one must 
 allow for a slight increase in the average length of the school 
 term, aiK:t for the increase of enrollment from less than 17 
 per cent to more than 20 per cent of the population. But 
 the chief items of increase are to be found in teachers' 
 wages for professionally educated teachers, and the cost of 
 
4 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [8o 
 
 expert supervision. These account for more than two-thirds 
 of the 50 per cent, while the remaining one-sixth (of the 
 whole) is due to better apparatus and more commodious 
 school buildinofs. 
 
 The increase of cities and large villages, owing to the 
 influence of the railroad, has brought nearly one-half the 
 school population within reach of the graded school holding 
 a long session of from 180 to 200 days per year, and taught 
 by professional teachers. (See appendix III.) In 1870 
 there were for each 10,000 inhabitants 12.75 niiles of 
 railway, but in 1890 the number of miles of railway for the 
 same number of inhabitants had risen to 26.12 miles, or 
 more than double the former amount. The effect of this 
 increase of railway is to extend the suburbs of cities and 
 vastly increase the urban population. The rural schools in 
 sparsely settled districts still continue their old practice of 
 holding a winter school with a session of 60 to 80 days 
 only, and taught by the makeshift teacher who works at 
 some other employment for two-thirds of the year. The 
 school year of ideal length should be about 200 days, or 
 
 5 days per week for 40 weeks, i. e., nine and one-half months. 
 In the early days of city schools the attempt was made 
 to hold a session of over 46 weeks in length, allowing only 
 six weeks or less for three short vacations. But experi- 
 ence of their advantage to the pupil has led to the increase 
 of the holidays to nearly double the former amount. 
 
 Reducing the total average attendance in all the schools, 
 public and private, to years of 200 school days each, it 
 is found that the average total amount of schooling each 
 individual of the population would receive at the rates 
 of attendance and length of session for 1898, is five years, 
 counting both private and public schools. 
 
 The average schooling, it appears from the above show- 
 ing, amounts to enough to secure for each person a. li^ttle-^ 
 more than one-half of an elementary school course of eight 
 years, — enough to enable the future citizen to read the 
 newspaper, to write fairly well, to count, add, subtract, mul- 
 
8l] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 5 
 
 tiply and divide, and use the simplest fractions. In addition 
 he acquires a little geographical knowledge, so important to 
 enable him to understand the references or allusions in his 
 daily newspaper to places of interest in other parts of the 
 world. But the multipli^:!./ of cheap books and periodicals 
 makes the life of the averp^je citizen a continuation of school 
 to some extent. His kno ^ ledge of reading is called into use 
 constantly, and he is obliged to extend gradually his knowl- 
 edge of the rudiments of geography and history. Even his 
 daily gossip in his family, In the shop, or in the field is to 
 some extent made up of comments on the affairs of the state, 
 the nation, or distant peoples, — China, Japan, Nicaraugua, 
 or the Sandwich islands, as the case may be, — and world 
 interests, to a degree, take the place of local scandals in his 
 thoughts. Thus, too, he picks up scraps of science and 
 literature from the newspaper, and everything that he learns 
 becomes at once an instrument for the acquirement of 
 further knowledge. In a nation governed chiefly by public 
 opinion digested and promulgated by the daily newspaper, 
 this knowledge of the rudiments of reading, writing, arith- 
 metic and geography is of vital importance. An illiterate 
 population is impenetrable by newspaper influence, and for 
 it public opinion in any wide sense is impossible ; its local 
 prejudices are not purified or eliminated by thought and 
 feeling in reference to objects common to the whole civilized 
 world. 
 
 The transformation of an illiterate population into a 
 population that reads the daily newspaper, and perforce 
 thinks on national and international interests, is thus far the 
 greatest good accomplished by the free public school system 
 of the United States. It must be borne in mind that the 
 enrollment in school of one person in every five of the entire 
 .4?X)pulatiori of the country means the same result for the 
 southern states as for the nort hern, sin ce the states on the 
 Gulf of Mexico enroll nearly 22 per cent of their total popu- 
 lation, colored and white, and the south Atlantic 20.70 per 
 cent, while the north Atlantic and the western, mountain and 
 
6 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [82 
 
 Pacific divisions enroll only i8 per cent, having a much 
 smaller ratio of children of school age. 
 
 In a reading population one section understands the 
 motives of the other, and this prevents political differences 
 from becoming too wide for solution by partisan politics. 
 When one section cannot any longer accredit the other with 
 honest and patriotic motives, war is only a question of time. 
 That this general prevalence of elementary education is 
 accompanied by a comparative neglect of the secondary and 
 higher courses of study is evident from the fact that out of 
 the number of pupils enrolled more than ninety-five in every 
 hundred are pursuing elementary studies ; less than four in 
 a hundred are in secondary studies in high schools, acade- 
 mies and other institutions ; only one in a hundred (13 in 
 one thousand) is in a college or a school for higher studies. 
 
 In considering the reasons for the increase of the length 
 of the term of the elementary school and its adoption of a 
 graded course of study, one comes upon the most important 
 item of improvement that belongs to the recent history of 
 education, namely, the introduction of professionally trained 
 teachers. The first normal school established in the United 
 States recently celebrated its fiftieth anniversary. It was 
 founded at Lexington, Massachusetts, in 1839. The num- 
 ber of public normal schools supported by the state or 
 municipal governments has increased since that year to 167, 
 enrolling 46,245 students, and graduating nearly 8,000 per 
 annum. To this number are to be added 1 78 private normal 
 schools, with an aggregate of 21,293 students and 2,000 
 graduates. In 1880 there were 240 normal school students 
 in each million of inhabitants; in 1897 there were 936, or 
 nearly four times as many in each million. 
 
 The professionally educated teacher finds his place in the 
 graded schools, above mentioned as established [n cities and 
 large villages, and kept in session for the entire scholastic 
 
 tendents that graduates o{,in'.m;il,Fj:,, ontr ^'et" to ' 
 improve in skill and efficiency for many years. The ad van- ' 
 
83] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 7 
 
 tage of the professionally educated teacher above others is 
 to be found in the fact that he has been trained to observe 
 methods and devices of instruction. On entering a school 
 taught by another teacher he at once sees, without special 
 effort, the methods of teaching and management, and notes 
 the defects as well as the strong points if there are any. 
 He is constantly increasing his number of successful 
 devices to secure good behavior without harsh measures, 
 and to secure industry and critical attention in study. Every 
 normal school has a thorough course of study in the ele- 
 mentary branches, taking them up in view of the higher 
 branches from which they are derived, and explaining their 
 difficult topics. This kind of work prepares the teacher in 
 advance for the mishaps of the pupil, and arms him with the 
 skill to assist self-activity by teaching the pupil to analyze 
 his problem into its elements. He can divide each step that 
 is too long for the pupil to take, into its component steps, 
 down to any required degree of simplicity. The normal 
 school graduate, too, other things being equal, has a better 
 idea than other teachers of the educational value of a branch 
 of study. He knows what points are essential, and what are 
 accidental and subsidiary. He therefore makes his pupils 
 thoroughly acquainted with those strategical positions, and 
 shows him how to conquer all the rest through these. 
 
 As it would appear from the statistics given, the rural dis- 
 tricts are precluded by their short school terms from securing 
 professional teachers. The corps of teachers in a highly- 
 favored city will be able to claim a large percentage of its 
 rank and file as graduates of its municipal training schools 
 — perhaps 50 to 60 per cent. But the cities and villages as 
 a whole in their graded schools cannot as yet show an aver- 
 age of more than one teacher in four who has received the 
 diploma of a normal school. 
 
 T-^rA-UOthfer important advantage has been named as belong- 
 
 -iSg-^^sHt^- schools of the vilkge or city.- They ?.4:e-g-r-aded 
 
 schools and have a regular course of study, uniformity of 
 
 tGAL-Dooks, and a proper classification of pupils. In the 
 
8 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [84 
 
 small rural schools some 20 to 50 pupils are brought together 
 under one teacher. Their ages vary from 4 years to 20, and 
 their degree of advancement ranges from new beginners in 
 the alphabet up to those who have attended school for 10 or 
 12 winters, and are now attempting Latin and algebra. It 
 often happens that there is no uniformity of text-books, except 
 perhaps in the spelling-book and reader, each pupil bringing 
 such arithmetic, geography or grammar as his family at home 
 happens to possess. Twenty pupils are classified in three 
 classes in reading, three in spelling, and perhaps as many 
 classes in arithmetic, grammar, geography, and other studies 
 as there are pupils pursuing those branches. The result is 
 from 20 to 40 separate lessons to look after, and perhaps five 
 or 10 minutes to devote to each class exercise. The teacher 
 finds himself limited to examining the pupil on the work 
 done in memorizing the words of the book, or to comparing 
 the answers he has found to the arithmetic problems with 
 those in the printed key, occasionally giving assistance in 
 some difficult problem that has baffled the efforts of the 
 pupil — no probing of the lesson by analytical questions, no 
 restatement of the ideas in the pupil's own words, and no 
 criticism on the data and methods of the text-book. 
 
 This was the case in the old-time district school — such 
 as existed in 1790, when 29 out of 30 of the population 
 lived in rural districts; also as late as 1840, when only one 
 in twelve lived in a city. As the railroad has caused vil- 
 lages to grow into cities, so it has virtually moved into the 
 city a vast population living near railway stations in the 
 country by giving them the morning newspaper and rapid 
 transportation. In 1890 one-third of the population were 
 living in cities of not less than 8,000 inhabitants. But the 
 suburban populations made urban by the railroad — as indi- 
 cated above — would swell the city population" to one-half_ 
 of the whole nation. Hence the great change novv^ taktng^ 
 placeTn methods of building school houses and in oman- 
 izing schools. 
 
 In the ungraded schools the naturally bright pupils accom- 
 
85] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 9 
 
 plished a fair amount of work if they happened to have good 
 text-books. They were able to teach themselves from the 
 books. But the rank and file of the school learned a little 
 reading, writing and arithmetic, and probably studied the 
 same book for several winters, beginning at the first page 
 on the first day of school each year. Those who needed no 
 help from the teacher learned to help themselves and enjoyed 
 a delightful freedom. Those who were slow and dull did 
 not get much aid. Their industry may have been stimulated 
 by fear of the rod, which was often used in cases of real or 
 supposed indolence. Harsh measures may succeed in forc- 
 ing pupils to do mechanical work, but they cannot secure 
 much development of the power of thought. Hence the 
 resources of the so-called "strict" teacher were to compel 
 the memorizing of the words of the book. 
 
 With the growth from the rural to the urban condition of 
 population the method of " individual instruction," as it is 
 called, giving it a fine name, has been supplanted by class 
 instruction, which prevails in village and city schools. The 
 individual did not get much instruction under the old plan, 
 for the simple reason that his teacher had only five or ten 
 minutes to examine him on his daily work. In the properly 
 graded school each teacher has two classes, and hears one 
 recite while the other learns a new lesson. Each class is 
 composed of twenty to thirty pupils of nearly the same 
 qualifications as regards the degree of progress made in 
 their studies. The teacher has thirty minutes for a recita- 
 tion (or " lesson " as called in England), and can go into the 
 merits of the subject and discuss the real thoughts that it 
 involves. The meaning of the words in the book is probed, 
 and the pupil made to explain it in his own language. But 
 besides this all pupils learn more by a class recitation than 
 by an individlual recitation. For in the class each can see 
 tSeTSon reflected in the minds of his fellow-pupils, and 
 undersfand his teacher's views much better when drawn out 
 in the form of a running commentary on the mistakes of the 
 duller or more indolent pupils. The dull ones are encour- 
 
lO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [86 
 
 aged and awakened to effort by finding themselves able to 
 see the errors and absurdities of fellow-pupils. For no two 
 minds take precisely the same view of a text-book exposition 
 of a topic. One child is impressed by one phase of it, and 
 another by a different phase. In the class recitation each 
 one has his crude and one-sided views corrected more or 
 less by his fellows, some of whom have a better comprehen- 
 sion of this point, and some of that point, in the lesson. He, 
 himself, has some glimpses of the subject that are more ade- 
 quate than those of his fellows. 
 
 The possibilities of a class recitation are, therefore, very 
 great for efficient instruction in the hands of a teacher who 
 understands his business. For he can marshal the crude 
 notions of the members of the class one after another, and 
 turn on them the light of all the critical acumen of the class 
 as a whole, supplemented by his own knowledge and experi- 
 ence. From beginning to end, for thirty minutes, the class 
 recitation is a vigorous training in critical alertness. The 
 pupil afterwards commences the preparation of his next les- 
 son from the book with what are called new " apperceptive " 
 powers, for he finds himself noticing and comprehending 
 many statements and a still greater number of implications 
 of meaning in his lesson that before had not been seen or 
 even suspected. He is armed with a better power of analy- 
 sis, and can "apperceive," or recognize and identify, more of 
 the items of information, and especially more of the thoughts 
 and reflections, than he was able to see before the discus- 
 sions that took place in the recitation. He has in a sense 
 gained the points of view of fellow-pupils and teacher, in 
 addition to his own. 
 
 It is presupposed that the chief work of the pupil in school is 
 the mastery of text-books containing systematic treatises giv- 
 ing the elements of branches of learning taught in the schools. 
 For in the United States more than in any other ^QJAfltrv^ 
 text-book instruction has pred^mirtafee-d €>v«r-e>raI-4ftsti^4i€Seft~ 
 its method in this respect being nearly the opposite of the 
 method in vogue in the elementary schools of Germcm^y. 
 
87J ELEMENTARY EDUCATION II 
 
 The evil of memorizing words without understanding their 
 meaning or verifying the statements made in the text-book 
 is incident to this method and is perhaps the most widely 
 prevalent defect in teaching to be found in the schools of the 
 United States. It is condemned universally, but, neverthe- 
 less, practiced. The oral method of Germany escapes this 
 evil almost entirely, but it encounters another evil. The 
 pupil taught by the oral method exclusively is apt to lack 
 power to master the printed page and get out of it the full 
 meaning ; he needs the teacher's aid to explain the techni- 
 cal phrases and careful definitions. The American method 
 of text-book instruction throws the child upon the printed 
 page and holds him responsible for its mastery. Hence 
 even in the worst forms of verbal memorizing there is per- 
 force acquired a familiarity with language as it appears to 
 the eye in printed form which gradually becomes more use- 
 ful for scholarly purposes than the knowledge of speech 
 addressed to the ear. This is the case in all technical, or 
 scientific language, and in all poetry and literary prose ; the 
 new words or new shades of meaning require the mind to 
 pause and reflect. This can be done in reading but not in 
 listening to an oral delivery. 
 
 In the United States the citizen must learn to help him- 
 self in this matter of gaining information, and for this reason 
 he must use his school time to acquire the art of digging 
 knowledge out of books. Hence we may say that a deep 
 instinct or an unconscious need has forced American schools 
 into an excessive use of the text-book method. 
 
 In the hands of a trained teacher the good of the method 
 is obtained and the evil avoided. The pupil is taught to 
 assume a critical attitude towards the statements of the book 
 and to test and verify them, or else disprove them by appeal 
 iS.Qtll^i:.!authorities, or to actual experiments. 
 ^IHu^^-^^^ Jiovers betore-alLj^achers^jeveiLthe^pooxest, 
 but it is realized only by the best class of teachers found in 
 the schools of the United States, — a class that is already 
 large and is constantly increasing, thanks to the analytic 
 
 J-JfcV/ 
 
12 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [88 
 
 methods taught in the normal schools. Text-book memoriz- 
 ing is giving place to the method of critical investigation. 
 
 This review of methods suggests a good definition of 
 school instruction. It is the process of re-enforcing the 
 sense-perception of the individual pupil by adding the expe- 
 rience of the race as preserved in books, and it is more espe- 
 cially the strengthening of his powers of thought and insight 
 by adding to his own reflections the points of view and the 
 critical observations of books interpreted by his teachers and 
 fellow-pupils. 
 
 In the graded school the pupil is held responsible for his 
 work in a way that is impossible in the rural school of 
 sparsely-settled districts. Hence the method of investiga- 
 tion, as above described, is found in the city schools rather 
 than in the rural schools. Where each pupil forms a class 
 by himself, there is too little time for the teacher to ascertain 
 the character of the pupil's understanding of his book. 
 Even if he sees that there has been a step missed somewhere 
 by the child in learning his lesson, he cannot take time to 
 determine precisely what it is. Where the ungraded school 
 makes some attempt at classification of pupils it is obliged 
 to unite into one class say of arithmetic, grammar, or geog- 
 raphy, pupils of very different degrees of progress. The 
 consequence is that the most advanced pupils have not 
 enough work assigned them, being held back to the standard 
 of the average. They must " mark time " (or go through 
 the motions of walking without advancing a step) -Cvhile the 
 rest are coming up. The least advanced find the average 
 lesson rather too much for them, and become discouraged 
 after trying in vain to keep step with their better prepared 
 fellow-pupils. This condition of affairs is to be found in 
 many rural districts even of those states where the advantages' 
 of classification are seen and appreciated in citj^Sch'^Pkf-il -: 
 an effort is in progress to extend those advantages txS^ -the 
 ruraTsclrooTs. Bimihe remedy has been, in many~ cases 
 worse than the disease. For it has resulted that cV ex....-; fi ca- 
 tion gets in the way of self-help which the bright pupil is 
 
89] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 3 
 
 capable of, and the best scholars "mark time" listlessly, 
 while the poorest get discouraged, and only the average 
 pupils gain something. 
 
 It must be admitted, too, that in many village schools just 
 adopting the system of grading, this evil of holding back 
 the bright pupils and of over-pressure on the dull ones exists, 
 and furnishes just occasion for the criticism which is made 
 against the so-called "machine" character of the American 
 public school. The school that permits such poor classifica- 
 tion, or that does not keep up a continual process of read- 
 justing the classification by promoting pupils from lower 
 classes to those above them, certainly has no claim to be 
 ranked with schools organized on a modern ideal. 
 
 I have dwelt on this somewhat technical matter because 
 of its importance in understanding the most noteworthy 
 improvements in progress in the schools of the United 
 States. Briefly, the population is rapidly becoming urban, 
 the schools are becoming " graded," the pupils of the lowest 
 year's work placed under one teacher, and those of the next 
 degree of advancement under a second teacher ; perhaps 
 from eight to twenty teachers in the same building, thus form- 
 ing a "union school," as it is called in some sections. Here 
 there is division of labor on the part of teachers, one taking 
 only classes just beginning to learn to read and write, another 
 taking the pupils in a higher grade. The inevitable conse- 
 quence of such division of labor is increase of skill. The 
 teacher comes to know just what to do in a given case of 
 obstructed progress — just what minute steps of work to 
 introduce — just what thin wedges to lift the pupil over the 
 threshold that holds back the feeble intellect from entering 
 a new and hig-her degfree of human learninor. 
 
 It will be asked : What proportion of the teachers of 
 cities and villages habitually use this higher method in con- 
 .<^&ctirA!^' recitations. According to a careful estimate, at 
 W^st ''>ne-ha-lf of them may reasonably claim to have some 
 skill in its use; of the one-half in the elementary schools 
 who use it perhaps two-fifths conduct all their recitations so 
 
14 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [9O 
 
 as to make the work of their pupils help each individual in 
 correcting defects of observation and critical alertness. Per- 
 haps the other three-fifths use the method in teaching some 
 branches, but cling to the old memoriter system for the rest. 
 It may be claimed for graduates of normal schools that a 
 large majority follow the better method. 
 
 The complaint urged against the machine character of the 
 modern school has been mentioned. I suppose that this 
 complaint is made quite as often against good schools as 
 against poor ones. But the critical-probing method of con- 
 ducting a recitation is certainly not machine-like in its effects. 
 It arouses in the most powerful manner the activity of the 
 pupil to think and observe for himself. Machine-like schools 
 do not follow this critical method, but are content with the 
 memoriter system, that prescribes so many pages of the book 
 to be learned verbally, but does not inquire into the pupil's 
 understanding, or "apperception," as the Herbartians call it. 
 It is admitted that about 50 per cent of the teachers actually 
 teaching in the schools of villages and cities use this poor 
 method. But it is certain that their proportion in the corps 
 of teachers is diminishing, thanks to the two causes already 
 alluded to : first, the multiplication of professional schools 
 for the training of teachers ; and second, the employment of 
 educational experts as supervisors of schools. 
 
 The rural schools, which in the United States enroll one- 
 half of the entire number of school children, certainly lack 
 good class teaching, even when they are so fortunate as to 
 obtain professionally educated teachers, and not five per cent 
 of such schools in the land succeed in procuring better serv- 
 ices than the " makeshift" teacher can give. The worst that 
 can be said of these poorly taught schools is that the pupils 
 are either left to help themselves to knowledge by reading 
 their books under the plan of individual instr-aCc^y ^i^v ixi the 
 attempt at classification and grading, the average'-'pu-pilg 
 
 learn something, while the bright pupils become listJiiJ an^ 
 indolent for want of tasks commensurate with tKelr ctreng-th 
 and the backward pupils lose their courage for their want of 
 
9l] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 5 
 
 ability to keep step. Even under these circumstances the 
 great good is accomplished that all the pupils learn the 
 rudiments of reading, writing and arithmetic, and all are 
 made able to become readers of the newspapers, the mao'a- 
 zines, and finally of books. 
 
 Another phase of the modern school that more than any- 
 thing else gives it the appearance of a machine, and the 
 American city schools are often condemned for their mechan- 
 ism, is its discipline, or method of organization and govern- 
 ment. In the rural school with twenty-five pupils, more or 
 less, it makes little difference whether pupils come into the 
 school room and go out in military order, so far as the work 
 of the school is concerned. But in the graded school with 
 three hundred to eight hundred pupils order and discipline 
 are necessary down to the last particular, for the safety of 
 the pupils as well as for the accomplishment of the ends for 
 which the school exists. There must be regularity and 
 punctuality, silence and conformity to order, in coming and 
 going. The whole school seems to move like a machine. 
 In the ungraded school a delightful individuality prevails, 
 the pupil helping himself to knowledge by the use of the 
 book, and coming and going pretty much as he pleases, with 
 no subordination to rigid discipline, except perhaps when 
 standing in class for recitation. 
 
 Regularity, punctuality, silence, and conformity to order, 
 — military drill, — seem at first to be so much waste of 
 energy, — necessary, it is true, for the large school, but to be 
 subtracted from the amount of force available for study and 
 thought. But the moment the question of moral training 
 comes to be investigated, the superiority of the education 
 given in the large school is manifest. The pupil is taught 
 to be regular and punctual in his attendance on school and 
 in all hisjji.QY^nients, not for the sake of the school alone, 
 feit teuf Ji^tt his relations to his fellow-men. Social combina- 
 tio*' is made possible by these semi-mecVianicai virtues: ' 
 The pupil learns to hold back his animal impulse to chatter 
 or whisper to his fellows and to interrupt their serious 
 
l6 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [92 
 
 absorption in recitation or study, and by so much self- 
 restraint he begins to form a good habit for life. He learns 
 to respect the serious business of others. By whispering he 
 can waste his own time and also that of others. In moving 
 to and fro by a sort of military concert and precision he 
 acquires the impulse to behave in an orderly manner, to stay 
 in his own place and not get in the way of others. Hence 
 he prepares for concerted action, — another important lesson 
 in citizenship, leaving entirely out of account its military 
 significance. 
 
 With the increase of cities and the growth of great indus- 
 trial combinations this discipline in the virtues that lie at 
 the basis of concerted action is not merely important, but 
 essential. In the railroad system a lack of those semi- 
 mechanical virtues would entirely unfit one for a place as 
 laborer or employee ; so, too, in a great mill or a great busi- 
 ness house. Precision, accuracy, implicit obedience to the 
 head or directive power, are necessary for the safety of 
 others and for the production of any positive results. The 
 rural school does not fit its pupils for an age of productive 
 industry and emancipation from drudgery by means of 
 machinery. But the city school performs this so well that it 
 reminds some people unpleasantly of a machine. 
 
 The ungraded school has been famous for its harsh 
 methods of discipline ever since the time of the flogging 
 schoolmaster Orbilius whom Horace mentions. The rural 
 schoolmaster to this day often prides himself on his ability 
 to " govern " his unruly boys by corporal punishment. 
 They must be respectful to his authority, obedient and studi- 
 ous, or else they are made to suffer bodily pain from the 
 hand of the teacher. But harsh discipline leaves indura- 
 tions on the soul itself, and is not compatible with a refined 
 type of civilization. The schoolmaster Wn-ouJ^uIlies^ Jiis 
 pupils into obedience does what he can to nurture t^eS mt^ 
 the same type as himself. •. ' ' ' ^ ^,.,,^ 
 
 In the matter of school discipline the graded school H^q 
 an advantage over the school of the rural district. A corps 
 
93] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION I 7 
 
 of teachers can secure good behavior more efficiently than a 
 single teacher. The system, and what is disparaged as its 
 " mechanism," help this result. In many cities of the largest 
 size in the United States, corporal punishment is seldom 
 resorted to, or is even entirely dispensed with. (See appen- 
 dix V.) The discipline of the school seems to improve 
 after the discontinuance of harsh punishments. The adop- 
 tion of a plan of building better suited for the purpose of 
 graded schools has had much to do with the disuse of the 
 rod. As long as the children to the number of one or two 
 hundred studied in a large room under the eye of the prin- 
 cipal of the school, and were sent out to small rooms to recite 
 to assistant teachers, the order of the school was preserved 
 by corporal punishment. When Boston introduced the new 
 style of school building with the erection of the Quincy 
 school in 1847, giving each class-teacher a room to herself, 
 in which pupils to the number of fifty or so prepared their 
 lessons under the eye of the same teacher that conducted 
 their recitations (£<?., "heard their lessons"), anew era in 
 school discipline began. It is possible to manage a school 
 in such a building with little or no corporal punishment. 
 
 The ideal of discipline is to train the pupil into habits of 
 self-government. This is accomplished partly by perfecting 
 the habit of moving in concert with others, and by self- 
 restraint in all actions that interfere with the work of other 
 p4jpils. 
 
 That the public schools of cities have worked great and 
 favorable changes to the advantage of civil order cannot be 
 doubted. They have generally broken up the feuds that 
 used to prevail between the people of different precincts. 
 Learning to live without quarreling with school-fellows is an 
 efficient preparation for an orderly and peaceful life with 
 
 T h-e ^aral school, with all its: shortcomings, was, and is 
 
 ' ^toSav'a great moral force for the sparsely settled regions, 
 
 blinking- together the youth of the scattered families, and 
 
 forming friendships, cultivating polite behavior, affording to 
 
1 8 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [94 
 
 each an insight into the motives and springG of action of his 
 neighbors, and teaching him how to co=operate with them in 
 securing a common good. 
 
 The city school is a stronger moral force than ihc rural 
 school because of its superior training in the social habits 
 named — regularity, punctuality, orderly concerted action 
 and self-restraint. 
 
 Take any country with a school system, and compare the 
 number of illiterate criminals with the total number of illit- 
 erate inhabitants, and also the number of criminals able to 
 read and write with the entire reading population, and it will 
 be found that the representation from the illiterate popula- 
 tion is many times larger than from an equal number of 
 people who can read and write. In the United States the pre- 
 vailing ratio is about eight to one — that is to say, the illit- 
 erate population sends eight times its quota to jails. In the 
 prisons or penitentiaries it is found that the illiterate stratum 
 of the population is represented by two and a half times its 
 quota. (See part IV of this monograph.) School educa- 
 tion is perhaps in this case not a cause so much as an index 
 of orderly tendencies in the family. A wayward tendency 
 will show itself in a dislike of the restraints of school. If, 
 however, the wayward can be brought under the humanizing 
 influences of school, trained in good behavior, which means 
 self-restraint and orderly concerted action, interested in 
 school studies and the pursuit of truth, what can do more to 
 insure a moral life, unless it is religion ? 
 
 PART II EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 The European student of education inquiring about 
 schools always asks concerning the laws and regulations 
 issued by the central government at Washington, taking for 
 granted that things of such interest as edueSvf^ii c';*-e^': ^;v 
 lated by the nation, as in Europe. 
 
 The central government of the United States, however 
 has never attempted any control over education within tKc 
 several states. It is further than ever from any such action 
 
95] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 9 
 
 at the present time. The idea of local self-government is 
 that each individual shall manao-e for himself such matters 
 as concern him alone ; that where two or more persons are 
 concerned the smallest political subdivision shall have juris- 
 diction and legislative powers ; where the well-being of sev- 
 eral towns is concerned the county or the state may determine 
 the action taken. But where the interests of more than one 
 state are concerned, the nation has ultimate control. 
 
 While the general government has not interfered to estab- 
 lish schools in the states, it has often aided them by dona- 
 tions of land, and in some cases by money, as in the acts of 
 1887 and 1890, which appropriate annual sums in aid of 
 agricultural experiment stations and increase the endowment 
 of agricultural colleges, which were formerly established in 
 1862 by generous grants of land. 
 
 The total amount of land donated to the several states 
 for educational purposes since 1785 to the present have been 
 as follows : 
 
 1. For public or common schools : Acres 
 
 Every i6th section of pubhc land in states admitted 
 prior to 1848 and the i6th and 36th sections since 
 (Utah, however, having four sections) 67,893,919 
 
 2. For seminaries or universities: 
 
 Two townships in each state or territory contain- 
 ing public land 1,165,520 
 
 3. For agricultural and mechanical colleges : 
 
 30,000 acres for each member of congress to which 
 
 the state is entitled 9,600,000 
 
 • Total number of acres 78,659,439 
 
 At the rate of one dollar and a quarter an acre (the tra- 
 ditional price asked by the government for its lands) this 
 arnountsj-^o about one hundred millions of dollars, 
 ^ Be&k'es this a perpetual endowment by act of 1887 is 
 'mp^e^^'i 1^,000'per anrium lbr^ach~agTiculturaT expermient 
 ctatlon connected with the state agricultural college, and 
 $25,000 perpetual additional endowment by act of 1890 for 
 
20 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION„ [96 
 
 each of the colleges themselves — this is equivalent to a 
 capitalized fund of one million dollars at four per cent for 
 each state and territory, or in the aggregate about fifty 
 millions more. 
 
 The general government supports the military school at 
 West Point, established in 1802, to which each congressional 
 district, territory (and the District of Columbia) is entitled 
 to send one cadet, the president appointing ten additional 
 cadets at large. Each cadet receives $540 a year to pay his 
 expenses. (The course of study is four years. The num- 
 ber of graduates between 1802 and 1876 was 2,640, about 
 fifty per cent of all admitted.) 
 
 The United States naval academy at Annapolis was estab- 
 lished in 1845. Its course of study in 1873 was extended to 
 six years. Cadets are appointed in the same manner as at 
 West Point. 
 
 The general government provides for the education of 
 the children of uncivilized Indians and for all the children in 
 Alaska, There have been, besides the general grants 
 referred to, special grants of land for educational purposes 
 such as the "swamp lands" (Acts of 1849, i^SO* i860), by 
 which 62,428,419 acres were given to 14 states (Alabama, 
 Arkansas, California, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Lou- 
 isiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio and 
 Wisconsin) and by some of these appropriated to education. 
 
 By the act of 1841 a half million of acres was given to 
 each of sixteen states (including all above named except 
 Indiana and Ohio, and besides these Kansas, Nebraska, 
 Nevada and Oregon). This gives an aggregate of 8,000,000 
 of acres, the proceeds of most of which was devoted to 
 education. The surplus funds of the United States treasury 
 were in 1837 loaned to the older states for educational 
 purposes to the amount of $15,000,000 and thi^,iund con- 
 stitutes a portion of the school fund in many of the states. 
 
 The aggregate value of tands and money ~given"tor~educa-~ 
 tion in the several states is therefore nearly three hunareri 
 millions of dollars. 
 
97] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 21 
 
 In 1867 congress established a national bureau of educa- 
 tion "for the purpose of collecting such statistics and facts 
 as shall show the condition and progress of education in the 
 several states and territories, and of diffusing such informa- 
 tion respecting the organization and management of school 
 systems and methods of teaching as shall aid the people of 
 the United States in the establishment and maintainance of 
 efficient school systems, and otherwise promote the cause of 
 education throughout the country." This bureau up to 
 1898 has published 350 separate volumes and pamphlets 
 including 30 annual reports ranging from 800 to 2,300 pages 
 each. The policy of the national government is to aid 
 education but not in anywise to assume its control. 
 
 The several states repeat in the general form of their state 
 constitutions the national constitution and deleg-ate to 
 the subdivisions — counties or townships — the manage- 
 ment of education. (See appendix VIII, The local unit of 
 school organization.) But each state possesses centralized 
 power and can exercise it when the public opinion of its 
 population demands such exercise. 
 
 Compulsory attendance — Even in colonial times as far back 
 as 1642 a compulsory law was enacted in Massachusetts 
 inflicting penalties on parents for the neglect of education. 
 In the revival of educational interest led by Horace Mann 
 in the years after 1837, it was felt that there must be a state 
 law, with specific provisions and penalties and this feeling 
 took definite shape and produced legislative action. A 
 truant law was passed in 1850 and a compulsory law in 
 1852, requiring a minimum of 12 weeks attendance on school 
 each year for children between the ages of eight and four- 
 teen under penalty of twenty dollars. 
 
 In the Connecticut eolony in 1650 the Massachusetts law 
 of 1642 ^as, adopted. Amendments were adopted in 1805 
 Imct^^i. By a law of 181 3 manufacturing establishments 
 were'eompelled to see that '' the children in their employ 
 were taug^ht to read, write and cipher [arithmetical calcu- 
 lation], and that attention was paid to their morals." In 
 
22 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [98 
 
 1842 a penalty was attached to a similar law which forbade 
 " the employment of children under the age of 15 years unless 
 they had been instructed at school at least three months of 
 the 12 preceding." 
 
 The efficiency of these early laws has been denied because 
 cases of prosecution have not been recorded. But a law- 
 abiding people does not wait until prosecuted before obey- 
 ing the law. 
 
 The existence of a reasonable law is sufficient to secure 
 its general obedience in most parts of the United States. 
 But in the absence of any law on the subject the parents 
 yield to their cupidity and do not send their children to 
 school. The efficiency of a law is to be found in its results 
 and if twenty parents in a district send their children to 
 school in obedience to the law and would not otherwise have 
 sent them, it follows that the law is very useful though the 
 twenty-first parent is obdurate and refuses to send his chil- 
 dren and yet is not prosecuted for it. 
 
 This explanation of the working of one compulsory law 
 will throw light on the working of compulsory laws in the 
 twenty-seven states and territories that have passed them. 
 There are exceptional localities in each state where an 
 obnoxious law is openly and frequently violated, but the 
 law is obeyed in all but a few places. In each locality, too, 
 there are individuals who are disposed to violate the law and 
 succeed in doing so, while all the citizens except these few 
 obey the law because they have a law-abiding disposition. 
 Abolish the law and the number who neglect the education 
 of their children will increase by a large per cent. More 
 and more attention has been given in later years to drafting 
 compulsory laws with provisions that are sure to be effi- 
 cient. The advocates of these new laws are apt in their 
 pleas for more stringent laws to do injustice to tJj^-Pld laws. 
 The following paragraphs show what states have adtyptecl 
 compulsory laws and the dates of adoption (the earlier'dktes 
 in Connecticut and Massachusetts being unnoticed) : 
 
 Statistics of compulsory attendance — Thirty states, one 
 
99] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 23 
 
 territory and the District of Columbia have laws making 
 education compulsory, generally at a public or approved 
 private school. Sixteen states and one territory do not 
 make education compulsory, although all of these have fully 
 organized systems of schools free to every child of school 
 age of whatever condition. 
 
 The most general period of required attendance at school 
 is from eight to fourteen years of age, as is the case in Ver- 
 mont, District of Columbia, West Virginia, Indiana, Michi- 
 gan, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Mon- 
 tana, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Idaho, Oregon and California. 
 It begins likewise at eight, but is extended to 15 in Maine 
 and Washington, and is from eight to 16 in New Hampshire, 
 Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Minnesota and New 
 Mexico. 
 
 The child is required to begin attendance at the earlier age 
 of seven, and continue to 12 in New Jersey, to 13 in Wiscon- 
 sin, to 14 in Massachusetts, Kentucky and Illinois; to 15 in 
 Rhode Island, and to 16 in Wyoming. 
 
 This is a general statement of age limits ; the required 
 time period is in some states shortened in the case of chil- 
 dren employed to labor, or extended in the case of those not 
 so employed, or growing up in idleness, or illiterate. 
 
 In Massachusetts and Connecticut the child is required to 
 attend the full time that the schools are in session ; in New 
 York and Rhode Island, also, the full term, with certain 
 exceptions in favor of children employed to work. In Penn- 
 sylvania the attendance is required for 70 per cent of the 
 full term ; in California for 66 2-3 per cent ; for 20 weeks 
 annually irt Vermont, New Jersey, Ohio and Utah ; 16 weeks 
 annually in Maine, West Virginia, Illinois, Michigan and 
 Nevada; 12 weeks annually in New Hampshire, District of 
 Columbi?L-«;^v.\j[^2.-na,- Wisconsin, Kansas, North Dakota, South 
 DakotV- Nebraska, New Mexic o, I daho, Washington, Ore- 
 p-on"^ ancFeight weeks annually in Kentucky. 
 
 In the following states habitual truants are sent to some 
 special institution (truant or industrial school, reformatory, 
 
24 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [lOO 
 
 parental home, etc.) : Maine, New Hampshire, Massachu- 
 setts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, 
 Pennsylvania, Indiana, Minnesota and Michigan. 
 
 Massachusetts requires counties, and New York requires 
 cities to maintain truant schools, or provide for their truants in 
 the truant schools of neighboring localities. Illinois requires 
 cities of over 100,000 inhabitants to maintain truant schools. 
 In Rhode Island towns and cities must provide suitable places 
 for the confinement and instruction of habitual truants. 
 
 Clothing is furnished in case of poverty to enable children 
 to attend school in Vermont, Indiana and Colorado. 
 
 Laws absolutely prohibiting the employment of children 
 under a specified minimum age in mercantile or manufactur- 
 ing establishments are in force in New Hampshire (under 
 10 years), Rhode Island (under 12), and Massachusetts and 
 Connecticut (under 14). These states, together with Ver- 
 mont, New York, New Jersey, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, 
 North and South Dakota, have laws permitting the employ- 
 ment of children of a certain age only while the schools are 
 not in session, or provided they have already attended school 
 a given number of weeks within the year. 
 
 Statistics of supervision — There are county superintend- 
 ents of schools in all those states where the county is a 
 political unit for the administration of civil affairs other than 
 courts of law. About thirty-five states have this form of 
 organization. But in the six New England states and in 
 Michigan the only supervision is that of the township, and 
 the counties in those states are units almost solely for the 
 administration of justice through county courts. In Arkan- 
 sas, Texas and North Carolina supervision is only that of 
 the subdivisions of townships described as districts. Louis- 
 iana, Mississippi and West Virginia have a modified town- 
 ship supervision. The county superintendent:;''!}.^-^ lected by 
 the people in only 13 states. In the rest they are appointed 
 by some state or county officers, or chosen by the cornbined 
 vote of the school boards. (See appendix VIII for ai\ expla- 
 nation of the local unit of school organization.) 
 
lOl] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 25 
 
 Each State has a superintendent of public instruction. 
 He has this title in 29 states; in the remaining states other 
 designations, as '* superintendent of common schools," '* of 
 free schools," or " of public schools," " of education " or 
 " commissioner of public schools," are used ; he is called 
 " secretary of state board of education " in Massachusetts 
 and Connecticut. 
 
 Eight hundred and thirty-six (836) cities have superin- 
 tendents of their public schools. 
 
 School boards — In cities the local boards which have the 
 management of the schools are generally termed "boards 
 of education ; " in towns and districts the designations most 
 generally used are "school directors" and "school trustees." 
 
 They are termed "school directors" in Arkansas, Illinois, 
 Iowa, Louisiana, Pennsylvania, Tennessee and Washington ; 
 "school trustees" in Indiana, Kentucky, New Jersey, New 
 York, Mississippi, Nevada, South Carolina and Texas ; 
 " school boards" in Michigan, Wisconsin, Nebraska and New 
 Hampshire ; " school committees " in Massachusetts and 
 Rhode Island ; "school visitors" in Connecticut; "superin- 
 tending school committees " in Maine ; " boards of educa- 
 tion" in Ohio; and "prudential committees" in Vermont. 
 
 These boards are similar in their constitution, powers and 
 duties, and are generally chosen by the voters at elections. 
 They are corporate bodies and can make contracts, acquire, 
 hold and dispose of property. 
 
 They employ teachers (and superintendents when such are 
 deemed necessary) and fix their salaries. They make the 
 rules and regulations for the government of the schools and 
 fix the course of study and the list of text-books to be used. 
 They hold meetings monthly or oftener. 
 
 Women in school administration — There are at present 
 (1899) twQ \veri\en holding the position of state superin- 
 Jt^Udent Cf schools, 18 that of city superintendent, and 256 
 that of 'county superintendent. The last named are divided 
 between California, Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kan- 
 sas, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, 
 
26 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [l02 
 
 Nebraska, New York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Pennsyl- 
 vania, South Dakota, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, Washing- 
 ton, Wisconsin and Wyoming. In all these states, women 
 hold minor school offices also. Ohio, Maine, New Hamp- 
 shire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut have 
 no officers corresponding to county superintendents, but in 
 all those states there are women who are members of county 
 examining boards, township superintendents and the like. 
 They may be district trustees or members of local school 
 boards in still other states, as in New Jersey. Women may 
 hold any school office in Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, 
 Louisiana, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Vermont, Wyo- 
 ming, and any office of school management in Minnesota. 
 One of the members of the Iowa educational board of exam- 
 iners must be a woman. 
 
 Women have like suffrage, in all particulars, with men in 
 Colorado, Idaho, Utah and Wyoming. With certain lim- 
 itations specified, in some of the states they may vote at 
 school elections in Arizona, Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, 
 Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, 
 Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North 
 Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South Dakota, Vermont, Washing- 
 ton and Wisconsin. The limitations, when there are any, 
 usually restrict the suffrage of women to widows with chil- 
 dren to educate, guardians and taxpayers, or to certain kinds 
 of elections. 
 
 Salaries of teachers — The expenditure for salaries in the 
 public schools, teachers and superintendents both included, 
 was $123,809,412, in 1897-98, or 63.8 percent of the total 
 expenditure for school purposes. The highest average sal- 
 aries are found in the western division, among the Pacific 
 states and territories, the average per month for men being 
 $58.59, and for women $50.92, in that sectioi? of the union. 
 The lowest average salaries and the least variance betweeii 
 the averages for men and women are found in the^South 
 Atlantic section. The averages are, for men $3,1.21, and 
 for women $31.45. 
 
103] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 27 
 
 The length of the school year must be considered in 
 determining the annual salary. This period averages for 
 the whole country 143. i days, or about seven months of 20 
 days each, and ranges from 98.6 days in the south central 
 division to 174.5 days in the North Atlantic. (See appendix 
 VI, Teachers' pensions, etc.) 
 
 Co-education of the sexes — In both the central and the 
 western divisions the education of boys and girls in the same 
 schools is common and exceptions rare in the public schools. 
 In the North and South Atlantic divisions many of the older 
 cities continue to educate the girls in separate schools. In 
 newly-added suburban schools, however, co-education is the 
 rule (as in Boston, for example). In the rural districts of 
 the Atlantic divisions north and south, co-education has 
 always been the custom. Considering the whole country, it 
 mxay be said that co-education, or the education of boys and 
 girls in the same classes, is the general practice in the ele- 
 mentary schools of the United States. The cities that pre- 
 sent exceptions to this rule are fewer, apparently, than 6 
 per cent of the total number. In the majority of these 
 cities the separation of boys and girls has arisen from the 
 position or original arrangement of buildings, and is likely 
 to be discontinued under more favorable conditions. Of 
 the 50 principal cities enumerated by the census of 1890, 
 4, namely, Philadelphia (Pennsylvania) ; Newark (New 
 Jersey); Providence (Rhode Island); and Atlanta (Geor- 
 gia) — report separation of the sexes in the high schools 
 only ; 2 cities of this class, San Francisco (California), and 
 Wilmington (Delaware), reported in 1892, separation in 
 all grades above the primary. In 6 cities, New York and 
 Brooklyn (New York) ; Boston (Massachusetts) ; Balti- 
 more (Maryland) ; Washington (District of Columbia), and 
 Louisville,. .(Kentucky) — both separate and mixed classes 
 ar^|@ftil^d in all grades. Five cities of the second class, hav- 
 inj a population dt 8,000 or more, report separation o! tne 
 sexes in the high schools, and 10 cities of the same group 
 separate classes in other grades. Of cities whose population 
 
28 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [104 
 
 is less than 8,000, nine report separate classes for boys and 
 girls in some grades. 
 
 Co-education is the policy in about two-thirds of the total 
 number of private schools reporting to this bureau, and in 65 
 per cent of the colleges and universities. 
 
 Sectarian division of school funds — In connection with this 
 matter of state compulsory laws against neglect of schools it 
 is well to mention the provisions made in the several states 
 prohibiting appropriations of money to aid denominational 
 schools. 
 
 There are forty states with constitutional provisions for- 
 bidding all, or at least sectarian diversion of the money 
 raised for the support of education. 
 
 /. Constitutions which prohibit sectarian appropriations 
 
 — California,' Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, 
 Indiana,^ Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, ^ Mis- 
 souri, Montana, New Hampshire, North Dakota, Oregon,' 
 South Dakota, Texas, Washington, Wisconsin,^ Wyoming, 
 
 — 2 1 states. 
 
 2. Constitutions which do not prohibit sectarian appropri- 
 ations — Alabama,* Arkansas,"* Connecticut, Delaware, Iowa,"* 
 Kansas, Kentucky,^ Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, 
 Nebraska,^ Nevada,^ New Jersey,^ New York, North Caro- 
 lina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, "* Rhode Island, South Carolina,^ 
 Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, — 23 states. 
 
 J*. Constitutions which prohibit any diversion of the school 
 fund — Alabama, Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Flor- 
 ida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Ken- 
 tucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Min- 
 nesota, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New 
 
 ' Can make per capita grants to institutions. 
 
 'Covers only religious and theological institutions. 
 
 'Prohibits any devise, legacy, or gift by last will and tpst3.ip,«jatvt^, ^^^^S^*''^^ "'^ 
 ecclesiastical corporations or societies. ^ '■, V 
 
 1 Sectarian appropriations can be made by two-thirds vote of allthe melJlberS 
 
 of both houses of the legislature. 
 
 * Has a revised constitution pending popular adoption. 
 
 * Prohibits sectarian instruction in public schools. 
 
 ' Prohibits appropriations to societies, associations or corporations. 
 
105] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 29 
 
 Jersey, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, 
 Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South 
 Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Washington, West Virginia, Vir- 
 ginia, Wisconsin, — 36 states. 
 
 The local unit of school organization — The state exercises 
 remote authority over all public schools in its borders. 
 The county in most states has a closer supervision of all 
 schools in its limits, but has very little to do with schools in 
 New England. In certain states it becomes the unit for the 
 entire local administration of public schools. The town or 
 township takes more or less of the local functions in other 
 states, and the district becomes a local unit for variable 
 functions in yet others. In 35 counties of Texas there is a 
 community system. Counties generally receive, hold and 
 disburse moneys for townships and districts formed by sub- 
 division of counties. Towns or townships generally hold 
 the same relation to districts formed by division of towns 
 or townships. In a few states districts have their own tax 
 collectors and treasurers. 
 
 The summarized statement below shows the principal 
 agency through which local support and control of schools is 
 exercised, special laws excepted, under which cities, towns 
 and independent districts exist. 
 
 County — Alabama, with either town or township ; Florida, 
 with provision for districts of limited power ; Georgia ; Lou- 
 isiana, recognizing congressional townships in accounts of 
 sixteenth section land funds ; Maryland ; Mississippi, with 
 provision for separate districts ; North Carolina, with dis- 
 tricts capable of holding real estate ; Tennessee, with some 
 local functions in districts and only supervisory powers in 
 sub-districts ; Utah, with provision for division. 
 
 Town or township — Alabama, the congressional township ' 
 for admiaistrative convenience, its officers appointed and its 
 accounts kept by county officers ; Connecticut, the town may 
 abolish^^istricts ; Illinois, township based on congressional 
 township or district, optional ; Indiana, New Jersey, Ohio 
 
 ' The expression " congressional township " refers to the division established in 
 new territories by the government survey. Lines of latitude and longitude cross 
 one another six statute miles apart, making townships exactly six miles square. 
 
30 
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [lo6 
 
 and Pennsylvania, each township, incorporated town or city 
 (or borough in Pennsylvania), a district corporation for 
 school purposes ; Iowa, township based on congressional 
 township, with sub-districts for supervisory convenience and 
 independent districts, both in use ; Maine, Massachusetts ; 
 Minnesota, township may be a district as a part of a county ; 
 New Hampshire ; New York, recognized for certain land 
 funds, but districts generally ; North Dakota, based on con- 
 gressional township ; Rhode Island, may create or abolish 
 districts ; South Dakota, based on congressional township ; 
 Vermont, Wisconsin, optional in formation of districts. 
 
 DtstiHci — Arkansas, Arizona, California, Colorado ; Con- 
 necticut, where not abolished by the town ; Delaware, 
 Florida, Idaho ; Illinois, optional with townships ; Iowa, 
 independent districts as well as townships ; Kansas, Minne- 
 sota, Missouri, districts may be less than townships; Ken- 
 tucky, Michigan, Mississippi, optional; Montana, Nebraska; 
 Nevada, each village, town or city is a district ; New Mexico ; 
 New York, commissioner's district, a county or part of a 
 county, has supervisory authority, school districts are parts 
 of commissioners' districts, towns recognized for certain 
 land funds ; North Carolina, with limited powers as stated 
 under county ; Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina ; Ten- 
 nessee, with limited powers as stated under county ; Texas, 
 but cities may acquire exclusive control of their schools, 
 towns and villages may be incorporated for school purposes 
 only, in 35 community counties families associate from year 
 to year to support schools and draw their share of public 
 money ; Utah, permissible as stated under county ; Virginia, 
 West Virginia, corresponding geographically to magisterial 
 districts ; Washington, each city or town (incorporated) ; 
 Wisconsin, optional, see town or township ; Wyoming. 
 
 PART III THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY' 
 
 A committee appointed by the National Educational Asso- 
 ciation in 1894 prepared a course of study for the eight years 
 of the elementary schools recommending two innovations, 
 
I07] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 3 1 
 
 namely, the introduction of Latin, French or German in the 
 eighth year and algebra in the seventh and eighth years. 
 The following presents the course as given in the report of 
 the committee together with a conspectus in the nature of a 
 yearly programme. 
 
 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL COURSE 
 
 Reading. Eight years, with daily lessons. 
 
 Penmanship. Six years, ten lessons per week for first two years, 
 five for third and fourth, and three for fifth and sixth. 
 
 Spelling Lists. Fourth, fifth and sixth years, four lessons per week. 
 
 Grammar. Oral, with composition or dictation, first year to mid- 
 dle of fifth year, text-book from middle of fifth year to close 
 of seventh year, five lessons per week. (Composition writing 
 should be included under this head. But the written exami- 
 nations on the several branches should be counted under the 
 head of composition work.) 
 
 Latin or French or German. Eighth year, five lessons per week. 
 
 Arithmetic. Oral first and second year, text-book third to sixth 
 year, five lessons per week. 
 
 Algebra. Seventh and eighth years, five lessons per week. 
 
 Geography. Oral lessons second year to middle of third year, 
 text-book from middle of third year, five lessons weekly to 
 seventh year, and three lessons to close of eighth. 
 
 Natural Science and Hygiene. Oral lessons, 60 minutes per week, 
 eight years. 
 
 History of United States. Five hours per week seventh year and 
 first half of eighth year. 
 
 Constitution of United States. Last half of the eighth year. 
 
 General History and Biography. Oral lessons, 60 minutes a 
 week, eight years. 
 
 Physical Culture. 60 minutes a week, eight years. 
 
 Vocal Music. 60 minutes a week, eight years. 
 
 Drawing. 60 minutes a week, eight years. 
 
 Manual Training or Sewing and Cooking. One-half day each week 
 in seventh and eighth years. 
 
32 
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 
 [io8 
 
 GENERAL PROGRAM 
 
 BRANCHES 
 
 ISt 
 
 year 
 
 2d 
 year 
 
 3d 
 year 
 
 4th 
 year 
 
 5th 
 year 
 
 6th 
 year 
 
 7th 
 year 
 
 8th 
 year 
 
 Reading 
 
 lo lessons a 
 week 
 
 5 lessons a week 
 
 
 Writing 
 
 lo lessons a 
 week 
 
 5 lessons a 
 week 
 
 3 lessons a 
 week 
 
 
 
 
 Spelling lists 
 
 
 
 
 4 lessons a week 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 English grammar 
 
 Oral, with composition 
 lessons 
 
 5 lessons a week 
 with text-book 
 
 
 
 
 Latin, French, or German. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 les- , 
 sons 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Oral, 60 min- 
 utes a week 
 
 5 lessons a week with 
 text-book 
 
 
 
 
 
 Algebra 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 lessons a 
 
 
 week 
 
 Geography 
 
 
 Oral, 60 
 minutes 
 a week 
 
 5 lessons a week 
 with text-book 
 
 3 lessons a 
 
 
 week 
 
 Natural Science+Hygiene 
 
 Sixty minutes a week 
 
 United States History .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 lessons 
 a week 
 
 
 United States Constitution 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Is 
 
 General History 
 
 Oral, sixty minutes a week 
 
 
 Physical Culture 
 
 Sixty minutes a week 
 
 
 Vocal Music 
 
 Sixty minutes a week divided into 4 lessons 
 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Sixty minutes a week 
 
 
 Manual Training or Sew- 
 ing+Cookery 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 One-half day 
 each week 
 
 
 
 Number of Lessons 
 
 20+7 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 20+7 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 20+5 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 24+5 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 27+5 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 27+5 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 23+6 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 23+6 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 ^XotalJlo4ixsx)JL Recitations 
 
 12 
 
 ^I2_ 
 
 II 2-3 
 
 13 
 
 r6 1-4 
 
 16 1-4 
 
 17 1-2 
 
 17 1-2 
 
 Length of Recitations. . . . 
 
 15 min 
 
 I5min 
 
 20 min 
 
 20 min 
 
 25 min 
 
 25 min 
 
 30 min 
 
 30 min 
 
109] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 33 
 
 The subjects actually taught in the elementary schools — In 
 the report of the National bureau of education for 1888-89 
 (pp. 373-410), from a selected list of 82 of the most 
 important cities of the nation, statistics are given showing 
 the amount of time consumed in the entire eight years of 
 the elementary course on each of the branches constituting 
 the curriculum. The returns included 26 branches, one 
 of which was spelling. The total number of hours of 
 instruction in the entire eight years varied in the different 
 cities from 3,000 to 9,000, with a general average of about 
 7,000 hours, which would mean that each pupil used about 
 four and a half hours per day for 200 days in actual study 
 and in recitation or class exercises. The amount of time 
 reported as used by pupils in studying and reciting spelling 
 during the eight years varied from about 300 to 1,200 hours, 
 with an average of 516. This means that from 37 to 150 
 hours a year, with average of 77 hours a year for eight years, 
 was devoted to spelling. The English speaking child who 
 learns to read has to use an inordinate amount of time in 
 memorizing the difficult combinations of letters used to rep- 
 resent English words. 
 
 This report of the bureau of education gives the time 
 devoted to reading in 82 cities as ranging from about 600 to 
 about 2,000 hours, and the average as 1,188 hours. Thus 
 from 75 to 250 hours a year, with an average of 150, are 
 spent in learning to read. 
 
 Geography is reported as using from 200 to 1,000 hours, 
 with an average of about 500, or 25 to 125 hours per year, 
 the average being rather more than 60 hours a year. This, 
 we see, is less than the time devoted to spelling. 
 
 Arithmetic, as shown by the report, still receives more 
 attention than any other branch. The amount of time used 
 varies from 600 to 2,240 hours, with an average of about 
 1,190 hours — that is to say, from 75 to 280 hours per year 
 — an^average oT 150 liours~ary"ear. Nu other nation gives 
 so much time to arithmetic. The question naturally arises 
 whether corresponding results are obtained in the mastery 
 
34 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [l lO 
 
 of this difficult branch, and whether so much arithmetic 
 strengthens or weakens the national character on the whole. 
 
 Turning from arithmetic to grammar, we find a great 
 falling off in the amount of attention it receives compared 
 with the time assigned to it a few years ago. The 82 cities 
 report a very large substitution of " language lessons " for 
 technical grammar. Grammar proper gets from 65 to 680 
 hours of the course, with an average of about 300 hours. 
 This would allow from 8 to 80 hours, with an average of 38 
 hours per year, if distributed over the entire course. But it 
 is evident that grammar proper is, as a study, not profitable 
 to take up until the seventh year of the course of study. 
 But the language lessons, which are practiced in all the 
 grades above the lowest two, more than compensate for any 
 curtailment in technical grammar and "parsing." 
 
 Mathematics gives an insight into the nature of matter 
 and motion, for their form is quantitative. But the form of 
 mind on the other hand is shown in consciousness — a sub- 
 ject and object. The mind is always engaged in predicating 
 something of something, always modifying something by 
 something, and the categories of this mental operation are 
 the categories of grammar, and appear as parts of speech. 
 The child by the study of grammar gets some practice in the 
 use of these categories and acquires unconsciously a power 
 of analysis of thoughts, motives and feelings, which is of 
 the most practical character. 
 
 History, which gives an insight into human nature as it is 
 manifested in social wholes — tribes, nations and peoples — 
 is a study of the elementary school, usually placed in the 
 last year or two of the course, with a text-book on the his- 
 tory of the United States. The returns from the 82 cities 
 show that this study everywhere holds its place, and that it 
 receives more than one-half as much time as grammar. Con- 
 sidering the fact that grammar is beg^un a year earlier, this^||_ 
 better than we should expect. With history there is usually 
 joined the study of the constitution of the United States for 
 one-quarter of the year. Besides this, some schools have 
 
Ill] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 35 
 
 taken up a special text-book devoted to civics, or the duties 
 of citizens. History ranges from 78 to 460 hours, with an 
 average of about 150. 
 
 General history has not been introduced into elementary 
 schools, except in a few cases by oral lessons. Oral lessons 
 on physiology, morals and manners, and natural science have 
 been very generally introduced. The amount of time 
 assigned in 66 cities to physiology averages 169 hours ; to a 
 course of lessons in morals and manners in 27 cities 167 
 hours ; to natural science on an average in the 39 cities that 
 give a systematic course of lessons, 1 76 hours. 
 
 Singing is quite general in all the schools, and instruction 
 in vocal music is provided for in many cities. Lessons in 
 cookery are reported in New Haven (80 hours) ; and Wash- 
 ington, D. C. (114 hours). It is also taught in Boston, and 
 many other cities not reporting it in the list of 82. 
 
 Physical culture is very generally taught. Of the 82 cities, 
 63 report it as receiving on an average 249 hours a year. 
 
 Manual training — Manual training is by no means a nov- 
 elty in American schools. Thomas Jefferson recommended 
 it for the students of the University of Virginia, and Ben- 
 jamin Franklin included it in his plan for an academy in 
 Philadelphia. An active propaganda was carried on in 
 behalf of manual labor in educational institutions for many 
 years, beginning about 1830, and some of our foremost 
 institutions had their origin under its influence. But what 
 is now known as "manual trainings " is traced to an exhibit 
 of a Russian institution at the centennial exposition in 
 1876. The value of the system of hand training there sug- 
 gested was recognized by such men as John D. Runkle and 
 C. M. Woodward, who became advocates of the new idea 
 and introduced it into the institutions under their charge. 
 Siroiig opposition was met among schoolmen for a time, but 
 i^^y-*^! training has steadily grown in popularity, and with 
 its'growth it has constantly improved in matter and method, 
 and consequently in usefulness. In 1898 manual training 
 was an essential feature in the public school course of 149 
 
36 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [lI2 
 
 cities. In 359 institutions other than city schools there is 
 training which partakes more or less of the nature of man- 
 ual training, and which belongs in a general way to the same 
 movement. These institutions embrace almost every class 
 known to American education, and the manual features vary 
 from the purely educational manual training of the Teach- 
 ers college in New York city to the specific trade instruction 
 of the apprentice schools. 
 
 In many cases the legislatures have taken cognizance of 
 the movement. Massachusetts requires every city of 20,000 
 inhabitants to maintain manual training courses in both ele- 
 mentary and high schools. Maine authorizes any city or 
 town to provide instruction in industrial or mechanical draw- 
 ing to pupils over 15 years of age ; industrial training is 
 authorized by general laws in Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana 
 (in cities of over 100,000 population), Maryland, New Jer- 
 sey, New York, Pennsylvania, Utah, Wisconsin and Wyo- 
 ming. Congressional appropriations are regularly made for 
 manual training in the District of Columbia ; Georgia author- 
 izes county manual labor schools, and in Washington manual 
 training must be taught in each school under the control of 
 the State normal school. 
 
 Kindergartens — Kindergartens are authorized by general 
 law in Arizona, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Illinois, 
 Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsyl- 
 vania, Vermont and Wisconsin. 
 
 Cities also establish kindergartens through powers inherent 
 in their charters. In 1897-98 there were public kinder- 
 gartens in 189 of the 626 cities of 8,000 population and over. 
 In these 189 cities there were 1,365 separate kindergartens 
 supported by public funds. The number of kindergarten 
 teachers employed was 2,532, and under their care were 
 95,867 children, 46,577 boys and 49,290 girls. 
 
 Information, was. obtained. concerning.2^9.84iriyateJcia4§r- 
 
 gartens in 1897-98 and it is probable that at least 500 others 
 were in existence. The 2,998 private kindergartens had 
 6,405 teachers and 93,737 pupils. It will be seen that the 
 
113] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 37 
 
 total number of kindergartens, public and private, was 4,363, 
 with 8,937 teachers and 189,604 pupils. The actual number 
 of pupils enrolled in kindergartens in the United States in 
 1897-98 must have exceeded 200,000. 
 
 PART IV THE PLACE OF POPULAR EDUCATION IN THE IDEALS 
 
 OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE 
 
 Education in the United States is regarded as something 
 organic — something belonging essentially to our political 
 and social structure. Daniel Webster announced, in his 
 clear and incisive manner, this necessity that appertains to 
 the American form of government. He said: "On the 
 diffusion of education among the people rests the preserva- 
 tion and perpetuation of our free institutions. I apprehend 
 no danger to our country from a foreign foe. * * * q^j- 
 destruction, should it come at all, will be from another 
 quarter. From the inattention of the people to the con- 
 cerns of the government, from their carelessness and negli- 
 gence, I confess I do apprehend some danger. I fear that 
 they may place too implicit confidence in their public serv- 
 ants, and fail properly to scrutinize their conduct ; that in 
 this way they may be the dupes of designing men and 
 become the instruments of their undoing. Make them intel- 
 ligent and they will be vigilant ; give them the means of 
 detecting the wrong and they will apply the remedy." 
 
 We are making the experiment of self-government — a 
 government of the people by the people — and it has seemed 
 a logical conclusion to all nations of all times that the rulers 
 of the people should have the best education attainable. 
 Then, of course, it follows that the entire people of a democ- 
 racy should be educated for they are the rulers. 
 
 Quoting again from Webster's Plymouth oration in 1822 : 
 " Ry genf^ral instruction we seek as far as possible to purify 
 the whole atmosphere, to keep good sentiments uppermost, 
 ^flu^C^^tBm the strong cutrent—ef-feeUrtg and opimon^^ as- 
 wefras the censures of the law and the denunciations of 
 religion, against immorality and crime." 
 
38 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [l H 
 
 This necessity for education has been felt in all parts of 
 the nation, and the whole subject is reasoned out in many a 
 school report published by city or state. By education we 
 add to the child's experience the experience of the human 
 race. His own experience is necessarily one-sided and 
 shallow ; that of the race is thousands of years deep, and it 
 is rounded to fullness. Such deep and rounded experience 
 is what we call wisdom. To prevent the child from making 
 costly mistakes we give him the benefit of seeing the lives of 
 others. The successes and failures of one's fellow-men 
 instruct each of us far more than our own experiments. 
 
 The school attempts to give this wisdom in a systematic 
 manner. It uses the essential means for its work in the 
 shape of text-books, in which the experience of the race is 
 digested and stated in a clear and summary manner, in its 
 several departments, so that a child may understand it. He 
 has a teacher to direct his studies and instruct him in the 
 proper methods of getting out of books the wisdom recorded 
 in them. He is taught first in the primary school how to 
 spell out the words and how to write them himself. Above 
 all, he is taught to understand the meaning of the words. 
 All first use of words reaches only a few of their many sig- 
 nifications ; each word has many meanings and uses, but the 
 child gets at only one meaning, and that the simplest and 
 vaguest, when he begins. His school work is to train him 
 into accuracy and precision in the interpretation of language. 
 He learns gradually to fill each word of the printed page 
 with its proper meaning. He learns to criticise the state- 
 ments he reads, and to test them in his own experience and 
 by comparison with other records of experience. 
 
 In other words, the child at school is set to work to enlarge 
 his own puny life by the addition of the best results of 
 other lives. There is no other process so well adapted to 
 insure a growth in self-respect as the mastery of the thought 
 q£^ the,thiuker3^who-liave..st©f€d^«d sysfeeM^atJze^'l^fe^gSJpftc 
 rience of mankind. - — . — r. 
 
 This is the clue to the hopes founded on education. The 
 
115] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 39 
 
 patriotic citizen sees that a government managed by illiterate 
 people is a government of one-sided and shallow experi- 
 ence, and that a government by the educated classes insures 
 the benefits of a much wider knowledge of the wise ways of 
 doinsf thinofs. 
 
 The work of the school produces self-respect, because the 
 pupil makes himself the measure of his fellows and grows to 
 be equal to them spiritually by the mastery of their wisdom. 
 Self-respect is the root of the virtues and the active cause 
 of a career of growth in power to know and power to do. 
 Webster called the free public school " a wise and liberal 
 system of police, by which property and the peace of society 
 are secured." He explained the effect of the school as excit- 
 ing "a feeling of responsibility and a sense of character." 
 
 This, he saw, is the legitimate effect ; for, as the school 
 causes its pupils to put on the forms of thought given them 
 by the teacher and by the books they use — causes them to 
 control their personal impulses, and to act according to rules 
 and regulations — causes them to behave so as to combine 
 with others and get help from all while they in turn give 
 help ; as the school causes the pupil to put off his selfish 
 promptings, and to prefer the forms of action based on a 
 consideration of the interests of others — it is seen that the 
 entire discipline of the school is ethical. Each youth edu- 
 cated in the school has been submitted to a training in the 
 habit of self-control and of obedience to social order. He 
 has become to some extent conscious of two selves ; the one 
 his immediate animal impulse, and the second his moral 
 sense of conformity to the order necessary for the harmoni- 
 ous action of all. 
 
 The statistics of crime confirm the anticipations of the 
 public in regard to the good effects of education. The jails 
 of the country show pretty generally the ratio of eight to 
 one as the quotas of delinquents furnished from a given 
 ^iSrrx*4jvr* -of illiterates as eomparedrr^rith an equal number of 
 tilt)S€ who can read and write. Out of 10,000 illiterates 
 there will be eight times as many criminals as out of 10,000 
 
40 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [ll6 
 
 who can read and write. In a state like Michigan, for exam- 
 ple, where less than five per cent of the people are illiterate, 
 there are 30 per cent of the criminals in jail who are illiter- 
 ate. The 95 per cent who are educated to read and write 
 furnish the remaining 70 per cent. 
 
 In comparing fractions, it is necessary to consider the 
 denominators as well as the numerators. Comparing only 
 the numerators, we should say education produces more 
 crime than illiteracy ; for here are only 30 per cent of those 
 criminals from the illiterate class, but 70 per cent are from 
 those who can read and write. On the other hand, taking 
 the denominators also into consideration, we say : But there 
 are less than five per cent illiterates and more than 95 of 
 educated persons in the entire adult population. Hence the 
 true ratio is found, by combining the two fractions, to be 
 one-eighth, or one to eight for the respective quotas fur- 
 nished, (f :g :: 8 : i). 
 
 The penitentiaries, or state prisons, contain the selected 
 criminals who have made more serious attacks on person 
 and property and on the majesty of the law than those left 
 in the jails. These, therefore, come to a larger extent from 
 the 70 per cent of arrests which are from the educated class ; 
 and it is found, by comparing the returns of the 20 odd states 
 that keep records of illiteracy, that the illiterates furnish 
 from two to four times their quota for the prisons, while 
 they furnish eight times their quota for the jails and houses 
 of correction. 
 
 But it is found on investigation that the criminals who can 
 read and write are mostly from the ranks bordering on illit- 
 eracy. They may be described as barely able to read and 
 write, but without training in the use of those arts for 
 acquainting themselves with the experience and wisdom of 
 their fellow-men.' 
 
 ' A point is made that those states which have the completest systems of educa- 
 tion have the most criminals in their jails aiiJ prTsbiisr' TETs^sTrue^buTn?^!^ 
 nificance is not read aright until one sees by an analysis of the causespl^arrcst 
 that it is not a real increase of crime, but an increase of zeal on the part of the 
 community to abolish the seeds of crimes, to repress the vices that lead to crime. 
 
11/] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 4I 
 
 It is against all reason and all experience that the school 
 whose two functions are to secure good behavior and an 
 intelligent acquaintance with the lessons of human experi- 
 ence, should not do what Webster said, namely, " Prevent 
 in some measure the extension of the penal code, by inspir- 
 ing a salutary and conservative principle of virtue and of 
 knowledge in an early age." 
 
 Thus the political problem, which proposes to secure the 
 general welfare by intrusting the management of the gov- 
 ernment to representatives chosen by all the people, finds 
 its solution in the establishment of schools for the people. 
 
 PART V HISTORICAL BEGINNINGS OF SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED 
 
 STATES 
 
 All who become interested in the system of education pre- 
 vailing in the United States and see the direct bearing it has 
 on the realization of the ideal of self-g-overnment, feel an 
 interest in the question of its origin. Anything is best 
 understood when seen in the perspective of its history. We 
 see not only what is present before us but its long trend 
 hitherward. 
 
 The school is the auxiliary institution founded for the 
 purpose of reinforcing the education of the four funda- 
 mental institutions of civilization. These are the family, 
 civil society (devoted to providing for the wants of food, 
 clothing, and shelter), the state, the church. The character- 
 istic of the school is that it deals with the means necessary 
 for the acquirement, preservation, and communication of 
 intelligence. The mastery of letters and of mathematical 
 symbols ; of the technical terms used in geography and gram- 
 mar and the sciences ; the conventional meaning of the lines 
 used on maps to indicate water or mountains or towns or 
 Icititude and longitude, and the like. The school devotes 
 
 — Lp Maagaghll'jgjts., for example, there were in 2^850, 3,351 arrests for drunkenness, 
 while in 1885, the number had increased to 18,701. But meanwhile the crimes 
 against person and property had decreased from i860 to 1885 forty-four per cent, 
 making allowance for increase of population. Life and property had become 
 more safe, but drunkenness had become less safe. 
 
42 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [ll8 
 
 itself to instructing the pupil on these dry details of arts 
 that are used to record systematic knowledge. These con- 
 ventionalities once learned, the youth has acquired the art 
 of self-help ; he can of his own effort open the door and 
 enter the treasure-house of literature and science. What- 
 ever his fellow-men have done and recorded he can now 
 learn by sufficient diligence of his own. 
 
 The difference between the part of education acquired in 
 the family and that acquired in the school is immense and 
 incalculable. The family arts and trades, manners and 
 customs, habits and beliefs, form a sort of close-fitting 
 spiritual vesture : a garment of the soul always worn, and 
 expressive of the native character not so much of the indi- 
 vidual as of his tribe or family or community. The indi- 
 vidual has from his birth been shaped into these things as 
 by a mould ; all his thinking and willing and feeling have 
 been moulded into the form or type of humanity looked 
 upon as the ideal by his parents and acquaintances. 
 
 This close-fitting garment of habit gives him direction but 
 not self-direction or freedom. He does what he does blindly, 
 from the habit of following custom and doing as others do. 
 
 But the school gives a different sort of training, — its 
 discipline is for the freedom of the individual. The educa- 
 tion of the family is in use and wont and it trains rather than 
 instructs. The result is unconscious habit and ungrounded 
 prejudice or inclination. Its likes and dislikes are not 
 grounded in reason, being unconscious results of early train- 
 ing. But the school lays all its stress on producing a con- 
 sciousness of the crrounds and reasons of thinors. I should 
 not say all its stress ; for the school does In fact lay much 
 stress on what is called discipline, — on habits of alert and 
 critical attention, on regularity and punctuality, and self- 
 control and politeness. But the mere mention of these 
 elements of discipline shows that they, too, are of a nigner 
 oraer tnan the habits ot' ffie tamify, inasmuch as tne^^^Sn 
 require the exertion of both will and intellect conscibusty 
 in order to attain them. The discipline of the school forms 
 
119] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 43 
 
 a sort of conscious superstructure to the unconscious basis 
 of habits which have been acquired in the family. 
 
 School instruction, on the other hand, is given to the 
 acquirement of techniques ; the technique of reading and 
 writing, of mathematics, of grammar, of geography, history, 
 literature, and science in general. 
 
 One is astonished when he reflects upon it at first, to see 
 how much is meant by this word technique. All products of 
 human reflection are defined and preserved by words used in 
 a technical sense. The words are taken out of their collo- 
 quial sense, which is a loose one except when employed as 
 slang. For slang is a spontaneous effort in popular speech 
 to form technical terms. 
 
 The technical or conventional use of signs and symbols 
 enables us to write words and record mathematical calcula- 
 tions ; the technical use of words enables us to express 
 clearly and definitely the ideas and relations of all science. 
 Outside of technique all is vague hearsay. The fancy pours 
 into the words it hears such meanings as its feelings prompt. 
 Instead of science there is superstition. 
 
 The school deals with technique in this broad sense of 
 the word. The mastery of the technique of reading, writ- 
 ing, geography and history lifts the pupil into a plane of 
 freedom hitherto not known to him. He can now by his 
 own effort master for himself the wisdom of the race. 
 
 By the aid of such instruments as the family education has 
 given him he cannot master the wisdom of the race, but only 
 pick up a few of its results, such as the custom of his com- 
 munity preserves. By the process of hearsay and oral 
 inquiry it would take the individual a lifetime to acquire 
 what he can get in six months by the aid of the instruments 
 which the school places in his hands. For the school gives 
 i.\x^ youth the tools of thought. 
 
 3i?^igrants to America in the colonial period laid stress 
 
 '^bn *&ie establishment of schools. The ideas of Luther 
 'were echoed by reformers in Holland, Sweden, Switzer- 
 land and elsewhere. Education is called " the foundation 
 
44 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [l20 
 
 of the commonwealth," in 1853, In a school law of Holland. 
 At that time there was a stringent school law passed. In 
 Sweden education was common before 1650, and every peas- . 
 ant's child was taught to read. 
 
 Boston, in 1635, voted a school and funds to support a 
 master. Roxbury was quite active in the founding of free 
 schools. Plymouth, Weymouth, Dorchester, Salem, Cam- 
 bridge, and other towns had schools before 1650. A law of 
 the general court of Massachusetts decreed that in every 
 town the selectmen should prosecute those who refused to 
 " train their children in learning and labor," and to Impose a 
 fine of 20 shillings on those who neglected to teach their 
 children " so much learning as may enable them perfectly 
 to read the English tongue." 
 
 Schools were established In the Connecticut colonies 
 immediately after their settlement. The Rhode Island col- 
 onies had schools by 1650. In 1636 occurred the important 
 vote of the general court of Massachusetts, setting apart 
 four hundred pounds for the establishment of a college which 
 was endowed two years afterward by John Harvard, receiv- 
 ing 1700 pounds and named from its benefactor. The 
 public Latin school of Boston dates from 1635. Meanwhile 
 in New York the Dutch had brought over their zeal for 
 education. The Dutch West India company, in 162 1, 
 charged its colonists to maintain a clergyman and a school- 
 master. It seems that in 1625 the colonial estimate included 
 a clergyman at 1440 florins, and a schoolmaster at 360 
 florins. In 1633 the first schoolmaster arrived — Adam 
 Roelandson. His name is revered like that of Ezekiel 
 Cheever and Philomon Purmont, schoolmasters of early 
 Boston. 
 
 As regards common schools in Virginia, the opinion of the 
 royal governor, Berkeley, is often quoted : " I thanlc God 
 there be no free schools nor printing-presses, and I hope we 
 shall not have them these"hiundred years ; for learrirftg^aS 
 brought disobedience and heresy and sects into the'worid 
 and printing has divulged them and libels against the best 
 
I2l] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 45 
 
 of governments : God keep us from both." The governor 
 of the Connecticut colony answered to a question (appar- 
 ently of the commissioners of foreign plantations) : " One- 
 fourth of the annual revenue of this colony is laid out in 
 maintaining free schools for the education of our children." 
 
 A propos to this utterance of Berkeley, against whom the 
 more progressive spirit of Virginia arose in rebellion in 1676, 
 there should be quoted a more noteworthy sentence from the 
 Virginian, Thomas Jefferson, who wrote (to J. C. Cabell) in 
 181 8: "A system of general instruction which shall reach 
 every description of our citizens from the richest to the 
 poorest, as it was my earliest, so shall it be the latest of all 
 the public concerns in which I shall permit myself to take 
 an interest." 
 
 In 1647 the Massachusetts general court passed what has 
 become the most celebrated of the early school laws of the 
 colonies. In it occurs the often-quoted passage: ** To the 
 end that learning may not be buried in the graves of our 
 forefathers, '"^ * * it is ordered that every township 
 within this jurisdiction * * * ^f ^}^g number of fifty 
 households shall appoint one within their town to teach all 
 such children as shall resort to him to write and read, whose 
 wages shall be paid either by the parents or masters of such 
 children, or by the inhabitants in general •*< * * further 
 ordered that any town * * * Qf qj^^ hundred * * * 
 householders * * * shall set up a grammar school, the 
 master thereof being able to instruct youths so far as they 
 may be fitted for the university." This law attached a pen- 
 alty to its violation. " Grammar " meant Latin grammar at 
 that period. 
 
 New Jersey established schools as early as 1683, and an 
 example of a permanent school fund is found in an appro- 
 piidtion made that year. In 1693 a law compelled citizens 
 ^--Pfty_ their shares for the maintenance of a school. In 
 LTiA ^a clerg) man from Pennsylvania established in New 
 J ersey a classical school that grew in after times into Prince- 
 ton college. 
 
46 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [l22 
 
 The original charter given William Penn required that 
 the government of his colony should erect and aid public 
 schools. Within 20 years after its settlement, schools were 
 founded in Philadelphia, and others in towns of that colony. 
 
 The management of the district (elementary) schools 
 began in most cases with the church and gradually came 
 into the hands of the smallest political subdivision, known as 
 "districts." Each township was divided into districts for 
 school purposes, and for minor political purposes such as 
 repair of the public highways. Each district contained an 
 average of four square miles, with a schoolhouse near the cen- 
 ter of population, usually a little distance from some village, 
 and holding a maximum of forty or fifty pupils. The school 
 committee employed teachers. The schools held a three 
 months' session in the winter, and sometimes this was made 
 four months. The winter school was nearly always " kept " 
 by a man. There might be a summer school for a brief 
 session kept by a woman. Wages for the winter school, 
 even as late as 1840, in the rural districts of New England, 
 were six to ten dollars a month. The schoolmaster might 
 be a young college student trying to earn money during his 
 vacation to continue his course in college. More commonly 
 he was a surveyor, or clerk, or a farmer who had a slender 
 store of learning but who could "keep order." He pos- 
 sessed the faculty to keep down the boisterous or rebellious 
 pupils and could hear the pupils recite their lessons memor- 
 ized by them from the book. 
 
 There were in some places school societies, semi-public 
 corporations, that founded and managed the schools, receiv- 
 ing more or less aid from the public funds. Such associa- 
 tions provided much of the education in New York, Phila- 
 delphia, and in many parts of New England before the 
 advent of the public school. 
 
 When the villages began to catch the urban spij|it_and 
 establisH graded schools witH a full annual session, tnere 
 came a demand for a higher order of teacher, the profes- 
 sional teacher, in short. This caused a comparison of ideals ; 
 
123] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 47 
 
 the best enlightened in the community began an agita- 
 tion of the school question, and supervision was demanded. 
 In Massachusetts, where the urban civilization had made 
 most progress, this agitation resulted in the formation of a 
 state board of education in 1837, and the employment of 
 Horace Mann as its secretary (June, 1837). Boston had 
 been connected with Providence, Worcester and Lowell by 
 railroads before 1835, and in 1842 the first great trunk rail- 
 road had been completed through Springfield to Albany, 
 opening to Boston a communication with the great west by 
 the Erie canal and the newly completed railroad from Albany 
 to Buffalo. This was the beginning of the great urban epoch 
 in America that has gone on increasing the power of the 
 city to this day. 
 
 The number of cities containing 8,000 inhabitants and 
 upwards, was, in 1790, only six ; between 1800 and 18 10 it 
 had increased to 1 1 ; in 1820 to 13; in 1830, 26; in 1840, 
 44; in the fifty years between 1840 and 1890 it increased 
 from 44 to 443, or 10 times the former number. The urban 
 population of the country in 1790 was, according to the 
 superintendent of the census (see Bulletin No. 52, April 17, 
 1791), only one in 30 of the population; in 1840 it had 
 increased to one in 12 ; in 1890, to one in three. In fact, 
 if we count the towns on the railroads that are made urban 
 by their close connection with the large cities, and the subur- 
 ban districts, it is safe to say that now one-half of the popu- 
 lation is urban. 
 
 Horace Mann came to the head of education in Massachu- 
 setts just at the beginning of the epoch of railroads and the 
 growth of cities. He attacked with unsparing severity the 
 evils of the schools as they had been. The school district 
 system, introduced into Connecticut in 1701, into Rhode 
 Island about 1750, and into Massachusetts in 1789, was pro- 
 nounced by him to be the most disastrous feature in the 
 '^/i-Ox': xxi3tGry of educational legislation in Massachusetts. 
 
 H-Oface Mann extended his criticisms and suggestions to 
 the examination of teachers and their instruction in teachers' 
 
48 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [^24 
 
 institutes ; to the improvement of school buildings ; the 
 raising of school funds by taxation ; the creating of a cor- 
 rect public opinion on school questions ; the care for vicious 
 youth in appropriate schools. He discarded the hide-bound 
 text-book method of teaching and substituted the oral dis- 
 cussion of the topic in place of the memorizing of the words 
 of the book. He encouraged school libraries and school 
 apparatus. 
 
 Horace Mann's influence founded the first normal school 
 in the United States at Lexington (afterwards moved to 
 Framingham), and a second one founded at Bridgewater in 
 the fall of the same year (1839). 
 
 Inspired by the example in Massachusetts, Connecticut 
 was aroused by Henry Barnard, who carried through the 
 legislature the act organizing a state board of commissioners, 
 and became himself the first secretary of it (1839). ^^ 1849, 
 Connecticut established a normal school. In 1843, Mr. 
 Barnard went to Rhode Island and assisted in drawing up 
 the state school law under which he became the first com- 
 missioner, and labored there six years. 
 
 These were the chief ferm.enting influences in education 
 that worked a wide change in the management of schools in 
 the middle and western states within the past fifty years. 
 
 Superintendents of city school systems began in 1837 
 with Buffalo. Providence followed in 1839; New Orleans 
 in 1841 ; Cleveland in 1844; Baltimore in 1849; Cincinnati 
 in 1850; Boston in 1851 ; New York, San Francisco and 
 Jersey City in 1852; Newark and Brooklyn in 1853; Chi- 
 cago and St. Louis in 1854 ; and finally Philadelphia in 1883. 
 
 State superintendents began with New York, 1813 ; New 
 York was followed by 16 of the states before 1850. From 
 1 85 1 to the civil war, eight states established the office 
 of state superintendent ; since then, nineteen other states, 
 including 10 in the south, that had no state systems 01 
 education previously. ' 
 
 Normal schools in the United States increased frcfrft Qht, 
 beginning in 1839 '^^ Massachusetts, to 138 public and 46 
 
12 5] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 49 
 
 private normal schools in 1889, with an attendance of 
 upwards of 28,000 students preparing for the work of teach- 
 ino-. This would o-ive a total of some twelve thousand a 
 
 o o 
 
 year of new teachers to meet the demand. It may be 
 assumed, therefore, that less than one-sixth of the supply of 
 new teachers comes from the training schools specially 
 designed to educate teachers. 
 
 The history of education since the time of Horace Mann 
 is very largely an account of the successive modifications 
 introduced into elementary schools through the direct or 
 indirect influence of the normal school. 
 
50 
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 
 [126 
 
 
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52 
 
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129] 
 
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54 
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 
 [130 
 
 APPENDIX III — Common school statistics of the United States 
 
 I — General statistics 
 
 Total population 
 
 Number of persons 5 to 18 years of age 
 
 Number of different pupils enrolled on the 
 
 school registers 
 
 Per cent of total population enrolled 
 
 Per cent of persons 5 to 18 years of age 
 
 enrolled 
 
 Average daily attendance 
 
 Ratio of same to enrollment 
 
 Average length of school term (days) 
 
 Aggregate number of days attended 
 
 Average number for each person 5 to 18 
 
 years of age 
 
 Average number for each pupil enrolled 
 
 Male teachers. . . 
 Female teachers 
 
 Whole number of teachers 
 
 Per cent of male teachers 
 
 Average monthly wages of teachers: 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 Number of schoolhouses 
 
 Value of school property 
 
 II — Financial statistics 
 
 Receipts : 
 
 Income from permanent funds. 
 
 From state taxes 
 
 From local taxes 
 
 From all other sources 
 
 Total receipts. 
 
 Per cent of total derived from — • 
 
 Permanent funds 
 
 State taxes 
 
 Local taxes 
 
 All other sources 
 
 Expenditures: 
 
 For sites, buildings, furniture, libraries, 
 and apparatus 
 
 For salaries of teachers and superin- 
 tendents 
 
 For all other purposes 
 
 Total expenditures 
 
 Expenditure per capita of population. 
 
 Expenditure per pupil (of average attend- 
 ance) : 
 
 For sites, buildings, etc 
 
 For salaries 
 
 For all other purposes 
 
 Total expenditure per pupil 
 
 Per cent of total expenditure devoted to — 
 
 Sites, buildings, etc 
 
 Salaries 
 
 All other purposes 
 
 Average expenditure per day for each pupil 
 (in cents) : ^ 
 
 For tuition 
 
 ■ For all purposes ; ..-. 
 
 1870-71 
 
 3Q 500 500 
 12 305 600 
 
 7 561 582 
 ig.14 
 
 61.45 
 
 4 545 317 
 
 60.1 
 
 132-1 
 
 600 432 802 
 
 48.7 
 79-4 
 
 90 293 
 129 932 
 
 132 119 
 143 818 703 
 
 $42 580 853 
 
 $69 107 612 
 1-75 
 
 $9-37 
 
 $15.20 
 
 7-1 
 ir.5 
 
 1879-80 
 
 SO 155 783 
 15 065 767 
 
 9 867 505 
 19.67 
 
 65.50 
 
 6 144 143 
 
 62.3 
 
 130.3 
 800 719 970 
 
 122 795 
 163 798 
 
 286 593 
 42.8 
 
 170 222 
 J20 9571 718 
 
 $55 942 972 
 
 $78 094 687 
 1.56 
 
 $9.10 
 
 $12.71 
 
 71.6 
 
 7.0 
 9-7 
 
 62 622 250 
 18 543 201 
 
 12 722 581 
 20.32 
 
 68.61 
 
 8 153 635 
 
 64.1 
 
 134-7 
 
 398 232 725 
 
 59-2 
 86.3 
 
 125 525 
 
 238 397 
 
 363 922 
 34-5 
 
 224 526 
 
 $342 531 791 
 
 $7 744 765 
 26 345 323 
 97 222 426 
 II 882 292 
 
 $143 194 806 
 
 5-4 
 18.4 
 67.9 
 
 8-3 
 
 $26 207 041 
 
 91 836 484 
 22 463 190 
 
 $140 506 715 
 2.24 
 
 $3.21 
 11.26 
 2.76 
 
 $17.23 
 
 18.6 
 
 65.4 
 16.0 
 
 8.4 
 12.8 
 
 1897-98 a 
 
 72 737 100 
 21 458 294 
 
 15 038 636 
 20.68 
 
 70.08 
 10 286 092 
 
 143-1 
 I 471 435 367 
 
 68.6 
 97.8 
 
 131 750 
 277 443 
 
 409 193 
 32.2 
 
 b $45 16 
 
 b $38 74 
 
 242 390 
 
 52 703 781 
 
 $9 213 323 
 35 600 643 
 134 104 053 
 20 399 578 
 
 fi99 317 597 
 
 4.6 
 17.9 
 67-3 
 10.3 
 
 123 809 412 
 37 396 526 
 
 $194 020*470 
 2.67 
 
 $3-19 
 12.04 
 3-63 
 
 $18.86 
 
 16.9 
 63.8 
 
 «9-3 
 
 8.4 
 13.2 
 
 " The figures for 1897-98 are approximate. 
 
 i la 44 states. 
 
i3i] 
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 
 55 
 
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133] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 57 
 
 APPENDIX V — Corporal punishment 
 
 In one state, New Jersey, the teacher is forbidden by law to 
 inflict corporal punishment. No other state goes to this length, 
 but Illinois, Kansas, Mississippi, Montana, Pennsylvania, South 
 Dakota, Washington, and West Virginia specifically prescribe a 
 penalty for excess amounting to cruelty. Legal punishment would 
 be meted out to a brutal teacher in the other states just as surely 
 as in these, but resort would be had to the common law and not to 
 a statute. Only in Arizona is there formal statutory authority for 
 corporal punishment, but whipping has been the common mode of 
 discipline in school from time immemorial ; custom legalizes it, and 
 unless forbidden in express terms the teacher does not need the 
 authority of a special permissive law. Judicial decisions to this 
 effect have been made in Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Indiana, 
 Iowa, Maine, Minnesota, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, 
 and probably in other states. 
 
 Local school boards have always the implied power to make 
 regulations for the order and discipline of their respective schools, 
 and three states, viz., Michigan, New York, and Pennsylvania, 
 expressly grant them this power. Acting under this power, 
 expressed or implied, several cities, notably New York city, 
 Chicago, and Albany, have prohibited absolutely the use of the 
 rod. The same is true of Providence, Rhode Island, except in 
 the primary grades, and in them whipping must not be inflicted 
 unless the written consent of the parent or guardian has been pre- 
 viously filed with the city superintendent. 
 
 Corporal punishment may be used as a last resort and under 
 rigid regulations as to reports, etc., in a great many cities, among 
 them being Baltimore, Detroit, Indianapolis, Louisville, Minne- 
 apolis, New Orleans, Pittsburg, Rochester, St. Louis, San Fran- 
 cisco, Worcester, and Philadelphia. 
 
58 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [134 
 
 I 
 
 APPENDIX VI — Teachers' pensions, and benefit associations 
 
 Voluntary mutual benefit associations for temporary aid only 
 exist in Baltimore, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Detroit, Chi- 
 cago, Buffalo, San Francisco, St. Paul, and one interstate. These 
 have from one to two dollars initiation fee, one to five dollars 
 annual dues. Special assessments of one dollar each are made in 
 some cases. Benefits in sickness range from fifty cents a day to 
 ten dollars a week ; at death funeral expenses only are paid in 
 some instances, and in others a sum equal to one dollar from each 
 member of the association. 
 
 Associations for annuity or retirement fund only are in New 
 York city, Boston, and Baltimore, and there is an annuity guild in 
 Massachusetts. The initiation fees reported are three to five dol- 
 lars; the annual dues one to one and a half per cent of salary up 
 to eighteen or twenty dollars. The annuity is from 60 per cent of 
 salary to $600 a year. Time of service required for retirement, 
 from 2 to 5 years with disability, from 35 to 40 years without 
 disability. 
 
 Associations for both temporary aid and annuity exist in Ham- 
 ilton county (Cincinnati), Ohio ; Philadelphia, Brooklyn, and 
 District of Columbia. Initiation fees, one to ten dollars ; annual 
 dues, five to forty dollars; annuity, five dollars per week to $600 
 a year, and $100 for funeral expenses in case of death ; temporary 
 aid during illness, five or six dollars per week ; minimum service 
 for retirement — with disability, 3 to 5 years; without disability, 
 35 to 40 years. 
 
 Pension or retirement funds are authorized by state legislation 
 for St. Louis, all cities in California, Brooklyn, New York, Detroit, 
 Chicago, New York city, all cities in New Jersey, Cincinnati, and 
 Buffalo. Dues, one per cent of salary; annuity, $250 to one-half 
 of salary ; minimum, $300, to $1,200 maximum ; minimum service 
 — with disability, 20 to 35 years; without disability, 25 to 35 years. 
 
135] 
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 
 59 
 
 APPENDIX VII — United States railroad mileage ; census years 
 
 i8jo-go 
 
 
 i8qo 
 
 1880 
 
 1870 
 
 i860 
 
 1850 
 
 1840 
 
 1830 
 
 
 163 562.12 
 26.12 
 
 87 724.08 
 17.49 
 
 49 168.33 
 12-75 
 
 28 919.79 
 9.20 
 
 18571.48 
 3-71 
 
 2 755-i8 
 1.61 
 
 39.80 
 •°3 
 
 Miles per 10,000 population. 
 
 APPENDIX Will— Text-books ; selection ajid supply. 
 
 In a few states text-books do not form a specific subject of legis- 
 lation, but local boards have control under the general charge of 
 the welfare of the schools. 
 
 In most states legislation regulates the selection of text-books. 
 
 In some states a guaranty is required from publishers to supply 
 books, according to samples, at wholesale, retail, introduction, 
 exchange, mail prices, part or all, for a term of years. 
 
 In fewer states the school boards buy and sell the books on pub- 
 lic account. In certain states boards continue to own the books 
 used free by pupils. Indigent pupils are more frequently supplied 
 at public expense. 
 
 In most states special or general laws give cities the control of 
 the details of their school administration, including text-books. 
 
 Specific penalties are expressed in certain cases for using other 
 than prescribed books, but in general such use would be only a 
 violation of law, to be dealt with as it occurred. 
 
 State superintendent is here used to indicate the chief officer of 
 the state schools. 
 
 In the states immediately following, individuals, except indi- 
 gents, buy their books : 
 
 Arizona. — The lists are fixed for 4 years by territorial board. 
 
 Arkansas. — The list is fixed for 3 years, with exceptions, by local 
 board, from books recommended by state superintendent. 
 
 California. — The state prepares, publishes, and sells books for 
 primary and grammar schools, but high schools supported wholly 
 by local effort are almost free of the law. Penalty for using 
 other than the state list, forfeiture of one-fourth the apportionment 
 from state funds. Indigent pupils are furnished free. 
 
 T/^^r^z<7.— County board fixes list. Unchanged within 5 years" 
 except by a three-fourths vote of the full board. Penalty, teacher 
 cannot receive pay from pupils using other books. 
 
60 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [136 
 
 Indiana. — A state board selects books under publishers' guaranty. 
 County boards may fix a list of additional books for high schools 
 for 6 years. Books are bought and sold by, or subject to, arrange- 
 ment of local board, and become private property. Districts sup- 
 ply indigents. 
 
 Illinois. — District board fixes list for 4 years. Indigents sup- 
 plied free. 
 
 Kentucky. — County board of examiners fixes list for 5 years, 
 with publishers' guaranty. The county judge furnishes indigents. 
 
 Louisiana. — State board fixes list for 4 years, with limited local 
 discretion. 
 
 Mississippi. — The county school board adopts a series of books 
 for 5 years on publishers' guaranty. Penalty, pupils without the 
 prescribed books in any branch are not to receive instruction in 
 that branch. 
 
 Missouri. — A state school-book commission fixed a list, with 
 publishers' guaranty, for 5 years from September i, 1897, to be 
 handled through dealers. Indigents are supplied from local con- 
 tingent funds. 
 
 Nevada. — State board fixes list for 4 years. Penalty, forfeiture 
 of apportionment. District furnishes indigents. 
 
 New Mexico. — The territorial board of education is authorized 
 to fix a list for 4 years and to contract with publishers and sell to 
 counties. Districts furnish indigents. 
 
 North Carolina. — County board fixes list for 3 years, with pub- 
 lishers' guaranty. 
 
 OJiio. — A state commission fixes a list on publishers' guaranty, 
 from which local boards fix lists for 5 years (with exception). 
 Boards may buy and sell to pupils or arrange with dealers to sup- 
 ply them. Indigents are furnished. 
 
 Oklahoma. — Territorial superintendent fixes a list for 5 years on 
 publishers' guaranty. 
 
 Oregon. — State board fixes a list for 6 years on publishers' 
 guaranty. 
 
 South Carolina. — State board fixes a list for 5 years on pub- 
 lishers' guaranty, and may require publishers to have depositaries 
 in each county, or county boards may furnish books at cost. 
 
 Tennessee. — County superintendent suggests suitable books. 
 
 Texas. — The law resemble* that of Missouri. Penalty, upon 
 any teacher or trustee, $10 to $50 for each offense. Every 4ay p| 
 violation of law to be considered a separate offense. 
 
137] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 6l 
 
 Virginia. — Two books of John Esten Cooke — Virginia, a His- 
 tory of Her People ; Stories of the Old Dominion — are prescribed 
 by law. State board fixes a list. 
 
 West Virginia. — A contract list for 5 years is part of the law of 
 1896, with exceptions. County school book boards are established 
 by act of 1897. Publishers keep books with local depositaries on 
 account of district building fund. Penalty, on every ofificer or 
 teacher, $3 to $10 for each ofTense. 
 
 Wyojniug. — A convention of superintendents fixes a list for 
 5 years. 
 
 The states following, regularly or through stated action, author- 
 ize provision for free use of books by pupils : 
 
 Colorado. — District boards fix list for 4 years, with exceptions. 
 Indigents are furnished and, on popular vote, all pupils, free. 
 
 Connecticut. — State board may fix list for 5 years. Town boards 
 may take additional action and, on popular vote, furnish free text- 
 books. 
 
 Delaware. — State board fixes list ; district board furnishes free 
 text-books. 
 
 Idaho. — Books adopted by a state board of text-book commis- 
 sioners for all common, graded, and high schools are furnished free 
 by the district ; under contracts with publishers for 6 years. 
 
 Iowa. — Local boards may buy and sell to pupils at cost. 
 County uniformity can be fixed for 5 years. Text-books are fur- 
 nished free to indigents, and, on popular vote, to all, by the 
 district. 
 
 Kansas. — A school text-book commission (1897) has selected 
 text-books in common-school studies for five years and contracted 
 with publishers to furnish them to pupils through agencies at every 
 county seat. On popular vote, with a two-thirds majority, school 
 boards may purchase books and furnish their use free to pupils. 
 Penalty for using other text-books, except for reference, $25 to 
 $100, with or without imprisonment. 
 
 Maine, Nezv Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island (towns). 
 New Jersey, Pennsylvania (local boards), Maryland (counties), fur- 
 nish free text-books. 
 
 Michigan. — District boards furnish books to indigents, and, on 
 popular vote, to all pupils, free. 
 
 Minnesota. — Local boards may fix a list for 3 to 5 years, with 
 publishers' guaranty, and may purchase and provide for loan free 
 or for sale at cost to pupils. 
 
62 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [138 
 
 Montana. — A state board of text-book commissioners fixed a 
 list for 6 years to be handled through dealers, with publishers' 
 guaranty. Upon vote of a district, free text-books are furnished. 
 
 Nebraska. — Local boards furnish books free ; may fix list with 
 publishers' guaranty not beyond 5 years. A local dealer may be 
 designated to handle the books on agreed terms. 
 
 New York. — Every union free school board is " to prescribe the 
 text-books * * * and to furnish the same out of any money 
 provided for the purpose." 
 
 Common-school districts, by popular vote, may furnish indigent 
 pupils. 
 
 North Dakota. — Local boards may furnish free text-books, and 
 must on popular vote. Contracts must be for 3 to 4 years with- 
 out change. 
 
 South Dakota. — A county board of education is required to 
 adopt a uniform series for 5 years, to be furnished through desig- 
 nated depositaries under publishers' guaranty. On petition of a 
 majority of electors, a school corporation must arrange for free 
 text-books. 
 
 Utah. — A convention of superintendents fixes a list, except for 
 cities, for 5 years, on publishers' guaranty. Penalty, on teacher, 
 loss of eligibility. Boards of education are authorized to furnish 
 free text-books, and, in cities, to select books. 
 
 Vermont. — County authority fixes a list for 5 years on pub- 
 lishers' guaranty. On popular vote, local boards furnish free text- 
 books. 
 
 Washington. — The state board of education fixes a list for 5 
 years on publishers' guaranty. Penalty, on district, forfeiture of 
 one-fourth the apportionment. Local boards furnish indigents, 
 and, on popular vote, all pupils. 
 
 Wisconsin. — District board fixes list for 3 years. Penalty on 
 every member of the board, $50. On popular vote, books are fur- 
 nished free without time limitation as to change. 
 
I39J 
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 
 63 
 
 APPENDIX IX — Average total a^notint of schooling {expressed in 
 years of 200 school days each) each individtial of the population 
 would receive as his equipment for life, under the conditions exist- 
 ing at the different dates given in the table, and counting in the 
 work done by all grades of both public and private schools and 
 colleges 
 
 
 1870 
 
 1880 
 
 1890 
 
 i8gi 
 
 1892 
 
 1893 
 
 1894 
 
 1895 
 
 1896 
 
 1897 
 
 1898 
 
 
 3-36 
 
 3-96 
 
 4.46 
 
 4-Si 
 
 4.49 
 
 4.52 
 
 4.72 
 
 4-75 
 
 4-83 
 
 4.91 
 
 5.01 
 
 
 North Atlantic Division 
 
 South Atlantic Division 
 
 South Central Division 
 
 North Central Division 
 
 5.06 
 1.23 
 1. 12 
 4.01 
 3-56 
 
 5-69 
 2.22 
 ■1.86 
 -4-65 
 4.17 
 
 6.05 
 2-73 
 2.42 
 5-36 
 4-57 
 
 6.15 
 2.78 
 2.62 
 5-35 
 4.71 
 
 6.18 
 2.74 
 2.69 
 5.21 
 5. 07 
 
 6.10 
 2-79 
 2.64 
 5. 38 
 4-93 
 
 6-35 
 2-95 
 2.89 
 
 5-57 
 5.01 
 
 6.47 
 2-95 
 2.65 
 5-69 
 5-43 
 
 6.52 
 
 2.93 
 2.70 
 5.84 
 5-46 
 
 6.64 
 3 -05 
 2-75 
 5-87 
 
 s-ss 
 
 6.76 
 
 3-'4 
 2-95 
 5-87 
 5-77 
 
 
 Average total amount of schooling per inhabitant, etc., coyisidering 
 only the public elementary and secondary schools, and expressed as 
 before in years of 200 school days each 
 
 
 1870 
 
 1880 
 
 1890 
 
 1891 
 
 1892 
 
 1893 
 
 1894 
 
 1895 
 
 1896 
 
 1897 
 
 i8g8 
 
 
 2.91 
 
 3-45 
 
 3-85 
 
 3-93 
 
 3-97 
 
 3-99 
 
 4.17 
 
 4.23 
 
 4.28 
 
 4-37 
 
 4.46 
 
 
 North Atlantic Division 
 
 South Atlantic Division 
 
 South Central Division 
 
 North Central Division 
 
 4-43 
 
 .80 
 
 .80 
 
 3-71 
 
 2.77 
 
 4.84 
 1 .90 
 
 1-57 
 4.19 
 
 3-57 
 
 4.99 
 2.42 
 2.20 
 4.67 
 3-98 
 
 5.06 
 2.46 
 2.31 
 4-74 
 4.16 
 
 5.10 
 2.46 
 2.41 
 4-75 
 4-47 
 
 5.10 
 2.51 
 2.38 
 4.84 
 4-39 
 
 5-28 
 2.70 
 
 2-59 
 5.00 
 
 4-45 
 
 5-47 
 2.68 
 2.59 
 5-15 
 4.87 
 
 5-52 
 2.66 
 2.44 
 5-21 
 4-95 
 
 5.61 
 2.78 
 2.49 
 5.28 
 5.02 
 
 5-71 
 2.87 
 2.68 
 5-2S 
 5-25 
 
 
 
 Note. — The figures of this table for the years previous to the current year have been revised 
 and differ slightly from those heretofore published. 
 
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